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+Project Gutenberg's The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 3
+       Atrebates to Bedlis
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: October 15, 2010 [EBook #34075]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW GRESHAM ENCYC. VOL 1 PART 3 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they
+are listed at the end of the text.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Transcriber's note: In the pronunciation guides [=e] signifies "e macron";
+[)e] "e breve"; [a:] "a with diaeresis below"; [.a] "a with dot above";
+[n.] "n with dot below"; and so forth.
+
+THE
+
+NEW . GRESHAM
+
+ENCYCLOPEDIA
+
+VOLUME . I . PART . 3
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_The_ GRESHAM . PUBLISHING
+COMPANY . _Limited_
+
+66 CHANDOS STREET . STRAND
+LONDON W.C.2.
+1922
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+VOLUME I PART 3
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PLATES
+
+                                                                  Page
+
+  BACTERIA                                                        348
+
+MAPS IN COLOUR
+
+
+  AUSTRALIA                                                       316
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by marking
+the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system of
+transliteration, to which the following is the Key:--
+
+VOWELS
+
+[=a], as in f_a_te, or in b_a_re.
+
+ä, as in _a_lms, Fr. _â_me, Ger. B_a_hn = á of Indian names.
+
+[.a], the same sound short or medium, as in Fr. b_a_l, Ger. M_a_nn.
+
+a, as in f_a_t.
+
+[a:], as in f_a_ll.
+
+_a_, obscure, as in rur_a_l, similar to _u_ in b_u_t, [.e] in h_e_r: common
+in Indian names.
+
+[=e], as in m_e_ = _i_ in mach_i_ne.
+
+e, as in m_e_t.
+
+[.e], as in h_e_r.
+
+[=i], as in p_i_ne, or as _ei_ in Ger. m_ei_n.
+
+i, as in p_i_n, also used for the short sound corresponding to [=e], as in
+French and Italian words.
+
+_eu_, a long sound as in Fr. j_eû_ne = Ger. long _ö_, as in S_ö_hne,
+G_ö_the (Goethe).
+
+eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p_eu_ = Ger. _ö_ short.
+
+[=o], as in n_o_te, m_oa_n.
+
+o, as in n_o_t, s_o_ft--that is, short or medium.
+
+ö, as in m_o_ve, tw_o_.
+
+[=u] as in t_u_be.
+
+u, as in t_u_b: similar to [.e] and also to a.
+
+[u:], as in b_u_ll.
+
+ü, as in Sc. ab_u_ne = Fr. _û_ as in d_û_, Ger. _ü_ long as in gr_ü_n,
+B_ü_hne.
+
+[.u], the corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b_u_t, Ger.
+M_ü_ller.
+
+oi, as in _oi_l.
+
+ou, as in p_ou_nd; or as _au_ in Ger. H_au_s.
+
+CONSONANTS
+
+Of the _consonants_, B, D, F, H, J, K, L, M, N, NG, P, SH, T, V, Z, always
+have their common English sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words.
+The letter C is not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, S or K
+being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require
+explanation are the following:--
+
+ch is always as in ri_ch_.
+
+_d_, nearly as _th_ in _th_is = Sp. _d_ in Ma_d_ri_d_, &c.
+
+g is always hard, as in _g_o.
+
+_h_ represents the guttural in Scotch lo_ch_, Ger. na_ch_, also other
+similar gutturals.
+
+[n.], Fr. nasal _n_ as in bo_n_.
+
+r represents both English _r_, and _r_ in foreign words, which is generally
+much more strongly trilled.
+
+s, always as in _s_o.
+
+th, as _th_ in _th_in.
+
+_th_, as _th_ in _th_is.
+
+w always consonantal, as in _w_e.
+
+x = ks, which are used instead.
+
+y always consonantal, as in _y_ea (Fr. _ligne_ would be re-written
+l[=e]ny).
+
+zh, as _s_ in plea_s_ure = Fr. _j_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ATREB´ATES, ancient inhabitants of that part of Gallia Belgica, afterwards
+called _Artois_. A colony of them settled in Britain, in a part of
+Berkshire and Oxfordshire.
+
+AT´REK, a river of Asia, forming the boundary between Persia and the
+Russian Transcaspian territory, and flowing into the Caspian; length 250
+miles.
+
+ATREUS (at´r[=u]s), in Greek mythology, a son of Pelops and Hippodam[=i]a,
+and grandson of Tant[)a]lus. Atreus was the father of Agamemnon, according
+to Homer; other writers call him Agamemnon's grandfather. He succeeded
+Eurystheus, his father-in-law, as King of Myc[=e]næ, and in revenge for the
+seduction of his wife by his brother Thyestes gave a banquet at which the
+latter partook of the flesh of his own sons. Atreus was killed by Ægisthus,
+a son of Thyestes. The tragic events connected with this family furnished
+materials to some of the great Greek dramatists.
+
+ATRI (ancient, HADRIA), an episcopal city in the province of Teramo, Italy,
+8 miles from the Adriatic. It has an old (thirteenth century) Gothic
+cathedral, ruins of ancient Roman walls and buildings, and a palace of the
+Agraviva family, who were Dukes of Atri from 1398 to 1775. Pop. 14,043.
+
+AT´RIPLEX. See _Orache_.
+
+A´TRIUM, the entrance-hall and most important apartment of a Roman house,
+generally ornamented with statues, pictures, and _imagines_ or ancestral
+likenesses, which were portrait masks in wax kept in cases. The _atrium_
+formed the reception-room for visitors and clients. It was lighted by the
+_compluvium_, an opening in the roof, towards which the roof sloped so as
+to throw the rainwater into a cistern in the floor called the _impluvium_.
+
+In zoology the term is applied to the large chamber or 'cloaca' into which
+the intestine opens in the Tunicata.
+
+AT´ROPA, the nightshade genus of plants. See _Belladonna_.
+
+AT´ROPHY, a wasting of the flesh due to some interference with the
+nutritive processes. It may arise from a variety of causes, such as
+permanent, oppressive, and exhausting passions, organic disease, a want of
+proper food or of pure air, suppurations in important organs, copious
+evacuations of blood, saliva, semen, &c., and it is also sometimes produced
+by poisons, for example arsenic, mercury, lead, in miners, painters,
+gilders, &c. In old age the whole frame except the heart undergoes atrophic
+change, and it is of frequent occurrence in infancy as a consequence of
+improper, unwholesome food, exposure to cold, damp, or impure air, &c.
+Single organs or parts of the body may be affected irrespective of the
+general state of nutrition; thus local atrophy may be superinduced by
+palsies, the pressure of tumours upon the nerves of the limbs, or by
+artificial pressure, as in the feet of Chinese ladies.
+
+AT´ROPIN, or AT´ROPINE, a crystalline alkaloid obtained from the deadly
+nightshade (_Atr[)o]pa Belladonna_). It is very poisonous, and produces
+persistent dilation of the pupil.
+
+AT´ROPOS, the eldest of the three Fates (the others being Clotho and
+Lach[)e]sis), who cuts the thread of life with her shears.
+
+ATTACHÉ (at´a-sh[=a]), a junior member of the diplomatic services attached
+to an embassy or legation.
+
+ATTACH´MENT, in English law, a taking of the person, goods, or estate by
+virtue of a writ or precept. It is distinguished from an _arrest_ by
+proceeding out of a higher court by precept or writ, whereas the latter
+proceeds out of an inferior court by precept only. An arrest lies only
+against the body of a man, whereas an attachment lies often against the
+goods only, and sometimes against the body and goods. It differs from a
+_distress_ in that an attachment does not extend to lands, while a distress
+cannot touch the body.--_Foreign attachment_ answers to what in Scotland is
+termed arrestment, by means of which a creditor may obtain the security of
+the goods or other personal property of his debtor in the hands of a third
+person for the purpose of enforcing the appearance of the debtor to answer
+to an action, and afterwards, upon his continued default, of obtaining the
+property absolutely in satisfaction of the demand.
+
+ATTACK´, the opening act of hostility by a force seeking to dislodge an
+enemy from its position. It is considered more advantageous to offer than
+to await attack, even in a defensive war. The historic forms of attack are:
+(1) the parallel; (2) the form in which both wings attack and the centre is
+kept back; (3) the form in which the centre is pushed forward and the wings
+kept back; (4) the famous oblique mode, dating at least from Epaminondas,
+and employed by Frederick the Great, where one wing advances to engage,
+whilst the other is kept back, and occupies the attention of the enemy by
+pretending an attack. Napoleon preferred to mass heavy columns against an
+enemy's centre. The forms of attack have changed with the weapons used. In
+the days of the pike heavy masses were the rule, but the use of the musket
+led to an extended battle-front to give effect to the fire. The advance in
+long and slender lines which grew out of this has been not less famous in
+the annals of British attack than the square formation in those of defence.
+In the European War (1914-18) the Germans often attacked in mass-formation;
+but British attacks were usually carried out by successive _waves_; one
+wave secured its objective and consolidated it while another wave passed
+through to attack a more advanced objective. Artillery preparation became
+of increasingly great importance; it broke down the enemy's wire,
+counteracted his artillery-fire, and made his infantry keep under cover. In
+trench-to-trench attacks machine-guns and trench-mortars were of great
+value, and many casualties were avoided by the skilful use of tanks in the
+attack. But it is still a fundamental principle of tactics that the
+infantry is the chief factor in the attack, and that no attack can be
+considered overwhelmingly successful without the use of the bayonet.
+
+ATTAIN´DER, the legal consequences of a sentence of death or outlawry
+pronounced against a person for treason or felony, the person being said to
+be _attainted_. It resulted in forfeiture of estate and 'corruption of
+blood', rendering the party incapable of inheriting property or
+transmitting it to heirs; but these results now no longer follow. Formerly
+persons were often subjected to attainder by a special Bill or Act passed
+in Parliament called _Bills of Attainder_, the last being passed in 1798,
+in the case of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, one of the Irish rebel leaders.
+
+ATTAINT´, a writ at common law against a jury for a false verdict, finally
+abolished in England in 1825.
+
+ATTALE´A, a genus of American palms, comprising the piassava palm, which
+produces coquilla-nuts.
+
+ATT´ALUS, the names of three kings of ancient Pergamus (241-133 B.C.), the
+last of whom bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans. They were all patrons of
+art and literature.
+
+AT´TAR, in the East Indies, a general term for a perfume from flowers; in
+Europe generally used only of the _attar_ or _otto of roses_, an essential
+oil made from _Rosa centifolia_, the hundred-leaved or cabbage-rose, _R.
+damasc[=e]na_, or damask-rose, _R. mosch[=a]ta_, or musk-rose, &c., 100,000
+roses yielding only 180 grains of attar. Cashmere, Shiraz, and Damascus are
+celebrated for its manufacture, and there are extensive rose farms in the
+valley of Kezanlik in Roumelia and at Ghazipur in Benares. The oil is at
+first greenish, but afterwards it presents various tints of green, yellow,
+and red. It is concrete at all ordinary temperatures, but becomes liquid
+about 84° F. It consists of two substances, a hydrocarbon and an oxygenated
+oil, and is frequently adulterated with the oils of rhodium, sandal-wood,
+and geranium, with the addition of camphor or spermaceti.
+
+AT´TERBURY, Francis, an English prelate, born in 1662, and educated at
+Westminster and Oxford. In 1687 he took his degree of M.A., and appeared as
+a controversialist in a defence of the character of Luther, entitled,
+_Considerations on the Spirit of Martin Luther_, &c. He also assisted his
+pupil, the Hon. Charles Boyle, in his famous controversy with Bentley on
+the _Epistles of Phalaris_. Having taken orders in 1691 he settled in
+London, became chaplain to William and Mary, preacher of Bridewell, and
+lecturer of St. Bride's. Controversy was congenial to him, and in 1706 he
+commenced one with Dr. Wake, which lasted four years, on the rights,
+privileges, and powers of convocations. For this service he received the
+thanks of the lower house of convocation and the degree of Doctor of
+Divinity from Oxford. Soon after the accession of Queen Anne he was made
+Dean of Carlisle, aided in the defence of the famous Sacheverell, and wrote
+_A Representation of the Present State of Religion_. In 1712 he was made
+Dean of Christ Church, and in 1713 Bishop of Rochester and Dean of
+Westminster. After the death of the queen in 1714 he distinguished himself
+by his opposition to George I; and, having entered into a correspondence
+with the Pretender's party, was apprehended in Aug., 1722, and committed to
+the Tower. Being banished the kingdom, he settled in Paris, where he
+chiefly occupied himself in study and in correspondence with men of
+letters. But even here, in 1725, he was actively engaged in fomenting
+discontent in the Scottish Highlands. He died in 1731, and his body was
+privately interred in Westminster Abbey. His sermons and letters are marked
+by ease and grace; but as a critic and a controversialist he is rather
+dexterous and popular than accurate and profound.
+
+ATTERCLIFFE, a parliamentary division of the borough of Sheffield.
+
+ATTIC, an architectural term variously used. An _Attic base_ is a peculiar
+kind of base, used by the ancient architects in the Ionic order and by
+Palladio and some others in the Doric. An _Attic story_ is a low story in
+the upper part of a house rising above the main portion of the building. In
+ordinary language an attic is an apartment lighted by a window in the roof.
+
+AT´TICA, a State of ancient Greece, the capital of which is Athens. The
+territory was triangular in shape, with Cape Sunium (Colonna) as its apex
+and the ranges of Mounts Cithæron and Parnes as its base. On the north
+these ranges separated it from Boeotia; on the west it was bounded by
+Megaris and the Saronic Gulf; on the east by the Ægean. Its most marked
+physical divisions consisted of the highlands, midland district, and coast
+district, with the two famous plains of Eleusis and of Athens. The
+Cephissus and Ilissus, though small, were its chief streams; its principal
+hills, Cithæron, Parnes, Hymettus, Pentelicus, and Laurium. Its soil has
+probably undergone considerable deterioration, but produced good fruit,
+especially olives and figs. These are still cultivated, as well as the vine
+and cereals, but Attica is better suited for pasture than tillage.
+According to tradition the earliest inhabitants of Attica lived in a savage
+manner until the time of Cecrops, who came, 1550 B.C., with a colony from
+Egypt, taught them all the essentials of civilization, and founded Athens.
+One of Cecrops' descendants founded eleven other cities in the regions
+round, and there followed a period of mutual hostility. To Theseus is
+assigned the honour of uniting these cities in a confederacy, with Athens
+as the capital, thus forming the Attic State. After the death of Codrus,
+1068 B.C., the monarchy was abolished, and the government vested in archons
+elected by the nobility, at first for life, in 752 B.C. for ten years, and
+in 683 B.C. for one year only. The severe constitution of Draco was
+succeeded in 594 by the milder code of Solon, the democratic elements of
+which, after the brief tyranny of the Pisistratids, were emphasized and
+developed by Clisthenes. He divided the people into ten classes, and made
+the Senate consist of 500 persons, establishing as the Government an
+oligarchy modified by popular control. Then came the splendid era of the
+Persian War, which elevated Athens to the summit of fame. Miltiades at
+Marathon, and Themistocles at Salamis, conquered the Persians by land and
+by sea. The chief external danger being removed, the rights of the people
+were enlarged; the archons and other magistrates were chosen from all
+classes without distinction. The period from the Persian War to the time of
+Alexander (500 to 336 B.C.) was most remarkable for the development of the
+Athenian constitution. Attica appears to have contained a territory of
+nearly 850 sq. miles, with some 500,000 inhabitants, 360,000 of whom were
+slaves, while the inhabitants of the city numbered 180,000. Cimon and
+Pericles (444 B.C.) raised Athens to its point of greatest splendour,
+though under the latter began the Peloponnesian War, which ended with the
+conquest of Athens by the Lacedæmonians. The succeeding tyranny of the
+Thirty, under the protection of a Spartan garrison, was overthrown by
+Thrasybulus, with a temporary partial restoration of the power of Athens;
+but the battle of Cheronæa (338 B.C.) made Attica, in common with the rest
+of Greece, a dependency of Macedon. The attempts at revolt after the death
+of Alexander were crushed, and in 260 B.C. Attica was still under the sway
+of Antigonus Gonatas, the Macedonian king. A period of freedom under the
+shelter of the Achæan League then ensued, but their support of Mithridates
+led, in 146 B.C., to the subjugation of the Grecian States by Rome. After
+the division of the Roman Empire, Attica belonged to the Empire of the East
+until, in A.D. 396, it was conquered by Alaric the Goth and the country
+devastated. Attica and Boeotia now form a nome or province of the kingdom
+of Greece, with a population of 407,063.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. G. Frazer,
+_Pausanias's Description of Greece_, vols. ii and v; C. Wordsworth, _Athens
+and Attica_.
+
+AT´TICUS, Titus Pomponius, a Roman of great wealth and culture, born 109
+B.C., and died 32 B.C. On the death of his father he removed to Athens to
+avoid participation in the civil war, to which his brother Sulpicius had
+fallen a victim. There he so identified himself with Greek life and
+literature as to receive the surname Atticus. It was his principle never to
+mix in politics, and he lived undisturbed amid the strife of factions.
+Sulla and the Marian party, Cæsar and Pompey, Brutus and Antony, were alike
+friendly to him, and he was in favour with Augustus. Of his close
+friendship with Cicero proof is given in the series of letters addressed to
+him by Cicero. He married at the age of fifty-three, and had one daughter,
+Pomponia, named by Cicero Atticula and Attica. He reached the age of
+seventy-seven years without sickness, but, being then attacked by an
+incurable disease, ended his life by voluntary starvation. He was a type of
+the refined Epicurean, and an author of some contemporary repute, though
+none of his works have reached us.--The name Atticus was given to Addison
+by Pope, in a well-known passage (Prologue to the _Satires_, addressed to
+Dr. Arbuthnot).
+
+AT´TILA (in Ger. _Etzel_), the famous leader of the Huns, was the son of
+Mundzuk, and the successor, in conjunction with his brother Bleda, of his
+uncle Roua. The rule of the two leaders extended over a great part of
+Northern Asia and Europe, and they threatened the Eastern Empire, and twice
+compelled the weak Theodosius II to purchase an inglorious peace. Attila
+caused his brother Bleda to be murdered (444), and in a short time extended
+his dominion over all the peoples of Germany and exacted tribute from the
+Eastern and Western emperors. The Vandals, the Ostrogoths, the Gepidæ, and
+a part of the Franks united under his banners, and he speedily formed a
+pretext for leading them against the Empire of the East. He laid waste all
+the countries from the Black to the Adriatic Sea, and in three encounters
+defeated the Emperor Theodosius, but could not take Constantinople. Thrace,
+Macedonia, and Greece all submitted to the invader, who destroyed seventy
+flourishing cities; and Theodosius was obliged to purchase a peace. Turning
+to the west, the 'scourge of God', as his defeated enemies termed him,
+crossed with an immense army the Rhine, the Moselle, and the Seine, came to
+the Loire, and laid siege to Orleans. The inhabitants of this city repelled
+the first attack, and the united forces of the Romans under Aetius, and of
+the Visigoths under their king, Theodoric, compelled Attila to raise the
+siege. He retreated to Champagne, and waited for the enemy in the plains of
+Châlons. In apparent opposition to the prophecies of the soothsayers the
+ranks of the Romans and Goths were broken; but when the victory of Attila
+seemed assured, the Gothic prince Thorismond, the son of Theodoric, poured
+down from the neighbouring height upon the Huns, who were defeated with
+great slaughter. Rather irritated than discouraged, he sought in the
+following year a new opportunity to seize upon Italy, and demanded Honoria,
+the sister of Valentinian III, in marriage, with half the kingdom as a
+dowry. When this demand was refused he conquered and destroyed Aquileia,
+Padua, Vicenza, Verona, and Bergamo, laid waste the plains of Lombardy, and
+was marching on Rome when Pope Leo I went with the Roman ambassadors to his
+camp and succeeded in obtaining a peace. Attila went back to Hungary, and
+died on the night of his marriage with Hilda or Ildico (453), either from
+the bursting of a blood-vessel or by her hand. The description that
+Jordanès (or Jornandes) has left us of him is in keeping with his
+Kalmuck-Tartar origin. He had a large head, a flat nose, broad shoulders,
+and a short and ill-formed body; but his eyes were brilliant, his walk
+stately, and his voice strong and well-toned.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Thierry,
+_Koenig Attila und seine Zeit_; E. Hutton, _Attila and the Huns_.
+
+ATTILLY, a village in France. See _Scarpe, Battle of the_.
+
+ATTLEBOROUGH, a manufacturing town of the United States, in Massachusetts.
+Pop. 19,731.
+
+AT´TOCK, a town and fort in Rawal Pindi district, Punjab, overhanging the
+Indus at the point where it is joined by the Kabul River. It is at the head
+of the steam navigation of the Indus, and is connected with Lahore by
+railway. It is an important post on the military road to the frontier. Pop.
+2822.
+
+ATTOR´NEY, a person appointed to do something for and in the stead and name
+of another. An attorney may have _general_ powers to act for another; or
+his power may be _special_, and limited to a particular act or acts. A
+special attorney is appointed by a deed called a _power_ or _letter of
+attorney_, specifying the acts which he is authorized to do. An _attorney
+at law_ is a person qualified to appear for another before a court of law
+to prosecute or defend any action on behalf of his client. The term in
+England was formerly applied especially to those practising before the
+supreme courts of common law at Westminster, and corresponded to the term
+_solicitor_ used in courts of Chancery; but this distinction was abolished
+in 1873, and _solicitor_ is now the regular term for all such legal agents.
+In the United States the term is in common use, and is wide enough to
+include what in England would be called barristers (or counsel), in
+Scotland advocates, having indeed the general sense of lawyer. In America
+women are admitted as attorneys.
+
+ATTORNEY-GENERAL, in England and Ireland, the first law-officer and legal
+adviser of the Crown, acting on its behalf in its revenue and criminal
+proceedings, carrying on prosecutions in crimes that have a public
+character, guarding the interests of charitable endowments, and granting
+patents. He is _ex officio_ the leader of the bar, and, as a member of
+Parliament, has charge of all Government measures on legal questions. The
+Solicitor-General holds a similar position, and may act in his place. In
+Scotland the Attorney-General is called Lord-Advocate. There are also
+Attorneys-General in the colonies. In the United States he is head of the
+Department of Justice. The individual States have also an Attorney-General.
+
+ATTRAC´TION, the tendency of all material bodies, whether masses or
+particles, to approach each other, to unite, and to remain united. Newton
+was the first to adopt the theory of a universal attractive force, and to
+determine its laws. When bodies tend to come together from sensible
+distances the tendency is termed either the attraction of _gravitation_,
+_magnetism_, or _electricity_, according to circumstances; when the
+attraction operates at insensible distances it is known as _adhesion_ with
+respect to surfaces, as _cohesion_ with respect to the particles of a body,
+and as _affinity_ when the particles of different bodies tend together. It
+is by the attraction of gravitation that all bodies fall to the earth when
+unsupported.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Newton, _Principia_; Thomson and Tait, _Natural
+Philosophy_; Laplace, _Mécanique Céleste_; Poynting, _The Mean Density of
+the Earth_.
+
+ATTREK. See _Atrek_.
+
+AT´TRIBUTE, in philosophy, a quality or property of a substance, as
+whiteness or hardness. A substance is known to us only as a congeries of
+attributes.
+
+In the fine arts an attribute is a symbol regularly accompanying and
+marking out some personage. Thus the caduceus, purse, winged hat, and
+sandals are attributes of Mercury, the trampled dragon that of St. George.
+
+ATTWOOD, George, F.R.S., an English mathematician, born 1746, died 1807,
+best known by his invention, called after him _Attwood's Machine_, for
+verifying the laws of falling bodies. It consists essentially of a
+freely-moving pulley over which runs a fine cord with two equal weights
+suspended from the ends. A small additional weight is laid upon one of
+them, causing it to descend with uniform acceleration. Means are provided
+by which the added weight can be removed at any point of the descent, thus
+allowing the motion to continue from this point onward with uniform
+velocity. See _Gravitation_.
+
+ATYS, or ATTIS (at'is), in classical mythology, the shepherd lover of
+Cyb[)e]le, who, having broken the vow of chastity which he made her,
+castrated himself. In Asia Minor Atys seems to have been a deity, with
+somewhat of the same character as Adonis. Catullus has written a celebrated
+poem (Carmen 63) on the subject of Attis.
+
+AUBAGNE ([=o]-b[.a]n-y[.e]), a town in France, department of
+Bouches-du-Rhône, with manufactures of cottons, pottery, cloth. Pop. 8800.
+
+AUBAINE, DROIT D' (drwä d[=o]-b[=a]n). See _Droit d'Aubaine_.
+
+AUBE ([=o]b), a north-eastern French department; area 2326 sq. miles; pop.
+227,745. The surface is undulating, and watered by the Aube, &c. The N. and
+N.W. districts are bleak and infertile, the southern districts remarkably
+fertile. A large extent of ground is under forests and vineyards, and the
+soil is admirable for grain, pulse, and hemp. The chief manufactures are
+worsted and hosiery. Troyes is the capital.--The River Aube, which gives
+name to the department, rises in Haute-Marne, flows N.W., and after a
+course of 113 miles joins the Seine.
+
+AUBENAS ([=o]b-nä), a town of France, department Ardèche, with a trade in
+coal, silk, &c. Pop. 7206.
+
+AUBER ([=o]-b[=a]r), Daniel François Esprit, a French operatic composer,
+born 1782, at Caen, in Normandy, died at Paris 1871. He was originally
+intended for a mercantile career, but devoted himself to music, studying
+under Cherubini. His first great success was his opera _La Bergère
+Châtelaine_, produced in 1820. In 1822 he had associated himself with
+Scribe as librettist, and other operas now followed in quick succession.
+Chief among them were _Masaniello_ or _La Muette de Portici_ (1828), _Fra
+Diavolo_ (1830), _Lestocq_ (1834), _L'Ambassadrice_ (1836), _Le Domino
+Noir_ (1837), _Les Diamants de la Couronne_ (1841), _Marco Spada_ (1853),
+_La Fiancée du Roi de Garbe_ (1864). Despite his success in _Masaniello_,
+his peculiar field was comic opera, in which his charming melodies, bearing
+strongly the stamp of the French national character, his uniform grace and
+piquancy, won him a high place.
+
+AUBERGINE ([=o]'b[.e]r-zh[=e]n), the fruit of the eggplant (q.v.).
+
+AUBERVILLIERS ([=o]-b[=a]r-v[=e]l-y[=a]), a suburban locality of Paris,
+with a fort belonging to the defensive works of the city. Pop. 37,558.
+
+AUBIGNÉ, Merle d'. See _Merle d'Aubigné_.
+
+AUBIN ([=o]-ba[n.]), a town of Southern France, department of Aveyron, 20
+miles N.E. of Villefranche; mining district: coal, sulphur, alum, and iron.
+Pop. 9574.
+
+AU´BREY, John, F.R.S., an English antiquary, born in Wiltshire in 1625 or
+1626, died about 1700. He was educated at Oxford; collected materials for
+the _Monasticon Anglicanum_, and afforded important assistance to Wood, the
+antiquary. He left large collections of manuscripts, which have been used
+by subsequent writers. His _Miscellanies_ (London, 1696) contain much
+curious information, but display credulity and superstition. His _Survey of
+Surrey_ was incorporated in Rawlinson's _Natural History and Antiquities of
+the County of Surrey_, which was published in 1719.
+
+AU´BURN, the name of many places in America, the chief being a handsome
+city of New York State, at the north end of Owasco Lake. It is chiefly
+famous for its State prison, large enough to receive 1000 prisoners. In the
+town or vicinity various manufactures are carried on. Pop. 36,142.--Another
+Auburn is in Maine, on the Androscoggin River, a manufacturing town. Pop.
+(1920), 16,985.
+
+AUBUSSON ([=o]-b[.u]-s[=o]n), a town of the interior of France, department
+Creuse, celebrated for its carpets. Pop. 7211.
+
+AUBUSSON ([=o]-b[.u]-s[=o]n), Pierre d', grand-master of the knights of St.
+John of Jerusalem, born in 1423 of a noble French family, served in early
+life against the Turks, then entered the order of St. John, obtained a
+commandery, was made grand-prior, and in 1476 succeeded the Grand-master
+Orsini. In 1480 the Island of Rhodes, the head-quarters of the order, was
+invaded by a Turkish army of 100,000 men. The town was besieged for two
+months and then assaulted, but the Turks were obliged to retire with great
+loss. He died at Rhodes in 1503.
+
+AUCH ([=o]sh), a town in S.W. France, capital of department Gers; the seat
+of an archbishop, with one of the finest Gothic cathedrals in France;
+manufactures linens, leather, &c. Pop. 13,638.
+
+AUCHENIA ([a:]-k[=e]'ni-a). See _Llama_.
+
+AUCHTERAR´DER, a town, Perthshire, Scotland, with manufactures of tweeds,
+tartans, &c. The opposition to the presentee to the church of Auchterarder
+(1839) originated the struggle which ended in the formation of the Free
+Church of Scotland. Pop. (1921), 3151.
+
+AUCK´LAND, a town of New Zealand, in the North Island, founded in 1840, and
+situated on Waitemata Harbour, one of the finest harbours of New Zealand,
+where the island is only 6 miles across, there being another harbour
+(Manukau) on the opposite side of the isthmus. At dead low water there is
+sufficient depth in the harbour for the largest steamers. The working ship
+channel has an average depth of 36 feet, and varies in width from 1 to 2
+miles. The harbour has two good entrances, with a lighthouse; and is
+defended by batteries. There are numerous wharves and jetties, and two
+graving-docks, one of which--the Calliope Dock, opened in 1887--is one of
+the largest in the whole of the Southern Seas. Its site is picturesque, the
+streets are spacious, and the public buildings--churches, educational
+establishments, including a university college--are numerous and handsome.
+It has a large and increasing trade, there being connection with the chief
+places on the island by rail, and regular communication with the other
+ports of the colony, Australia, and Fiji by steam. It was formerly the
+capital of the colony. Pop. (including suburbs) 157,750.--The provincial
+district of Auckland forms the northern part of North Island, with an area
+of 25,364 sq. miles. Pop. 308,766. The surface is very diversified;
+volcanic phenomena are common, including geysers, hot lakes, &c.; rivers
+are numerous; wool, timber, kauri-gum, &c., are exported. Much gold has
+been obtained in the Thames Valley and elsewhere.
+
+AUCKLAND, William Eden, Lord, an English statesman, born 1744; educated at
+Eton and Oxford, called to the bar 1768, Under-Secretary of State 1772, and
+in 1776 a lord of the Board of Trade. In 1778 he was nominated in
+conjunction with Lord Howe and others to act as mediator between Britain
+and the insurgent American colonies. He was afterwards Secretary of State
+for Ireland, Ambassador Extraordinary to France, Ambassador Extraordinary
+to the Netherlands, &c. He was raised to the peerage in 1788, and died in
+1814.
+
+AUCKLAND ISLANDS, a group of islands about 180 miles S. of New Zealand,
+discovered in 1806, and belonging to Britain. They are of volcanic origin
+and fertile; and the largest, which is 30 miles by 15, has two good
+harbours. There are no settled inhabitants.
+
+AUCTION is a public sale to the party offering the best price where the
+buyers bid against each other, or to the bidder who first accepts the terms
+offered by the vendor where he sells by reducing his terms until someone
+accepts them. The latter form is known as a _Dutch Auction_. A sale by
+auction must be conducted in the most open and public manner possible; and
+there must be no collusion on the part of the buyers. Puffing, or mock
+bidding, to raise the value by apparent competition, is illegal.
+
+AUCTIONEER´, a person who conducts sales by auction. It is his duty to
+state the conditions of sale, to declare the respective biddings, and to
+terminate the sale by _knocking down_ the thing sold to the highest bidder.
+In Britain an auctioneer must have a licence (for which he pays £10),
+renewable annually. Verbal declarations by an auctioneer are not suffered
+to control the printed conditions of sale. The Auctioneers' Institute of
+the United Kingdom was founded in 1886.
+
+AU´CUBA, a genus of plants, ord. Cornaceæ, one species of which, _A.
+japoníca_, a laurel-like shrub with spotted leaves, a native of Japan and
+China, is now common in ornamental grounds in Europe. The flowers are
+dioecious and inconspicuous. For a long time only the female plant,
+introduced into Britain from Japan in 1783, was cultivated, but in 1850 the
+male was introduced, and the fruit, which consists of beautiful coral-red
+berries, is now frequently developed, and adds greatly to the
+attractiveness of the plant. _A. himalaica_, also brought to Europe, is
+less hardy.
+
+AUDE ([=o]d), a maritime department in the S. of France; area 2448 sq.
+miles, mainly covered by hills belonging to the Pyrenees or the Cevennes,
+and traversed W. to E. by a valley drained by the Aude. The loftier
+districts are bleak and unproductive; the others tolerably fertile,
+yielding good crops of grain. The wines, especially the white wines, are
+famous; olives and other fruits are also cultivated. The manufactures are
+varied; the trade is facilitated by the Canal du Midi. Carcassonne is the
+capital; other towns are Narbonne and Castelnaudary. Pop. 286,552. The
+River Aude rises in the Eastern Pyrenees, and, flowing nearly parallel to
+the Canal du Midi, falls into the Mediterranean after a course of 130
+miles.
+
+AUDEBERT ([=o]d-b[=a]r), Jean Baptiste, French engraver and naturalist,
+born in 1759, died in 1800; published _Histoire Naturelle des Singes, des
+Makis, et des Galéopithèques_; _Histoire des Colibris_, &c.; and began
+_Histoire des Grimpereaux et des Oiseaux de Paradis_, finished by
+Desray--all finely-illustrated works.
+
+AU´DENSHAW, a town of England, in Lancashire, 4 miles E. of Manchester,
+with cotton-mills, engineering-works, &c. Pop. (1921), 7878.
+
+AUDIOMETER, an instrument for the measurement of hearing, invented by
+Professor D. E. Hughes, of London, in 1879.
+
+AU´DIPHONE, an acoustic instrument by means of which deaf persons are
+enabled to hear. It consists essentially of a fan-shaped plate of hardened
+caoutchouc, which is bent to a greater or less degree by strings, and is
+very sensitive to sound-waves. When used, the up edge is pressed against
+the upper front teeth, with the convexity outward, and the sounds being
+collected are conveyed from the teeth to the auditory nerve without passing
+through the external ear.
+
+AU´DIT, an examination into accounts or dealings with money or property,
+along with vouchers or other documents connected therewith, especially by
+proper officers, or persons appointed for the purpose. Also the occasion of
+receiving the rents from the tenants on an estate.
+
+AU´DITOR, a person appointed to examine accounts, public or private, to see
+whether they are correct and in accordance with vouchers. In Britain the
+public accounts are audited by the Exchequer and Audit Department, Somerset
+House, at the head of it being a comptroller and auditor-general, and an
+assistant-comptroller and auditor, with a large staff of clerks. In
+Scotland there is an auditor attached to the Court of Session appointed to
+tax costs in litigation.
+
+AUDITORY NERVES. See _Ear_.
+
+AUDLEY, a town (urban district) of England, in Staffordshire, to the
+north-west of the district of The Potteries, with coal and iron mines. Pop.
+(1921), 14,751.
+
+AUDRAN ([=o]-drän), Gerard, a celebrated French engraver, born 1640;
+studied at Rome; was appointed engraver to Louis XIV; died at Paris 1703.
+He engraved Le Brun's _Battles of Alexander_, two of Raphael's cartoons,
+Poussin's _Coriolanus_, &c., and takes a first place among historical
+engravers. Other members of the family were successful in the same
+profession: Benoît, 1661-1721; Claude _père_, 1592-1677; Claude _fils_,
+1640-84; Germain, 1631-1710; Jean, 1667-1756.
+
+AU´DUBON, John James, an American naturalist of French extraction, born
+near New Orleans in 1775, was educated in France, and studied painting
+under David. In 1798 he settled in Pennsylvania, but having a great love
+for ornithology he set out in 1810 with his wife and child, descended the
+Ohio, and for many years roamed the forests in every direction, drawing the
+birds which he shot. In 1826 he came to England, exhibited his drawings in
+Liverpool, Manchester, and Edinburgh, and finally published them in an
+unrivalled work of double-folio size, with 435 coloured plates of birds the
+size of life (_The Birds of America_, 4 vols., 1827-39), with an
+accompanying text (_Ornithological Biography_, 5 vols., 8vo, partly written
+by Professor Macgillivray). On his final return to America he laboured with
+Dr. Bachman on a finely-illustrated work entitled _The Quadrupeds of
+America_ (1843-50, 3 vols.). He died at New York in 1851.
+
+AUERBACH, a manufacturing town of Germany, in Saxony. Pop. 2200.
+
+AUERBACH (ou'[.e]r-bä_h_), Berthold, a distinguished German author of
+Jewish extraction, born 1812, died 1882. He abandoned the study of Jewish
+theology in favour of philosophy, publishing in 1836 his _Judaism and
+Modern Literature_, and a translation of the works of Spinoza with critical
+biography (5 vols., 1841). His later works were tales or novels, and his
+_Village Tales of the Black Forest_ (_Schwarzwälder Dorfgeschichten_), as
+well as others of his writings, have been translated into several
+languages. Other works: _Barfüssele_, _Joseph im Schnee_, _Edelweiss_, _Auf
+der Höhe_, _Das Landhaus am Rhein_, _Waldfried_, _Brigitta_.
+
+AUERSTÄDT (ou'[.e]r-stet), battle at, 14th Oct., 1806. See _Jena_.
+
+AUGEAS ([a:]-j[=e]'as), a fabulous king of Elis, in Greece, whose stable
+contained 3000 oxen, and had not been cleaned for thirty years. Hercules
+undertook to clear away the filth in one day in return for a tenth part of
+the cattle, and executed the task by turning the River Alph[=e]us through
+it. Augeas, having broken the bargain, was deposed and slain by Hercules.
+
+AUGER ([a:]'g[.e]r), an instrument for boring holes considerably larger
+than those bored by a gimlet, used by carpenters and joiners, ship-wrights,
+&c.
+
+AUGEREAU ([=o]zh-r[=o]), Pierre François Charles, Duke of Castiglione,
+Marshal of France, son of a mason, born at Paris 1757. He adopted the life
+of a soldier, and by 1796 had reached the rank of general of division in
+the army of Italy. At Casale, Lodi, Castiglione, and Arcole he highly
+distinguished himself. In 1797 he was at Paris, and was the instrument of
+the _coup d'état_ of the 18th of Fructidor (4th Sept.). In 1799 he was
+chosen a member of the Council of Five Hundred. He then obtained the
+command of the army in Holland, and fought till the end of the campaign. In
+1803 he was appointed to lead the army collected at Bayonne against
+Portugal. In 1804 he was named marshal of the empire, and grand officer of
+the Legion of Honour. He subsequently took part in the battles of Jena and
+Eylau, held a command in Spain, and in July, 1813, led the army in Bavaria
+against Saxony, taking part in the battle of Leipzig. On Napoleon's
+abdication he submitted to Louis XVIII, who named him a peer. He died 1816.
+
+AUGHRIM, a village in Co. Galway, Ireland, memorable for the decisive
+victory gained in the neighbourhood, 12th July, 1691, by the forces of
+William of Orange, under Ginkel, over the Irish and French troops, under
+St. Ruth. The total English casualties were about 1700, while the Irish
+lost at least 7000 men as well as all their war material. This battle
+caused the complete submission of the country.
+
+AUGIER ([=o]-zhi-[=a]), Emile, noted French dramatist, born 1820, came
+young to Paris, entered a lawyer's office, but relinquished law for
+literature; elected an academician in 1857, in 1868 a commander of the
+Legion of Honour. His first and one of his best dramas was the comedy _La
+Ciguë_ (1844); among his other works are _L'Aventurière_, _Gabrielle_,
+_Paul Forestier_, _Le Mariage d'Olympe_, _Le Gendre de M. Poirier_, _Les
+Effrontés_, _Le Fils de Giboyer_, _Les Lions et les Renards_, _Maître
+Guérin_, _Les Fourchambault_, &c. He died in 1889.
+
+AUGITE ([a:]'j[=i]t) is the commonest member of the pyroxene group of
+minerals; a constituent of many igneous rocks, such as basalt, gabbro, &c.
+It crystallizes in short almost rectangular prisms of the monoclinic
+system, modifying planes causing cross-sections to be eight-sided. Its
+specific gravity is about 3.2; lustre vitreous; hardness sufficient to
+scratch glass; colour usually dark. It is a silicate of calcium, magnesium,
+iron, and aluminium, and alters in geological time by slow
+recrystallization into hornblende, possibly with some loss of calcium. It
+may be imitated by the artificial fusion of its constituents. A
+transparent, green, non-aluminous variety found at Zillertal, in Tyrol, is
+used in jewellery.
+
+AUGSBURG (ougz'b[u:]r_h_; Lat. _Augusta Vindelicorum_), a city of Bavaria,
+at the junction of the Wertach and Lech, antique in appearance, but with
+some fine streets, squares, and handsome or interesting buildings,
+including a splendid town hall, a lofty belfry (Perlach Tower), cathedral,
+with paintings by Domenichino, Holbein, &c.; St. Ulrich's Church; the
+bishop's palace, where the Augsburg Confession was presented to the Diet,
+afterwards a royal residence; the Fugger Palace, or mansion of the
+celebrated Fugger family; the public library; the theatre; the Academy of
+Arts; and the Fuggerei, a separate quarter of the city, consisting of
+fifty-three small houses, tenanted at a merely nominal rent by indigent
+Roman Catholics. Augsburg was a renowned commercial centre in the Middle
+Ages, and is still an important emporium of South German and Italian trade;
+industries: cotton spinning and weaving, dyeing, woollen manufacture,
+machinery and metal goods, books and printing, chemicals, &c. The Emperor
+Augustus established a colony here about 12 B.C. In 1276 it became a free
+city, and, besides being a great mart for the commerce between the north
+and south of Europe, it was a great centre of German art in the Middle
+Ages. It early took a conspicuous part in the Reformation. (See next
+article.) In 1806 it was incorporated in Bavaria. Pop. (1919), 154,555.
+
+AUGSBURG CONFESSION, a document which was presented by the Protestants at
+the Diet of Augsburg, 1530, to the Emperor Charles V and the Diet, and
+being signed by the Protestant States was adopted as their creed. Luther
+made the original draft; but as its style appeared too violent it was given
+to Melanchthon for amendment. The original is to be found in the imperial
+Austrian archives. Afterwards Melanchthon arbitrarily altered some of the
+articles, and there arose a division between those who held the original
+and those who held the altered Augsburg Confession. The former is received
+by the Lutherans, the latter by the German Reformed.
+
+AU´GURS, a board or college of diviners who, amongst the Romans, predicted
+future events and announced the will of the gods from the occurrence of
+certain signs. These consisted of signs in the sky, especially thunder and
+lightning; signs from the flight and cries of birds; from the feeding of
+the sacred chickens; from the course taken or sounds uttered by various
+quadrupeds or by serpents; from accidents or occurrences, such as spilling
+the salt, sneezing, &c. The answers of the augurs as well as the signs by
+which they were governed were called _auguries_, but bird-predictions were
+properly termed _auspices_. Nothing of consequence could be undertaken
+without consulting the augurs, and by the mere utterance of the words _alio
+die_ ('meet on another day') they could dissolve the assembly of the people
+and annul all decrees passed at the meeting.
+
+AU´GUST, the eighth month from January. It was the sixth of the Roman year,
+and hence was called _Sext[=i]lis_ till the Emperor Augustus affixed to it
+his own name.
+
+AUGUS´TA, the name of many ancient places, as Augusta Trevirorum, now
+_Trèves_; Augusta Taurinorum, now _Turin_; Augusta Vindelicorum, now
+_Augsburg_; &c.
+
+AUGUSTA (ou-g[u:]s't[.a]), or AGOS´TA, a seaport in the south-east of
+Sicily, 12 miles north of Syracuse. It exports salt, oil, honey, &c. Pop.
+17,250.
+
+AUGUS´TA, capital of Maine, United States, on the River Kennebec, which is
+crossed by a bridge and is navigable for small vessels 43 miles from its
+mouth, while a dam enables steamboats to ply for 20 miles farther up and
+furnishes immense water-power. Pop. (1920), 14,144.
+
+AUGUSTA, the capital of Richmond county, Georgia, United States, on the
+left bank of the Savannah River, 231 miles from its mouth; well built, and
+connected with the river by high-level canals; an important manufacturing
+centre, having cotton-mills, machine-shops, and railroad works, &c. Pop.
+(1920), 52,548.
+
+AU´GUSTINE (Aurelius Augustinus), ST., a renowned father of the Christian
+Church, was born at Tagaste, in Africa, in 354, his mother Monica being a
+Christian, his father Patricius a pagan. His parents sent him to Carthage
+to complete his education, but he disappointed their expectations by his
+neglect of serious study and his devotion to pleasure. A lost book of
+Cicero's, called _Hortensius_, led him to the study of philosophy; but
+dissatisfied with this he went over to the Manichæans. He was one of their
+disciples for nine years, but left them, went to Rome, and thence to Milan,
+where he announced himself as a teacher of rhetoric. St. Ambrose, the
+bishop of this city, converted him to the faith of his boyhood, and the
+reading of Paul's _Epistles_ wrought an entire change in his life and
+character. He retired into solitude, and prepared himself for baptism,
+which he received in his thirty-third year from the hands of Ambrose.
+Returning to Africa, he sold his estate and gave the proceeds to the poor,
+retaining only enough to support him. At the desire of the people of Hippo,
+Augustine became the assistant of the bishop of that town, preached with
+extraordinary success, and in 395 succeeded to the see. He entered into a
+warm controversy with Pelagius concerning the doctrines of free-will,
+grace, and predestination, and wrote treatises concerning them, but of his
+various works his _Confessions_ is most secure of immortality. He died 28th
+Aug., 430, while Hippo was besieged by the Vandals. He was a man of great
+enthusiasm, self-devotion, zeal for truth, and powerful intellect, and
+though there have been fathers of the Church more learned, none have
+wielded a more powerful influence. His doctrine of grace, which was an
+important contribution to Christian thought, triumphed at last in the
+Reformation and evangelical religion. His writings are partly
+autobiographical, as the _Confessions_, partly polemical, homiletic, or
+exegetical. The greatest is the _City of God_ (_De Civitate Dei_), a
+vindication of Christianity.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Joseph McCabe, _St. Augustine
+and his Age_; Nourrisson, _La Philosophie de St. Augustin_.
+
+AU´GUSTINE, or AUSTIN, ST., the _Apostle of the English_, first Archbishop
+of Canterbury, flourished at the close of the sixth century, was sent, in
+596, with forty monks by Pope Gregory I to introduce Christianity into
+Saxon England, and was kindly received by Ethelbert, King of Kent, whom he
+converted, baptising 10,000 of his subjects in one day. In acknowledgment
+of his tact and success Augustine received the archiepiscopal pall from the
+Pope, with instructions to establish twelve sees in his province, but he
+could not persuade the British bishops in Wales to unite with the new
+English Church. He died in 604 or 605. Cf. Sir H. H. Howorth, _St.
+Augustine of Canterbury_.
+
+AU´GUSTINS, or AUGUSTINES, members of several monastic fraternities who
+follow rules framed by the great St. Augustine, or deduced from his
+writings, of which the chief are the Canons Regular of St. Augustine, or
+Austin Canons, and the Begging Hermits or Austin Friars. The Austin Canons
+were introduced into Britain about 1100, and had about 170 houses in
+England and about twenty-five in Scotland. They took the vows of chastity
+and poverty, and their habit was a long black cassock with a white rochet
+over it, having over that a black cloak and hood. The Austin Friars,
+originally hermits, were a much more austere body, went barefooted, and
+formed one of the four orders of mendicants. An order of nuns had also the
+name of Augustines. Their garments, at first black, were afterwards violet.
+
+AUGUSTO´VO, a town of Poland, formerly in Russia, in the government of
+Suwalki, founded in 1557 by Sigismund II. Pop. 11,797. The battle of
+Augustovo was fought between the Russians and the Germans between 14th Sept
+and 3rd Oct., 1914.
+
+AUGUS´TULUS, Romulus, the last of the Western Roman emperors; reigned for
+one year (475-6), when he was overthrown by Odoacer and banished.
+
+AUGUS´TUS, Gaius Julius Cæsar Octavianus (originally called Gaius
+Octavius), Roman emperor, was the son of Gaius Octavius and Atia, a
+daughter of Julia, the sister of Julius Cæsar. He was born 63 B.C., and
+died A.D. 14. Octavius was at Apollonia, in Epirus, when he received news
+of the death of his uncle (44 B.C.), who had previously adopted him as his
+son. He returned to Rome to claim Cæsar's property and avenge his death,
+and now took, according to usage, his uncle's name with the surname
+Octavianus. He was aiming secretly at the chief power, but at first he
+joined the republican party, and assisted at the defeat of Antony at
+Mutina. He got himself chosen consul in 43. Soon after the second
+triumvirate was formed between him and Antony and Lepidus, and this was
+followed by the conscription and assassination of three hundred Senators
+and two thousand knights of the party opposed to the triumvirate. Next year
+Octavianus and Antony defeated the republican army under Brutus and Cassius
+at Philippi. The victors now divided the Roman world between them,
+Octavianus getting the West, Antony the East, and Lepidus Africa. Sextus
+Pompeius, who had made himself formidable at sea, had now to be put down;
+and Lepidus, who had hitherto retained an appearance of power, was deprived
+of all authority (36 B.C.) and retired into private life. Antony and
+Octavianus now shared the Empire between them; but while the former, in the
+East, gave himself up to a life of luxury, and alienated the Romans by his
+alliance with Cleopatra and his adoption of Oriental manners, Octavianus
+skilfully cultivated popularity, and soon declared war ostensibly against
+the Queen of Egypt. The naval victory of Actium, in which the fleet of
+Antony and Cleopatra was defeated, made Octavianus master of the world, 31
+B.C. He returned to Rome, 29 B.C., celebrated a splendid triumph, and
+caused the temple of Janus to be closed in token of peace being restored.
+Gradually all the highest offices of State, civil and religious, were
+united in his hands, and the new title of Augustus was also assumed by him,
+being formally conferred by the Senate in 27 B.C. Great as was the power
+given to him, he exercised it with wise moderation, and kept up the show of
+a republican form of government. Under him successful wars were carried on
+in Africa and Asia (against the Parthians), in Gaul and Spain, in Pannonia,
+Dalmatia, &c.; but the defeat of Varus by the Germans under Arminius with
+the loss of three legions, A.D. 9, was a great blow to him in his old age.
+Many useful decrees proceeded from him, and various abuses were abolished.
+He gave a new form to the Senate, employed himself in improving the morals
+of the people, enacted laws for the suppression of luxury, introduced
+discipline into the armies, and order into the games of the circus. He
+adorned Rome in such a manner that it was said: "He found it of brick, and
+left it of marble". The people erected altars to him, and, by a decree of
+the Senate, the month Sextilis was called _Augustus_ (our August). He was a
+patron of literature; Virgil and Horace were befriended by him, and their
+works and those of their contemporaries are the glory of the _Augustan
+Age_. His death, which took place at Nola, plunged the Empire into the
+greatest grief. He was thrice married, but had no son, and was succeeded by
+his stepson Tiberius, whose mother Livia he had married after prevailing on
+her husband to divorce her.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. B. Firth, _Augustus Cæsar_
+(in Heroes of the Nations series); E. S. Shuckburgh, _Augustus_.
+
+AUGUSTUS II (or FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I), Elector of Saxony and King of
+Poland, second son of John George III, Elector of Saxony, was born at
+Dresden in 1670, died at Warsaw 1733. He succeeded his brother in the
+Electorate in 1694, and the Polish throne having become vacant, in 1696, by
+the death of John Sobieski, Augustus presented himself as a candidate for
+it and was successful. He joined with Peter the Great in the war against
+Charles XII of Sweden, invaded Livonia, but was defeated by Charles near
+Riga, and at Clissow, between Warsaw and Cracow. In 1704 he was deposed,
+and two years later formally resigned the crown to Stanislaus I, now
+devoting himself to his Saxon dominions. In 1709, after the defeat of
+Charles at Poltava, the Poles recalled Augustus, who united himself anew
+with Peter. The two monarchs, in alliance with Denmark, sent troops into
+Pomerania, but the Swedish general Steinbock defeated the allies at
+Gadebusch, 20th Dec., 1712. The death of Charles XII put an end to the war,
+and Augustus concluded a peace with Sweden. A confederation was now formed
+in Poland against the Saxon troops, but through the mediation of Peter an
+arrangement was concluded by which the Saxon troops were removed from the
+kingdom. Augustus now gave himself up to voluptuousness and a life of
+pleasure. His Court was one of the most splendid and polished in Europe.
+The Poles yielded but too readily to the example of their king, and the
+last years of his reign were characterized by boundless luxury and
+corruption of manners. His wife left him one son. The Countess of
+Königsmark bore him the celebrated commander Marshal Saxe (Maurice of
+Saxony).
+
+AUGUSTUS III (or FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II), Elector of Saxony and King of
+Poland, son of Augustus II, born at Dresden 1696, succeeded his father as
+Elector in 1733, and was chosen King of Poland through the influence of
+Austria and Russia. He closely followed the example of his father,
+distinguishing himself by the splendour of his feasts and the extravagance
+of his Court. He preferred Dresden to Warsaw, and through his long absence
+from Poland the government sank into entire inactivity. During the first
+Silesian war he formed a secret alliance with Austria. The consequence was
+that during the second Silesian war Frederick the Great of Prussia pushed
+on into Saxony, and occupied the capital, from which Augustus fled. By the
+peace of Dresden, 25th Dec., 1745, he was reinstated in the possession of
+Saxony. In 1756 he was involved anew in a war against Prussia. When
+Frederick declined his proposal of neutrality he left Dresden, and entered
+the camp at Pirna, where 17,000 Saxon troops were assembled. Frederick
+surrounded the Saxons, who were obliged to surrender, and Augustus fled to
+Poland. On the threat of invasion by Russia he returned to Dresden, where
+he died in 1763. His son, Frederick Christian, succeeded him as Elector of
+Saxony, and Stanislaus Poniatowski as King of Poland.
+
+[Illustration: Razor-bill (_Alca torda_)]
+
+AUK, a name of certain swimming birds, family Alcidæ, including the great
+auk, the little auk, the puffin, &c. The genus Alca, or auks proper,
+contains only two species, the great auk (_Alca impennis_), and the
+razor-bill (_Alca torda_). The great auk or gair-fowl, a bird about 3 feet
+in length, used to be plentiful in northerly regions, and also visited the
+British shores, but has become extinct. Some seventy skins, about as many
+eggs, with bones representing perhaps a hundred individuals, are preserved
+in various museums. Though the largest species of the family, the wings
+were only 6 inches from the carpal joint to the tip, totally useless for
+flight, but employed as fins in swimming, especially under water. The tail
+was about 3 inches long; the beak was high, short, and compressed; the
+head, neck, and upper parts were blackish; a large spot under each eye, and
+most of the under parts white. Its legs were placed so far back as to cause
+it to sit nearly upright. The razor-bill is about 15 inches in length, and
+its wings are sufficiently developed to be used for flight. It is found in
+numbers on some parts of the British shores, as the Isle of Man.
+
+AULAP´OLAY, or ALLEPPI, a seaport on the south-west coast of Hindustan,
+Travancore, between the sea and a lagoon, with a safe roadstead all the
+year round; exports timber, coir, coconuts, &c. Pop. 24,918.
+
+AULD LICHTS. See _Presbyterianism_.
+
+AULIC (Lat. _aula_, a court or hall), an epithet given to a council (the
+_Reichshofrath_) in the old German Empire, one of the two supreme courts of
+the German Empire, the other being the court of the imperial chamber
+(_Reichskammergericht_). It had not only concurrent jurisdiction with the
+latter court, but in many cases exclusive jurisdiction, in all feudal
+processes, and in criminal affairs, over the immediate feudatories of the
+Emperor and in affairs which concerned the imperial Government.
+
+AU´LIS, in ancient Greece, a seaport in Boeotia, on the strait called
+Euripus, between Boeotia and Euboea. See _Iphigenia_.
+
+AULLAGAS (ou-lyä'gäs), a salt lake of Bolivia, which receives the surplus
+waters of Lake Titicaca through the Rio Desaguadero, and has only one
+perceptible insignificant outlet, so that what becomes of its superfluous
+water is still a matter of uncertainty.
+
+AULNOY ([=o]-nwä), Countess d', French writer, born 1650, died 1705, was
+the author of _Contes des Fées_ (_Fairy Tales_), many of which, such as
+_The White Cat_, _The Yellow Dwarf_, &c., have been translated into
+English. She also wrote a number of novels, historical memoirs, &c.
+
+AUMALE ([=o]-mäl), a small French town, department of Seine Inférieure, 35
+miles N.E. of Rouen, which has given titles to several notables in French
+history.--Jean d'Arcourt, Eighth Count d'Aumale, fought at Agincourt, and
+defeated the English at Gravelle (1423).--Claude II, Duc d'Aumale, one of
+the chief instigators of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, was killed
+1573.--Charles de Lorraine, Duc d'Aumale, was an ardent partisan of the
+League in the politico-religious French wars of the sixteenth
+century.--Henri-Eugene-Philippe Louis d'Orleans, Duc d'Aumale, son of Louis
+Philippe, king of the French, was born in 1822. In 1847 he succeeded
+Marshal Bugeaud as Governor-General of Algeria, where he had distinguished
+himself in the war against Abd-el-Kader. After the revolution of 1848 he
+retired to England; but he returned to France in 1871, and was elected a
+member of the Assembly; became Inspector-General of the army in 1879, and
+was expelled along with the other royal princes in 1886, but was allowed to
+return. Author of a _History of the House of Condé_, &c. He died in 1897.
+
+AUN´GERVILLE, Richard, known as Richard de Bury (from his birthplace Bury
+St. Edmund's), English statesman, bibliographer, and correspondent of
+Petrarch, born 1281, died 1345. He entered the order of Benedictine monks,
+and became tutor to the Prince of Wales, afterwards Edward III. Promoted to
+several offices of dignity, he ultimately became Bishop of Durham, and Lord
+Chancellor of England. During his frequent embassies to the Continent he
+made the acquaintance of many of the eminent men of the day. He was a
+diligent collector of books, and formed a library at Oxford. Author of
+_Philobiblon_, printed at Cologne in 1473; _Epistoloe Familiarium_,
+including letters to Petrarch, &c.
+
+AURANGABAD´, a town of India, in the territory of the Nizam of Hyderabad,
+175 miles from Bombay. It contains a ruined palace of Aurangzib and a
+mausoleum erected to the memory of his favourite wife. It was formerly a
+considerable trading centre, but its commercial importance decreased when
+Hyderabad became the capital of the Nizam. Pop. 34,000.
+
+AURANGZIB ('ornament of the throne'), one of the greatest of the Mogul
+emperors of Hindustan, born in Oct. 1618 or 1619. When he was nine years
+old his weak and unfortunate father, Shah Jehan, succeeded to the throne.
+Aurangzib was distinguished, when a youth, for his serious look, his
+frequent prayers, his love of solitude, his profound hypocrisy, and his
+deep plans. In his twentieth year he raised a body of troops by his address
+and good fortune, and obtained the government of the Deccan. He stirred up
+dissensions between his brothers, made use of the assistance of one against
+the other, and finally shut his father up in his harem, where he kept him
+prisoner. He then murdered his relatives one after the other, and in 1659
+ascended the throne. Notwithstanding the means by which he had got
+possession of power, he governed with much wisdom. Two of his sons, who
+endeavoured to form a party in their own favour, he caused to be arrested
+and put to death by slow poison. He carried on many wars, conquered
+Golconda and Bijapur, and drove out, by degrees, the Mahrattas from their
+country. After his death, on 4th March, 1707, the Mogul Empire declined.
+
+AURANTIA´CEÆ, the orange tribe, a nat. ord. of plants, polypetalous
+dicotyledons, with leaves containing a fragrant essential oil in
+transparent dots, and a superior pulpy fruit, originally natives of India;
+examples comprise the orange, lemon, lime, citron, and shaddock.
+
+AURAY ([=o]-r[=a]), a seaport of North-West France, department Morbihan,
+with a deaf and dumb institute, and within 2 miles of St. Anne of Auray, a
+famous place of pilgrimage. Pop. 6653.
+
+AURE´LIAN, Lucius Domitius Aurelianus, Emperor of Rome, of humble origin,
+was born about A.D. 212, rose to the highest rank in the army, and on the
+death of Claudius II (270) was chosen emperor. He delivered Italy from the
+barbarians (Alemanni and Marcomanni), and conquered the famous Zenobia,
+Queen of Palmyra. He followed up his victories by the reformation of
+abuses, and the restoration throughout the Empire of order and regularity.
+He lost his life, A.D. 275, by assassination, when heading an expedition
+against the Persians.
+
+AURE´LIUS ANTONI´NUS, Marcus, often called simply MARCUS AURELIUS, Roman
+emperor and philosopher, son-in-law, adopted son, and successor of
+Antoninus Pius, born A.D. 121, succeeded to the throne 161, died 180. His
+name originally was Marcus Annius Verus. He voluntarily shared the
+government with Lucius Verus, whom Antoninus Pius had also adopted. Brought
+up and instructed by Plutarch's nephew, Sextus, the orator Herodes Atticus,
+and L. Volusius Mecianus, the jurist, he had become acquainted with learned
+men, and formed a particular love for the Stoic philosophy. A war with
+Parthia broke out in the year of his accession, and did not terminate till
+166. A confederacy of the northern tribes now threatened Italy, while a
+frightful pestilence, brought from the East with the army, raged in Rome
+itself. Both emperors set out in person against the rebellious tribes. In
+169 Verus died, and the sole command of the war devolved on Marcus
+Aurelius, who prosecuted it with the utmost rigour, and nearly exterminated
+the Marcomanni. His victory over the Quadi (174) is connected with a famous
+legend. Dion Cassius tells us that the twelfth legion of the Roman army was
+shut up in a defile, and reduced to great straits for want of water, when a
+body of Christians enrolled in the legion prayed for relief. Not only was
+rain sent, which enabled the Romans to quench their thirst, but a fierce
+storm of hail beat upon the enemy, accompanied by thunder and lightning,
+which so terrified them that a complete victory was obtained, and the
+legion was ever after called _The Thundering Legion_ (_Legio Fulminatrix_).
+After this victory the Marcomanni, the Quadi, as well as the rest of the
+barbarians, sued for peace. The sedition of the Syrian governor Avidius
+Cassius, with whom Faustina, the empress, was in treasonable communication,
+called off the emperor from his conquests, but before he reached Asia the
+rebel was assassinated. Aurelius returned to Rome, after visiting Egypt and
+Greece, but soon new incursions of the Marcomanni compelled him once more
+to take the field. He defeated the enemy several times, but was taken sick
+at Sirmium, and died at Vindobona (Vienna) in 180. His only extant work is
+the _Meditations_, written in Greek. It has been translated into most
+modern languages (into English first by George Long in 1862, and by J.
+Jackson in 1906). This may be regarded as a manual of practical morality,
+in which wisdom, gentleness, and benevolence are combined in the most
+fascinating manner. Many believe it to have been intended for the
+instruction of his son Commodus. Aurelius was one of the best emperors Rome
+ever saw, although his philosophy and the magnanimity of his character did
+not restrain him from the persecution of the Christians, whose religious
+doctrines he was led to believe were subversive of good government, and
+whom he charged, therefore, with obstinacy, the greatest social crime in
+the eyes of Roman authority. Marcus Aurelius was not so much a philosopher
+as a seeker after righteousness.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. B. Watson, _M. Aurelius
+Antoninus_; Sir Samuel Dill, _Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius_;
+Translations of the _Meditations_ by G. H. Kendall, and J. Jackson.
+
+AURENGZEBE. See _Aurangzib_.
+
+AURE´OLA, or AU´REOLE, in paintings, an illumination surrounding the whole
+figure of a holy person, as Christ, a saint, or a martyr, intended to
+represent a luminous cloud or haze emanating from him. It is generally of
+an oval shape, or may be nearly or quite circular, and is of similar
+character with the nimbus surrounding the heads of sacred personages.
+
+AU´R[)E]US, the first gold coin which was coined at Rome, 207 B.C. Its
+value varied at different times, from about 12s. to £1, 4_s_. See
+_Numismatics_.
+
+AURICH (ou´r[=e]_h_), a German town, province of Hanover. Pop. 6070.
+
+AU´RICLE. See _Heart_.
+
+AURIC´ULA, a garden flower derived from the yellow _Prim[)u]la
+Auric[)u]la_, found native in the Swiss Alps, and sometimes called
+bear's-ear from the shape of its leaves. It has for over three centuries
+been an object of cultivation by florists, who have succeeded in raising
+from seed a great number of beautiful varieties. Its leaves are obovate,
+entire or serrated, and fleshy, varying, however, in form in the numerous
+varieties. The flowers are borne on an erect umbel and central scape with
+involucre. The original colours of the corolla are yellow, purple, and
+variegated, and there is a mealy covering on the surface. There are
+auricula clubs and societies in the north of England.
+
+AURICULAR CONFESSION. See _Confession_.
+
+AU´RIFABER, the Latinized name of Johann Goldschmidt, one of Luther's
+companions, born 1519, became pastor at Erfurt in 1566, died there in 1579.
+He collected the unpublished MSS. of Luther, and edited the _Epistolæ_ and
+the _Table-talk_.
+
+AURIFLAMME. See _Oriflamme_.
+
+AURI´GA, in astronomy, the _Waggoner_, a constellation of the northern
+hemisphere, containing Capella, a star of the first magnitude. _Nova
+Aurigæ,_ a temporary star, appeared in the constellation in 1892.
+
+AURILLAC ([=o]-r[=e]-y[.a]k), a town of France, capital of the department
+Cantal, in a valley watered by the Jordanne, about 270 miles S. of Paris;
+well built, with wide streets; copper-works, paper-works, manufactures of
+lace, tapestry, leather, &c. Pop. 18,036.
+
+AUROCHS ([a:]'roks), a species of wild bull or buffalo, the _urus_ of
+Cæsar, _bison_ of Pliny, the European bison, _Bos_ or _Bonassus Bison_ of
+modern naturalists. The animal was once abundant in Europe, but were it not
+for the protection afforded by the late Emperor of Russia to a few herds
+which inhabit the forests of Lithuania it would before this have been
+extinct.
+
+AURO´RA, an American city, of Kane county, Illinois, on Fox River, 40 miles
+W. by S. of Chicago; it has flourishing manufactures, railway-works, and a
+considerable trade. Pop. (1920), 36,265.
+
+AURO´RA (Gr. _E[=o]s_), in classical mythology, the goddess of the dawn,
+daughter of Hyperion and Theia, and sister of Helios and Sel[=e]n[=e] (Sun
+and Moon). She was represented as a charming figure, 'rosy-fingered', clad
+in a yellow robe, rising at dawn from the ocean and driving her chariot
+through the heavens. Among the mortals whose beauty captivated the goddess,
+poets mentioned Orion, Tith[=o]nus, and Ceph[)a]lus.
+
+AURO´RA, one of the New Hebrides Islands, S. Pacific Ocean, about 30 miles
+long by 5 wide. It rises to a considerable elevation, and is covered with a
+luxuriant vegetation.
+
+[Illustration: Aurora Borealis]
+
+AURO´RA BOREA´LIS, a luminous meteoric phenomenon appearing in the north,
+most frequently in high latitudes, the corresponding phenomenon in the
+southern hemisphere being called _Aurora Australis_, and both being also
+called _Polar Light_, _Streamers_, &c. The northern aurora has been far the
+most observed and studied. It usually manifests itself by streams of light
+ascending towards the zenith from a dusky line of cloud or haze a few
+degrees above the horizon, and stretching from the north towards the west
+and east, so as to form an arc with its ends on the horizon, and its
+different parts and rays are constantly in motion. Sometimes it appears in
+detached places; at other times it almost covers the whole sky. It assumes
+many shapes and a variety of colours, from a pale red or yellow to a deep
+red or blood colour; and in far northern latitudes serves to illuminate the
+earth and cheer the gloom of the long winter nights. The appearance of the
+aurora borealis so exactly resembles the effects of experimental electrical
+phenomena that there is every reason to believe that their causes are
+similar. When electricity passes through rarefied air it exhibits a
+diffused luminous stream which has all the characteristic appearances of
+the aurora, and hence it is highly probable that this natural phenomenon is
+occasioned by the passage of electricity through the upper regions of the
+atmosphere. The synchronism of auroral display with disturbances of the
+magnetic needle is an ascertained fact, and the connection between auroræ
+and magnetism is further evident from the fact that the beams or
+coruscations issuing from a point in the horizon west of north are
+frequently observed to run in the magnetic meridian. What are known as
+magnetic storms are invariably connected with exhibitions of the aurora,
+and with spontaneous galvanic currents in the ordinary telegraph wires; and
+this connection is found to be so certain that, upon remarking the display
+of one of the three classes of phenomena, we can at once assert that the
+other two are also present. In recent years it has been established that
+auroræ wax and wane in frequency _pari passu_ with sun-spots in an 11-year
+cycle, and that they often manifest themselves about the time of transit of
+a conspicuous spot across the sun's central meridian. Also they frequently
+recur at successive intervals of about 27 days, which is the period of a
+solar rotation relative to the earth. It is therefore inferred that auroræ
+are largely excited by influences proceeding from the sun, and it is
+suggested that they are the result of the impinging upon our upper
+atmosphere of streams of electric corpuscles expelled from the solar orb,
+these streams when approaching our planet being mainly directed to its
+higher latitudes as a consequence of its magnetic polarity. The aurora
+borealis is said to be frequently accompanied by sound, which is variously
+described as resembling the rustling of pieces of silk against each other,
+or the sound of wind against the flame of a candle. The aurora of the
+southern hemisphere is quite a similar phenomenon to that of the
+north.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Angot, _Les Aurores Polaires_; Captain H. P.
+Dawson, _Observations of the International Polar Expeditions, 1882-3, Fort
+Rae_.
+
+AURUNGABAD. See _Aurangabad_.
+
+AURUNGZEBE. See _Aurangzib_.
+
+AUSCULTA´TION, a method of distinguishing the state of the internal parts
+of the body, particularly of the thorax and abdomen, by observing the
+sounds arising in the part either through the immediate application of the
+ear to its surface (immediate auscultation), or by applying the stethoscope
+to the part, and listening through it (mediate auscultation). Auscultation
+may be used with more or less advantage in all cases where morbid sounds
+are produced, but its general applications are: the _auscultation_ of
+respiration, the _auscultation_ of the voice; _auscultation_ of coughs;
+_auscultation_ of sounds foreign to all these, but sometimes accompanying
+them; _auscultation_ of the actions of the heart; obstetric _auscultation_.
+The parts when struck also give different sounds in health and disease.
+
+AUSO´NIA, an ancient poetical name of Italy.
+
+AUSO´NIUS, Decimus Magnus (_c._ A.D. 310-395), Roman poet, born at
+Burdigala (Bordeaux). Valentinian entrusted to him the education of his son
+Gratian, and appointed him afterwards quæstor and pretorian prefect.
+Gratian appointed him consul in Gaul, and after this emperor's death he
+lived upon an estate at Bordeaux, devoted to literary pursuits. He wrote
+epigrams, idyls, eclogues, letters in verse, &c., still extant, and was
+probably a Christian. He was rather a man of letters than a poet, and his
+poems are devoid of inspiration.
+
+AUS´PICES, among the ancient Romans strictly omens or auguries derived from
+birds, though the term was also used in a wider sense. Nothing of
+importance was done without taking the auspices, which, however, simply
+showed whether the enterprise was likely to result successfully or not,
+without supplying any further information. Magistrates possessed the right
+of taking the auspices, in which they were usually assisted by an augur.
+Before a war or campaign a Roman general always took the auspices, and
+hence the operations were said to be carried out 'under his auspices'. See
+_Augur_.
+
+AUS´SIG, a town in Bohemia, in the republic of Czecho-Slovakia, formerly in
+Austria, near the junction of the Bila with the Elbe, 42 miles N.N.W. of
+Prague; has large manufactures of woollens, chemicals, &c. The town is now
+known as Ousti nad Labem. Pop. 40,000.
+
+AUS´TEN, Jane, English novelist, born 1775, at Steventon, in Hants, of
+which parish her father was rector. Her principal novels are, _Sense and
+Sensibility; Pride and Prejudice_, which Disraeli is said to have read
+seventeen times; _Mansfield Park_; and _Emma_. Two more were published
+after her death, entitled _Northanger Abbey_ and _Persuasion_, which were,
+however, her most early attempts. Her novels are marked by ease, humour,
+and a complete knowledge of the domestic life of the English middle classes
+of her time. She died in 1817.
+
+AUSTENITE, a constituent of high-carbon steel (q.v.).
+
+AUS´TERLITZ, a town with 3703 inhabitants, in Moravia, 10 miles E. of
+Brünn, famous for the battle of 2nd Dec., 1805, fought between the French
+(70,000 in number) and the allied Austrian and Russian armies (95,000). The
+decisive victory of the French led to the Peace of Pressburg between France
+and Austria.
+
+AUS´TIN, capital of the State of Texas, on the Colorado, about 200 miles
+from its mouth, and accessible to steamboats during certain seasons. There
+is a State university and other institutions, and a splendid capitol built
+of red granite. Pop. (1920), 34,876.
+
+AUSTIN, Alfred, English poet, born at Hedingley, near Leeds, in 1835,
+educated at Stonyhurst and St. Mary's College, Oscott; took the degree of
+B.A. at London in 1853, was called to the bar and practised, but gave up
+law for literature in 1861. He published, in 1861, a satire called _The
+Season_, followed by many poems, including _The Human Tragedy_, _The Golden
+Age_, _Savonarola_ (a tragedy), _English Lyrics_, _Fortunatus the
+Pessimist_, _Lyrical Poems_, _Narrative Poems_, _Prince Lucifer_, _Alfred
+the Great_, _A Tale of True Love_, _Flodden Field_ (a tragedy), &c. His
+works in prose include _The Garden that I love_, _In Veronica's Garden_,
+_Spring and Autumn in Ireland_, _Haunts of Ancient Peace_, _The Bridling of
+Pegasus_, &c. He was made Poet Laureate in 1896, about four years after the
+death of Tennyson. He died in 1913.
+
+AUS´TIN, John, an English writer on jurisprudence, born 1790, died 1859.
+From 1826 to 1835 he filled the chair of jurisprudence at London
+University. He served on several royal commissions, one of which took him
+to Malta; lived for some years on the Continent, and finally settled at
+Weybridge, in Surrey. His fame rests solely on his great works: _The
+Province of Jurisprudence Determined_, published in 1832; and his _Lectures
+on Jurisprudence_, published by his widow between 1861 and 1863.--His wife,
+Sarah, one of the Taylors of Norwich, produced translations of German
+works, and other books bearing on Germany or its literature; also,
+_Considerations on National Education_, &c. Born 1793, died 1867. Her
+daughter, Lady Duff Gordon, translated Meinhold's _Mary Schweidler, the
+Amber Witch_, and other German works.
+
+AUSTIN, ST. See _Augustine_.
+
+AUSTIN FRIARS. See _Augustins_.
+
+AUSTRALASIA, a division of the globe usually regarded as comprehending the
+Islands of Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, New Caledonia, the New
+Hebrides, the Solomon Islands, New Ireland, New Britain, the Admiralty
+Islands, New Guinea, and the Arru Islands, besides numerous other islands
+and island groups; estimated area, 3,400,000 sq. miles; pop. 6,000,000. It
+forms one of the three portions into which some geographers have divided
+Oceania, the other two being Malaysia and Polynesia. The British
+territories in Australasia comprise the Commonwealth of Australia, the
+Australian dependencies of Papua and Northern Territory, New Zealand and
+adjacent islands, and the crown colony of Fiji.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+AUSTRALIA (older name, NEW HOLLAND), the largest island in the world, a
+sea-girt continent, lying between the Indian and Pacific Oceans, S.E. of
+Asia; between lat. 10° 39' and 39° 11' S.; long. 113° 5' and 153° 16' E.;
+greatest length, from W. to E., 2400 miles; greatest breadth, from N. to
+S., 1700 to 1900 miles. It is separated from New Guinea on the north by
+Torres Strait, from Tasmania on the south by Bass Strait. It is divided
+into two unequal parts by the Tropic of Capricorn, and consequently belongs
+partly to the South Temperate, partly to the Torrid Zone. It is occupied by
+five British colonies, namely, New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland in
+the east; South Australia in the middle, stretching from sea to sea; and
+Western Australia in the west, which, with the Island of Tasmania, form the
+Commonwealth of Australia. Their area and population are as follows:--
+
+                      Area in         Pop.
+                       sq. m.        in 1920
+  New South Wales     309,432      2,091,115
+  Victoria             87,884      1,528,151
+  Queensland          670,500        752,245
+  South Australia     380,070        491,177
+  Western Australia   975,920        330,819
+  Tasmania             26,215        212,847
+  Northern Territory  523,620          3,992
+  Federal Territory       940          1,972
+
+Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Brisbane, and Perth are the chief towns. The
+population of the Commonwealth of Australia was 4,895,894 in 1917 and
+5,412,318 in 1920.
+
+Although there are numerous spacious harbours on the coasts, there are few
+remarkable indentations, the principal being the Gulf of Carpentaria, on
+the N., the Great Australian Bight, and Spencer's Gulf, on the S. The chief
+projections are Cape York Peninsula and Arnhem Land in the north. Parallel
+to the N.E. coast runs the Great Barrier Reef for 1000 miles. In great part
+the E. coast is bold and rocky, and is fringed with many small islands.
+Part of the S. coast is low and sandy, and part presents cliffs of several
+hundred feet high. The N. and W. coasts are generally low, with some
+elevations at intervals.
+
+The interior, so far as explored, is largely composed of rocky tracts and
+barren plains with little or no water. The whole continent forms an immense
+plateau, highest in the east, low in the centre, and with a narrow tract of
+land usually intervening between the elevated area and the sea. The base of
+the table-land is granite, which forms the surface-rock in a great part of
+the south-west, and is common in the higher grounds along the east side.
+Secondary (cretaceous) and tertiary rocks are largely developed in the
+interior. Silurian rocks occupy a large area in South Australia, on both
+sides of Spencer Gulf. The mountainous region in the south-east and east is
+mainly composed of volcanic, Silurian, carbonaceous, and carboniferous
+rocks yielding good coal. No active volcano is known to exist, but in the
+south-east there are some craters only recently extinct. The highest and
+most extensive mountain-system is a belt about 150 miles wide skirting the
+whole eastern and south-eastern border of the continent, and often called,
+in whole or in part, the Great Dividing Range, from forming the great
+water-shed of Australia. A part of it, called the Australian Alps, in the
+south-east, contains the highest summits in Australia, Mount Kosciusko
+(7175 feet), Mount Clarke (7256 feet), and Mount Townshend (7353 feet).
+West of the Dividing Range are extensive plains or downs admirably adapted
+for pastoral purposes. The deserts and scrubs, which occupy large areas of
+the interior, are a characteristic feature of Australia. The former are
+destitute of vegetation, or are covered only with a coarse, spiny grass
+that affords no sustenance to cattle or horses; the latter are composed of
+a dense growth of shrubs and low trees, often impenetrable till the
+traveller has cleared a track with his axe.
+
+[Illustration: COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Geological]
+
+The rivers of Australia are nearly all subject to great irregularities in
+volume, many of them at one time showing a channel in which there is merely
+a series of pools, while at another they inundate the whole adjacent
+country. The chief is the Murray, which, with its affluents the
+Murrumbidgee, Lachlan, and Darling, drains a great part of the interior
+west of the Dividing Range, and falls into the sea on the south coast
+(after entering Lake Alexandrina). Its greatest tributary is the Darling,
+which may even be regarded as the main stream. On the east coast are the
+Hunter, Clarence, Brisbane, Fitzroy, and Burdekin; on the west, the Swan,
+Murchison, Gascoyne, Ashburton, and De Grey; on the north, the Fitzroy,
+Victoria, Flinders, and Mitchell. The Australian rivers are of little
+service in facilitating internal communication. Many of them lose
+themselves in swamps or sandy wastes of the interior. A considerable river
+of the interior is Cooper's Creek, or the Barcoo, which falls into Lake
+Eyre, one of a group of lakes on the south side of the continent having no
+outlet, and accordingly salt. The principal of these are Lakes Eyre,
+Torrens, and Gairdner, all of which vary in size and saltness according to
+the season. Another large salt lake of little depth, Lake Amadeus, lies a
+little west of the centre of Australia. Various others of less magnitude
+are scattered over the interior.
+
+The climate of Australia is generally hot and dry, but very healthy. In the
+tropical portions there are heavy rains, and in most of the coast districts
+there is a sufficiency of moisture, but in the interior the heat and
+drought are extreme. Considerable portions now devoted to pasturage are
+liable at times to suffer from drought. At Melbourne the mean temperature
+is about 56°, at Sydney about 63°. The south-eastern settled districts are
+at times subject to excessively hot winds from the interior, which cause
+great discomfort, and are often followed by a violent cold wind from the
+south ('southerly bursters'). In the mountainous and more temperate parts
+snow-storms are common in winter (June, July, and August).
+
+Australia is a region containing a vast quantity of mineral wealth.
+Foremost come its rich and extensive deposits of gold, which, since the
+precious metal was first discovered in 1851, have produced a total of
+nearly £600,000,000. The greatest quantity has been obtained in Victoria,
+but New South Wales and Queensland have also yielded a considerable amount,
+and now Western Australia stands first in respect of annual output.
+Australia also possesses silver, copper, tin, lead, zinc, antimony,
+mercury, plumbago, &c., besides coal (now worked to a considerable extent
+in New South Wales) and iron. Various precious stones are found, as the
+garnet, ruby, topaz, sapphire, and even the diamond. Of building-stone
+there are granite, limestone, marble, and sandstone.
+
+[Illustration: COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Mean Annual Rainfall and
+Temperature]
+
+The Australian flora presents peculiarities which mark it off by itself in
+a very decided manner. Many of its most striking features have an
+unmistakable relation to the general dryness of the climate. The trees and
+bushes have for the most part a scanty foliage, presenting little surface
+for evaporation, or thick leathery leaves well fitted to retain moisture.
+The most widely-spread types of Australian vegetation are the various kinds
+of gum tree (_Eucalyptus_), the shea-oak (_Casuar[=i]na_), the acacia or
+wattle, the grass tree (_Xanthorrhoea_), many varieties of Proteaceæ, and a
+great number of ferns and tree-ferns. Of the gum tree there are found
+upwards of 150 species, many of which are of great value. Individual
+specimens of the 'peppermint' (_E. amygdal[)i]na_) have been found to
+measure from 480 to 500 feet in height. As timber trees the most valuable
+members of this genus are the _E. rostr[=a]ta_ (or red gum), _E.
+leucox[)y]lon_, and _E. margin[=a]ta_ (jarrah), the timber of which is
+hard, and almost indestructible. A number of the gum trees have deciduous
+bark. The wattle or acacia includes about 300 species, some of them of
+considerable economic value, yielding good timber or bark for tanning. The
+most beautiful and most useful is that known as the golden wattle (_A.
+dealb[=a]ta_) which in spring is adorned with rich masses of fragrant
+yellow blossom. Palms--of which there are twenty-four species, all except
+the coco-palm peculiar to Australia--are confined to the north and east
+coasts. In the 'scrubs' already mentioned hosts of densely-intertwisted
+bushes occupy extensive areas. The _mallee_ scrub is formed by a species of
+dwarf eucalyptus, the _mulga_ scrub by a species of thorny acacia. A plant
+which covers large areas in the arid regions is the _spinifex_ or porcupine
+grass, a hard, coarse, and excessively spiny plant, which renders
+travelling difficult, wounds the feet of horses, and is utterly uneatable
+by any animal. Other large tracts are occupied by herbs or bushes of a more
+valuable kind, from their affording fodder. Foremost among those stands the
+salt-bush (_Atriplex nummularia_, ord. Chenopodiaceæ). Beautiful flowering
+plants are numerous. Australia also possesses great numbers of turf-forming
+grasses, such as the kangaroo-grass (_Anthistiria austr[=a]lis_), which
+survives even a tolerably-protracted drought. The native fruit trees are
+few and unimportant, and the same may be said of the plants yielding roots
+used as food; but exotic fruits and vegetables may now be had in the
+different colonies in great abundance and of excellent quality. The vine,
+the olive, and mulberry thrive well, and quantities of wine are now
+produced. The cereals of Europe and maize are extensively cultivated, and
+large tracts of country, particularly in Queensland, are under the
+sugar-cane.
+
+The Australian fauna is almost unique in its character. Its great feature
+is the nearly total absence of all the forms of mammalia which abound in
+the rest of the world, their place being supplied by a great variety of
+marsupials--these animals being nowhere else found, except in the opossums
+of America. There are about 110 kinds of marsupials (of which the kangaroo,
+wombat, bandicoot, and phalangers or opossums, are the best-known
+varieties), over twenty kinds of bats, a wild dog (the dingo), and a number
+of rats and mice. Two extraordinary animals, the platypus, or water-mole of
+the colonist (Ornithorhynchus), and the porcupine ant-eater (Echidna)
+constitute the lowest order of mammals (Monotremata), and are confined to
+Australia. Their young are produced from eggs. Australia now possesses a
+large stock of the domestic animals of Britain, which thrive there
+remarkably well. The breed of horses is excellent. Horned cattle and sheep
+are largely bred, the first attaining a great size, while the sheep improve
+in fleece and their flesh in flavour. There are upwards of 650 different
+species of birds, the largest being the emu, or Australian ostrich, and a
+species of cassowary. Peculiar to the country are the black swan, the
+honey-sucker, the lyre-bird, the brush-turkey, and other mound-building
+birds, the bower-birds, &c. The parrot tribe preponderates over most other
+groups of birds in the continent. There are many reptiles, the largest
+being the alligator, found in some of the northern rivers. There are
+upwards of sixty different species of snakes, some of which are very
+venomous. Lizards, frogs, and insects are also numerous in various parts.
+The seas, rivers, and lagoons abound in fish of numerous varieties, and
+other aquatic animals, many of them peculiar. Whales and seals frequent the
+coasts. On the northern coasts are extensive fisheries of trepang, much
+visited by native traders from the Indian Archipelago. Some animals of
+European origin, such as the rabbit and the sparrow, have developed into
+real pests in several of the colonies.
+
+[Illustration: COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Surface Features]
+
+The natives belong to the Australian negro stock, and are sometimes
+considered the lowest as regards intelligence in the whole human family,
+though this is doubtful. At the census of 1891 they were believed to number
+about 60,000, exclusive of those in the unexplored parts. They are of a
+dark-brown or black colour, with jet-black curly but not woolly hair, of
+medium size, but inferior muscular development. In the settled parts of the
+continent they are inoffensive, and rapidly dying out. They have no fixed
+habitations; in the summer they live almost entirely in the open air, and
+in the more inclement weather they shelter themselves with bark erections
+of the rudest construction. They have no cultivation and no domestic
+animals. Their food consists of such animals as they can kill, and no kind
+of living creature seems to be rejected, snakes, lizards, frogs, and even
+insects being eaten, often half raw. They are ignorant of the potter's art.
+In their natural condition they wear little or no clothing. They speak a
+number of different languages or dialects. The women are regarded merely as
+slaves, and are frequently maltreated. They have no religion; they practise
+polygamy, and are said sometimes to resort to cannibalism, but only in
+exceptional circumstances. They are occasionally employed by the settlers
+in light kinds of work, and as horse-breakers; but they dislike continuous
+occupation, and soon give it up. The weapons of all the tribes are
+generally similar, consisting of spears, shields, boomerangs, wooden axes,
+clubs, and stone hatchets. Of these the boomerang is the most singular,
+being an invention confined to the Australians.
+
+The five colonies, independently of each other, having declared their
+desire for a federal union, the Commonwealth of Australia was proclaimed. A
+Convention, which sat at Adelaide in 1897-8, drafted a Constitution Bill,
+and on 9th July, 1900, the British Parliament passed the Act to constitute
+the Commonwealth. There is now a Governor-General and Central or Federal
+Parliament, consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives, while
+each State has also (as before) a Governor, an administration, and a
+Parliament of its own. Each Parliament consists of two Houses corresponding
+to the British House of Lords and House of Commons, but both Houses are
+elected by popular vote. Altogether the machinery of government very much
+resembles that of the home country. The aggregate annual revenue of the
+colonies is over £30,000,000. The public debt on 30th June, 1917, was
+£372,517,623. The former militia and volunteer units have been gradually
+merged into the new Citizen Army started by the Australian Government in
+1911. The Government also agreed in the same year to furnish an Australian
+fleet unit, upon which King George conferred the title of 'Royal Australian
+Navy'. There is no established Church in the colonies. The denomination
+which numbers most adherents is the English or Anglican Church, next to
+which come the Roman Catholics, Presbyterians, and Methodists. Education is
+well provided for, instruction in the primary schools being in some cases
+free and compulsory, and the higher education being more and more attended
+to. There are flourishing universities in Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide.
+Newspapers are exceedingly numerous, and periodicals of all kinds are
+abundant. There is as yet no native literature of any distinctive type, but
+names of Australian writers of ability both in prose and poetry are
+beginning to be known beyond their own country.
+
+Pastoral and agricultural pursuits and mining are the chief occupations of
+the people, though manufactures and handicrafts also employ large numbers.
+The total land area under cultivation was calculated at 13,298,576 acres in
+1919-20. For sheep-rearing and the growth of wool the Australian colonies
+are unrivalled, and while the production of gold has considerably
+decreased, that of wool is constantly on the increase. The great bulk of
+the wool exported goes to Britain, which receives over 300,000,000 pounds
+from the Australian colonies annually (£37,256,915 in 1919-20). The
+commerce is rapidly extending, and becoming every year more important to
+Britain, whence the colonists derive their chief supplies of manufactured
+goods in return for wool, gold, and other produce. Next to wool come gold,
+tin, copper, wheat, preserved meat, and tallow, hides and skins, cotton,
+tobacco, sugar, and wine as the most important items of export. The chief
+imports consist of textile fabrics, haberdashery, and clothing, machinery
+and metal goods. The aggregate imports in 1920 amounted to about
+£97,456,899 in value, the exports to £148,564,523. There are upwards of
+23,000 miles of railway in actual use or in course of construction, and
+about 133,000 miles of telegraph. In 1912 the building of the
+Trans-Australian railway from Port Augusta to Kalgoorlie was commenced. The
+longest telegraph line is that running northwards across the continent from
+Adelaide. The two chief routes for mails between Britain and the Australian
+colonies are by way of the Suez Canal, and by San Francisco across the
+American continent. The coinage is the same as in the mother country. Banks
+and banking offices are numerous, including post office or other savings
+banks for the reception of small sums.
+
+It is doubtful when Australia was first discovered by Europeans. Between
+1531 and 1542 the Portuguese published the existence of a land which they
+called Great Java, and which corresponded to Australia, and probably the
+first discovery of the country was made by them early in the sixteenth
+century. The first authenticated discovery is said to have been made in
+1601 by a Portuguese named Manoel Godinho de Eredia. In 1606 Torres, a
+Spaniard, passed through the strait that now bears his name, between New
+Guinea and Australia. Between this period and 1628 a large portion of the
+coastline of Australia had been surveyed by various Dutch navigators. In
+1664 the continent was named New Holland by the Dutch Government. In 1688
+Dampier coasted along part of Australia, and about 1700 explored a part of
+the W. and N.W. coasts. In 1770 Cook carefully surveyed the E. coast, named
+a number of localities, and took possession of the country for Britain. He
+was followed by Bligh in 1789, who carried on a series of observations on
+the N.E. coast, adding largely to the knowledge already obtained of this
+new world. Colonists had now arrived on the soil, and a penal settlement
+was formed (1788) at Port Jackson. In this way was laid the foundation of
+the future colony of New South Wales. The Moreton Bay district (Queensland)
+was settled in 1825; in 1835 the Port Phillip district. In 1851 the latter
+district was erected into a separate colony under the name of Victoria.
+Previous to this time the colonies both of Western Australia and of South
+Australia had been founded--the former in 1829, the latter in 1836. The
+latest of the colonies is Queensland, which dates from 1859. The discovery
+of gold in abundance took place in 1851 and caused an immense excitement
+and great influx of immigrants. The population was then only about 350,000,
+and was slowly increasing; but the discovery of the precious metal started
+the country on that career of prosperity which has since been almost
+uninterrupted. Convicts were long sent to Australia from the mother
+country, but transportation to New South Wales practically ceased in 1840,
+and the last convict vessel to W. Australia arrived in 1868. Altogether
+about 70,000 convicts were landed in Australia (besides almost as many in
+Tasmania).
+
+The record of interior exploration forms an interesting part of Australian
+history. This has been going on since early last century, and is as yet far
+from complete. There is still a large area of the continent of which little
+or nothing is known, comprising especially a vast territory belonging to
+Western Australia, and a portion of South Australia. Among the men who have
+won fame in the field of Australian exploration are Oxley (1817-23), who
+partly explored the Lachlan and Macquarie, discovered the Brisbane, &c.;
+Hume and Hovell (1824), who crossed what is now the colony of Victoria from
+north to south; Cunningham (1827), who discovered the Darling Downs; Sturt
+(1828-9), who examined the Macquarie, part of the Darling, and the
+Murrumbidgee, which he traced to the Murray, sailing down the latter to
+Lake Alexandrina; in 1844 he penetrated to near the middle of the continent
+from the south; Mitchell (1831-6) made extensive explorations in New South
+Wales and Victoria; McMillan (1839) explored and traversed Gippsland; Eyre
+(1840) travelled by the coast from Adelaide to King George's Sound;
+Leichhardt in 1844-5 travelled from Brisbane to Port Essington, discovering
+fine tracts of territory and the numerous rivers flowing into the Gulf of
+Carpentaria; in 1848 he was lost in the northern interior, in attempting to
+cross Australia from east to west, and nothing further regarding his fate
+has been discovered; Kennedy (1848) was killed in exploring Cape York
+Peninsula; A. C. Gregory (1855-6) explored part of North-Western Australia,
+and crossed from that to the Brisbane district, an important exploring
+journey; McDouall Stuart (1859-60-2) crossed the continent from south to
+north and back again nearly in the line of the present overland telegraph;
+Burke, Wills, Gray, and King (1860-1) crossed from Melbourne to the Gulf of
+Carpentaria, but Burke, Wills, and Gray perished on the return journey;
+F. T. Gregory (1861) explored the region of the Ashburton, Fortescue, and
+other rivers of North-West Australia; Warburton (1873) travelled with
+camels from the centre of the continent to the north-west coast; J. Forrest
+(1874) made an important journey in Western Australia; Giles (1874-6)
+explored Central Western Australia; Favenc (1878-9) travelled from Brisbane
+to Port Darwin; A. Forrest (1879) explored part of Northern Australia;
+Mills (1883) traversed with camels a considerable stretch of new ground in
+Western Australia; Winnicke (1883-4), also with camels, explored and mapped
+about 40,000 sq. miles of the unknown interior; Lindsay (1885-6) travelled
+north-west from Lake Eyre, and then north-east to the Gulf of Carpentaria.
+Among subsequent explorations mention may be made of Carnegie's eight
+months' journeyings in W. Australia (1896-7). (See articles on the separate
+colonies.)--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wall, _Physical Geography of Australia_; Aflalo,
+_Natural History of Australia_; T. A. Coghlan, _A Statistical Account of
+the Seven Colonies of Australasia_ (Sydney); G. W. Rusden, _History of
+Australia_.
+
+AUSTRA´LIOIDS, one of the five groups into which Professor Huxley
+classifies man, comprising the indigenous non-Aryan inhabitants of Central
+and Southern India, the ancient Egyptians and their descendants, and the
+modern Fellahs.
+
+AUSTRIA, or GERMAN AUSTRIA, a republic formed out of the fragments of the
+old Austro-Hungarian Empire. The republic was proclaimed on 12th Nov.,
+1918, and the government was taken in hand by the National Constitutional
+Assembly. The new republic, the frontiers of which were provisionally
+defined by the treaty of St. Germain (q.v.), includes Upper Austria, Lower
+Austria, Salzburg, and parts of Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol, and Vorarlberg,
+some districts having been assigned to Yugo-Slavia and Italy. German
+Austria now has an area of 30,716 sq. miles, and a pop. of 6,130,197.
+
+AUSTRIA-HUNGARY (in Ger. _Oesterreich_, that is, Eastern Empire), previous
+to the changes resulting from the European War (1914-18), a Central
+European monarchy, inhabited by several nationalities, and consisting of
+the Austrian Empire, the Hungarian monarchy, and the territory of Bosnia
+and Herzegovina annexed by Austria on 5th Oct., 1908. The States had
+together a total area of about 261,242 sq. miles, and were bounded S. by
+Turkey, the Adriatic, and Italy; W. by Switzerland, Bavaria, and Saxony; N.
+by Prussia and Russian Poland; and E. by Russia and Roumania. On 12th Nov.,
+1918, the German-Austrian Republic was proclaimed, and the government was
+taken in hand by the National Constitutional Assembly. The account given in
+the following pages applies to the countries only as they existed before
+the end of the European War.
+
+The population of Austria proper in 1913 was estimated at 29,193,293.
+
+The prevailing character of the Austrian dominions is mountainous or hilly,
+the plains not occupying more than a fifth part of the whole surface. The
+loftiest ranges belong to the Alps, and are found in Styria, Salzburg, and
+Carinthia, the highest summits being the Ortlerspitzen (12,814 feet) on the
+western boundary of Tyrol, and the Grossglockner (12,300 feet) on the
+borders of Salzburg, Tyrol, and Carinthia. Another great range is that of
+the Carpathians. The chief rivers are the Danube, with its tributaries, and
+the Dniester. The Danube is navigable for pretty large vessels; the
+tributaries also are largely navigable. The lakes are numerous and often
+picturesque, the chief being Lake Balaton or the Plattensee. The climate is
+exceedingly varied, but generally good. The principal products of the north
+are wheat, barley, oats, and rye; in the centre vines and maize are added;
+and in the south olives and various fruits. The cereals grow to perfection,
+other crops being hops, tobacco, flax, and hemp. Sheep and cattle are
+largely reared.--Wild deer, wild swine, chamois, foxes, lynxes, and a
+species of small black bear are found in many districts, the fox and lynx
+being particularly abundant.--In mineral productions Austria is very rich,
+possessing, with the exception of platinum, all the useful metals, the
+total annual value of the mineral products of Austria being estimated at
+upwards of £15,000,000, the principal being coal, salt, and iron.
+
+Before the European War, manufactures were in the most flourishing
+condition in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Lower Austria; less so in the
+eastern provinces, and insignificant in Dalmatia, Bukowina, Herzegovina,
+&c. Among the most important manufactures were those of machinery and metal
+goods, Austria holding a high place for the manufacture of musical and
+scientific instruments, gold and silver plate and jewellery; of stone and
+china-ware and of glass, which is one of the oldest and most
+highly-developed industries in Austria; of chemicals; of sugar from beet;
+of beer, spirits, &c.; and especially the manufactures of wool, cotton,
+hemp, and flax.
+
+In addition to the general import and export trade, Austria carried on a
+very considerable amount of business in the transit of goods through her
+territory. In 1914 the total value of imports into Austria-Hungary was
+£114,716,000, of exports £83,996,000; the value of imports in 1913 was
+£141,433,000, the exports £115,129,000. Among imports were cotton and other
+fibres, textile goods and yarn, metals, machinery, drugs, chemicals, oils,
+fats, hides, skins, &c. The chief exports were cereals, animals, metallic
+goods, woven fabrics, pottery and glass manufactures. Nearly two-thirds of
+the commerce are with Germany, next in importance being the trade with
+Roumania, Italy, and Russia. The exports direct to the United Kingdom in
+1913 were £7,705,949; the imports of British produce direct, £4,480,760;
+but these amounts do not include indirect exports and imports through other
+countries. The staple exports to the United Kingdom were corn and flour.
+The chief imports from it were cotton manufactures, machinery and metals,
+woollen goods, fish, &c. In 1913 the mercantile navy of Austria had a total
+burden of about 471,252 tons. The principal ports were Trieste, in Austria,
+and Fiume, in Hungary.
+
+None of the European States, except Russia, exhibited such a diversity of
+race and language as the former dual monarchy. The Slavs--who differ
+greatly, however, amongst themselves in language and civilization--amounted
+to above 20,000,000, or 46 per cent of the total population, and formed the
+great mass of the population of Bohemia, Moravia, Carniola, Galicia,
+Dalmatia, Croatia, and Slavonia, and Northern Hungary, and half the
+population of Silesia and Bukowina. The Germans, about 9,950,266, formed
+almost the sole population of the archduchy of Austria, Salzburg, the
+greatest portion of Styria and Carinthia, almost the whole of Tyrol and
+Vorarlberg, large portions of Bohemia and Moravia, the whole of West
+Silesia, &c.; and they were also numerous in Hungary and Transylvania. The
+Magyars or Hungarians (10,061,549) formed nearly half of the inhabitants of
+the former Kingdom of Hungary and the connected provinces.
+
+The State religion of the former dual monarchy was the Roman Catholic. In
+1910 there were in the Austrian portion of the monarchy 22,530,000 Roman
+Catholics, 3,417,000 Greek Catholics united to the Roman Church, 689,000
+non-united, 589,000 Protestants, and 1,314,000 Jews.
+
+The intellectual culture of the people was highest in the German provinces,
+but in some of the other provinces the percentage of uneducated was very
+high. Attendance at the elementary schools was compulsory on all children
+from their sixth to the end of their fourteenth year in most of the
+Austrian provinces; to at least the twelfth year in the whole empire. There
+were numerous gymnasia and 'real schools', the gymnasia being intended
+chiefly to prepare pupils for the universities, while in the real schools a
+more practical end was kept in view, and modern languages and physical
+science formed the groundwork of the educational course. The technical high
+schools in Austria were very important institutions, and there are many
+other special schools where the students received training in mining,
+agriculture, industries of all kinds, art, music, commerce, &c. In 1917
+there were eight universities maintained by the State, viz. in Vienna,
+Prague (2), Gratz, Cracow, Lemberg, Innsbruck, and Czernowitz. Most of
+these have four faculties--Catholic theology, law and politics, medicine,
+and philosophy.
+
+Before the revolution of 1918 the ruler of the dual monarchy had the title
+of emperor in his Austrian dominions, but he was only king of Hungary. The
+Parliament of the Austrian division of the empire was known as the
+Reichsrath, or council of the realm, consisting of an Upper House
+(Herrenhaus), composed of princes of the imperial family, nobles with the
+hereditary right to sit, archbishops, and life-members nominated by the
+Emperor; and a Lower House (Abgeordnetenhaus) of 516 deputies elected on
+the basis of universal suffrage. There were seventeen provincial Diets or
+Assemblies, each provincial division having one. In the Hungarian division
+of the Empire the legislature was a Parliament consisting of an Upper House
+or House of Magnates and of a Lower House or House of Representatives, the
+latter elected by all citizens of full age paying a small amount in taxes,
+or otherwise qualified. Its powers corresponded to those of the Austrian
+Parliament or Reichsrath. All matters affecting the joint interests of the
+two divisions of the monarchy, such as foreign affairs, war, and finance,
+were dealt with by the Parliaments of the two States. There were three
+Budgets, viz. one for common affairs, one for Austria, and one for Hungary.
+The Budget estimates for the former Austrian kingdom in 1913 were
+£130,716,773 (the revenue balancing the expenditure). In 1918 the estimates
+were: expenditure 24,321,140,000 crowns, revenue 4,854,789 crowns.
+Austria's special debt in Feb., 1918, was placed at 54,081,765,681 crowns,
+of which 29,274,603,300 crowns were war debt. On 20th Nov., 1918, the
+Provisional Government of the Austrian Republic passed a law adopting the
+Budget of 1918-9, and empowering the Minister of Finance to make good the
+difference between revenue and expenditure.
+
+Military service was compulsory and universal throughout the dual monarchy.
+The old Austro-Hungarian army numbered about 820,000 men on a peace
+footing.
+
+_History._--In 791 Charlemagne drove the Avars from the territory between
+the Ens and the Raab, and united it to his empire under the name of _the
+Eastern Mark_ (that is, March or boundary land); and from the establishment
+by him of a margraviate in this new province the former Austrian Empire
+took its rise. On the invasion of Germany by the Hungarians it became
+subject to them from 900 till 955, when Otho I, by the victory of Augsburg,
+reunited a great part of this province to the German Empire, which by 1043
+had extended its limits to the Leitha. The margraviate of Austria was
+hereditary in the family of the Counts of Babenberg (Bamberg) from 982 till
+1156, in which year the boundaries of Austria were extended so as to
+include the territory above the Ens, and the whole was created a duchy. The
+territory was still further increased in 1192 by the gift of the duchy of
+Styria as a fief from the Emperor Henry VI, Vienna being by this time the
+capital. The male line of the House of Bamberg became extinct in 1246, and
+the Emperor Frederick II declared Austria and Styria a vacant fief, the
+hereditary property of the German emperors. In 1282 the Emperor Rudolph
+granted Austria, Styria, and Carinthia to his two sons, Albert and Rudolph.
+The former became sole ruler (duke), and since then, until 12th Nov., 1918,
+Austria remained under the House of Habsburg. Albert, who was an energetic
+ruler, was elected emperor in 1298, but was assassinated in 1308. The first
+of his successors whom we need specially mention was Albert V, son-in-law
+of the Emperor Sigismund. He assisted Sigismund in the Hussite wars, and
+was elected, after his death, King of Hungary and of Bohemia, and German
+emperor (1438). Ladislaus, his posthumous son, was the last of the Austrian
+line proper, and its possessions devolved upon the collateral Styrian line
+in 1457; since which time the House of Austria furnished an unbroken
+succession of German emperors.
+
+In 1453 the Emperor Frederick III, a member of this House, had conferred
+upon the country the rank of an archduchy before he himself became ruler of
+all Austria. His son Maximilian I, by his marriage with Mary, the surviving
+daughter of Charles the Bold, united the Netherlands to the Austrian
+dominions. After the death of his father, in 1493, Maximilian was made
+Emperor of Germany, and transferred to his son Philip the government of the
+Netherlands. He also added to his paternal inheritance Tyrol, with several
+other territories, particularly some belonging to Bavaria, and acquired for
+his family new claims to Hungary and Bohemia. The marriage of his son
+Philip to Joanna of Spain raised the House of Habsburg to the throne of
+Spain. Philip, however, died in 1506, and the death of Maximilian, in 1519,
+was followed by the union of Spain and Austria, his grandson (the eldest
+son of Philip), Charles I, King of Spain, being elected Emperor of Germany
+as Charles V. Charles thus became the greatest monarch in Europe, but in
+1521 he ceded to his brother Ferdinand all his dominions in Germany.
+Ferdinand I, by his marriage with Anna, the sister of Louis II, King of
+Hungary, acquired the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, with Moravia,
+Silesia, and Lusatia, the appendages of Bohemia. To oppose him the woywode
+of Transylvania, John Zapolya, sought the help of the Sultan, Soliman II,
+who appeared in 1529 at the gates of Vienna, but was compelled to retreat.
+In 1535 a treaty was made by which John Zapolya was allowed to retain the
+royal title and half of Hungary, but after his death new disputes arose,
+and Ferdinand maintained the possession of Lower Hungary only by paying
+Soliman the sum of 30,000 ducats annually (1562). In 1556 Ferdinand
+obtained the imperial crown, when his brother Charles laid by the sceptre
+for a cowl. He died in 1564, leaving his territories to be divided amongst
+his three sons.
+
+Maximilian II, the eldest, succeeded his father as emperor, obtaining
+Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia; Ferdinand, the second son, received Tyrol
+and Lower Austria; and Charles, the youngest, obtained Styria, Carinthia,
+Carniola, and Görz. Maximilian died in 1576, and was succeeded on the
+imperial throne by his eldest son Rudolph II, who had already been crowned
+King of Hungary in 1572, and King of Bohemia in 1575. Rudolph's reign was
+distinguished by the war against Turkey and Transylvania; the persecutions
+of the Protestants, who were driven from his dominions; the cession of
+Hungary in 1608; and in 1611 of Bohemia and his hereditary estates in
+Austria to his brother Matthias. Matthias, who succeeded Maximilian on the
+imperial throne, concluded a peace with the Turks, but was disturbed by the
+Protestant Bohemians, who took up arms in defence of their religious
+rights, thus commencing the Thirty Years' War. After his death in 1619 the
+Bohemians refused to acknowledge his successor, Ferdinand II, until after
+the battle of Prague in 1620, when Bohemia had to submit, and was deprived
+of the right of choosing her king. Lutheranism was strictly forbidden in
+all the Austrian dominions. Hungary, which revolted under Bethlem Gabor,
+Prince of Transylvania, was, after a long struggle, subdued. During the
+reign of Ferdinand III (1637-57), successor of Ferdinand II, Austria was
+continually the theatre of war; Lusatia was ceded to Saxony in 1635; and
+Alsace to France in 1648, when peace was restored in Germany by the Treaty
+of Westphalia.
+
+The Emperor Leopold I, son and successor of Ferdinand III, was victorious
+through the talents of Prince Eugene in two wars with Turkey; and Vienna
+was delivered by Sobieski and the Germans from the attacks of Kara Mustapha
+in 1683. In 1687 he united Hungary to Transylvania, and in 1699 restored to
+Hungary the country lying between the Danube and the Theiss. It was the
+chief aim of Leopold to secure to Charles, his second son, the inheritance
+of the Spanish monarchy, and in 1701, upon the victory of French diplomacy
+in the appointment of the grandson of Louis XIV, the War of the Spanish
+Succession commenced. Leopold died in 1705, but Joseph I, his eldest son,
+continued the war. As he died without children in 1711, his brother Charles
+was elected emperor, but was obliged to accede in 1714 to the Peace of
+Utrecht, by which Austria received the Netherlands, Milan, Mantua, Naples,
+and Sardinia. In 1720 Sicily was given to Austria in exchange for Sardinia.
+This monarchy now embraced over 190,000 sq. miles; but its power was
+weakened by new wars with Spain and France. In the peace concluded at
+Vienna (1735 and 1738) Charles VI was forced to cede Naples and Sicily to
+Spain and part of Milan to the King of Sardinia; and in 1739, by the Peace
+of Belgrade, he was obliged to transfer to the Porte Belgrade, Serbia, &c.,
+partly in order to secure the succession to his daughter, Maria Theresa, by
+the Pragmatic Sanction. He died in 1740.
+
+On Maria Theresa's marriage to Francis Stephen, Duke of Lorraine (the
+dynasty henceforth being that of Habsburg-Lorraine), and her accession to
+the Austrian throne, the Empire was threatened with dismemberment.
+Frederick II of Prussia subdued Silesia; the Elector of Bavaria was crowned
+in Lintz and Prague, and in 1742 chosen emperor under the name of Charles
+VII; Hungary alone supported the heroic and beautiful queen. Charles,
+however, died in 1745, and the husband of Theresa was crowned Emperor of
+Germany as Francis I; but a treaty concluded in 1745 confirmed to Frederick
+the possession of Silesia, and by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748,
+Austria was obliged to cede the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla
+to Philip, Infant of Spain, and several districts of Milan and Sardinia. To
+recover Silesia, Maria Theresa formed an alliance with France, Russia,
+Saxony, and Sweden, and entered upon the Seven Years' War; but by the Peace
+of Hubertsberg, 1763, Silesia was recognized as Prussian territory. On the
+death of Francis I, in 1765, Joseph II, his eldest son, was appointed to
+assist his mother in the government and elected Emperor of Germany. The
+partition of Poland (1772) gave Galicia and Lodomeria to Austria, which
+also obtained Bukowina from the Porte in 1777. At the death of the Empress
+in 1780 Austria contained 235,000 sq. miles, with a pop. estimated at
+24,000,000.
+
+The liberal home administration of the Empress was continued and extended
+by her successor, Joseph II, who did much to further the spread of
+religious tolerance, education, and the industrial arts. The Low Countries,
+however, revolted, and he was unsuccessful in the war of 1788 against the
+Porte. His death took place in 1790. He was succeeded by his eldest
+brother, Leopold II, under whom peace was restored in the Netherlands, and
+in Hungary, and also with the Porte. On the death of his sister and her
+husband Louis XVI of France he formed an alliance with Prussia, but died in
+1792, before the French revolutionary war broke out.
+
+His son, Francis II, succeeded, and was elected German Emperor, by which
+time France had declared war against him as King of Hungary and Bohemia. In
+1795, in the third partition of Poland, West Galicia fell to Austria, and
+by the Peace of Campo-Formio (1797) she received the largest part of the
+Venetian territory as compensation for her loss of Lombardy and the
+Netherlands. In 1799 Francis, in alliance with Russia, renewed the war with
+France until 1801, when the Peace of Lunéville was concluded. In 1804
+Francis declared himself hereditary Emperor of Austria as Francis I, and
+united all his States under the name of the Empire of Austria, immediately
+taking up arms once more with his allies Russia and Great Britain against
+France. The war of 1805 was terminated by the Peace of Pressburg (26th
+Dec.), by which Francis had to cede to France the remaining provinces of
+Italy, as well as to give up portions of territory to Bavaria, Würtemberg,
+and Baden, receiving in return Salzburg and Berchtesgaden. After the
+formation of the Confederation of the Rhine (12th July, 1806) Francis was
+forced to resign his dignity as Emperor of Germany, which had been in his
+family more than 500 years. A new war with France in 1809 cost the monarchy
+42,380 sq. miles of territory and 3,500,000 subjects. Napoleon married
+Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor, and in 1812 concluded an alliance
+with him against Russia. But in 1813 Francis again declared war against
+France, and formed an alliance with Britain, Prussia, and Sweden against
+his son-in-law. By the Congress of Vienna (1815) Austria gained Lombardy
+and Venetia, and recovered, together with Dalmatia, the hereditary
+territories which it had been obliged to cede.
+
+In the troubled period following the French revolution of 1830
+insurrections took place in Modena, Parma, and the Papal States (1831-2),
+but were suppressed without much difficulty; and though professedly neutral
+during the Polish insurrections Austria clearly showed herself on the side
+of Russia, with whom her relations became more intimate as those between
+Great Britain and France grew more cordial. The death of Francis I (1835)
+and accession of his son, Ferdinand I, made little change in the Austrian
+system of government, and much discontent was the consequence. In 1846 the
+failure of the Polish insurrection led to the incorporation of Cracow with
+Austria. In Italy the declarations of Pio Nono in favour of reform
+increased the difficulties of Austria, and in Hungary the opposition under
+Kossuth and others assumed the form of a great constitutional movement. In
+1848, when the expulsion of Louis Philippe shook all Europe, Metternich
+found it impossible any longer to guide the helm of the State, and the
+Government was compelled to admit a free press and the right of citizens to
+arms. Apart from the popular attitude in Italy and in Hungary, where the
+Diet declared itself permanent under the presidency of Kossuth, the
+insurrection made equal progress in Vienna itself, and the royal family, no
+longer in safety, removed to Innsbruck. After various ministerial changes
+the Emperor abdicated in favour of his nephew, Francis Joseph; more
+vigorous measures were adopted; and Austria, aided by Russia, reduced
+Hungary to submission.
+
+The year 1855 is memorable for the Concordat with the Pope, which put the
+educational and ecclesiastical affairs of the Empire entirely into the
+hands of the Papal see. In 1859 the hostile intentions of France and
+Sardinia against the possessions of Austria in Italy became so evident that
+she declared war by sending an army across the Ticino; but after disastrous
+defeats at Magenta and Solferino she was compelled to cede Milan and the
+north-west portion of Lombardy to Sardinia. In 1864 she joined with the
+German States in the war against Denmark, but a dispute about
+Schleswig-Holstein involved her in a war with her allies (1866), while at
+the same time Italy renewed her attempts for the recovery of Venice. The
+Italians were defeated at Custozza and driven back across the Mincio; but
+the Prussians, victorious at Königgrätz (or Sadowa), threatened Vienna.
+Peace was concluded with Prussia on 23rd Aug. and with Italy on 3rd Oct.,
+the result of the war being the cession of Venetia through France to Italy
+and the withdrawal of Austria from all interference in the affairs of
+Germany.
+
+For nearly half a century (from 1866 to 1914) the internal affairs of
+Austria-Hungary gave much occupation to statesmen of the dual monarchy.
+Hungarian demands for self-government were finally agreed to, and the
+Empire was divided into the two parts already mentioned--Austria and
+Hungary. This settlement was consummated by the coronation of the Emperor
+Francis Joseph I, at Budapest, as King of Hungary, on 8th June, 1867. In
+the same year the Concordat of 1855 came up for discussion, and measures
+were passed for the re-establishment of civil marriage, the emancipation of
+schools from the domination of the Church, and the placing of different
+creeds on a footing of equality. The fact of the Austro-Hungarian dominions
+comprising so many different nationalities gave the central Government much
+trouble, both in regard to internal and to external affairs. In regard to
+the 'Eastern Question', for instance, the action of Austria was hampered by
+the sympathies shown by the Magyars for their blood relations, the Turks,
+while the Slavs were naturally more favourable to Russia. During the war
+between Russia and Turkey in 1877-8 Austria remained neutral; but at its
+close it was decided at the Congress of Berlin that Bosnia and Herzegovina
+should in future be administered by Austria instead of Turkey. In 1908,
+taking advantage of the condition of Turkey, Austria formally annexed these
+provinces. By the middle of Oct., 1918, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy began
+to break up into independent national States. Four States of some size laid
+claim to independence, viz. German-Austria, Czecho-Slovakia (recognized by
+the Allies), Hungary, and Yugo-Slavia. On 13th Oct., 1921, German Austria
+signed with Hungary the Burgenland pact, agreeing to a plebiscite in
+several districts. For recent history of Austria, see _Francis Joseph;
+European War._--Cf. S. Whitman, _Austria_ (in Story of the Nations Series);
+H. W. Steed, _The Hapsburg Monarchy._
+
+AUTEUIL ([=o]-t[.e]-y[.e]), formerly a suburban village of Paris, but now
+enclosed within the fortifications.
+
+AUTOBIOG´RAPHY, a department of literature of which, as a definite branch
+or form at least, we have no very ancient examples, though many
+autobiographical details are contained, for instance, in Cicero's and
+Pliny's letters, while St. Augustine has left a fragmentary autobiography
+in his _Confessions_. Various writers of note, without claiming or perhaps
+intending to write a formal autobiography, have left similar materials in
+the form of their own memoirs or reminiscences, or, for a portion of their
+lives, in diaries. The chief English diarists are Pepys and Evelyn, while
+Crabb Robinson is an admirable modern example. Brief autobiographies were
+written by Gibbon, Hume, and Sir Walter Scott (of his early life only), and
+among other writers who have given us autobiographies or kindred works are
+Fanny Burney, Cobbett, Haydon, Miss Mitford, Harriet Martineau, Leigh Hunt,
+Hugh Miller (in _My Schools and Schoolmasters_), John Stuart Mill, Anthony
+Trollope, Sir Henry Taylor, Miss F. P. Cobbe, Carlyle, Ruskin, Herbert
+Spencer, Alexander Bain, and Alfred Russel Wallace. Lord Roberts's
+_Forty-one Years in India_ and General Grant's _Personal Memoirs_ are most
+interesting autobiographical works by men of action. One of the most famous
+of autobiographies is that of the Italian Benvenuto Cellini. See
+_Biography_.
+
+AUTOCHROME. See _Photography_.
+
+AUTOCHTHONES ([a:]-tok'tho-n[=e]z), the Greek name for the aboriginal
+inhabitants of a country. See _Aborigines_.
+
+AU´TOCLAVE (derived from the Gr. _autos_, self, and Lat. _clavis_, key) is
+a strong steam-tight vessel in which hydrolysis of liquids can be carried
+out, under pressure, at temperatures considerably higher than their normal
+boiling-points. The vessels may be of copper, iron, or other suitable
+material, are sometimes enamelled within, or may have renewable refractory
+linings when used for corrosive liquids. Some types have mechanical
+agitators. Used in the manufacture of candles, coal-tar colours, &c. May be
+heated by high-pressure steam or in baths of oil or molten lead. See
+_Papin_.
+
+AU´TOCRAT (Gr. _autos_, self, _kratos_, rule), an absolute or uncontrolled
+ruler; the head of a State who is not controlled by any constitutional
+limitations, such as the Tsars of Russia till 1917.
+
+AUTO-DE-FE (Sp.); AUTO-DA-FE (Pg.), literally, 'act of faith'. See
+_Inquisition_.
+
+AU´TOGRAPH, a person's own handwriting; an original manuscript or
+signature, as opposed to a copy. The practice of collecting autographs or
+signatures originated in Germany and the Low Countries, chiefly among
+members of the universities, and dates at least from the sixteenth century.
+Among the earliest collections known are those of John Cotton and Hans
+Sloane in the British Museum, and of Philippe de Bethune, brother of Sully,
+and Loménie de Brienne at the Bibliothèque Nationale. The most celebrated
+collection formed in England in recent years is that of Alfred Morrison.
+
+AUTOMATIC WRITING. See _Psychical Research_; _Spiritualism_.
+
+AUTOM´ATISM, the confinement of activity in men or animals within a purely
+mechanical limit, resulting from injury to or partial removal of the brain.
+
+AUTOM´ATON (Gr. _automatos_, spontaneous), a self-moving machine performing
+actions like those of a living being, and often shaped like one. The
+walking statues of Dædalus, the flying dove of Archytas, the brazen head of
+Friar Bacon, the iron fly of Regiomontanus, the door-opening figure of
+Albertus Magnus, the parading knights of the clock presented to Charlemagne
+by Harun al Rashid, the toy carriage and attendants constructed by Camus
+for Louis XIV, the flute-player, tambour-player, and duck of Vaucanson, and
+the writing child of the brothers Droz are among the more noteworthy of
+traditional automata. See _Conjuring_.
+
+AUTOMOBILE. See _Motor Vehicles_.
+
+AUTON´OMY, the power of a State, institution, &c., to legislate for itself.
+
+AUTOPH´AGI (-j[=i]), birds which feed themselves as soon as hatched.
+
+AU´TOPLASTY, the operation by which wounds and diseased parts are repaired
+with healthy tissues taken from other parts of the same person's body.
+
+AUTOPLATE. See _Printing_.
+
+AUTOP´SY, literally, personal observation or inspection, commonly
+restricted to post-mortem examination. See _Coroner_.
+
+AU´TOTYPE, a species of photographic print. A thin sheet of gelatine on
+paper is rendered sensitive to light by treatment with bichromate of
+potash, and then exposed under an ordinary photographic negative. The
+portions of gelatine affected by the light become insoluble, the remainder
+of the gelatine is then washed away, and the picture remains reproduced in
+the gelatine, there being slight elevations and depressions corresponding
+with the distribution of light and shade. This may be printed from, but it
+is more often made use of to obtain electrotypes or other reverses, from
+which impressions can more easily be taken.
+
+AUTUMN, the season between summer and winter, in the northern hemisphere
+often regarded as embracing August, September, and October, or three months
+about that time. The beginning of the astronomical autumn is 22nd Sept.,
+the autumnal equinox; and the end is 21st Dec., the shortest day. The
+autumn of the southern hemisphere takes place at the time of the northern
+spring.
+
+AUTUN ([=o]-t[.u]n; ancient, BIBRACTE, later, AUGUSTODUNUM), a town,
+South-Eastern France, department of Saône-et-Loire. It has two Roman gates
+of exquisite workmanship, the ruins of an amphitheatre and of several
+temples, the cathedral of St. Lazare, a fine Gothic structure of the
+twelfth century with chapels added in the fifteenth; manufactures of
+carpets, woollens, cotton, velvet, hosiery, &c. Pop. 15,498.
+
+AUTUNITE, a hydrous phosphate of uranium and calcium, crystallizing in the
+rhombic system in yellow plates. Like other minerals of the uranium series
+it shows radio-activity.
+
+AUVERGNE ([=o]-v[=a]r-ny[.e]), a province, Central France, now merged into
+departments Cantal and Puy-de-Dôme, and an arrondissement of Haute-Loire.
+The Auvergne Mountains, separating the basins of the Allier, Cher, and
+Creuse from those of the Lot and Dordogne, contain the highest points of
+Central France: Mount Dor, 6188 feet; Cantal, 6093 feet, and Puy-de-Dôme,
+4806 feet. The number of extinct volcanoes and general geologic formation
+make the district one of great scientific interest. The minerals include
+iron, copper, and lead, and there are warm and cold mineral springs.
+Auvergne contributes a large supply to the labour markets of Paris and
+Belgium, there being in Paris alone some 50,000 Auvergnats.
+
+AUXERRE ([=o]-s[=a]r), a town, France, department of Yonne, 110 miles S.E.
+of Paris. Principal edifices: a fine Gothic cathedral, unfinished; the
+abbey of St. Germain, with curious crypts; and an old episcopal palace, now
+the Hôtel de Prefecture; it manufactures woollens, hats, casks, leather,
+earthenware, violin strings, &c.; trade, chiefly in wood and wines, of
+which the best known is white Chablis. Pop. 21,930.
+
+AUXOM´ETER, an instrument to measure the magnifying powers of an optical
+apparatus.
+
+AUXONNE ([=o]-son; ancient, AUSSONA), a town, France, department of
+Côte-d'Or (Burgundy), on the Saône; a fortified place, with some
+manufactures. Pop. 6300.
+
+A´VA, a town in Asia, formerly the capital of Burma, on the Irawadi, now
+almost wholly in ruins.
+
+AVA-AVA, ARVA, KAVA, or YAVA (_Macropiper methysticum_), a plant of the
+nat. ord. Piperaceæ (pepper family), so called by the inhabitants of
+Polynesia, who make an intoxicating drink out of it. Its leaves are chewed
+with betel, in South-Eastern Asia.
+
+AVAD´AVAT. See _Amadavat_.
+
+AV´ALANCHES, large masses of snow or ice precipitated from the mountains,
+and distinguished as _wind_ or _dust avalanches_ when they consist of
+fresh-fallen snow whirled like a dust-storm into the valleys; as _sliding
+avalanches_ when they consist of great masses of snow sliding down a slope
+by their own weight; and as _glacier_ or _summer avalanches_ when
+ice-masses are detached by heat from the high glaciers.
+
+AVÂL ISLANDS. Same as _Bahrein Islands_.
+
+AVALLON ([.a]-v[.a]-l[=o]n), a town of Central France, department Yonne.
+Pop. 5900.
+
+AV´ALON, a sort of fairyland or elysium mentioned in connection with the
+legends of King Arthur, being his abode after disappearing from the haunts
+of men: called also _Avilion_. The name is also identified with
+Glastonbury; and has been given to a peninsula of Newfoundland.
+
+AVAN´TURINE, or AVEN´TURINE, a variety of quartz containing glittering
+spangles of mica through it; also a sort of artificial gem of similar
+appearance.
+
+AV´ARS, a nation, probably of Turanian origin, who at an early period may
+have migrated from the region east of the Tobol in Siberia to that about
+the Don, the Caspian Sea, and the Volga. A part advanced to the Danube in
+A.D. 555, and settled in Dacia. They served in Justinian's army, aided the
+Lombards in destroying the kingdom of the Gepidæ, and in the sixth century
+conquered under their Khan Bajan the region of Pannonia. They then won
+Dalmatia, pressed into Thuringia and Italy against the Franks and Lombards,
+and subdued the Slavs dwelling on the Danube, as well as the Bulgarians on
+the Black Sea. But they were ultimately limited to Pannonia, where they
+were overcome by Charlemagne, and nearly extirpated by the Slavs of
+Moravia. After 827 they disappear from history. Traces of their fortified
+settlements are found, and known as Avarian rings. See _Lesghians_.
+
+AVATAR´, more properly AVATARA, in Hindu mythology, an incarnation of the
+Deity. Of the innumerable avatars the chief are the ten incarnations of
+Vishnu, who appeared successively as a fish, a tortoise, a boar, a
+man-lion, a dwarf, &c.
+
+AVATCH´A, a volcano and bay in Kamchatka. The volcano, which is 9000 feet
+high, was last active in 1855. The town of Petropavlovsk lies in the bay.
+
+AVEBURY ([=a]v´be-ri), a village of England, in Wiltshire, occupying the
+site of a so-called Druidical temple, which originally consisted of a large
+outer circle of 100 stones, from 15 to 17 feet in height, and about 40 feet
+in circumference, surrounded by a broad ditch and lofty rampart, and
+enclosing two smaller circles. Few traces now remain of the structure. On
+the neighbouring downs are numerous barrows or tumuli, one of which, called
+Silbury Hill, rises to the height of 130 feet, with a circumference of 2027
+feet at the base, covering fully 5 acres.
+
+AVEBURY, John Lubbock, first Baron. See _Lubbock_.
+
+AVEIRO ([.a]-v[=a]´i-r[u:]), a coast town in Portugal, province of Douro,
+with a cathedral, an active fishery, and a thriving trade. Pop. 11,523.
+
+AVELLINO ([.a]-vel-l[=e]´n[=o]), a town in Southern Italy, capital of the
+province of Avellino, 29 miles east of Naples, the seat of a bishop.
+Avellino nuts were celebrated under the Romans. Pop. 24,620. Area of the
+province, 1165 sq. miles; pop. 411,813.
+
+A´VE MARI´A ('Hail, Mary'), the first two words of the angel Gabriel's
+salutation (_Luke_, i, 28), and the beginning of the very common Latin
+prayer to the Virgin in the Roman Catholic Church. Its lay use was
+sanctioned at the end of the twelfth century, and a papal edict of 1326
+ordains the repetition of the prayer thrice each morning, noon, and
+evening, the hour being indicated by sound of bells called the Ave Maria or
+Angelus Domini. The prayers are counted upon the small beads of the rosary,
+as the pater-nosters are upon the large ones.
+
+AVE´NA. See _Oat_.
+
+AV´ENS, the English name of two rosaceous plants of the genus Geum. Common
+avens, or herb-bennet, _G. urb[=a]num_, possesses astringent properties,
+and was formerly used in medicine. The mountain avens, _Dryas octopetala_,
+belongs to the same nat. ord.
+
+AV´ENTAILE, the movable face-guard of the helmet, through which the wearer
+breathed.
+
+AV´ENTINE, one of the seven hills of Rome, east of the Tiber. It was
+included in the city by Servius Tullius.
+
+AVEN´TURINE. See _Avanturine_.
+
+AV´ERAGE, in maritime law, any charge or expense over and above the freight
+of goods, and payable by their owner.--_General average_ is the sum falling
+to be paid by the owners of ship, cargo, and freight, in proportion to
+their several interests, to make good any loss or expense intentionally
+incurred for the general safety of ship and cargo, e.g. throwing goods
+overboard, cutting away masts, port dues in cases of distress,
+&c.--_Particular average_ is the sum falling to be paid for unavoidable
+loss when the general safety is not in question, and therefore chargeable
+on the individual owner of the property lost. A policy of insurance
+generally covers both general and particular average, unless specially
+excepted.--_Averaging_, in Stock Exchange language, denotes the operation
+of a speculator in increasing transactions at a higher or lower price when
+the price is moving against him, so that the average price of the whole
+will be higher or lower than his original purchase or sale.
+
+AVER´NUS, a lake, now called LAGO D'AVERNO, in Campania, Italy, between the
+ancient Cumæ and Puteoli, about 8 miles from Naples. It is the crater of an
+old volcano, and is in some places 180 feet deep. Formerly the gloom of its
+forest surroundings and its mephitic exhalations caused it to be regarded
+as the entrance to the infernal regions. It was the fabled abode of the
+Cimmerians, and especially dedicated to Proserpine.
+
+AVERROES (a-ver´o-es; corrupted from IBN ROSHD), the most renowned Arabian
+philosopher, born at Cordova, in Spain, 1126, died at Morocco 1198. His
+ability procured him the succession to his father's office of chief
+magistrate, and the King of Morocco appointed him at the same time cadi in
+the province of Mauretania. Accused of being an infidel, he was, however,
+deprived of his offices, and banished to Spain; but, being persecuted there
+also, he fled to Fez, where he was condemned to recant and undergo public
+penance. Upon this he went back to his own country, where the Caliph
+Almansur finally restored him to his dignities. Averroes regarded Aristotle
+as the greatest of all philosophers, and devoted himself so largely to the
+exposition of his works as to be called among the Arabians _The
+Interpreter_. He wrote a compendium of medicine, and treatises on theology,
+philosophy, jurisprudence, &c. His commentaries upon Aristotle appeared
+before 1250 in a Latin translation attributed to Michael Scott, the reputed
+wizard (1194-1250), and others. Averroes was at once a philosopher, a
+theologian, and a theosophist.
+
+AVERRUNCA´TOR, a garden implement for pruning trees without a ladder,
+consisting of two blades similar to stout shears, one fixed rigidly to a
+long handle, and the other moved by a lever to which a cord passing over a
+pulley is attached.
+
+AVER´SA, a well-built town of Southern Italy, 7 miles N. of Naples, in a
+beautiful vine and orange district, the seat of a bishop, with a cathedral
+and various religious institutions, and a large lunatic asylum. Andreas of
+Hungary, husband of Queen Joanna I, was strangled in a convent here, 18th
+Sept., 1345. Pop. 23,203.
+
+AVESNES ([.a]-v[=a]n), a town of France, department Nord. Pop. 5829.
+
+AVESTA. See _Zendavesta_.
+
+AVEYRON ([.a]-v[=a]-r[=o][n.]), a department occupying the southern
+extremity of the central plateau of France, traversed by mountains
+belonging to the Cevennes and the Cantal ranges; principal rivers: Aveyron,
+Lot, and Tarn, the Lot alone being navigable. The climate is cold, and
+agriculture is in a backward state, but considerable attention is paid to
+sheep-breeding. It is noted for its 'Roquefort cheese'. It has coal, iron,
+and copper mines, besides other minerals. Area, 3385 sq. miles; capital,
+Rhodez. Pop. (1921), 332,940.
+
+AVEZZANO ([.a]-vet-zä'n[=o]), a town of S. Italy, province Aquila. Pop.
+11,279.
+
+AV´IARY, a building or enclosure for keeping, breeding, and rearing birds.
+Aviaries appear to have been used by the Persians, Greeks, and Romans, and
+are highly prized in China. In England they were in use at least as early
+as 1577, when William Harrison refers to "our costlie and curious
+aviaries". An aviary may be simply a kind of very large cage, or a series
+of enclosures.
+
+AVIATIK, a German type of biplane. It was originally built at Mulhausen in
+Alsace.
+
+AVIATION. See _Aeronautics_.
+
+AVICEN´NA, or EBN-SINA, an Arabian philosopher and physician, born at
+Kharmaithen, in the province of Bokhara, A.D. 980. After practising as a
+physician he quitted Bokhara at the age of twenty-two, and for a number of
+years led a wandering life, settling at last at Hamadan, subsequently as
+vizier of the Emir. On the death of his patron he lived in retirement at
+Hamadan, but having secretly offered his services to the Sultan of Ispahan
+he was imprisoned by the new Emir. Escaping, he fled to Ispahan, was
+received with great honour by the Sultan, and passed there in quietness the
+last fourteen years of his life, writing upon medicine, logic, metaphysics,
+astronomy, and geometry. His philosophy was Aristotelianism mingled with
+neo-Platonism, and his influence is most marked in Dante and the Mystics.
+He died at Hamadan, in Northern Persia, 1037, leaving many writings, mostly
+commentaries on Aristotle. Of his 100 treatises the best known is the
+_Canon Medicinæ_, which was still in use as a textbook at Louvain and
+Montpellier in the middle of the seventeenth century. His _Philosophia
+Orientalis_, mentioned by Roger Bacon, is lost.
+
+AVIE´NUS, Rufus Festus, a Latin descriptive poet, who flourished about the
+end of the fourth century A.D., and wrote _Descriptio Orbis Terræ_, a
+general description of the earth; _Ora Maritima_, an account of the
+Mediterranean coasts, &c.
+
+AVIFAU´NA, a collective term for the birds of any region.
+
+AVIGLIANO ([.a]-v[=e]l-yä´n[=o]), a town of S. Italy, province Potenza.
+Pop. 17,413.
+
+AVIGNON ([.a]-v[=e]-ny[=o]n; ancient, AVENIO), an old town of S.E. France,
+capital of department Vaucluse, on the left bank of the Rhone; enclosed by
+lofty battlemented and turreted walls, well built, but with rather narrow
+streets. It is an archbishop's see since 1475, and has a large and ancient
+cathedral on a rock overlooking the town, the immense palace in which the
+Popes resided (used as a barracks and prison for a long time), and other
+old buildings. The industries of the city are numerous and varied, the
+principal being connected with silk. The silk manufacture and the breeding
+of silk-worms are the principal employments in the district. Here Petrarch
+lived several years, and made the acquaintance of Laura, whose tomb is in
+the Franciscan church. From 1309 to 1377 seven Popes in succession, from
+Clement V to Gregory XI, resided in this city. After its purchase by Pope
+Clement VI, in 1348, Avignon and its district continued, with a few
+interruptions, under the rule of a vice-legate of the Pope's till 1791,
+when it was formally united to the French Republic. Pop. 49,304.
+
+AVIGNON BERRIES. See _French Berries_.
+
+AVILA (ä'v[=e]-l[.a]), a town of Spain, capital of province of Avila, a
+modern division of Old Castile. It is the see of the Bishop suffragan of
+Santiago, with fine cathedral. Once one of the richest towns of Spain.
+Principal employment in the town, spinning; in the province, breeding sheep
+and cattle. Pop., town, 12,060; province, 214,008.
+
+AVILA, Gil Gonzalez d', a Spanish antiquary and biographer, 1577-1658; made
+historiographer of Castile in 1612, and of the Indies in 1641. Most
+valuable works: _Teatro de las Grandezas de Madrid_, 1623, and _Teatro
+Ecclesiastico_, 1645-53.
+
+AVILA Y ZUÑIGA (ä´v[=e]-l[.a] [=e] thö-ny[=e]´g[.a]), Don Luis d', Spanish
+general, diplomatist, and historian; a favourite of Charles V; born about
+1490, died about 1560. His chief work, printed in 1548 and translated into
+five languages, was on the war of Charles V in Germany.
+
+AVILES ([.a]-v[=e]'les), a town of Northern Spain, province Oviedo, with a
+good harbour. Pop. 13,660.
+
+AVIZ, an order of knighthood in Portugal, instituted by Sancho, its first
+king, and having as its original object the subjection of the Moors.
+
+AVIZAN´DUM, in Scots law, private consideration. To make _avizandum_ is to
+remove a cause from the public court to the private consideration of the
+judge.
+
+AVLO´NA (Ital. _Valona_), a seaport of Albania on the Adriatic, with a
+considerable trade. It was occupied and made a naval and military base by
+the Italians during the European War. Pop. 6500.
+
+AVO´CA, or OVOCA, a river and valley in Ireland, County Wicklow, celebrated
+as the scene and subject of one of Moore's _Irish Melodies_. The river is
+formed by the union of the Avonbeg and Avonmore, and below the junction
+receives the Aughrim, the name in Celtic signifying 'the meeting of the
+waters'. After a course of about 9 miles it falls into the sea about a mile
+below Arklow. The scenery here is singularly beautiful, and attracts many
+visitors.
+
+AVOCA´DO-PEAR. See _Alligator-pear_.
+
+AVOGAD´RO'S LAW, in physics, asserts that equal volumes of different gases
+at the same pressure and temperature contain an equal number of molecules.
+
+AVOIRDUPOIS (a-v[.e]r'd[u:]-pois; from old French, literally, 'goods of
+weight'), a system of weights used for all goods except precious metals,
+gems, and medicines, and in which a pound contains 16 ounces, or 7000
+grains, while a pound troy contains 12 ounces, or 5760 grains. A
+hundredweight contains 112 pounds avoirdupois; a _cental_ of 100 pounds is
+common in America, and is a legal British weight. See _Weights and
+Measures_.
+
+AV´OLA, a seaport on the east of Sicily, with a trade in almonds, sugar,
+&c. Pop. 17,711.
+
+A´VON, the name of several rivers in England, of which the principal are:
+1. The Upper Avon, rising in Leicestershire, and flowing S.W. into the
+Severn at Tewkesbury. Stratford-on-Avon lies on this river. 2. The Lower
+Avon, rising in Gloucestershire, and falling into the Severn N.W. of
+Bristol; navigable as far as Bath. 3. In Monmouthshire. 4. In Wiltshire and
+Hampshire, entering the English Channel at Christchurch Bay. There are also
+streams of this name in Wales and Scotland.
+
+AVONMOUTH, a place at the mouth of the River Avon, 6 miles from Bristol,
+and connected with it by rail and river, with large docks belonging to the
+Bristol corporation, and forming part of the shipping accommodation of that
+city.
+
+[Illustration: Avoset (_Recurvirostra avosetta_)]
+
+AV´OSET, a bird about the size of a lapwing, of the genus Recurvirostra
+(_R. avosetta_), family Scolopacidæ (snipes), ord. Grallatores. The bill is
+long, slender, elastic, and bent upward toward the tip, the legs long, the
+feet webbed, and the plumage variegated with black and white. The bird
+feeds on worms and other small animals, which it scoops up from the mud of
+the marshes and fens that it frequents. It is found in Europe, Asia,
+Africa, and America; but the American species is slightly different from
+the others.
+
+AVRANCHES ([.a]-vrä[n.]sh; ancient, ABRINCÆ), a town, France, department La
+Manche, about 3 miles from the Atlantic. It formerly had a fine cathedral,
+destroyed during the first French revolution. Manufactures: lace, thread,
+and candles. Pop. 7174.
+
+AWE ([a:]), a Scottish loch in Argyllshire, about 28 miles long and 2
+broad, and communicating by the Awe with Loch Etive. Ben Cruachan stands at
+its northern extremity. It has many islands and beautiful scenery, and
+abounds in trout, salmon, &c.
+
+AXE, or AX, a well-known tool for cutting or chipping wood, consisting of
+an iron head with an arched cutting edge of steel, which is in line with
+the wooden handle of the tool, and not at right angles to it as in the
+adze.
+
+AXEL. See _Absalon_.
+
+AXE-STONE. See _Jade_.
+
+AXHOLME ISLE (aks'[=o]m), a sort of island in England formed by the Rivers
+Trent, Idle, and Don, in the north-west angle of Lincolnshire, 17 miles
+long, 4½ broad.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf and stem of Horse-chestnut, showing axil]
+
+AXIL, or AXILLA, in botany, the angle between the upper side of a leaf and
+the stem or branch from which it springs. Buds usually appear in the axils,
+and flowers or flower-stalks growing in this way are called _axillary_.
+
+AX´IM, a town of W. Africa, on the Gold Coast.
+
+AX´INITE, a mineral, silicate of alumina, lime, &c., with boracic acid,
+deriving its name from the form of the crystals, the edges of which bear
+some resemblance to the edge of an axe.
+
+AXIN´OMANCY, an ancient method of divination by the movements of an axe
+(Gr. _axin[=e]_) balanced on a stake, or of an agate placed on a red-hot
+axe. The names of suspected persons being uttered, the movements at a
+particular name indicated the criminal.
+
+AX´IOM, a universal proposition, which the understanding must perceive to
+be true as soon as it perceives the meaning of the words, and therefore
+called a _self-evident truth_: e.g. _A_ is _A_. In mathematics, axioms are
+those propositions which are assumed without proof, as being in themselves
+independent of proof, and which are made the basis of all the subsequent
+reasoning; as, 'The whole is greater than its part'; 'Things that are equal
+to the same thing are equal to one another'. See _Geometry_.
+
+AXIS, the straight line, real or imaginary, passing through a body or
+magnitude, on which it revolves, or may be supposed to revolve; especially
+a straight line with regard to which the different parts of a magnitude, or
+several magnitudes, are symmetrically arranged; e.g. the _axis of the
+world_, the imaginary line drawn through its two poles.
+
+In _botany_ the word is also used, the stem being termed the _ascending
+axis_, the root the _descending axis_.
+
+In _anatomy_ the name is given to the second vertebra from the head, that
+on which the _atlas_ moves. See _Atlas_.
+
+AXIS (_Cervus axis_), a species of Indian deer, also known as the Spotted
+Hog-deer, of a rich fawn colour, nearly black along the back, with white
+spots, and under parts white. Breeds freely in many parks in Europe.
+
+AX´MINSTER, a market town, England, county Devon, on the Axe, at one time
+celebrated for its woollen cloth and carpet manufactures, and giving name
+to an expensive variety of carpet having a thick soft pile, and also to a
+cheaper variety. Pop. (1921), 2049.
+
+AX´OLOTL (_Amblyst[)o]ma macul[=a]tum_), a curious Mexican amphibian, not
+unlike a newt, from 8 to 10 inches in length, with gills formed of three
+long ramified or branch-like processes floating on each side of the neck.
+It reproduces by laying eggs, and was for some time regarded as a perfect
+animal with permanent gills. It is said, however, that they frequently lose
+their gills like the other members of the genus, though some authorities
+maintain that the true axolotl never loses its gills, and that merely
+confusion with _A. tigr[=i]num_ has led to the belief, as this species
+sometimes retains its branchiæ, though usually it loses them. The axolotl
+is esteemed a luxury by the Mexicans. There are a number of species of
+Amblystoma in North America.
+
+AX´UM, or AKSUM, a town in Tigré, a division of Abyssinia, once the capital
+of an important kingdom, and at one time the great depot of the ivory trade
+in the Red Sea. It is the seat of an _abuna_ or Patriarch, and has a pop.
+of 5000. The site of the town still exhibits many remains of its former
+greatness.
+
+AYACUCHO (ä-y[.a]-kö'ch[=o]), the name of a department of Peru, and of its
+capital. The department has an area of 18,185 sq. miles; a pop. of 302,469.
+The town (formerly Guamanga or Huamanga) has a cathedral and a university,
+and a pop. of 20,000.
+
+AYALA ([.a]-yä'l[.a]), Pedro Lopez de, Spanish historian and poet,
+Chancellor of Castile in the second half of the fourteenth century, and the
+author of a history of Castile from 1350 to 1396. He took an active part in
+the struggle between Henry II and Pedro the Cruel, and was taken prisoner
+by the English in 1367. During his English captivity he wrote part of his
+chief poetical work, _A Book in Rhyme concerning Court Life_. Died 1407.
+
+AYAMONTE ([.a]-y[.a]-mon't[=a]), a seaport town, Spain, province of Huelva,
+2 miles from the mouth of the Guadiana. Pop. 6000.
+
+AYASS´OLUK. See _Ephesus_.
+
+[Illustration: Aye-aye (_Cheir[)o]mys madagascariensis_)]
+
+AYE-AYE ([=i]-[=i]; _Cheir[)o]mys madagascariensis_), an animal of
+Madagascar, so called from its cry; now referred to the lemur family. It is
+about the size of a hare, has large flat ears and a bushy tail; large eyes;
+long sprawling fingers, the third so slender as to appear shrivelled;
+colour, musk-brown, mixed with black and grey ash; feeds on grubs, fruits,
+&c.; habits, nocturnal. See _Primates_, _Lemurs_.
+
+AYESHA (a-yesh'a), daughter of Abu-Bekr and favourite wife of Mahomet,
+though she bore him no child, born in 610 or 611. After his death she
+opposed the succession of Ali, but was defeated and taken prisoner. She
+died at Medina in 677 or 678 (A.H. 58).
+
+AYLESBURY ([=a]lz´be-ri), county town of Buckinghamshire, England, with a
+fine old parish church; chief industries, silk-throwing, printing, making
+condensed milk, and poultry-rearing for the London market. The Aylesbury
+duck, also called 'white English', is famous. Previous to 1885 it and its
+hundred sent two members to Parliament, and it still gives its name to a
+parliamentary division. Pop. (1921), 12,114.
+
+AY´LOFFE, Sir Joseph, an English antiquary, born about 1708, died 1781;
+member of the first council of the Society of Antiquaries, a commissioner
+for the preservation of State papers, the author and editor of several
+works, of which the best known is his _Calendars of the Auntient Charters_,
+&c.
+
+AYMARAS ([=i]´m[.a]-r[.a]z), an Indian race of Bolivia and Peru, speaking a
+language akin to the Quichua.
+
+AY´MON, the surname of four brothers, Alard, Richard, Guiscard, and Renaud,
+who hold a first place among the heroes of the Charlemagne cycle of
+romance. Their exploits were the subject of a romance, _Les Quatre Fils
+d'Aymon_, by Huon de Villeneuve, a trouvère of the thirteenth century, and
+Renaud is a leading figure in Ariosto's _Orlando_.
+
+AYR ([=a]r), a town of Scotland, a royal and parliamentary burgh, and
+capital of Ayrshire, at the mouth of the River Ayr, on the Firth of Clyde.
+It was the site of a Roman station. William the Lion built a castle there
+in 1197 and constituted it a royal burgh in 1202; and the Parliament which
+confirmed Robert Bruce's title to the crown sat in Ayr. It is picturesquely
+situated, and has excellent public and other buildings. Two bridges connect
+Ayr proper with the suburbs of Newton and Wallacetown, a third stands
+farther up the river. The 'New Brig' of Burns's 'Brigs of Ayr' (built in
+1788) had to be replaced by a new structure in 1879, while the 'Auld Brig'
+(built in 1252) still stands, after being repaired. Carpets, lace goods,
+leather, iron goods, &c., are manufactured. The harbour accommodation is
+good, and in particular coals are largely exported. The house in which
+Burns was born stands within 1½ miles of the town, and near 'Alloway's auld
+haunted kirk', and a monument to him is near. Ayr unites with Ardrossan,
+Irvine, Prestwick, Saltcoats, and Troon in sending a member to Parliament.
+Pop. 32,986.--The county has an area of 724,523 acres. It is divided into
+the districts of Carrick in the south, Kyle in the middle, and Cunningham
+in the north. The surface is irregular, and a large portion of it hilly,
+but much of it is fertile. The principal streams are the Ayr, Stinchar,
+Girvan, Doon, Irvine, and Garnock. Coal and iron are abundant; and there
+are numerous collieries and ironworks. Limestone and freestone are also
+abundant. Agriculture is in a flourishing state, the principal crops being
+oats, turnips, and early potatoes, while dairy husbandry is extensively
+practised; the Ayrshire cows, referred to in the eighteenth century as the
+Cunningham, are celebrated as milkers, and Ayrshire cheese ('Dunlop' and
+'Cheddar') has a high reputation. Woollen manufactures are extensive,
+particularly carpets and bonnets; lace goods are largely made; Kilmarnock
+is a centre of engineering and of dairying education. Goods made include
+explosives, boots and shoes, chemicals, and leather. Chief towns, Ayr,
+Kilmarnock, Irvine, Ardrossan, Saltcoats, Stevenston, Maybole. Ayr and
+Buteshire send three members to Parliament. Pop. 267,600 (1918).
+
+AYRER ([=i]´rer), Jacob, a German dramatist of the sixteenth century, who
+almost rivalled Hans Sachs in copiousness and importance. He was a citizen
+and legal official of Nuremberg, and died in 1605. His works, published at
+Nuremberg in 1618, under the title _Opus Theatricum_, include thirty
+comedies and tragedies and thirty-six humorous pieces.
+
+AYRTON, William Edward, English physicist and electrical engineer, born in
+1847. From 1873 to 1879 he was professor of natural philosophy and
+telegraphy in the Imperial College of Engineering at Tokio. In 1879 he was
+appointed professor of applied physics in the City and Guilds of London
+Institute. He invented an ammeter, voltmeter, &c., in conjunction with
+Professor Perry. He died in 1908. He published _Practical Electricity_, and
+many papers on scientific subjects.
+
+AYTOUN ([=a]´tun), Sir Robert, poet, born in Fifeshire, Scotland, 1570,
+died 1638. After studying at St. Andrews he lived for some time in France,
+whence, in 1603, he addressed a panegyric in Latin verse to King James on
+his accession to the crown of England. By the grateful monarch he was
+appointed one of the gentlemen of the bedchamber, and private secretary to
+the queen, receiving also the honour of knighthood. At a later period of
+his life he was secretary to Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. His poems
+are few in number, but are distinguished by elegance of diction. Several of
+his Latin poems are preserved in the work called _Delitiæ Poetarum
+Scotorum_, published at Amsterdam in 1637 at the expense of Sir John Scot
+of Scotstarvet.
+
+AYTOUN, William Edmonstoune, poet and prose writer, born at Edinburgh in
+1813, died at Blackhills, Elgin, 1865. He studied at the University of
+Edinburgh, became a writer to the signet in 1835, and passed as advocate in
+1840. He issued a volume of poems in 1832, by 1836 was a contributor to
+_Blackwood's Magazine_, and in 1840 he published the _Life and Times of
+Richard 1_. In 1848 he published a collection of ballads entitled _Lays of
+the Scottish Cavaliers_, which has proved the most popular of all his
+works. It was followed in 1854 by _Firmilian, a Spasmodic Tragedy_
+(intended to ridicule certain popular writers); the _Bon Gaultier Ballads_
+(parodies and other humorous pieces, in conjunction with Theodore Martin),
+1855; in 1856 the poem _Bothwell_; and in subsequent years by _Norman
+Sinclair_, _The Glenmutchkin Railway_, and other stories. In 1858 he edited
+a critical and annotated collection of the _Ballads of Scotland_. A
+translation of the poems and ballads of Goethe was executed by him in
+conjunction with Theodore Martin. In 1845 he became professor of rhetoric
+and English literature in the University of Edinburgh--a position which he
+held till his death. In 1852 he was appointed Sheriff of Orkney and
+Shetland.
+
+AYUNTAMIENTO ([.a]-y[u:]n-t[.a]-m[=e]-en´t[=o]), the name given to the town
+and village councils in Spain and Spanish America.
+
+AYU´THIA, the ancient capital of Siam, on the Menam, now a scene of
+splendid ruin.
+
+AZA´LEA, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Ericaceæ, or heaths, remarkable for
+the beauty and fragrance of their flowers, and distinguished from the
+rhododendrons chiefly by the flowers having five stamens instead of ten.
+Many beautiful rhododendrons with deciduous leaves are known under the name
+of _azalea_ in gardens. The azaleas are common in North America, and two
+species of these--_A. visc[=o]sa_ and _A. nudifl[=o]ra_--are well known in
+Britain. An Asiatic species, _A. pontica_, famous for the stupefying effect
+which its honey is said to have produced on Xenophon's army (cf.
+_Anabasis_, book iv, chap. 8), is also common in British gardens and
+shrubberies; and another, _A. indica_, is a brilliant greenhouse plant.
+
+AZAMGARH, or AZIMGARH, a town of India, United Provinces, capital of
+district of same name. Pop. 18,835.--The district has an area of 2418 sq.
+miles; a pop. of 1,530,000.
+
+AZEGLIO ([.a]d-zel´y[=o]), Massimo Taparelli, Marquis d', an Italian
+'admirable Crichton', artist, novelist, publicist, statesman, and soldier,
+born at Turin in 1798, died 1866. After gaining some reputation in Rome as
+a painter, he married the daughter of Manzoni, and achieved success in
+literature by his novels _Ettore Fieramosca_ (1833) and _Niccolo dei Lapi_
+(1841). These embodied much of the patriotic spirit, and in a short time he
+devoted himself exclusively to fostering the national sentiment by personal
+action and by his writings. Many of the reforms of Pius IX were due to him.
+He commanded a legion in the Italian struggle of 1848, and was severely
+wounded at Vincenza. Chosen a member of the Sardinian Chamber of Deputies,
+he was, after the battle of Novara, made president of the cabinet, and in
+1859 appointed to the military post of general and
+commissioner-extraordinary for the Roman States.
+
+AZERBAIJAN ([.a]-zer-b[=i]-jän´), a province of North-Western Persia; area,
+40,000 sq. miles; pop. estimated at 2,000,000. It consists generally of
+lofty mountain ranges, some of which rise to a height of between 12,000 and
+13,000 feet. Principal rivers: the Aras or Araxes, and the Kizil-Uzen,
+which enter the Caspian; smaller streams discharge themselves within the
+province into the great salt lake of Urumiyah. Agricultural products:
+wheat, barley, maize, fruit, cotton, tobacco, and grapes. Horses, cattle,
+sheep, and camels are reared in considerable numbers. Chief minerals: iron,
+lead, copper, salt, saltpetre, and marble. Tabriz is the capital; pop.
+200,000.
+
+AZERBAIJAN, a new republic proclaimed in 1918, after the Russian
+revolution. It consists of the former Russian province of Baku on the coast
+of the Caspian Sea. In 1920 the Bolshevist party overthrew the Government
+and broke off relations with the Entente. See _Russia_.
+
+AZ´IMUTH of a heavenly body, the arc of the horizon comprehended between
+the meridian of the observer and a vertical circle passing through the
+centre of the body. The azimuth and altitude give the exact position of the
+body with reference to the horizon.
+
+AZINCOURT. See _Agincourt_.
+
+AZO COMPOUNDS, a class of substances which belong to the benzene series and
+contain carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. All azo compounds are highly
+coloured, and in some cases they are direct cotton dyes. The simplest azo
+compound is _azobenzene_, the chemical formula of which is
+C_6H_5--N = N--C_6H_5. It is prepared from nitrobenzene by reducing it with
+stannous chloride and sodium hydroxide. Azobenzene is a highly-coloured
+crystalline substance, but it is not a dye; it forms, however, the basis of
+the dyes known as _azodyes_. The azodyes form one of the largest groups of
+dyes, and derive their name from the presence of the characteristic
+chemical group --N = N--, known as the _azo_ group. Azo compounds may
+become exceedingly complicated in structure. They are divided into mon-azo,
+di-azo, tri-azo compounds according to the number of azo groups present.
+The well-known dyes Congo Red and Bismarck Brown are azo compounds of
+complicated structure. Azo dyes were discovered by Griess in 1856, but as a
+class did not come on the market until about 1876.
+
+AZOF. See _Azov_.
+
+AZO´IC. See _Pre-Cambrian_.
+
+AZOIMIDE, or HYDRAZOIC ACID, N_3H, is an acid liquid of disagreeable odour,
+producing headache if inhaled. The acid itself and its salts, with the
+exception of the alkali salts, are exceedingly explosive and dangerous to
+handle. Lead hydrazoate, PbN_6, is one of the most stable of these salts.
+It is a more powerful explosive than mercury fulminate, and has been used
+instead, in the manufacture of detonators.
+
+AZORES (a-z[=o]rz' or a-z[=o]'res), or WESTERN ISLANDS, a group belonging
+to and 900 miles west of Portugal, in the North Atlantic Ocean. They are
+nine in number, and form three distinct groups--a N.W., consisting of
+Flores and Corvo; a central, consisting of Terceira, São Jorge, Pico,
+Fayal, and Graciosa; and a S.E., consisting of São Miguel (or St. Michael)
+and Santa Maria. The total area is 922 sq. miles; São Miguel (containing
+the capital Ponta Delgada), Pico, and Terceira are the largest. The
+islands, which are volcanic and subject to earthquakes, are of
+comparatively recent origin, and are conical, lofty, precipitous, and
+picturesque. The most remarkable summit is the peak of Pico, about 7600
+feet high. There are numerous hot springs. They are covered with luxuriant
+vegetation, and diversified with woods, corn-fields, vineyards, lemon and
+orange groves, and rich, open pastures. The mild and somewhat humid
+climate, combined with the natural fertility of the soil, brings all kinds
+of vegetable products rapidly to perfection, among the most important being
+grain, oranges, pine-apples, bananas, potatoes, yams, beans, coffee, and
+tobacco. The inhabitants are mainly of Portuguese descent, indolent and
+devoid of enterprise. Principal exports: wine and brandy, oranges, maize,
+beans, pineapples, cattle. The climate is recommended as suitable for
+consumptive patients. The Azores were discovered by Cabral about 1431,
+shortly after which date they were taken possession of and colonized by the
+Portuguese. When first visited they were uninhabited, and had scarcely any
+other animals except birds, particularly hawks, to which, called in
+Portuguese _açores_, the islands owe their name. Pop. 242,613 (1911).
+
+AZ´OTE, a name formerly given to nitrogen; hence substances containing
+nitrogen and forming part of the structure of plants and animals are known
+as _azotized_ bodies. Such are albumen, fibrine, caseine, gelatine, urea,
+kreatine, &c. See _Nitrogen_.
+
+A´ZOV, or ASOV, a town in the Russian government of Ekaterinoslav, upon an
+island at the mouth of the Don, where it flows into the Sea of Azov;
+formerly a place of extensive trade, but its harbour has become almost
+sanded up. Pop. 31,111.
+
+AZOV, SEA OF (ancient, PALUS MOE[=O]TIS), an arm of the Black Sea, with
+which it is united by the Straits of Kertch or Kaffa; length about 170
+miles, breadth about 80 miles; greatest depth not more than 8 fathoms. The
+W. part, called the Putrid Sea, is separated from the main expanse by a
+long sandy belt called Arabat, along which runs a military road. The sea
+teems with fish. The Don and other rivers enter it, and its waters are very
+fresh.
+
+AZPEITIA ([.a]th-p[=a]'i-ti-[.a]), a town of N.E. Spain, province
+Guipuzcoa. Near it is the convent of Loyola, a large edifice, now a museum.
+Pop. 6692.
+
+AZ´RAEL. See _As'rael_.
+
+AZ´TECS (from _Aztatl_ (heron), and _Flacatl_ (man), 'people of the
+heron'), a race of people who settled in Mexico early in the fourteenth
+century, ultimately extended their dominion over a large territory, and
+were still extending their supremacy at the time of the arrival of the
+Spaniards, by whom they were speedily subjugated. Their political
+organization, termed by the Spanish writers an absolute monarchy, consisted
+of a military chief exercising important, but not unlimited, power in civil
+affairs, in which the council of chiefs and periodic assemblies of the
+judges had also a voice. Their most celebrated ruler was Montezuma, who was
+reigning when the Spaniards arrived, about the middle of the fifteenth
+century. It is inferred that considerable numbers of them lived in large
+communal residences, and that land was held and cultivated upon the
+communal principle. Slavery and polygamy were both legitimate, but the
+children of slaves were regarded as free. Although ignorant of the horse,
+ox, &c., they had a considerable knowledge of agriculture, maize and the
+agave being the chief produce. Silver, lead, tin, and copper were obtained
+from mines, and gold from the surface and river beds, but iron was unknown
+to them, their tools being of bronze and obsidian. Metal coins were not in
+use. In metal-work, feather-work, weaving, and pottery they possessed a
+high degree of skill. To record events they used picture-writing, and their
+lunar calendars were of unusual accuracy. Two special deities claimed their
+reverence: Huitzilo-pochtli, the god of war, propitiated with human
+sacrifices; and Quetzalcoatl, the beneficent god of light and air, with
+whom at first the Aztecs were disposed to identify Cortez. Their temples,
+with large terraced pyramidal bases, were in the charge of an exceedingly
+large priesthood, to whom the education of the young was entrusted. As a
+civilization of apparently independent origin, yet closely resembling in
+many features the archaic Oriental civilizations, the Aztec civilization is
+of the first interest, but in most accounts of it a large speculative
+element has to be discounted.
+
+AZ´ULINE, or AZ´URINE, blue dyes belonging to the coal-tar class.
+
+A´ZURE, the heraldic term for the colour blue, represented in engraving by
+horizontal lines.
+
+AZ´URINE (_Leuciscus cærul[)e]us_), a fresh-water fish of the same genus as
+the roach, chub, and minnow, found in some parts of Europe, but rare in
+Britain; called also _Blue Roach_.
+
+AZ´URITE, a blue mineral, a carbonate of copper, often occurring in
+crystals. Its formula is 2CuCO_3.Cu(OH)_2, and it is also called _Blue
+Malachite_. Also a name of lazulite.
+
+AZYMITE. See _Eucharist_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+B
+
+B is the second letter and the first consonant in the English and most
+other alphabets. It is a mute and labial, pronounced solely by the lips,
+and is distinguished from _p_ by being sonant, that is, produced by the
+utterance of voice as distinguished from breath.
+
+B, in _music_, the seventh note of the model diatonic scale or scale of C.
+It is called the leading note, as there is always a feeling of suspense
+when it is sounded until the keynote is heard.
+
+BAADER, Franz Xaver von (fr[.a]nts-zä'fer fon bä'der), German philosopher
+and theologian, born in Munich, 1765, died 1841. He studied engineering,
+became superintendent of mines, and was ennobled for services. He was
+deeply interested in the religious speculations of Eckhart, St. Martin, and
+Böhme, and in 1826 was appointed professor of philosophy and speculative
+theology in the University of Munich. During the last three years of his
+life he was interdicted from lecturing for opposing the interference in
+civil matters of the Roman Catholic Church.
+
+BA´AL, or BEL, a Semitic word, which primarily signified lord or
+proprietor, and was afterwards applied to many different divinities, or,
+with qualifying epithets, to the same divinity regarded in different
+aspects, describing him as an occupier of some physical object or locality,
+or as a possessor of some attribute. Thus in _Hos._ ii, 16 it is applied to
+Jehovah himself, while _Baal-berith_ (the Covenant-lord) was the god of the
+Shechemites, and _Baal-zebub_ (the Fly-god) the idol of the Philistines at
+Ekron. Baal was the sacred title applied to the Sun as the principal male
+deity of the Phoenicians and their descendants, the Carthaginians, as well
+as of the ancient Canaanitish nations, and was worshipped as the supreme
+ruler and vivifier of nature. The word enters into the composition of many
+Hebrew, Phoenician, and Carthaginian names of persons and places; thus,
+_Jerubaal_, _Hasdrubal_ (help of Baal), _Hannibal_ (grace of Baal), and
+_Baal-Hammon_, _Baal-Thamar_, &c.
+
+BAALBEK´ (ancient, HELIOP[)O]LIS, 'city of the sun'), a place in Syria, in
+a fertile valley at the foot of Antilibanus, 40 miles from Damascus, famous
+for its magnificent ruins. Of these the chief is the Temple of the Sun,
+built either by Antoninus Pius or by Septimius Severus. Some of the blocks
+used in its construction are 60 feet long by 12 thick; and its fifty-four
+columns, of which six are still standing, were 72 feet high and 22 in
+circumference. Near it is a temple of Jupiter, of smaller size though
+larger than the Parthenon at Athens, and there are other structures of an
+elaborately ornate type. Originally a centre of Sun-worship, it became a
+Roman colony under Julius Cæsar, was garrisoned by Augustus, and acquired
+increasing renown under Trajan as the seat of an oracle. Under Constantine
+its temples became churches, but after being sacked by the Arabs in 748,
+and more completely pillaged by Tamerlane in 1401, it sank into hopeless
+decay. The work of destruction was completed by an earthquake in 1759.
+
+BAAL-ZEBUB. See _Beelzebub_.
+
+BABA, a cape near the north-west point of Asia Minor.
+
+BABADAGH (b[.a]-b[.a]-däg'), a town of Roumania, capital of the Dobrudsha,
+carrying on a considerable Black Sea trade; it was bombarded by the
+Russians in 1854. Pop. 10,000.
+
+BAB´BAGE, Charles, English mathematician and inventor of the
+calculating-machine, born 1792, died 1871. He graduated at Cambridge in
+1814, and occupied the Lucasian chair of mathematics at Cambridge for
+eleven years, but delivered no lectures. As early as 1812 he conceived the
+idea of calculating numerical tables by machinery, and in 1823 he received
+a grant from Government for the construction of such a machine. After a
+series of experiments lasting eight years, and an expenditure of £17,000
+(£6000 of which was sunk by himself, the balance voted by Government),
+Babbage abandoned the undertaking in favour of a much more enlarged work,
+an analytical engine, worked with cards like the jacquard-loom; but the
+project was never completed. The incompleted machine is now in the South
+Kensington Museum. Among the many treatises he published on subjects
+connected with mathematics and mechanics few can be regarded as finished
+performances. Babbage was instrumental in founding the Astronomical and
+Statistical Societies (1820 and 1834).
+
+BABBIT-METAL, a soft metal resulting from alloying together certain
+proportions of copper, tin, and zinc or antimony, used with the view of as
+far as possible obviating friction in the bearings of journals, cranks,
+axles, &c., invented by Isaac Babbit (1799-1862), a goldsmith of Taunton,
+Massachusetts.
+
+BA´BEL. See _Babylon_.
+
+BA´BEL, TOWER OF, according to the 11th chapter of _Genesis_, a structure
+in the Plain of Shinar, Mesopotamia, commenced by the descendants of Noah
+subsequent to the deluge, but which was not allowed to proceed to
+completion. It has commonly been identified with the great temple of Belus,
+or Bel, that was one of the chief edifices in Babylon, and the huge mound
+called Birs Nimrud is generally regarded as its site, though another mound,
+which to this day bears the name of Babil, has been assigned by some as its
+site. Babel means literally 'gate of God'. The meaning 'confusion' assigned
+to it in the Bible really belongs to a word of similar form. See _Babylon_.
+
+BAB-EL-MANDEB ('gate of tears', from being dangerous to small craft), a
+strait, 15 miles wide, between the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea, formed by
+projecting points of Arabia in Asia, and Abyssinia in Africa. The Island of
+Perim is here.
+
+BA´BER, first Grand Mogul, the founder of the Mogul dynasty in Hindustan,
+born in 1483, died 1530. He was a grandson of the great Tartar prince,
+Timur or Tamerlane, and was sovereign of Cabul. He invaded Hindustan, and
+in 1525 overthrew and killed Sultan Ibrahim, the last Hindu emperor of the
+Pathan or Afghan race. He made many improvements, social and political, in
+his empire, and left a valuable autobiography (English translation, 1826).
+
+BABEUF (b[.a]-beuf), François Noel, a French political agitator, born in
+1764; started a democratic journal in Paris, called _Le Tribun du Peuple,
+par 'Gracchus' Babeuf_, and wrote with great severity against the Jacobins.
+After the fall of Robespierre, to which he powerfully contributed, he
+openly attacked the terrorists, and advocated the most democratic
+principles. He was accused of a conspiracy against the directorial
+Government, condemned to death, and guillotined in 1797. He was one of the
+pioneers of Socialism in France.
+
+BAB´INGTON, Anthony, a Catholic gentleman of Derbyshire, born 1561. He
+associated with others of his own persuasion to assassinate Queen
+Elizabeth, and deliver Mary, Queen of Scots. The plot being discovered, the
+conspirators were executed in 1586.
+
+BABIROUSSA. See _Babyroussa_.
+
+BAB´ISM, the doctrines of a Mohammedan sect whose head-quarters is Persia,
+founded by Seyd Ali Mohammed in 1844. He took the name of Bab-ed-din, 'the
+gate of the faith', and afterwards that of Nokteh, 'the point', as not
+merely the recipient of a new divine revelation, but the focus in which all
+preceding dispensations would converge. One of his most successful
+disciples was a highly-gifted woman, Gurred-ul-Ayn, 'consolation of the
+eyes', who perished with many others during a persecution in 1852. The Bab
+himself had been executed about two years before this, and was succeeded by
+a noble youth, Mirza Yahya. The sect holds that all individual existence is
+an emanation from the supreme deity, by whom it will be ultimately
+reabsorbed. The morality of the sect is pure and cheerful, and it shows
+great advancement in the treatment of woman. Moses, Christ, and Mohammed
+are acknowledged as prophets, though only mere precursors of the Bab. A
+schism divided the followers of Babism into two sects, Bahais and Ezelis.
+The former have carried on an active propaganda in America.
+
+BA´BOO, or BABU, a Hindu title of respect equivalent to _sir_ or _master_,
+usually given to wealthy and educated native gentlemen, especially when of
+the mercantile class.
+
+[Illustration: Family of Common Baboons (_Cynoceph[)a]lus babouin_)]
+
+BABOON´, a common name applied to a division of old-world quadrumana (apes
+and monkeys), comprehending the genera Cynoceph[)a]lus and Papio. They have
+elongated abrupt muzzles like a dog, strong tusks or canine teeth, usually
+short tails, cheek-pouches, small deep eyes with large eyebrows, and naked
+callosities on the buttocks. Their hind and fore feet are well
+proportioned, so that they run easily on all fours, but they do not
+maintain themselves in an upright posture with facility. They are generally
+of the size of a moderately large dog, but the largest, the mandrill, is,
+when erect, nearly of the height of a man. They are almost all African,
+ugly, sullen, fierce, lascivious, and gregarious, defending themselves by
+throwing stones, dirt, &c. They live on fruits and roots, eggs and insects.
+They include the chacma, drill, common baboon, and mandrill. The chacma or
+pig-tailed baboon (_Cynoceph[)a]lus porcarius_) is found in considerable
+numbers in parts of the S. African colonies, where the inhabitants wage war
+against them on account of the ravages they commit in the fields and
+gardens. The common baboon (_C. babouin_) inhabits a large part of Africa
+farther to the north. It is of a brownish-yellow colour, while the chacma
+is greyish-black, or in parts black. The hamadryas (_C. hamadryas_) of
+Abyssinia is characterized by long hair, forming a sort of shoulder-cape.
+The black baboon (_C. niger_) is found in Celebes.
+
+BABOUR (bä´b[u:]r). See _Baber_.
+
+BAB´RIUS, a Greek poet who flourished during the second or third century of
+the Christian era, and wrote a number of Æsopian fables. Several versions
+of these made during the Middle Ages have come down to us as _Æsop's
+Fables_. In 1840 a manuscript containing 120 fables by Babrius, previously
+unknown, was discovered on Mount Athos.
+
+BABUYA´NES ISLANDS, a group in the Pacific Ocean, between Luzon and
+Formosa, belonging to United States. Pop. 12,000.
+
+BABY-FARMING. The law relating to the protection of children and young
+persons has been subjected to amendment and consolidation by the Children
+Act of 1908, which wholly repealed the Infant Life Protection Act of 1897
+dealing with baby-farming and infant life protection.
+
+The Act of 1908 (Part I) deals with baby-farming, and requires that notice
+shall be given to the Local Authority (in Scotland the Parish Council) by
+the person undertaking for reward the nursing and maintenance of any infant
+or infants under seven years of age apart from their parents, within
+forty-eight hours after reception, unless the period for which it is
+received be only forty-eight hours or less. The notice requires the name,
+sex, date and place of birth of the child to be stated, where it is to be
+kept, and from whom it is received. The Act also provides that such a
+person shall notify any change in his residence or the removal or death of
+the infant to the Local Authority within forty-eight hours. In regard to
+all these matters the Act is retrospective, and necessitates persons who
+had undertaken nursing and maintenance of such infants before its coming
+into operation to comply with its provisions within a month after the
+commencement thereof. But it exempts any person who may have given the
+similar notice required by the Infant Life Protection Act of 1897, although
+it does not exempt any person whose duty it was to have given notice
+thereunder from any liability which such a person may have incurred
+thereunder.
+
+A duty is imposed upon Local Authorities to inquire regarding persons
+willing to undertake the nursing and maintenance of infants, to appoint
+infant-protection visitors of either sex in so far as it provides for
+infant life protection and gives powers to such Local Authorities and
+visitors for fulfilling the requirements of the Act. It is an offence for
+the person undertaking the nursing to refuse to allow such visitors access
+to the infant or the premises in which it is kept; and, if need be,
+application may be made to the court for a warrant to enter the house in
+which an infant is farmed out, and where there is reason to believe that
+the Act is being contravened. It is an offence for any infant to be kept
+(1) by any person from whose care an infant has been removed under the Act
+or the Infant Life Protection Act, or (2) by any person convicted of any
+offence under Part II of the Children Act of 1908 or the Prevention of
+Cruelty to Children Act, 1904.
+
+The Local Authority may fix the number of infants under the age of seven
+years which may be kept in any dwelling, and it is an offence to keep more.
+Provision is also made for the removal of an infant from overcrowded,
+dangerous, or insanitary premises, or from the custody of a person unfit to
+take charge of the child; and an application may be made by a visitor to a
+magistrate for a removal order enforceable by the visitor or a constable.
+Should the infant die, notice of the fact must be given by the person with
+whom it is farmed out to the Procurator-fiscal of the district, if in
+Scotland, and, if in England, to the Coroner of the district, within
+twenty-four hours. He shall hold an inquest unless a certificate by a
+medical practitioner specifying the cause of death shall be forwarded.
+Failure to give such notice is punishable under the Act.
+
+A person nursing an infant for reward shall have no interest in the life of
+the child for the purposes of life assurance. It is not permissible for
+such a person or insurance company to insure the life of such a child. To
+do so renders both the person and the insurance company liable to
+prosecution.
+
+Any person knowingly or wilfully making any false statement in any notice
+required to be given under the Act commits an offence under the Act.
+
+Imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months, or a fine not exceeding
+£25, may be imposed upon any person found guilty upon summary conviction of
+an offence against Part I of the Children Act, 1908; in addition the court
+may order the removal of the infant to a place of safety. All fines are
+payable to the Local Authority for the purposes of the Act.
+
+Legal guardians of an infant, as well as institutions established for the
+protection and care of infants, are exempted from the provisions of Part I
+of the Children Act, 1908.
+
+BAB´YLON, the capital of Babylonia, on the left of the Euphrates, one of
+the largest and most splendid cities of the ancient world, now a scene of
+ruins, and earth-mounds containing them. Babylon was a royal city sixteen
+hundred years before the Christian era; but the old city was almost
+entirely destroyed in 683 B.C. A new city was built by Nebuchadnezzar
+nearly a century later. This was in the form of a square, each side 15
+miles long, with walls of such immense height and thickness as to
+constitute one of the wonders of the world. It contained splendid edifices,
+large gardens and pleasure-grounds, especially the 'hanging-gardens', a
+sort of lofty terraced structure supporting earth enough for trees to grow,
+and the celebrated Tower of Babel or Temple of Belus, rising by stages to
+the height of 625 feet. (See _Babel, Tower of_.) After the city was taken
+by Cyrus in 538 B.C., and Babylonia made a Persian province, it began to
+decline, and had suffered severely by the time of Alexander the Great. He
+intended to restore it, but was prevented by his death, which took place
+here in 323 B.C., from which time its decay was rapid. Interesting
+discoveries have been made on its site, more especially of numerous and
+valuable inscriptions in the cuneiform or arrow-head character. The modern
+town of Hillah is believed to represent the ancient city, and the plain
+here for miles round is studded with vast mounds of earth and brick and
+imposing ruins. The greatest mound is Birs Nimrud, about 6 miles from
+Hillah. It rises nearly 200 feet, is crowned by a ruined tower, and is
+commonly believed to be the remains of the ancient Temple of Belus. Another
+great ruin-mound, called Mujellibeh, has also been assigned as its site.
+
+BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. These ancient seats of Mesopotamian civilization lay
+across the western Asian trade-routes, Babylonia being in the south and
+Assyria in the north. The area, in which they flourished is embraced by the
+Rivers Tigris and Euphrates, and extends from the head of the Persian Gulf
+to the frontiers of Armenia and Northern Syria, is bordered on the east by
+Persia and on the west by the Syro-Arabian desert. 'Mesopotamia' is a term
+borrowed by the ancient Greeks from the Semites, and was first applied to
+the north-western region. There was a Roman province of that name. The
+northern area of the Tigro-Euphrates valley is partly mountainous and
+partly steppe land, with wide stretches of elevated grazing-lands and
+fertile districts on the banks of rivers. Assyria, derived from A-usar
+('the river-bank region'), had origin in north-eastern Mesopotamia. Its
+most ancient capital, Asshur (modern Kal'at Sherkat), was situated on the
+western bank of the River Tigris, between the tributaries the Upper Zab and
+the Lower Zab. Nineveh, the last capital of all, lay farther north on the
+eastern bank of the Tigris, and right opposite modern Mosul. The Assyrians
+called themselves Asshurai, and their national god was Ashur (earlier
+Ashir), written A-Shur, but confused in time with Ash-Shur, the name of the
+capital. The southern area of Mesopotamia, below Bagdad, where the Tigris
+and Euphrates come within 35 miles of one another, is a flat alluvial
+plain. Babylonia proper is that fish-shaped region between the rivers,
+which broadens out to about 100 miles and gradually narrows to the point at
+Kurnah where the rivers meet and form the Shatt-el-Arab. From Kurnah to the
+head of the Persian Gulf is the ancient area of Chaldea, which means
+'Sea-land'. The inhabitants called themselves Kaldu (Sea-landers) and were
+known to the Hebrews as the Kasdim, and to the Greeks as the Chaldaioi.
+Babylonia, and the rest of the alluvial plain, is the 'gift' of the rivers
+which rise in flood each year when the snow melts on the Armenian
+mountains. Both the Tigris and the Euphrates bring down enormous quantities
+of sediment--indeed five times as much as does the Egyptian Nile--and they
+have withal more destructive tendencies. The accumulating silt tends to
+divert the flow of the rivers in the south, and a process of land-making
+which began at the close of the Ice Age is still in progress, thrusting
+back the head of the Persian Gulf. At one time the Tigris and Euphrates
+entered the gulf by separate mouths, and Chaldea was then a narrow fringe
+of steppe land, plain, and marshes. The River Tigris is about 1146 miles
+long, and begins to rise early in March, reaching its height in May, and
+subsiding before the end of June. The Euphrates is a slower river, about
+1780 miles in length. It begins to rise a fortnight later than the Tigris,
+is longer in flood, and does not reach its lowest level until September. As
+there is a drop of only 120 feet between Bagdad and the sea, a distance, as
+the crow flies, of about 300 miles, the ancient Babylonians did their
+utmost to conserve the water which came down in such abundance and was
+rapidly drained away, after doing much damage. Near Bagdad the Tigris is on
+a higher level than the Euphrates, and could be run into it through a
+canal; farther south the Euphrates, being on the higher level, could be run
+by canal into the Tigris. The ancient engineers cut these and other canals;
+indeed, they covered the whole valley with a network of them. To store the
+Euphrates water for the season of drought and great heat, they formed
+canals which carried the roaring flood into two depressions in the western
+desert between the modern towns of Kerbela and Ram[.a]di. These depressions
+are utilized for the British irrigation scheme. The Babylonians did their
+utmost to control the Tigris by erecting earthen dams so as to hold up as
+much of the water as possible. Earthen dykes were also erected to raise its
+banks. The right bank protected the farms from disastrous flooding. These
+ancient irrigation works made Babylonia the greatest grain-yielding area in
+the ancient world. Its vast surplus of food stimulated trade and brought
+Babylonia immense wealth, while its strategic situation made it very
+powerful. Its cultural influence flowed along the trade routes, eastward
+across Persia and the Iranian plateau, northward through Assyria to Armenia
+(ancient Urartu) and beyond, and north-westward along the Euphrates banks
+into Syria and Palestine, and into Asia Minor, the land of the Hittites,
+and then along the highway to Europe, called later by the Persians 'the
+royal road'. The road to Egypt ran southward from North Syria through
+Palestine, skirting the maritime valley by 'the way of the Philistines'.
+The merchants of many nations met in the city of Babylon, the London of the
+ancient western Asian world, and in the trading centres of North Syria,
+including Carchemish.
+
+[Illustration: Assyrian Soldiers]
+
+The earliest agriculturists and traders of Babylonia were the Sumerians, a
+non-Semitic people, who built a number of cities in the irrigated valley
+and founded colonies in Assyria. No trace has been found of a Neolithic Age
+in Babylonia. Its civilization, so far as our knowledge goes, began after
+copper was introduced. At an early period Semites filtered into the valley.
+They absorbed Sumerian civilization, and ultimately became politically
+predominant in the northern part of the valley, which was called Akkad (the
+biblical Accad). The southern part was then known as Sumer or Sumeria (the
+biblical 'Plain of Shinar'). Akkad embraced the city States of Agade,
+Babylon, Borsippa, Sippar, Kish, Opis, and Kutha. The Sumerian city States
+included Eridu, Ur (later 'of the Chaldees' and the birthplace of Abraham),
+Lagash, Shuruppak, Erech, Umma, and Adab. Inter-state wars resulted time
+and again in the formation of confederacies which were more of political
+than racial character, and the predominance of one city or another.
+Religious ideas were fused, and local pantheons appear to have reflected
+local politics. The chief seat of early Sumerian civilization was the city
+of Eridu, a name signifying 'on the seashore'. Its site is marked by modern
+Abu-Shahrein on the eastern bank of the Euphrates, and south-east of Ur,
+modern Mukayyar. Eridu was originally a seaport on the Persian Gulf, from
+which it is now separated by about 125 miles of land formed by river silt.
+The chief god of Eridu was Ea, a name also rendered Ae and Aa, and
+apparently meaning 'waters' or 'house (region) of waters'. That the term
+'waters' had a special significance for the inhabitants of a water-formed
+land is evident by the fact that the Semitic equivalent of Ea is Enki,
+which means 'lord of earth'. Other titles of the god were 'lord of Heaven
+and Earth', 'ruler of the land', 'the deep', 'god of the abyss', and 'king
+of the river'. He was withal the 'Creator', water having created Sumeria,
+and Nadimmud, 'lord of everything', as the Egyptian Osiris in his character
+of god of the Nile was 'Neb-er-Zer', also 'lord of everything'. Ea had a
+ship with a crew including his son Marduk (Merodach or Marad, the Ni-marad
+or Nimrod of legend) and In-ab, 'the pilot of Eridu'. The ship was hailed,
+in religious literature, as the bringer of fertility and joy. Evidently the
+beginning of Sumerian civilization had some connection with ancient
+seafarers. Of special interest in this connection are the references made
+by the Greek writer Berosus to Oannes, a sea-dweller who came daily from
+the Persian Gulf to instruct the early Babylonians how to irrigate the
+land, grow crops, erect houses, make laws, write, calculate and measure,
+and engage in trade. Texts have been discovered which tend to identify
+Oannes with the god Ea. As the early Sumerians bore a strong physical
+resemblance to the ancient Egyptians, and there were links between the
+early religious beliefs and customs of the two peoples, it is suspected
+that they represented two branches of the same ancient stock. Some think
+Sumerian civilization was founded by colonists from Egypt, while others
+believe that Egyptian civilization was stimulated by settlers from Sumeria.
+The question as to who first invented ships has an important bearing in
+this connection. When we turn to Sumero-Babylonian religious myths we find
+that some reflect local natural phenomena. In one the Euphrates is hailed
+as the River (god) "who didst create all things". Another, referring to the
+creation of man, says that Marduk (earlier the god Gilimma) "tied reeds on
+the face of the waters, he formed dust and poured it out beside the reeds
+... he formed mankind". Another version is that man was created from the
+god's blood and bone, or, as Berosus has it, from the god's blood and
+earth. The oldest Sumerian creation myth states that all things came from
+primeval water. Then many deities were created by the pre-existing triad of
+gods, Anu (the sky-god), Enlil ('the elder Bel', the earth-god, and 'lord
+of grain'), and Ea, who was associated with the goddess Ninkharsagga. Ea
+had several other wives, including Ninshar or Ninkurra, Ninella, Nintu, and
+Damkina. These goddesses were ultimately all absorbed by Ishtar, the
+Semitic name of the love and mother goddess. In the later Babylonian 'Seven
+Tablets' version of the creation myth a conflict is introduced. The female
+chaos-dragon Tiamat is slain by Marduk, the chief god of Babylon, 'the
+later Bel', who cuts up her body and uses part to form the sky and part to
+keep the waters in their place. After a time a deluge took place. In the
+Sumerian myth a priest-king called Ziusudu (earlier named Tatug or Uttu)
+corresponds both to Adam and to Noah, and builds a large vessel, having
+been warned by Ea of the approaching disaster. The Gilgamesh Epic refers to
+the hero as Ut-na-pishtim (or Pir-na-pishtim). He and his wife afterwards
+become immortal, and they are visited on their island by Gilgamesh (the
+Babylonian Hercules), when, smitten by disease, he searches for the Plant
+of Life, which he finds and afterwards loses. Ishtar, the goddess who plays
+a part in this epic, is also the heroine of the poetic legend which tells
+of her descent to Hades in quest of Tammuz, whose story resembles somewhat
+that of Adonis and has Osirian characteristics. The Babylonian Persephone
+was Eresh-ki-gal with whom Tammuz dwelt in her underworld for part of the
+year. Associated with her was Nergal, chief god of Kutha, whose planet was
+Mars. He conquered Hades. He and other city gods appear to have been
+developed from attributes vaguely shared by the earlier triad Anu,
+Bel-Enlil, and Ea. The moon-god of Ur was Sin (Sumerian Nannara), whose
+name clings to the desert of Sinai. Shamash was the Semitic name of the
+sun-god of Sippar, the Sumerian being Utu; Gishnu, the Light, and
+Ma-banda-anna, 'the boat of heaven' (like the Egyptian Ra), and Mitra were
+among his other non-Semitic names. Dagan, the god of the Euphrates, is
+regarded as a form of Ea, and as probably the same deity as Dagon of the
+Philistines. In later times the astrologers coloured with their doctrines
+the religious beliefs of Babylonia.
+
+Among the early empire-builders of Babylonia were Lugal-zaggisi of Sumerian
+Erech, who claimed to have subdued all lands from the Lower Sea (Persian
+Gulf) to the Upper Sea (the Mediterranean). He flourished about 2800 B.C.
+Another was Sargon of Akkad, who lived about a century and a half later. He
+must not be confused with the much later biblical Sargon of Assyria. His
+son or grandson, Naram-Sin, recorded his great trading activities and
+victories over his enemies, including the Elamites, whose chief stronghold
+was Susa in south-western Persia. Elam was a rival power of considerable
+strength. About 2200 B.C. it had overrun a great part of Sumeria, and Akkad
+fell to the invading bands of Amorites. These Amorites founded the
+Hammurabi Dynasty, of which the king of that name was sixth in succession;
+Hammurabi extinguished the last sparks of Elamite power in Sumeria, which,
+with Akkad, was united to form the kingdom of Babylonia, named after
+Babylon, the capital. It was during this period that Abraham migrated from
+Ur to Palestine. Hammurabi (_c._ 2123-2081 B.C.) codified the ancient
+Sumerian laws and did much to develop trade. The chief god of his kingdom
+was Marduk, 'the later Bel', whose temple was called Esagilla. Babylon
+became the greatest trading centre in Western Asia and a rival of the
+Egyptian Memphis. Sumerian gradually ceased to be a spoken language, being
+supplanted by Semitic, but remained, like Latin, in mediæval Europe, the
+language of law, culture, and religion, while the Babylonian language
+became the language of trade and diplomacy, and was used in international
+correspondence by all the great Powers. The Hammurabi dynasty came to an
+end about 1926 B.C., when the Hittites raided Babylonia and carried off the
+statues of Marduk and his consort. Kassites, assisted by Elamites, had been
+attacking Babylonia from the east, and the Sea-landers, who were Arabians
+mixed with Sumerians, established their independence. In the end the
+Kassites, who were probably Aryan by race, conquered Babylonia and
+established a new dynasty. Like the Trojans they were 'tamers of horses'.
+Their military successes are believed to have been due to the use of the
+horse, which was a rarity in Babylonia before their time, but became common
+as a beast of burden as soon as the Kassite dynasty was established.
+Kassite supremacy lasted for over 570 years, and during that period
+Babylonia was known as Karduniash. One of its early kings brought back from
+Khani (Mitanni) the statues of Marduk and his consort which had been
+carried off by the Hittites. Babylonian civilization was not changed by
+Kassite conquest, and its trade went on as of yore. The Kassites formed an
+aristocracy like the Normans in England. During the Kassite period Assyria
+was a growing power. It had origin as a Sumerian colony, but above the
+relics of the Sumerians at Asshur have been found those of a people whose
+kings had such non-Semitic and probably Aryan names as Ushpia, Kikia, and
+Adasi. The Amorites afterwards swept into Assyria, which they Semitized.
+During the Hammurabi dynasty it was subject to Babylonian overlordship. It
+grew independent during the latter period of the Kassite dynasty, and its
+kings formed compacts with the Kassites. Their western neighbours were by
+this time the Mitannians. An Aryan military aristocracy had formed a
+powerful State in north-western Mesopotamia, where they worshipped Indra,
+Varuna, and Mitra, gods which figure in the mythology of the Aryan invaders
+of India. Egypt, under Thothmes III, extended her Syrian empire to the
+borders of Mitannia and a friendship sprang up between the two Powers.
+Assyria was during the period subject to Mitanni. The Tell-el-Amarna
+letters reveal the fact that Egyptian monarchs had married princesses from
+Mitanni, and the famous Akhenaton had Mitannian blood in his veins.
+
+[Illustration: Ashur-natsir-pal in Chariot, hunting Lions about 884 B.C.
+From a relief in the Palace of Nimrod]
+
+[Illustration: Tablet recording the Wars of Sennacherib]
+
+The Hittites conquered Northern Syria and overran Mitannia when the
+Egyptian Asian empire went to pieces. Assyria then became powerful and
+independent again, the first great king of its new age being Ashur-uballit,
+who was strong enough to interfere with Babylonia's domestic politics.
+Shalmaneser I of Assyria (_c._ 1300 B.C.) conquered the whole of the
+Mitanni kingdom and extended the Assyrian empire westward across the
+Babylonian caravan road to North Syria. He built a new capital at Kalah
+(Nimrud). His son, Tulkulti--Nineb I--(_c._ 1275 B.C.), conquered Babylonia
+and reigned over it for seven years. In the end he was murdered by
+political conspirators, with whom his son was associated. Civil war ensued,
+and Assyria's history is found to be obscure for a century afterwards. In
+Babylon the Kassite dynasty, under which trade flourished, came to an end
+as a result of an Elamite invasion about 1185 B.C. A new Babylonian dynasty
+then arose, and the third king, Nebuchadnezzar I, revived the old empire
+and waged war against Assyria. But the future lay with Assyria, which was
+organized as a military State. It did not have Babylonia's natural
+resources, and could only exist as a great Power by imposing tribute on
+weaker States. A standing army was the basis of its strength. The national
+god was Ashur, who was symbolized by a winged disk, an adaptation of the
+Egyptian winged disk of Horus. It was carried to battle with the king, so
+that wherever the king was, there was the national god of war. The
+heavily-bearded Assyrians were a fiercer and more war-like people than the
+mild shaven Babylonians, who were ever influenced by Sumerian modes of
+thought. The Assyrian temperament is reflected in its art, which at its
+best is characterized by vigorous realism and brilliant ferocity. Much of
+it is harsh, exaggerated, and pompous. A sharp contrast is presented by the
+calmer and more idealistic art of the Sumero-Babylonians. The records of
+Assyrian monarchs deal mainly with extensive conquests. They did their
+utmost to set up a reign of terror in Western Asia, and when subject States
+revolted the chief men in them were flayed alive or impaled on stakes. The
+wholesale destruction of trading city States and the massacres of thousands
+of innocents were fit subjects for an Assyrian conqueror to boast of in his
+inscriptions. Hittites, North Syrians, Babylonians, and Urartians
+(Armenians), were time and again plundered and subjected. A great conqueror
+of the Middle Period was Tiglath-Pileser I (_c._ 1100 B.C.), and other
+monarchs of the same name repeated his conquests and atrocities during the
+last century of Assyria's existence. The military glory of such a monarch
+as Ashur-natsir-pal III (885-860 B.C.), whose armies swept through western
+Asia like cyclones, has a lurid background of savage cruelty and
+oppression. He fought for no greater cause than plunder and the maintenance
+of Assyria's ability to wring tribute from the oppressed. His son,
+Shalmaneser III, extended the empire but died under a cloud of internal
+revolt. Subsequent rulers dominated Babylonia, and one, Adad-nirari IV
+(810-782 B.C.), married the Babylonian princess, Sammurammat, the Semiramis
+of tradition. Tiglath-Pileser IV (745-727 B.C.) was overlord of Babylon,
+and, indeed, Babylonia was more or less under Assyrian sway for the next
+century. Sargon II ('Sargon the later') did his utmost to break the
+national spirit in subject States by transporting whole communities from
+one to another. He removed a portion of the 'ten lost tribes' to the Median
+hills, and dispatched Babylonians from Kutha to Samaria, where they made
+Nergal their chief god. His campaigns extended to Phoenicia, Cilicia, and
+Armenia. Sennacherib, his son, defeated Egypt and her allies in Palestine
+and besieged Hezekiah in Jerusalem. A revolution in Babylonia broke out,
+and he swept into it and devastated Babylon, so that Nineveh might become
+the chief city in Mesopotamia. But Babylon had to be rebuilt by his son
+Esarhaddon, so that its dislocated trade might be restored. Esarhaddon,
+recognizing that the great commercial rival of Babylonia was Egypt, and
+that Egypt instigated the Palestinian and Syrian revolts against Assyria,
+invaded the Nile valley and captured and sacked Memphis. Ashur-bani-pal
+(668-626 B.C.), the next Assyrian emperor, punished the Egyptian rebels by
+sweeping southwards and capturing and sacking Thebes, which is referred to
+as No (Nu-Amon) in the Bible (_Nahum_, iii, 8-10): "Populous No ... Yet was
+she carried away ... her young children also were dashed in pieces at the
+top of all the streets: and they (the Assyrians) cast lots for her
+honourable men, and all her great men were bound in chains". Egypt became
+for a time an Assyrian province. Elam was similarly dealt with, the great
+capital Susa being treated like Thebes. On the north and east Assyrian
+power was established with characteristic Assyrian ferocity and
+thoroughness. The result was that the predatory nomadic tribes of Scythians
+and Medes were able to sweep through the devastated territories and strike
+at the very heart of the empire. Ashur-bani-pal was the last great monarch
+of Assyria. In private life he was cultured and scholarly, and his library,
+which contained copies of many ancient records and literary works, is one
+of the sources of Mesopotamian history. Although the Sardanapulus of Greek
+tradition, he was not the actual monarch who perished when Nineveh was
+captured and sacked about 606 B.C. by the fiery hillmen from the east. The
+Assyrian military organization collapsed and Assyria ceased to be. The
+factors that led to the downfall of Assyria can only be guessed at. It may
+be that its many wars of conquest had left it in a state of exhaustion. It
+is also possible that the new generation of the aristocratic class that
+grew up in wealth and luxury was disorganized by intrigues and corruption.
+After Ashur-bani-pal died, no great leader arose, and the vast unwieldy
+empire suffered from internal decay. Babylonia was the first to foster
+organized revolt. It was overrun by the Chaldeans from the south, who, two
+years after Ashur-bani-pal's death, set on the throne at Babylon their
+leader, King Nabopolassar. With him began the Neo-Babylonian dynasty which
+lasted for 86 years. He had an ambitious and capable son named
+Nebuchadnezzar, who set out, as soon as Nineveh fell, to seize the western
+portion of the Assyrian Empire--the Medes, with whom the Chaldeans had an
+agreement, being content to retain north-eastern Mesopotamia. The
+Egyptians, having overcome the Assyrian garrisons in the Nile valley, were
+by this time moving northward through Palestine with the idea of
+re-establishing their ancient empire in Asia. Memphis and Babylon were
+rival trading centres, and the struggle that ensued was one which was to
+decide which should have preeminence on the western Asian trade-routes, and
+especially the 'clearing-houses' of North Syria. In 604 B.C. Nebuchadnezzar
+met and defeated Pharaoh Necho's Egyptian army at Carchemish. The Egyptians
+retreated in confusion and were pursued to their frontier. Nabopolassar's
+death in Babylon caused Nebuchadnezzar to return home and ascend the
+throne. Eight years later, [Illustration] however, he was back in Palestine
+again. Judah had been plotting with Egypt, its ally, and the Babylonian
+monarch besieged and captured Jerusalem. Thousands of Jews were carried off
+as captives to Babylonia. In 587 B.C. Egypt involved Judah in a second
+revolt. Nebuchadnezzar II again captured Jerusalem. This time he destroyed
+the city and carried away the greater part of the remnant of the Jewish
+people to serve his artisans and agriculturists "by Babel's streams".
+Babylon was triumphant as a political and trading centre, and, during
+Nebuchadnezzar's long reign of 42 years, prospered greatly. Its products
+and its culture were carried far and wide, and Chaldean astrologers as well
+as merchants became known in Egypt and Greece. Babylonia was the birthplace
+of the science of astronomy, which developed from astrology. Nebuchadnezzar
+was a great builder. It is the ruins of his Babylon that have been
+excavated in our own day. Although Greek descriptions of the city have been
+found to be somewhat exaggerated, it was yet made very strong and
+impressive. The royal palace was rebuilt, and the Hanging Garden on its
+terraced platform became one of the seven wonders of the world. Trade
+flourished in the capital, and a harbour was built at the head of the
+Persian Gulf to promote sea traffic. In 539 B.C. Cyrus, the Persian
+conqueror, having defeated the Babylonian army, entered Babylon in state
+and was welcomed by the priests, Nabo-nidus, the last king of the
+Neo-Babylonian empire, having made them his enemies. The independence of
+Babylonia then came to an end, but the importance of its capital as a
+trading centre did not suffer sudden decline. When it was captured by
+Alexander the Great in 331 B.C. it had been much damaged in consequence of
+revolts against Persia. The Macedonian conqueror resolved to make it his
+capital, but his early death, and subsequent political developments,
+hastened its decay. The Greeks had removed the rocks that blocked the
+Tigris, which then could be navigated by vessels from the Persian Gulf.
+Seleucus built the new capital of Seleucia on the right bank of the Tigris,
+and the traders followed the officials to the new Babylon. In time
+Ctesiphon arose on the left bank, and after the fall of the Parthian empire
+it was the principal city of the province. The Moslem conquest of
+Mesopotamia in the seventh century of our era brought about the rise of
+Bagdad, a few miles to the north of Ctesiphon. It will be noted that all
+these cities are strategically situated in the neck of land, between the
+rivers, which is crossed by the caravan roads leading east and west. During
+the reign of the famous Harun al Rashid (786-809) Bagdad was at the height
+of its splendour. A portion of this ruler's great palace still remains, and
+the tomb of Zobiede, his queen, is a prominent feature on the outskirts of
+the city. Bagdad declined as a trading centre after Vasco da Gama
+discovered the sea-route to India, and diverted the merchandise previously
+carried to Europe across the overland routes across Persia and through
+Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. Bagdad afterwards depended chiefly on the
+traffic caused by pilgrim caravans to and from Mecca. The disastrous
+neglect of Babylonia's irrigation system occurred under Turkish rule.
+Towards the close of the nineteenth century Germany obtained concessions
+from the Turks and planned the Bagdad railway, so as to reopen the ancient
+overland trade-route for Indo-Persian trade. British interests in the
+Persian Gulf were seriously threatened by this scheme. When war broke out
+in 1914, a British force landed in ancient Chaldea and pushed northward.
+Bagdad, the modern Babylon, was captured in 1917, and Mosul (Nineveh) was
+occupied in 1918. The Peace Treaty between the Allied Powers and Turkey
+placed Mesopotamia under the protection of Great Britain, which thus
+secured control of the Bagdad railway. An extensive irrigation scheme in
+the southern alluvial valley promises to restore ancient Babylonia to its
+importance as one of the great grain-yielding areas of the
+world.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. W. Rogers, _History of Babylonia and Assyria_; H.
+Winckler, _History of Babylonia and Assyria_; L. W. King and H. R. H. Hall,
+_Egypt and Western Asia in the Light of recent Discoveries_; P. S. P.
+Handcock, _The Latest Light on Bible Lands_; L. W. King, _History of
+Babylon_; D. A. Mackenzie, _Myths of Babylonia and Assyria_; T. G. Pinches,
+_The Religion of Babylon and Assyria_; _The Old Testament in the Light of
+the Records of Assyria and Babylonia_; A. H. Sayce, _Religions of Ancient
+Egypt and Babylonia_; M. Jastrow, _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice
+in Babylonia and Assyria_; R. Koldeweg, _The Excavations of Babylon_.
+
+BABYROUSSA (bab-i-r[u:]s´a; a Malay word signifying stag-hog), a species of
+wild hog (_Sus_ or _Porcus Babyrussa_), a native of the Indian Archipelago.
+From the outside of the upper jaw spring two teeth 12 inches long, curving
+upwards and backwards like horns, and almost touching the forehead. The
+tusks of the lower jaw also appear externally, though they are not so long
+as those of the upper jaw. Along the back are some weak bristles, and on
+the rest of the body only a sort of wool. These animals live in herds, feed
+on herbage, are sometimes tamed, and their flesh is well flavoured.
+
+BAC´CARAT, a gambling card game of French origin, played by any number of
+players, or rather betters, and a banker. The latter deals two cards to
+each player and two to himself, and covers the stakes of each with an equal
+sum. The cards are then examined, and according to the scores made the
+players take their own stake and the banker's, or the latter takes all or a
+certain number of the stakes.
+
+BACCARAT (b[.a]k-[.a]-rä), a town of France, about 15 miles south-east of
+Lunéville, department Meurthe-et-Moselle, on the River Meurthe, with a
+handsome new church, and one of the largest works for plate-glass and
+crystal in France. Pop. 7277.
+
+BACCHANA´LIA, or DIONYSIA, feasts in honour of Bacchus or Dionysus,
+characterized by licentiousness and revelry, and celebrated in ancient
+Athens. In the processions were bands of Bacchantes of both sexes, who,
+inspired by real or feigned intoxication, wandered about rioting and
+dancing. They were clothed in fawn-skins, crowned with ivy, and bore in
+their hands _thyrsi_, that is spears entwined with ivy, or having a
+pine-cone stuck on the point. These feasts passed from the Greeks to the
+Romans, who celebrated them with still greater dissoluteness till the
+Senate abolished them, 187 B.C.
+
+BACCHANTE (bak-an´te), a person taking part in revels in honour of Bacchus.
+See _Bacchanalia_.
+
+BACCHIGLIONE (b[.a]k-kil´y[=o]-n[=a]), a river of Northern Italy, rises in
+the Alps, passes through the towns of Vicenza and Padua, and enters the
+Adriatic near Chioggia, after a course of about 90 miles.
+
+BACCHUS (bak´us; in Greek, generally _Dion[)y]sus_), the god of wine, son
+of Zeus (Jupiter) and S[)e]m[)e]l[=e]. He first taught the cultivation of
+the vine and the preparation of wine. To spread the knowledge of his
+invention he travelled over various countries and received in every quarter
+divine honours. Drawn by lions (some say panthers, tigers, or lynxes), he
+began his march, which resembled a triumphal procession. Those who opposed
+him were severely punished, but on those who received him hospitably he
+bestowed rewards. His love was shared by several; but Ariadne, whom he
+found deserted upon Naxos, alone was elevated to the dignity of a wife, and
+became a sharer of his immortality. In art he is represented with the
+round, soft, and graceful form of a maiden rather than with that of a young
+man. His long waving hair is knitted behind in a knot, and wreathed with
+sprigs of ivy and vine leaves. He is usually naked; sometimes he has a
+loose mantle hung negligently round his shoulders; sometimes a fawn-skin
+hangs across his breast. He is often accompanied by Silenus, Bacchantes,
+Satyrs, &c. See _Bacchanalia_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Farnell, _Cults of the Greek
+States_; J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_; Sir
+J. G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_.
+
+BACCHYLIDES (bak-kil'i-d[=e]z), born in the Island of Cos, about the middle
+of the fifth century B.C., the last of the great lyric poets of Greece, a
+nephew of Simonides and a contemporary of Pindar. The extant remains of his
+odes, hymns, pæans, &c., were augmented in 1897 by papyrus discoveries.
+
+BACCIOCCHI (b[.a]t-chok´[=e]), Maria Anne Eliza Bonaparte, sister of
+Napoleon, born at Ajaccio, 1777, died near Trieste, 1820; a great patroness
+of literature and art. She married Captain Bacciocchi, who in 1805 was
+created Prince of Lucca and Piombino. She virtually ruled these
+principalities herself, and as Grand-Duchess of Tuscany she enacted the
+part of a queen. She fell with the Empire.
+
+BACCIO DELIA PORTA (b[.a]ch´[=o]). See _Bartolommeo_.
+
+BACH (ba_h_), Johann Sebastian, one of the greatest of German musicians,
+born in 1685 at Eisenach, died in 1750 at Leipzig. Being the son of a
+musician he was early trained in the art, and soon distinguished himself.
+In 1703 he was engaged as a player at the Court of Weimar, and subsequently
+he was musical director to the Duke of Anhalt-Köthen, and afterwards held
+an appointment at Leipzig. He paid a visit to Potsdam on the invitation of
+Frederick the Great. As a player on the harpsichord and organ he had no
+equal among his contemporaries; but it was not till a century after his
+death that his greatness as a composer was fully recognized. His
+compositions, many of which are pieces of sacred music, show great
+originality. They include pieces, vocal and instrumental, for the organ,
+piano, stringed and keyed instruments; church cantatas, oratorios, masses,
+passion music, &c. More than fifty musical performers have proceeded from
+this family. Sebastian himself had eleven sons, all distinguished as
+musicians. The most renowned were the following:--Wilhelm Friedemann, born
+in 1710 at Weimar, died at Berlin in 1784. He was one of the most
+scientific harmonists and most skilful organists.--Karl Philipp Emmanuel,
+born in 1714 at Weimar, died in 1788 at Hamburg. He composed mostly for the
+piano, and published melodies for Gellert's hymns; he also wrote _The True
+Manner of Playing the Harpsichord_.--Johann Christoph Friedrich, born at
+Weimar, 1732, died in 1795, a great organist, is known also by the music he
+published.--Johann Christian, born in 1735 at Leipzig, died in London,
+1782, was a favourite composer and conductor with the English
+public.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Spitta, _Johann Sebastian Bach_; A. Pirro,
+_L'Esthétique de Jean Sebastian Bach_.
+
+BACHARACH (b[.a]_h_´[.a]-r[.a]_h_), a small place of 2000 inhabitants on
+the Rhine, 12 miles S. of Coblenz. The vicinity produces excellent wine,
+which was once highly esteemed. The view from the ruins of the castle is
+one of the sublimest on the Rhine.
+
+BACH´ELOR, a term applied anciently to a person in the first or
+probationary stage of knighthood who had not yet raised his standard in the
+field. It also denotes a person who has taken the first degree in the
+liberal arts and sciences, or in divinity, law, or medicine, at a college
+or university; or a man of any age who has not been married.--A _knight
+bachelor_ is one who has been raised to the dignity of a knight without
+being made a member of any of the orders of chivalry such as the Garter,
+the Thistle, or the Bath.
+
+BACHELOR'S BUTTONS, the double-flowering buttercup (_Ranunculus acris_),
+with white or yellow blossoms, common in gardens.
+
+BACHIAN (b[.a]ch´[.a]n), one of the Molucca Islands, immediately S. of the
+equator, S.W. of Gilolo; area, 800 sq. miles. It is ruled by a native
+sultan under the Dutch.
+
+BACHMUT (b[.a]_h_-möt'), a town in the Ukraine, government of
+Ekaterinoslav, with a trade in cattle, tallow, &c., and coal and rock-salt
+mines. Pop. 20,000.
+
+BACILLA´RIA, a genus of microscopic algæ, belonging to the class
+Diatomaceæ, the siliceous remains of which abound in cretaceous, tertiary,
+and more recent geological deposits.
+
+BACIL´LUS. See _Bacteria_.
+
+BACK, Admiral Sir George, eminent English Arctic discoverer, born 1796,
+died 1878. He accompanied Franklin and Richardson in their northern
+expeditions, and in 1833-4 headed an expedition to the Arctic Ocean through
+the Hudson Bay Company's territory, on which occasion he wintered at the
+Great Slave Lake, and discovered the Back or Great Fish River.
+
+BACKERGUNGE. See _Bakarganj_.
+
+BACKGAM´MON, a game played by two persons upon a table or board made for
+the purpose, with pieces or men, dice-boxes, and dice. The table is in two
+parts, on which are twenty-four black and white spaces called points. Each
+player has fifteen men of different colours for the purpose of distinction.
+The movements of the men are made in accordance with the numbers turned up
+by the dice.
+
+BACKHAUS, Wilhelm, one of the greatest living pianists, born at Leipzig in
+1884. At the age of twenty-one he was appointed a professor at the Royal
+College of Music, Manchester. This position, however, he soon gave up, and
+since 1905 has devoted his time to concert tours.
+
+BACKHUYSEN (b[.a]k´hoi-zn), Ludolf, a painter of the Dutch school,
+particularly celebrated for sea pieces, born in 1631, died 1709. His most
+famous picture is a sea piece which the burgomasters of Amsterdam
+commissioned him to paint as a present to Louis XVI. It is still at Paris.
+
+BACKWARDA´TION, a stock exchange term signifying the rate paid by a
+speculative seller of stock for the privilege of carrying over or
+continuing a bargain from one fortnightly account to another, instead of
+closing it on the appointed day.
+
+BACNINH, a town of Tongking, on the Red River, fortified and containing a
+French garrison, being in an important strategic position. Pop. 7000.
+
+BA´CON, Anthony, elder brother of the celebrated Lord Chancellor, was born
+in 1558 and died in 1601. He was a skilful politician, and much devoted to
+learned pursuits. He became personally acquainted with most of the foreign
+literati of the day, and gained the friendship of Henri IV of France.
+Francis Bacon dedicated to him the first edition of the _Essays_.
+
+BACON, Francis, Baron Verulam, Viscount St. Albans, and Lord High
+Chancellor of England, was born at London in 1561, died at Highgate in
+1626. His father, Nicholas Bacon, was Keeper of the Great Seal under Queen
+Elizabeth. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1575 was
+admitted to Gray's Inn. From 1576 to 1579 he was at Paris with Sir Amyas
+Paulet, the English ambassador. The death of his father called him back to
+England, and being left in straitened circumstances he zealously pursued
+the study of law, and was admitted a barrister in 1582. In 1584 he became
+member of Parliament for Melcombe Regis, and soon after drew up a _Letter
+of Advice_ to Queen Elizabeth, an able political memoir. In 1586 he was
+member for Taunton, in 1589 for Liverpool. A year or two after he gained
+the Earl of Essex as a friend and patron. Bacon's talents and his
+connection with the Lord-Treasurer Burleigh, who had married his mother's
+sister, and his son, Sir Robert Cecil, First Secretary of State, seemed to
+promise him the highest promotion; but he had displeased the queen, and
+when he applied for the attorney-generalship, and next for the
+solicitor-generalship (1595), he was unsuccessful. Essex endeavoured to
+indemnify him by the donation of an estate in land. Bacon, however, forgot
+his obligations to his benefactor, and not only abandoned him as soon as he
+had fallen into disgrace, but without being obliged took part against him
+on his trial, in 1601, and was active in obtaining his conviction. He had
+been chosen member for the county of Middlesex in 1593, and for Southampton
+in 1597, and had long been a Queen's Counsel. The reign of James I was more
+favourable to his interest. He was assiduous in courting the king's favour,
+and James, who was ambitious of being considered a patron of letters,
+conferred upon him in 1603 the honour of knighthood. In 1604 he was
+appointed King's Counsel, with a pension of £60; in 1606 he married; in
+1607 he became Solicitor-General, and six years after Attorney-General.
+Between James and his Parliament he was anxious to produce harmony, but his
+efforts were without avail, and his obsequiousness and servility gained him
+enmity and discredit. In 1617 he was made Lord-Keeper of the Seal; in 1618
+Lord High Chancellor of England and Baron Verulam. In this year he lent his
+influence to bring a verdict of guilty against Raleigh. In 1621 he was made
+Viscount St. Albans. Soon after this his reputation received a fatal blow.
+A new Parliament was formed in 1621, and the Lord Chancellor was accused
+before the House of bribery, corruption, and other malpractices. It is
+difficult to ascertain the full extent of his guilt; but he seems to have
+been unable to justify himself, and handed in a 'confession and humble
+submission', throwing himself on the mercy of the Peers. He was condemned
+to pay a fine of £40,000, to be committed to the Tower during the pleasure
+of the king, declared incompetent to hold any office of State, and banished
+from Court for ever. The sentence, however, was never carried out. The fine
+was remitted almost as soon as imposed, and he was imprisoned for only a
+few days. He survived his fall a few years, during this time occupying
+himself with his literary and scientific works, and vainly hoping for
+political employment. In 1597 he published his celebrated _Essays_, which
+immediately became very popular, were successively enlarged and extended,
+and translated into Latin, French, and Italian. The treatise on the
+_Advancement of Learning_ appeared in 1605; _The Wisdom of the Ancients_ in
+1609 (in Latin); his great philosophical work, the _Novum Organum_ (in
+Latin), in 1620; and the _De Augmentis Scientiarum_, a much enlarged
+edition (in Latin) of the _Advancement_, in 1623. His _New Atlantis_ was
+written about 1614-7; _Life of Henry VII_ about 1621. Various minor
+productions also proceeded from his pen. Numerous editions of his works
+have been published, by far the best being that of Messrs. Spedding, Ellis,
+and Heath, 1857-9 (reprinted, 1879-90). Bacon was great as a moralist, a
+historian, a writer on politics, and a rhetorician; but it is as the father
+of the inductive method in science, as the powerful exponent of the
+principle that facts must be observed and collected before theorizing, that
+he occupies the grand position he holds among the world's great ones. His
+moral character, however, was not on a level with his intellectual,
+self-aggrandizement being the main aim of his life. We need do no more than
+allude to the preposterous attempt that has been made to prove that Bacon
+was the real author of the plays attributed to Shakespeare, an attempt that
+only ignorance of Bacon and Shakespeare could uphold and
+tolerate.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Spedding, _Life and Letters of Francis Bacon_;
+R. W. Church, _Bacon_ (in English Men of Letters Series); Sir Sidney Lee,
+_Great Englishmen of the Sixteenth Century_; J. M. Robertson, _Short
+History of Free-thought_.
+
+BACON, John, English sculptor, born 1740, died 1799. Among his chief works
+are two groups for the interior of the Royal Academy; the statue of Judge
+Blackstone for All Souls College, Oxford; another of Henry VI for Eton
+College; the monument of Lord Chatham in Westminster Abbey; and the statues
+of Dr. Johnson and Mr. Howard in St. Paul's Cathedral.
+
+BACON, Sir Nicholas, father of Francis Bacon, Lord-Keeper of the Great
+Seal, born 1510, died 1579. Henry VIII gave him several lucrative offices,
+which he retained under Edward VI. He lived in retirement during the reign
+of Mary, but Queen Elizabeth appointed him Lord-Keeper for life. He was the
+intimate friend of Lord Burleigh, a sister of whose wife he married, and by
+her became the father of the great Chancellor.
+
+BACON, Roger, an English monk, and one of the most profound and original
+thinkers of his day, was born about 1214, near Ilchester, Somersetshire,
+died at Oxford in 1294. He first entered the University of Oxford, and went
+afterwards to that of Paris, where he is said to have distinguished himself
+and received the degree of Doctor of Theology. About 1250 he returned to
+England, entered the order of Franciscans and fixed his abode at Oxford;
+but having incurred the suspicion of his ecclesiastical superiors, he was
+sent to Paris and kept in confinement for ten years, without
+writing-materials, books, or instruments. The cause seems to have been
+simple enough. He had been a diligent student of the chemical, physical,
+and mathematical sciences, and had made discoveries, and deduced results,
+which appeared so extraordinary to the ignorant that they were believed to
+be works of magic. This opinion was countenanced by the jealousy and hatred
+of the monks of his fraternity. In subsequent times he was popularly
+classed among those who had been in league with Satan. Having been set at
+liberty, he enjoyed a brief space of quiet while Clement IV was Pope; but
+in 1278 he was again thrown into prison, where he remained for at least ten
+years. Of the close of his life little is known. His most important work is
+his _Opus Majus_, where he discusses the relation of philosophy to
+religion, and then treats of language, metaphysics, optics, and
+experimental science. He was undoubtedly the earliest philosophical
+experimentalist in Britain; he made signal advances in optics; was an
+excellent chemist; and in all probability discovered gunpowder. He was
+intimately acquainted with geography and astronomy, as appears by his
+discovery of the errors of the calendar, and their causes, and by his
+proposals for correcting them, in which he approached very nearly to
+truth.--Cf. E. Charles, _Roger Bacon, sa vie, ses ouvrages, ses doctrines_.
+
+[Illustration: Bacteria--Forms of cells
+
+1. Coccus. 2. Bacillus. 3. Spirillum (vibrio). 4. Spirillum (spirochæte).]
+
+BACTE´RIA (Gr. _bakt[=e]rion_, a rod), a general term applied to the lowest
+visible forms of life; other names given are _germs_ or _microbes_. They
+are divided into three classes: (1) _cocci_--these are minute spheres about
+one twenty-five thousandth of an inch in diameter, arranged in chains or
+clusters; (2) _bacilli_--these are straight rods about the breadth of a
+coccus and two to four times as long; (3) _spirilla_--here there are two
+forms; one is like a bacillus, but curved (spirillum proper or vibrio); the
+other is a very fine spiral thread (spirochaete) often only half the
+thickness of a vibrio and two to six times as long. Bacteria consist of
+protoplasm surrounded by a membrane, and many show active movements; they
+all multiply asexually by splitting, and so rapidly may the process occur
+that 17,000,000 organisms or more may be formed from one bacterium in
+twenty-four hours. The chief part played by bacteria in nature is to cause
+putrefaction. They are found on all organic matter, and are therefore
+omnipresent. When grown artificially (see _Bacteriology_) they usually
+require organic matter for their food, and this they split up into simpler
+chemical compounds, some of which are very poisonous to animals (toxins);
+they can also split up sugars to produce various alcohols, acids, and
+gases. When certain of the bacilli are starved, the living matter gathers
+itself up into a spore surrounded by a very resisting membrane, and it can
+survive for a long time in this condition. All ordinary bacteria, including
+most of those which produce disease, can be killed by a few minutes'
+boiling, but the sporing varieties (e.g. many putrefactive forms) withstand
+much longer boiling--up to one and a half hours; they can also be killed by
+chemical means (see _Disinfection_). Many bacteria are useful to man, and a
+few give rise to disease (see _Germ Theory_).
+
+[Illustration: BACTERIA
+
+All the above are magnified 560 times.]
+
+BACTERIOLOGY, the branch of science which deals with the structure and
+properties of bacteria. Though the existence of bacteria had been known
+from the time when Leeuwenhock arranged lenses so as to form a microscope,
+it was through the work of Pasteur that modern knowledge regarding the
+group originated. Pasteur's discovery that yeasts are the cause of the
+formation of alcohol from sugar was followed by his showing that bacteria
+are responsible for other processes of a similar character, e.g. the
+formation of vinegar from alcohol, the occurrence of the rancid change in
+butter, &c. When he went on to prove that a bacterium was the cause of a
+disease of silkworms, a stimulus was given to the germ theory of infection,
+and bacteriology was thus early brought intimately into contact with
+medical science. Another stimulus to bacteriological inquiry came from the
+controversy on spontaneous generation, and Pasteur was one of those who
+helped to establish the principle that the new development of living
+things, as represented by bacteria, out of non-living matter does not take
+place. This led to the inevitable deduction that all putrefactive processes
+are due to bacteria. On this Lister founded his antiseptic treatment of
+wounds, the practical effects of which focused attention on the important
+part played by bacteria in human affairs. The modern science of
+bacteriology really dates from 1877, when Koch proved that _Bacillus
+anthracis_ is the cause of anthrax in cattle. The outstanding feature of
+Koch's research was that in it, for the first time, methods were employed
+whereby all extraneous organisms were excluded from the inquiry, and the
+way was thus opened up for the study of the properties and effects of one
+species of bacterium acting by itself. The chief aspects of his work were
+as follows: (1) the determination of the temperatures at which bacteria are
+killed; the knowledge of this enables investigators to render free from
+living organisms their apparatus and the food materials (usually called
+_media_) necessary to support bacterial life (this is called
+_sterilization_); (2) the discovery that the insertion of a plug of
+cotton-wool in the neck of a vessel (e.g. a flask or test-tube) before its
+sterilization constitutes a sufficient filter, which prevents bacteria in
+the outside air gaining access to its interior or to any food medium placed
+in it for sterilization; (3) the elaboration of a series of media capable
+of acting as food for all the commonly occurring bacteria; (4) the
+introduction of a simple method of separating from one another bacterial
+species which in nature are often growing side by side. This is effected by
+making media containing a jelly (e.g. gelatine) which melts at a relatively
+low temperature. The bacterial mixture is well diluted in the melted
+medium, and this is poured out in a thin layer on a sterile glass plate and
+allowed to set. Each individual bacterial cell can thus multiply apart from
+neighbouring cells, and, it may be, in a few hours the resulting growth (a
+'colony') is visible to the naked eye. A minute part of the colony is
+picked off with a heated needle and placed on a mass of sterile medium. In
+this way a 'pure culture' of each species present in the original mixture
+can be obtained. Koch's work was chiefly concerned with disease bacteria,
+and between 1880 and 1895 many such organisms were isolated in pure culture
+and their properties investigated (see _Germ Theory of Disease_).
+
+While in the evolution of knowledge the progress of bacteriology has been
+most associated with that of medicine and surgery, the science has
+fundamental relations with many other human interests, and the same methods
+are used in investigating such relationships. The adaptation of these
+methods on a commercial scale underlies all industrial processes concerned
+in the preserving of milk and in the canning and bottling of meat and fruit
+(apart from the addition of chemical preservatives). Since bacteriology
+came into existence, many of the most primitive domestic procedures have
+been improved and placed on a scientific basis. Thus, butter-making
+involves a previous souring of the milk; this is due to bacterial action,
+and standard mixtures of milk-souring bacteria are now regularly supplied
+by the laboratory as 'starters' of the process. It is recognized that the
+disorders of milk, e.g. 'ropiness', 'blue milk', &c., are due to certain
+'wild' bacteria gaining access to the dairy. The ripening of such cheeses
+as Gorgonzola and Stilton is due to bacteria and allied organisms, and here
+again light has been shed on the 'diseases' of cheese by bacteriological
+investigation. The pickling of foods by salt, or vinegar, or nitre, is due
+to the action of these substances as antiseptics, and a similar principle,
+aided by boiling, underlies the making of jams. Again, certain kinds of
+bacteria which only flourish at high temperatures are responsible for the
+heating of hay and corn stacks, and for the production of ensilage.
+Bacteriology is also throwing important light on factors concerned in the
+fertility of soils. For example, it has been shown that the little nodules
+on the roots of plants of the pea tribe are caused by bacteria; these, in
+growing, take up nitrogen from the air, and form compounds which promote
+the growth of the plant on which they are parasites and remain to enrich
+the soil when the plant dies. In short, there is no industry, which depends
+on natural putrefaction being prevented or modified so as to stop at a
+particular stage, which bacteriology cannot guide towards securing the most
+perfect results.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fischer, _The Structure and Functions of
+Bacteria_; Abbot, _Principles of Bacteriology_; Muir and Ritchie, _Manual
+of Bacteriology_; E. R. Stitt, _Practical Bacteriology_; P. H. Hiss and H.
+Zinsser, _A Textbook of Bacteriology_.
+
+BACTRIA´NA, or BACTRIA, a country of ancient Asia, south of the Oxus and
+reaching to the west of the Hindu Kush. It is often regarded as the
+original home of the Indo-European races. A Græco-Bactrian kingdom
+flourished about the third century B.C., but its history is obscure.
+
+BACULI´TES, a fossil genus allied to the ammonites, characteristic of
+cretaceous strata, having a straight tapering shell. See _Cephalopoda_.
+
+BA´CUP, a municipal borough of England, in Lancashire, 18 miles N. of
+Manchester. The chief manufacturing establishments are connected with
+cotton-spinning and power-loom weaving; there are also ironworks,
+Turkey-red dyeing-works, and in the neighbourhood numerous coal-pits and
+immense stone-quarries. Pop. (1921), 21,256.
+
+BADAGRY, seaport in the British province of Southern Nigeria, West Africa,
+50 miles E.N.E. of Whydah. Pop. about 10,000.
+
+BADAJOZ (b[.a]-_d_[.a]-_h_[=o]th´; ancient, PAX AUGUSTA), the fortified
+capital of the Spanish province of Badajoz, on the left bank of the
+Guadiana, which is crossed by a stone bridge of twenty-eight arches. It is
+a bishop's see, and has an interesting cathedral. During the Peninsular War
+Badajoz was besieged by Marshal Soult, and taken in March, 1811. It was
+twice attacked by the English, on 5th and 29th May, 1811, and was besieged
+by Wellington on 16th March, and taken 6th April, 1812. Pop. 37,600.--The
+province of Badajoz has an area of 8451 sq. miles. Pop. 644,220.
+
+BADAKSHAN´, a territory of Central Asia, tributary to the Ameer of
+Afghanistan. It has the Oxus on the north, and the Hindu Kush on the south,
+and has lofty mountains and fertile valleys; the chief town is Faizabad.
+The inhabitants profess Mahommedanism. Pop. 20,957.
+
+BADALONA (bä-_d_[.a]-l[=o]´na), a Mediterranean seaport of Spain, 5 miles
+from Barcelona. Pop. 19,240.
+
+BADEN (bä´d[.e]n), formerly a Grand-Duchy and one of the more important
+States of the German Empire, situated in the S.W. of Germany, to the west
+of Württemberg. It is divided into four districts, Constance, Freiburg,
+Karlsruhe, and Mannheim. It has an area of 5819 sq. miles, and a pop. of
+2,142,833. It is mountainous, being traversed to a considerable extent by
+the lofty plateau of the Schwarzwald or Black Forest, which attains its
+highest point in the Feldberg (4904 feet). The nucleus of this plateau
+consists of gneiss and granite. In the north it sinks down towards the
+Odenwald, which is, however, of different geological structure, being
+composed for the most part of red sandstone. The whole of Baden, except a
+small portion in the S.E., in which the Danube takes its rise, belongs to
+the basin of the Rhine, which bounds it on the south and west. Numerous
+tributaries of the Rhine intersect it, the chief being the Neckar. Lakes
+are numerous, and include a considerable part of the Lake of Constance. The
+climate varies much. The hilly parts, especially in the east, are cold and
+have a long winter, while the valley of the Rhine enjoys the finest climate
+of Germany. The principal minerals worked are coal, salt, iron, zinc, and
+nickel. The number of mineral springs is remarkably great, and of these not
+a few are of great celebrity. The vegetation is peculiarly rich, and there
+are magnificent forests. The cereals comprise wheat, oats, barley, and rye.
+Potatoes, hemp, tobacco, wine, and sugar-beet are largely produced. Several
+of the wines, both white and red, rank in the first class. Baden has long
+been famous for its fruits also. Of the total area 55.4 per cent is under
+cultivation, 39.4 per cent under forest, and 5.2 per cent uncultivated
+(houses, roads, water, &c.). The farms are mostly quite small. The
+manufactures are important. Among them are textiles, tobacco and cigars,
+chemicals, machinery, pottery ware, jewellery (especially at Pforzheim),
+wooden clocks, confined chiefly to the districts of the Black Forest,
+musical boxes and other musical toys. The capital is Karlsruhe, about 5
+miles from the Rhine; the other chief towns are Mannheim,
+Freiburg-im-Breisgau (with a Roman Catholic university), Baden, and
+Heidelberg. Baden has warm mineral springs, which were known and used in
+the time of the Romans. Heidelberg has a university (Protestant), founded
+in 1386, the oldest in Germany. The railways have a length of 1200 miles,
+and are all State property. In the time of the Roman Empire southern Baden
+belonged to the Roman province of Rhætia. Under the old German Empire it
+was a margraviate, which in 1533 was divided into Baden-Baden and
+Baden-Durlach, but reunited in 1771. The title of grand-duke was conferred
+by Napoleon in 1806, and in the same year Baden was extended to its present
+limits. Until 1918 the executive power was vested in the grand-duke, the
+legislative in a house of legislature, consisting of an upper and a lower
+chamber. The former consisted partly of hereditary members; the latter of
+elected representatives of the people. In the break-up of the German Empire
+in Nov., 1918, Baden was among the first States to feel the shock of
+revolution. The Grand-Duke Frederick I abdicated, and the Provisional
+Government, under the Socialist Herr Jeiss, proclaimed Baden a Republic.
+Two-thirds of the population are Roman Catholics, the rest Protestants.
+
+BADEN (or BADEN-BADEN, to distinguish it from other towns of the same name;
+German _Bad_, a bath), a town and watering-place, in the former Grand-Duchy
+of Baden, 18 miles S.S.W. of Karlsruhe, built in the form of an
+amphitheatre on a spur of the Black Forest, overhanging a valley, through
+which runs a little stream Oosbach. Baden has been celebrated from the
+remotest antiquity for its thermal baths; and it used also to be celebrated
+for its gaming-saloons. It has many good buildings, and a castle, the
+summer residence of the former grand-dukes. Pop. 22,066.
+
+BADEN, a town of Austria, 15 miles S.W. of Vienna. It has numerous hot
+sulphurous springs, used both for bathing and drinking, and much
+frequented. Pop. 19,000.
+
+BADEN, a small town of Switzerland, canton Aargau, celebrated for its hot
+sulphurous baths, which attract many visitors. Pop. 8318.
+
+BADEN-POWELL. See _Powell_.
+
+BADGE (baj), a distinctive device, emblem, mark, honorary decoration, or
+special cognizance, used originally to identify a knight or distinguish his
+followers, now worn as a sign of office or licensed employment, as a token
+of membership in some society, or generally as a mark showing the relation
+of the wearer to any person, occupation, or order. See _Cockade_,
+_Heraldry_, _Totems_.
+
+[Illustration: Common Badger (_Meles vulg[=a]ris_)]
+
+BADGER (baj´[.e]r), a plantigrade, carnivorous mammal, allied both to the
+bears and to the weasels, of a clumsy make, with short thick legs, and long
+claws on the fore-feet. The common badger (_Meles vulg[=a]ris_) is as large
+as a middling-sized dog, but much lower on the legs, with a flatter and
+broader body, very thick tough hide, and long coarse hair. It inhabits the
+north of Europe and Asia, burrows, is indolent and sleepy, feeds by night
+on vegetables, small quadrupeds, &c. Its flesh may be eaten, and its hair
+is used for artists' brushes in painting. The American badger belongs to a
+separate genus. _Badger baiting_, or _drawing the badger_, is a barbarous
+sport, long a favourite amusement in England, but declared illegal in the
+middle of last century, and yet to some extent practised, generally as an
+attraction to public-houses of the lowest sort. A badger is put in a
+barrel, and one or more dogs are put in to drag him out. When this is
+effected he is returned to his barrel, to be similarly assailed by a fresh
+set. The badger usually makes a most determined and savage resistance.
+
+BADGER DOG, a long-bodied, short-legged dog, with rather large pendulous
+ears, usually short haired, black, and with yellow extremities; often
+called by its German name _Dachshund_.
+
+BAD´MINTON, a game closely resembling lawn-tennis, but played with
+battledore and shuttle-cock instead of ball and racket: named after a seat
+of the Duke of Beaufort, in Gloucestershire.
+
+BADRINATH (-ät´), a peak of the main Himalayan range, in Garhwál District,
+in the United Provinces, 23,210 feet above the sea. On one of its
+shoulders, at an elevation of 10,400 feet, stands a celebrated temple of
+Vishnu, which some years attracts as many as 50,000 pilgrims.
+
+BAEDEKER (b[=a]´de-k[.e]r), Karl, a German publisher, born 1801, died 1859;
+originator of a celebrated series of guide-books for travellers.
+
+BAELZ'S DISEASE, an affection of the mouth characterized by swelling of the
+mucous glands of the mouth and lips, leading to the formation of small
+abscesses and ulcers.
+
+BAENA (b[.a]-[=a]´n[.a]), a town of Spain, in Andalusia, province of
+Cordova, and 24 miles S.S.E. of the city of that name. Pop. 14,730.
+
+BAEZA (b[.a]-[=a]´th[.a]; anciently, BEATIA), a town of Spain, in
+Andalusia, 22 miles E.N.E. of Jaen, with 15,843 inhabitants. The principal
+edifices are the cathedral, the university (now suppressed), and the old
+monastery of St. Philip de Neri.
+
+BAFFA (ancient, PAPHOS), a seaport on the S.W. coast of Cyprus. Pop. 1000.
+It occupies the site of New Paphos, which, under the Romans, was full of
+beautiful temples and other public buildings. Old Paphos stood a little to
+the south-east.
+
+BAFFIN, William, an English navigator, born 1584, famous for his
+discoveries in the Arctic regions; in 1616 he ascertained the limits of
+Baffin Bay. He was killed at the siege of Ormuz, in the East Indies, 1622.
+
+BAFFIN BAY, on the N.E. of North America, between Greenland and Baffin Land
+and other islands that lie on the N. of the continent; discovered by Baffin
+in 1616.
+
+BAFULABE (b[.a]-f[u:]-lä-b[=a]), a trading-place in French West Africa, on
+the Upper Senegal, and on the railway that runs from Kayes on the Senegal
+to Bammako on the Niger.
+
+BAGAMO´YO, a seaport of former German East Africa, a short distance
+north-west of Dar-el-Salaam. There is no proper harbour, only a shallow and
+rather exposed roadstead where ships have to anchor some distance from the
+shore, yet it is the chief trading-centre of the colony, and as the
+terminus of the caravan route to Tanganyika is a place of some importance.
+Pop. about 25,000. See _European War_.
+
+BAGASSE´, the sugar-cane in its dry crushed state as delivered from the
+mill, and after the main portion of its juice has been expressed; used as
+fuel in the sugar factory, and called also _cane-trash_.
+
+BAGATELLE´, a game played on a long flat board covered with cloth like a
+billiard-table, with spherical balls and a cue or mace. At the end of the
+board are nine cups or sockets of just sufficient size to receive the
+balls. These sockets are arranged in the form of a regular octagon, with
+the ninth in the middle, and are numbered consecutively from one upwards.
+Nine balls are used, generally one black, four white, and four red, the
+distinction between white and red being made only for the sake of variety.
+In the ordinary game, at starting, the black ball is placed on a point in
+the longitudinal middle line of the board, a few inches in front of the
+nearest of the sockets, and the player places one of his eight balls on a
+corresponding point at the other end of the board, and tries to strike the
+black ball into one of the sockets with his own. After this his object is
+to place as many of his balls as possible in the sockets. Each ball so
+placed counts as many as the socket is numbered for, and the black ball
+always counts double. He who first makes the number of points agreed on
+wins.
+
+BAGDAD´, or BAGHDAD, a city of a vilayet of same name (54,540 sq. miles;
+pop. 900,000) in what was anciently Mesopotamia. The greater part of it
+lies on the eastern bank of the Tigris, which is crossed by a bridge of
+boats; old Bagdad, the residence of the caliphs (now in ruins), was on the
+western bank of the river. The city occupies a large area. The houses are
+mostly built of brick, the streets unpaved and very narrow, and there are
+few buildings of any note. The palace of the governor is spacious. Of the
+mosques only a few attract notice, many are in ruins; the bazaars are large
+and well stocked; that of Dawd Pasha still ranks as one of the most
+splendid in the world. Manufactures: leather, silks, cottons, woollens,
+carpets, &c. Steamers ply on the river between Bagdad and Bassorah, and the
+town exports wheat, dates, galls, gums, mohair, carpets, &c., to Europe,
+the chief import being cotton goods. The estimated population is over
+200,000; of these about 86,000 are Mahommedans, 52,000 Jews, and 7000
+Christians. The city has been frequently visited by the plague. Bagdad was
+founded in 762 by the Caliph Almansur, and raised to a high degree of
+splendour in the ninth century by Harun Al Rashid. It is the scene of a
+number of the tales of the _Arabian Nights_. It was long the chief city of
+the Mahommedan world, and at one time is said to have had two millions of
+inhabitants. In the thirteenth century it was stormed by Hulaku, grandson
+of Genghis-Khan, who caused the reigning caliph to be slain, and destroyed
+the caliphate. It was again laid waste by Timur in 1401. For a considerable
+period it was the object of contention between the Persians and the Turks,
+until it was besieged and captured by Sultan Murad IV in 1638. Since that
+date it remained a part of the Turkish Empire. It was captured by the
+British on 11th March, 1917.
+
+BAGDAD RAILWAY, a railway which, under arrangement with the Turkish
+Government, was intended to run from Konia, which is the terminus of the
+Anatolian railway system, to Bagdad, Basra (Bassorah), and the Persian
+Gulf. It was built chiefly by means of funds provided by German and French
+financiers, in association with the Anatolian Railway Company, a German
+company. The line has been constructed continuously as far as Kara Bunar in
+Cilicia. Farther on, the following sections have been completed: Dorak to
+Bagtché, on the Ordana side of the Taurus Mountains; Radjun, via Muslimié,
+to Jerablus, on the Euphrates, with a branch from Muslimié to Aleppo;
+Jerablus to El-Abiad, and Bagdad to Samara. A branch line has also been
+completed from Alexandretta to Toprak Kalé. Of the distance from Konia to
+Bagdad (1509 miles), 1117 miles (with gaps) are already working. In 1919
+the railway system passed to the Allies, and in 1920 it was announced that
+the line between Basra and Bagdad had been completed.
+
+BAGEHOT (bag´ot), Walter, English economist and journalist, born at
+Langport, Somerset, 1826, died at the same place 1877. He studied at
+Bristol, and at University College, London, and graduated as B.A. and M.A.
+at the London University (1848). He was for some time associated with his
+father in the banking business at Langport, and for a number of years he
+acted as London agent for the bank. He was one of the editors of the
+_National Review_ (1855-64), and from 1860 till his death he was editor and
+part proprietor of the _Economist_. His chief works are: _Physics and
+Politics_; _The English Constitution_; _Lombard Street_; and _Studies,
+Literary, Biographic, and Economic_. He was a high authority on economics,
+banking, and finance, and was often consulted by public men.
+
+[Illustration: Baggala]
+
+BAG´GALA, a two-masted Arab boat, generally 200-250 tons burden, used for
+trading in the Indian Ocean, Red Sea, &c.
+
+BAGGESEN (bag´e-sen), Jens, a Danish poet, who also wrote much in German,
+born 1764, at Korsör, died at Hamburg, 1826. He led a rather wandering and
+unsettled life, spending some time in England as well as in France and
+Germany. He tried lyric, epic, and dramatic poetry, but was most successful
+as a humorist and satirist. One of his best poems is his famous song _There
+was a Time when I was very Little_.
+
+BAGGING is the name of the textile material which is used in the making of
+bags. Baltic hemp was the first material used for the purpose, but now all
+kinds of fibres are used, though the majority of bags are made of jute
+fibre. The style of the bagging used depends, naturally, upon the
+requirements of the bag; for the export of raw cotton from the United
+States of America we find the coarsest of all cotton-bagging used. When
+intended to carry grain, spices, sugar, &c., the bag must be made of
+closely-woven material. In many cases bags to carry sugar are lined with
+paper.
+
+BAGHELKAND, a tract of country in Central India, occupied by a collection
+of native States (Rewah being the chief), under the Governor-General's
+agent for Central India; area, 11,323 sq. miles. Pop. 1,772,574.
+
+BAGHERIA (b[.a]-g[=a]´r[=e]-[.a]), a town of Sicily, province of Palermo, 9
+miles by railway from the city of Palermo. Pop. 21,212.
+
+BAGIMONT'S ROLL, a rent-roll of Scotland, made up in 1275 by _Baiamund_ or
+_Boiamond_ de Vicci, vulgarly called _Bagimont_, who was sent from Rome by
+the Pope, in the reign of Alexander III, to collect the tithe of all the
+church livings in Scotland for an expedition to the Holy Land. It remained
+the statutory valuation, according to which the benefices were taxed, till
+the Reformation. A copy of it as it existed in the reign of James V is in
+the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh.
+
+BAGIRMI (b[.a]-gir´m[=e]), or BAGHERMI, a Mohammedan Negro State in Central
+Africa, situated to the south-east of Lake Tchad. It is mostly a plain; has
+an area of about 20,000 sq. miles, and about 100,000 inhabitants. The
+people are industrious, and fairly civilized. The country is in the French
+sphere of influence, but the people are still under a native ruler.
+
+BAGNARA (b[.a]-nyä´r[.a]), a seaport near the S.W. extremity of Italy. Pop.
+11,000.
+
+BAGNÈRES DE BIGORRE (b[.a]n-y[=a]r d[.e] b[=e]-gorr), a watering-place,
+France, department Hautes-Pyrénées, on the left bank of the Adour. It owes
+its chief celebrity to its sulphurous and saline baths. The springs were
+known to and used by the Romans. The site is one of the most romantic in
+the Pyrénées, and the town is well built and well provided with
+accommodation for visitors. Pop. 8455.
+
+BAGNÈRES DE LUCHON (b[.a]n-y[=a]r d[.e] lu-sh[=o]n), a town, France,
+department Haute-Garonne, in a picturesque valley surrounded by wooded
+hills, one of the principal watering-places of the Pyrénées, having
+sulphurous thermal waters, beneficial in rheumatic complaints. There is a
+large bathing establishment, and a large and splendid casino building,
+comprising a theatre, concert and ball rooms, &c. Resident pop. 4000.
+
+BAGNI (bän´y[=e]), Italian for 'baths', a name in Italy for various places
+which possess natural baths or thermal springs, with some designation added
+to mark the particular locality. _Bagni di Lucca_, in the province of
+Lucca, and about 13 miles north-east of the city of Lucca, is one of the
+most frequented of these bathing-places, its waters being recommended
+against gout, rheumatism, affections of the skin, &c.
+
+BAGPIPE, a musical wind-instrument of very great antiquity, having been
+used among the ancient Greeks, and being a favourite instrument over Europe
+generally in the fifteenth century. It still continues in use among the
+country people of Poland, Italy, the south of France, and in Scotland and
+Ireland. Though now often regarded as the national instrument of Scotland,
+especially Celtic Scotland, it is only Scottish by adoption, being
+introduced into that country from England. It consists of a leathern bag,
+which receives the air from the mouth, or from bellows; and of pipes, into
+which the air is pressed from the bag by the performer's elbow. In the
+common or Highland form, one pipe (called the _chanter_) plays the melody;
+of the three others (called _drones_) two are in unison with the lowest _A_
+of the chanter, and the third and longest an octave lower, the sound being
+produced by means of reeds. The chanter has eight holes, which the
+performer stops and opens at pleasure, but the scale is imperfect and the
+tone harsh. The Highland bagpipe is a powerful instrument, and calls for
+great exertion of the lungs in order that the air may be supplied in
+sufficient quantity. There are several other species of bagpipes, as the
+soft and melodious Irish bagpipe, supplied with wind by a bellows, and
+having several keyed drones and a keyed chanter; the old English bagpipe
+(now no longer used); the Italian bagpipe, a very rude instrument, &c. The
+Irish bagpipe is, musically speaking, the most perfect of
+all.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. G. Dalyell, _Musical Memoirs of Scotland_; E. de
+Bricqueville, _Les Musettes_.
+
+BAGRATION (b[.a]g-rä´ty[=o]n), Peter, Prince, distinguished Russian
+general, descended from a noble Georgian family. He was born in 1765,
+entered the Russian army in 1782, and henceforth was constantly engaged in
+active service, distinguishing himself in many actions and gradually rising
+in military rank. He fought in Poland, in Italy, and against the Turks, was
+engaged in the battles of Austerlitz, Eylau, and Friedland, and at last was
+mortally wounded at the battle of Borodino, Sept., 1812.
+
+BAGSHOT-SAND, in geology, the collective name for a series of sands of the
+Eocene age, occupying extensive tracts round Bagshot, in Surrey, and in the
+New Forest, Hampshire, the whole reposing on the London-clay; generally
+devoid of fossils.
+
+BAGSTER, Samuel, publisher, founder of the firm of Bagster & Sons,
+celebrated for their bibles, was born in 1772, and died in 1851. He began
+business as a London bookseller in 1794, and soon turned his attention to
+the publication of bibles, bringing out a Hebrew bible, the _Septuagint_
+(Greek) version, and the English version, with 60,000 parallel references,
+followed by his great polyglot bible, which in its final form showed eight
+languages at the opening of the volume. Separate versions in different
+languages were also brought out, with various other aids to the study of
+Scripture; a polyglot _Book of Common Prayer_, in eight languages; &c.
+
+BAHA´DUR SHAH, the last of the Grand Moguls of India, a descendant of
+Tamerlane. In 1857, during the Indian Mutiny, the Mahommedans, who wished
+to restore the Empire of the Moguls, placed him, then a very old man, at
+the head of the movement in Delhi; but the city was soon retaken by the
+British, and the Emperor was banished to Rangoon, where he died in 1862.
+
+BAHA´MA ISLANDS, or LUCAYOS, a group of islands in the West Indies, forming
+a colony belonging to Britain, lying N.E. of Cuba and S.E. of the coast of
+Florida, the Gulf Stream passing between them and the mainland. They extend
+a distance of upwards of 600 miles, and are said to be twenty-nine in
+number, besides keys and rocks innumerable. The principal islands are Grand
+Bahama, Great and Little Abaco, Andros Islands, New Providence, Eleuthera,
+San Salvador, Great Exuma, Watling Island, Long Island, Crooked Island,
+Acklin Island, Mariguana Island, Grand Inagua. Of the whole group about
+twenty are inhabited, the most populous being New Providence, which
+contains the capital, Nassau; the largest being Andros, 100 miles long, 20
+to 40 broad. They are low and flat, and have in many parts extensive
+forests. Total area, 4400 sq. miles. The soil is a thin but rich vegetable
+mould, and an important product is pineapples, which form a large export
+(both canned and green). Other fruits are also grown, with sisal hemp (a
+valuable export), cotton, sugar, maize, yams, ground nuts, coco-nuts, &c.
+Sponges are obtained in large quantity, and are at present the chief
+export. Total exports about £382,140 (1919). The Bahama Islands are a very
+favourite winter resort for persons suffering from lung trouble. San
+Salvador, or Cat Island, is generally believed to be the same as Guanahani,
+the land first touched on by Columbus (12th Oct., 1492) on his first great
+voyage. The first British settlement was made on New Providence towards the
+close of the seventeenth century. A number of loyal Americans settled in
+the islands after the War of Independence. Pop. 55,944, including 14,000
+whites.
+
+BAHA´WALPUR, a town of India, capital of State of same name in the Punjab,
+2 miles from the Sutlej; surrounded by a mud wall and containing the
+extensive palace of the Nawab. Pop. 18,700. The State has an area of 15,000
+sq. miles, of which 10,000 is desert, the only cultivated lands lying along
+the Indus and Sutlej. Pop. 780,641.
+
+BAHIA (b[.a]-[=e]´[.a]; formerly ST. SALVADOR), a town of Brazil, on the
+Bay of All Saints, State of Bahia. It consists of a lower town, which is
+little more than an irregular, narrow, and dirty street, stretching about 4
+miles along the shore; and an upper town, larger and much better built,
+with various outlying suburbs. The harbour is one of the best in South
+America; and the export trade, chiefly in sugar, cotton, coffee, tobacco,
+hides, piassava, and tapioca, is very extensive. Pop. 348,000. The State,
+area 164,600 sq. miles, pop. 3,013,007, has much fertile land, both along
+the coast and in the interior.
+
+BAHIA BLANCA, a seaport of the Argentine Republic, on a bay of same name
+opening into the Atlantic, about 350 miles south-west of Buenos Ayres; it
+is a rising place connected by railway with the capital, and a terminus of
+other railways from the interior. It carries on a considerable trade
+directly with Europe, exporting mutton, wheat, &c. Pop. 75,000.
+
+BAHR (bär), an Arabic word signifying sea or large river; as in
+Bahr-el-Huleh, the Lake Merom in Palestine; Bahr-el-Abiad, the White Nile,
+Bahr-el-Azrek, the Blue Nile, which together unite at Khartoum.
+
+BAHRAICH (bä-r[=a]ch´), a flourishing town of India, in Oudh, Faizabad
+division. It carries on a good local trade, and has a shrine that attracts
+many Hindu and Mohammedan pilgrims. It is the seat of an American Methodist
+mission. Pop. 27,304.
+
+BAHREIN (bä´r[=i]n) ISLANDS, a group of islands in the Persian Gulf, in an
+indentation on the Arabian coast, since 1867 under British protection. The
+principal island, usually called Bahrein, is about 27 miles in length and
+10 in breadth. It is in general very flat and low, and the soil is not very
+fertile except in a few places; but irrigation is employed and excellent
+dates are grown. The principal town is Menamah or Manama; pop. 30,000. The
+smaller island of Moharrek, separated by a shallow strait 2 miles wide,
+contains the town of Moharrek, the present seat of government; pop. 25,000.
+The Bahrein Islands are chiefly noted for their pearl-fisheries, which were
+known to the ancients, and which employ in the season from 2000 to 3000
+boats manned by from 8 to 20 men each. Total pop. estimated at 110,000.
+
+BAHR-EL-GHAZAL, a large river of Central Africa, a western tributary of the
+White Nile (or Bahr-el-Abiad). It flows through a very swampy region, and
+is liable to inundations. The head of steam navigation is Meshra-er-Rek.
+The river gives its name to a province of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,
+yielding ivory, rubber, timber, &c., and suited for cotton growing.
+
+BAIADEER. See _Bayadere_.
+
+BAIÆ (b[=i]´[=e]), an ancient Roman watering-place on the coast of
+Campania, 10 miles west of Naples. Many of the wealthy Romans had country
+houses at Baiæ, which was a favourite resort of Horace. Ruins of temples,
+baths, and villas still attract the attention of archæologists.
+
+BAIKAL (b[=i]´k[.a]l), a large freshwater lake in Eastern Siberia, 360
+miles long, and about 50 in extreme breadth, interspersed with islands; in
+the line of the great Siberian Railway. It is surrounded by rugged and
+lofty mountains; contains seals, and many fish, particularly salmon,
+sturgeon, and pike. Its greatest depth is over 4000 feet. It receives the
+waters of the Upper Angara, Selenga, Barguzin, &c., and discharges its
+waters by the Lower Angara. It is frozen over in winter.
+
+BAIKIE, William Balfour, born in the Orkney Islands 1824, died at Sierra
+Leone 1863. He joined the British navy, and was made surgeon and naturalist
+of the Niger Expedition, 1854. He took the command on the death of the
+senior officer, and explored the Niger for 250 miles. Another expedition,
+which started in 1857, passed two years in exploring, when the vessel was
+wrecked, and all the members, with the exception of Baikie, returned to
+England. With none but native assistants he formed a settlement at the
+confluence of the Benué and the Quorra, in which he was ruler, teacher, and
+physician, and within a few years he opened the Niger to navigation, made
+roads, and established a market.
+
+BAIL, the person or persons who procure the release of a prisoner from
+custody by becoming surety for his appearance in court at the proper time;
+also, the security given for the release of a prisoner from custody. In the
+United States bail is a matter of right in all cases where a sentence of
+death cannot be pronounced, and even in such a case it may be allowed by
+one of the judges.
+
+BAILDON, an urban district in the W. Riding of Yorkshire, about 5 miles
+north of Bradford, with worsted manufactures, chemical works, and quarries.
+Pop. (1921), 6527.
+
+BAILEN (b[=i]-len´), a town of Southern Spain, province Jaen, with
+lead-mines. Pop. 8334.
+
+BAILEY (b[=a]´li), the name given to the courts of a castle formed by the
+spaces between the circuits of walls or defences which surrounded the keep.
+
+BAILEY, or BAILY, Nathaniel, an English lexicographer, school teacher at
+Stepney, and author of several educational works. His _Dictionary_,
+published in 1721, passed through a great many editions.
+
+BAILEY, Philip James, English poet, born near Nottingham, 1816, called to
+the bar 1840, died 1902. He published _Festus_, his best work, in 1839;
+_The Mystic_, 1855; _The Age_, 1858; and _The Universal Hymn_, 1867.
+
+BAILIE, or BAILLIE, a municipal officer or magistrate in Scotland,
+corresponding to an _alderman_ in England. The criminal jurisdiction of the
+provost and bailies of royal burghs extends to breaches of the peace,
+drunkenness, adulteration of articles of diet, thefts not of an aggravated
+character, and other offences of a less serious nature.
+
+BAILIFF, a civil officer or functionary, subordinate to someone else. There
+are several kinds of bailiffs, whose offices widely differ, but all agree
+in this, that the keeping or protection of something belongs to them. In
+England the sheriff is the monarch's bailiff, and his county is a
+bailiwick. The name is also applied to the chief magistrates of some towns,
+to keepers of royal castles, as of Dover, to persons having the
+conservation of the peace in hundreds and in some special jurisdictions, as
+Westminster, and to the returning officers in the same. But the officials
+commonly designated by this name are the _bailiffs_ of sheriffs, or
+sheriffs' officers, who execute processes, &c.
+
+BAILLEUL (b[.a]-yeul), an ancient French town, department of Nord, near the
+Belgian frontier, about 19 miles west of Lille. Much fighting took place in
+its vicinity during the European War, but it was not destroyed until the
+campaign of 1918. Pop. 12,828.--A village of the same name in department
+Orne gave its name to the Baliol family.
+
+BAILLIE, Joanna, a Scottish authoress, born at Bothwell, Lanarkshire, in
+1762, died at Hampstead, 1851. She removed in early life to London, where
+her brother, Matthew Baillie, was settled as a physician. Here in 1798 she
+published her first work, entitled _A Series of Plays_, in which she
+attempted to delineate the stronger passions by making each passion the
+subject of a tragedy and a comedy. The series was followed up by a second
+volume in 1802, and a third in 1812. A second series appeared in 1836, and
+a complete edition of her whole dramatic works in 1850. She also published
+a volume of miscellaneous poetry, including songs, in 1841. Her only plays
+performed on the stage were a tragedy entitled the _Family Legend_, brought
+out at Edinburgh under the patronage of Sir Walter Scott; and _De
+Montfort_, brought out by John Kemble, who acted in it with Mrs. Siddons.
+
+BAILLIE, Matthew, M.D., physician and anatomist, brother of the preceding,
+was born 1761 at Shotts, Lanarkshire, died at Cirencester, Gloucestershire,
+in 1823. In 1773 he was sent to the University of Glasgow. He afterwards
+studied anatomy under his maternal uncles, John and William Hunter, and
+entered Oxford, where he graduated as M.D. In 1783 he succeeded his uncle
+as lecturer on anatomy in London, where he acquired a high reputation as a
+teacher and demonstrator, having also a large practice. In 1810 he was
+appointed physician to George III. His work on _The Morbid Anatomy of Some
+of the Most Important Parts of the Human Body_ gave him a European
+reputation.
+
+BAILLIE, Robert, an eminent Scottish Presbyterian clergyman, was born at
+Glasgow in 1599, died 1662. Though educated and ordained as an
+Episcopalian, he resisted the attempt of Archbishop Laud to introduce his
+_Book of Common Prayer_ into Scotland, and joined the Presbyterian party.
+In 1638 he represented the presbytery of Irvine in the General Assembly at
+Glasgow, which dissolved Episcopacy in Scotland. In 1640 he was selected to
+go to London, with other commissioners, to draw up the accusation against
+Archbishop Laud. Of this, and almost all the other proceedings of his
+public life, he has left a minute account in his letters and journals,
+which form a most valuable collection for the history of his time. In 1642
+he was appointed professor of divinity at Glasgow. He was a member of the
+Westminster Assembly of Divines, and attended its sittings from 1643-6.
+After the Restoration, though made principal of his college through Court
+patronage, he did not hesitate to express his dissatisfaction with the
+reintroduction of Episcopacy.
+
+BAILLIE, Robert, of Jerviswood, in Lanarkshire, a Scottish patriot of the
+reign of Charles II. He brought himself into notice by opposing the
+tyrannical measures of Archbishop Sharpe against the Nonconformists, for
+which he was fined 6000 merks (or £500) and imprisoned for four months. In
+1683 he went to London in furtherance of a scheme of emigration to South
+Carolina taken up by a number of Scottish gentlemen, as being the only way
+of escaping the tyranny of the Government. He became associated with
+Monmouth, Sydney, Russell, and the rest of that party, and was charged with
+complicity in the Rye-house plot. After a long imprisonment, during which
+vain attempts were made to obtain evidence against him, he was brought
+before the Court of Justiciary (23rd Dec., 1684), was found guilty, and
+condemned to be executed that afternoon.
+
+BAILLIESTON, a town of Scotland, in Lanarkshire, a few miles east of
+Glasgow, with extensive collieries, in which many of the inhabitants are
+employed. Pop. 5500.
+
+BAILLY (b[.a]-y[=e]), Jean Sylvain, French astronomer and statesman, born
+at Paris 1736. After some youthful essays in verse, he was induced by
+Lacaille to devote himself to astronomy, and on the death of the latter in
+1753, being admitted to the Academy of Sciences, he published a reduction
+of Lacaille's observations on the zodiacal stars. In 1764 he competed ably
+but unsuccessfully for the Academy prize offered for an essay upon
+Jupiter's satellites, Lagrange being his opponent; and in 1771 he published
+a treatise on the light reflected by these satellites. In the meantime he
+had won distinction as a man of letters by his _Éloges_ on Pierre
+Corneille, Leibnitz, Molière, and others; and the same qualities of style
+shown by these were maintained in his _History of Astronomy_ (1775-87), his
+most extensive work. In 1784 the French Academy elected him a member. The
+revolution drew him into public life. Paris chose him, 12th May, 1789,
+first deputy of the _tiers-état_, and in the Assembly itself he was made
+first president, a post occupied by him on 20th June, 1789, in the session
+of the Tennis Court, when the deputies swore never to separate till they
+had given France a new constitution. As Mayor of Paris his moderation and
+impartial enforcement of the law failed to commend themselves to the
+people, and his forcible suppression of mob violence, 17th July, 1791,
+aroused a storm which led to his resignation and retreat to Nantes. In 1793
+he attempted to join Laplace at Melun, but was recognized and sent to
+Paris, where he was condemned by the revolutionary tribunal, and executed
+on 12th Nov.
+
+BAILMENT, in law, is the delivery of a chattel or thing to a person in
+trust, either for the use of the bailer or person delivering, or for that
+of the bailee or person to whom it is delivered. A bailment always supposes
+the subject to be delivered only for a limited time, at the expiration of
+which it must be re-delivered to the bailer, the responsibility of the
+bailee being dependent, in some degree, upon the contract on which the
+bailment is made. Pledging and letting for hire are species of bailment.
+_Agistment_, or the taking in of cattle or live stock to feed at a rate of
+so much per head, is a contract of bailment.
+
+BAILY, Edward Hodges, an English sculptor, born at Bristol 1788, died at
+London 1867. He became a pupil of Flaxman in 1807, gained the Academy Gold
+Medal in 1811, and was elected R.A. in 1821. Principal works: _Eve at the
+Fountain_, _Eve Listening to the Voice_, _Maternal Affection_, _Girl
+Preparing for the Bath_, _The Graces_, &c. The bas-reliefs on the south
+side of the Marble Arch, Hyde Park, the statue of Nelson on the Trafalgar
+Square monument, and other public works, were by him.
+
+BAILY, Francis, astronomer, born in Berkshire 1774; settled in London as a
+stockbroker in 1802. While thus actively engaged he published _Tables for
+the Purchasing and Renewing of Leases_, _The Doctrine of Interest and
+Annuities_, _The Doctrine of Life Annuities and Assurances_, and an epitome
+of universal history. On retiring from business with an ample fortune in
+1825 he turned his attention to astronomy, became one of the founders of
+the Astronomical Society, contributed to its _Transactions_, and in 1835
+published a life of Flamsteed. He died in 1844.
+
+BAILY'S BEADS, a phenomenon attending eclipses of the sun, the unobscured
+edge of which appears discontinuous and broken immediately before and after
+the moment of complete obscuration. It is classed as an effect of
+irradiation, and is caused by the sun shining through the depressions
+between the lunar mountains.
+
+BAIN, Alexander, Scottish philosopher and educationalist, was born at
+Aberdeen in 1818. He was educated at Marischal College (then a separate
+university), Aberdeen; was for some years a deputy professor in the
+university; subsequently held official posts in London; and in 1860 was
+appointed professor of logic and English in Aberdeen University, a post
+which he held till his resignation in 1881. His most important works are:
+_The Senses and the Intellect_ (1855); _The Emotions and the Will_ (1859),
+together forming a complete exposition of the human mind; _Mental and Moral
+Science_ (1868); _Logic, Deductive and Inductive_ (1870); _Mind and Body_
+(1873); _Education as a Science_ (1879); _James Mill, a Biography_ (1881);
+_John Stuart Mill, a Criticism with Personal Recollections_ (1882); besides
+an _English Grammar_; _English Composition and Rhetoric_; an
+_Autobiography_, &c. Bain was at once grammarian, rhetorician,
+educationalist, and logician, but his fame rests on his contributions to
+psychology. He died in 1903.
+
+BAINSIZZA PLATEAU. See _European War_.
+
+BAIRAM (b[=i]´ram), the Easter of the Mohammedans, which follows
+immediately after the Ramadan or Lent (a month of fasting), and lasts three
+days. This feast during the course of thirty-three years makes a complete
+circuit of all the months and seasons, as the Turks reckon by lunar years.
+Sixty days after this first great Bairam begins the lesser Bairam. They are
+the only two feasts prescribed by the Mohammedan religion.
+
+BAIRD, Sir David, a distinguished British soldier, was born in
+Aberdeenshire in 1757, and entered the army 1772. Having been promoted to a
+lieutenancy in 1778 he sailed for India, distinguished himself as a captain
+in the war against Hyder Ali, was wounded and taken prisoner, and confined
+in the fortress of Seringapatam for nearly four years. He and his
+fellow-prisoners were treated with great barbarity, and many of them died
+or were put to death, but at last (in 1784) all that survived were set at
+liberty. In 1787 he became major, and in 1791 joined the army under
+Cornwallis as lieutenant-colonel, and was appointed to the command of a
+brigade in the war against Tippoo. After much hard service he was made a
+colonel in 1795, went in 1797 to the Cape of Good Hope as
+brigadier-general, and in 1798, on his appointment as major-general,
+returned to India. In 1799 he commanded the storming party at the assault
+of Seringapatam, and, in requital, was presented with the State sword of
+Tippoo Saib. Being appointed in 1800 to command an expedition to Egypt, he
+landed at Kosseir in June, 1801, crossed the desert, and, embarking on the
+Nile, descended to Cairo, and thence to Alexandria, which he reached a few
+days before it surrendered to General Hutchinson. Next year he returned to
+India, but being soon after superseded by Sir Arthur Wellesley
+(Wellington), he sailed for Britain, where he was knighted and made K.B.
+With the rank of lieutenant-general he commanded an expedition in 1805 to
+the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1806, after defeating the Dutch, he received
+the surrender of the colony. He commanded a division at the siege of
+Copenhagen, and after a short period of service in Ireland sailed with
+10,000 men for Corunna, where he formed a junction with Sir John Moore. He
+commanded the first division of Moore's army, and in the battle of Corunna
+lost his left arm. By the death of Sir John Moore, Sir David succeeded to
+the chief command, receiving for the fourth time the thanks of Parliament,
+and a baronetcy. In 1814 he was made a general. He died in 1829.
+
+BAIRD, Spencer Fullerton, American naturalist, born 1823, died 1887. From
+1850 to 1878 he was assistant secretary, and then became secretary, of the
+Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and was also chief Government
+commissioner of fish and fisheries. He wrote much on natural history, his
+chief works being _The Birds of North America_ (in conjunction with John
+Cassin), _The Mammals of North America_, _Review of American Birds in the
+Smithsonian Institution_, and (with Messrs. Brewer and Ridgeway) _History
+of North American Birds_.
+
+BAIREUTH (b[=i]´roit), a well-built and pleasantly-situated town of
+Bavaria, on the Red Main, 41 miles north-east of Nürnberg. The principal
+edifices, besides churches, are the old and the new palace, the
+opera-house, the gymnasium, and the national theatre, constructed after the
+design of the composer Wagner, and opened in 1876 with a grand performance
+of his tetralogy of the _Nibelungen Ring_. Industries: cotton-spinning,
+sugar-refining, musical instruments, sewing-machines, leather, brewing, &c.
+There is a monument to Jean Paul F. Richter, who died here. Pop. 34,547.
+
+BAIUS, or DE BAY, Michael, Catholic theologian, was born 1513, in Hainaut,
+educated at Louvain, made professor of theology there in 1552, and chosen a
+member of the Council of Trent in 1563. Leaving the scholastic method, he
+founded systematic theology directly upon the Bible and the Christian
+fathers, of whom he particularly followed St. Augustine. His doctrines of
+original sin and of salvation by grace led to his persecution as a heretic
+by the old Scotists, and the Jesuits, who succeeded in obtaining a Papal
+bull in 1567, condemning the doctrines imputed to him. Baius, however,
+remained in the possession of his dignities, was appointed in 1575
+Chancellor of Louvain University; and the King of Spain even conferred upon
+him the office of Inquisitor-General in the Netherlands. He died in 1589.
+His Augustinian views descended to the Jansenists, while his doctrine of
+pure undivided love to God formed the staple of Quietism. His system is
+called _Baianism_.
+
+BAIZE, a sort of coarse woollen fabric with a rough nap, now generally used
+for linings, and mostly green or red in colour.
+
+BAJA (bä´y[.a]), a market town of Hungary, district of Bacs, on the Danube,
+with a trade in grain and wine, and a large annual hog fair. Pop. 20,361.
+
+BAJADERES. See _Bayaderes_.
+
+BAJAZET (b[.a]-y[.a]-zet´), or BAYEZID, I, Turkish emperor, who, in 1389,
+having strangled his brother Jacob, succeeded his father Murad or Amurath,
+who fell in the battle of Kossovo while fighting against the Serbians. From
+the rapidity of his conquests he received the name of _Ilderim_, the
+Lightning. In three years he overcame Bulgaria, part of Serbia, Macedonia,
+Thessaly, and the States of Asia Minor, and besieged Constantinople for ten
+years, defeating Sigismund and the allied Hungarians, Poles, and French in
+1395. The attack of Timur (Tamerlane) on Natolia, in 1400, saved the Greek
+Empire, Bajazet being defeated and taken prisoner by him near Ancyra,
+Galatia, 1402. The story of his being carried about in a cage by Timur is
+improbable; but Bajazet died, in 1409, in Timur's camp, in Caramania. His
+successor was Soliman I.
+
+BAJAZET II succeeded his father, Mohammed II, Sultan of the Turks, in 1481.
+He increased the Turkish Empire by conquests on the N.W. and in the E.,
+took Lepanto, Modon, and Durazzo in a war against the Venetians, and
+ravaged the coasts of the Christian States on the Mediterranean, to revenge
+the expulsion of the Moors from Spain. Having abdicated in favour of his
+younger son Selim, he died on his way to a residence near Adrianople in
+1513. He did much for the improvement of his empire and the promotion of
+the sciences.
+
+BAJIMONT'S ROLL. See _Bagimonts Roll_.
+
+BAJOCCO, or BAIOCCO (b[.a]-yok´o), was a copper coin in the Papal States,
+the hundredth part of a scudo, or rather more than a halfpenny. The name
+was also given in Sicily to the Neapolitan _grano_, the hundredth part of
+the ducato (3s. 4d.).
+
+BAJUS. See _Baius_.
+
+BAJZA (boi´za), Anton, Hungarian lyric poet, historian, and critic, born
+1804, died 1858. As contributor to and editor of various periodicals he
+played an important part in the development of modern Hungarian literature
+and drama. A volume of his poems, of high merit, was published in 1835. He
+also translated a collection of foreign dramas, and edited a series of
+historical works.
+
+BAKALAHA´RI, a Bechuana tribe inhabiting the Kalahari Desert, S. Africa.
+
+BAK´ARGANJ, a maritime district and town in Eastern Bengal; chief rivers:
+Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna. Area, 3649 sq. miles. Pop. 2,292,000. The
+town now lies in ruins. Pop. 7000.
+
+BAKAU (bä´kou), a town of Roumania, on the Bistritza. Pop. 16,187.
+
+BAKCHISARAI (b[.a]k-chi-s[.a]-r[=i]´), or BAGTCHESERAI (Bakh-chi-Sarai)
+(bäg-che-se-r[=i]; Turk., 'Garden Palace'), an ancient town of Russia, in
+the Crimea, picturesquely situated at the bottom of a narrow valley, hemmed
+in by precipices. It contains the palace of the ancient Crimean khans,
+restored by the Russian Government. Pop. 15,000.
+
+BAKER, Sir Richard, an English historian, born in Kent in 1568, educated at
+Oxford, knighted in 1603 by James I, and in 1620 appointed High Sheriff of
+Oxfordshire, where he had estates. Having given security for a debt
+incurred by his wife's family, he was thrown into Fleet Prison, where,
+after remaining some years, he died in 1645. During his imprisonment he
+wrote some devotional books and his _Chronicle of the Kings of England_,
+first published in 1641, and afterwards continued by Edward Phillips, the
+nephew of Milton, and others--a work of great popularity in its day, though
+of no permanent value.
+
+BAKER, Sir Samuel White, a distinguished English traveller, born in 1821.
+He resided some years in Ceylon; in 1861 began his African travels, which
+lasted several years, in the Upper Nile regions, and resulted, among other
+discoveries, in that of Albert Nyanza Lake in 1864, and of the exit of the
+White Nile from it. In Africa he encountered Speke and Grant after their
+discovery of the Victoria Nyanza. On his return home he was received with
+great honour and was knighted. In 1869 he returned to Africa as head of an
+expedition sent by the Khedive of Egypt to annex and open up to trade a
+large part of the newly-explored country, being raised to the dignity of
+pasha. He returned in 1873, having finished his work, and was succeeded by
+the celebrated Gordon. His writings include: _The Rifle and the Hound in
+Ceylon_; _Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon_; _The Albert Nyanza_; _The
+Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia_; _Ismailia: a Narrative of the Expedition to
+Central Africa_; _Cyprus as I saw it in 1879_; also, _Cast up by the Sea_,
+a story published in 1868. He died 30th Dec., 1893.
+
+BAKER, Thomas, antiquary, born 1656, educated at Cambridge. As a non-juror
+he lost his living at Long-Newton in 1690, and was compelled to resign his
+fellowship on the accession of George I, but continued to reside at St.
+John's College till his death in 1740. His _Reflections on Learning_
+(1709-10) went through seven editions. He left in MS. forty-two folio
+volumes of an _Athenæ Cantabrigienses_, from which a _History of St. John's
+College_ was edited by Professor Mayor in 1869.
+
+BAKEWELL, an ancient market town, England, county of Derby, between Buxton
+and Matlock, possessing a fine Gothic church, a chalybeate spring, a
+cotton-mill erected by Arkwright, and a large marble-cutting industry. Pop.
+3062.
+
+BAKEWELL, Robert, an English agriculturist, celebrated for his improvements
+in the breeding of sheep, cattle, and horses, was born in Leicestershire in
+1725, and died in 1795. He commenced experiments in breeding sheep, about
+1755, upon his father's farm at Dishley, and for fifty years devoted
+himself to the acquisition and diffusion of information upon the subject.
+He was the originator of the new Leicestershire breed of sheep, which has
+since been so well known, and also of a breed of cattle very famous in
+their day. The demand for his rams increased so considerably, that whereas
+he let them for the season at £16 per head in 1755, by 1789 they were hired
+at 6000 guineas. Various improvements in farm management were also
+introduced by him.
+
+BAKHMUT. See _Bachmut_.
+
+BAKHUISEN. See _Backhuysen_.
+
+BAKING, a term meaning 'to cook by dry heat', and primarily applied to the
+baking of bread. A common application of the term is to a mode of cooking
+food in a close oven, baking in this case being opposed to roasting or
+broiling, in which an open fire is used. The oven should not be too close,
+but ought to be properly ventilated. Baking is also applied to the
+hardening of earthenware or porcelain by fire. See _Bread_.
+
+BAKING POWDER, a mixture of bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid, usually
+with some flour added. The water of the dough causes the liberation of
+carbonic acid, which makes the bread 'rise'.
+
+BAKONY (b[.a]-kon´y[.e]) WALD, a thickly wooded mountain range dividing the
+Hungarian plains, famous for the herds of swine fed on its mast.
+
+BAKSHEESH´, an Eastern term for a present or gratuity. A demand for
+baksheesh meets travellers in the East everywhere from Turkey and Egypt to
+Hindustan.
+
+BAKU (bä-kö´), a Russian port on the western shore of the Caspian,
+occupying part of the Peninsula of Apsheron. The naphtha or petroleum
+springs of Baku have long been known; and the Field of Fire, so called from
+emitting inflammable gases, has long been a place of pilgrimage with the
+Guebres or Fire-worshippers. From the development of the petroleum
+industry, Baku has greatly increased, and is now a large and flourishing
+town. About 1500 oil-wells are in operation, producing immense quantities
+of petroleum (6,448,000 tons in 1917), much of which is led direct in pipes
+from the wells to the refineries in Baku, and it is intended to lay a pipe
+for its conveyance all the way to the Black Sea at Batoum, which is already
+connected with Baku by railway. Some of the wells have had such an outflow
+of oil as to be unmanageable, and the Baku petroleum now competes
+successfully with any other in the markets of the world. Baku, formerly the
+station of the Caspian fleet, is strongly fortified, and has a large
+shipping trade. The district of Baku lies within the limits of the new
+Republic of Azerbaijan. Pop. 237,000; pop. of the province, 1,119,600.
+
+BAKU´NIN, Michael, Russian anarchist, the founder of Nihilism, born 1814 of
+a rich and noble family, entered the army, but threw up his commission
+after two years' service, and studied philosophy at Moscow, with his
+friends Hertzen, Turgeniev, Granovski (historian), and Byelinski (critic).
+Having adopted Hegel's system as the basis of a new revolution, he went in
+1841 to Berlin, and thence to Dresden, Geneva, and Paris, as the
+propagandist of anarchism. Wherever he went he caused disturbance, and
+after undergoing imprisonment in various States, was handed over to Russia
+in 1851 by Austria, imprisoned for five years, and finally sent to Siberia.
+Escaping thence through Japan, he joined Hertzen in London on the staff of
+the _Kolokol_. His extreme views, however, ruined the paper and led to a
+quarrel with Marx and the Internationale; and having fallen into disrepute
+with his own party in Russia, he died suddenly and almost alone at Berne in
+1878. He demanded the entire abolition of the State as a State, the
+absolute equalization of individuals, and the extirpation of hereditary
+rights and of religion, his conception of the next stage of social progress
+being purely negative and annihilatory.
+
+BALA, a lake 4 miles long, and an urban district of N. Wales, in
+Merionethshire. Pop. 1408.
+
+BALAAM (b[=a]'lam), a prophet, invited by Balak, King of Moab, to curse the
+Israelites, but compelled by miracle to bless them instead (_Num._
+xxii-xxiv). In another account he is represented as aiding in the
+perversion of the Israelites to the worship of Baal, and as being,
+therefore, slain in the Midianitish war (_Num._ xxxi; _Josh._ xiii). He is
+the subject of many rabbinical fables, the Targumists and Talmudists
+regarding him, as most of the fathers did, in the light of an impious and
+godless man.
+
+BALA BEDS, or BALA SERIES, a deposit of Upper Ordovician Age, named from
+the Bala district, North Wales, consisting of slates, grits, sandstones,
+and limestones, there being two limestones separated by sandy and slaty
+rocks about 1400 feet thick. They contain trilobites of many species, and
+other marine fossils. The lower Bala limestone (25 feet thick) may be
+traced over a large area in North Wales. See _Caradoc Series_, _Ordovician
+System_.
+
+BALACHONG´, an Oriental condiment, composed of small fishes, or shrimps,
+pounded up with salt and spices and then dried.
+
+BALÆ´NA, the genus which includes the Greenland or right whale, type of the
+family Balænidæ, or whale-bone whales.
+
+BALÆ´NICEPS ('whale-head'), a genus of wading birds belonging to the Sudan,
+intermediate between the herons and storks, and characterized by an
+enormous bill, broad and swollen, giving the only known species (_B. rex_),
+also called shoe-bird, a peculiar appearance. It feeds on fishes,
+water-snakes, carrion, &c., and makes its nest in reeds or grass adjoining
+water. The bill is yellow, blotched with dark-brown, the general colour of
+the plumage dusky-grey, the head, neck, and breast slaty, the legs
+blackish.
+
+BALÆNOP´TERA. See _Rorqual_.
+
+BALAGARH (bä-lä-g_a_r'), town of Hindustan, in the Punjab. Pop. 11,233.
+
+BALAGHAT´, a district of India, in the Central Provinces, Nagpur division;
+area, 3146 sq. miles; capital, Burha, a small place. The surface is
+diversified, comprising extensive uplands as well as lowlands; forests are
+extensive, and a comparatively small part of the area is under cultivation,
+rice being the chief crop. Iron exists in considerable quantities, and it
+is worked in a small way; gold is also worked. Pop. 330,000, almost
+entirely rural.
+
+BALAGUER (b[.a]-l[.a]-g[=a]r'), Victor, Spanish author and politician,
+important writer in the Catalonian dialect, born 1824, died 1901. Born at
+Barcelona, he studied law there, and, becoming learned in Catalonian
+history, was appointed archivist and soon after professor of history. In
+1869 he entered the Cortes as a Liberal; in 1872 was Minister of Public
+Works; from 1886 to 1888 Colonial Minister. He wrote much both in prose and
+verse, his prose comprising historical works, novels, &c., his verse
+lyrics, ballads, tragedies, odes, &c. His tragedies were partly on subjects
+taken from Catalonian history, partly on subjects connected with Greek and
+Roman history or literature. Among his lyrical and other poems are: _El
+Trovador de Montserrat_; _Primavera de Ultimo Trovador Catalan_; _Poesias
+Completas_ (1874); _Obras Poeticas_ (1880). _Don Juan de Serrallonga_ is
+the most popular of his novels. Among other works of his are: _Historia
+Politica y Literaria de los Trovadores_; _Historia de Cataluña_; _Los
+Pirineos_; _Cristobal Colon_; _Estudios Historicos y Politicos_; _Historias
+y Tradiciones_; _Instituciones y Reyes de Aragon_. As a poet he was
+imitative, reminding us of Quintana, Zorilla, and Byron.
+
+BALAKLAVA (b[.a]-l[.a]-klä'va), a small seaport in the Crimea, 8 miles
+S.S.E. Sevastopol. In the Crimean war it was captured by the British, who
+used the harbour as a base of supplies. The famous battle of Balaklava was
+fought some distance to the north of the seaport, on 25th Oct., 1854. The
+Russians brought a force of 25,000 men against the allies, a much larger
+force than they had to encounter, and the chief incidents in the battle
+were as follows: The Russians captured a series of positions occupied by
+the Turks in front of the British position; a Russian cavalry charge was
+repulsed by the 93rd Highlanders; a great mass of Russian cavalry was
+defeated by a charge of British heavy cavalry; the British light cavalry
+brigade charged and took a Russian battery, and put to flight the cavalry
+behind it, but were compelled by overpowering force to retreat with heavy
+loss, their retreat being covered by a brilliant charge of the French. The
+celebrated charge of the light brigade, or of the 'six hundred', though a
+brilliant feat of arms, was made under an erroneous interpretation of
+orders; that of the heavy brigade was equally glorious, and contributed far
+more to the final repulse of the enemy.
+
+BALAKO´VO, a river-port of South-Eastern Russia, on the left bank of the
+Volga, government of Samara, with a very important trade in grain. Pop.
+16,000.
+
+BALALAI´KA, a musical instrument of very ancient Slavonic origin, common
+among the Russians and Tartars. It is a narrow, shallow guitar with only
+two strings.
+
+BAL´ANCE, an instrument for determining the relative weights of bodies.
+Balances are of various forms; in that most commonly used a horizontal beam
+rests so as to turn easily upon a fulcrum in the middle. From the
+extremities of the beam, called the centres of suspension, hang the scales;
+and a slender metal pointer between them, and in front of the fulcrum,
+indicates when the beam is level. The characteristics of a good balance
+are: (1) that the beam should rest in a horizontal position when the scales
+are either empty or loaded with equal weights; (2) that a very small
+addition of weight put into either scale should cause the beam to deviate
+from the level, which property is denominated the sensibility of the
+balance; (3) that when the beam is deflected from the horizontal position
+by inequality of the weights on the scales, it should have a tendency
+speedily to restore itself and come to rest in the level, which property is
+called the stability of the balance. To secure these qualities the arms of
+the beam should be exactly similar, equal in weight and length, and as long
+as possible; the centres of gravity and suspension should be in one
+straight line, and the fulcrum immediately above the centre of gravity; and
+the fulcrum and the centres of suspension should cause as little friction
+as possible. The fulcrum ought to be a knife-edge; and if the balance
+requires to be very delicate, the centres of suspension ought to be
+knife-edges also. If the balance has no tendency to one position more than
+another, when the scales are either loaded, empty, or off altogether, it is
+proof that the centre of gravity and the fulcrum coincide, and the remedy
+is to lower the centre of gravity. If the beam is disturbed by a small
+addition of weight to either scale, and exhibits no tendency to resume the
+horizontal position, we may infer that the centre of gravity is above the
+fulcrum. If it requires a considerable excess of weight to deflect the beam
+from the level, we may infer either that there is too much friction at the
+fulcrum, or that the centre of gravity is too low. If two weights are found
+to be in equipoise, one being in each scale, and if, when that which is in
+one scale is put into the other, there is no longer equilibrium, then we
+may infer that the arms of the beam are of unequal lengths. For purposes of
+accuracy, balances have occasionally means of raising or depressing the
+centre of gravity, of regulating the length of the arms, &c., and the whole
+apparatus is usually enclosed in a glass case, to prevent the heat from
+expanding the arms unequally, or currents of air from disturbing the
+equilibrium. A refinement in weighing is obtained by the use of the
+milligram rider, a short bent wire which can be moved along a scale
+engraved on the beam.
+
+Of the other forms of balance, the Roman balance, or steel-yard, consists
+of a lever moving freely upon a suspended fulcrum, the shorter arm of the
+lever having a scale or pan attached to it, and the longer arm, along which
+slides a weight, being graduated to indicate quantities. It is commonly
+used for weighing loaded carts, for luggage at railway stations, &c. A
+variety of this, the Danish balance, has the weight fixed at the end of the
+lever, the fulcrum being movable along the graduated index. The
+spring-balance registers the weight of an article by the extent to which it
+draws out or compresses a spiral spring. It is of service where a high
+degree of exactness is not required, as in its domestic use, and it also
+finds application in the dynamometer for measuring horse-power of
+machinery. An extremely ingenious balance, used in the Mint and the Bank of
+England, for weighing 'blanks' and sovereigns, distributes them
+automatically into three compartments according as they are light, heavy,
+or the exact weight. The Roberval balance is a form in common use for
+weighing letters and parcels.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. A. Brauer, _The
+Construction of the Balance_; E. Nicholson, _Men and Measures: a history of
+weights and measures, ancient and modern_.
+
+BALANCE OF POWER, a political principle which first came to be recognized
+in modern Europe in the sixteenth century, though it appears to have been
+also acted on by the Greeks in ancient times, in preserving the relations
+between their different States. The object in maintaining the balance of
+power is to secure the general independence of nations as a whole, by
+preventing the aggressive attempts of individual States to extend their
+territory and sway at the expense of weaker countries. The first European
+monarch whose ambitious designs induced a combination of other States to
+counteract them was the Emperor Charles V, similar coalitions being formed
+in the end of the seventeenth century, when the ambition of Louis XIV
+excited the fears of Europe, and a century later against the exorbitant
+power and aggressive schemes of the first Napoleon. Since that time we have
+the instance of the Crimean War, entered into to check the ambition of
+Russia. Of late years there has been a marked tendency among British
+politicians to decry and impugn the principle of the balance of power, as
+calculated only to propagate a system of mutual hostility, and retard the
+cause of progress, by the expenditure both of money and life thus
+occasioned. An equilibrium between the various Powers is, of course,
+essential to the very existence of international law. The war of 1914-8 has
+proved to the world that in the absence of any central authority neither
+treaties nor signatures could prevent a State sufficiently powerful from
+ignoring the law and acting solely according to its interests and ambitious
+designs. See _Society of Nations_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hume, _Essay on the
+Balance of Power_; Von Gentz, _Fragments on the Balance of Power_;
+Professor L. Oppenheim, _International Law_, vol. i; Vattel, _Le droit des
+gens_.
+
+BALANCE OF TRADE, the difference between the stated money values of the
+exports and imports of a country. The balance is erroneously said to be 'in
+favour' of a country when the value of the exports is in excess of that of
+the imports, and 'against it' when the imports are in excess of the
+exports. The phrases date from the days of the mercantile system, the
+characteristic doctrine of which alleged the desirability of regulating
+commerce with a view to amassing treasure by exporting produce largely,
+importing little merchandise in return, and receiving the balance in
+bullion. In certain conceivable political and industrial conditions this
+may have had beneficial results; but its importance was greatly
+overestimated, and the state of this balance came to be regarded as an
+invariable criterion of the industrial condition of a country. The false
+analogy of the successful merchant who gains more than he spends became the
+basis of popular reasoning, the products of a country being mistakenly
+identified with its exports, its consumption with its importation. It is
+now generally recognized that if bullion be exported from a country it is
+because it is at the time the cheapest commodity available for export; and
+further, that there are certain natural limits to its undue exportation, in
+that the increased scarcity of money is attended with a fall in the
+money-value of other commodities, which thus in turn become preferable
+objects of exportation, while bullion flows back. The excess of the value
+of imports over that of exports, which is regarded by some as an adverse
+and alarming symptom in British trade, is in large part readily accounted
+for on the ground of shipping receipts, insurance returns, interest on
+capital employed in foreign trade, merchants' profits, and the income
+derived from foreign investments.
+
+[Illustration: Group of _Bal[)a]nus tintinnab[)u]lum_]
+
+BAL´ANUS ('acorn-shells'), a genus of sessile cirripeds, family Balanidæ,
+of which colonies are to be found on rocks at low water, on timbers,
+crustaceans, shells of mollusca, &c. They differ from the barnacles in
+having a symmetrical shell, and being destitute of a flexible stalk. The
+shell consists of six plates, with an operculum of four valves. They pass
+through a larval state, in which they are not fixed, moving by means of
+swimming feet which disappear in the final state. All the Balanidæ are
+hermaphrodite. A South American species (_Bal[)a]nus psitt[)a]cus_) is
+eaten on the coast of Chile, the _Bal[)a]nus tintinnab[)u]lum_ by the
+Chinese. The old Roman epicures esteemed the larger species.
+
+BALAPUR´, town of India, in Akola district, Berar, with strong fort and
+fine pavilion of black stone. Pop. 10,500.
+
+BAL´AS, a name used to distinguish the rose-coloured species of ruby from
+the ruby proper.
+
+BALASOR´, a seaport town, Hindustan, presidency of Bengal, province of
+Orissa, head-quarters of a district and subdivision bearing the same name.
+It carries on a considerable traffic with Calcutta. Pop. 21,362.
+
+BALA´TA, a gum yielded by _Mim[=u]sops Balata_, a tree growing abundantly
+in British, French, and Dutch Guiana, Honduras and Brazil, obtained in a
+milky state by 'tapping' the tree, and hardening to a substance like
+leather. Used for similar purposes to india-rubber, and in the United
+States chewed as a masticatory.
+
+BAL´ATON, or PLATTENSEE, a lake of Hungary, 55 miles S.W. of Pesth; length,
+50 miles; breadth, 3 to 10 miles; area, about 390 sq. miles. Of its
+thirty-two feeders the Szala is the largest, and the lake communicates with
+the Danube by the Rivers Sio and Sarviz. It abounds with a species of
+perch.
+
+BALBEC. See _Baalbek_.
+
+BALBI, Adrien, geographer and statistician, born at Venice in 1782. In 1808
+his first work on geography, _Prospetto Politico-Geografico_, procured his
+appointment as professor of geography in the College of San Michele at
+Murano, and he became in 1811 professor of natural philosophy in the Lyceum
+at Fermo. In 1820 he proceeded to Portugal, and collected there materials
+for his _Essai Statistique sur le Royaume de Portugal et d'Algarve_ and
+_Variétés Politiques et Statistiques de la Monarchie Portugaise_, both
+published in 1822 at Paris, where he resided till 1832. He then settled in
+Padua, where he died in 1848. Balbi's admirable _Abrégé de Géographie_ was
+written at Paris, and translated into the principal European languages.
+
+BALBI, Gasp[=a]ro, a Venetian dealer in precious stones, born about the
+middle of the sixteenth century, who travelled first to Aleppo and thence
+down the Euphrates and Tigris to the Malabar coast, sailing finally for
+Pegu, where he remained for two years. His _Viaggio all' Indie Orientale_,
+published on his return to Venice in 1590, contains the earliest account of
+India beyond the Ganges.
+
+BALBO, Ces[=a]re, Italian author and statesman, born in 1789 at Turin.
+After holding one or two posts under the patronage of Napoleon, he devoted
+himself to history, publishing a history of Italy prior to the period of
+Charlemagne, a compendium of Italian history, &c. His _Speranze d'Italia_
+(1843), a statement of the political condition of Italy, and of the
+practicable ideals to be kept in view, gave him a wide reputation. He died
+in 1853.
+
+BALBO´A, Vasco Nuñez de, one of the early Spanish adventurers in the New
+World, born 1475. Having dissipated his fortune, he went to America, and
+was at Darien with the expedition of Francisco de Enciso in 1510. An
+insurrection placed him at the head of the colony, but rumours of a western
+ocean and of the wealth of Peru led him to cross the isthmus. On 25th
+Sept., 1513, he saw for the first time the Pacific, and after annexing it
+to Spain, and acquiring information about Peru, returned to Darien. Here he
+found himself supplanted by a new governor, Pedrarias Davila, with much
+consequent grievance on the one side, and much jealousy on the other.
+Balboa submitted, however, and in the following year was appointed Viceroy
+of the South Sea. Davila was apparently reconciled to him, and gave him his
+daughter in marriage, but shortly after, in 1517, had him beheaded on a
+charge of intent to rebel. Pizarro, who afterwards completed the discovery
+of Peru, served under Balboa.
+
+BALBRIGGAN, a seaport and favourite watering-place, Ireland, county of
+Dublin; celebrated for its hosiery. Pop. 2273.
+
+BAL´CONY, in architecture, is a gallery projecting from the outer wall of a
+building, supported by columns or brackets, and surrounded by a balustrade.
+Balconies were not used in Greek and Roman buildings, and in the East the
+roof of the house has for centuries served similar purposes on a larger
+scale. Balconies properly so styled came into fashion in Italy in the
+Middle Ages, and were introduced into Britain in the sixteenth century.
+
+[Illustration: Baldachin: Church of St. Ambrogio, Milan]
+
+BAL´DACHIN (-kin; It. _baldachino_), a canopy or tent-like covering of any
+material, either suspended from the roof, fastened to the wall, or
+supported on pillars over altars, thrones, pulpits, beds, portals, &c.
+Portable baldachins of rich materials were formerly used to shield the
+heads of dignitaries in processions, and are still so used in the
+processions of the Roman Catholic Church, and in the East. The enormous
+bronze baldachin designed by Bernini for Pope Urban VIII, and placed over
+the tomb of the apostles in St. Peter's at Rome, is one of the most famous,
+though surpassed in beauty by many in other European cathedrals and
+churches.
+
+BALDER, or BALDUR, a Scandinavian divinity, represented as the son of Odin
+and Frigga, beautiful, wise, amiable, and beloved by all the gods. His
+mother took an oath from every creature, and even from every inanimate
+object, that they would not harm Balder, but omitted the mistletoe. Balder
+was therefore deemed invulnerable, and the other gods in sport flung stones
+and shot arrows at him without harming him. But the evil god Loki fashioned
+an arrow from the mistletoe and got Balder's blind brother H[=o]der to
+shoot it, himself guiding his aim. Balder fell dead, pierced to the heart,
+to the deep grief of all the gods. He is believed to be a personification
+of the brightness and beneficence of the sun.
+
+BALDI, Bernardino, mathematician, theologian, geographer, historian, poet,
+&c., born at Urbino 1533; studied at Padua; became abbot of Guastalla. He
+knew upwards of twelve languages, and is said to have written over a
+hundred works, most of which remain in MS. His works include a poem on
+_Navigation_, various translations and commentaries, _Lives of Celebrated
+Mathematicians_, &c. He died in 1617.
+
+BALDNESS, loss of the hair, complete or partial, usually the latter, and
+due to various causes. Most commonly it results as one of the changes
+belonging to old age, due to wasting of the skin, hair-sacs, &c. It may
+occur as a result of some acute disease, or at an unusually early age,
+without any such cause. In both the latter cases it is due to defective
+nourishment of the hair, owing to lessened circulation of the blood in the
+scalp. The best treatment for preventing loss of hair seems to consist in
+such measures as bathing the head with cold water and drying it by vigorous
+rubbing with a rough towel and brushing it well with a hard brush. Various
+stimulating lotions are also recommended, especially those containing
+cantharides. But probably in most cases senile baldness is unpreventable.
+When extreme scurfiness of the scalp accompanies loss of the hair, an
+ointment that will clear away the scurf will prove beneficial.
+
+BALDOVINET´TI, Alessio, Florentine artist, born 1427. Few of his works
+remain except a _Nativity_ in the church of the Annunziato, and two
+altarpieces in the gallery of the Uffizi and the Academy of Arts, Florence.
+Died 1499. His portrait by himself is in the gallery at Bergamo.
+
+BALDRIC (b[a:]ld´rik), a broad belt formerly worn over the right or left
+shoulder diagonally across the body, often highly decorated and enriched
+with gems, and used not only to sustain the sword, dagger, or horn, but
+also for purposes of ornament, and as a military or heraldic symbol.
+
+BAL´DUNG, Hans, or HANS GRÜN (grün), German painter and wood engraver, born
+in Swabia 1470, died in Strasburg 1552. His work, though inferior to
+Dürer's, possessed many of the same characteristics, and on this account he
+has been sometimes considered a pupil of the Nuremberg master. His
+principal paintings are the series of panels (of the date 1516) over the
+altar in Freiburg Cathedral; others of his works are to be found at Berlin,
+Colmar, and Basel. His numerous and often fantastic engravings have the
+monogram H and B, with a small G in the centre of the H.
+
+BALDWIN I, Emperor of Constantinople, founder of the short-lived dynasty of
+Latin sovereigns of the Eastern Empire, was born in 1172, and was
+hereditary Count of Flanders and Hainault. His courage and conduct in the
+fourth crusade led to his unanimous election as Emperor of the East after
+the capture of Constantinople by the French and Venetians in 1204. In the
+absence of Baldwin's brother with a large part of the army, the Greeks rose
+in revolt under the instigation of Joannices, King of Bulgaria. Baldwin
+marched on Adrianople, but was taken prisoner and died in captivity, 1205.
+Baldwin was succeeded by his brother Henry.--BALDWIN II, fifth and last
+Latin Emperor of Constantinople, was born 1217. During his minority John de
+Brienne was regent, but on his assuming the power himself the Empire fell
+to pieces. In 1261 Constantinople was taken by the forces of Michael
+Palæologus, and Baldwin retired to Italy, dying in 1270.
+
+BALDWIN I, King of Jerusalem, reigned 1100-18, having assumed the title
+which his elder brother, Godfrey de Bouillon, had refused. He subdued
+Cæsarea, Ashdod, Tripolis, and Acre.--BALDWIN II, his cousin and successor,
+reigned from 1118-31. During his reign the reduction of Tyre and
+institution of the order of Templars took place.--BALDWIN III, King of
+Jerusalem from 1143 to 1162, was son and successor of Foulques of Anjou,
+and the embodiment of the best aspects of chivalry. After defeating
+Noureddin in 1152, and again in 1157, he was enabled to devote himself to
+the hopeless task of improving the kingdom and establishing the Christian
+chivalry in the East. His death in 1162 was almost immediately followed by
+the total collapse of the kingdom.
+
+BALDWIN, James Mark, American philosopher, born in Columbia, 12th Jan.,
+1861. He was educated at Princeton College, Leipzig and Berlin
+Universities; was instructor of German and French at Princeton College,
+1885-7; professor of philosophy in Lake Forest University, 1887-9;
+professor of psychology at Princeton University, 1893-1903. From 1903-9 he
+was professor of philosophy and psychology at the Johns Hopkins University,
+Baltimore. Professor Baldwin is best known by his experimental psychology
+and his theories of genetic logic. He distinguishes between genetic logic,
+as theory of thought, and genetic philosophy, as theory of reality. Genetic
+sciences, according to Baldwin, are psychology, sociology, ethics, &c., and
+his point of view he terms 'Æsthonomical Idealism'. Among his numerous
+works are: _Handbook of Psychology_ (2 vols., 1891-2); _Mental Development
+in the Child and the Race_ (3rd edition, 1906); _Social and Ethical
+Interpretations in Mental Development_ (1904); _Thought and Things, or
+Genetic Logic_ (1906-8). He also edited the _Dictionary of Philosophy and
+Psychology_ (1901-9) and _The Psychological Review_ (1894-1909).
+
+BÂLE (bäl). See _Basel_.
+
+BALE, John, an English ecclesiastic, born in Suffolk in 1495, died in 1563.
+Although educated a Roman Catholic, he became a Protestant, and the
+intolerance of the Catholic party drove him to the Netherlands. On the
+accession of Edward VI he returned to England, was presented to the living
+of Bishop's Stoke, Southampton, and soon after nominated Bishop of Ossory,
+in Ireland. Here, on his preaching the reformed religion, the popular fury
+against him reached such a pitch that in one tumult five of his domestics
+were murdered in his presence. On the accession of Mary he lay some time
+concealed in Dublin, and after many hardships found refuge in Switzerland.
+At her death he was appointed by Elizabeth a prebend of Canterbury, where
+he died. His fame as an author rests upon his _Scriptorum Illustrium
+Majoris Britanniæ Catalogus_, or _An Account of the Lives of Eminent
+Writers of Britain_, commencing with Japhet the son of Noah, and ending
+with the year 1557. It is compiled from various writers, chiefly from the
+antiquary Leland. He was also the author of nineteen miracle plays, printed
+in 1558. One of his plays, _Kynge Johan_, is a link between the old
+morality plays and the historical drama.
+
+BALEAR´IC CRANE (_Balear[)i]ca pavon[=i]na_), a handsome species of crested
+crane inhabiting North-West Africa.
+
+BALEAR´IC ISLANDS, an archipelago of four large and eleven small islands,
+south-east of Spain, including Majorca, Minorca, Iviza, and Formentera. The
+popular derivation of the ancient name Baleares (Gr. _ballein_, to throw)
+has reference to the repute of the inhabitants for their skill in slinging,
+in which they distinguished themselves both in the army of Hannibal and
+under the Romans, by whom the islands were annexed in 123 B.C. After being
+taken by the Vandals, under Genseric, and in the eighth century by the
+Moors, they were taken by James I, King of Aragon, 1220-34, and constituted
+a kingdom, which in 1343 was united to Spain. The islands now form a
+Spanish province, with an area of 1935 sq. miles, and 330,167 inhabitants.
+See separate articles.
+
+BALEEN´. See _Whale-bone_.
+
+BALE-FIRE, any great fire kindled in the open air, especially the fire of a
+funeral pile, or a beacon-fire.
+
+BALEN (bä´len), Hendrik van, painter, born at Antwerp 1560, died 1632. His
+works, chiefly classical, religious, and allegorical--some of them executed
+in partnership with Breughel--are to be found in most of the European
+galleries. He was the first master of Van Dyck and Snyders. Three of his
+sons also followed the art.
+
+BALFE (balf), Michael William, composer, was born in Dublin, 15th May,
+1808. In his seventh year he performed in public on the violin, and at
+sixteen took the part of the Wicked Huntsman in _Der Freischütz_ at Drury
+Lane. In 1825 he went to Italy, wrote the music for a ballet, _La Pérouse_,
+for the Scala at Milan, and in the following year sang at the
+Théâtre-Italien, Paris, with moderate success. He returned to Italy, and at
+Palermo was given his first opera, _I Rivali_ (1829). For five years he
+continued singing and composing operas for the Italian stage. In 1835 he
+came to England, and composed a number of operas, amongst others _The
+Bohemian Girl_ (1843), _The Rose of Castile_ (1857), _Satanella_ (1858),
+and _The Talisman_ (first performed in 1874). He died 20th Oct., 1870. His
+operas are melodious, and many of the airs are excellent.
+
+BALFOUR (bal-för´), Sir Andrew, Bart., a Scottish botanist and physician,
+born in Fifeshire in 1630. After completing his studies at St. Andrews and
+London, and travelling on the Continent, he settled at Edinburgh, where he
+planned, with Sir Robert Sibbald, the Royal College of Physicians, and was
+elected its first president. He also laid the foundation of a hospital in
+Edinburgh, which expanded into the Royal Infirmary. He died in 1694. His
+familiar letters were published in 1700.
+
+BAL´FOUR, Right Hon. Arthur James, First Earl of (created 1922), son of
+J. M. Balfour of Whittingehame, Haddingtonshire, and of Lady Blanche Cecil,
+sister of the third Marquess of Salisbury, was born 25th July, 1848, and
+educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge. He represented Hertford
+from 1874-5, East Manchester from 1885 to 1906, and has been representative
+for the City of London since 1906. For a time he was private secretary to
+his uncle, Lord Salisbury, under whom he was President of the Local
+Government Board, and afterwards Secretary for Scotland (1886-7), with a
+seat in the cabinet. He showed much firmness and ability as Chief Secretary
+for Ireland during Lord Salisbury's administration from 1887-91. He
+succeeded Rt. Hon. W. H. Smith as leader of the House of Commons and First
+Lord of the Treasury in 1891-2, and held the position again from 1895 till
+1900, and from that year till 1902. On the retirement of Lord Salisbury in
+1902 he became Prime Minister, a position which he retained till Dec.,
+1905. Under him as Premier was passed the new English Education Act (which
+owed much to his personal influence and exertions), that for London, and
+the new Licensing Act, and he advocated a change of our fiscal policy, at
+least as far as having recourse to retaliation, denying that he in any way
+favoured protection. He became First Lord of the Admiralty in the Coalition
+Government of 1915, and Foreign Secretary in 1916. He was one of the
+British delegates to the Peace Conference in 1919. He is given to studies
+bearing on philosophy and religion, and has published a _Defence of
+Philosophic Doubt_ (1879), _Essays and Addresses_ (1893), _The Foundations
+of Belief_ (1895), _Economic Notes on Insular Free-Trade_ (1903),
+_Criticism and Beauty_ (1909), _Theism and Humanism_ (1915), &c. He was
+President of the British Association in 1904, and Gifford Lecturer, Glasgow
+University, 1913-4. In 1919 he was elected to succeed Lord Rayleigh, O.M.,
+as Chancellor of Cambridge University.
+
+BALFOUR, Francis Maitland, writer on embryology, brother of the foregoing,
+born in 1851, early distinguished himself in his special study, and in
+1874, in conjunction with Dr. M. Foster, published _The Elements of
+Embryology_; but the promise of his chief work, _Comparative Embryology_
+(1880-1) was unfulfilled, as in 1882 he was killed by a fall on Mont Blanc.
+
+BALFOUR, Sir James, Scottish lawyer and politician, born about 1522, took
+part in the conspiracy against Cardinal Beaton, and was condemned with Knox
+to the galleys; but after his release found it to his interest to change
+his opinions, and was appointed, through the favour of Queen Mary, Lord of
+Session and member of the Privy Council. In 1567 he was appointed Governor
+of Edinburgh Castle, but had no scruple in surrendering it to Murray, who
+made him President of the Court of Session. He was charged with a share in
+the murder of Darnley, and helped to bring Regent Morton to his death. He
+died in 1583. _The Practicks of Scots Law_, attributed to him, was long a
+textbook.
+
+BALFOUR, John Hutton, a distinguished botanist, born 1808, died 1884. He
+graduated at Edinburgh University in arts and in medicine; from 1841 to
+1845 was professor of botany in Glasgow University; and in the latter year
+removed to Edinburgh to occupy a similar post, resigning his chair in 1879.
+He wrote valuable botanical textbooks, including _Elements_, _Outlines_,
+_Manual_, and _Class-book_, besides various other works.
+
+BALFROOSH´, or BARFURUSH´, a town, Persia, province of Mazanderan, about
+twelve miles from the Caspian, a great emporium of the trade between Persia
+and Russia. Pop. estimated at 50,000.
+
+BA´LI, an island of the Indian Archipelago east of Java, belonging to
+Holland; greatest length, 85 miles, greatest breadth, 55 miles; area, about
+2160 sq. miles. It consists chiefly of a series of volcanic mountains, of
+which the loftiest, Agoong (11,326 feet), became active in 1843 after a
+long period of quiescence. Principal products: rice, cocoa, coffee, indigo,
+cotton, &c. The people are akin to those of Java and are mostly Brahmans in
+religion. It is divided into eight provinces under native rajahs, and since
+1882 has formed one colony with Lombok, the united pop. being 1,363,000, of
+whom about 900,000 belong to Bali.
+
+BAL´IOL, or BALLIOL, John de, of Barnard Castle, Northumberland, father of
+King John Baliol, a great English (or Norman) baron in the reign of Henry
+III, to whose cause he strongly attached himself in his struggles with the
+barons. In 1263 he laid the foundation of Balliol College, Oxford, which
+was completed by his widow Devorguila or Devorgilla. She was daughter and
+co-heiress of Allan of Galloway, a great baron of Scotland, by Margaret,
+eldest daughter of David, Earl of Huntingdon, brother of William the Lion.
+It was on the strength of this genealogy that his son John Baliol became
+temporary King of Scotland. He died 1269.
+
+BAL´IOL, or BALLIOL, John, King of Scotland, born about 1249, died 1315. On
+the death of Margaret, the Maid of Norway and grandchild of Alexander III,
+Baliol claimed the vacant throne by virtue of his descent from David, Earl
+of Huntingdon, brother to William the Lion, King of Scotland (see above
+article). Robert Bruce (grandfather of the king) opposed Baliol; but Edward
+I's decision was in favour of Baliol, who did homage to him for the
+kingdom, 20th Nov., 1292. Irritated by Edward's harsh exercise of
+authority, Baliol concluded a treaty with France, then at war with England;
+but after the defeat at Dunbar he surrendered his crown into the hands of
+the English monarch. He was sent with his son to the Tower, but, by the
+intercession of the Pope in 1297, obtained liberty to retire to his Norman
+estates, where he died.--His son, Edward, in 1332 landed in Fife with an
+armed force, and, having defeated a large army under the Regent Mar (who
+was killed), got himself crowned king, but was driven out in three months.
+
+BALIS´TIDÆ. See _Trigger-fishes_.
+
+BALIZE (ba-l[=e]z´). See _Belize_.
+
+BAL´KAN (ancient, HÆMUS), a rugged chain of mountains extending from Cape
+Emineh, on the Black Sea, in Eastern Roumelia, westwards to the borders of
+Serbia, though the name is sometimes used to include the whole mountain
+system from the Black Sea to the Adriatic, the region south of Austria and
+Russia, or south of the Danube and Save, forming the Balkan Peninsula. The
+range, which is over 200 miles in length, forms the water-shed between the
+streams flowing northward into the Danube and those flowing southward to
+the Ægean, the chief of the latter being the Maritza. The average height is
+not more than 5000 feet, but the highest point, Tchat-al-dagh, is 8340
+feet. In the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-8 the Russian troops managed to
+cross it without great difficulty, though they had to encounter a stubborn
+resistance at the Shipka Pass, where a Turkish army of 32,000 men
+ultimately surrendered to them.
+
+BALKAN LEAGUE, THE. After the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by
+Austria, in 1908, the Balkan League of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and
+Greece was formed, apparently at the instigation of the Powers of the
+Triple Entente, primarily to constitute a bulwark against Austrian
+aggression towards the southeast. The League, however, directed its
+activities against Turkey, taking advantage of Turkish embarrassments in
+Libya and of the success of an insurrection in Albania to attempt in 1912
+the overthrow of the Turkish regime in Europe. The declaration of
+hostilities by the League in Oct., 1912, began the First Balkan War (q.v.).
+The League was maintained during the two campaigns of the war, but jealousy
+of Bulgarian pre-eminence led to its disruption in June, 1913, when Serbia,
+Montenegro, and Greece went to war with their former ally.
+
+BALKAN STATES. See _Bulgaria_, _Greece_, _Roumania_, _Serbia_, _Turkey_,
+and _Yugo-Slavs_.
+
+BALKAN WAR, THE. The First Balkan War (Oct., 1912-May, 1913) was the effort
+of the Balkan League (q.v.) to dismember Turkey in Europe. Each member of
+the League was allotted a definite strategic object, and each gained a
+considerable measure of success. Bulgaria defeated the Turks at Kirk
+Kilisseh and Lule Burgas, and drove them behind the lines of Tchataldja.
+The Greeks captured Salonica; the Serbians forced their way to the sea at
+Durazzo. The Montenegrins invested Scutari. An armistice in December was
+followed by indecisive negotiations, in which the Great Powers took part.
+Renewed hostilities in the spring of 1913 (during which the Turks lost
+Adrianople) came to an end with the Treaty of London in May. Before its
+promises could be carried out, Serbia, Greece, and Roumania joined to crush
+Bulgaria in the Second Balkan War, alleging that her claims to conquered
+territory in Macedonia were excessive. The Treaty of Bucharest (Aug., 1913)
+finally concluded the war. The net results were: (1) to confine Turkey to
+Constantinople and the vilayet of Adrianople; (2) to extend Bulgarian
+territory to the Ægean and to increase greatly both Serbia and Montenegro;
+(3) to grant Salonica to Greece; (4) to create an autonomous
+Albania.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Ashmead-Bartlett, _With the Turks in Thrace_;
+_The Balkan War Drama_, by a Special Correspondent; D. J. Cassvetti,
+_Hellas and the Balkan Wars_; Sir J. R. L. Rankin, _The Inner History of
+the Balkan War_.
+
+BALKASH´, or BALKHASH (b[.a]l-_h_[.a]sh´), a salt lake in Russian Central
+Asia, surrounded by steppes and plains; length about 330 miles, area 8500
+sq. miles, depth nowhere more than 80 feet; formerly of much greater area
+and gradually growing smaller; receives the Ili and other smaller streams.
+
+BALKH (bälk or bäl_h_), a city in the north of Afghanistan, in Afghan
+Turkestan, at one time the emporium of the trade between India, China, and
+Western Asia. It was long the centre of Zoroastrianism, and was also an
+important Buddhist centre. In 1220 it was sacked by Genghis Khan, and again
+by Timur in the fourteenth century. The remains of the ancient city extend
+for miles. The town is now merely a village, but a new town has been built
+an hour's journey north of the old, the residence of the Afghan governor,
+with a pop. of about 20,000. The district, which formed a portion of
+ancient Bactria, lies between the Oxus and the Hindu-Kush, with Badakshan
+to the east and the desert to the west. In the vicinity of the Oxus, where
+there are facilities for irrigation, the soil is rich and productive, and
+there are many populous villages.
+
+BAL´KIS, the Arabian name of the Queen of Sheba who visited Solomon. She is
+the central figure of innumerable Eastern legends and tales.
+
+BALL, GAME OF. Ball-playing was practised by the ancients, and old and
+young amused themselves with it. The Phæacian damsels are represented in
+the _Odyssey_ as playing it to the sound of music; and Horace represents
+Mæcenas as amusing himself thus during a journey. In the Greek gymnasia,
+the Roman baths, and in many Roman villas, a _sphæristerium_ (a place
+appropriated for playing ball) was to be found; the games played being
+similar to those of the present day. In the Middle Ages the sport continued
+to be very popular both as an indoor and outdoor exercise, and was a
+favourite Court pastime until about the end of the eighteenth century. In
+England football and tennis are mentioned at an early date, and a favourite
+game prior to the English revolution was one in which a _mall_ or mallet
+was used, hence the name _pall-mall_ (It. _palla_, Lat. _pila_, a ball) for
+the game and the place where it was played. The most popular modern forms
+are cricket, base-ball, football, golf, lawn-tennis, fives, and polo.
+
+BALL, John, an itinerant preacher of the fourteenth century, excommunicated
+about 1367 for promulgating "errors, schisms, and scandals against the
+Pope, archbishops, bishops, and clergy". He was one of the most active
+promoters of the popular insurgent spirit which found vent under Wat Tyler
+in 1381, and the couplet
+
+ "When Adam delved and Eve span
+  Who was then the gentleman?"
+
+is attributed to him. He was hanged, drawn, and quartered on 15th July,
+1381.
+
+BALL, Sir Robert Stawell, astronomer, born at Dublin 1840, educated at
+Chester and Trinity College, Dublin. In 1865 he was appointed Lord Rosse's
+astronomer at Parsonstown, and subsequently held various official posts,
+including those of Andrews professor of astronomy in the University of
+Dublin and Astronomer Royal for Ireland (1874), Lowndean professor of
+astronomy and geometry in the University of Cambridge and director of the
+observatory (1892). He became F.R.S. in 1873, and was knighted in 1886.
+Besides many memoirs and articles, he published _The Story of the Heavens_,
+_Starland_, _In Starry Realms_, _Time and Tide_, _The Story of the Sun_,
+_Great Astronomers_, _The Earth's Beginning_, _Popular Guide to the
+Heavens_ (numerous plates with accompanying text), _Natural Sources of
+Power_, &c. He died in 1913.
+
+BAL´LAD, a term loosely applied to various poetic forms of the song type,
+but in its most definite sense a poem in which a short narrative is
+subjected to simple lyrical treatment. It was, as indicated by its name,
+which is related to the Low Latin _ballare_ and O. French _baller_, to
+dance, originally a song accompanied by a dance. The ballad, like the
+nursery tales and the _Märchen_, is probably one of the earliest forms of
+rhythmic poetic expression, constituting a species of epic in miniature,
+out of which by fusion and remoulding larger epics were sometimes shaped.
+Their present form is, of course, relatively recent. As in the folk-tales,
+so in the ballads of different nations, the resemblances are sufficiently
+numerous and close to point to the conclusion that they have often had
+their first origin in the same primitive folk-lore or popular tales. But in
+any case, excepting a few modern literary ballads of a subtler kind, they
+have been the popular expression of the broad human emotions clustering
+about some strongly-outlined incidents of war, love, crime, superstition,
+or death. It is probable that in the Homeric poems fragments of older
+ballads are embedded; but the earliest ballads, properly so called, of
+which we have record were the _ballistea_ or dancing-songs of the Romans,
+of the kind sung in honour of the deeds of Aurelian in the Sarmatic war by
+a chorus of dancing boys. In their less specialized sense of lyric
+narratives, their early popularity among the Teutonic race is evidenced by
+the testimony of Tacitus, of the Gothic historian Jornandes, and the
+Lombard historian Paulus Diaconus; and many appear to have been written
+down by order of Charlemagne and used as a means of education. Of the
+ballads of this period, however, only a general conception can be formed
+from their traces in conglomerates like the _Niebelungenlied_; the more
+artificial productions of the Minnesingers and Meistersingers overlying the
+more popular ballad until the fifteenth century, when it sprang once more
+into vigorous life. A third German ballad period was initiated by Bürger,
+under the inspiration of the revived interest in the subject shown in Great
+Britain and the publication of the Percy _Reliques_; and the movement was
+sustained by Herder, Schiller, Goethe, Heine, Uhland, and others. The
+earlier German work is, however, of inferior value to that of Scandinavia,
+where, though comparatively few manuscripts have survived, and those not
+more than three or four centuries old, a more perfect oral tradition has
+rendered it possible to trace the original stock of the twelfth century.
+
+Of the English and Scottish ballads anterior to the thirteenth century
+there are few traces beyond the indication that they were abundant, if
+indeed anything can be definitely asserted of them earlier than the
+fourteenth century. Among the oldest may be placed _The Little Gest of
+Robin Hood_, _Hugh of Lincoln_, _Sir Patrick Spens_, and the _Battle of
+Otterbourn_. In the fifteenth century specimens multiply rapidly:
+ballad-making became in the reign of Henry VIII a fashionable amusement,
+the king himself setting the example; and though in the reign of Elizabeth
+ballads came into literary disrepute and ballad singers were brought under
+the law, yet there was no apparent check upon the rate of their production.
+Except perhaps in the north of England and south of Scotland, there was,
+however, a marked and increasing tendency to vulgarization as distinct from
+the preservation of popular qualities. The value of the better ballads was
+lost sight of in the flood of dull, rhythmless, and frequently scurrilous
+verse. The modern revival in Britain dates from the publication of Allan
+Ramsay's _Evergreen_ and _Tea-table Miscellany_ (1724-7) and of the
+selection _Reliques_ made by Bishop Percy from his seventeenth-century MSS.
+(1765), a revival not more important for its historic interest than for the
+influence which it has exercised upon all subsequent poetry.
+
+The threefold wave discernible in German, if not in British, ballad
+history, is equally to be traced in Spain, which alone among the Latinized
+countries of Europe has songs of equal age and merit with the British
+historic ballads. The principal difference between them is, that for the
+most part the Spanish romance is in trochaic, the British ballad in iambic
+metre. The ballads of the Cid date from about the end of the twelfth and
+beginning of the thirteenth century; and then followed an interval of more
+elaborate production, a revival of ballad interest in the sixteenth
+century, a new declension, and finally a modern and still-persisting
+enthusiasm.
+
+The French poetry of this kind never reached any high degree of perfection,
+the romance, farce, and lyric flourishing at the expense of the ballad
+proper. Of Italy much the same may be said, though Sicily has supplied a
+great store of ballads; and nearly all the Portuguese poetry of this kind
+is to be traced to a Spanish origin. The Russians have lyrico-epic poems,
+of which some, in old Russian, are excellent, and the Serbians are still in
+the ballad-producing stage of civilization. Modern Greece has also its
+store of ballads, published in several collections. In Greece, Russia, and
+elsewhere the old habit of improvising song as an accompaniment to dance
+still exists.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Professor Child, _English and Scottish Popular
+Ballads_; Professor Gummere, _The Beginnings of Poetry_; Sir W. Scott,
+_Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border_ (edited by T. F. Henderson); T. F.
+Henderson, _The Ballad in Literature_.
+
+BALLADE (bal-[.a]d´), the earlier and modern French spelling of _ballad_,
+but now limited in its use to a distinct verse-form introduced into English
+literature of late years from the French, and chiefly used by writers of
+_vers-de-société_. It consists of three stanzas of eight lines each, with
+an _envoy_ or closing stanza of four lines. The rhymes, which are not more
+than three, follow each other in the stanzas thus: a, b, a, b; b, c, b, c,
+and in the envoy, b, c, b, c; and the same line serves as a refrain to each
+of the stanzas and to the envoy. There are other varieties, but this may be
+regarded as the strictest, according to the precedent of Villon and Marot.
+
+BAL´LANTYNE, James, the printer of Sir Walter Scott's works, born at Kelso
+1772, died at Edinburgh 1833. Successively a solicitor and a printer in his
+native town, at Scott's suggestion he removed to Edinburgh, where the high
+perfection to which he had brought the art of printing, and his connection
+with Scott, secured him a large trade. The printing firm of James
+Ballantyne & Co. included Scott, James Ballantyne, and his brother John
+(who died in 1821). For many years he conducted the _Edinburgh Weekly
+Journal_. His firm was involved in the bankruptcy of Constable & Co., by
+which Scott's fortunes were wrecked, but Ballantyne was continued by the
+creditors' trustee in the literary management of the printing-house. He
+survived Scott only about four months.
+
+BALLANTYNE, Robert Michael, writer of books for boys, born at Edinburgh
+1825, died in Rome 1894, was a nephew of James Ballantyne, the printer of
+Sir Walter Scott's works. He was for some years in North America in the
+service of the Hudson's Bay Company, and his experiences there supplied him
+with materials for some of his earlier books, especially _Hudson's Bay, or
+Life in the Wilds of North America_ (1848); _The Young Fur Traders_; and
+_Ungava, a Tale of Eskimo Land_. For many years he continued to produce
+popular and instructive boys' books, dealing with scenes and subjects of
+the most varied kind; and he also published a volume entitled _Personal
+Reminiscences of Book-Making_ (1893).
+
+BALLARAT´, or BALLAARAT, an Australian town in Victoria, chief centre of
+the gold-mining industry of the colony, and next in importance to
+Melbourne, from which it is distant W.N.W. about 60 miles direct. It
+consists of two distinct municipalities, Ballarat West and Ballarat East,
+separated by the Yarrowee Creek, and has many handsome buildings, and all
+the institutions of a progressive and flourishing city, including hospital,
+mechanics' institute and library, free public library, Anglican and Roman
+Catholic cathedrals, &c. Gold was first discovered in 1851, and the
+extraordinary richness of the field soon attracted hosts of miners. The
+surface diggings having been exhausted, the precious metal is now got from
+greater depths, and there are mines as deep as some coal-pits, the gold
+being obtained by crushing the auriferous quartz. There are also foundries,
+woollen mills, flour-mills, breweries and distilleries, &c. Pop. 42,252.
+
+BAL´LAST, a term applied (1) to heavy matter, as stone, sand, iron, or
+water placed in the bottom of a ship or other vessel to sink it in the
+water to such a depth as to enable it to carry sufficient sail without
+oversetting. (2) The sand placed in bags in the car of a balloon to steady
+it and to enable the aeronaut to lighten the balloon by throwing part of it
+out. (3) The material used to fill up the space between the rails on a
+railway in order to make it firm and solid.
+
+BALL´ATER, a village and favourite summer resort in Aberdeenshire, on the
+Dee, at the terminus of the Deeside Railway, about 43 miles from Aberdeen,
+a centre from which Balmoral, Lochnagar, Braemar, &c., are easily reached.
+The Pananich chalybeate springs are adjacent. Pop. (1921), 1542.
+
+[Illustration: Ball-cock
+
+1. Cistern with ball-cock attached: _a_, rising main; _b_, supply to house.
+2. Outside view of valve (cistern full). 3. Piston with rubber disk. 4.
+Section of valve (cistern full). 5. Section of valve with piston pulled
+down.]
+
+BALL-COCK, a kind of self-acting stopcock opened and shut by means of a
+hollow sphere or ball of metal attached to the end of a lever connected
+with the cock. Such cocks are often employed to regulate the supply of
+water to cisterns. The ball floats on the water in the cistern by its
+buoyancy, and rises and sinks as the water rises and sinks, shutting off
+the water in the one case and letting it on in the other.
+
+BAL´LENTYNE, or BELLENDEN, John, a Scottish poet; was a native of Lothian,
+and appears to have been born towards the close of the fifteenth century.
+He was in the service of James V from the king's earliest years, and at his
+request he translated Boece's _Latin History_, which had been published at
+Paris in 1526, the translation being printed in 1536. As a reward he was
+made Archdeacon of Moray and a canon of Ross. He was a bitter opponent of
+the Reformation, and is said to have died at Rome in 1550.
+
+BALLET (bal´[=a]), a species of dance, usually forming an interlude in
+theatrical performances, but principally confined to opera. Its object is
+to represent, by mimic movements and dances, actions, characters,
+sentiments, passions, and feelings, in which several dancers perform
+together. The ballet is an invention of modern times, though pantomimic
+dances were not unknown to the ancients. The dances frequently introduced
+into operas seldom deserve the name ballet, as they usually do not
+represent any action, but are destined only to give the dancers an
+opportunity of showing their skill. The modern ballet was developed and
+perfected in France, and introduced into England in the eighteenth century.
+From an artistic point of view, the modern ballet is often a very low-class
+entertainment.
+
+[Illustration: Ball-flower]
+
+BALL-FLOWER, an architectural ornament resembling a ball placed in a
+circular flower, the three petals of which form a cup round it; usually
+inserted in a hollow moulding, and generally characteristic of the
+Decorated Gothic style of the fourteenth century.
+
+BALLIA, a town of India, in the United Provinces, on the Ganges, the
+administrative head-quarters of a district of the same name. Pop. 16,680.
+
+BALLINA´, a town and river-port, Ireland, County Mayo, on both banks of the
+Moy, about 5 miles above its mouth in Killala Bay, with a considerable
+local and also a little coasting and foreign trade. Pop. 4662.
+
+BALLINASLOE´ (-sl[=o]), a town, Ireland, in Galway and Roscommon counties,
+15 miles south-west of Athlone, on both sides of the Suck, noted for its
+cattle fair, from 5th till 9th Oct., the most important in Ireland. The
+town contains remains of a castle of Elizabethan date. Pop. 5170.
+
+[Illustration: Ballista as used by the Romans]
+
+BALLIS´TA, a machine used in military operations by the ancients for
+hurling heavy missiles, thus serving in some degree the purpose of the
+modern cannon. The motive power appears to have been obtained by the
+torsion of ropes, fibres, catgut, or hair. They are said to have sometimes
+had an effective range of a quarter of a mile, and to have thrown stones
+weighing as much as 300 lb. The ballistæ differed from the _catapultæ_, in
+that the latter were used for throwing darts.
+
+BALLIS´TIC PENDULUM, an apparatus for ascertaining the velocity of military
+projectiles, and consequently the force of fired gunpowder. A piece of
+ordnance is fired against bags of sand supported in a strong case or frame
+suspended so as to swing like a pendulum. The arc through which it vibrates
+is shown by an index, and the amount of vibration forms a measure of the
+force or velocity of the ball.
+
+BALLISTICS, the science of the motion of projectiles. _Interior ballistics_
+deals with the motion of the shot while inside the gun, and with the
+results of the explosion of the charge. _Exterior ballistics_ comprises a
+study of the trajectory or path of the projectile in the air, and the
+causes which affect the shape of this path, such as the density of the air,
+shape and weight of the shot, rifling of the barrel, angle of fire and
+speed of the projectile. If the air-resistance be neglected, it can be
+shown that the trajectory is a _parabola_. This result, given by Galileo,
+is of little use in gunnery except when taken along with a knowledge of
+air-resistance. Robins, in 1742, first measured the muzzle-speed of the
+shot by firing into a ballistic pendulum and noting the swing of the
+pendulum. Wheatstone, in 1840, suggested measuring the speed by causing the
+shot to cut successive wire screens, each of which formed part of an
+electric circuit. The Boulangé chronograph is a modern development of this
+idea. Rev. F. Bashforth's experiments, carried out between 1865 and 1880,
+form the basis of our knowledge of air-resistance. He found that the latter
+was proportional to the square of the diameter of the shot, and that,
+although the resistance is expressible in terms of a power of the speed,
+this power changes with the speed. The air-resistance is a maximum at about
+the speed at which sound travels, viz. 1100 feet per second. Artillerists
+employ ballistic tables based on the results obtained by Bashforth and
+others, by means of which, given the kind of projectile, its initial
+velocity, and angle of fire, they can calculate the range and time of
+flight of the projectile. See _Gunnery_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Bashforth, _The
+Motion of Projectiles_; J. M. Ingalls, _Interior Ballistics_; P.
+Charbonnier, _Balistique Extérieure_.
+
+BALLOON-FISH (_Tetra[)o]don line[=a]tus_), ord. Plectognathi, a curious
+tropical fish that can inflate itself so as to resemble a balloon.
+
+BALLOONS, the most elementary form of lighter-than-air air-craft,
+unprovided with any means of propulsion or steering. Deriving its power of
+sustentation from the gas contained in the gas-bag, the free balloon is
+spherical in form. It is usually filled with coal-gas, which has a
+lifting-force of 35 lb. per 1000 cu. feet. Varying in size from 5000 to
+20,000 cu. foot capacity, the gas-bag is covered with a 'net', from which
+is hung the 'basket' for the accommodation of the aeronaut, or pilot, and
+passengers. The spherical gas-bag has at the bottom an elongation, known as
+the 'neck', which is open to the air in order that the gas may escape as it
+expands during the rise into the rarefied atmosphere of the upper air. A
+'valve' is fitted at the top, which may be opened by a cord from the basket
+when it is desired to allow gas to escape in order to descend. Bags
+containing sand are carried in order that ballast may be dropped when it is
+desired to rise. A free balloon is completely at the mercy of the wind, and
+simply drifts where the wind takes it. Balloons are usually constructed of
+cotton fabric, though occasionally of gold-beater's skin, in which case
+they are commonly filled with hydrogen in place of coal-gas. A 'trail-rope'
+is usually carried, with which the practice of 'trailing' may be effected
+over open country or the sea. This consists in allowing the end of the
+trail-rope to drag on the ground. As the balloon rises it raises more of
+the rope off the ground, the additional weight bringing it down again. _Per
+contra_, as it falls the weight of the trail-rope is taken by the ground
+and so lightens the balloon. This tends to maintain the balloon at a
+uniform height. The greatest height ever attained by a balloon is 37,000
+feet, reached by Glaisher and Coxwell in Sept., 1862. Both aeronauts nearly
+perished from the effects of the cold and rarefaction of the atmosphere. In
+1895 Parseval and Siegsfield, two officers of the Prussian army, invented
+the 'Drachen-ballon' or 'Kite-balloon' (Fr. _Saucisse_). This consists of a
+captive balloon comprising an elongated gas-bag fitted with an automatic
+air-chamber, or 'ballonet', for maintaining the pressure, and automatic
+stabilizers to prevent yawing off the wind, rolling from side to side, and
+pitching horizontally. This was improved upon by Captain Caquot of the
+French army, who in 1916 produced an improved type, offering many
+advantages, which was used in large numbers by the British, French, and
+American armies and navies during the Great European War of 1914-8. See
+also _Aeronautics_, _Air-ships_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _British Military Manual of
+Ballooning_; Rev. J. M. Bacon, _The Dominion of the Air_; H. Coxwell, _My
+Life and Balloon Experiences_; J. Glaisher, _Travels in the Air_; G.
+Tissandier, _Histoire de mes Ascensions_.
+
+BAL´LOT, VOTING BY, signifies literally voting by means of little balls
+(called by the French _ballottes_), usually of different colours, which are
+put into a box in such a manner as to enable the voter, if he chooses, to
+conceal for whom or for what he gives his suffrage. The method is adopted
+by most clubs in the election of their members--a white ball indicating
+assent, a black ball dissent. Hence, when an applicant is rejected, he is
+said to be _blackballed_. The term voting by ballot is also applied in a
+general way to any method of secret voting, as, for instance, when a person
+gives his vote by means of a ticket bearing the name of the candidate whom
+he wishes to support. In this sense vote by ballot is the mode adopted in
+electing the members of legislative assemblies in most countries, as well
+as the members of various other bodies. In ancient Greece and Rome the
+ballot was in common use. In Britain it had long been advocated in the
+election of members of Parliament and of municipal corporations, but it was
+only introduced by an Act passed in 1872.
+
+BALLYME´NA, a town of Ireland, County Antrim, 22 miles from Belfast, with a
+considerable trade in linens and linen yarns, the manufacture of which is
+carried on to a great extent. Pop. 11,380.
+
+BALLYMO´NEY, a town of Ireland, County Antrim, 38 miles N.W. of Belfast;
+linen, chemicals, tanning, and brewing. Pop. 3100.
+
+BALLYSHAN´NON, a small seaport of Ireland, County Donegal, on the Erne,
+about 1 mile from the S.E. shore of Donegal Bay. Pop. 2471.
+
+BALM (bäm; _Melissa officin[=a]lis_), a plant, belonging to the Labiatæ;,
+formerly in great repute for its medicinal virtues. A native of the south
+of Europe, it is cultivated in English gardens. It is a herbaceous
+perennial, with an erect branching stem about 2 feet high. The leaves arise
+with the flower-stems from a thick joint at the extremity of the stalk. The
+flowers are whitish; they are produced in a round terminal umbel, and
+appear in June. The stems and leaves are slightly stimulating and tonic.
+They contain an essential oil of a yellowish colour and with a fragrant
+smell, called oil of balm.
+
+BALM OF GILEAD, the exudation of a tree, _Balsamodendron gileadense_, nat.
+ord. Amyridaceæ, a native of Arabia Felix, and also obtained from the
+closely-allied species _Balsamodendron Opobals[)a]mum_. The leaves of the
+former tree yield when bruised a strong aromatic scent; and the balm of
+Gilead of the shops, or balsam of Mecca or of Syria, is obtained from it by
+making an incision in its trunk. It has a yellowish or greenish colour, a
+warm, bitterish, aromatic taste, and an acidulous fragrant smell. It is
+valued as an odoriferous unguent and cosmetic by the Turks. It is
+frequently adulterated for market.--The _balm of Gilead fir_, which
+produces a turpentine called Canada balsam, is the _Abies balsamif[)e]ra_,
+a North American species, whose range is from Virginia to Canada. The name
+is derived from _Jeremiah_, viii, 22.
+
+BALMAIN´, a populous western suburb of Sydney, N.S.W., with extensive docks
+and various industrial works. Pop. 33,000.
+
+BALMER´INO, Arthur Elphinstone, Lord, a Scottish Jacobite, born 1688,
+executed 1746. He took part in the Jacobite rebellion of 1715, and fought
+at Sheriffmuir. Having joined the young Pretender in 1745, he was taken
+prisoner at Culloden, tried at Westminster, found guilty, and beheaded. His
+title was from Balmerino in Fife.
+
+BALMOR´AL CASTLE, a private residence of the British sovereign, beautifully
+situated on the S. bank of the Dee, in Aberdeenshire, 45 miles W. by S. of
+Aberdeen. It stands in the midst of fine and varied mountain scenery, is
+built of granite in the Scottish baronial style, mainly in two connected
+blocks, and has an imposing appearance. The estate, purchased by the Prince
+Consort in 1852 and bequeathed to Queen Victoria, extends to about 40,000
+acres, mostly deer forest.
+
+BALNAVES´, Henry, of Halhill, a Scottish reformer, was born at Kirkcaldy,
+educated at St. Andrews, and became a lord of session and a member of the
+Scottish Parliament in 1538. He was one of the commissioners appointed in
+1543 to treat of the proposed marriage between Edward VI and Mary. In 1547
+he was one of the prisoners taken in the castle of St. Andrews and exiled
+to France. Recalled in 1554, he busily engaged in the establishment of the
+reformed faith, assisted in revising the _Book of Discipline_, and
+accompanied Murray to England in connection with Darnley's murder. He died
+in 1579.
+
+BALRAMPUR. See _Bulrampur_.
+
+BALSA, a kind of raft or float used on the coasts and rivers of Peru and
+other parts of South America for fishing, for landing goods and passengers
+through a heavy surf, and for other purposes where buoyancy is chiefly
+wanted. It is formed generally of two inflated seal-skins, connected by a
+sort of platform on which the fisherman, passengers, or goods are placed.
+
+BAL´SAM, the common name of succulent plants of the genus Impatiens, family
+Balsaminaceæ, having beautiful irregular flowers, cultivated in gardens and
+green-houses. _Impatiens balsam[=i]na_, native of the East Indies, is a
+common cultivated species. _I. noli-me-tangere_ grows wild in Britain, but
+is not native. See _Impatiens_.
+
+BALSAM, an aromatic, resinous substance, flowing spontaneously or by
+incision from certain plants. A great variety of substances pass under this
+name. But in chemistry the term is confined to such vegetable juices as
+consist of resins mixed with volatile oils, and yield the volatile oil on
+distillation. The resins are produced from the oils by oxidation. A balsam
+is thus intermediate between a volatile oil and a resin. It is soluble in
+alcohol and ether, and capable of yielding benzoic acid. The balsams are
+either liquid or more or less solid; as, for example, the balm of Gilead,
+and the balsams of copaiba, Peru, and Tolu. Benzoin, dragon's-blood, and
+storax are not true balsams, though sometimes called so. The balsams are
+used in perfumery, medicine, and the arts. See _Copaiba_, &c.--_Balsam of
+Gilead_ or _of Mecca_, balm of Gilead (q.v.).--_Canada balsam_. See _Canada
+balsam_.
+
+BALSAM FIR. See _Balm of Gilead_.
+
+BALSA´MO, Joseph. See _Cagliostro, Count_.
+
+BALSAMODEN´DRON, a genus of trees or bushes, ord. Amyridaceæ, species of
+which yield such balsamic or resinous substances as balm of Gilead,
+bdellium, myrrh, &c.
+
+BALTA, a town in the Ukraine, government of Podolia, on the Kodema, an
+affluent of the Bug, 115 miles N.N.W. of Odessa. Pop. 18,450.
+
+BALTIC, BATTLE OF THE. See _Copenhagen_; _Parker, Sir Hyde_.
+
+BALTIC PROVINCES, a term commonly given to the former Russian governments
+of Courland, Livonia, and Esthonia (q.v.).
+
+BALTIC SEA, an inland sea or large gulf connected with the North Sea,
+washing the coasts of Denmark, Germany, Russia, and Sweden; nearly 900
+miles long, extending to 200 broad; superficial extent, together with the
+Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, 171,743 sq. miles. Its greatest depth is 126
+fathoms; mean, 44 fathoms. A chain of islands separates the southern part
+from the northern, or Gulf of Bothnia. The water of the Baltic is colder
+and clearer than that of the ocean: it contains a smaller proportion of
+salt, and the ice obstructs the navigation three or four months in the
+year. Among the rivers that enter it are the Neva, Dwina, Oder, Vistula,
+and Niemen. Islands: Samsoe, Moen, Bornholm, Langeland, Laaland, which
+belong to Denmark (besides Zealand and Funen); Gottland and Oeland,
+belonging to Sweden; Rügen, belonging to Prussia; Dagoe and Oesel,
+belonging to Russia; and the Åland Islands. The Sound, the Great and the
+Little Belt lead from the Kattegat into the Baltic. The Baltic and North
+Sea were long connected by the Eider and a canal from it to the
+neighbourhood of Kiel, but this has been superseded by the great ship
+canal, starting from the Elbe near its mouth and ending in Kiel Bay.
+
+BAL´TIMORE, a city and port in Maryland, United States, finely situated on
+the N. side of the Patapsco, 14 miles above Chesapeake Bay. Baltimore takes
+its name from Lord Baltimore, the founder of Maryland; it was first laid
+out as a town in 1729; and was erected into a city in 1797. It is well
+built, chiefly of brick, and is known as the 'monumental city', from the
+public monuments which adorn it, the principal being the Washington
+monument. Among its buildings are the city hall, built in Renaissance
+style, of white marble, with a tower and dome rising 240 feet; the Peabody
+Institute, containing a library, art gallery, &c.; the Maryland Institute;
+the custom-house; the post office; the United States court-house and jail,
+the Johns Hopkins hospital, the Roman Catholic cathedral, &c. The chief
+educational institution, now one of the most important in the States, is
+the Johns Hopkins University, endowed with 3,500,000 dollars by its founder
+(whose name it bears). There is a Roman Catholic archbishop with the rank
+of primate, and a Protestant episcopal bishop. Industries: shipbuilding;
+manufactures of iron, wool, cotton, pottery, &c.; sugar-refining,
+distilling, tanning, the making of agricultural implements, canning oysters
+and fruits, &c. As a flour market Baltimore is an important centre; and it
+does an immense trade in exporting tobacco and other products. The harbour
+is very extensive. Pop. (1920), 733,826.
+
+BALTIMORE, George Calvert, Lord, born in Yorkshire about 1580, died in
+London 1632. He was for some time Secretary of State to James I, but this
+post he resigned in 1624 in consequence of having become a Roman Catholic.
+Notwithstanding this he retained the confidence of the king, who in 1625
+raised him to the Irish peerage, his title being from Baltimore, a
+fishing-village of Cork. He had previously obtained a grant of land in
+Newfoundland, but as this colony was much exposed to the attacks of the
+French he left it, and obtained another patent for Maryland. He died before
+the charter was completed, and it was granted to his son Cecil, who deputed
+the governorship to his brother Leonard (1606-47).
+
+BALTIMORE BIRD, an American bird, the _Ict[)e]rus Baltimorii_, family
+Icteridæ, nearly allied to the Sturnidæ, or starlings. It is a migratory
+bird, and is known also by the names of 'golden robin', 'hang-bird', and
+'fire-bird'. It is about 7 inches long; the head and upper parts are black,
+the under parts of a brilliant orange hue. It builds a pouch-like nest,
+very skilfully constructed of threads deftly interwoven, suspended from a
+forked branch and shaded by overhanging leaves. It feeds on insects,
+caterpillars, beetles, &c. Its song is a clear, mellow whistle.
+
+BALUCHISTAN (ba-lö´chi-stän), a country in Asia, the coast of which is
+continuous with the north-western seaboard of India, bounded on the north
+by Afghanistan, on the west by Persia, on the south by the Arabian Sea, and
+on the east by Sindh. It has an area of about 135,000 sq. miles, and a
+population estimated at 834,703. The general surface of the country is
+rugged and mountainous, with some extensive intervals of barren sandy
+deserts, and there is a general deficiency of water. Various kinds of grain
+are cultivated, and there is abundance of excellent fruits. The main body
+of the inhabitants are divided into two great branches, the Baluchis and
+Brahuis, differing in language, figure, and manners. The Baluchi language
+resembles the modern Persian, the Brahui presents points of agreement with
+the Dravidian languages of India. The Baluchis in general have tall
+figures, long visages, and prominent features; the Brahuis have shorter,
+thicker bodies, with round faces and rather flat features. Both races are
+Mahommedans, hospitable and brave. There are also many Afghans and others
+in the country. The Khan of Khelat, the nominal ruler of the whole land, in
+1877 concluded a treaty with Britain, in virtue of which he became a
+feudatory of India. Since then Quetta, in the north-east, occupying an
+important position, and certain portions of territory, have been absolutely
+annexed, and in 1887 a separate administration was constituted, and British
+authority established, under the Governor-General's agent. The area of
+British Baluchistan, including tribal areas, is 54,228 sq. miles; pop.
+414,412. The country nominally under the Khan of Khelat has an area of
+72,280 sq. miles; pop. 359,086. Under British administration roads and
+railways have been made, with telegraphs and a postal service. Wool,
+fruits, &c., are exported, cottons and other goods imported, and there is a
+fair transit trade.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Floyer, _Unexplored Baluchistan_; T.
+Thornton, _Life of Sandeman_.
+
+BAL´USTER, a small column or pilaster, of various forms and dimensions,
+often adorned with mouldings, used for balustrades.
+
+BALUSTRADE´, a range of balusters, together with the cornice or coping
+which they support, used as a parapet for bridges or the roofs of
+buildings, or as a mere ornament; also serving as a fence or enclosure for
+balconies, terraces, staircases, &c.
+
+BALUZE (b[.a]-lüz), Étienne, French historian and miscellaneous writer,
+born 1630, died 1718. For more than thirty years he was librarian to M. de
+Colbert, and was appointed professor of canon law in the Royal College, but
+displeasing Louis XIV with his _Histoire Générale de la Maison d'Auvergne_,
+he was thrown into prison and his property confiscated. He recovered his
+liberty in 1713, but did not regain his position. He left some 1500 MSS. in
+the national library of Paris, besides forty-five printed works, including
+_Regum Francorum Capitularia_ (2 vols.) and _Miscellanea_ (7 vols.).
+
+BALZAC (b[.a]l-z[.a]k), Honoré de, a celebrated French novelist, was born
+at Tours in 1799, died 1850. Before completing his twenty-fourth year he
+had published a number of novels under various assumed names, but the
+success attending all was very indifferent; and it was not till 1829, by
+the publication of _Le Dernier Chouan_, a tale of La Vendée, and the first
+novel to which Balzac appended his name, that the attention of the public
+was diverted to the extraordinary genius of the author. A still greater
+popularity attended his _Physiologie de Mariage_, a work full of piquant
+and caustic observations on human nature. He wrote a large number of
+novels, all marked by a singular knowledge of human nature and distinct
+delineation of character, but apt to be marred by exaggeration. Among his
+best-known works are: _Scènes de la Vie de Province_, _Scènes de la Vie
+Parisienne_, _Le Père Goriot_, _Eugénie Grandet_, and _Le Médecin de
+Campagne_. The publication of this last, in 1835, led to a correspondence
+between Balzac and the Countess Eveline de Hanska, a Polish lady whom,
+after about fifteen years, he visited and married. A collected edition of
+his works, under the title _La Comédie Humaine_, was published in 45 vols.,
+Paris, 1856-9, and another in 1869. In 1899 appeared the first volume of
+Balzac's _Oeuvres Posthumes_, and in 1906 the second.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F.
+Wedmore, _Balzac_; M. F. Sandars, _Balzac_; W. H. Helm, _Aspects of
+Balzac_; Taine, _Essay on Balzac_.
+
+BALZAC (b[.a]l-z[.a]k), Jean Louis Guez de, French writer, born 1594, died
+1654. His writings, which had a great reputation in their day owing to the
+elegance of his style, are now neglected. The most esteemed are his
+_Familiar Letters_, _Le Prince_, _Le Socrate Chrétien_, and _Aristippe_.
+
+BAMAKO, capital of the French colony of Upper Senegal and Niger since 1904.
+It is an important trade-centre and the terminus of the Niger-Senegal
+railway. Pop. 8000.
+
+BAMBA, a district of the Congo, W. coast of Africa, lying to the south of
+the River Ambriz. It is thickly populated, and is rich in gold, silver,
+copper, salt, &c.
+
+BAMBAR´RA, a territory of Western Africa, on the Upper Niger, first visited
+by Mungo Park, now in the French portion of the Sudan. The country is
+generally very fertile, producing wheat, rice, maize, yams, &c. The
+inhabitants are of negro or mixed race, and some are Mohammedans. Excellent
+cotton cloth is made. The chief town is Segou. Pop. estimated at 2,000,000.
+See _Senegal_.
+
+BAM´BERG, a town of Germany, Bavaria, charmingly situated on several hills,
+on the navigable River Regnitz, some 3 miles from its mouth in the Main. It
+is the seat of a Catholic archbishop; the cathedral, founded in 1004 (the
+present structure dates from 1111), is one of the finest churches in
+Germany. The royal library contains 100,000 volumes and valuable MSS.
+Bamberg carries on a large trade; its industries are cotton-spinning,
+tobacco-manufacture, brewing, &c. Pop. 48,063.
+
+BAMBINO (b[.a]m-b[=e]´n[=o]; It., an infant), the figure of our Saviour
+represented as an infant in swaddling-clothes. The _Santissimo Bambino_ in
+the church of Ara Coeli at Rome, a richly-decorated figure carved in wood,
+is believed to be able to perform miracles and heal the sick. According to
+popular belief, the painting was miraculously done by St. Luke or by an
+angel. Bambinos are set up for the adoration of the faithful in many places
+in Catholic countries.
+
+BAMBOCCIADES (bam-boch-[=a]dz´), pictures, generally grotesque, of common,
+rustic, or low life, such as those of Peter Van Laar, a Dutch painter of
+the seventeenth century, who on account of his deformity was called
+_Bamboccio_ (cripple). Teniers is the great master of this style.
+
+[Illustration: Bamboo (_Bambusa arundinac[)e]a_)]
+
+BAMBOO´, the common name of the arborescent grasses belonging to the genus
+Bamb[=u]sa. There are many species, belonging to the warmer parts of Asia,
+Africa, and America, and growing from a few feet to as much as 100 feet,
+requiring much moisture to thrive properly. A peculiarity of the bamboo
+family is that they flower on reaching a certain age, generally about 130
+years. The best-known species is _B. arundinac[)e]a_, common in tropical
+and sub-tropical regions. From the creeping underground rhizome, which is
+long, thick, and jointed, spring several round jointed stalks, which send
+out from their joints several shoots, the stalks also being armed at their
+joints with one or two sharp rigid spines. The oval leaves, 8 or 9 inches
+long, are placed on short footstalks. The flowers grow in large panicles
+from the joints of the stalk. Some stems grow to 8 or 10 inches in
+diameter, and are so hard and durable as to be used for building purposes.
+The smaller stalks are used for walking-sticks, flutes, &c.; and indeed the
+plant is used for innumerable purposes in the East Indies, China, and other
+Eastern countries. Cottages are almost wholly made of it; also, bridges,
+boxes, water-pipes, ladders, fences, bows and arrows, spears, baskets,
+mats, paper, masts for boats, &c. The young shoots may be either pickled or
+salted and eaten with rice, or candied and preserved in sugar; the seeds of
+some species are also eaten. The substance called _tabasheer_ is a
+siliceous deposit that gathers at the internodes of the stems. The bamboo
+is imported into Europe for various purposes, and is grown in British
+gardens.
+
+BAMBOOK´, a country in Western Africa between the Falémé and Senegal
+Rivers, about 140 miles in length, by 80 to 100 in breadth. It is on the
+whole hilly and somewhat rugged. The valleys and plains are remarkably
+fertile. The natives are Mandingoes, mostly professed Mahommedans ruled by
+independent chieftains, most of whom acknowledge the supremacy of France.
+Gold and ivory are exchanged for European goods.
+
+BAMBOOK-BUTTER, shea-butter (q.v.).
+
+BAM´BOROUGH CASTLE, an ancient English castle on the coast of
+Northumberland, formerly with connected estate the property of the
+Forsters, and forfeited to the Crown in 1715, both being purchased by Lord
+Crewe, Bishop of Durham, and bequeathed by him for charitable purposes.
+
+BAMBU´SA. See _Bamboo_.
+
+BAM´IAN, a valley and pass of Afghanistan, the latter at an elevation of
+8496 feet, the only known pass over the Hindu Kush for artillery and heavy
+transport. The valley is one of the chief centres of Buddhist worship, and
+contains two remarkable colossal statues and other ancient monuments.
+
+BAMO. See _Bhamo_.
+
+BAMPTON LECTURES, a course of lectures established in 1751 by John Bampton,
+Canon of Salisbury, who bequeathed certain property to the University of
+Oxford for the endowment of eight divinity lectures to be annually
+delivered. The subjects prescribed are mainly connected with the evidences
+of Christianity, and the lecturer must have taken the degree of M.A. at
+Oxford or Cambridge. The first course of lectures was delivered in 1780,
+and they have been delivered every year since, with the exceptions of 1834,
+1835, and 1841. Among the more remarkable lectures were those by Dr. White
+in 1784, by Dr. Mant in 1812, by Reginald Heber in 1815, Whately in 1822,
+Milman in 1827, Dr. Hampden in 1832, H.L. Mansel in 1858, Canon Liddon in
+1866, Canon Gore in 1891, J. R. Illingworth in 1894, and W. R. Inge in
+1899. A similar course of lectures, the Hulsean, is annually delivered at
+Cambridge.
+
+BAN, in political law, is equivalent to excommunication in ecclesiastical.
+In Teutonic history the _ban_ was an edict of interdiction or proscription:
+thus, to put a prince under the ban of the empire was to divest him of his
+dignities, and to interdict all intercourse and all offices of humanity
+with the offender. Sometimes whole cities have been put under the _ban_,
+that is, deprived of their rights and privileges.
+
+BAN, anciently, a title given to the military chiefs who guarded the
+eastern marches of Hungary; till 1919 the title of the Governor of Croatia
+and Slavonia. A province over which a ban is placed is called _banat_, and
+is equivalent to the German term _mark_. During the European War, Serbia
+occupied the banat to the south of Hungary, and her claims to that region
+were disputed both by Hungary and Roumania. The territory is bounded almost
+entirely by the Danube, Theiss, and Maros Rivers, except on the east, where
+it is shut in by the Transylvanian Carpathians. The banat was ultimately
+divided between Yugo-Slavia and Roumania. See _Temesvar_.
+
+[Illustration: Banana (_Musa sapientum_)]
+
+BANA´NA, a plant of the genus Musa, nat. ord. Musaceæ, being _M.
+sapientum_, while the plantain is _M. paradisi[)a]ca_. It is originally
+indigenous to the East Indies, and an herbaceous plant with an underground
+stem. The apparent stem, which is sometimes as high as 30 feet, is formed
+of the closely-compacted sheaths of the leaves. The leaves are 6 to 10 feet
+long and 1 or more broad, with a strong midrib, from which the veins are
+given off at right angles; they are used for thatch, basket-making, &c.,
+besides yielding a useful fibre. The spikes of the flowers grow nearly 4
+feet long, in bunches, covered with purple-coloured bracts. The fruit is 4
+to 10 or 12 inches long, and 1 inch or more in diameter; it grows in large
+bunches, weighing often from 40 to 80 lb. The pulp is soft and of a
+luscious taste; when ripe it is eaten raw or cooked. The banana is
+cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical countries, and is the food of
+millions. It is estimated that in Jamaica alone 40,000 acres are devoted to
+its culture. Excellent biscuits may be made from banana meal, but it is not
+suitable for bread. Vast quantities are imported by Britain and the United
+States. Manila hemp is the product of a species of banana.
+
+BANA´NA, an African port, in Belgian Congo, at the mouth of the Congo.
+
+BANANA-BIRD, a pretty insessorial bird (_Ict[)e]rus leucopt[)e]ryx_), a
+native of the West Indies and the warmer parts of America. It is a lively
+bird, easily domesticated, tawny and black in colour, with white bars upon
+the wings.
+
+BANAT. See _Ban_.
+
+BAN´BRIDGE, a town of Ireland, County Down, 22 miles S.W. of Belfast, on
+the Bann. The manufacture of linen is carried on to a great extent in town
+and neighbourhood. Pop. 5101.
+
+BANBURY (ban'be-ri), a town of England, in Oxfordshire, long celebrated for
+its cheese, its cakes, and its ale; a parliamentary borough till 1885, and
+now giving name to a parliamentary division of the county. Pop. (municipal
+borough) (1921), 13,347.
+
+BANCA, an island belonging to the Dutch East Indies, between Sumatra and
+Borneo; area, 4446 sq. miles; pop. 113,658, of which a considerable
+proportion are Chinese. It is celebrated for its excellent tin, of which
+the annual yield is above 6000 tons; but it produces nothing else of any
+importance.
+
+BANCO, in commerce, a term employed to designate the money in which the
+banks of some countries keep or kept their accounts, in contradistinction
+to the current money of the place, which might vary in value or consist of
+light and foreign coins. The term was applied to the Hamburg bank accounts
+before the adoption (in 1873) of the new German coinage. The mark _banco_
+had a value of 1s. 5½d.; but there was no corresponding coin. See _Bank_.
+
+BAN´CROFT, George, American historian, born near Worcester, Mass., 1800,
+died 1891. He was educated at Harvard and in Germany, where he made the
+acquaintance of many literary men of note. In 1823 he published a
+translation of Heeren's _Politics of Ancient Greece_, and a small volume of
+poems, and was also meditating and collecting materials for a history of
+the United States. Between 1834 and 1840 three volumes of his history were
+published. In 1845 he was appointed Secretary of the Navy, and effected
+many reforms and improvements in that department. He was American
+ambassador to Britain from 1846 to 1849, when the University of Oxford
+conferred on him the honorary degree of D.C.L. He took the opportunity
+while in Europe to perfect his collections on American history. He returned
+to New York in 1849, and began to prepare for the press the fourth and
+fifth volumes of his history, which appeared in 1852. The sixth appeared in
+1854, the seventh in 1858, the eighth soon after, but the ninth did not
+appear till 1866. From 1867 to 1874 he was Minister Plenipotentiary at the
+Court of Berlin. The tenth and last volume of his great work appeared in
+1874. An additional section appeared first as a separate work in 1882:
+_History of the Formation of the Constitution of the United States_, and
+the whole came out in 6 vols. in 1884-5. He has also published many essays
+in the _North American Review_ and other periodicals, a selection from
+which was published in 1855 under the title of _Miscellanies_.
+
+BAN´CROFT, Richard, born in Lancashire 1544, died 1610, studied at
+Cambridge, entered the Church, and rose rapidly during the reign of
+Elizabeth till he obtained the see of London in 1597. James I made him
+Archbishop of Canterbury on the death of Whitgift. He suppressed the
+Puritans mercilessly, and they in return never ceased to abuse him.
+
+BAN´CROFT, Sir Squire, English actor, born in London in 1841. After playing
+in Dublin and elsewhere he made his first appearance in London, at the
+Prince of Wales's Theatre, in 1865. He married Miss Marie Effie Wilton in
+1867, and was knighted in 1897. In collaboration with his wife he has
+written _The Bancrofts: Recollections of Sixty Years_ (1909).
+
+BANDA, a town and district of India, in the United Provinces. The town
+stands on a plain on the right bank of the Ken River, 95 miles S.W. from
+Allahabad, and is a considerable cotton mart. Pop. 22,000.--Area of
+district 2965 sq. miles. Pop. 660,000.
+
+BANDA ISLANDS, a group belonging to Holland, Indian Archipelago, south of
+Ceram, Great Banda, the largest, being 12 miles long by 2 broad. They are
+beautiful islands, of volcanic origin, yielding quantities of nutmeg.
+Goenong Api, or Fire Mountain, is a cone-shaped volcano which rises 2320
+feet above the sea. Pop. 10,000.
+
+BANDAJAN´, a pass over a range of the Himálaya, Kashmir State, 14,854 feet
+above sea-level.
+
+BANDAN´NA, a variety of silk handkerchief having a uniformly-dyed ground,
+usually of bright red or blue, ornamented with white or yellow circular,
+lozenge-shaped, or other simple figures produced by discharging the
+groundcolour.
+
+BANDA ORIENTAL. See _Uruguay_.
+
+BANDEL´LO, Matteo, an Italian writer of _novelle_ or tales, born about
+1480, died about 1562. He was, in his youth, a Dominican monk, and having
+been banished from Italy as a partisan of the French, Henry II of France
+gave him in 1550 the bishopric of Agen. He left the administration of his
+diocese to the Bishop of Grasse, and employed himself, at the advanced age
+of seventy, in the completion of his _novelle_. He also wrote poetry, but
+his fame rests on his _novelle_, which are in the style of Boccaccio's
+_Decameron_ and the Queen of Navarre's _Heptameron_, and have been made use
+of by Shakespeare, Massinger, and Beaumont and Fletcher.
+
+BANDE NOIRE. See _French Revolution_.
+
+BAND-FISH, the popular name of fishes of the genus Cep[)o]la, from their
+long, flat, thin bodies. _C. rubescens_, a very fragile creature, is
+sometimes cast up on British shores. Also called _Snake-fish_,
+_Ribbon-fish_.
+
+[Illustration: Pig-footed Bandicoot (_Chæropus castanotis_)]
+
+BAN´DICOOT (Perameles), a genus of small Australian marsupials. The most
+common species (_P. nasuta_), the long-nosed bandicoot, measures about 1½
+feet from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail. It is not unlike an
+overgrown rat, and is most destructive to farm-produce.
+
+BAN´DICOOT RAT, the _Mus gigant[=e]us_, the largest known species of rat,
+attaining the weight of 2 or 3 lb., and the length, including the tail, of
+24 to 30 inches. It is a native of India, and is very abundant in Ceylon.
+Its flesh is said to be delicate and to resemble young pork, and is a
+favourite article of diet with the coolies. It is destructive upon
+rice-fields and gardens.
+
+BANDINELLI, Baccio, Italian sculptor, born at Florence 1493, died there
+1560. He was jealous of and strove to rival Michael Angelo. Among his works
+are a _Hercules and Cacus_, _The Dead Body of Christ held up by an Angel_,
+_Adam and Eve_, &c.
+
+BAN´DIT, It. _bandito_, originally an _exile_, banished man, or outlaw, and
+hence, as persons outlawed frequently adopted the profession of brigand or
+highwayman, the word came to be synonymous with brigand, and is now applied
+to members of the organized gangs which infest some districts of Italy,
+Sicily, Spain, Greece, and Turkey.
+
+BAND OF HOPE. See _Temperance_.
+
+BAN´DOLIER, a large leathern belt or baldrick, to which were attached a bag
+for balls and a number of pipes or cases of wood or metal covered with
+leather, each containing a charge of gunpowder. It was worn by ancient
+musketeers, and hung from the left shoulder under the right arm with the
+ball bag at the lower extremity, and the pipes suspended on either side.
+The name is now given to a similar belt, worn by mounted troops, for
+carrying cartridges. Another form of the word is _bandoleer_.
+
+BAN´DOLINE, a gummy perfumed substance used to impart gloss and stiffness
+to the hair.
+
+BAN´DON, a town, Ireland, County Cork, on both sides of the Bandon. Pop.
+3122.
+
+BANDS, a small article of clerical dress, made of linen, going round the
+neck and hanging down in front for a short distance in two pieces with
+square ends, supposed to be a relic of the amice.
+
+BANEBERRY, or HERB CHRISTOPHER (_Actæa spic[=a]ta_), a European plant, ord.
+Ranunculaceæ, local in England, with a spike of white flowers and black,
+poisonous berries. Two American species are considered remedies for
+rattlesnake bite.
+
+BANÉR (b[.a]-n[=a]r´), Johan Gustafsson, a Swedish general in the Thirty
+Years' War, born 1596, died 1641. He made his first campaigns in Poland and
+Russia, and accompanied Gustavus Adolphus, who held him in high esteem, to
+Germany. After the death of Gustavus in 1632 he had the chief command of
+the Swedish army, and in 1634 invaded Bohemia, defeated the Saxons at
+Wittstock, 24th Sept., 1636, and took Torgau. He ravaged Saxony again in
+1639, gained another victory at Chemnitz, and in 1640 defeated Piccolomini.
+In Jan., 1641, he very nearly took Ratisbon by surprise.
+
+BANFF (bamf), county town of Banffshire, Scotland, a seaport on the Moray
+Firth at the mouth of the Deveron. It is well built, carries on some
+boat-building, and has ropeworks, a brewery, &c., fishing and shipping.
+Near the town are the county lunatic asylum, and Duff House, a seat of the
+Duke of Fife, now public property; on the east side of the Deveron is the
+town of Macduff, where an extensive fishing trade is carried on. Banff is
+one of the Elgin burghs, which together return a member to Parliament. Pop.
+3517.--The county has an area of 403,053 acres. In the south it is
+mountainous; but the northern part is comparatively low and fertile;
+principal rivers, the Spey and Deveron; principal mountains, Cairngorm
+(4095 feet) and Ben Macdhui (4296 feet), on its southern boundary. Little
+wheat is raised, the principal crops being barley, oats, turnips, and
+potatoes. Fishing is an important industry; as is also the distilling of
+whisky. Serpentine abounds in several places, especially at Portsoy, where
+it is known as 'Portsoy marble', and Scotch topazes or cairngorm stones are
+found on the mountains in the south. Banffshire returns one member to
+Parliament. Pop. (1921), 57,293.
+
+BANFF, a town of N. W. Canada, at the foot of the Rocky Mountains, on the
+Canadian Pacific Railway, with National Park, hot springs, coal-mines, &c.
+
+BANG. See _Bhang_.
+
+BANGALORE´, a town of Hindustan, capital of Mysore, and giving its name to
+a considerable district in the east of Mysore State. The town stands on a
+healthy plateau 3000 feet above sea-level, has a total area of nearly 14
+sq. miles, and is one of the pleasantest British stations in India. In the
+old town stands the fort, reconstructed by Hyder Ali in 1761, and taken by
+Lord Cornwallis in 1791. Under English administration the town has greatly
+prospered in recent times. There are manufactures of silks, cotton cloth,
+carpets, gold and silver lace, &c. Pop. 189,485.--The Bangalore district
+has an area of 3070 sq. miles, of which more than half represent cultivable
+land. Pop. about 760,000.
+
+BANGKOK´, or BANKOK, the capital of the kingdom of Siam, extending for
+several miles on both sides of the Menam, which falls into the Gulf of Siam
+about 15 miles below. The inner city occupies an island surrounded with
+walls and bastions, and contains the palace of the king and other important
+buildings. The dwellings of the common people are of wood or bamboo, often
+raised on piles; a large portion of the population, however, dwell in boats
+or wooden houses erected on bamboo rafts moored in the river, and forming a
+floating town. Temples are numerous and lavishly decorated. Houses in the
+European style have been erected in modern times, and the telegraph,
+telephone, gas, fire-engines, and omnibuses introduced. A university with
+eight faculties has recently been established. The trade, both inland and
+foreign, is very extensive, the exports consisting chiefly of rice, sugar,
+silk, cotton, tobacco, pepper, sesame, ivory, aromatic wood, cabinet woods,
+tin, hides, &c.; and the imports consisting chiefly of British cotton,
+woollen, and other goods. Pop. 628,675, of whom about a half are Chinese.
+See _Siam_.
+
+BAN´GOR, a city of North Wales, in Carnarvonshire, picturesquely situated
+near the northern entrance of the Menai Strait. It appears to have
+possessed a cathedral in the sixth century, which was destroyed by the
+Normans in 1071. The present cathedral--the third--only dates from the
+reign of Henry VII. It has a college of the University of Wales (founded in
+1903), and a Normal College. Bangor has risen into importance as a popular
+resort; its principal trade is in the export of slates from the
+neighbouring quarries. Pop. (1921), 11,032.
+
+BAN´GOR, a seaport town, Ireland, County Down, on the south side of Belfast
+Lough. Principal trade: cotton, linen, and embroideries. Pop. 7776.
+
+BAN´GOR, a port of the United States, in Maine, on the W. side of Penobscot
+River, a flourishing and pleasantly-situated town, and one of the largest
+lumber depots in the world. The river is navigable to the town for vessels
+of the largest size. Pop. (1920), 25,948.
+
+BANGO´RIAN CONTROVERSY, a controversy stirred up by a sermon preached
+before George I in 1717 by Dr. Hoadly, Bishop of Bangor, from the text "My
+kingdom is not of this world" (_John_, xviii, 36), in which the bishop
+contended in the most pronounced manner for the spiritual nature of
+Christ's kingdom. The controversy was carried on with great heat for many
+years, and resulted in an enormous collection of pamphlets.
+
+BANGS´RING. See _Banxring_.
+
+BANGWEO´LO, or BANGWEULU, LAKE, in South Africa, the southernmost of the
+great lake reservoirs of the Congo, heard of in 1798, was reached by
+Livingstone in 1868, an oval-shaped shallow sheet of water, said to be 150
+miles in length along its greater axis, from east to west, and about 75
+miles in width, but its exact limits are uncertain. It was first
+circumnavigated by Poulett Weatherley in 1896. See _Congo_.
+
+BAN´IAN, or BAN´YAN, an Indian trader or merchant, one engaged in commerce
+generally, but more particularly one of the great traders of Western India,
+as in the seaports of Bombay, Kurrachee, &c., who carry on a large trade by
+means of caravans with the interior of Asia, and with Africa by vessels.
+They form a class of the Vaisya caste, wear a peculiar dress, and are
+strict in the observance of fasts and in abstaining from the use of flesh.
+Hence, _Banian days_, days in which sailors in the navy had no flesh meat
+served out to them. Banian days are now abolished, but the term is still
+applied to days of poor fare.
+
+BANIAN TREE. See _Banyan_.
+
+BA´NIM, John, an Irish novelist, dramatist, and poet, born in 1798, died
+1842. His chief early work was a poem, _The Celt's Paradise_ (1821). Having
+settled in London, he made various contributions to magazines and to the
+stage; but his fame rests on his novels, particularly the _O'Hara Tales_,
+in which Irish life is admirably portrayed. In these, as in some of his
+other publications, his brother, Michael Banim (born 1796, died 1874), had
+an important share, if not an equal claim to praise. The two brothers have
+been justly called 'the first national novelists of Ireland'.
+
+BANISHMENT. See _Exile_.
+
+BAN´JARMASSIN, a district and town in the south-east of Borneo, under the
+government of the Dutch. The town is situated on an arm of the Banjar,
+about 14 miles above its mouth, in a marshy locality, the houses being
+built on piles, and many of them on rafts. Exports: pepper, benzoin,
+bezoar, ratans, dragon's-blood, birds'-nests, &c.; imports: rice, salt,
+sugar, opium, &c. Pop. 52,000, mostly Dyaks.
+
+BAN´JO (a negro corruption of _bandore_; It. _pandora_, from Lat.
+_pandura_, a three-stringed instrument), the favourite musical instrument
+of the negroes of the Southern States of America. It is six-stringed, has a
+body like a tambourine and a neck like a guitar, and is played by stopping
+the strings with the fingers of the left hand and twitching or striking
+them with the fingers of the right. The upper or octave string, however, is
+never stopped. The banjo was introduced into England in 1846.
+
+BANJOEMAS (b[.a]n´yö-m[.a]s), a town in Java, near the centre of the
+island, well built and of commercial importance; it is 22 miles from the
+coast, and is the residence of a Dutch governor. Pop. 6500.
+
+BANKING AND BANKS. Banks are establishments for the deposit, custody, and
+repayment on demand of money, and obtain the bulk of their profits from the
+investment of sums thus derived and not in immediate demand. The term is a
+derivative of the _banco_ or bench of the early Italian money-dealers,
+being analogous in its origin to the terms _trapez[=i]tai_ (_trapeza_, a
+bench or table) applied to the ancient Greek money-changers, and _mensarii_
+(_mensa_, a table) applied to the public bankers of Rome.
+
+In respect of constitution there is a broad division of banks into public
+and private; public banks including such establishments as are under any
+special state or municipal control or patronage, or whose capital is in the
+form of stock or shares which are bought and sold in the open market;
+private banks embracing those which are carried on by one or more
+individuals without special authority or charter and under the laws
+regulating ordinary trading companies. In respect of function three kinds
+of banks may be discriminated: (1) banks of deposit merely, receiving and
+returning money at the convenience of depositors; (2) banks of discount or
+loan, borrowing money on deposit and lending it in the discount of
+promissory notes, bills of exchange, and negotiable securities; (3) banks
+of circulation or issue, which give currency to promissory notes of their
+own, payable to bearer and serving as a medium of exchange within the
+sphere of their banking operations. The more highly-organized banks
+discharge all three functions, but all modern banks unite the two first.
+For the successful working of a banking establishment certain resources
+other than the deposits are of course necessary, and the capital paid up by
+shareholders on their shares and forming the substantial portion of their
+claim to public credit is held upon a different footing from the sums
+received from depositors. It is usually considered that for sound banking
+this capital should not be traded with for the purpose of making gain in
+the same way as the moneys deposited in the bank; and it is for the most
+part invested in Government or other securities subject to little
+fluctuation in value and readily convertible into money. But in any case
+prudence demands that a _reserve_ be kept sufficient to meet all probable
+requirements of customers in event of commercial crises or minor panics.
+The reserve of the banking department of the Bank of England is always in
+coin, or in notes against which an equivalent value of coin and bullion is
+lying in the issue department. In other English banks the reserve is
+usually kept partly in gold and partly in Government stocks and Bank of
+England notes; but it sometimes lies as a deposit in the Bank of England.
+The working capital proper of a bank is constituted by moneys on deposit,
+for which the bank may or may not pay interest; the advantages of security,
+of ease in the transmission of payments, &c., being regarded in the cases
+of banks little affected by competition as a sufficient return to the
+depositor. Thus the Bank of England pays no interest on deposits, while the
+contrary practice has prevailed in Scotland since 1729, where interest is
+paid on deposits although not on current accounts.
+
+Of the methods of making profit upon the money of depositors, one of the
+most common is to advance it in the discounting of bills of exchange not
+having long periods (seldom more than three months with the Bank of
+England) to run; the banker receiving the amounts of the bills from the
+acceptors when the bills arrive at maturity. Loans or advances are also
+often made by bankers upon exchequer bills or other Government securities,
+on railway debentures or the stock of public companies of various kinds, as
+well as upon goods lying in public warehouses, the dock-warrant or
+certificate of ownership being transferred to the banker in security. In
+the case of a well-established credit they may be advanced upon notes of
+hand without other security. Money is less commonly advanced by bankers
+upon mortgages on land, in which the money loaned is almost invariably
+locked up for a number of years. To banks of issue a further source of
+profit is open in their note circulation, inasmuch as the bank is enabled
+to lend these notes, or promises to pay, as if they were so much money and
+to receive interest on the loan accordingly, as well as to make a
+profitable use of the money or property that may be received in exchange
+for its notes, so long as the latter remain in circulation. It is obvious,
+however, that this interest on its loaned notes may not run over a very
+extended period, in that the person to whom they are issued may at once
+return them to the bank to lie there as a deposit and so may actually draw
+interest on them from the bank of issue; or he may present them to be
+exchanged for coin, or by putting them at once into circulation may ensure
+a certain number speedily finding their way back through other hands or
+other banks to the establishment from which he received them. A
+considerable number of the notes issued will, however, be retained in
+circulation at the convenience of the public as a medium of exchange; and
+on this circulating portion a clear profit accrues. This rapid return of
+notes through other banks, &c., in exchange for portions of the reserve of
+the issuing bank, is one of the restraints upon an issue of notes in excess
+of the ability of the bank to meet them. In the United Kingdom a more
+obvious restraint upon an unlimited note issue, originating partly in a
+desire for greater security, partly in the belief that the note
+augmentation of the currency might lead to harmful economic results in its
+influence upon prices, is to be found in the Bank Acts of 1844 and 1845,
+which impose upon banks of issue the necessity of keeping an equivalent in
+gold for all notes issued beyond a certain fixed amount. The wisdom of
+these legal restrictions, which are not uniform throughout the kingdom, and
+the desirability of the acquisition and control by the State of the whole
+business of issue, are still matters of debate.
+
+In specific relation to his customer the banker occupies the position of
+debtor to creditor, holding money which the customer may demand at any time
+in whole or in part by means of a cheque payable at sight on presentation
+during banking hours. For the refusal to cash a cheque from the erroneous
+supposition that he has no funds of his customer's in his hands, or for
+misleading statements respecting the position in which the bank stands, the
+banker is legally responsible. Moreover, the law regards him as bound to
+know his customer's signature, and the loss falls upon him in event of his
+cashing a forged cheque. In their relations to the community, the chief
+services rendered by banks are the following: By receiving deposits of
+money they are the means by which the surplus capital of one part of a
+country is transferred to another where it may be advantageously employed
+in stimulating industry; they enable vast and numerous money transactions
+to be carried on without the intervention of coin or notes at all, thus
+obviating trouble, risk, and expense. The mechanism by which the last of
+these benefits is secured is to be found in perfection in the London
+Clearing House.
+
+The modern tendency of banks is towards amalgamation. The large English
+banking institutions have absorbed many of the smaller banks. They have
+also made working arrangements with Scotch and Irish banks and with similar
+institutions abroad.
+
+The result of these amalgamations is to give control of immense financial
+resources to a smaller number of banks. In 1918 the Government appointed a
+Committee to inquire into the effect of such amalgamations and absorptions.
+The terms of reference were: "To consider and report to what extent, if at
+all, amalgamations between banks may affect prejudicially the interests of
+the industrial and mercantile community, and whether it is desirable that
+legislation should be introduced to prohibit such amalgamations or to
+provide safeguards under which they might continue to be permitted"; and
+the Committee reported: "That legislation be passed requiring that the
+prior approval of the Government must be obtained before any amalgamations
+are announced or carried into effect".
+
+In order, however, that such legislation may not have the effect of
+producing secret amalgamations, the Committee decided that "all proposals
+for agreements which would alter the status of a bank as regards its
+separate entity and control, or for purchase by one bank of the shares of
+another bank, be also submitted for the prior approval of the Government
+before they are carried out".
+
+Another development is the registration of the British Overseas Bank,
+Limited, with a nominal capital of £5,000,000. The principal object of this
+institution is to carry on general banking business in all parts of the
+world. Four banks--two English, one Scotch, and one having connections with
+South America--are financially interested in the Overseas Bank.
+
+Banking operations on a considerable scale appear to have been conducted by
+the ancients, and recent excavations have proved that in the seventh
+century B.C. banking was practised at Bagdad by a firm of Egibi & Sons.
+Modern banking, however, must be regarded as having had an independent
+origin in the reviving civilization of the Middle Ages. In the twelfth
+century almost the whole trade of Europe was in the hands of the Italian
+cities, and it was in these that the need of bankers was first felt. The
+earliest public bank, that of Venice, established in 1171 and existing down
+to the dissolution of the Republic in 1797, was for some time a bank of
+deposit only, the Government being responsible for the deposits, and the
+whole capital being in effect a public loan. In the early periods of the
+operations of this bank deposits could not be withdrawn, but the depositor
+had a credit at the bank to the amount deposited, this credit being
+transferable to another person in place of money payment. Subsequently
+deposits were allowed to be withdrawn, the original system proving
+inconvenient outside the Venetian boundaries. It is, however, less from the
+Bank of Venice than from the Florentine bankers of the thirteenth and
+fourteenth centuries that modern banking specially dates, the magnitude of
+their operations being indicated by the fact that between 1430 and 1433, 76
+bankers of Florence issued on loan nearly 5,000,000 gold florins. The Bank
+of St. George at Genoa also furnished a striking chapter in financial
+history. The important Bank of Amsterdam, taken by Adam Smith as a type of
+the older banks, was established in 1509, and owed its origin to the
+fluctuation and uncertainty induced by the clipped and worn currency. The
+object of the institution (established under guarantee of the city) was to
+give a certain and unquestionable value to a bill on Amsterdam; and for
+this purpose the various coins were received in deposit at the bank at
+their real value in standard coin, less a small charge for recoinage and
+expense of management. For the amount deposited a credit was opened on the
+books of the bank, by the transfer of which payments could be made, this
+so-called _bank money_ being of uniform value as representing money at the
+mint standard. It bore, therefore, an _agio_ or premium above the worn-coin
+currency, and it was legally compulsory to make all payments of 600
+guilders and upwards in bank money. The deposits were supposed to remain in
+the coffers of the bank, but they were secretly traded with in the
+eighteenth century till the collapse of the bank in 1790. Banks of a
+similar character were established at Nuremberg and other towns, the most
+important being the Bank of Hamburg, founded in 1619. In England there was
+no corresponding institution, the London merchants being in the habit of
+lodging their money at the Mint in the Tower, until Charles I appropriated
+the whole of it (£200,000) in 1640. Thenceforth they lodged it with the
+goldsmiths, who began to do banking business in a small way, encouraging
+deposits by allowing interest for their use, lending money for short
+periods, discounting bills, &c. The bank-note was first invented and issued
+in 1690 by the Bank of Stockholm, founded by Palmstruck in 1688, and one of
+the most successful of banking establishments. About the same time the
+banks of England and Scotland began to take shape, opening up a new era in
+the financing of commerce and industry.
+
+_Bank of England._--The Bank of England, the most important banking
+establishment in the world, was projected by William Paterson, who was
+afterwards the promoter of the disastrous Darien scheme. It was the first
+public bank in the United Kingdom, and was chartered in 1694 by an Act
+which, among other things, secured certain recompenses to such persons as
+should advance the sum of £1,500,000 towards carrying on the war against
+France. Subscribers to the loan became, under the Act, stockholders, to the
+amount of their respective subscriptions, in the capital stock of a
+corporation, denominated the _Governor and Company of the Bank of England_.
+The company thus formed advanced to the Government £1,200,000 at an
+interest of 8 per cent--the Government making an additional bonus or
+allowance to the bank of £4000 annually for the management of this loan
+(which, in fact, constituted the capital of the bank), and for settling the
+interest and making transfers, &c., among the various stockholders. This
+bank, like that of Venice, was thus originally an engine of the Government,
+and not a mere commercial establishment. Its capital has been added to from
+time to time, the original capital of £1,200,000 having increased to
+£14,553,000 in 1816, since which no further augmentation has taken place.
+There exists besides, however, a variable 'rest' of over £3,000,000. The
+charter of the bank was originally granted for eleven years certain, or
+till a year's notice after 1st Aug., 1705. It was subsequently renewed for
+various periods in 1697, 1708, 1713, 1742, 1764, 1781, 1800, 1833, and
+1844, certain conditions which the bank had to fulfil being specified at
+each renewal. On this last occasion it was continued till twelve months'
+notice from 1855. At the same time the issue department of the bank was
+established as distinct from the general banking department, the sole
+business entrusted to the former being the issue of notes. By this
+arrangement the bank was authorized to issue notes to the value of
+£14,000,000 upon securities specially set apart, the most important of the
+securities being the sum of £11,015,100 due to the bank by the Government,
+together with so much of the coin and bullion then held by the bank as was
+not required by the banking department. The bank has since been permitted
+to increase its issue on securities to £18,450,000, but for every note that
+the issue department may issue beyond the total sum of £18,450,000 an
+equivalent amount of coin or bullion must be paid into the coffers of the
+bank. For its special privileges the bank has to pay to the Government an
+annual sum of £180,000, and the profit derived from the issue of notes
+beyond £14,000,000. The Bank of England notes are practically equivalent to
+gold. They are (like all English bank-notes) of the value of £5 and
+upwards, and are legal tender throughout England. Notes once issued by the
+bank and returned to it are not reissued but are destroyed--a system
+adopted in order to facilitate the keeping of an account of the numbers of
+the notes in circulation, and so prevent forgery. On 7th Aug., 1914,
+Government notes for £1, and ten shillings, were issued convertible into
+gold at the Bank of England.
+
+In compliance also with the Bank Charter Act of 1844 the bank is compelled
+to publish a weekly account, of which the following is a specimen:--
+
+   _Dr_.        ISSUE DEPARTMENT. Week ending 11th August, 1920     _Cr_.
+
+  Notes issued           £139,980,460 | Government debt        £11,015,100
+                                      | Other securities         7,434,900
+                                      | Gold coin and bullion  121,530,460
+                                      | Silver bullion              ---
+                         ------------ |                       ------------
+                         £139,980,460 |                       £139,980,460
+
+   _Dr_.                      BANKING DEPARTMENT                    _Cr_.
+
+  Capital                 £14,553,000 | Government securities   £68,250,449
+  Rest                      3,458,795 | Other securities         73,805,565
+  Public deposits          15,999,059 | Notes                    14,452,665
+  Other deposits          124,018,988 | Gold and silver coin      1,537,092
+  Seven-day and other          15,929 |
+   bills                 ------------ |                        ------------
+                         £158,045,771 |                        £158,045,771
+
+The total of the notes given out by the issue department is called the
+'issue circulation', the portion of it in the hands of the public being the
+'active circulation', and that still in the banking department being the
+'note reserve'. This 'note reserve' represents really the amount of bullion
+in the issue department available for the use of the banking department. Of
+the other items in the account it may be noted that the proprietors' 'rest'
+is a varying surplus increased always by accumulated profits up to 5th
+April and 10th Oct., when the bank dividends are paid to the shareholders;
+and that the public deposits, which include sums lodged on account of the
+customs, inland revenue, &c., increase through revenue receipts until the
+dividend terms in January, April, July, and October. The other or private
+deposits comprise those of bankers, merchants, and other persons. An
+increase in these private deposits indicates an increase of monetary ease,
+while a decrease informs us that bankers, merchants, and traders have calls
+upon them for money. A better indication of the demand for money is
+furnished, however, by the advances on commercial securities, and it is by
+this and the condition of the reserve that the bank rate of discount is
+regulated. When the reserve is high and the advances moderate the discount
+rate is low, and it is raised according as the reserve falls and advances
+are more in request, especially during an adverse foreign exchange and
+drain of gold. Gold is thus restrained from going abroad, and its influx
+into the country is encouraged. In addition to the profit which the bank
+may make by ordinary banking business, by the Bank Act of 1892 and the
+Revenue Act of 1906, it receives an allowance for the management of the
+national debt, at the rate of £325 per million on 500 millions, and £100
+per million on all debt above that sum. The annual sum is not to be less
+than £160,000. It also derives a profit from foreign gold coin and bullion
+brought to it, for which it pays £3, 17s. 9d., or 1½d. per ounce less than
+the real value.
+
+The management of the bank is in the hands of a governor, deputy-governor,
+and twenty-four directors, elected by stock-holders who have held £500 of
+stock for six months previous to the election. A director is required to
+hold £2000, a deputy-governor £3000, and a governor £4000 of the stock. The
+court or board of directors meets every Thursday, when the weekly account
+is presented. The Bank of England has branches in Liverpool, Manchester,
+Newcastle, Birmingham, Leeds, Hull, Bristol, Plymouth, and Portsmouth.
+
+The other English banks consist of numerous joint-stock and private banks
+in London and the provinces, many of the provincial establishments of both
+kinds having the right to issue notes. Private banks in London with not
+more than six partners have never been prevented from issuing notes, but
+they could not profitably compete with the Bank of England. The maximum
+issues of the provincial banks are limited to a certain amount, against
+which they are not compelled to hold gold in reserve, and they have no
+power to issue against specie in excess of the fixed circulation. Their
+actual issues are considerably below this amount. No union can take place
+between a joint-stock bank and a private bank, or between two joint-stock
+banks of issue, without one of them losing its issue. Their total
+authorized circulation is about £2,958,900, but the actual circulation of
+these banks is now only about £1,200,000, being distributed among about
+eighteen private and about twenty joint-stock banks. The notes of these
+banks are payable in Bank of England paper. The greater number of
+joint-stock banks are of limited liability, though their liability in
+respect of their notes is unlimited. Some of them have a large number of
+branches. All the joint-stock banks allow interest on money deposited with
+them. The total paid-up capital and reserves of the English joint-stock
+banks is about £100,000,000.
+
+_Scotland_.--In Scotland there are no private banks, the only banks in that
+portion of the United Kingdom being eight joint-stock banks of issue, and
+their branches (the Mercantile and Savings not being banks of issue). By
+the Act of 1845 new banks of issue were prohibited, a monopoly being given
+to such establishments (nineteen in number) as existed in the year previous
+to 1st May, 1845. At the same time the issue of each was limited to the
+amount of its average circulation during that year, together with the
+specie held at the head office. Any bank issuing notes in excess of this
+limit is supposed to hold an equivalent amount of gold. The aggregate
+authorized circulation is now £2,676,350; the average actual circulation is
+fully £7,000,000. The Bank of Scotland, established by Act of Parliament in
+1695, had for its original capital only £100,000, increased to £200,000 in
+1744; but it now has a capital of £1,325,000 paid up. It remained the only
+bank in Scotland till the Royal Bank of Scotland was established in 1727,
+with an original capital of £151,000, which has grown to £2,000,000 paid
+up. The British Linen Company was incorporated in 1746, for the purpose of
+promoting the linen manufacture, but soon became a general banking company;
+capital, £1,250,000 paid up. These three banks claim to be by their
+charters banks of limited liability. All the other Scottish banks have been
+established within the nineteenth century. They are all incorporated by
+royal charter or Act of Parliament, which enables them to sue and be sued
+as a corporation, and latterly they have all become banks of limited
+liability, except that their liability is not to be limited in respect to
+their note issue. The total paid-up capital of the Scotch banks is
+£9,300,000. A large number of one-pound notes circulate in Scotland, thus
+tending to keep the requirements for gold low. From allowing a moderate
+rate of interest on deposit accounts (although not on current accounts) it
+is not uncommon for depositors in Scottish banks to lodge their money
+permanently as an investment; and the habit of keeping an account with a
+banker is much more general in Scotland than in England, branch offices of
+the banks being very numerous. Several of the Scotch banks have branch
+offices in London, but of course they cannot issue their own notes from
+these offices. The Scotch banks have enjoyed a high reputation for
+stability, and though public confidence was somewhat shaken by the failure
+of the Western Bank in 1857, and even more rudely by that of the City of
+Glasgow Bank in 1878, their shares are generally looked upon as a safe and
+remunerative investment. Their total deposits amount to fully £107,000,000.
+
+_Ireland._--The banks in Ireland consist of one public or national bank,
+the Bank of Ireland, and of sundry joint-stock and private banks. The
+authorized note circulation is arranged on the same footing as that of the
+Scotch banks. If any bank discontinues its issue and issues notes of the
+Bank of Ireland, the circulation of the latter may be to an equal amount
+increased. The authorized circulation is £6,354,494; the actual circulation
+is sometimes a little above, sometimes a little below. The Bank of Ireland,
+which was established by charter in 1783 with similar privileges to those
+granted to the Bank of England, has lent the greater portion of its capital
+to Government. Its capital is £2,769,230 (or £3,000,000 Irish); it has also
+a rest or reserve of over £1,000,000. The bank allows interest on deposits
+when lodged for a stated period.
+
+_Banque de France._--The Bank of France is second in importance only to the
+Bank of England. It was established in the beginning of the nineteenth
+century, at first with a capital of 45,000,000 francs, and with the
+exclusive privilege in Paris of issuing notes payable to bearer, a
+privilege which was extended in 1848 to cover the whole of France. It has
+numerous branches in the larger towns, a number of these having been
+acquired in 1848, when certain joint-stock banks of issue were by
+Government decree incorporated with the Bank of France, the capital of
+which was then increased to 91,250,000 francs (£3,650,000), in 91,250
+shares of 1000 francs each. In 1857 the capital was doubled, and besides
+this it has a large surplus capital or rest. Like the Bank of England, it
+is a bank of deposit, discount, and circulation, and is a large creditor of
+the State. The Government appoints the governor and the two
+deputy-governors, who are all required to be stockholders. There is also a
+body of fifteen directors and three censors, nominated by the shareholders.
+The value of its note circulation in March, 1922, was 36,225,852,000
+francs.
+
+_British Colonies._--With regard to the banks in British colonies little
+need be said. All the more important are joint-stock concerns, and they are
+carried on subject to Acts passed by the respective colonial legislatures.
+Some of them have their head-quarters in London, and have been established
+by English capital. In Canada the banks are not allowed to issue notes of
+lower denominations than five dollars, notes for one and two dollars and
+higher amounts being issued by the Dominion Government; and the banking
+laws are such that there is no possibility of holders of bank-notes being
+losers by them. The total paid-up capital of the Canadian banks is about
+£20,000,000; their total deposits about £135,000,000.
+
+_United States._--The more important of the banks of the United States are
+what are called national banks, established in accordance with an Act
+passed in 1863. Associations of this kind at starting must invest at least
+a third of their paid-up capital in Government bonds, which pay them an
+interest of 4 per cent more or less. They then obtain from the Government
+bureau, established for the purpose, 90 per cent of paper-money sheets,
+which they sign and pay out, this constituting their note circulation.
+These banks pay no interest to depositors. Besides the notes of these banks
+a large portion of the currency of the United States consists of Government
+notes issued from the national treasury. There are also banks chartered by
+the different States and private banks.
+
+_Savings-banks_ are banks established for the receiving of small sums, so
+as to be taken advantage of by the poorer classes, and they are carried on
+entirely for the benefit of the depositors. They are of comparatively
+recent origin, one of the earliest having been an institution in which
+small sums were received, and interest allowed on them, established by Mrs.
+Priscilla Wakefield, at Tottenham, near London, in 1803. The first
+savings-bank in Scotland was formed in 1810 by the Rev. Henry Duncan, of
+Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire. In 1814 the Edinburgh savings-bank was established
+on the same principles, and the system soon spread over the kingdom. The
+first Act relating to savings-banks was passed in 1817. By it all deposits
+in savings-banks, as soon as they reached £50, were placed in the hands of
+the National Debt Commissioners, who allowed interest on them. In 1824 it
+was enacted that the deposits for the first year should not exceed £50, nor
+those in subsequent years £30, the total deposits being limited to £150,
+and interest ceasing to be paid when accrued interest made the total £200.
+By the Act of 1893 the limit of annual deposit was raised to £50, and the
+interest is now rather less than 3 per cent. An Act of 1833 had provided
+for the purchase of Government annuities by depositors either for life or
+for a term of years; and an annuity of any amount up to £100 may now be
+obtained. Depositors in savings-banks (by an Act of 1880) can also have
+their money invested for them in Government stock, the banks collecting and
+paying the dividends; and when accrued interest raises an account above
+£200 the excess is now so invested for the depositor. The total amount
+invested by one person in Government stock is not to exceed £500, nor £200
+in one year. These banks are managed by local trustees having no personal
+interest in the business, and by certain paid officers. A new class of
+savings-banks, namely, _Post Office Savings-banks_, was established in
+Britain in connection with the money-order department of the Post Office in
+1861. Any sum not less than a shilling is received, provided that the total
+amount banked does not exceed £50 in one year, or more than £200 in all;
+the excess of accrued interest above this being invested in Government
+stock. Interest is paid on every complete pound at the rate of 2½ per cent.
+For the deposits the Government is responsible, and they may be drawn from
+any Post Office Savings-bank in the kingdom. These savings-banks have
+become very numerous, and much of the funds formerly in the trustees'
+savings-banks has been transferred to them. The total amount deposited in
+the old banks is now about £52,000,000, in the new about £157,600,000. The
+regulations regarding the purchase of Government stock and annuities
+correspond with those given above. Savings-banks are now well known in all
+civilized countries, and the good they have done is incalculable. In the
+United States there is an enormous amount of money deposited in them. Post
+Office Savings-banks have been proposed to be established in the States,
+but have not yet been so. In Canada, Australia, and other British colonies
+they are established, as well as savings-banks of several other kinds.
+School savings-banks are the most recent institutions of this kind, and
+have had a marked effect for good.
+
+_Bank Holidays_, in England and Ireland, Good Friday, Easter Monday, Whit
+Monday, first Monday in August, Christmas and following day, or 27th (if
+next day is a Sunday); in Scotland, New-Year's Day, first Monday of May and
+August and Christmas.
+
+BANKRUPT (from It. _banca rotta_ 'bank broken' or 'bench broken'. Dr.
+Johnson said that the word originated from the Italian custom of breaking
+the bench of an insolvent money-changer; but _rotta_ also means
+'interrupted' or 'stopped', and is here used more in the sense of our
+colloquial word _broken_, and means 'insolvent'), a person whom the law
+does or may take cognizance of as unable to pay his debts. Properly it is
+of narrower signification than _insolvent_, an insolvent person simply
+being unable to pay all his debts. In England up till 1861 the term
+_bankrupt_ was limited to an insolvent trader, and such traders were on a
+different footing from other insolvent persons, the latter not getting the
+same legal relief from their debts. In all civilized communities laws have
+been passed regarding bankruptcy. At present bankruptcy in England is
+regulated by the Bankruptcy Acts of 1883 and 1890, which have as one chief
+feature the intervention of the Board of Trade in the proceedings, with the
+object of obtaining full official supervision and control. A bankruptcy
+petition may be presented either by a creditor or a debtor. A creditor's
+petition must be founded on a debt of not less than fifty pounds, due to
+one or more creditors, and on an 'act of bankruptcy' committed by the
+debtor within three months before the presentation of the petition. A
+debtor commits an act of bankruptcy if he makes a conveyance of his
+property to a trustee for the benefit of his creditors; if he makes a
+fraudulent transfer of any part of his property; if, to defeat or delay his
+creditors, he conceal himself either at home or abroad; if execution issued
+against him has been enforced by seizure and sale of his goods under
+process in an action in any court; if he files in court a declaration of
+inability to pay his debts, or presents a bankruptcy petition against
+himself; if a creditor has obtained a final judgment against him for any
+amount and he fail to pay the judgment debt without satisfactory reason; or
+if the debtor gives notice to any of his creditors that he has suspended,
+or is about to suspend, payment of his debts. In London jurisdiction in
+bankruptcy now rests with the High Court of Justice, while the county
+courts continue to have jurisdiction in bankruptcy outside the London
+district. When the court is satisfied as to the petition, a 'receiving
+order' is issued to protect the debtor's estate by constituting the
+official appointed by the Board of Trade receiver of the debtor's property,
+and to stay the remedies of all creditors until the meeting of creditors.
+The debtor must make out a full statement of his affairs, accounting as
+best he can for his insolvency. The official receiver summons the meeting
+of creditors, a summary of the debtor's affairs being sent to each creditor
+with the notice of the meeting, which is also advertised in the _London
+Gazette_. The creditors must send to the official receiver, one day before
+the meeting, sworn proofs of their claims to enable them to vote. At the
+meeting the creditors (unless the debtor's proposal for a composition or
+scheme be entertained) pass a resolution adjudging the debtor bankrupt, and
+appoint a trustee of the bankrupt's property, with a committee of
+inspection selected from their own body to superintend the administration
+of the bankrupt's property by the trustee, who divides the available
+realized assets amongst all creditors who have sent sworn proofs of claims.
+Rates, assessments, and taxes, and all wages or salary of a clerk, servant,
+labourer, or workman during four months before the date of the receiving
+order not exceeding £50 are paid in priority to all other debts. The
+trustee is required to give satisfactory security to the Board of Trade, by
+which his accounts are audited not less than twice in each year. All moneys
+received by the trustee under the bankruptcy must be paid forthwith to an
+account kept at the Bank of England by the Board of Trade, called the
+'Bankruptcy Estates Account'. The debtor is bound to be publicly examined
+upon oath in court, and any creditor who has tendered a proof, or his
+representative, may take part in the examination. Until the debtor has
+passed his public examination he cannot apply for an order of discharge,
+and upon proof of misdemeanour the court refuses or suspends the discharge.
+A discharged bankrupt is disqualified for five years from acting as member
+of Parliament, justice of peace, alderman, overseer of the poor, county
+councillor, or as a member of any school, highway, or burial board. An
+undischarged bankrupt obtaining credit to the extent of £20 or upwards from
+any person, without informing such person of his status, is guilty of a
+misdemeanour. By the Act of 1883 the creditors may at the first meeting
+resolve to entertain a proposal for a composition or scheme of arrangement
+of the debtor's affairs, but the composition or scheme shall not be binding
+on the creditors, unless confirmed at a second meeting by a majority in
+number representing three-fourths in value of all the creditors who have
+proved. The composition or scheme has then to be formally brought before
+the court for approval, which may be refused. A composition or scheme may
+be sanctioned by the court after the debtor's adjudication as a bankrupt,
+and in this case the bankruptcy is annulled. Though imprisonment for debt
+has been abolished, fraudulent bankrupts may be punished, and the conduct
+of prosecutions for offences arising out of any bankruptcy proceeding falls
+to the public prosecutor. The estates of persons dying insolvent may be
+administered according to the law of bankruptcy. The Act of 1913 embodies
+suggestions of the Bankruptcy Law Amendment Committee of 1906. Thus, the
+Summary Jurisdiction Act can now be applied to offenders under the Debtors'
+Act. Whereas previously conviction for such offences as failure to keep
+proper accounts and concealment of debt could only be by trial before a
+jury, they are punishable after summary trial before a stipendiary
+magistrate or justice of the peace, the onus of proving innocence falling
+on the debtor. A married woman, too, may be made bankrupt even if not
+trading separately from her husband.
+
+According to Scots law bankruptcy is notorious insolvency, that is, a
+public acknowledgment of inability to discharge obligations. By a judicial
+proceeding, called _sequestration_, authorized by the Court of Session or
+sheriff court, on the petition of the debtor himself with the concurrence
+of one creditor swearing to a debt of £50, two whose debts together amount
+to £70, or of any number of creditors whose debts together amount to £100;
+or on the petition of a creditor or creditors to the foregoing extent
+without the concurrence of the debtor, if he has clearly shown himself to
+be insolvent (or a _notour bankrupt_), the whole estates and effects of the
+debtor, real and personal, are legally taken for behoof of the creditors.
+The debtor's estate is then made over to a trustee chosen by the creditors,
+the trustee being charged to bring the whole estate into the form of money,
+with certain precautions, and to receive, investigate, and reject or admit
+the claims of the creditors, subject to review of the Court of Session or
+sheriff court by summary petition. The debtor, and all who can give
+information as to the estate, must submit to public examination on oath
+before the sheriff of the county, and the debtor may thereafter, or by
+petition after six, twelve, or eighteen months from sequestration, be
+discharged of all debts by the court with consent of the creditors or a
+number of them, or at the expiry of two years without consent. These
+proceedings may be partly superseded by 'composition' if such be assented
+to by a majority in number and nine-tenths in value of creditors, or by a
+majority in number and four-fifths in value of the creditors, according to
+the period at which such arrangement may be proposed. They may also be
+terminated by a deed of arrangement entered into between the bankrupt and a
+majority in number and four-fifths in value of his creditors, approved of
+by the court. Before a discharge is given there must be a report from the
+trustee as to the conduct of the bankrupt, whether he has complied with the
+provisions of the Act, whether his bankruptcy is culpable or not, &c.
+Before the abolition of imprisonment for ordinary civil debts by Act passed
+in 1880, an insolvent debtor often took advantage of a form of process by
+which, on making a complete _cessio bonorum_, or surrender to his creditors
+of all his property, he might obtain protection from imprisonment. Though
+no person can now be imprisoned for ordinary debts, a creditor of a
+_notour_ bankrupt may present a petition to the sheriff, praying him to
+decern that the debtor assign over all his goods for behoof of his
+creditors and that a trustee be appointed; and this proceeding is still
+designated a process of _cessio bonorum_. The Act of 1880 also provides for
+the better punishment of fraudulent debtors in Scotland. If the debtor's
+liabilities exceed £200, the sheriff may award _sequestration_ of the
+debtor's estate instead of _cessio bonorum_. There is no appeal from the
+sheriff's decision with respect to discharge.
+
+In Ireland there is a special code of bankruptcy contained in special Acts,
+differing to some extent from the regulations prevailing both in England
+and Scotland. Thus in Ireland it is not an offence for an undischarged
+bankrupt to obtain credit to any amount without disclosing the fact of his
+bankruptcy. All bankruptcy business comes before the court at Dublin,
+Belfast, or Cork. Imprisonment for debt was abolished in 1872.
+
+Official returns in Great Britain show a tendency towards a smaller number
+of failures, but a larger amount of money is involved.
+
+In the different British colonies the laws regulating bankruptcy naturally
+differ, and the same is the case with the individual States of the American
+Union, though Congress has the power of legislating for the whole country
+in regard to this, and has oftener than once done so.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H.
+Goudy, _Treatise of the Law of Bankruptcy in Scotland_; Sir R. H. J.
+Palgrave, _Dictionary of Political Economy_; E. T. Baldwin, _The Law of
+Bankruptcy and Bills of Sale_; Sir R. L. V. Williams, _The Law and Practice
+of Bankruptcy_; R. Ringwood, _The Principles of Bankruptcy_.
+
+BANKS, Sir Joseph, Baronet, a distinguished naturalist, born in London
+1743. After studying at Harrow and Eton he went to Oxford in 1760, and
+formed there amongst his fellow-undergraduates a voluntary class in botany,
+&c. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1766, and soon after went
+to Newfoundland and Hudson's Bay to collect plants. In 1768, with Dr.
+Solander, a Swedish gentleman, pupil of Linnæus, and then assistant
+librarian at the British Museum, he accompanied Cook's expedition as
+naturalist. In 1772 he visited Iceland along with Dr. Solander, and during
+this voyage the Hebrides were examined, and the columnar formation of the
+rocks of Staffa first made known to geologists. In 1777 Banks was chosen
+President of the Royal Society, and in 1781 was made a baronet, and in 1795
+received the Order of the Bath. He wrote only essays, papers for learned
+societies, and short treatises. He died in 1820, and bequeathed his
+collections to the British Museum.
+
+BANKS, Thomas, an English sculptor, born in 1735, died in 1805. He studied
+sculpture in the Royal Academy, where he obtained the gold medal for a
+bas-relief of the _Rape of Proserpine_. In 1772 he went to Italy, where he
+executed several excellent pieces, particularly _Cupid tormenting a
+Butterfly_, which was afterwards purchased by the Empress Catherine. On
+leaving Italy he spent two unsatisfactory years in Russia, and then
+returned to England, where he was soon after made an Academician. One of
+his best-known works is _Shakespeare attended by Painting and Poetry_.
+Among his other works was a colossal statue--_Achilles mourning the loss of
+Briseis_--in the hall of the British Institution, and the monument of Sir
+Eyre Coote in Westminster Abbey. His bust of Warren Hastings is in the
+National Gallery.
+
+BANK´SIA (named after Sir Joseph Banks), a genus of Australian shrubs and
+trees, order Proteaceæ, with leathery leaves generally dark-green on the
+upper surface and pale below, often cultivated in conservatories for their
+peculiar foliage and flowers. They are named "honeysuckles" by the
+colonists, from the honey the flowers contain.
+
+BANKS´RING. See _Banxring_.
+
+BANKURA´, a town of Bengal, on the Dhalkisor River, healthy and with a
+considerable trade Pop. 21,000.
+
+BANN, Upper and Lower, two rivers in the N. of Ireland, the former rising
+in the mountains of Mourne, County Down, and, after flowing 38 miles in a
+northerly direction, falling into Lough Neagh, the latter being the outlet
+of Lough Neagh, and falling into the Atlantic Ocean 4 miles below
+Coleraine, after a course of nearly 40 miles.
+
+BAN´NATYNE CLUB, a literary society instituted in Edinburgh (1823) by Sir
+Walter Scott (its first president), David Laing (secretary till its
+dissolution in 1861), Archibald Constable, and Thomas Thomson. It started
+with thirty-one members, subsequently extended to 100, having as its object
+the printing of rare works on Scottish history, literature, geography, &c.
+It derived its name from George Bannatyne (1545-1609), the collector of the
+famous MS. of early Scottish poetry.
+
+BAN´NERET, formerly, in England, a knight made on the field of battle as a
+reward for bravery, with the ceremony of cutting off the point of his
+pennon and making it a banner. The first banneret in England was made by
+King Edward I, and the last (John Smith) by Charles I after the battle of
+Edgehill in 1642.
+
+BAN´NOCK, a cake made of oatmeal, barley-meal, or peasemeal baked on an
+iron plate or griddle over the fire. From a supposed resemblance the turbot
+is sometimes called in Scotland the _Bannock-fluke_.
+
+BANNOCKBURN, a village of Scotland, in Stirlingshire, 2 miles S.E.
+Stirling, famous for the decisive battle in which King Robert Bruce of
+Scotland defeated Edward II of England, on the 24th June, 1314. It has
+manufactures of woollens, such as tartans, carpets, &c.; pop. 4103.
+
+BANNS OF MARRIAGE, public notice of the intended celebration of a marriage
+given either by proclamation, viva voce, by a clergyman, session-clerk, or
+precentor in some religious assembly, or by posting up written notice in
+some public place. Dissent of parents or guardians renders null and void
+the publication of the banns of minors. In France the banns must be
+published on two distinct Sundays, and the marriage cannot take place until
+three days after the second publication. In America the practice is
+confined to the Roman Catholics, although it is still recognized in the
+statutes of some of the States.
+
+BANNU, a district in the north-west of Hindustan, traversed by the Indus;
+area, 3847 sq. miles; pop. 390,000, nearly half being Afghans.
+
+BANQUETTE (bang-ket´) in fortification, the elevation of earth behind a
+parapet, on which the garrison or defenders may stand. The height of the
+parapet above the banquette is usually about 4 feet 6 inches; the breadth
+of the banquette from 2½ or 3 feet to 4 or 6 feet, according to the number
+of ranks to occupy it. It is frequently made double, that is, a second is
+made still lower.
+
+BANSHEE´, or BENSHI´, a fairy woman believed in Ireland and some parts of
+Scotland to attach herself to a particular house, and to appear or make her
+presence known by wailing before the death of one of the family.
+
+BAN´TAM, a residency occupying the whole of the W. end of the Island of
+Java. It formed an independent kingdom, governed by its own sultan, till
+1683, and the Dutch exercised suzerainty with brief intermission until its
+formal incorporation by them at the beginning of last century. It produces
+rice, coffee, sugar, cinnamon, &c. Serang is its capital. The town Bantam
+was the first Dutch settlement in Java (1595), and for some time their
+principal mart, though now not so prosperous.
+
+BAN´TAM FOWL, a small but spirited breed of domestic fowl, first brought
+from the East Indies, supposed to derive its name from Bantam in Java. Most
+of the sub-varieties have feathered legs; but these are not to be
+preferred. In point of colour the black and nankeen varieties are the best.
+A well-bred bantam does not weigh more than a pound.
+
+BANTENG´ (_Bos Banteng_ or _Sondaicus_), a wild species of ox, native of
+Java and Borneo, having a black body, slender white legs, short sleek hair,
+sharp muzzle, and the back humped behind the neck.
+
+BANTING SYSTEM, a course of diet for reducing superfluous fat, adopted and
+recommended in 1863 by W. Banting of London. The dietary recommended was
+the use of butcher-meat principally, and abstinence from beer, farinaceous
+food, and vegetables. See _Corpulence_.
+
+BAN´TRY, a seaport near the head of Bantry Bay, County Cork, Ireland. Pop.
+3159.--The _bay_, one of three large inlets at the S.W. extremity of
+Ireland, affords an unsurpassed anchorage, and is about 25 miles long by 4
+to 6 broad, and from 10 to 40 fathoms deep, with no dangerous rocks or
+shoals.
+
+BANTU (bän-tö´), the ethnological name of a group of African races below
+about 6° N. latitude, and including the Kaffirs, Zulus, Bechuanas, the
+tribes of the Loango, Congo, &c., but not the Hottentots.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+Deniker, _Races of Man_; J. Roscoe, _The Northern Bantu_.
+
+BANU. See _Bannu_.
+
+BANX´RING (genus Tapaia), a quadruped belonging to the Insectivora,
+inhabiting the Indian Archipelago, bearing some resemblance externally to a
+squirrel, but having a long pointed snout.
+
+[Illustration: Banyan (_Ficus benghalensis_)]
+
+BAN´YAN (_Ficus benghalensis_), a tree of India, of the fig genus. The most
+peculiar feature of this tree is its method of throwing out from the
+horizontal branches supports which take root as soon as they reach the
+ground, enlarge into trunks, and, extending branches in their turn, soon
+cover a prodigious extent of ground. A celebrated banyan tree has been
+known to shelter 7000 men beneath its shade. The wood is soft and porous,
+and from its white glutinous juice bird-lime is sometimes prepared. Both
+juice and bark are regarded by the Hindus as valuable medicines, and the
+tree itself is sacred. The banyan tree is described by Southey in his poem
+_The Curse of Kehama_.
+
+[Illustration: Baobab or Monkey-bread Tree (_Adansonia digitata_)]
+
+BA´OBAB (_Adansonia digit[=a]ta_) or MONKEY-BREAD TREE, a tree belonging to
+the nat. ord. (or sub-ord.) Bombaceæ, and the best-known species of its
+genus, which was named after the naturalist Adanson. Though not tall, it is
+one of the bulkiest of trees, its trunk sometimes measuring 30 feet in
+diameter, and as the profusion of leaves and drooping boughs sometimes
+almost hides the stem, the whole forms a hemispherical mass of verdure 140
+to 150 feet in diameter and 60 to 70 feet high. It is a native of the
+African savannahs, and is cultivated in many of the warmer parts of the
+world. The roots are of extraordinary length, a tree 77 feet in girth
+having a tap-root 110 feet in length. The leaves are deep green, divided
+into five unequal parts lanceolate in shape, and radiating from a common
+centre. The flowers resemble the white poppy, having snowy petals and
+violet-coloured stamens; and the fruit, which is large and of an oblong
+shape, is said to taste like gingerbread, with a pleasant acid flavour. The
+wood is pale-coloured, light, and contains a large store of water, which
+enables the tree to withstand prolonged drought. The tree is liable to be
+attacked by a fungus which, growing in the woody part, renders it soft and
+pithlike. By the negroes of the west coast these trunks are hollowed into
+chambers, and dead bodies are suspended in them. There they become
+perfectly dry and well preserved, without further preparation or embalming.
+The baobab is emollient and mucilaginous; the pulverized leaves constitute
+_lalo_, which the natives mix with their daily food.
+
+BAPAUME, a French town in the department of Pas-de-Calais. It has been the
+scene of several battles. In 1793 the French were compelled by the allied
+troops to abandon the place, and in the Franco-German war one of the most
+closely-contested battles was fought there on 3rd Jan., 1871. Bapaume,
+occupied by the Germans in the European War, was recaptured by British
+troops on 29th Aug., 1918, the great battle of Bapaume having begun on 21st
+Aug. Pop. (1911) 2917.
+
+BAPH´OMET, the imaginary idol or symbol which the Templars were accused of
+employing in their mysterious rites, and of which little is known. The word
+is supposed to be a corruption of Mahomet, to whose faith the Templars were
+accused of having a leaning. See _Gnosticism_.
+
+BAPTISM (from the Gr. _baptiz[=o]_, from _bapt[=o]_, to immerse or dip), a
+rite which is generally thought to have been usual with the Jews even
+before Christ, being administered to proselytes. All that can be said,
+however, with some certainty is that the Jewish baptism was not of later
+origin than the Christian baptism. Anyhow, from this baptism that of St.
+John the Baptist differed, because he baptized Jews also as a symbol of the
+necessity of perfect purification from sin. Christ himself never baptized,
+but directed his disciples to administer this rite to converts (_Mat._
+xxviii, 19); and baptism, therefore, became a religious ceremony among
+Christians, taking rank as a sacrament with all sects which acknowledge
+sacraments. It should, however, be borne in mind that among many peoples a
+rite is found which has considerable likeness to Christian baptism. In the
+primitive Church the person to be baptized was dipped in a river or in a
+vessel, with the words which Christ had ordered, generally adopting a new
+name further to express the change. Sprinkling, or, as it was termed,
+_clinic_ baptism, was used only in the case of the sick who could not leave
+their beds. The Greek Church and Eastern schismatics retained the custom of
+immersion; but the Western Church adopted or allowed the mode of baptism by
+pouring or sprinkling, since continued by most Protestants. This practice
+can be traced back certainly to the third century, before which its
+existence is disputed. Since the Reformation there have been various
+Protestant sects called Baptists, holding that baptism should be
+administered only by immersion, and to those who can make a personal
+profession of faith. The Montanists in Africa baptized even the dead, and
+in Roman Catholic countries the practice of baptizing church bells--a
+custom of tenth-century origin--continues to this day. Being an initiatory
+rite, baptism is only administered once to the same person. The Roman and
+Greek Catholics consecrate the water of baptism, but Protestants do not.
+The act of baptism is accompanied only with the formula that the person is
+baptized in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost; but, among most
+Christians, it is preceded by a confession of faith made by the person to
+be baptized if an adult, and by his parents or sponsors if he be a child.
+The Roman Catholic form of baptism is far more elaborate than the
+Protestant. This Church teaches that all persons not baptized are damned,
+and that even unbaptized infants are not admitted into Heaven; but for
+those whose chief fault was that they had not been baptized, even St.
+Augustine himself believed in a species of mitigated damnation. Protestants
+hold that though the neglect of the sacrament is a sin, yet the saving new
+birth may be found without the performance of the rite which symbolizes it.
+Naming the person baptized forms no essential part of the ceremony, but has
+become almost universal, probably from the ancient custom of renaming the
+catechumen.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_ (vol. ii); S.
+Baring-Gould, _Origin and Development of Religious Belief_; J. E. Hanaver,
+_Baptism, Jewish and Christian_; Harnack, _History of Dogma_; article
+_Baptism_ in _Encyclopedia of Ethics and Religion_; Corblet, _Histoire du
+Sacrément du Baptême_; P. Mauro, _Baptism: its place and importance in
+Christianity_.
+
+[Illustration: Baptistery of S. Giovanni in Laterano, Rome]
+
+BAP´TISTERY, a building or a portion of a building in which is administered
+the rite of baptism. In the early Christian Church the baptistery was
+distinct from the basilica or church, but was situated near its west end,
+and was generally circular or octagonal in form, and dome-roofed. About the
+end of the sixth century the baptistery began to be absorbed into the
+church, the font being placed within and not far from the western door.
+Some detached baptisteries still remain in use, as those of the Lateran,
+Rome (the earliest in existence), at Pisa, Parma, Ravenna, Aquileia, Siena,
+Florence, &c., that of Florence being 108 feet in diameter externally, and
+richly decorated. Baptisteries were dedicated to St. John the Baptist.
+
+BAP´TISTS, a Protestant sect, distinguished by their opinions respecting
+the mode and subjects of baptism. With regard to the mode, they maintain
+the necessity of immersion, and with regard to the subjects, they consider
+that baptism ought not to be administered to children at all, nor to adults
+in general, but to those only who profess repentance and faith. They are
+sometimes called _Anti-pædobaptists_, to express their variance from those
+who defend infant baptism, and who are called _Pædobaptists_. Apart from
+the special sect of that name, Baptists are to be found equally among
+Calvinists and Arminians, Trinitarians and Unitarians. The Baptists as a
+whole adopt the Independent or Congregational form of church government,
+and their ecclesiastical assemblies are held for the purpose of mutual
+stimulus and intercourse, and not for the general government of the body,
+or for interference with individual churches. The Particular Baptists of
+England (so called from believing that Christ died only for the elect), the
+Baptists of Scotland and Ireland, the Associated Baptists of America, and
+some of the Seventh-day Baptists, are Calvinistic. The other classes, such
+as the General Baptists (who believe that Christ died for all), are
+Arminian, or at least not Calvinistic. Most Baptists profess to be
+Trinitarians. The Free-will Baptists, the Christian Society, and most of
+the General Baptists of England admit of open communion; the other bodies
+decline communion with any Christians but Baptists. The Associated or
+Calvinistic Baptists long ranked in the United States as the most numerous
+denomination of Christians. The Seventh-day Baptists, or Sabbatarians,
+observe the seventh day of the week. The Free-will Baptists profess the
+doctrine of free salvation. The Anabaptists of the Reformation period are
+not to be confounded with the Baptists, by whom their principles were
+expressly disclaimed. The first regular Baptist Church appears to have been
+formed in the reign of Elizabeth, but we may date their first public
+acknowledgment as distinct from the Anabaptists from their petition to
+Parliament in 1620. The year 1633 provides the earliest record of the
+formation of a Particular Baptist Church in London. In 1689 a Baptist
+General Assembly, held in London, formulated a confession of thirty-two
+articles and a catechism. The Baptist Union, formed in 1832, comprehends
+the greater number of members of the sect in Great Britain and Ireland. In
+July, 1905, a world-congress of Baptists was held in London, and the
+Baptist World Alliance was constituted. The total number of members of
+Baptist Churches in the United Kingdom was 405,104 in 1922, and 408,029 in
+1920. There are nine colleges for training ministers, of which the chief
+are: Bristol Baptist College; Regent's Park; Rawdon, Bradford; and the
+Metropolitan Pastors' College. The Regular Baptists in the United States
+numbered 7,504,447 members in 1922, and nearly 6,000,000 in 1920, in
+addition to which there are Anti-mission Baptists, Free-will Baptists, and
+Seventh-day Baptists. In Canada there are in all about 128,730
+Baptists.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. C. Vedder, _A Short History of the Baptists_;
+A. H. Newman, _History of the Baptist Churches in the United States_; _The
+Baptist Handbook_ (annually); _The American Baptist Year-book_ (annually);
+W. E. MacIntyre, _Baptist Churches, 1500-1914_.
+
+BAR, in law, the railing that encloses the place which counsel occupy in
+courts of justice; hence the phrase, _at the bar of the court_, that is, in
+open court. Hence also persons duly admitted as pleaders or advocates
+before the courts of England are denominated _barristers_ (see
+_Barrister_), and the whole body of such barristers or advocates are called
+the _bar_. The enclosed place or dock in which persons accused of crimes
+stand in court is also called the bar. Near the door of both Houses of
+Parliament there is also a bar, beyond which none but the members and
+clerks are admitted, and at which counsel, witnesses, offenders against
+privilege, &c., are heard.
+
+BAR, in music, is a line drawn through the stave to mark the rhythm of
+small portions; the notes composing these are also called a bar.
+
+BAR, in heraldry, an ordinary resembling the fesse, stretching like it
+horizontally across the shield but narrower.
+
+BAR, CONFEDERATION OF. See _Poland_.
+
+BAR´ABA, the name of a great steppe in the West Siberian governments of
+Tomsk, Akmolinsk, and Tobolsk.
+
+BARABIN´ZIANS, a rude, uncultivated tribe of Tartars, living on the banks
+of the River Irtish, and subsisting chiefly on the produce of their herds
+and on fish supplied by the lakes of the Baraba steppe.
+
+BARAGUEY-D'HILLIERS (b[.a]-r[.a]-g[=a]-d[=e]l-y[=a]),Louis, a distinguished
+French general under the first Empire, born in Paris, 1764. After serving
+under Custine and other generals he joined the army of Italy, and took
+Bergamo and Venice, of which he became Governor. He took part in the
+expedition to Egypt, served in the campaigns in Germany and Spain, and
+commanded a division of the "Great Army" in the Russian campaign of 1812.
+He was entrusted with the direction of the vanguard in the retreat, but was
+compelled to capitulate. Napoleon ordered him to return to France as under
+arrest, but, overcome with grief and fatigue, he died at Berlin on the way,
+Dec., 1812.
+
+BARANOVITCHI, a town in Russia, government of Minsk. A battle was fought
+here between the Russians and the Germans in July, 1916. See _European
+War_.
+
+BARB, a horse of the Barbary breed, introduced by the Moors into Spain, and
+of great speed, endurance, and docility.
+
+[Illustration: Barbacan. Walmgate Bar, York]
+
+BAR´BACAN, or BARBICAN, generally an advanced work defending the entrance
+to a castle or fortified town, as before the gate or drawbridge, and often
+of formidable size and strength.
+
+BARBA´DOES, or BARBADOS, the most eastern of the West India Islands, first
+mentioned in 1518, and occupied by the British in 1625. Length, 21 miles;
+breadth, 13; area, 106,470 acres or 166 sq, miles, about 74,000 being under
+cultivation. It is divided into eleven Church of England parishes; capital,
+Bridgetown. It is one of the most densely-populated areas in the world, the
+population in 1917 being estimated at 186,656, or nearly 1100 to the square
+mile. The climate is very hot, though moderated by the constant
+trade-winds; and the island is subject to dreadful hurricanes. The surface
+is broken, now without forests, and with few streams; the highest point is
+1145 feet above the sea-level. There are few indigenous mammals or birds.
+The black lowland soil gives great returns of sugar in favourable seasons.
+The chief exports, besides sugar, are molasses and rum; imports: rice, salt
+meat, corn, butter, flour, &c. Both exports and imports were over
+£2,000,000 in 1918. Barbadoes has a considerable transit trade, being in
+some measure the central mart for all the Windward Islands. It is the see
+of a bishop and the head-quarters of the British forces in the West Indies.
+There is a railway across the island, also tramways, telephones, &c. The
+island forms a distinct government under a Governor, an Executive and a
+Legislative Council of 9 members, and a House of Assembly of 24 members.
+Liberal provision is made for education both by old foundations and by
+annual vote.
+
+BARBADOES LEG, a form of elephantiasis.
+
+BAR´BARA, ST., according to the legend, belonged to Nicomedia, in Asia
+Minor, and was beheaded by her father for having turned Christian, he being
+immediately thereafter struck dead by lightning. The latter part of this
+legend caused her, probably, to be invoked in storms, and to be considered
+the patron saint of artillerists.
+
+BARBARELLI. See _Giorgione_.
+
+BARBARIAN (Gk. _barbaros_), a name given by the Greeks, and afterwards by
+the Romans, to everyone who spoke an unintelligible language; and hence
+coming to connote the idea of _rude_, _illiterate_, _uncivilized_. This
+word, therefore, did not always convey the idea of something odious or
+savage; thus a Greek character in Plautus calls Nævius a barbarous poet,
+because he had not written in Greek; and Cicero terms illiterate persons
+without taste 'barbarians'.
+
+BARBAROSSA ('red-beard'), the name of two famous Turkish corsairs of the
+sixteenth century, who ravaged the shores of the Mediterranean, and
+established themselves in Algiers. The elder of the brothers, Aruch or
+Horuk, was killed in 1518; the younger and more notorious, Hayraddin, who
+captured Tunis, died in 1546. See _Frederick Barbarossa_.
+
+BAR´BARY, a general name for the most northerly portion of Africa,
+extending about 2600 miles from Egypt to the Atlantic, with a breadth
+varying from about 140 to 550 miles, comprising Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia,
+and Libya (Tripolitania, Barqa, and Fezzan). The principal races are: the
+Berbers, the original inhabitants, from whom the country takes its name;
+the Arabs, who conquered an extensive portion of it during the times of the
+caliphs; the Bedouins, Jews, Turks, and the French colonists of Algeria,
+&c. The country, which was prosperous under the Carthaginians, was, next to
+Egypt, the richest of the Roman provinces, and the Italian States enriched
+themselves by their intercourse with it. In the fifteenth century, however,
+it became infested with adventurers who made the name of Barbary corsair a
+terror to commerce, a condition of things finally removed by the French
+occupation of Algeria.
+
+BARBARY APE (_In[)u]us ecaud[=a]tus_), a species of ape, or tailless
+monkey, with greenish-brown hair, of the size of a large cat, remarkable
+for docility, also called the _magot_. It is common in Barbary and other
+parts of Africa, and some used to live formerly on Gibraltar Rock, being
+the only European monkey, though probably not indigenous. It has been the
+'showman's ape' from time immemorial.
+
+BAR´BASTEL, or BARBASTELLE, a bat with hairy lips (_Barbastellus
+comm[=u]nis_), a native of England.
+
+BARBAS´TRO, a city, Spain, Arragon, province of Huesca, with an interesting
+cathedral, and some trade and manufactures. Pop. 7202.
+
+BAR´BAULD, Anna Letitia, English poet and general writer, was born in
+Leicestershire, 1743, daughter of a Presbyterian minister named Aikin. She
+published a small volume of miscellaneous poems in 1772, and in 1773, in
+conjunction with her brother, Dr. John Aikin, a collection of pieces in
+prose. In 1774 she married the Rev. Rochemont Barbauld. Her _Early Lessons
+and Hymns for Children_, and various essays and poems, won considerable
+popularity. She edited a collection of English novels, with critical and
+biographical notices; a selection from the British essayists of the reign
+of Anne, and another from Richardson's correspondence. Her last long poem,
+_Eighteen Hundred and Eleven_, appeared in 1812. She died at
+Stoke-Newington, 1825.
+
+BAR´BECUE, a word of West Indian origin, meaning a hog, or other large
+animal, roasted whole. In the United States the word means a large
+gathering of people in the open air, for a social or political feast, where
+whole animals are roasted and eaten.
+
+BARBED WIRE, wire-rope for fencing or other purposes, having fixed in it
+short bent pieces of wire with sharp projecting points, which serve to keep
+animals from pressing against it. There is an Act of Parliament (1893) to
+prevent the use of barbed-wire fences that form a nuisance on a public road
+or path; and a person employing barbed wire for fencing may render himself
+liable for damages caused by it to another person who is legitimately using
+the adjoining ground. Barbed wire plays an important part in the
+construction of obstacles in modern warfare. During the European War, all
+systems of trenches were protected by thick belts of wire. This wire was
+laid out in various different ways, two of the best being known as the
+Concertina Fence and the Double-apron Fence.
+
+BARBEL (Barbus), a genus of freshwater fishes of the carp family,
+distinguished by the four fleshy filaments growing from the lips, two at
+the nose and one at each corner of the mouth, forming the kind of beard to
+which the genus owes its name. Of the several species the European _Barbus
+vulg[=a]ris_, common in most rivers, has an average length of from 12 to 18
+inches, and in form and habits strongly resembles the pike. Its body is
+elongated and rounded, olive-coloured above and bluish on the sides, and
+covered with small scales. The upper jaw, which is much longer than the
+lower, forms a snout, with which it bores into the mud for worms, insects,
+aquatic plants, &c. It is common in the Thames, where it gives good sport
+to the angler; but its flesh is very coarse, and at the time of spawning
+the roe is dangerous to eat.
+
+BARBER, one whose occupation is to shave or trim the beard, or to cut and
+dress hair. The practice of surgery was formerly a part of the craft, and
+by an Act of Henry VIII the Company of Barbers was incorporated with the
+Company of Surgeons--the company being then known as the
+Barber-surgeons--with the limitation, however, that the surgeons were not
+to shave or practise 'barbery', and the barbers were to perform no higher
+surgical operation than blood-letting and tooth-drawing. This continued
+till the time of George II. The signs of the old profession--the pole which
+the patient grasped, its spiral decoration in imitation of the bandage, and
+the basin to catch the blood--are still sometimes retained. The barbers'
+shops, always notorious for gossip, were in some measure the news centres
+of classic and mediæval times. The ancient hall in London, formerly used by
+the Barber-surgeons, is still standing in Markwell Street, Cripplegate.
+
+BARBERINI (b[.a]r-be-r[=e]´n[=e]), a celebrated Florentine family, which,
+since the pontificate of Maffeo Barberini (Urban VIII, 1623-44), has
+occupied a distinguished place among the nobility of Rome. During his reign
+Urban was chiefly intent on the aggrandizement of his three nephews, of
+whom two were appointed cardinals, and the third Prince of Palestrina.
+
+[Illustration: Barberry _(Berb[)e]ris aristata)_]
+
+BAR´BERRY, a genus of shrubs, nat. ord. Berberidaceæ. The common barberry
+(_Berb[)e]ris vulg[=a]ris_) has serrate, pointed leaves (the primary ones
+reduced to tripartite spines), hanging clusters of yellow flowers, and
+small, orange-red berries, which are sometimes made into preserves. The
+inner bark and roots yield a fine yellow dye (berberine). The shrub is a
+native of temperate Asia, but is now generally diffused through Europe and
+N. America. In Britain it has been almost universally banished from
+hedgerows, owing to its connection with the black rust of wheat. Numerous
+other species inhabit Asia and America; those of the section Mahonia have
+pinnate leaves. _B. aristata_ is an erect bush, with furrowed red-brown
+branches, and pendulous clusters of yellow flowers; it thrives best in the
+south. See _Irritability_ and _Rust_.
+
+BAR´BERTON, the chief mining-centre of De Kaap gold-fields, Transvaal,
+about 80 miles from Lydenburg, and 150 to 160 from Delagoa Bay. British
+prisoners were confined here in the Boer War (1899-1902). Pop. about 2000
+(whites).
+
+BAR´BETS (Bucconidæ), a family of climbing birds with a thick conical beak,
+having tufts of bristles at its base. Their wings are short and their
+flight somewhat heavy. They have been divided into three sub-genera: The
+_barbicans_ (Pogonias), inhabiting India and Africa, and feeding chiefly on
+fruit; the _barbets_ proper (Bucco), found in Africa and America, and
+nearly related to the woodpeckers; and the _puff-birds_ (Tamatia),
+inhabiting America, and feeding on insects.
+
+BARBETTE (b[.a]r-bet´), an elevation of earth behind the breastwork of a
+fortification, from which the artillery may be fired over the parapet
+instead of through an embrasure. In ships of war the name is given to a
+strong breastwork of armour over which heavy guns are fired. See
+_Fortification_.
+
+BARBEYRAC (b[.a]r-b[=a]-r[.a]k), Jean, an able writer on jurisprudence and
+natural law, translator of Grotius and Cumberland, and translator and
+annotator of Pufendorf. Born 1674; professor of law at Lausanne and
+Groningen; died 1744.
+
+BARBICAN. See _Barbacan_.
+
+BARBIÉ DU BOCAGE (b[.a]rb-y[=a] dü b[=o]-käzh), Jean Denis, a distinguished
+geographer, born in Paris in 1760, who laid the foundation of his fame in
+1788 by his _Atlas_ to Barthélemy's _Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis_. His maps
+and plans to the works of Thucydides, Xenophon, &c., exhibit much
+erudition, and materially advanced the science of ancient geography. He
+also prepared many modern maps, and published various excellent
+dissertations. He held many honourable posts, and died in 1825.
+
+BARBIER (b[.a]rb-y[=a]), Antoine Alexandre, bibliographer (1765-1825). He
+was appointed keeper of the library of the Conseil d'État in 1798; Napoleon
+made him his librarian in 1807; and he was afterwards librarian to Louis
+XVIII. His _Catalogue de la Bibliothèque du Conseil d'État_ (1801-3), and
+_Dictionnaire des Ouvrages Anonymes et Pseudonymes_ (1806-9), are both
+valuable works.
+
+BARBIERI (b[.a]r-b[=e]-[=a]´r[=e]), Giovanni Francesco (otherwise known as
+_Guercino_ (the squinter) _da Cento_), an eminent and prolific historical
+painter, born near Bologna 1590, died in 1666. His style showed the
+influence of Caravaggio and of the Caracci, his best work being of the
+latter school. Chief work, a _St. Petronilla_ in the Capitol at Rome; but
+most of the large galleries have pictures by him.
+
+BARBIERI, Paolo Antonio, a celebrated still-life and animal painter, was a
+brother of Guercino; born 1596, died 1640.
+
+BARBITONE. See _Veronal_.
+
+BARBIZON (b[.a]r-b[=e]-z[=o]n), a French village about 25 miles south by
+east of Paris, on the borders of the Forest of Fontainebleau, and 6 miles
+north-west of the town of that name. It has given its name to a French
+school of painters, including Corot, Millet, Rousseau, Jules Dupré, and
+Daubigny.
+
+BAR´BOUR, John, an ancient Scottish poet, contemporary with Chaucer, born
+about 1316. By 1357 he was Archdeacon of Aberdeen, and in the following
+year was appointed a commissioner to treat for the ransom of David II. He
+appears as Auditor of the Exchequer more than once; he travelled through
+England on several occasions, and was pensioned by Robert II. His chief
+poem, _The Bruce_ (Brus), written about 1375, was first published in 1571,
+and the chief manuscripts of the poem are those in the Advocates' Library,
+Edinburgh, dated 1489, and in St. John's College, Cambridge. Of another
+long poem, setting forth the Trojan origin of the Scottish kings, no MS.
+remains, unless a portion of two Troy books in the Cambridge and Bodleian
+libraries may be ascribed to Barbour. He has also been credited with having
+compiled a _Book of Legends of Saints_, existing in a single MS. at
+Cambridge, and published in 1881-2 by Horstman in his _Legenden Sammlung_.
+He died in 1395. He was the father of Scottish poetry and history, and his
+_Bruce_ is linguistically of high value. Though wanting in the higher
+qualities of poetry, it is truthful and natural, and often exhibits a high
+moral dignity.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Andrew Lang, _History of Scotland_; Irving,
+_History of Scottish Poetry_.
+
+BARBUDA (b[.a]r-bö´da), one of the West Indies, annexed by Britain in 1628;
+about 15 miles long and 8 miles wide; lying north of Antigua; pop. 580. It
+is flat, fertile, and healthy. Corn, cotton, pepper, and tobacco are the
+principal produce, but the island is only partially cleared for
+cultivation. There is no harbour, but a well-sheltered roadstead on the
+west side. It is a dependency of Antigua.
+
+BARBUSSE, Henri, a French author born at Asnières in 1874. He served in the
+French army during the European War, and his descriptions of the realities
+of modern warfare have made him famous. His works include _Le Feu_ and
+_Clarté_.
+
+BARBY (bär´b[=e]), a German town on the Elbe, in the government of
+Magdeburg, with an old castle. Pop. 5202.
+
+BAR´CA, a division of N. Africa, between the Gulf of Sidra and Egypt,
+annexed by Italy in 1911-2; capital, Bengazi. It formed a portion of the
+ancient Cyrenaica, and from the time of the Ptolemies was known as
+Pentapolis from its five Greek cities. It became part of Tripoli, and later
+a separate province under Turkish dominion. On 18th Oct., 1912, it was
+formally recognized as a dependency of Italy, and forms with Tripoli the
+Italian colony of Libya. The country consists of a rocky plateau. A large
+portion of it is desert, but some parts, especially near the coast, are
+fertile, and yield abundant crops and excellent pasture, the chief being
+wheat, barley, dates, figs, and olives. Flowering shrubs, roses,
+honeysuckles, &c., occur in great variety. There are hardly any permanent
+streams, but the eastern portion is tolerably well watered by rains and
+springs. The exports are grain and cattle, with ostrich feathers and ivory
+from the interior. Next to Bengazi (pop. 35,000), the seaport of Derna is
+the chief town (pop. 8000). The population probably does not exceed
+300,000. See _Cyrenaica_ and _Tripoli_.
+
+BARCAROLLE (-rol´), a species of song sung by the _barcaruoli_, or
+gondoliers, of Venice, and hence applied to a song or melody composed in
+imitation. A very well-known example is to be found in Offenbach's _Tales
+of Hoffmann_.
+
+BARCELLONA (b[.a]r-chel-[=o]´n[.a]), seaport, Sicily, province of Messina,
+immediately contiguous to Pozzo di Gotto, and practically forming one town
+with it. Joint pop. 26,172.
+
+BARCELONA (b[.a]r-thel-[=o]´n[.a]), next to Madrid the chief city of Spain,
+capital of the province of Barcelona, and formerly capital of the kingdom
+of Catalonia; finely situated on the northern portion of the Spanish
+Mediterranean coast. It is divided into the upper and lower town; the
+former modern, regular, stone-built, and often of an English architectural
+type, the latter old, irregular, brick-built, and with traces of Eastern
+influence in the architecture. The harbour is suited to accommodate large
+vessels. The principal manufactures are cottons, silks, woollens,
+machinery, paper, glass, chemicals, stoneware, soap; exports manufactured
+goods, wine and brandy, fruit, oil, &c.; imports coals, textile fabrics,
+machinery, cotton, fish, hides, silks, timber, &c. The city contains a
+university, several public libraries, a museum, a large arsenal,
+cannon-foundry, &c. Barcelona was, until the twelfth century, governed by
+its own counts, but was afterwards united with Arragon. In 1640, with the
+rest of Catalonia, it placed itself under the French Crown; in 1652 it
+submitted again to the Spanish Government; in 1697 it was taken by the
+French, but was restored to Spain at the Peace of Ryswick. It has had
+several severe visitations of cholera and yellow fever, and has been the
+scene of many serious and sanguinary revolts, as in 1836, 1840, and 1909.
+Pop. 618,766.--The province has an area of 2968 sq. miles; pop. 1,191,386
+(1918). It is generally mountainous, but well cultivated, and among the
+most thickly peopled in Spain.
+
+BARCELONA, a town of Venezuela, near the mouth of the Neveri, which is
+navigable for vessels of small size, but larger vessels anchor off the
+mouth of the river. Pop. 13,000.
+
+BARCELONA NUTS, hazel-nuts exported from the Barcelona district of Spain.
+
+BAR´CLAY, Alexander, a poet of the sixteenth century, most probably a
+native of Scotland, born about 1475; for some years a priest and chaplain
+of St. Mary Ottery, in Devonshire; afterwards a Benedictine monk of Ely;
+subsequently a Franciscan, and also the holder of one or two livings; died
+1552. His principal work was a satire, entitled _The Shyp of Folys of this
+Worlde_, part translation and part imitation of Brandt's _Narrenschiff_
+(Ship of Fools), and printed by Pynson in 1509. He also wrote _The Myrrour
+of Good Maners_, and some _Egloges_ (Eclogues), both printed by Pynson, as
+well as translations, &c.
+
+BARCLAY, John, poet and satirist, son of a Scottish father, born at
+Pont-à-Mousson (Lorraine) in 1582, and probably educated in the Jesuits'
+College there. Having settled in England, he published a Latin
+politico-satirical romance, entitled _Euphormionis Satyricon_, having as
+its object the exposure of the Jesuits. In 1616 he left England for Rome,
+received a pension from Pope Paul V, and died in 1621. His chief work is a
+singular romance in Latin, entitled _Argenis_ (Paris, 1621), thought by
+some to be an allegory bearing on the political state of Europe at the
+period. Several seventeenth-century romances were indebted to this work,
+among others Fénelon's _Télémaque_ and Calderon's _Argenis y Poliarco_. It
+has been translated into several modern languages. His shorter poems
+appeared in the _Delitiæ Poetarum Scotorum_,
+
+BARCLAY, Robert, the celebrated apologist of the Quakers, born in 1648 at
+Gordonstown, Moray, and educated at Paris, where he became a Roman
+Catholic. He was recalled home by his father, whose example he followed in
+becoming a Quaker. His first treatise in support of his adopted principles,
+published at Aberdeen in the year 1670, under the title of _Truth Cleared
+of Calumnies_, together with his subsequent writings, did much to rectify
+public sentiment in regard to the Quakers. His chief work, in Latin, _An
+Apology for the True Christian Divinity_, was soon reprinted at Amsterdam,
+and quickly translated into German, Dutch, French, and Spanish, and, by the
+author himself, into English. His fame was now widely diffused; and, in his
+travels with William Penn and George Fox through England, Holland, and
+Germany, to spread the opinions of the Quakers, he was received everywhere
+with the highest respect. The last of his productions, _On the Possibility
+and Necessity of an Inward and Immediate Revelation_, was not published in
+England until 1686; from which time Barclay lived quietly with his family.
+He died, after a short illness, at his own house of Ury, Kincardineshire,
+in 1690. He was a friend of and had influence with James II.
+
+BARCLAY, Sir Thomas, British barrister, born in 1853. Educated at the
+Universities of London, Paris, Bonn, and Jena, he was sent to Paris in 1876
+as correspondent of _The Times_. He has been greatly instrumental in
+bringing about a better understanding between England and France. He was
+knighted in 1904, and entered Parliament in 1910. His works include:
+_Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy_; _The Turco-Italian War
+and its Problems_; _Law and Usage of War_.
+
+BARCLAY DE TOLLY, Michael, Prince, a distinguished general and
+field-marshal of Russia, born in 1755. His family, of Scottish origin, had
+been established in Livonia since 1689. He entered the army at an early
+age, served in various campaigns against the Turks, Swedes, and Poles, and
+in 1811 was named Minister of War. On the invasion of Napoleon he was
+transferred to the chief command of the army, and adopted a plan of
+retreat; his forces did not greatly exceed 100,000 men, but the Court
+became impatient, and after the capture of Smolensk by the French he was
+superseded by Kutusov. Sinking all personal feeling, he asked leave to
+serve under his successor, commanded the right wing at the battle of the
+Moskwa, maintained his position, and covered the retreat of the rest of the
+army. After the battle of Bautzen, in 1813, he was reappointed to the chief
+command, which he had soon after to resign to Prince Schwarzenberg. He
+forced the surrender of General Vandamme after the battle of Dresden, took
+part in the decisive battle of Leipzig, and was made a field-marshal in
+Paris. In 1815 he received from the emperor the title of prince, and from
+Louis XVIII the badge of the Order of Military Merit. He died in 1818.
+
+BAR-COCHBA (b[.a]r-ko_h_´b[.a]), or BAR-COCHEBAS, Simon, a Jewish impostor,
+who pretended to be the Messiah, raised a revolt, and made himself master
+of Jerusalem about A.D. 132, and of about fifty fortified places. Hadrian
+sent to Britain for Julius Severus, one of his ablest generals, who
+gradually regained the different forts and then took and destroyed
+Jerusalem. Bar-cochba retired to a mountain fortress, and perished in the
+assault of it by the Romans three years after, about 135.
+
+BAR´COO. See _Cooper's Creek_.
+
+BARD, one of an order among the ancient Celtic tribes, whose occupation was
+to compose and sing verses in honour of the heroic achievements of princes
+and brave men, generally to the accompaniment of the harp. Their verses
+also frequently embodied religious or ethical precepts, genealogies, laws,
+&c. Their existence and function was known to the Romans two centuries
+B.C.; but of the Gallic bards only the tradition of their popularity
+survives. The first Welsh bards of whom anything is extant are Taliesin,
+Aneurin, and Llywarch, of the sixth century. A considerable lacuna then
+occurs in their history until the order was reconstituted in the tenth
+century by King Howel Dha, and again in the eleventh by Gryffith ap Conan.
+Edward I is said to have hanged all the Welsh bards as promoters of
+sedition. Some modern attempts have been made in Wales to revive bardism,
+and the Cambrian Society was formed in 1818, for this purpose and for the
+preservation of the remains of the ancient literature. The revived
+Eisteddfodau, or bardic festivals, have been so far exceedingly popular. In
+Ireland there were three classes of bards: those who sang of war, religion,
+&c., those who chanted the laws, and those who gave genealogies and family
+histories in verse. They were famous harpists. In the Highlands of Scotland
+there are considerable remains of compositions supposed to be those of
+their old bards still preserved.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Jones, _Relics of the
+Welsh Bards_; Walker, _Memoirs of the Irish Bards_; Dottin, _Manuel de
+l'Antiquité Celtique_; John Rhys and D. Brynmor-Jones, _The Welsh People_;
+D. D. Evans, _Ancient Bards of Britain_.
+
+BARDESA´NES, a Syrian Gnostic, poet, astrologer, and philosopher, born 154
+or 164 at Edessa, died 222. His system started with the statement that from
+the union of God with matter sprang Christ and a female Holy Ghost, from
+whom in turn sprang various existences. He propagated his doctrines in
+Syrian hymns (_Hymn on the Soul_), the first in the language. His son,
+Harmonius, was also an able hymn-writer. The Bardesanists maintained
+themselves till the twelfth century, the later adherents having practically
+adopted Manichæism.
+
+BARDWAN´, or BURDWAN´, a division of Bengal, upon the Hugli, comprising the
+six districts of Bardwan, Hugli, Howrah, Midnapur, Bankura, and Birbhum.
+Area, 13,850 sq. miles; pop. 8,245,000.--The district _Bardwan_ has an area
+of 2697 sq. miles, and a pop. of 1,532,500. Apart from its products, rice,
+grain, hemp, cotton, indigo, &c., it has a noted coal-field of about 500
+sq. miles in area, with an annual output of about half a million tons.--The
+town of _Bardwan_ has a fine palace of the Maharajah and a pop. of 35,022.
+
+BAREBONE, or BARBONE, Praise-God, the name of a leather-seller in Fleet
+Street, London, who obtained a kind of lead in the convention which
+Cromwell substituted for the Long Parliament, and which was thence
+nicknamed the Barebone Parliament. After its dissolution he disappeared
+till 1660, when he presented a petition to Parliament against the
+restoration of the monarchy. In 1661 he was committed to the Tower for some
+time, but his subsequent history is unknown.
+
+BAREFOOTED FRIARS. See _Monasticism_.
+
+BARÉGE (ba-r[=a]zh´), a light, open tissue of silk and worsted, or cotton
+and worsted, for women's dresses, originally manufactured near Baréges. It
+is now made chiefly at Bagnères-de-Bigorre.
+
+BARÉGES (b[.a]-r[=a]zh), a watering-place, south of France, department
+Hautes-Pyrénées, about 4000 feet above the sea, celebrated for its thermal
+springs, which are frequented for rheumatism, scrofula, &c. The place is
+hardly inhabited except in the bathing season, June till September.
+
+BAREGINE (ba-r[=a]zh´in; from _Baréges_), a gelatinous product of certain
+algæ growing in sulphuric mineral springs, and imparting to them the colour
+and odour of flesh-broth.
+
+BAREILLY (ba-r[=a]´li), a town of Hindustan, in the United Provinces,
+capital of a district of same name, on a pleasant and elevated site. It has
+a fort and cantonments, a Government college, and manufactures
+sword-cutlery, gold and silver lace, perfumery, furniture and upholstery.
+On the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny the native garrison took possession of
+the place, but it was retaken by Lord Clyde in May, 1858. Pop.
+129,462.--The district has an area of 1595 sq. miles; pop. 1,089,550.
+
+BAR´ENTS, William, a Dutch navigator of the end of the sixteenth century,
+who, on an expedition intended to reach China by the North-East Passage,
+discovered Novaya Zemlya. He wintered there in 1596-7, and died before
+reaching home.
+
+BARET´TI, Joseph, an Italian writer, born at Turin, 1719. In 1748 he came
+to England, and in 1753 published in English a _Defence of the Poetry of
+Italy against the Censures of M. Voltaire_. In 1760 he brought out a useful
+_Italian and English Dictionary_. After an absence of six years, during
+part of which he edited the _Frusta Letteraria_ (Literary Scourge) at
+Venice, he returned to England, and in 1768 published an _Account of the
+Manners and Customs of Italy_. Not long after, in defending himself in a
+street brawl, he stabbed his assailant and was tried for murder at the Old
+Bailey but acquitted, Johnson, Burke, Goldsmith, Garrick, Reynolds, and
+Beauclerk giving testimony to his good character. An _English and Spanish
+Dictionary_, and various other works, followed before his death in 1789.
+
+BARFLEUR (b[.a]r-fl_eu_r), at one time the best port on the coast of
+Normandy, and the reputed port from which William the Conqueror sailed. It
+was destroyed in the year 1346 by Edward III. Present pop. 1304.
+
+BARFRUSH´, or BARFURUSH´, Same as _Balfroosh_.
+
+BARGAIN AND SALE, a legal term denoting the contract by which lands,
+tenements, &c., are transferred from one person to another. See
+_Conveyancing_.
+
+BARGE, a term similar in origin to _barque_, but generally used of a
+flat-bottomed boat of some kind, whether used for loading and unloading
+vessels, or as a canal-boat, or as an ornamental boat of state or pleasure.
+
+[Illustration: Barge-board or gable-end of Manor House, Bramley, Hants.]
+
+BARGE-BOARD (perhaps a corruption of _verge-board_), in architecture, a
+board generally pendent from the eaves of gables, so as to conceal the
+rafters, keep out rain, &c. They are sometimes elaborately ornamented. The
+portion of the roof projecting from the wall at the gable-end, and beneath
+which the barge-board runs, is termed the _barge-course_.
+
+BARHAM (bar'am), Rev. Richard Harris, a humorous writer, born in 1788 at
+Canterbury; educated at St. Paul's School, London, and at Brasenose,
+Oxford; appointed in succession curate of Ashford, curate of Westwell,
+rector of Snargate in Romney Marsh, and one of the minor canons of St.
+Paul's Cathedral. He published two novels, _Baldwin_ and _My Cousin
+Nicholas_, wrote nearly a third of the articles in Gorton's _Biographical
+Dictionary_, and contributed to _Blackwood's Magazine_. In 1824 he was
+appointed priest in ordinary of the Chapel Royal, and afterwards rector of
+St. Mary Magdalene and St. Gregory-by-St.-Paul, London. In 1837, on the
+starting of _Bentley's Miscellany_, he laid the main foundation of his
+literary fame by the publication in that periodical of the _Ingoldsby
+Legends_. He died in 1845.
+
+BARHEBRÆ´US. See _Abulfaragius_.
+
+BARI (bä'r[=e]; ancient, BARIUM), a seaport, S. Italy, on a small
+promontory of the Adriatic, capital of the province Terra di Bari. It was a
+place of importance as early as the third century B.C., and has been thrice
+destroyed and rebuilt. The present town, though poorly built for the most
+part, has a large Norman castle, a fine cathedral and priory, &c. It
+manufactures cotton and linen goods, hats, soap, glass, and liqueurs; has a
+trade in wine, grain, almonds, oil, &c., and is now an important seaport.
+In 1915 the town suffered considerably from floods. Pop. 109,218.--The
+province has an area of 2048 sq. miles, and is fertile in fruit, wine, oil,
+&c.; pop. 935,982.
+
+BARI, a negro people of Africa, dwelling on both sides of the White Nile,
+between lat. 3° 30' and 6° N. They practise agriculture, cattle-rearing,
+smithwork, &c. Their country was conquered by Baker for Egypt.
+
+BARIL´LA, is the commercial name for impure sodium carbonate imported from
+Spain and the Levant. At one time all sodium carbonate required for
+industrial purposes was prepared from barilla obtained by burning various
+marine plants (Salsola, Salicornia, and others). Only 25 per cent of the
+weight of the ash contained soda, and consequently its import was expensive
+and considerably added to the price of the manufacture of glass and soap.
+During the Napoleonic wars the price of barilla rose to such a height that
+Napoleon offered a reward for the discovery of a process for the
+manufacture of sodium carbonate. A chemist, Leblanc, in 1791 invented a new
+process by which sodium carbonate could be obtained from common salt, and
+this entirely superseded barilla. Plants are still grown in Southern France
+and Spain to obtain soda and other substances from the ash; but almost all
+the sodium carbonate of the present day is manufactured chemically.
+
+BARING, the name of a famous English family of bankers and financiers,
+statesmen and diplomats, from which has arisen the financial house of
+Baring Brothers & Co., and of which members now hold four peerages, namely,
+two earldoms--Northbrook and Cromer--and two baronies--Ashburton and
+Revelstoke. The founder of the house was Francis Baring (1740-1810), whose
+father was a cloth manufacturer near Exeter, and grandfather pastor of the
+Lutheran Church at Bremen, the family being thus of German origin. Francis
+Baring settled in London, attained a high position in the mercantile and
+financial world, was long a member of Parliament and a director of the East
+India Company, and was made a baronet in 1793. Of his sons, one, Alexander,
+was created Baron Ashburton (in 1835), and rendered important political
+services in connection with the boundary treaty concluded between Britain
+and the United States, and known by his title (see _Ashburton_, _Ashburton
+Treaty_). His son, the second Lord Ashburton (1799-1864), held a position
+of some note in politics, and his first wife, a daughter of the sixth Earl
+of Sandwich, was fond of the society of both politicians and literary men,
+among those who were on friendly terms with her being Carlyle and
+Thackeray. Sir Francis Baring's eldest son, Thomas, was father of Francis
+Thornhill Baring, first Lord Northbrook (1796-1866), whose eldest son,
+Thomas, was created Earl of Northbrook in 1876, and held successively a
+number of high positions, among them that of Viceroy of India (1872-6) and
+First Lord of the Admiralty (1880-5). (See _Northbrook_.) Another son of
+Sir Francis, Henry Baring, was father of Edward Baring, the first Baron
+Revelstoke (born in 1828, died in 1897), who was long one of the most
+conspicuous members of the financial world of London, and was raised to the
+peerage as baron in 1885. He had full management of the great house of
+Baring Brothers, which under him was long most prosperous, but in 1890 fell
+into temporary difficulties. Henry Baring was father also of Evelyn Baring,
+Earl Cromer (q.v.).
+
+BARING-GOULD (b[=a]-ring-g[=o]ld´), Sabine, English clergyman and author,
+born at Exeter, 1834. Educated at Cambridge, he held several livings in the
+English Church, and in 1881 became rector of Lew Trenchard, Devon. After
+publishing several books on theological and miscellaneous subjects, he
+distinguished himself as a novelist. Among his works are: _Iceland, its
+Scenes and Sagas_; _Curious Myths of the Middle Ages_; _The Origin and
+Development of Religious Belief_; _Lives of the Saints_ (in 15 vols.);
+_Village Sermons_; _The Vicar of Morwenstowe_ (an account of the Rev. R. S.
+Hawker); _The Mystery of Suffering_; _History of the Church in Germany_;
+_The Tragedy of the Cæsars_; _Cliff Castles and Cave Dwellings_; _The
+Church Revival_; &c.; besides the novels _Mehalah_, _John Herring_,
+_Richard Cable_, _The Gaverocks_, _Court Royal_, _The Pennycomequicks_,
+&c.; and short stories or novelettes.
+
+BARINGO, a lake in Africa, N.E. of the Victoria Nyanza, about 20 miles
+long.
+
+BAR´ITONE, or BAR´YTONE, a male voice, the compass of which partakes of
+those of the common bass and the tenor, but does not extend so far
+downwards as the one, nor to an equal height with the other. Its best tones
+are from the lower A of the bass clef to the lower F in the treble.
+
+BA´RIUM (from the Gr. _barys_, heavy), the metal of which _baryta_ is the
+oxide; specific gravity 4; symbol Ba. It is only found in compounds, such
+as the common sulphate (or _barytes_) and carbonate, and was isolated by
+Davy in 1808. It is a yellow malleable metal, which readily oxidizes,
+decomposes water, and fuses at a low temperature. Its nitrate and chlorate
+are used in pyrotechny. Barium salts, when brought into a non-luminous
+flame, burn with a yellowish-green colour. See _Baryta_.
+
+[Illustration: Magnified Section of Oak-bark.
+
+A, Epidermis. B, Cells containing chlorophyll or colouring matter. C, Liber
+or Bast. D, Cambium. E, Sapwood.]
+
+BARK, properly the _periderm_, or outer covering, of woody stems and roots,
+composed of dead tissues cut off from the living parts of the organ by one
+or more layers of impervious cork. It serves to prevent loss of water, and
+also affords protection against animals and fungi. The outermost bark is
+continually sloughed in the form of scales (Scots Pine) or sheets (Common
+Birch), being regenerated from within by the activity of the cork-cambium
+(_phellogen_). Bark is usually rich in waste-products, many of which are of
+economic value, such as tannin, gums, &c. Bottle-cork is the bark of the
+cork-oak. Bark for tanning is obtained from oak, hemlock-spruce, species of
+acacia, &c. Peruvian and Angostura barks, cinnamon, &c., are other useful
+barks. As commonly used, bark denotes all the tissues external to the
+_cambium_.
+
+BARK. See _Barque_.
+
+BARK, PERUVIAN. See _Cinchona_.
+
+BARKER, Granville, playwright, was born in London in 1877. His principal
+plays are: _The Voysey Inheritance_ (1905), _Waste_ (1907), _The Madras
+House_ (1910). He has published a book (in which William Archer
+collaborated) called _A National Theatre_, and another entitled _The Red
+Cross in France_. His revivals of Shakespeare have introduced some new
+ideas of mounting and stage-effects.
+
+BARKER'S MILL, also called Scottish turbine, a hydraulic machine on the
+principle of what is known as the hydraulic tourniquet. This consists of an
+upright vessel free to rotate about a vertical axis, and having at its
+lower end two discharging pipes projecting horizontally on either side and
+bent in opposite directions at the ends, through which the water is
+discharged horizontally, the direction of discharge being mainly at right
+angles to a line joining the discharging orifice to the axis. The backward
+pressures at the bends of the tubes, arising from the two issuing jets of
+water, cause the apparatus to revolve in an opposite direction to the
+issuing fluid. The machine was invented by a Dr. Barker towards the end of
+the seventeenth century.
+
+BARKING, a town, England, county of Essex, on the Roding, 7 miles N.E. of
+London, with some important manufacturing works. Near it is the outfall of
+the sewage of a large part of London. Pop. (1921), 35,543.
+
+BARKSTON ASH, a parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire.
+
+BARK-STOVE, or BARK-BED, a sort of hothouse for forcing or for growing
+plants that require a great heat combined with moisture, both of which are
+supplied by the fermentation that sets up in a bed of spent tanner's bark
+contained in a brick pit under glass.
+
+BAR´LAAM AND JOS´APHAT, a famous mediæval spiritual romance, which is in
+its main details a Christianized version of the Hindu legends of Buddha.
+The story first appeared in Greek in the works of Joannes Damascenus in the
+eighth century. It is, however, more probably the work of a monk of the
+Sabbas monastery, near Jerusalem, and written at the beginning of the
+seventh century. The compilers of the _Gesta Romanorum_, Boccaccio, Gower,
+and Shakespeare have all drawn materials from it.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Max
+Müller, _Chips from a German Workshop_; J. Jacobs, _Barlaam and Josaphat_,
+(There is a translation by Rev. G. R. Woodward and H. Mattingly in the Loeb
+Library).
+
+BAR-LE-DUC (b[.a]r-l-d[.u]k), a town of North-East France, capital of
+department Meuse, with manufactures of cotton and woollen stuffs, leather,
+confectionery, &c. Pop. 17,068.
+
+BARLET´TA, a seaport in South Italy, province of Bari, on the Adriatic,
+with a fine Gothic cathedral; it has a considerable export trade in grain,
+wine, almonds, &c. Pop. 44,233.
+
+BAR´LEY, the name of several cereal plants of the genus Hordeum, ord.
+Gramineæ: (grasses), yielding a grain used as food and also for making
+malt, from which are prepared beer, porter, and whisky. Barley has been
+known and cultivated from remote antiquity, and beer was made from it among
+the Egyptians. It is mentioned in _Exodus_, in connection with the ten
+plagues; and it is referred to in ancient Chinese records. Excellent barley
+is produced in Britain. The species principally cultivated are _Hord[)e]um
+dist[)i]chum_, two-rowed barley; _H. vulg[=a]re_, four-rowed barley; and
+_H. hexastichum_, six-rowed, of which the small variety is the sacred
+barley of the ancients. The varieties of the four- and six-rowed species
+are generally coarser than those of the two-rowed, and adapted for a poorer
+soil and more exposed situation. Some of these are called _bere_ or _bigg_.
+In Britain barley occupies more than 22½ per cent of the land under corn,
+but in N. America the extent of it as a crop is comparatively small, being
+in Canada, however, relatively greater than in the States, and the Canadian
+barley is of very high quality. Barley is better adapted for cold climates
+than any other grain, and some of the coarser varieties are cultivated
+where no other cereal can be grown. Russia devotes a surface of over
+20,000,000 acres to barley, i.e. a little under 11 per cent of the cereal
+area of the country. Germany has 4,000,000 and France 1,800,000 acres of
+barley. Some species of the genus, three of which are natives of Britain,
+are mere grasses. _Pot_ or _Scotch barley_ is the grain deprived of the
+husk in a mill. _Pearl barley_ is the grain polished and rounded and
+deprived of husk and pellicle. _Patent barley_ is the farina obtained by
+grinding pearl barley. _Barley-water_, a decoction of pearl barley, is used
+in medicine as possessing emollient, diluent, and expectorant qualities.
+
+BARLEY-SUGAR. See _Confectionery_; _Sugar_.
+
+BAR´LOW, Joel, an American poet and diplomatist, born 1755. After an active
+and changeful life as chaplain, lawyer, editor, land-agent, lecturer, and
+consul, he went to Paris and acquired a fortune. On his return to America
+he was appointed Minister Plenipotentiary to France (1811), but died near
+Cracow in 1812 on his way to meet Napoleon. His principal poem, _The
+Columbiad_ (_The Vision of Columbus_), dealing with American history from
+the time of Columbus, was published in 1807.
+
+BARM. See _Yeast_.
+
+BAR´MECIDES (-s[=i]dz), a distinguished Persian family, whose virtues and
+splendour form a favourite subject with Mahommedan poets and historians.
+Two eminent members of this family were Khaled-ben-Barmek, tutor of Haroun
+al Rashid, and his son Yahya, grand vizier of Haroun. The expression
+_Barmecide Feast_, meaning a visionary banquet or make-believe
+entertainment, originates from the Barber's story of his Sixth Brother in
+the _Arabian Nights' Entertainments_.
+
+BAR´MEN, a German city on the Wupper, in the Prussian Rhine Province,
+government of Düsseldorf, and forming a continuation of the town of
+Elberfeld, in the valley of Barmen. It has extensive ribbon and other
+textile manufactures; also dyeworks, manufactures of chemicals, metal
+wares, buttons, yarns, iron, machines, pianos, organs, soap, &c. In 1919
+Barmen was the scene of Spartacist disorders. Pop. 169,214.
+
+BARMOUTH, Welsh name ABERMAW, a small seaport and watering-place of Wales,
+in Merionethshire, at the entrance of Barmouth Bay, a fine estuary. It is
+picturesquely situated, and has become a favourite resort of tourists and
+others. Pop. (1921), 3559.
+
+BAR´NABAS, the surname, according to _Acts_, iv, 36-7, given by the
+apostles to Joseph, a fellow-labourer of St. Paul, and, like him, ranked as
+an apostle. He is said to have founded at Antioch the first Christian
+community, to have been first Bishop of Milan, and to have suffered
+martyrdom at Cyprus. His festival is held on the 11th June.
+
+BARNABAS, SAINT, EPISTLE OF, an epistle in twenty-one chapters unanimously
+ascribed to Barnabas by early Christian writers, but without any support of
+internal evidence. It was probably written about A.D. 130 (or, according to
+others, between A.D. 70 and 79) by one who was not a Jew, and under the
+influence of Alexandrian Judaistic thought. See _Codex_ (_Sinaiticus_).
+
+BARNABITES, an order of monks founded in Milan in 1530 and named after the
+Milan church of St. Barnabas which was allotted them to preach in. On their
+expulsion from France in 1905, the majority of the Barnabites sought refuge
+in England. A few monasteries of the order still exist in Italy, Belgium,
+Austria, and Spain.
+
+[Illustration: Barnacles hanging from timber]
+
+BAR´NACLE, the name of a family (Lepadidæ) of marine crustaceous animals,
+ord. Cirripedia. They are enveloped by a mantle and shell, composed of five
+principal valves and several smaller pieces, joined together by a membrane
+attached to their circumference; and they are furnished with a long,
+flexible, fleshy stalk or peduncle, provided with muscles, by which they
+attach themselves to ships' bottoms, submerged timber, &c. They feed on
+small marine animals, brought within their reach by the water and secured
+by their tentacula. Some of the larger species are edible. According to an
+old fable, these animals produced barnacle geese.
+
+BARNACLE GOOSE (_Anser Bernicla_ or _leucopsis_), a summer visitant of the
+northern seas, in size rather smaller than the common wild goose, and
+having the forehead and cheeks white, the upper body and neck black. A
+fable asserts that the crustaceans called barnacles changed into geese, and
+various theories have been framed to account for its origin. Max Müller
+supposes the geese were originally called _Hiberniculæ_ or Irish geese, and
+that barnacle is a corruption of this; but the resemblance of a barnacle to
+a goose hanging by the head may account for it. The Brent Goose is also
+sometimes called the Barnacle Goose, but the two should not be confused.
+
+BARNARD-CASTLE, a town, England, County Durham, giving name to a
+parliamentary division of the county. There are a large thread-mill and
+carpet manufactories; the Bowes Museum and Art Gallery, endowed by private
+munificence, and costing over £80,000; and the Northern Counties School,
+richly endowed. The castle was originally built about 1178 by Bernard
+Baliol, grandfather of John Baliol. Pop. 4737.
+
+BARNAR´DO, Thomas John, philanthropist, born in Ireland in 1845, qualified
+as a medical practitioner, studying in London, Edinburgh, and Paris,
+established his first home for neglected London children in 1867, and for
+the rest of his life was engaged in the same class of work. Up to his death
+in 1905 he had nearly 60,000 destitute waifs cared for and trained in the
+institutions with which his name is connected, many of the children having
+been sent to Canada or other colonies. The Barnardo homes and institutions
+have become very numerous, being established in various English counties as
+well as in London, a few being in Canada. A naval training-school for boys
+is included among them. It was a rule of the founder that no destitute
+child should be refused admission. The homes have since 1899 been under a
+council or body incorporated under the title of the National Incorporated
+Waifs Association, but continue to be managed on the same lines as before.
+Dr. Barnardo published _Something Attempted, Something Done_; _The Rescue
+of Waifs_; &c.--Cf. J. H. Batt, _Dr. Barnardo, the Foster-father of
+Nobody's Children_.
+
+BARNAUL´, a town of Siberia, government of Tomsk, on the Barnaulski, near
+its influx into the Obi. The town is of wood but well built, with museum,
+observatory, &c. It is an important mining centre for lead, copper, and
+silver, has a copper-mint, kilns, and factories. Pop. 61,330.
+
+BARNAVE (b[.a]r-näv), Antoine-Pierre-Joseph-Marie, a distinguished French
+revolutionist, born 1761, died 1793. He successfully maintained against
+Mirabeau the right of the National Assembly, as against that of the king,
+to declare for peace or war, but afterwards asserted the inviolability of
+the king's person. He was impeached, condemned, and guillotined.
+
+BARNES, an urban district of England, in Surrey, on the right bank of the
+Thames, a short distance above London, connected with Middlesex by
+Hammersmith Suspension Bridge. There is here a common of 120 acres, one of
+the preserved open spaces of the metropolitan area. Pop. (1921), 34,281.
+
+BARNES (bärnz), Albert, theologian, born in the State of New York, 1798. In
+1825 he was ordained pastor of the Presbyterian Church of Morristown, New
+Jersey, and from 1830 till his death in 1870 had charge of the first
+Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia. He is chiefly known by his _Notes on
+the New Testament_ and _Notes on the Old Testament_.
+
+BARNES, Rt. Hon. George Nicoll, British Labour leader, born at Dundee, in
+Scotland, in 1859. After working as an engineer he became assistant
+secretary of the Amalgamated Society of Engineers in 1892, and was general
+secretary from 1896 to 1906. He entered Parliament in 1906, became Minister
+for Pensions in 1916, member of War Cabinet in 1917, and was Minister
+without portfolio from 1919 to Jan., 1920. He was a British representative
+at the Peace Conference in Paris.
+
+BARNES, William, English dialect poet and philologist, born in Dorsetshire
+in 1800, died 1886. Of humble birth, he first entered a solicitor's office,
+then taught at a school in Dorchester, and having taken orders became
+rector of Winterbourne Came in his native county and died there. He
+acquired a knowledge of many languages, and published works on Anglo-Saxon
+and English, as _An Anglo-Saxon Delectus_, _A Philological Grammar_
+(grounded upon English), _Grammar and Glossary of the Dorset Dialect_, &c.,
+but is best known by his _Poems of Rural Life in the Dorset Dialect_ and
+_Poems of Rural Life in Common English_.
+
+BAR´NET, a town of England, in Herts, 11 miles from London, where was
+fought in 1471 a battle between the Yorkists and Lancastrians, resulting in
+the defeat of the latter and the death of Warwick, Edward IV being thus
+established king. Pop. (1921), 11,772.
+
+BARNETT, John, musical composer, son of Bernhard Beer, a German, born at
+Bedford 1802, died 1890. He composed music as a lad, and his songs and
+ballads soon had great vogue. In 1834 his opera _The Mountain Sylph_ was
+produced with success, and three years after was followed by the less
+successful _Fair Rosamond_. For many years before his death he was little
+heard of.
+
+BARNETT, John Francis, nephew of the former, born in 1837, died in 1916,
+was also a distinguished musician and teacher, author of cantatas: _The
+Ancient Mariner_, _Paradise and the Peri_, _The Raising of Lazarus_, _The
+Building of the Ship_, and of various other works.
+
+BARNEVELDT (bär'ne-velt), Johan van Olden, grand pensionary of Holland
+during the struggle with Philip II of Spain, born in 1547. After the
+assassination of William of Orange, and the conquest of the south provinces
+by the Spaniards under Parma, he headed the embassy to secure English aid.
+Finding, however, that the Earl of Leicester proved a worse than useless
+ally, he secured the elevation of the young Maurice of Nassau to the post
+of Stadtholder, at the same time by his own wise administration doing much
+to restore the prosperity of the State. After serving as ambassador to
+France and England, he succeeded in 1607 in obtaining from Spain a
+recognition of the independence of the States, and two years later in
+concluding with her the twelve years' truce. Maurice, ambitious of absolute
+rule and jealous of the influence of Barneveldt, was interested in the
+continuance of the war, and lost no opportunity of hostile action against
+the great statesman. In this he was aided by the strongly-marked theologic
+division in the State between the Gomarites (the Calvinistic and popular
+party) and the Arminians, of whom Barneveldt was a supporter. Maurice, who
+had thrown in his lot with the Gomarites, encouraged the idea that the
+Arminians were the friends of Spain, and procured the assembly of a synod
+at Dort (1618), which violently condemned them. Barneveldt and his friends
+Grotius and Hoogerbeets were arrested, and subjected to a so-called trial;
+and Barneveldt, to whom the country owed its political existence and the
+Commons their retention of legislative power, was beheaded on 13th May,
+1619. His sons, four years later, attempted to avenge his death; one was
+beheaded, the other escaped to Spain.
+
+BARNOLDSWICK, an urban district of England, West Riding of Yorkshire, 9
+miles south-west of Skipton, with cotton manufactures and other industries.
+Pop. (1921), 11,951.
+
+BARNS´LEY, a municipal borough of England, West Riding of Yorkshire. Its
+staple industries are the manufacture of linens, iron, and steel, and there
+are numerous collieries in the neighbourhood. Created a parliamentary
+borough in 1918, Barnsley returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1921),
+53,670.
+
+BARN´STAPLE, a county and municipal borough in England, county of Devon,
+giving its name to a parliamentary division of the county on the right bank
+of the Taw, where it receives the Yeo; manufactures of lace, paper,
+pottery, furniture, toys and turnery, and leather. Pop. 14,409.
+
+BAROACH. See _Broach_.
+
+BARO´DA, a non-tributary State, but subordinate to the Indian Government,
+situated in the north of the Bombay presidency. It consists of a number of
+detached territories in the province of Guzerat, and is generally level,
+fertile, and well cultivated, producing luxuriant crops of grain, cotton,
+tobacco, opium, sugar-cane, and oil-seeds. There is a famous breed of large
+white oxen used as draught cattle. Area, 8182 sq. miles; pop. (1911)
+2,032,798. The ruler is called the _Gaekwár_. The dissensions of the Baroda
+family have more than once called for British intervention, and in 1875 the
+ruling Gaekwár was tried and deposed in connection with the charge of
+attempting to poison the British Resident. Since 1908 there is a
+Legislative Council of 17 members.--_Baroda_, the capital, is the third
+city in the Bombay presidency. It consists of the city proper within the
+walls and the suburbs without, and is largely composed of poor and crowded
+houses, but has also some fine buildings, and is noted for its Hindu
+temples kept up by the State. Pop. 99,345.--Cf. E. St. C. Weeden, _A Year
+with the Gaekwár of Baroda_.
+
+BAROGRAPH, a kind of aneroid barometer, which, by means of special
+mechanism and appliances, is made to furnish automatically a continuous
+record of the successive changes in atmospheric pressure. The paper that
+receives the record is made to move by clockwork while in contact with the
+index pencil, which rises and falls according to alterations of atmospheric
+pressure.
+
+BAROM´ETER, an instrument for measuring the weight or pressure of the
+atmosphere and thus determining changes in the weather, the height of
+mountains, and other phenomena. It had its origin about the middle of the
+seventeenth century in an experiment of Torricelli, an Italian, who found
+that if a glass tube about 3 feet in length, open at one end only, and
+filled with mercury, were placed vertically with the open end in a cup of
+the same fluid metal, a portion of the mercury descended into the cup,
+leaving a column only about 30 inches in height in the tube. He inferred,
+therefore, that the atmospheric pressure on the surface of the mercury in
+the cup forced it up the tube to the height of 30 inches, and that this was
+so because the weight of a column of air from the cup to the top of the
+atmosphere was only equal to that of a column of mercury of the same base
+and 30 inches high. Pascal confirmed the conclusion in 1645; six years
+afterwards it was found by Perrier that the height of the mercury in the
+Torricellian tube varied with the weather; and in 1655 Boyle proposed to
+use the instrument to measure the height of mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Common Upright Barometer; Marine Barometer]
+
+The common or _cistern_ barometer, which is a modification of the
+Torricellian tube, consists of a glass tube 33 inches in length and about
+one-third of an inch in diameter, hermetically sealed at the top, and
+having the lower end resting in a small vessel containing mercury, or bent
+upwards and terminating in a glass bulb partly occupied by the mercury and
+open to the atmosphere. The tube is first filled with purified mercury, and
+then inverted, and there is affixed to it a scale to mark the height of the
+mercurial column, which comparatively seldom rises above 31 inches or sinks
+below 28 inches. In general the rising of the mercury presages fair
+weather, and its falling the contrary, a great and sudden fall being the
+usual presage of a storm. The weather-points on the ordinary barometric
+scale are as follows: At 28 inches, stormy weather; 28½, much rain or snow;
+29, rain or snow; 29½, changeable; 30, fair or frost; 30½, settled fair or
+frost; 31, very dry weather or hard frost. Certain attendant signs,
+however, have also to be noted: thus, when fair or foul weather follows
+almost immediately upon the rise or fall of the mercury, the change is
+usually of short duration; while if the change of weather be delayed for
+some days after the variation in the mercury, it is usually of long
+continuance. The direction of the wind has also to be taken into account.
+
+[Illustration: Siphon Barometer; Wheel Barometer]
+
+The _siphon_ barometer consists of a bent tube, generally of uniform bore,
+having two unequal legs, the longer closed, the shorter open. A sufficient
+quantity of mercury having been introduced to fill the longer leg, the
+instrument is set upright, and the mercury takes such a position that the
+difference of the levels in the two legs represents the pressure of the
+atmosphere. In the best siphon barometers there are two scales, one for
+each leg, the divisions on one being reckoned upwards, and on the other
+downwards from an intermediate zero point, so that the sum of the two
+readings is the difference of levels of the mercury in the two branches.
+
+The _wheel_ barometer is the one that is most commonly used for domestic
+purposes. It is far from being accurate, but it is often preferred for
+ordinary use on account of the greater range of its scale, by which small
+differences in the height of the column of mercury are more easily
+observed. It usually consists of a siphon barometer having a float resting
+on the surface of the mercury in the open branch, a thread attached to the
+float passing over a pulley, and having a weight as a counterpoise to the
+float at its extremity. As the mercury rises and falls the thread and
+weight turn the pulley, which again moves the index of the dial.
+
+The _mountain_ barometer is a portable mercurial barometer with a tripod
+support and a long scale for measuring the altitude of mountains. To
+prevent breakage, through the oscillations of such a heavy liquid as
+mercury, it is usually carried inverted, or it is furnished with a movable
+basin and a screw, by means of which the mercury may be forced up to the
+top of the tube. For delicate operations, such as the measurement of
+altitudes, the scale of the barometer is furnished with a nonius or
+vernier, which greatly increases the minuteness and accuracy of the scale.
+For the rough estimate of altitudes the following rule is sufficient: As
+the sum of the heights of the mercury at the bottom and top of the mountain
+is to their difference, so is 52,000 to the height to be measured, in feet.
+(See also _Heights, Measurement of_.) In exact barometric observations two
+corrections require to be made, one for the depression of the mercury in
+the tube by capillary attraction, the other for temperature, which
+increases or diminishes the bulk of the mercury. In regard to the
+measurement of heights, the general rule is to subtract the ten-thousandth
+part of the observed altitude for every degree of Fahrenheit above 32°.
+
+[Illustration: Aneroid Barometer]
+
+In the _aneroid_ barometer, as its name implies (Gr. _a_, not, _n[=e]ros_,
+liquid), no fluid is employed, the action being dependent upon the
+susceptibility to atmospheric pressure shown by a flat circular metallic
+chamber from which the air has been partially exhausted, and which has a
+flexible top and bottom of corrugated metal plate. By an ingenious
+arrangement of springs and levers the depression or elevation of the
+surface of the box is registered by an index on the dial, by which means it
+is also greatly magnified, being given in inches to correspond with the
+mercurial barometer. Aneroids are, however, generally less reliable than
+mercurial barometers, with which they should be frequently compared. The
+illustration shows an aneroid without its case. At the centre of the
+partially exhausted metal chamber is a small pillar [M], connected with a
+steel spring [R]. The rise and fall of the top of the chamber, due to
+changing atmospheric pressure, is transmitted by means of the levers [L],
+and [_m_] to a metallic axis [_r_], and this axis carries a lever [_t_],
+whose end is attached to a chain [_s_], which turns a drum on whose axis
+the index needle is fixed.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Abbe, _Meteorological
+Apparatus_; Marvin, _Barometers and the Measurement of Atmospheric
+Pressure_.
+
+BAR´ON, originally, in the feudal system, the vassal or immediate tenant of
+any superior; but the term was afterwards restricted to the king's barons,
+and again to the greater of these only, who attended the Great Council, or
+who, at a later date, were summoned by writ to Parliament. It was the
+second rank of nobility, until dukes and marquesses were introduced and
+placed above the earls, and viscounts also set above the barons, who
+therefore now hold the lowest rank in the British peerage. The present
+barons are of three classes: (1) barons by writ, whose ancestors have long
+sat in the Upper House; (2) by patent; (3) by tenure, i.e. holding the
+title as annexed to land. The coronet is a plain gold circle with six balls
+or 'pearls' on its edge, the cap being of crimson velvet.
+
+BARON AND FEME, a term used for husband and wife in English law.
+
+BAR´ONET, a hereditary dignity in Great Britain and Ireland, next in rank
+to the peerage, originally instituted by James I in 1611, nominally to
+promote the colonization and defence of Ulster, each baronet, on his
+creation, being then obliged to pay into the treasury a sum of £1095,
+exclusive of fees. Baronets of Ireland were instituted in 1620, and of
+Scotland in 1625, the latter being called baronets of Nova Scotia, because
+their creation was originally intended to further the colonization of Nova
+Scotia. But the baronets of Scotland and of England have been baronets of
+Great Britain if created since 1707; since 1801 all creations have been
+known as baronetcies of the United Kingdom. A baronet has the title of
+'Sir' prefixed to his Christian and surname, and his wife is 'Lady'
+so-and-so. Baronets rank before all knights except Knights of the Garter,
+the Thistle, and St. Patrick. They have as their badge a 'bloody hand' (the
+arms of Ulster), that is, a left hand, erect and open, cut off at the
+wrist, and red in colour.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pixley, _History of the
+Baronetage_; G. E. Cokayne, _Complete Baronetage_; _The Baronetage under 27
+Sovereigns, 1309-1910_.
+
+BARO´NIUS, or BARONIO, Cæsar, Italian ecclesiastical historian, born 1538;
+educated at Naples; in 1557 went to Rome; was one of the first pupils of
+St. Philip of Neri, and member of the oratory founded by him; afterwards
+cardinal and librarian of the Vatican Library. He owed these dignities to
+the services which he rendered the Church by his _Ecclesiastical Annals_,
+comprising valuable documents from the papal archives, on which he laboured
+from the year 1580 until his death, 30th June, 1607. They were continued,
+though with less power, by other writers, of whom Raynaldus takes the first
+rank; others are Laderchi and Theiner.
+
+BARON OF BEEF, two sirloins not cut asunder.
+
+BARONS' WAR, the war carried on for several years by Simon de Montfort and
+other barons of Henry III against the king, beginning in 1263.
+
+BARONY, a manor or landed estate under a baron, who formerly had certain
+rights of jurisdiction in his barony and could hold special courts. In
+Ireland baronies are still the chief subdivisions of the counties.
+
+BAROSMA. See _Bucku_.
+
+BAROT´SELAND, a former kingdom of South Africa, now a part of Rhodesia.
+
+BAROUCHE (ba-rösh'), a four-wheeled carriage with a falling top and two
+inside seats in which four persons can sit, two facing two.
+
+BARQUE (bärk), a three-masted vessel of which the fore-mast and main-mast
+are square-rigged, but the mizzen-mast has fore-and-aft sails only.
+
+BARQUISIMETO (b[.a]r-k[=e]-s[=e]-m[=a]'t[=o]), a city in the north of the
+Republic of Venezuela, capital of the State of Lara. Pop. about 32,000.
+
+BAR´RA, or BAR, a small kingdom in Africa, near the mouth of the Gambia.
+The Mandingoes, who form a considerable part of the inhabitants, are
+Mahommedans and the most civilized people on the Gambia. Pop. 200,000. The
+coast here belongs to Britain. The chief town is Barrinding, where the
+so-called king resides. See _Gambia_.
+
+BARRA, an island of the Outer Hebrides, west coast of Scotland, belonging
+to Inverness-shire; 8 miles long and from 2 to 5 miles broad, of irregular
+outline, with rocky coasts, surface hilly but furnishing excellent pasture.
+On the west coast the Atlantic, beating with all its force, has hollowed
+out vast caves and fissures. Large herds of cattle and flocks of sheep are
+reared on the island. The coasts of this and adjacent islands abound with
+fish, and fishing is an important industry. The inhabitants, about 2500,
+are Roman Catholics, and speak Gaelic.
+
+BARRA, a town about 3 miles east of Naples. Pop. 12,080.
+
+BARRACAN´, or BARRAGAN, strictly, a thick strong stuff made in Persia and
+Armenia of camel's hair, but the name has been applied, by Byron and
+others, to various wool, flax, and cotton fabrics.
+
+BAR´RACK (Sp. _barraca_), originally a small cabin or hut for troops, but
+now applied to the permanent buildings in which troops are lodged. Despite
+the obvious evils of the quartering system, the introduction of barracks by
+George III met with considerable opposition in the British Parliament as
+dangerous to liberty, by estranging the soldier from the citizen, and
+fitting him to become a tool of despotism.
+
+BARRACKPUR (-pör'), a town and military cantonment, Hindustan, on the left
+bank of the Hughli, 10 miles N.N.E. of Calcutta. The suburban residence of
+the Viceroy is in Barrackpur Park. Pop. 31,907.
+
+BARRACOON´, a negro barrack or slave depot, formerly plentiful on the west
+coast of Africa, in Cuba, Brazil, &c.
+
+BARRACU´DA, a name for certain large and ferocious fishes of the genus
+Sphyræna, and allied to the mullets, inhabiting southern seas, and caught
+in abundance for food.
+
+BARRAFRAN´CA, a town of Sicily, province Caltanissetta. Pop. 11,170.
+
+BARRAMUN´DA. See _Ceratodus_.
+
+BARRANQUILLA (b[.a]r-r[.a]n-k[=e]l'y[.a]), a port of S. America, in
+Colombia, on a branch of the River Magdalena, near its entrance into the
+Caribbean Sea, connected by rail with the seaport Puerto Colombia. Pop.
+64,543.
+
+BARRAS (b[.a]-rä), Paul François Jean Nicholas, Comte de, member of the
+French National Convention and of the Executive Directory, born in Provence
+1755, died 1829. After serving in the army in India and Africa, he joined
+the revolutionary party and was a deputy in the _tiers état_. He took part
+in the attack upon the Bastille and upon the Tuileries, and voted for the
+death of Louis XVI. In the subsequent events he displeased Robespierre, and
+on this account joined the members of the committee, who foresaw danger
+awaiting them, and being entrusted with the chief command of the forces of
+his party he made himself master of Robespierre. On 4th Feb., 1795, he was
+elected president of the Convention, and on 5th Oct., when the troops of
+the sections which favoured the royal cause approached, Barras for a second
+time received the chief command of the forces of the Convention. On this
+occasion he employed General Bonaparte, for whom he procured the chief
+command of the army of the interior, and afterwards the command of the army
+in Italy. From the events of the 18th Fructidor (4th Sept., 1797) he
+governed absolutely until the 13th June, 1799, when Siéyès entered the
+Directory, and in alliance with Bonaparte procured his downfall in the
+revolution of the 18th Brumaire (9th Nov., 1799). He afterwards resided at
+Brussels, Marseilles, Rome, and Montpellier under surveillance. His
+_Memoirs_ (in four volumes) were published in French and in English in
+1895-6.
+
+BAR´RATRY, in commerce, any fraud committed by the master or mariners of a
+ship, whereby the owners, freighters, or insurers are injured; as by
+deviation from the proper course of the voyage, by the captain, for his own
+private purposes; fraudulent negligence; embezzlement of any part of the
+cargo, &c.
+
+BARRATRY, COMMON, in law, the stirring up of lawsuits and quarrels between
+other persons, the party guilty of this offence being indictable as a
+_common barrator_ or _barretor_. The commencing of suits in the name of a
+fictitious plaintiff is common barratry. In old Scots law it denotes the
+taking of bribes by a judge.
+
+BARREL, a well-known variety of wooden vessel; but the term is also used as
+a definite measure and weight. A barrel of beer is 36 gallons, of flour 196
+lb., of beef or pork 200 lb. The Italian _barile_ varies from 7 to 31
+English gallons; the French _barrique_ of Bordeaux contains 50 English
+gallons = 228 French litres.
+
+BARREL-ORGAN, a musical instrument usually carried by street musicians, in
+which a barrel, studded with pegs or staples, when turned round, opens a
+series of valves to admit air to a set of pipes, or acts upon wire strings
+like those of the piano, thus producing a fixed series of tunes.
+
+BARREN GROUNDS, a large tract in the North-West Territories of Canada,
+extending northwards from Churchill River to the Arctic Ocean between Great
+Bear and Great Slave Lake and Hudson's Bay. It largely consists of swamps,
+lakes, and bare rock.
+
+BARRHEAD´, a town, Scotland, Renfrewshire, on the Levern, 7 miles S.W. of
+Glasgow; chief industries: printing of cottons, the spinning of cotton
+yarn, dyeing, bleaching, iron and brass founding, and sanitary ware. Pop.
+11,387.
+
+BARRIE, a town of Canada, province Ontario, 55 miles N.W. Toronto,
+picturesquely situated on Lake Simcoe, a favourite summer resort. Pop.
+6420.
+
+BARRIE, Sir James Matthew, a novelist and playwright, born in 1860 at
+Kirriemuir, Forfarshire; studied at Edinburgh University, graduating as
+M.A. in 1882. After working on a Nottingham journal he was a journalist in
+London. His first book, _Better Dead_ (1887), a satire on London life, was
+followed by the highly successful _Auld Licht Idylls_ (1888), with its
+sequel _A Window in Thrums_ (that is, Kirriemuir) (1889). Among his novels
+and tales are _When a Man's Single_, _My Lady Nicotine_, _The Little
+Minister_, _Sentimental Tommy_, _Tommy and Grizel_, _The Little White
+Bird_. Successful plays are _Peter and Wendy_, _The Professor's Love
+Story_, _The Little Minister_ (based on the novel), _The Admirable
+Crichton_, _Quality Street_, _Little Mary_, _Peter Pan_, _What Every Woman
+Knows_, _Dear Brutus_, _A Kiss for Cinderella_, _Mary Rose_. His plays on
+the whole have been even more successful than his other works. He was
+created a baronet in 1913, and elected Rector of the University of St.
+Andrews in 1919.--Cf. J. A. Hammerton, _J. M. Barrie and his Books_.
+
+BARRIER REEF, a coral reef, or rather series of reefs, extending for 1260
+miles off the N. E. coast of Australia, at a distance from land ranging
+from 10 to 100 miles. In sailing along this coast, steamers generally take
+the route inside the reef, where there is a channel about 12 fathoms deep
+throughout, protected by the reefs themselves; the outer channel is safer
+for sailing vessels.
+
+BARRIER TREATY, the treaty (1718) by which, when the Spanish Netherlands
+were ceded to Austria, the Dutch secured the right to garrison several
+border fortresses of the country at the expense of Austria, to serve as a
+barrier against France. It was declared void in 1781 by Joseph II.
+
+BAR´RINGTON, Daines, son of Viscount Barrington, lawyer, antiquarian, and
+naturalist, born 1727, died 1800. He wrote many papers for the Royal
+Society and the Society of Antiquaries; published some separate works, and
+was a correspondent of White of Selborne, who addressed to him a number of
+the letters in _The Natural History of Selborne_.
+
+BAR´RISTER, in England or Ireland, an advocate or pleader, who has been
+admitted by one of the Inns of Court, viz. the Inner Temple, Middle Temple,
+Lincoln's Inn, or Gray's Inn, to plead at the bar. It is they who speak
+before all the higher courts, being instructed in regard to the case they
+have in hand by means of the _brief_ which they receive from the solicitor
+who may happen to engage their services, and which has a certain fee
+endorsed upon it as the sum to be paid for the barrister's services in the
+case. Before a student can be admitted to the bar he must have been a
+member of one of those societies, and have kept twelve terms there. The
+examinations, which had dwindled into mere forms, have been revived and
+made more stringent. Barristers are sometimes called _utter_ or _outer
+barristers_, to distinguish them from the king's counsel, who sit within
+the bar in the courts and are distinguished by a silk gown. Barristers are
+also spoken of as _counsel_, as in the phrase _opinion of counsel_, that
+is, a written opinion on a case obtained from a barrister before whom the
+facts have been laid. All judges are selected from the barristers. A
+barrister cannot maintain an action for his fees, which are considered
+purely honorary. A _revising barrister_ is a barrister appointed to revise
+the list of persons in any locality who have a vote for a member of
+Parliament. The term corresponding to barrister is in Scotland _advocate_,
+in the United States _counsellor-at-law_; but the position of the latter is
+not quite the same.--Cf. J. R. V. Marchant, _Barrister-at-law_.
+
+BAR´ROS, João de, Portuguese historian, born 1496. He was attached to the
+Court of King Emmanuel, who, after the publication in 1520 of Barros'
+romance, _The Emperor Clarimond_, urged him to undertake a history of the
+Portuguese in India, which appeared thirty-two years later. King John III
+appointed Barros Governor of the Portuguese settlements in Guinea, and
+General Agent for these colonies, further presenting him in 1530 with the
+province of Maranham, in Brazil, for the purpose of colonization. For his
+losses by the last enterprise the king indemnified him, and he died in
+retirement in 1570. Besides his standard work, the _Decadas_, a history of
+the Portuguese in India (a complete edition of which appeared at Lisbon
+between 1778 and 1788), he wrote a moral dialogue on compromise, and the
+first _Portuguese Grammar_.
+
+BARRO´SA, a village, Spain, near the S. W. coast of Andalusia, near which
+General Graham, when abandoned by the Spaniards, defeated a superior French
+force in 1811.
+
+BAR´ROW, a river in the south-east of Ireland, province Leinster, rising on
+the borders of the King's and Queen's Counties, and after a southerly
+course joining the Suir in forming Waterford harbour. It is next in
+importance to the Shannon, and is navigable for vessels of 200 tons for 25
+miles above the sea. Its principal tributary is the Nore.
+
+BAR´ROW, Isaac, an eminent English mathematician and divine, born in London
+in 1630; studied at the Charterhouse and at Trinity College, Cambridge, of
+which he became a fellow in 1649. After a course of medical studies he
+turned to divinity, mathematics, and astronomy, and took his M. A. degree
+in 1652, and, failing to obtain the Cambridge Greek professorship, went
+abroad. In 1659 he was ordained; in 1660 elected Greek professor at
+Cambridge; in 1662 professor of geometry in Gresham College; and in 1663
+Lucasian professor of mathematics at Cambridge, a post which he resigned to
+Newton in 1669. In 1670 he was created D. D., in 1672 master of Trinity
+College, and in 1675 vice-chancellor of Cambridge University. He died in
+1677. His principal mathematical works (written in Latin) were: _Euclidis
+Elementa_ (1655); _Euclidis Data_ (1657); _Mathematicæ Lectiones_ (1664-6);
+_Lectiones Opticæ_ (1669); _Lectiones Geometricæ_ (1670); _Archimedis
+Opera_; _Apollonii Conicorum lib. iv_; _Theodosii Spherica_, (1675). All
+his English works, which are theological, were left in MS., and published
+by Dr. Tillotson in 1685, the best edition being that prepared by the Rev.
+A. Napier in 1859. As a mathematician Barrow was deemed inferior only to
+Newton. The Latin edition of his mathematical works was prepared by Whewell
+in 1860.
+
+BARROW, Sir John, Bart., geographer and man of letters, born in 1764 in
+Lancashire. At the age of sixteen he went in a whaler to Greenland; and
+later on was teacher of mathematics in a school at Greenwich. In 1792 he
+was sent with Lord Macartney, in his embassy to China, to take charge of
+philosophical instruments for presentation to the Chinese emperor. His
+account of this journey was of great value, and not less so was the account
+of his travels in South Africa, whither he went in 1797 as secretary to
+Macartney. In 1804 he was appointed second secretary to the Admiralty, a
+post occupied by him for forty years. In 1835 he was made a baronet; and he
+died in 1848, three years after his retirement. Besides the accounts of his
+own travels, he published lives of Earl Macartney, Lord Anson, and Lord
+Howe; _Voyages of Discovery and Research within the Arctic Regions_; an
+_Autobiography_ written at the age of eighty-three, &c.
+
+BAR´ROW-IN-FUR´NESS, a seaport, county and parliamentary borough of
+Lancashire, in the district of Furness, opposite the Island of Walney, a
+town that has increased from a fishing-hamlet with 100 inhabitants in 1848
+to a town of 74,254 inhabitants in 1921. Its prosperity is due to the mines
+of red hematite iron-ore which abound in the district, and to the railway
+rendering its excellent natural harbour available. It has several large
+docks, besides graving-docks, a floating dock capable of receiving vessels
+of 3000 tons, a large timber pond, &c. There is an extensive trade in
+timber, cattle, grain, and flour; and iron-ore and pig-iron are largely
+shipped. It has numerous blast-furnaces, and one of the largest
+Bessemer-steel works in the world. Besides ironworks, a large business is
+done in shipbuilding, the making of railway wagons and rolling-stock,
+ropes, sails, bricks, &c. A town hall, erected at a cost of £60,000, was
+opened in 1887. Barrow-in-Furness returns one member to Parliament.
+
+[Illustration: Barrows]
+
+BAR´ROWS, mounds of earth or stones raised to mark the resting-place of the
+dead, and distinguished, according to their shape, as _long_, _bowl_,
+_bell_, _cone_, and _broad_ barrows. The practice of barrow-burial is of
+unknown antiquity and almost universal, barrows being found all over
+Europe, in Northern Africa, Asia Minor, Afghanistan, Western India, and in
+America. In the earliest barrows the enclosed bodies were simply laid upon
+the ground, with stone or bone implements and weapons beside them. In
+barrows of later date the remains are generally enclosed in a stone cist.
+Frequently cremation preceded the erection of the barrow, the ashes being
+enclosed in an urn or cist. A detailed description of an ancient
+barrow-burial is given in the Anglo-Saxon poem _Beowulf_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+Canon W. Greenwell, _British Barrows_; J. Anderson, _Scotland in Pagan
+Times_; W. C. Borlase, _The Dolmens of Ireland_.
+
+BARROW STRAIT, the connecting channel between Lancaster Sound and Baffin's
+Bay on the east and the Polar Ocean on the west. Named after Sir John
+Barrow.
+
+BARRY, a seaport of S. Wales, Glamorganshire, 7 miles south-west of
+Cardiff, with large docks, exporting much coal. Pop. (1921), 38,927.
+
+BAR´RY, Sir Charles, an English architect, born in London, 1795. After
+executing numerous important buildings, such as the Reform Clubhouse,
+London, St. Edward's School, Birmingham, &c., he was appointed architect of
+the new Houses of Parliament at Westminster, with the execution of which he
+was occupied for more than twenty-four years. He was elected a Royal
+Academician in 1844, was knighted in 1852, and died suddenly in 1860.
+
+BARRY, Comtesse Du. See _Du Barry_.
+
+BARRY, Edward Middleton, R.A. (1830-80), son of Sir Charles Barry, was also
+a distinguished architect, and designed many important buildings, though he
+was disappointed in regard to his plans for the Albert Memorial, National
+Gallery, and New Law Courts.
+
+BARRY, James, a painter and writer on art, born at Cork, 1741; studied
+abroad with the aid of Burke; was elected Royal Academician on his return;
+and worked seven years on the paintings for the hall of the Society for the
+Encouragement of the Arts. His first picture which attracted attention was
+_St. Patrick baptizing the King of Cashel_. In 1773 he published his
+_Inquiry into the Real and Imaginary Obstructions to the Increase of the
+Arts in England_, and in 1782 was elected professor of painting to the
+Academy. He was expelled in 1797 on the ground of his authorship of the
+_Letter to the Society of Dilettanti_. His chief painting was his _Victors
+at Olympia_. He died in 1806.
+
+BARRY CORNWALL. See _Procter, Bryan Waller_.
+
+BAR´SABBAS, surnamed Justus, son of Alpheus, brother of James the Less and
+of Judas, and one of the candidates for the apostolical office left vacant
+by Judas Iscariot. According to tradition, he was afterwards Bishop of
+Eleutheropolis, near Jerusalem, and suffered martyrdom. Another Barsabbas,
+surnamed Judas, supposed to be the brother of the above, is mentioned in
+the _Acts_ as a companion of St. Paul and Barnabas at Antioch. He is
+supposed to have died in Jerusalem at a very advanced age.
+
+BAR-SHOT, a double-headed shot consisting of two pieces connected by a bar.
+
+BARSI, a town of India, in Sholapur district, Bombay, 43 miles north of
+Sholapur and 128 miles east of Poona, with a trade in cotton, oil, &c. Pop.
+21,000.
+
+BAR-SUR-AUBE (b[.a]r-s[.u]r-[=o]b), an ancient town, France, department
+Aube, where, in 1814, a hotly-contested action was fought between Napoleon
+and the Allies. Pop. 4533.
+
+BART, BARTH, or BAERT (bärt), Jean, a famous French sailor, born at
+Dunkirk, 1650, the son of a poor fisherman. He became captain of a
+privateer, and after some brilliant exploits was appointed captain in the
+royal navy. In recognition of his further services he was made commodore,
+subsequently receiving letters of nobility. Brusque, if not vulgar, in
+manner, and ridiculed by the Court for his indifference to ceremony, he
+made the navy of the nation everywhere respected, and furnished some of the
+most striking chapters in the romance of naval warfare. After the Peace of
+Ryswick he lived quietly at Dunkirk, and died there while equipping a fleet
+to take part in the War of the Spanish Succession, 1702.
+
+BARTAS (b[.a]r-tä), Guillaume de Salluste du, a French poet, termed 'the
+divine' by contemporary English writers, born 1544. Principal work, _La
+Semaine ou la Création du Monde_, a poem on the creation, translated into
+English by Joshua Sylvester. It is said to have had a considerable
+influence on Milton's _Paradise Lost_. He died of wounds received at Ivry,
+1590.
+
+BARTFELD (b[.a]rt´felt), an old town in Czecho-Slovakia, formerly Hungary,
+county of Saros, on the Tepl, with mineral springs in the neighbourhood.
+Pop. 6160, mostly Slovaks.
+
+BARTH (bärt), Heinrich, African traveller, born at Hamburg, 1821, died in
+1865. He graduated at the University of Berlin as Ph.D. in 1844, and set
+out in 1845 to explore all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean.
+The first volume of his _Wanderungen durch die Küstenländer des
+Mittelmeeres_ was published in 1849, in which year he was invited by the
+British Government to join Dr. Overweg in accompanying Richardson's
+expedition to Central Africa. The expedition set out from Tripoli in Feb.,
+1850, and, in spite of the death both of Richardson and Overweg, Barth did
+not return to Tripoli till the autumn of 1855. His explorations, which
+extended over an area of about 2,000,000 sq. miles, determined the course
+of the Niger and the true nature of the Sahara. The English account of it
+was entitled _Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa_ (5
+vols., 1857-8). An important work on the African languages was left
+unfinished.
+
+BARTH, Jean. See _Bart_.
+
+BARTHÉLEMY (b[.a]r-t[=a]l-m[=e]), Jean Jacques, French author, born 1716.
+He was educated under the Jesuits, for holy orders, but declined all offers
+of clerical promotion above the rank of Abbé He gained considerable repute
+as a worker in philology and archæology; and after his appointment as
+Director of the Royal Cabinet of Medals, in 1753, spent some time
+travelling in Italy collecting medals and antiquities. His best-known work,
+not inaptly characterized by himself as an unwieldy compilation, was his
+_Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Grèce_ (1787). It was very popular and was
+translated into various tongues. Though taking no part in the revolution,
+he was arrested on a charge of being an aristocrat in 1793, but was set at
+liberty, and subsequently offered the post of librarian of the National
+Library. He died in 1795.
+
+BARTHÉLMY-SAINT-HILAIRE (b[.a]r-t[=a]l-m[=e]-san-t[=e]-l[=a]r), Jules,
+French scholar and statesman, born 1805, died in 1895. He was professor of
+Greek and Latin philosophy in the Collège de France, but resigned the chair
+after the _coup d'état_ of 1852 and refused to take the oath. He was
+reappointed in 1862; and in 1869 was returned to the Corps Législatif.
+After the revolution he was a member of the National Assembly; and was
+elected Senator for life in 1876. He published a translation of Aristotle,
+and works on Buddhism, Mohammed and Mohammedanism, the Vedas, &c.
+
+BARTHEZ (b[.a]r-t[=a]), Paul Joseph, an eminent French physician, born at
+Montpellier 1734, died 1806. At Montpellier he founded a medical school,
+which acquired a reputation throughout all Europe. Having settled in Paris,
+he was appointed by the king consulting physician, and by the Duke of
+Orleans his first physician. The Revolution deprived him of the greatest
+part of his fortune, and drove him from Paris, but Napoleon brought him
+forth again, and loaded him in his advanced age with dignities. Among his
+numerous writings may be mentioned _Nouvelle Mécanique des Mouvements de
+l'Homme et des Animaux_; _Traitement des Maladies Goutteuses_;
+_Consultation de Médecine_, &c. His _Traité du Beau_ was published
+posthumously (1807).
+
+BARTHOLDI (b[.a]r-tol´d[=e]), Auguste, French sculptor, born 1834, died
+1904; best known for his colossal statue of Liberty, now overlooking the
+harbour of New York.
+
+BARTHOLIN (bär´to-lin), Kaspar, Swedish writer, born 1585, died 1630. He
+studied medicine, philosophy, and theology; was made doctor of medicine at
+Basel in 1610, rector of the University of Copenhagen 1618, and professor
+of theology 1624. His _Institutiones Anatomicæ_ was for long a standard
+textbook in the universities.--His son, Thomas, born at Copenhagen 1616,
+died 1680, was equally celebrated as a philologist, naturalist, and
+physician. He was professor of anatomy at Copenhagen, 1648; physician to
+the king, Christian V, in 1670; and Councillor of State, 1675.--His sons,
+Kaspar (born 1654, died 1704) and Thomas (born 1659, died 1690) were also
+highly distinguished--the former as an anatomist, the latter as an
+archæologist.
+
+BARTHOLOMEW, MASSACRE OF ST., the brutal slaughter of the French
+Protestants, which began on 24th Aug., 1572, by secret orders from Charles
+IX, at the instigation of his mother, Catherine de' Medici, and in which,
+according to Sully, 70,000 Huguenots, including women and children, were
+murdered throughout the country. During the minority of Charles and the
+regency of his mother, a long war raged in France between the Catholics and
+Huguenots, the leaders of the latter being the Prince of Condé and Admiral
+Coligny. In 1570 overtures were made by the Court to the Huguenots, which
+resulted in a treaty of peace. This treaty blinded the chiefs of the
+Huguenots, particularly Admiral Coligny, who was tired of the civil war.
+The king appeared to have entirely disengaged himself from the influence of
+the Guises and his mother; he invited Coligny to his Court, and honoured
+him as a father. The most artful means were employed to increase this
+delusion. The sister of the king was married to the Prince de Béarn (18th
+Aug., 1572) in order to allure the most distinguished Huguenots to Paris.
+On 22nd Aug. a shot from a window wounded the admiral. The king hastened to
+visit him, and swore to punish the author of the villainy; but on the same
+day he was induced by his mother to believe that the admiral had designs on
+his life. "God's death!" he exclaimed; "kill the admiral; and not only him,
+but all the Huguenots; let none remain to disturb us." The following night
+Catherine held the council, which fixed the execution for the night of St.
+Bartholomew, 24th Aug., 1572. After the assassination of Coligny, a bell
+from the tower of the royal palace at midnight gave to the assembled
+companies of burghers the signal for the general massacre of the Huguenots.
+The Prince of Condé and the King of Navarre saved their lives by going to
+mass and pretending to embrace the Catholic religion. By the king's orders
+the massacre was extended throughout the whole kingdom; and the horrible
+slaughter continued for thirty days in almost all the
+provinces.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Henry White, _Massacre of St. Bartholomew and
+History of the Religious Wars_; Lavisse, _Histoire de France_ (vol. vi).
+
+BARTHOL´OMEW, ST., the apostle, is probably the same person as _Nathanael_,
+mentioned in the _Gospel of St. John_ as an upright Israelite and one of
+the first disciples of Jesus. He is said to have taught Christianity in the
+south of Arabia, into which, according to Eusebius, he carried the _Gospel
+of St. Matthew_ in the Hebrew language, and to have suffered martyrdom. The
+ancient Church had an apocryphal gospel bearing his name, of which nothing
+has been preserved. A festival is held in his memory on 24th Aug.
+
+BARTHOLOMEW, ST., or ST. BARTHÉLEMY, an island, one of the West Indies, in
+the Leeward group, belonging to France, about 24 miles in circumference. It
+produces some tobacco, sugar, cotton, indigo, &c. Pop. 3000. The only town
+is Gustavia. The island, occupied by France in 1648, was ceded to Sweden in
+1784, but was again acquired by France in 1877 at the cost of 275,000
+francs.
+
+BARTHOLOMEW FAIR, a celebrated fair, established in the reign of Henry I
+(1133), formerly held in West Smithfield, London, on St. Bartholomew's Day
+(24th Aug., O. S.), but abolished since 1855.
+
+BARTHOLOMEW'S HOSPITAL, ST., one of the great hospitals of London, formerly
+the priory of St. Bartholomew, and made a hospital by Henry VIII in 1547.
+On an average over 6000 patients are annually admitted to the hospital,
+while about 150,000 out-patients are treated at its out-door dispensaries.
+A medical school is attached to it, attended by more than four hundred
+students.
+
+BARTHOU, Louis, French statesman, born at Orloron-Sainte-Marie in 1862. He
+practised as an advocate until he entered the Chamber of Deputies in 1889.
+He was a member of several Cabinets, and was appointed Premier in March,
+1913, but resigned in December of the same year. He was Minister of Foreign
+Affairs in Painlevé's Cabinet during the European War. In April, 1922, he
+headed the French delegation to the Genoa Conference. His works include
+_Mirabeau_; _Lamartine, Orateur_; _Les Amours d'un Poète_, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Bartizan, Micklegate Bar, York.
+
+_a_, _a_, Balistraria]
+
+BAR´TIZAN, a small overhanging turret pierced with one or more apertures
+for archers, projecting generally from the angles on the top of a tower, or
+from the parapet, or elsewhere, as in a mediæval castle. The word, probably
+a corruption of _bratticing_, was apparently first used by Sir Walter
+Scott.
+
+BART´LETT, William Henry, an English artist, born 1809, died, on a voyage
+from Malta to Marseilles, 1854. He travelled extensively abroad, and the
+illustrated works descriptive of the countries visited by him (Switzerland,
+the Bosporus and the Danube, Syria and Palestine, Egypt, Canada, United
+States, &c.) obtained great success with the public, the engravings being
+from sketches by his own pencil.
+
+BARTOLINI (b[.a]r-to-l[=e]´n[=e]), Lorenzo, a celebrated Italian sculptor,
+born at Florence about 1778, died 1850. He studied and worked in Paris, and
+was patronized by Napoleon. On the fall of the Empire he returned to
+Florence, where he continued to exercise his profession. Among his greater
+works may be mentioned his groups of _Charity_, and _Hercules and Lichas_,
+a colossal bust of Napoleon, and the beautiful monument in the cathedral of
+Lausanne, erected in memory of Lady Stratford Canning. Bartolini ranks next
+to Canova among modern Italian sculptors.
+
+BARTOLOMMEO (-m[=a]´o), Fra, or BACCIO DELLA PORTA (b[.a]ch[=o]´), Italian
+painter, born at Florence 1475, died there 1517. He studied painting in
+Florence, and acquired a more perfect knowledge of art from the works of
+Leonardo da Vinci. He was an admirer and follower of Savonarola, on whose
+death he took the Dominican habit, and assumed the name of Fra Bartolommeo.
+He was the friend of Michael Angelo and Raphael; painted many religious
+pictures, among them a _Saint Mark_ and a _Saint Sebastian_, which are
+greatly admired. His colouring, in vigour and brilliancy, comes near to
+that of Titian and Giorgione. His _Holy Family_ is in the National Gallery,
+London.
+
+BARTOLOZZI (-lot´s[=e]), Francesco, a distinguished engraver, born at
+Florence in 1725, or, according to others, in 1730, died at Lisbon 1815. In
+Venice, in Florence, and Milan he etched several pieces on sacred subjects,
+and then went to London, where he received great encouragement. After forty
+years' residence in London, he went to Lisbon on the invitation of the
+Prince Regent of Portugal. He became director of the National Academy at
+Lisbon, where he remained till his death.
+
+BAR´TON, Andrew, one of Scotland's first great naval commanders; flourished
+during the reign of James IV, and belonged to a family which for two
+generations had produced able and successful seamen. In 1497 he commanded
+the escort which accompanied Perkin Warbeck from Scotland. After doing
+considerable damage to English shipping, he was killed in an engagement
+with two ships which had been specially fitted out against him (1512).
+
+BARTON, Bernard, known as the Quaker poet, born at Carlisle 1784, died
+1849. In 1806 he removed to Woodbridge, in Suffolk, where he was long clerk
+in a bank. He published _Metrical Effusions_ (1812); _Poems by an Amateur_
+(1818); _Poems_ (1820); _Napoleon, and other Poems_ (1822); _Poetic Vigils_
+(1824); _Devotional Verses_ (1826); _A New-year's Eve, and other Poems_
+(1828); besides many contributions to the annuals and magazines. His
+poetry, though deficient in force, is pleasing, fluent, and graceful.
+Barton is chiefly remembered as the friend of Charles Lamb, with whom he
+began to correspond in 1822.
+
+BARTON, Elizabeth, a country girl born in 1506 at Aldington, in Kent
+(commonly called the Holy Maid or the Nun of Kent), who gained some
+notoriety in the reign of Henry VIII. She was subject to epileptic fits,
+and was persuaded by certain priests that she was a prophetess inspired by
+God. Among other things she prophesied that Henry, if he persisted in his
+purpose of divorce and second marriage, would not be king for seven months
+longer, and would die a shameful death, and be succeeded by Catherine's
+daughter. On arrest the imposture was confessed, and Barton and six others
+were executed 5th May, 1534.
+
+BARTON-UPON-HUMBER, a town of England, in Lincolnshire, on the Humber. It
+contains two old churches, one of which is an undoubted specimen of
+Anglo-Saxon architecture. Pop. (1921), 6454.
+
+BARTSCH (b[.a]rch), Karl Friedrich, a German scholar, born in 1832, died in
+1888, whose labours have been of immense service in elucidating the older
+literature and language of his native country as well as in the field of
+the Romance tongues. Among his publications were editions of the
+_Nibelungenlied_, _Walther von der Vogelweide_, _Kudrun_, &c.;
+_Chrestomathie de l'ancien Français_; _Provençalisches Lesebuch_;
+translations of Burns, of Dante, &c.
+
+BARTSIA, a genus of Scrophulariaceæ, green half-parasites upon roots of
+grasses. Three species are British; _B. alpina_ has underground shoots, not
+unlike those of the allied Toothwort, with fleshy scale-leaves bearing
+water-secreting glands.
+
+BARU (ba-rö´), a woolly substance used for caulking ships, stuffing
+cushions, &c., found at the base of the leaves of an East India sago palm.
+
+BARUCH (b[=a]´ruk; literally, 'blessed'), a Hebrew scribe, friend and
+assistant to the prophet Jeremiah. At the captivity, after the destruction
+of Jerusalem, Jeremiah and Baruch were permitted to remain in Palestine,
+but were afterwards carried into Egypt, 588 B.C. His subsequent life is
+unknown. One of the apocryphal books bears the name of Baruch. The Council
+of Trent gave it a place in the canon, but its authenticity was not
+admitted either by the ancient Jews or the early Christian fathers.
+
+BARWOOD, a dyewood obtained from _Pterocarpus angolensis_, a tall tree of
+West Africa. It is chiefly used for giving orange-red dyes on cotton yarns.
+See _Camwood_; _Sandalwood_.
+
+BARY´TA, oxide of barium (BaO) is found in nature associated with sulphuric
+acid as barium sulphate, heavy-spar or Barytes (BaSO_4), and with carbon
+dioxide as barium carbonate or witherite (BaCO_3). Baryta is a heavy
+greyish powder of specific gravity 4.7, obtained by burning barium in
+oxygen or from barium nitrate or barium carbonate. It has a strong affinity
+for water, and combines with it in the evolution of lead and the formation
+of barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)_2). Barium oxide is manufactured in quantity
+for the preparation of barium dioxide (BaO_2), from which oxygen was at one
+time obtained. (See _Oxygen_.) Baryta forms white crystalline salts with
+acids, which are all poisonous with the exception of barium sulphate.
+Barium hydroxide is soluble in water, forming a strongly-alkaline solution,
+Baryta water, which is much used in chemical analysis. Barium sulphate is a
+white substance insoluble in water and in acids, and is the source of most
+of the barium compounds. Artificially-prepared barium sulphate is used as a
+pigment, _Permanent White_, also in the paper industry and in vulcanizing
+rubber. Other salts of barium of importance are barium chloride, barium
+nitrate, and barium carbonate, used in pyrotechny and in glass manufacture.
+
+BARYTES (AMERICAN BARITE), a rhombic mineral consisting of barium sulphate
+(specific gravity 4.5) occurring in veins and extensive masses as a
+subsequent deposit in various rocks. Colourless to brownish, the colourless
+massive examples being in great demand as a substitute for white lead in
+paint and for other purposes. Barytes is mined in the north of England and
+in County Cork.
+
+BARYTONE. See _Baritone_.
+
+[Illustration: Basaltic Columns, Fingal's Cave, Island of Staffa]
+
+BASALT (ba-s[a:]lt´), a well-known igneous rock occurring in the ancient
+trap and the recent volcanic series of rocks, but more abundantly in the
+former. It is a fine-grained, heavy, crystalline rock, consisting of
+felspar, augite, and magnetic iron, and sometimes contains a little
+olivine. Basalt is amorphous, columnar, tabular, or globular. The columnar
+form is straight or curved, perpendicular or inclined, sometimes nearly
+horizontal; the diameter of the columns from 3 to 18 inches, sometimes with
+transverse hemispherical joints, in which the convex part of one is
+inserted in the concavity of another; and the height from 5 to 150 feet.
+The forms of the columns generally are pentagonal, hexagonal, or octagonal.
+When decomposed it is found also in round masses, either spherical or
+compressed and lenticular. These rounded masses are sometimes composed of
+concentric layers, with a nucleus, and sometimes of prisms radiating from a
+centre. Fingal's Cave, in the Island of Staffa, furnishes a remarkable
+instance of basaltic columns. The pillars of the Giant's Causeway, Ireland,
+composed of this stone, and exposed to the roughest sea for ages, have
+their angles as perfect as those at a distance from the waves. Basalt often
+assumes curious and fantastic forms, as, for example, those masses
+popularly known as 'Samson's Ribs' at Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh, and 'Lot'
+and 'Lot's Wife' near the south coast of St. Helena.
+
+BASCHI (b[.a]s'k[=e]), Matteo, an Italian Minorite friar of the convent of
+Montefalcone, founder and first general of the Capuchin branch of the
+Franciscans. He died at Venice, 1552.
+
+BAS´CINET, or BAS´NET, a light helmet, sometimes with, but more frequently
+without, a visor, in general use for English infantry in the reigns of
+Edward II and III and Richard II.
+
+BASE, in architecture, that part of a column which is between the top of
+the pedestal and the bottom of the shaft; where there is no pedestal, the
+part between the bottom of the column and the pavement. The term is also
+applied to the lower projecting part of the wall of a room, consisting of a
+plinth and its mouldings.
+
+BASE, in chemistry, a term applied to those compound substances which unite
+with acids to form salts. The most important bases are oxides of metals,
+and when brought in contact with acids their oxygen combines with the
+hydrogen of the acid to form water. They are divided into several sections,
+of which the most important are the alkalies. These substances are the
+hydrates of the so-called alkaline metals, and may be compared to water in
+which part of the hydrogen is replaced by a metallic radicle. Potash, for
+instance, is the hydrate of the metal potassium. The alkalies are readily
+soluble in water, restore the blue colour to reddened litmus, and give a
+green with red cabbage, dahlia, and other vegetable blues, and convert the
+yellow of turmeric into a brownish red. Most of the bases, however, are
+insoluble in water, and without any effect on vegetable colours. See
+_Alkali_; _Acids_.
+
+BASE, a term in tactics, signifying the original line on which an offensive
+army forms; or any safe position from which an army takes the field to
+invade an enemy's country; upon which it depends for its supplies,
+reinforcements, &c.; to which it sends back its sick and wounded; and upon
+which it would generally fall back in case of reverse and retreat.
+
+BASE-BALL, the national game of the United States of America. It holds the
+position there that is held by cricket in England. It is a scientific
+development of the old English game of 'rounders', and is played by nine
+players a side. A diamond-shaped space of ground, 90 feet on the side, is
+marked out, the corners being the 'bases'. One side takes the field and the
+other sends a man to bat. When the field side takes its place, the
+'pitcher', standing inside the ground near the centre and in front of the
+batsman, delivers a ball to the batsman, who stands at the 'home base'
+within a certain marked space, and who tries to drive it out of the reach
+of the fielders, and far enough out of the field to enable him to run round
+the bases, which scores a run. If he cannot run round all, he may stop at
+any one, and may be followed by another batsman. If the ball is caught by
+an opponent before touching the ground when the batsman is running, or if
+he is touched by the ball, he is out (also in several other cases), and
+when three on his side are put out, the field side take the bat. Nine of
+these innings make a game, which the highest score wins. The bat is of a
+cylindrical shape, not more than 2½ inches in diameter nor more than 42
+inches long. The ball is about 9 inches in circumference and weighs 5 - 5¼
+oz. Base-ball is not a very old game, having attained its present position
+only since about 1845. Many professional players now engage in it. Attempts
+have been made to introduce it into Britain and Australia, but with little
+success.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Official Base-ball Guide_, in the Spalding
+Athletic Library (annually); R. H. Barbour, _The Book of School and College
+Sports_; A. G. Spalding, _America's National Game_; W. J. Clarke and F. T.
+Dawson, _Base-ball_.
+
+BASEDOW (bä'ze-d[=o]), John Bernhard, German educationalist, born in
+Hamburg 1723, died in 1790. After having gained considerable experience as
+a teacher, especially at the gymnasium of Altona, he published a number of
+works dealing with mental and moral philosophy, the teaching of religion
+and morality, &c., some of which roused a great amount of discussion. His
+watchword was "Everything according to nature". In 1771 he was called to
+Dessau by Prince Leopold, and in 1774 took charge of an educational
+institution in which his views were to receive practical exemplification.
+This institution, which he called the _Philanthropinum_, was a school free
+from sectarian bias, and in which the pupils were to be disciplined in all
+studies--physical, intellectual, and moral. This school led to the
+establishment of some similar ones, though Basedow retired from it in 1776,
+not having been very successful in the practical working out of his
+theories. His place was taken by Joachim Heinrich Campe (1746-1818). He
+henceforth devoted himself to authorship, writing especially on religious
+subjects. The chief feature of Basedow's system is the full development of
+the faculties of the young, in pursuance of the notions of Locke and
+Rousseau. His name still lives in the history of education, and his efforts
+were not without result.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. C. Meyer, _Leben, Charakter und
+Schriften Basedows_ (2 vols., 1791-2); A. Pinloche, _La Réforme de
+l'Education en Allemagne au dix-huitième Siècle_; O. H. Lang, _Basedow, His
+Life and Work_.
+
+BASEL (bä'zl; Fr. _Bâle_), a canton and city of Switzerland. The canton
+borders on Alsace and Baden, has an area of 177 sq. miles, and a pop. of
+222,000 (1916), nearly all speaking German. It is divided into two
+half-cantons, Basel city (Basel-Stadt) and Basel country (Basel-Land). The
+former consists of the city and its precincts, the remainder of the canton
+forming Basel-Land, the capital of which is Liestal. The whole canton
+belongs to the valley of the Rhine. The soil is generally well cultivated;
+and the climate in the low grounds allows of the cultivation of the vine
+and other fruits.--The city of _Basel_ is 43 miles N. of Bern, and consists
+of two parts on opposite sides of the Rhine, and communicating by three
+bridges, one of them an ancient wooden structure, besides a railway bridge.
+The older portions are irregularly built with narrow streets, and are now
+surrounded with pleasant promenades where the old fortifications existed.
+Basel has an ancient cathedral, founded 1010, containing the tombs of
+Erasmus and other eminent persons; the fine modern church of St. Elizabeth;
+town hall (1508); a university, founded by Pius II in 1460; a seminary for
+missionaries; a bible society; a museum containing the valuable public
+library, pictures, &c. The industries include silk ribbons (8000 hands),
+metal articles, tanning, paper, aniline dyes and other chemicals, brewing,
+&c.; and the position of Basel, a little below where the Rhine becomes
+navigable and at the terminus of the French and German railways, has made
+it the emporium of a most important trade. At Basel was signed the treaty
+of peace between France and Prussia, 5th April, and that between France and
+Spain, 22nd July, 1795. Pop. (with suburbs), 137,000 (latest estimate).
+
+BASEL, COUNCIL OF, a celebrated oecumenical council of the Church, convoked
+by Pope Martin V and his successor Eugenius IV. It was opened 14th Dec.,
+1431, under the presidency of the Cardinal Legate Juliano Cesarini of St.
+Angelo. The objects of its deliberations were to extirpate heresies (that
+of the Hussites in particular), to unite all Christian nations under the
+Catholic Church, to put a stop to wars between Christian princes, and to
+reform the Church. But its first steps towards a peaceable reconciliation
+with the Hussites were displeasing to the Pope, who authorized the Cardinal
+Legate to dissolve the Council. That body opposed the pretensions of the
+Pope, and, notwithstanding his repeated orders to remove to Italy,
+continued its deliberations under the protection of the Emperor Sigismund,
+of the German princes, and of France. On the Pope continuing to issue bulls
+for its dissolution, the Council commenced a formal process against him,
+and cited him to appear at its bar. On his refusal to comply with this
+demand the Council declared him guilty of contumacy, and, after Eugenius
+had opened a counter-synod at Ferrara, decreed his suspension from the
+papal chair (24th Jan., 1438). The removal of Eugenius, however, seemed so
+impracticable that some prelates, who till then had been the boldest and
+most influential speakers in the Council, including the Cardinal Legate
+Juliano, left Basel, and went over to the party of Eugenius. The Archbishop
+of Arles, Cardinal Louis Allemand, was now made first President of the
+Council, and directed its proceedings with much vigour. In May, 1439, it
+declared Eugenius, on account of his disobedience of its decrees, a
+heretic, and formally deposed him. Excommunicated by Eugenius, they
+proceeded, in a regular conclave, to elect the Duke Amadeus of Savoy to the
+papal chair. Felix V--the name he adopted--was acknowledged by only a few
+princes, cities, and universities. After this the moral power of the
+Council declined; its last formal session was held 16th May, 1443, though
+it was not technically dissolved till 7th May, 1449, when it gave in its
+adhesion to Nicholas V, the successor of Eugenius. The decrees of the
+Council of Basel are admitted into none of the Roman collections, and are
+considered of no authority by the Roman lawyers. They are regarded,
+however, as of authority in points of canon law in France and Germany, as
+their regulations for the Reformation of the Church have been adopted in
+the pragmatic sanctions of both countries, and, as far as they regard
+clerical discipline, have been actually enforced.
+
+BASE-LINE, in surveying, a straight line measured with the utmost precision
+to form the starting-point of the triangulation of a country or district.
+See _Geodesy_.
+
+BASH. See _Mining_.
+
+BA´SHAN, the name in Scripture for a singularly rich tract of country lying
+beyond the Jordan between Mount Hermon and the land of Gilead. At the time
+of the Exodus it was inhabited by the Amorites, who were overpowered by the
+Israelites, and the land assigned to the half-tribe of Manasseh. The
+district was, and yet is, famous for its oak forests and its cattle.
+Remains of ancient cities are common.
+
+BASHAW, or BASHA. See _Pasha_.
+
+BASHEE´ ISLANDS, a group of islands in the Chinese Sea between Luzon and
+Formosa, long. 122° E.; lat. 20° 28´ to 20° 55´ N. They were discovered by
+Dampier in 1687, and belong to the United States. The largest island is
+Batan, with a population of 8000.
+
+BASHI-BAZOOKS´, irregular troops in the Turkish army. They are mostly
+Asiatics, and have had to be disarmed several times by the regular troops
+on account of the barbarities by which they have rendered themselves
+infamous.
+
+BASH´KIRS, a tribe of Finno-Tartar origin, inhabiting the Russian
+governments of Ufa, Orenburg, Perm, and Samara. They formerly roamed about
+under their own princes in Southern Siberia, but in 1556 they voluntarily
+placed themselves under the Russian sceptre. They are nominally
+Mahommedans, and live by hunting, cattle-rearing, breeding of cattle and
+horses, and keeping of bees. They are rude and warlike and partially
+nomadic. They number about 1,000,000.--Cf. Ujfalvy, _Les Bashkirs_.
+
+BASHKIRTSEV, Marie, Russian painter and authoress, born 1860, died 1884;
+educated mostly outside of Russia, in France, Germany, and Italy; became an
+accomplished linguist and musician, and studied art in Paris, attaining
+high success, but overtaxing her system, with fatal results. She is best
+known from her journal, an intimate personal record, interesting not only
+as revealing her own peculiar character and intellectual gifts, but also
+for notices of the notable personages with whom she came in contact. It has
+been translated into various languages--into English by Mathilde Blind
+(1890), who has also published _A Study of Marie Bashkirtsev_ (1892). A
+number of her letters were also published in 1891.--Cf. _The Journal of
+Marie Bashkirtsev, an Exposure and a Defence_.
+
+BASIC SLAG, the slag or refuse-matter which is got in making basic steel,
+and which, from the phosphate of lime it contains, is a valuable
+fertilizer. See _Manures (Phosphatic)_.
+
+BASIC STEEL. See _Steel_.
+
+BASI´DIOMYCETES, one of the two sub-classes of the Eumycetes or septate
+Fungi, including the bulk of the larger and more familiar saprophytic
+types, such as the Mushroom, Toad-stools, Shelf-fungi, Puff-balls, and
+Earth-stars, and also the important parasites known as the Rusts. They are
+characterized by their principal spores being produced externally, usually
+in fours, upon an organ called a _basidium_. The basidia are arranged in a
+continuous layer (hymenium), and are usually massed together upon a
+specialized fruit-body, of which an ordinary mushroom is a good example.
+The principal subdivisions of the group, with representative genera, are as
+follows:--
+
+A. Basidia septate (Proto-Basidiomycetes).
+
+1. Family Uredineæ (Rusts). Basidia transversely septate; teleutospores
+present; parasites. Puccinia, Phragmidium, Melampsora.
+
+2. Family Auricularineæ. Basidia transversely septate; no teleutospores;
+saprophytes. Auricularia.
+
+3. Family Tremellineæ. Basidia longitudinally septate; saprophytes.
+Tremella.
+
+B. Basidia not septate (Auto-Basidiomycetes).
+
+4. Family Exobasidiineæ. Parasites without fruit-body; basidia exposed on
+surface of host. Exobasidium.
+
+5. Family Dacryomycetineæ. Fruit-body soft; hymenium on its surface;
+saprophytes. Dacryomyces, Calocera.
+
+6. Group Hymenomycetes (several families). Hymenium generally on gills, in
+tubes, &c.; saprophytes or, less often, parasites. Agaricus Polyporus,
+Hydnum.
+
+7. Group Gastromycetes (several families). Hymenium within a closed
+fruit-body, which does not open until the spores are ripe; saprophytes.
+Ithyphallus, Lycoperdon.
+
+The Ustilagineæ (Smuts) are often regarded as Basidiomycetes of a low type,
+but it is more probable that they are allied to the Unicellular
+Chytridineæ. The Basidiomycetes are the highest members of the Fungoid
+alliance; their relations to the lower groups are obscure.
+
+BASI´DIUM, the characteristic spore-producing organ of the Basidiomycetes.
+Typically, e.g. in the Toad-stools, it is a club-shaped structure, produced
+at its free end into four slender processes, the _sterigmata_, each of
+which bears a _basidiospore_ at its tip. The young basidium contains two
+nuclei, which later fuse; the fusion-nucleus then undergoes two successive
+divisions, involving a reduction of chromosomes, and each of the four
+resultant nuclei passes through a sterigma into a basidiospore. These
+latter are thus seen to be carpospores, comparable to those of Red Algæ,
+and to the ascospores of Ascomycetes. The basidia of Uredineæ (Rusts) and
+of some other primitive Basidiomycetes are septate, but otherwise agree
+with the type described above. See _Basidiomycetes_; _Carpospore_; _Rusts_.
+
+BASIL. See _Basilius_.
+
+BAS´IL, a labiate plant, _Oc[)i]mum basil[)i]cum_, a native of India, much
+used in cookery, especially in France, and known more particularly as sweet
+or common basil. Bush or lesser basil is _O. minimum_; wild basil belongs
+to a different genus, being the _Calamintha Clinopodium_.
+
+BASIL, ST., called the _Great_, one of the Greek fathers, was born in 329,
+and made in 370 Bishop of Cæsarea in Cappadocia, where he died in 379. He
+was distinguished by his efforts for the regulation of clerical discipline,
+and, above all, his endeavours for the promotion of monastic life. The
+Greek Church honours him as one of its most illustrious saints, and
+celebrates his festival on 1st Jan. The vows of obedience, chastity, and
+poverty framed by St. Basil are essentially the rules of all the orders of
+Christendom, although he is particularly the father of the Eastern, as St.
+Benedict is the patriarch of the Western orders.
+
+BASILAN´, the principal island of the Sulu Archipelago, now belonging to
+the Philippines, off the S.W. extremity of Mindanao, from which it is
+separated by the Strait of Basilan. It is about 30 miles in length by 20
+miles in breadth. Pop. about 8000.
+
+BASILE´AN MANUSCRIPTS, two manuscripts of the Greek New Testament now in
+the library of Basel. (1) A nearly complete uncial copy of the Gospels of
+the eighth century; (2) a cursive copy of the whole New Testament except
+the Apocalypse, tenth century.
+
+BASIL´IAN LITURGY, that form for celebrating the Eucharist drawn up towards
+the close of the fourth century by Basil the Great, still used in the Greek
+Church.
+
+BASILIAN MONKS, monks who strictly follow the rules of St. Basil, chiefly
+belonging to the Greek Church.
+
+[Illustration: Basilica di S'Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna]
+
+BASIL´ICA, originally the name applied by the Romans to their public halls,
+either of justice, of exchange, or other business. The plan of the basilica
+was usually a rectangle divided into aisles by rows of columns, the middle
+aisle being the widest, with a semicircular apse at the end, in which the
+tribunal was placed. The ground-plan of these buildings was generally
+followed in the early Christian churches, which, therefore, long retained
+the name of basilica, and it is still applied to some of the churches in
+Rome by way of distinction, and sometimes to other churches built in
+imitation of the Roman basilicas.
+
+BASILICA´TA, also called POTENZA, an Italian province, extending north from
+the Gulf of Taranto, and corresponding pretty closely with the ancient
+Lucania. Area, 3855 sq. miles; pop. 489,574 (1915).
+
+BASIL´ICON, a name of several ointments, the chief ingredients of which are
+wax, pitch, resin, and olive-oil.
+
+BASIL´ICON DO´RON (the royal gift), the title of a book written by King
+James I in 1599, containing a collection of precepts of the art of
+government. It maintains the claim of the king to be sole head of the
+Church. Printed at Edinburgh, 1603.
+
+BASIL´IDES (d[=e]z), one of the most famous Gnostic teachers, a native of
+Alexandria, who lived under the reigns of Adrian and Antoninus Pius about
+A.D. 120-40. He was well acquainted with Christianity, but mixed it up with
+the wildest dreams of the Gnostics, peopling the earth and the air with
+multitudes of _æons_. He was also greatly influenced by Platonism and
+Zoroastrianism. His disciples (Basilidians) were numerous in Syria, Egypt,
+Italy, and Gaul, but they are scarcely heard of after the fourth century.
+
+BAS´ILISK, a fabulous creature formerly believed to exist, and variously
+regarded as a kind of serpent, lizard, or dragon, and sometimes identified
+with the cockatrice. It inhabited the deserts of Africa, and its breath and
+even its look was fatal. The name is now applied to a genus of saurian
+reptiles (Basiliscus), belonging to the family Iguanidæ;, distinguished by
+an elevated crest or row of scales, erectable at pleasure, which, like the
+dorsal fins of some fishes, runs along the whole length of the back and
+tail. The mitred or hooded basilisk (_B. mitr[=a]tus_) is especially
+remarkable for a membranous bag at the back of the head, of the size of a
+small hen's egg, which can be inflated with air at pleasure. The other
+species have such hoods also, but of a less size. To this organ they owe
+their name, which recalls the basilisk of fable, though in reality they are
+exceedingly harmless and lively creatures. The _B. amboinensis_ is a native
+of the Indian Archipelago, where it is much used for food. It frequents
+trees overhanging water, into which it drops when alarmed.
+
+BASIL´IUS I, a Macedonian, Emperor of the East, born A.D. 820, died 886. He
+was of obscure origin, but having succeeded in gaining the favour of the
+Emperor Michael III, he became his colleague in the Empire, 866. After the
+assassination of Michael, 867, Basilius became emperor. Though he had
+worked his way to the throne by a series of crimes, he proved an able and
+equitable sovereign. The versatility, if not the depth, of his intellect is
+strikingly displayed in his _Exhortations to his Son Leo_, which are still
+extant.
+
+BASILIUS II, Emperor of the East, born 958, died 1025. On the death of his
+father, the Emperor Romanus the Younger, in 963, he was kept out of the
+succession for twelve years by two usurpers. He began to reign in
+conjunction with his brother Constantine, 975. His reign was spent in
+almost perpetual warfare, his most important struggle being that which
+resulted in the conquest of Bulgaria, 1018.
+
+BA´SIN, in physical geography, the whole tract of country drained by a
+river and its tributaries. The line dividing one river basin from another
+is the water-shed, and by tracing the various water-sheds we divide each
+country into its constituent basins. The basin of a loch or sea consists of
+the basins of all the rivers which run into it.--In geology a basin is any
+dipping or disposition of strata towards a common axis or centre, due to
+upheaval and subsidence. It is sometimes used almost synonymously with
+'formation' to express the deposits lying in a certain cavity or depression
+in older rocks. The 'Paris basin' and 'London basin' are familiar
+instances.
+
+BA´SINGSTOKE, a town of England, county of Hants, 18 miles N.N.E. of
+Winchester. It has a good trade in corn, malt, &c., and now gives its name
+to one of the parliamentary divisions of the county. Pop. (1921), 12,718.
+
+BAS´KERVILLE, John, celebrated English printer and type-founder, born in
+1706, died 1775. He settled at Birmingham as a writing-master, subsequently
+engaged in the manufacture of japanned works, and in 1750 commenced
+printing. From his press came highly-prized editions of ancient and modern
+classics, Bibles, prayer-books, &c., all beautifully-printed works. His
+first work was a _Virgil_, published in 1757, followed by his famous
+edition of Milton in 1758.
+
+BASKET, a vessel or utensil of wicker-work, made of interwoven osiers or
+willows, rushes, twigs, grasses, &c. The process of basket-making is very
+simple, and appears to be well known among the very rudest peoples. The
+ancient Britons excelled in the art, and their baskets were highly prized
+in Rome.--Cf. T. Okey, _Introduction to the Art of Basket-making_.
+
+BASKING-SHARK (_Sel[)a]ch[=e] maxima_ or _Cetorh[=i]nus maximus_), a
+species of shark, so named from its habit of basking in the sun at the
+surface of the water. It reaches the length of 40 feet, and its liver
+yields a large quantity of oil. It frequents the northern seas, and is
+known also as the sail-fish or sun-fish.
+
+BASLE. See _Basel_.
+
+BASOCHE. See _Bazoche_.
+
+BASQUES (b[.a]sks), or BISCAYANS (in their own language, _Euscaldunac_), a
+remarkable race of people dwelling partly in the south-west corner of
+France (Basses-Pyrénées), but mostly in the north of Spain adjacent to the
+Pyrenees. They are probably descendants of the ancient Iberi, who occupied
+Spain before the Celts. They preserve their ancient language, former
+manners, and national dances, and make admirable soldiers, especially in
+guerrilla warfare. Their language is highly polysynthetic, and stands
+isolated from other tongues of Europe. There are eight principal dialects,
+which are not only distinguished by their pronunciation and grammatical
+structure, but differ even in their vocabularies. The Basques, who number
+about 600,000 (450,000 in Spain, and 150,000 in France), occupy in Spain
+the provinces of Biscay, Guipuzcoa, and Al[)a]va; in France parts of the
+departments of the Upper and Lower Pyrenees, Ariége, and Upper Garonne. The
+Basques are very religious and conservative in their religious practices.
+Ignatius Loyola and Francis Xavier de Navarre were Basques.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+Julien Vinson, _Les Basques et le pays Basque_; _Le Folk-lore du pays
+Basque_; Michel, _Le pays Basque, sa population, sa langue, ses moeurs, sa
+littérature, et sa musique_; Van Eys, _Outlines of a Basque Grammar_.
+
+BASRA, BASSORA, or BASRAH, a city in Lower Mesopotamia, on the west bank of
+the Shat-el-Arab (the united stream of the Tigris and Euphrates), about 50
+miles from its mouth, and nearly 300 miles south-east of Bagdad. It is
+surrounded by a wall about 10 miles in circuit, from 20 to 25 feet thick;
+but much of the area enclosed is occupied by gardens, &c. The houses are
+generally mean. A considerable transit trade is carried on here between the
+Turkish and Persian dominions and India, and since communication by steamer
+has been established with Bagdad and Bombay the prosperity of the town has
+greatly increased. The chief exports are: dates, camels and horses, wool
+and wheat; imports: coffee, indigo, rice, tissues, &c. The inhabitants are
+estimated at 80,000; but in the eighteenth century they were said to number
+150,000. The substitution of date and wheat cultivation for that of rice
+has rendered the place much more healthy. The ruins of the ancient and more
+famous Bassora--founded by Caliph Omar in 636, at one time a centre of
+Arabic literature and learning and regarded as 'the Athens of the
+East'--lie about 9 miles south-west of the modern town. The town was
+occupied by the British on 22nd Nov., 1914. The first through-train from
+Basra to Bagdad was run in Jan., 1920.
+
+[Illustration: Bas-relief--Northern frieze of Parthenon]
+
+BAS-RELIEF (bä´r[=e]-l[=e]f or bas´r[=e]-l[=e]f) or BASSO-RILIEVO,
+low-relief, a mode of sculpturing figures on a flat surface, the figures
+having a very slight relief or projection from the surface. It is
+distinguished from _haut-relief_ (_alto-rilievo_), or high-relief, in which
+the figures stand sometimes almost entirely free from the ground.
+Bas-relief work has been described as 'sculptured painting', from the
+capability of disposing of groups of figures and exhibiting minor adjuncts,
+as in a painting. The finest specimen of bas-relief is the frieze around
+the cella of the Parthenon; large portions of it are to be seen in the
+British Museum.
+
+BASS (b[=a]s; from the It. _basso_, deep, low), in music, the lowest part
+in the harmony of a musical composition, whether vocal or instrumental.
+According to some it is the fundamental or most important part, while
+others regard the melody or highest part in that light. Next to the melody,
+the bass part is the most striking, the freest and boldest in its
+movements, and richest in effect.--_Figured bass_, a bass part having the
+accompanying chords suggested by certain figures written above or below the
+notes--the most successful system of shorthand scoring at present in use
+among organists and pianists.--_Fundamental bass_, the lowest note or root
+of a chord; a bass consisting of a succession of fundamental
+notes.--_Thorough bass_, the mode or art of expressing chords by means of
+figures placed over or under a given bass. Figures written over each other
+indicate that the notes they represent are to be sounded simultaneously,
+those standing close after each other that they are to be sounded
+successively. The common chord in its fundamental form is generally left
+unfigured, and accidentals are indicated by using sharps, naturals, or
+flats along with the figures.
+
+BASS (b[.a]s), the name of a number of fishes of several genera, but
+originally belonging to a genus of sea-fishes (Labrax) of the perch family,
+distinguished from the true perches by having the tongue covered by small
+teeth and the preoperculum smooth. _L. lupus_, the only British species,
+called also sea-dace, and from its voracity sea-wolf, resembles somewhat
+the salmon in shape, and is much esteemed for the table, weighing about 15
+lb. _L. line[=a]tus_ (_Roccus line[=a]tus_), or striped bass, an American
+species, weighing from 25 to 30 lb., is much used for food, and is also
+known as rock-fish. Both species occasionally ascend rivers, and attempts
+have been made to cultivate British bass in freshwater ponds with success.
+Two species of black bass (_Micropt[)e]rus salmoides_ and _M. dolomieu_),
+American freshwater fishes, are excellent as food and give fine sport to
+the angler. The former is often called the large-mouthed black bass, from
+the size of its mouth. Both make nests and take great care of their eggs
+and young. The _Centropristis nigricans_, an American sea-fish of the perch
+family, and weighing 2 to 3 lb., is known as the sea-bass.
+
+BASS (b[.a]s), THE, a remarkable insular trap-rock, at the mouth of the
+Firth of Forth, 3 miles from North Berwick, of a circular form, about 1
+mile in circumference, rising majestically out of the sea to a height of
+313 feet. It pastures a few sheep, and is a great breeding-place of solan
+geese. During the persecution of the Covenanters its castle, long since
+demolished, was used as a State prison, in which several eminent
+Covenanters were confined. It was held from 1691 to 1694 with great courage
+and pertinacity by twenty Jacobites, who in the end capitulated on highly
+honourable terms.
+
+BASS. See _Basswood_.
+
+BASSA´NO, a commercial city of North Italy, province of Vicenza, on the
+Brenta, over which is a covered wooden bridge. It has lofty old walls and
+an old castle, and has various industries and an active trade. Near
+Bassano, 8th Sept., 1796, Bonaparte defeated the Austrian general Wurmser.
+Pop. (commune) 17,130.
+
+BASSA´NO (from his birth-place; real name GIACOMO DA PONTE), an Italian
+painter, born 1510, died 1592. He painted historical pieces, landscapes,
+flowers, &c., and also portraits. He left four sons, who all became
+painters, Francesco being the most distinguished.
+
+BASSANO DAM. See _Dams_.
+
+BAS´SARIS. See _Cacomistle_.
+
+BASSEIN (bas-s[=a]n'), a town in Lower Burma, province of Pegu, on both
+banks of the Bassein River, one of the mouths of the Irawadi, and navigable
+for the largest ships. It has considerable trade, exporting large
+quantities of rice, and importing coal, salt, cottons, &c. Pop.
+37,081.--Bassein District has an area of 4127 sq. miles and a pop. of 9598
+(1911).
+
+BASSEIN (bas-s[=a]n'), a town in Hindustan, 28 miles north of Bombay. At
+the beginning of the eighteenth century it was a fine and wealthy city,
+with over 60,000 inhabitants; it has now only about 9598 (1911).
+
+BASSELIN (b[.a]s-lan), Olivier, an old French poet or song-writer, born in
+the Val-de-Vire, Normandy, about the end of the fourteenth century, died
+about 1450. His sprightly songs, famous under the name _Vaux-de-Vire_, have
+given origin and name to the modern Vaudevilles.
+
+BASSELISSE TAPESTRY. See _Hautelisse_.
+
+BASSES-ALPES (bäs-[.a]lp; 'Lower Alps'). See _Alpes_.
+
+BASSES-PYRÉNÉES (bäs-p[=e]-r[=a]-n[=a]; 'LOWER PYRENEES'). See _Pyrénées_.
+
+BASS´ET, the name of a game at cards, formerly much played, especially in
+France. It is very similar to the modern _faro_. See _Lansquenet_.
+
+BASSET, or BASSET-HOUND, a smooth-haired dog with short crooked legs,
+rather large head, and large pendulous ears, thus somewhat resembling a
+bloodhound and a dachshund. It is sometimes used in packs for hunting
+hares, or in beating and covert work generally.
+
+BASSETERRE (bäs-t[=a]r), two towns in the West Indies.--1. Capital of the
+Island of St. Christopher's, at the mouth of a small river, on the south
+side of the island. Trade considerable. Pop. about 9000.--2. The capital of
+the Island of Guadeloupe. It has no harbour, and the anchorage is
+unsheltered and exposed to a constant swell. Pop. 8650.
+
+BASSET-HORN, a musical instrument, now practically obsolete, a sort of
+clarinet of enlarged dimensions, with a curved and bell-shaped metal end.
+The compass extends from F below the bass staff to C on the second
+ledger-line above the treble. Mozart wrote several pieces for the
+basset-horn, and Beethoven employed it in his _Prometheus_ overture.
+
+BASSETLAW, a parliamentary division of the county of Nottingham.
+
+BASSIA, a genus of tropical trees found in the East Indies and Australia,
+nat. ord., Sapotaceæ. The seeds of _B. butyracea_, the Indian butter tree,
+yield a butter-like substance, which makes good soap. _B. latifolia_, the
+Mahwa of Bengal, furnishes a valuable hard timber, and has edible flowers,
+from which a potent spirit is distilled; a gutta-percha is obtained from
+_B. pallida_.
+
+BASSOMPIERRE (bä-son-py[=a]r), Francois de, Marshal of France,
+distinguished both as a soldier and a statesman, born 1579, died 1646. In
+1602 he made his first campaign against the Duke of Savoy, and he fought
+with equal distinction in the following year in the imperial army against
+the Turks. In 1622 Louis XIII appointed him Marshal of France, and became
+so much attached to him that Luynes, the declared favourite, sent him on
+embassies to Spain, Switzerland, and England. After his return he became an
+object of suspicion to Cardinal Richelieu, and was sent to the Bastille in
+1631, from which he was not released till 1643, after the death of the
+cardinal. During his detention he occupied himself with writing his
+memoirs, which shed much light on the events of that time.
+
+BASSO´ON, a musical wind-instrument of the reed order, blown with a bent
+metal mouthpiece, and holed and keyed like the clarinet. Its compass
+comprehends three octaves rising from B flat below the bass staff. Its
+diameter at bottom is 3 inches, and for convenience of carriage it is
+divided into two or more parts, whence its Italian name, _fagotto_, a
+bundle. It serves for the bass among wood wind-instruments, as hautboys,
+flutes, &c.
+
+BASSORA GUM, an inferior kind of gum resembling gum-arabic.
+
+BASS ROCK. See _Bass_.
+
+BASS STRAIT, a channel beset with islands, which separates Australia from
+Tasmania, 120 miles broad, discovered by George Bass, a surgeon in the
+Royal Navy, in 1798.
+
+BASSWOOD, or BASS, the American lime tree or linden (_Tilia americ[=a]na_),
+a tree common in N. America, yielding a light, soft timber.
+
+BAST, a term originally applied to fibrous tissue external to the cambium;
+now used in two senses: (1) for Phloem (q.v.); (2) commercially, for the
+fibre of the lime or linden. The manufacture of lime-bast into mats, ropes,
+&c., is in Russia a considerable industry, bast-mats for packing furniture,
+covering plants, &c., being largely exported.
+
+BASTAR´, a feudatory State in Upper Godavari district, Central Provinces of
+India; area, 13,062 sq. miles; pop. 433,310. Chief town, Jagdalpur; pop.
+4294.
+
+BAS´TARD, a child begotten and born out of wedlock; an illegitimate child.
+By the civil and canon laws, and by the law of Scotland, a bastard becomes
+legitimate by the intermarriage of the parents at any future time. In some
+of the United States, bastards can be legitimized by subsequent marriage,
+in addition to which, however, the father must also recognize the child as
+his. By the laws of England a child, to be legitimate, must at least be
+_born_ after the lawful marriage; it does not require that the child shall
+be begotten in wedlock, but it is indispensable that it should be born
+after marriage, no matter how short the time, the law presuming it to be
+the child of the husband. The only incapacity of a bastard is that he
+cannot be heir or next of kin to any one save his own issue. In England the
+maintenance of a bastard in the first instance devolves on the mother,
+while in Scotland it is a joint burden upon both parents. The mother is
+entitled to the custody of the child in preference to the father. See
+_Legitimation_; _Illegitimacy_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacquet, _Traité de la
+Bâtardise_; Nicholls and Mackay, _History of the English Poor Law_.
+
+[Illustration: Bastard Bar]
+
+BASTARD BAR, more correctly _baton sinister_, the heraldic mark used to
+indicate illegitimate descent. It is a diminutive of the bend sinister, of
+which it is one-fourth in width, couped or cut short at the ends, so as not
+to touch the corners of the shield.
+
+BASTARD FALLOW. See _Fallow Land_.
+
+BASTARD SAFFRON. See _Safflower_.
+
+BASTIA (b[.a]s-t[=e]´[.a]), the former capital of the Island of Corsica,
+upon the N.E. coast, 75 miles N.E. of Ajaccio, on a hill slope; badly
+built, with narrow streets, a strong citadel, and an indifferent harbour;
+with some manufactures, a considerable trade in hides, soap, wine, oil,
+pulse, &c. Pop. 29,412.
+
+BAS´TIAN, Adolf, German traveller and ethnologist, born in 1826, died in
+1905. His travels embraced various parts of Europe, the United States,
+Mexico, Peru, Australia and New Zealand, Southern and Western Africa,
+Egypt, Arabia, India, South-Eastern Asia, the Asiatic Archipelago, Japan,
+China, Mongolia, Siberia, &c. His numerous writings throw light on almost
+every subject connected with ethnology or anthropology, as well as
+psychology, linguistics, non-Christian religions, geography, &c. Some of
+his chief works are: _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_ (Peoples of Eastern
+Asia); _Ethnographische Forschungen_; _Ideale Welten_; _Die Völkerkunde u.
+der Völkerverkehr_; &c.
+
+BAS´TIAN, Henry Charlton, English physician and biologist, born at Truro in
+1837, died on 17th Nov., 1915. He was educated at Falmouth and at
+University College, London, where he was assistant curator in the museum
+from 1860 to 1863. He obtained the degree of M.A. in 1861 from the
+University of London, graduating subsequently in medicine at the same
+university (M.B. 1863, M.D. 1866). From 1864 to 1866 he was a medical
+officer in Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum, and in 1866 was appointed
+lecturer on pathology and assistant physician in St. Mary's Hospital. In
+1867 he became professor of pathological anatomy in University College,
+subsequently he was also professor of clinical medicine, and in the period
+1887-95 he occupied the chair of medicine and clinical medicine. Apart from
+numerous contributions to medical and other periodicals, and to Quain's
+_Dictionary of Medicine_, he published _The Modes of Origin of Lowest
+Organisms_ (1871); _The Beginnings of Life_ (1872); _Evolution and the
+Origin of Life_ (1874); _Lectures on Paralysis from Brain Disease_ (1875);
+_The Brain as an Organ of Mind_ (1880); which has been translated into
+French and German; _The Nature and Origin of Living Matter_; _Evolution of
+Life_; _Origin of Life_; &c.
+
+BASTIAT (b[.a]s-t[=e]-[.a]), Frédéric, French economist, advocate of
+free-trade, and opponent of protection, born at Bayonne 1801, died at Rome
+1850. He became acquainted with Cobden and the English free-traders, whose
+speeches he translated into French. Whilst combating protectionism, Bastiat
+was also an opponent of socialism. His chief works are: _Sophismes
+Économiques_ (1846); _Propriété et Loi_; _Justice et Fraternité_ (1848);
+_Protectionisme et Communisme_ (1849); _Harmonies Économiques_ (1849).
+
+BASTIEN-LEPAGE (b[.a]s-tya[n.]-l[.e]-päzh), Jules, French painter, born
+1848, died 1884. He studied at Paris under Cabanel, and about 1874 began to
+attract some notice as a realistic painter of subjects connected with the
+country and everyday life, among his first pictures of note being _Song of
+Spring_, _Portrait of My Grandfather_, and _The First Communion_. Among his
+most important works are _The Hayfield_, _The Potato Harvest_, _Portrait of
+Mme Sarah Bernhardt_, _The Beggar_, and _The Forge_.--Cf. Marie
+Bashkirtsev, _Journal Intime_; Arnic, J. _Bastien-Lepage, lettres et
+souvenirs_.
+
+BASTILLE (b[.a]s-t[=e]l´), a French name for any strong castle provided
+with towers, but as a proper name the State prison and citadel of Paris,
+which was built about 1370 by Charles V. It was ultimately used chiefly for
+the confinement of persons of rank who had fallen victims to the intrigues
+of the Court or the caprice of the Government. (See _Cachet, Lettres de_.)
+The capture of the Bastille by the Parisian mob, 14th July, 1789, was the
+opening act of the Revolution. On that date the Bastille was surrounded by
+a tumultuous mob, who first attempted to negotiate with the Governor,
+Delaunay, but when these negotiations failed, began to attack the fortress.
+For several hours the mob continued their siege without being able to
+effect anything more than an entrance into the outer court of the Bastille;
+but at last the arrival of some of the Royal Guard with a few pieces of
+artillery forced the Governor to let down the second drawbridge and admit
+the populace. The Governor was seized, but on the way to the Hotel de Ville
+he was torn from his captors and put to death. The next day the destruction
+of the Bastille commenced. Not a vestige of it exists, but its site is
+marked by a column in the Place de la Bastille.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: François
+Ravaisson, _Les Archives de la Bastille_; Arnold, _Histoire de la
+Bastille_; Bingham, _The Bastille_; Funck-Brentano, _The Bastille_; M.J. de
+Staal, _La Bastille sous la Régence_ (edited by Funck-Brentano).
+
+BASTINA´DO, an Eastern method of corporal punishment, consisting of blows
+upon the soles of the feet, applied with a bamboo cane.
+
+BAS´TION, in fortification, a large mass of earth, faced with sods, brick,
+or stones, standing out from a rampart, of which it is a principal part. A
+bastion consists of two _flanks_, each commanding and defending the
+adjacent _curtain_, or that portion of the wall extending from one bastion
+to another, and two _faces_ making with each other an acute angle called
+the _salient angle_, and commanding the outworks and ground before the
+fortification. The distance between the two flanks is the _gorge_, or
+entrance into the bastion. The use of the bastion is to bring every point
+at the foot of the rampart as much as possible under the guns of the place.
+
+BAST´WICK, John, English physician and ecclesiastical controversialist,
+born in 1593, died 1654. He settled at Colchester, but, instead of
+confining himself to his profession, entered keenly into theological
+controversy, and was condemned by the Star Chamber for his books against
+Prelacy: _Elenchus Religionis Papisticæ_, _Flagellum Pontificis_, and _The
+Letanie of Dr. J. Bastwick_. With Prynne and Burton he was sentenced to
+lose his ears in the pillory, to pay a fine of £5000, and to be imprisoned
+for life. He was released by the Long Parliament, and entered London in
+triumph along with Prynne and Burton. He appears to have continued his
+controversies with the Independents and others to the very last.
+
+BASU´TOLAND, a native province and British South African possession,
+situated between the Orange Free State, Natal, Griqualand East, and the
+Cape Province. The Basutos belong chiefly to the great stem of the
+Bechuanas, and have made greater advances in civilization than perhaps any
+other South African race. In 1866 the Basutos, who had lived under a
+semi-protectorate of the British since 1848, were proclaimed British
+subjects, their country placed under the government of an agent, and in
+1871 it was joined to Cape Colony. In 1879 the attempted enforcement of an
+Act passed for the disarmament of the native tribes caused a revolt under
+the chief Moirosi, which the Cape forces were unable to put down. When
+peace was restored Basutoland was separated from Cape Colony (1884), and is
+now governed by a Resident Commissioner under the High Commissioner for
+South Africa. Basutoland has an area of about 11,716 sq. miles, much of it
+covered with grass, and there is but little wood. The climate is pleasant.
+The natives keep cattle, sheep, and horses, cultivate the ground, and
+export grain. The Basuto ponies, which originally were brought from Batavia
+by the Dutch in the eighteenth century, are famous. It is divided into
+eight districts, each under a magistrate. Capital, Maseru. Pop. (European),
+1396; (native), 404,507.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Widdicombe, _Fourteen Years in
+Basutoland_; M. Martin, _Basutoland: Its Legends and Customs_; Sir G.
+Lagden, _The Basutos_; Rev. D. F. Ellenberger, _History of the Basuto_.
+
+[Illustration: Bats Asleep
+
+Left--Serotine (_Vespertilio serotinus_). Right--Long-eared bat (_Plecotus
+auritus_).]
+
+BAT, one of the group of wing-handed, flying mammals, having the fore-limb
+peculiarly modified so as to serve for flight, and constituting the order
+Cheiroptera. Bats are animals of the twilight and darkness, and are common
+in temperate and warm regions, but are most numerous and largest in the
+tropics. All European bats are small, and have a mouse-like skin. The body
+of the largest British species, _Vespertilio noct[)u]la_, is less than that
+of a mouse, but its wings stretch about 15 inches. During the day it
+remains in caverns, in the crevices of ruins, hollow trees, and similar
+lurking places, and flits out at evening in search of food, which consists
+of insects. Several species of the same genus are common in North America.
+Many bats are remarkable for having a singular nasal cutaneous appendage,
+bearing in some cases a fancied resemblance to a horse-shoe. Bats may be
+conveniently divided into two sections--the insectivorous or carnivorous,
+comprising all European and most African and American species; and the
+fruit-eating, belonging to tropical Asia and Australia, with several
+African forms. An Australian fruit-eating bat (_Pter[)o]pus ed[=u]lis_),
+commonly known as the kalong or flying-fox, is the largest of all the bats;
+it does much mischief in orchards. At least two species of South American
+bats are known to suck the blood of other mammals, and thence are called
+'vampire-bats'. All the British bats belong to the insectivorous group, the
+fruit-eating and blood-sucking bats being confined to warmer regions. There
+are fifteen species on the British list, but of these three are very rare.
+Among the most noteworthy forms are the greater and the lesser horse-shoe
+bats, in which the ears are nearly as long as the whole body. As winter
+approaches, in cold climates bats seek shelter in caverns, vaults, ruinous
+and deserted buildings, and similar retreats, where they cling together in
+large clusters, hanging head downwards by the feet, and remain in a torpid
+condition until the returning spring recalls them to active exertions. Bats
+generally bring forth two young. The parent shows a strong degree of
+attachment to her offspring, and, when they are captured, will follow them,
+and even submit to captivity herself rather than forsake her charge.
+
+[Illustration: Vampire-bat (_Phyllostroma spectrum_)]
+
+BATAILLE, Henry, French poet and dramatist, born at Nîmes in 1872. His
+first volume of poems, _La Chambre Blanche_, appeared in 1895. His other
+works include _Le Beau Rivage_, _Maman Colibri_, _La Marche Nuptiale_, _La
+Femme Nue_, _La Divine Tragédie_, &c.
+
+BATALHA (b[.a]-t[.a]l'y[.a]), a village in Portugal, 69 miles north of
+Lisbon, with a renowned convent of Dominicans, a splendid building.
+
+BATAN´GAS, a town of the Philippines, in the Island of Luzon, capital of a
+province of same name, 58 miles south of Manila. Pop. 33,131.
+
+BATA´TAS. See _Sweet-potato_.
+
+BAT´AVI. See _Batavians_.
+
+BATA´VIA, a city and seaport of Java, on the north coast of the island, the
+capital of the Dutch East Indies. It is situated on a wide, deep bay, the
+principal warehouses and offices of the Europeans, the Java Bank, the
+exchange, &c., being in the old town, which is built on a low, marshy plain
+near the sea, intersected with canals and very unhealthy; while the
+Europeans reside in a new and much healthier quarter. Batavia has a large
+trade, sugar being the chief export. It was founded by the Dutch in 1619,
+and attained its greatest prosperity in the beginning of the eighteenth
+century. Its inhabitants are chiefly Malay, with a considerable admixture
+of Chinese and a small number of Europeans. Pop. 234,697 (1918).
+
+BATAVIAN REPUBLIC. See _Belgium_; _Netherlands._
+
+BATAVIANS, an old German nation which inhabited a part of the present
+Holland, especially the island called _Batavia_, formed by that branch of
+the Rhine which empties itself into the sea near Leyden, together with the
+Waal and the Meuse. Tacitus asserts that they were a branch of the Catti.
+They were subdued by Germanicus, and were granted special privileges for
+their faithful services to the Romans, but revolted under Vespasian. They
+were, however, again subdued by Trajan and Adrian, and at the end of the
+third century the Salian Franks obtained possession of the Island of
+Batavia.
+
+BATCHIAN. See _Bachian_.
+
+BATES, Henry Walter, traveller and naturalist, born at Leicester 1825,
+learned the hosiery trade, but in 1847 went to the Amazon with Russel
+Wallace, and remained there for eleven years studying the natural history
+of the region. Returning to England, he published in 1862 his _Naturalist
+on the River Amazons_, a work regarded as a classic. He was assistant
+secretary to the Royal Geographical Society from 1864 till his death in
+1892. A large part of his collections is in the British Museum.
+
+BATH (b[.a]th), a city of England, in Somersetshire, on the Avon, which is
+navigable for barges from Bristol; is beautifully placed among the hills,
+and the houses are built of freestone, obtained from the neighbourhood. The
+Abbey Church, dating from the fifteenth century, ranks as one of the finest
+specimens of Perpendicular Gothic architecture. Bath is remarkable for its
+medicinal waters, the four principal springs yielding no less than 184,000
+gallons of water a day; and the baths are both handsome and roomy. The
+temperature of the springs varies from 109° to 117° F. They contain
+carbonic acid, chloride of sodium and of magnesium, sulphate of soda,
+carbonate and sulphate of lime, &c. Bath was founded by the Romans, and
+called by them _Aquæ Solis_ (Waters of the Sun). Amongst the Roman remains
+discovered there have been some fine baths. The height of its prosperity
+was reached, however, in the eighteenth century, when Beau Nash was leader
+of the fashion and master of its ceremonies. Since then, though it still
+attracts large numbers of visitors, it has become the resort of
+valetudinarians chiefly. Jointly with Wells it is the head of a diocese,
+and since 1918 returns one member to the House of Commons. Pop. (1921),
+68,648.
+
+BATH, a town, United States, Maine, on the west side and at the head of the
+winter navigation of the Kennebec, 12 miles from the sea. Chief industries:
+shipbuilding and allied crafts. Pop. 9396.
+
+BATH, the immersion of the body in water, or an apparatus for this purpose.
+
+_Ancient Baths._--The use of the bath as an institution, apart from
+occasional immersion in rivers or the sea, is, as might be anticipated, an
+exceedingly old custom. Homer mentions the bath as one of the first
+refreshments offered to a guest; thus, when Ulysses enters the palace of
+Circe, a bath is prepared for him, and he is anointed after it with costly
+perfumes. No representation, however, of a bath as we understand it is
+given upon the Greek vases, bathers being represented either simply washing
+at an elevated basin, or having water poured over them from above. In later
+times, rooms, both public and private, were built expressly for bathing,
+the public baths of the Greeks being mostly connected with the gymnasia.
+Apparently, by an inversion of the later practice, it was customary in the
+Homeric epoch to take first a cold and then a hot bath; but the
+Lacedæmonians substituted the hot-air sudorific bath, as less enervating
+than warm water, and in Athens at the time of Demosthenes and Socrates the
+warm bath was considered by the more rigorous to be an effeminate custom.
+The fullest details we have with respect to the bathing of the ancients
+apply to its luxurious development under the Romans. Their bathing
+establishments consisted of four main sections: the undressing room, with
+an adjoining chamber in which the bathers were anointed; a cold room with
+provision for a cold bath; a room heated moderately to serve as a
+preparation for the highest and lowest temperatures; and the sweating-room,
+at one extremity of which was a vapour-bath and at the other an ordinary
+hot bath. After going through the entire course both the Greeks and Romans
+made use of strigils or scrapers, either of horn or metal, to remove
+perspiration, oil, and impurities from the skin. Connected with the baths
+were walks, covered race-grounds, tennis-courts, and gardens, the whole,
+both in the external and internal decorations, being frequently on a
+palatial scale. The group of the _Laocoon_ and the _Farnese Hercules_ were
+both found in the ruins of Roman baths.
+
+_Modern Baths._--With respect to modern baths, that commonly in use in
+Russia consists of a single hall, built of wood, in the midst of which is a
+powerful metal oven, covered with heated stones, and surrounded with broad
+benches, on which the bathers take their places. Cold water is then poured
+upon the heated stones, and a thick, hot steam rises, which causes the
+sweat to issue from the whole body. The bather is then gently whipped with
+wet birch rods, rubbed with soap, and washed with luke-warm and cold water;
+of the latter, some pailfuls are poured over his head; or else he leaps,
+immediately after this sweating-bath, into a river or pond, or rolls in the
+snow. The Turks, by their religion, are obliged to make repeated ablutions
+daily, and for this purpose there is, in every city, a public bath
+connected with a mosque. A favourite bath among them, however, is a
+modification of the hot-air sudorific bath of the ancients introduced under
+the name of 'Turkish' into other than Mahommedan countries. A regular
+accompaniment of this bath, when properly given, is the operation known as
+'kneading', generally performed at the close of the sweating process, after
+the final rubbing of the bather with soap, and consisting in a systematic
+pressing and squeezing of the whole body, stretching the limbs, and
+manipulating all the joints as well as the fleshy and muscular parts.
+Public baths are now common in Europe, but the first English public baths
+and wash-houses of the kind now common in all cities were established in
+Liverpool and near the London docks in 1844. In 1846 an Act was passed for
+their encouragement, and a series of statutes, known as 'The Baths and
+Wash-houses Acts 1846 to 1896', followed. The establishment of cheap
+swimming-baths was authorized in 1878.
+
+The principal natural warm baths in England are at Bath, in Somersetshire
+(the hottest), and Buxton and Matlock, in Derbyshire. The temperature of
+the Bath springs ranges from 109° to 117° F., while that of the Buxton and
+Matlock waters scarcely exceeds 82°. The baths of Harrogate, which are
+strongly impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, are also of great
+repute for the cure of obstinate cutaneous diseases, indurations of the
+glands, &c. The most celebrated natural hot baths in Europe are those of
+Aix-la-Chapelle, and the various Baden, in Germany; Toeplitz, in Bohemia;
+Bagnières, Baréges, and Dax, in the south of France; and Spa, in Belgium.
+Besides the various kinds of water-bath with or without medication or
+natural mineral ingredients, there are also milk, oil, wine, earth, sand,
+mud, and electric baths, smoke-baths and gas-baths; but these are as a rule
+only indulged in after specific prescription.
+
+The practice of bathing as a method of cure in cases of disease falls under
+the head of hydropathy; but even when it is employed simply for pleasure or
+purification due regard should be paid to the physiological condition of
+the bather. In many cases cold bathing should be avoided altogether,
+especially by those who have any tendency to spitting of blood or
+consumption, by gouty people, or by those who have any latent visceral
+disease or apoplectic tendency. Wherever the bath is followed by shivering
+instead of by a healthy reactionary glow, it is undesirable; and a cold
+bath in the morning after any debauchery or excess in eating or drinking on
+the previous evening is exceedingly imprudent. Delicate persons and
+children ought not to bathe in the sea before ten or eleven o'clock in the
+morning, and in no case should bathing be indulged in after a long fast. In
+cold streams and rivers additional precautions should be taken, the cold
+plunge, when heated or fatigued, being frequently attended with fatal
+results. Even warm baths are not wholly free from danger; apoplexy and
+death having been known to follow a hot bath when entered with a full
+stomach. As a rule the temperature should not exceed 105°, and they should
+not be too long continued. Frequent indulgence in them has an enervating
+effect, though the majority of people need as yet no renewal of Hadrian's
+prohibitive legislation in this matter. See also _Douches_;
+_Thermæ_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. A. Becker, _Gallus_; J. Farrar, _Baths and
+Bathing_; W. P. Gerhard, _Modern Baths and Bath Houses_; R. F. Fox,
+_Principles and Practice of Medical Hydrology_.
+
+BATH, KNIGHTS OF THE, an order of England, supposed to have been instituted
+by Henry IV on the day of his coronation, but allowed to lapse after the
+reign of Charles II till 1725, when George I revived it as a military
+order. By the book of statutes then prepared the number of knights was
+limited to the sovereign and thirty-seven knights companions; but the
+limits of the order were greatly extended in 1815, and again in 1847, when
+it was opened to civilians. It now consists of three classes, each
+subdivided into (1) military members, (2) civil members, and (3) honorary
+members, consisting of foreign princes and officers. The first class
+consists of Knights of the Grand Cross (G.C.B.); the second of Knights
+Commanders (K.C.B.); and the third of Companions (C.B.). The Dean of
+Westminster is dean of the order. In 1917 the Companions of the order were
+given the privileges and precedence of Commanders, the badge being now worn
+round the neck. In 1918 the statutes were amended in order to admit
+officers of the Royal Air Force to the military division. The ribbon of the
+order is crimson; the military badge a gold cross of eight points, with the
+lion of England between the four principal angles, and having in a circle
+in the centre the rose, thistle, and shamrock between three imperial
+crowns; motto: _Tria juncta in uno_. Stars are worn by the two first
+classes, with additional motto, _Ich dien_, for the military members only.
+See _Knighthood_.
+
+BATH-BRICK, a preparation of siliceous earth found in the River Parret, in
+Somersetshire, in the form of a solid brick, used for cleaning knives, &c.
+See _Sand_.
+
+BATH´GATE, a town, Scotland, Linlithgowshire, pleasantly situated, and
+having in the vicinity the paraffin-works known as Young's, a paper-mill
+and other works, and coal and iron-stone mines. Pop. (1921), 8504.
+
+BATHOLITE, a mass of igneous rock having no visible floor, and presumed to
+pass down into some region of the earth's crust where molten rocks at one
+time prevailed over all others. Granite blocks, like those of the Cairngorm
+Mountains in Scotland, or the long ridge of the Leinster Chain, which have
+intruded into their surroundings, are regarded as batholites the crests of
+which have become exposed by denudation. A batholite in its original molten
+condition may exist under any large area of volcanic activity, and the
+similarity of the igneous rocks sent to the surface over broad regions of
+the earth, constituting what are called 'petrographical provinces', points
+to the existence of very considerable continuous rock-cauldrons in the
+crust.
+
+BATHOM´ETER, an instrument, invented by C. Williams Siemens, for measuring
+the depth of sea beneath a vessel without casting a line. It is based upon
+the fact that the attraction exerted upon any given mass of matter on the
+ship is less when she is afloat than ashore, because of the less density of
+sea-water as compared with that of earth or rock.
+
+BATHONIAN STAGE, a division of the middle Jurassic series of rocks,
+including the beds between the Inferior Oolite and the Oxford Clay. The
+name is derived from its excellent development near Bath, in Somersetshire,
+and the most important member is the Oolitic limestone known as Bath-stone
+(q.v.). The Bathonian stage includes the following beds in ascending
+order:--
+
+1. _Stonesfield Slate_, named from a village near Woodstock; a flaggy
+limestone used for roofing, with remains of ferns and cycads washed in from
+the Jurassic land, and of some of the earliest-known mammals, allies of the
+monotremes or the marsupials. 2. The _Great_ or _Bath Oolite_, with marine
+fossils, and also remains of the large reptiles known as dinosaurs. 3.
+_Bradford Clay._ 4. _Forest Marble._ 5. _Cornbrash_, so called from its
+'brashy' or rubbly nature, an earthy oolite yielding fair land for corn.
+
+BATHORI (bä'to-r[=e]), or BATHORY, a Hungarian family, which gave
+Transylvania five princes, and Poland one of its greatest kings. The more
+important members were:--1. Stephen, born in 1532, elected Prince of
+Transylvania in 1571, on the death of Zapolya, and in 1575 King of Poland.
+He accomplished many internal reforms, recovered the Polish territories in
+possession of the Czar of Moscovy, and reigned prosperously till his death
+in 1586.--2. Sigismund, nephew of Stephen, educated by the Jesuits, became
+Prince of Transylvania in 1581, shook off the Ottoman yoke, and had begun
+to give hopes of reigning gloriously when he resigned his dominions to the
+Emperor Rudolph II, in return for two principalities in Silesia, a
+cardinal's hat, and a pension. Availing himself, however, of an invitation
+by the Transylvanians, he returned, and placed himself under the protection
+of the Porte, but was defeated by the Imperialists in every battle, and
+finally sent to Prague, where he died almost forgotten in 1613.--3.
+Elizabeth, niece of Stephen, King of Poland, and wife of Count Nadasdy, of
+Hungary. She is said to have bathed in the blood of 600 young girls in the
+hope of renewing her youth, and to have committed other enormities. She was
+afterwards seized and confined till her death in 1614.
+
+BAT-HORSE. See _Batman_.
+
+BA´THOS, a Greek word meaning depth, now used to signify a ludicrous
+sinking from the elevated to the mean in writing or speech. First used in
+this sense by Pope in _The Art of Sinking in Poetry_ (_Scriblerus Papers_,
+1729).
+
+BATH-STONE (also called BATH-OOLITE and ROE-STONE, from the small rounded
+grains of which it is composed), a species of English limestone. It is
+extensively worked near Bath for building purposes. When just quarried it
+is soft; but though it soon becomes hard on exposure to the atmosphere, and
+is of handsome appearance, it is not very durable.
+
+BATH´URST, a British settlement on the west coast of Africa, on the Island
+of St. Mary's, near the mouth of the Gambia, with a trade in gum, bees-wax,
+hides, ivory, gold, rice, cotton, and palm-oil. Pop. 8000.
+
+BATHURST, a town in the western district of New South Wales, on the
+Macquarie River, with wide, well-laid-out streets at right angles, and a
+central square, tanneries, railway workshops, breweries, flour-mills, and
+other industries. Pop. 9200.
+
+BATHURST, Allen Bathurst, First Earl, a distinguished statesman in Queen
+Anne's reign; born 1684. He took part with Harley and St. John in opposing
+the influence of Marlborough, was raised to the peerage in 1711, impeached
+the promoters of the South Sea scheme, opposed the Bill against Atterbury,
+and was a leading antagonist of Walpole. He was created earl in 1772. His
+name is also associated with those of the leading writers and wits of the
+day. Died 1775.
+
+BATHURST, Henry Bathurst, Third Earl, son of the second earl, a prominent
+Tory statesman, after whom various capes, islands, and districts were
+named. Born 1762; in 1807, President of Board of Trade; in 1809, Secretary
+for Foreign Affairs; and in 1812, Secretary for the Colonies, a post held
+by him for sixteen years. He was also President of the Council under
+Wellington, 1828-30. Died 1834.
+
+BATHURST ISLAND, on the North Australian coast, belonging to S. Australia,
+separated from Melville Island by a narrow strait; triangular in shape,
+with a wooded area of about 1000 sq. miles.--Also an island in the Arctic
+Ocean discovered by Parry, E. of Cornwallis and W. of Melville Island, 76°
+N., 100° W.
+
+BATHYB´IUS (Gr. _bathys_, deep, _bios_, life), the name given by Huxley to
+what was regarded as granular slimy masses of animal matter found covering
+the sea-bottom at great depths.
+
+BATISTE (ba-t[=e]st'), a fine linen cloth made in Flanders and Picardy,
+named after its inventor, Jean Baptiste of Cambrai.
+
+BAT´LEY, a municipal and parliamentary borough of England, West Riding of
+York, about a mile from Dewsbury; principal manufactures: heavy woollen
+cloths, such as pilot, beaver, police, army, and frieze cloths, flushings,
+and blankets. Batley and Morley unite in returning one member to
+Parliament. Pop. 36,151.
+
+BATMAN (bat'man or bä'man; from Fr. _bât_, a pack-saddle), in the British
+army, a person allowed by the Government to every company of a regiment on
+foreign service. His duty is to take charge of the cooking utensils, &c.,
+of the company, and he has a bat-horse to convey these utensils from place
+to place.
+
+BA´TON, a short staff or truncheon, in some cases used as an official
+badge, as that of a field-marshal. The conductor of an orchestra has a
+baton for the purpose of directing the performers as to time, &c. In
+heraldry, what is usually called the 'bastard bar', or 'bar sinister', is
+properly a baton sinister. See _Bastard Bar_.
+
+BAT´ON ROUGE (rözh), the capital of Louisiana, United States, on the left
+bank of the Mississippi, with an arsenal, barracks, military hospital,
+State house, State university, &c. On 5th Aug., 1862, the Confederates
+under General Breckenridge suffered a severe defeat before it. Pop. (1920),
+21,782.
+
+BATOUM, or BATUM (b[.a]-töm´), a port on the east coast of the Black Sea,
+acquired by Russia by the Treaty of Berlin, on condition that its
+fortifications were dismantled and it was thrown open as a free port. It
+rapidly grew to be the main outlet for Transcaucasia; its harbour was
+enlarged for commercial reasons; an arsenal was built outside it; it was
+connected by a military road with Kars; and finally, in July, 1886, the
+Russian Government declared it to be a free port no longer. Its importance
+as a naval and military station to Russia was unquestionably great; it is
+of most importance commercially as an outlet for the mineral oil of Baku.
+The water is of great depth close inshore, and the shipping lies under
+protection of the overhanging cliffs of the Gouriel Mountains. Batoum was
+abandoned by the Bolshevik Government in March, 1918, and occupied by the
+Turks on 15th April of the same year. By the terms of the armistice
+concluded with Turkey in Nov., 1918, the Allies occupied the port, and in
+Nov., 1919, a military governor was appointed by the British Government. On
+9th July, 1920, Batoum was evacuated by the British, and occupied by
+Georgian troops. Pop. 46,000.--The province of _Batoum_ has an area of 2693
+sq. miles. Pop. 186,000.
+
+BATRACHIANS (ba-tr[=a]´ki-anz; Gr. _batrach[)o]s_, a frog), the fourth
+order in Cuvier's arrangement of the class Reptilia, comprising frogs,
+toads, newts, salamanders, and sirens. The term is now sometimes employed
+as synonymous with amphibia, but is more usually restricted to the order
+Anura or tailless amphibia. See _Amphibia_.
+
+BATSHIAN. See _Bachian_.
+
+BAT´TA, an allowance which military officers in India receive in addition
+to their pay. It was originally given only when the officers were on the
+march or in the field, but now half batta is paid when troops are in
+cantonments.
+
+BATTAL´ION, the tactical unit of command in infantry, supposed to be of the
+maximum strength to be efficiently handled by one officer in chief command,
+with others under him. In most armies it is about 1000 to 1100 men. The
+former is about the strength of a battalion in the British army, in which
+battalions now correspond to what were formerly regiments, the chief
+commanding officer (in actual command) being the lieutenant-colonel. See
+_Army_.
+
+BATTALION OF DEATH, the legion of Russian women and girls, belonging to all
+classes, organized in 1917 and commanded by the famous revolutionary Madame
+Botshkalova. The battalion took part in several engagements.
+
+BAT´TAS, or BATTAKS, a people belonging to the Malayan race inhabiting the
+valleys and plateaus of the mountains that extend longitudinally through
+the Island of Sumatra. They practise agriculture and cattle-rearing, and
+are skillful in various handicrafts; they have also a written literature
+and an alphabet of their own, their books treating of astrology,
+witchcraft, medicine, war, &c. They are under the rule of hereditary
+chieftains. In 1908 a Battak Institute was established at Leyden for the
+study of the Battak country, people, &c.
+
+BAT´TENBERG, a village in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, from which
+the sons (by morganatic marriage) of Prince Alexander of Hesse, uncle of
+Louis, Grand-Duke of Hesse, the husband of Princess Alice of Britain,
+derived their titles of princes of Battenberg. One of them, Alexander, was
+Prince of Bulgaria from 1879 to 1886, and died in 1893. Another, Prince
+Henry, was married to Princess Beatrice of Great Britain in 1885, and died
+in 1896.
+
+BATTENBERG, Prince Louis Alexander of, born 24th May, 1854, in Graz, son of
+Prince Alexander of Hesse. He became a naturalized British subject, entered
+the navy in 1868, and in 1884 married Princess Victoria, eldest daughter of
+Princess Alice Maud, Grand-Duchess of Hesse-Darmstadt, and second daughter
+of Queen Victoria. He became rear-admiral in 1904, was second admiral of
+the Mediterranean fleet from 1906 to 1908, commanded the Atlantic fleet
+from 1908 to 1910, the 3rd and 4th divisions of the Home fleet in 1911, and
+was appointed Second Sea Lord in Nov., 1911, and First Sea Lord in Dec.,
+1912, in succession to Sir Francis Bridgeman. In October, 1914, however, in
+consequence of a campaign against alien enemies which culminated in an
+attack in the _Globe_ on the First Sea Lord, he tendered his resignation to
+Mr. Winston Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty, on the ground that
+his birth and parentage in some respects impaired his usefulness. In 1917
+the king determined that those princes of his family who were his subjects
+and bore German names and titles should relinquish those titles and adopt
+British surnames, and Prince Louis adopted the title of Marquess of Milford
+Haven, and the surname of Mountbatten. He was the author of _Men-of-war
+Names, their Meaning and Origin_ (1908). He was made a Privy Councillor in
+1914, and was both a Civil and a Military Knight Grand Cross of the Bath.
+He died 11th Sept., 1921.
+
+[Illustration: Roman Battering-ram]
+
+BATTERING-RAM, an engine for battering down the walls of besieged places.
+The ancients employed two different engines of this kind--one suspended in
+a frame, the other movable on wheels or rollers. They consisted of a beam
+or spar with a massive metal head, and were set in motion either by a
+direct application of manual force or by means of cords passing over
+pulleys. Some are said to have been 120 feet or more in length, and to have
+been worked by 100 men. One is described as being 180 feet long, and having
+a head weighing 1½ tons. Smaller ones, manned by three or four soldiers,
+were also frequently employed. They were generally covered with a roof or
+screen for the protection of the workers. The battering-ram is mentioned by
+Ezekiel (iv, 2; xxi, 22), and the Romans learnt the use of it from the
+Greeks.
+
+BAT´TERSEA, a municipal and parliamentary borough of London, in Surrey, in
+a low situation on the south bank of the Thames, nearly opposite Chelsea,
+with a fine public park extending over 185 acres. The district is
+associated with the names of Pope and Bolingbroke, and with the
+Wellington-Winchilsea duel. Battersea returns two members to Parliament.
+Pop. (municipal borough), (1921), 167,693.
+
+BAT´TERY, (1) any number of guns grouped for action in one place and under
+one control; (2) the tactical and administrative unit of the Royal Regiment
+of Artillery; (3) an entrenched work constructed as a position for guns in
+siege warfare.
+
+The Royal Regiment of Artillery is organized in batteries of horse, field,
+heavy, siege, and mountain artillery. These differ in the weight and type
+of gun with which they have to do, but the general principles of
+organization are the same. (See _Army_.) Nominally a battery consists of
+six guns with their attendant ammunition wagons (12) and certain other
+transport. A major commands the battery, and has a captain and three
+subalterns to assist him. For all purposes a battery is permanently
+organized in three sections, each of two guns and four wagons, under
+subaltern officers; while in action it is divided into two parts, (_a_) the
+fighting battery of six guns and six wagons; (_b_) the wagon line of the
+remaining wagons, under command of the captain. The change from march
+formation to that necessary for firing is termed 'coming into action'.
+
+Horse, field, and some heavy batteries are horse-drawn (six or eight horses
+to a gun), while other heavy batteries and siege-guns are drawn by
+mechanical transport or mounted on railway platforms. Mountain batteries
+are organized for pack transport only--either mules or carriers--all the
+material being specially constructed to this end. Among combinations with
+the word battery come the following: _battery commander_, the officer
+commanding a battery; _battery leader_, the senior subaltern, who receives
+and carries out the commander's orders in action; _battery-fire_, each gun
+of a battery firing in turn: as opposed to gun-fire, where each gun fires
+independently. See _Artillery_.
+
+BATTERY, in criminal law, an assault by beating or wounding another. The
+least touching or meddling with the person of another against his will may
+be held to constitute a battery.
+
+BATTERY, in electricity and galvanism, a combination of several jars or
+metallic plates. See _Daniell's Cell_; _Electric Battery_; _Secondary
+Cell_.
+
+BATTHYANYI (b[.a]t-y[.a]n´y[=e]), one of the oldest and most celebrated
+Hungarian families, traceable as far back as the Magyar invasion of
+Pannonia in the ninth century. Among later bearers of the name have
+been--Count Casmir Batthyanyi, who was associated with Kossuth, was
+Minister of Foreign Affairs in Hungary during the insurrection of 1849, and
+died in Paris 1854; Count Louis Batthyanyi, born 1809, of another branch of
+the family, was leader of the opposition in the Hungarian Diet until the
+breaking out of the commotions of 1848, when he took an active part in
+promoting the national cause; but on the entry of Windischgrätz into Pesth
+he was arrested and shot, 1849.
+
+BATTLE, a combat between two armies. In ancient times and the Middle Ages
+the battleground was often chosen by agreement, and the battle was a mere
+trial of strength, a duel _en gros_; and as the armies of the ancients were
+imperfectly organized, and the combatants fought very little at a distance,
+after the battle had begun manuoevres were much more difficult, and troops
+almost entirely beyond the control of the general. Under these
+circumstances the battle depended almost wholly upon the previous
+arrangements and the valour of the troops. In modern times, however, the
+finest combinations, the most ingenious manoeuvres, are rendered possible
+by the better organization of the armies, and it is the skill of the
+general rather than the courage of the soldier that now determines the
+event of a battle. Battles are distinguished as _offensive_ or _defensive_
+on either side, but there is a natural and ready transition from one method
+to the other. The purely defensive attitude is condemned by tacticians
+except in cases where the only object desirable is to maintain a position
+of vital consequence, the weight of precedent being in favour of the dash
+and momentum of an attacking force even where opposed to superior forces.
+Where the greatest generals have acted upon the defensive, it has almost
+always been with the desire to develop an opportunity to pass to the
+offensive, and, having discovered their opponent's hand, to marshal against
+the enemy, exhausted with attack, the whole strength of their resources.
+Napoleon won more than one great victory by this method, and Wellington's
+reputation was largely based upon his skill in defensive-offensive
+operations. Tacticians have divided a battle into three periods, which are
+disposition, combat, and the decisive moment. In some measure they require
+distinct qualities in a commander, the intellect which can plot a
+disposition being by no means always of the prompt judgment passing to
+instant action which avails itself of the crucial moment to crush an enemy.
+Cooperation and mutual support of all arms and services is essential to
+success in a modern battle, which may occupy many days or even weeks and
+embrace a large area of country, e.g. the battle of the Marne, the battle
+of the Somme. This co-operation is ensured by the most careful and detailed
+arrangements being made beforehand, such arrangements even including the
+rehearsal of more important phases over ground prepared to represent the
+country over which the operations will eventually take place. The modern
+battle may be, and probably will be, a continuation of many
+operations--_offensive_ and _defensive_--carried out by distinct and
+separate formations. The general scope of the operations as a whole will be
+planned by the supreme commander, while the choice of the methods to be
+used is left to the commander of the formations affected. See _Strategy_;
+_Tactics_.
+
+BATTLE, a town in Sussex, so named from the battle of Hastings having been
+fought there. An abbey built by William the Norman has disappeared, but
+important remains of a later building exist on the same site; and there is
+an old church of great interest. Pop. (1921), 2891.
+
+BATTLE (or BATTEL), WAGER OF, an obsolete method, according to English law,
+of deciding civil or criminal cases by personal combat between the parties
+or their champions in presence of the court. A woman, a priest, a peer, or
+a person physically incapable of fighting could refuse such a trial. It was
+not abolished till 1819 (by the Statute of 59 George III, c. 46), but had
+long previously been in abeyance. See _Ordeal_.
+
+BATTLE-AXE, a weapon much used in war in the early part of the Middle Ages
+among knights. It is a weapon which affords hardly any guard, and the
+heavier the blow given with it the more the fighter is exposed; but its use
+was to some extent necessitated by the resistance of iron armour to all but
+heavy blows. In England and Scotland the battle-axe was much employed, the
+Lochaber-axe remaining a formidable implement of destruction in the hands
+of the Highlanders to a recent period.
+
+BATTLE CREEK, a town of the United States, in Michigan, at the junction of
+the Kalamazoo and Battle Creek, with a college, and manufactures of
+agricultural implements, &c. Pop. 25,267.
+
+BATTLEFORD, a trading town of Canada, province of Saskatchewan, at the
+junction of the Battle and Saskatchewan (North Fork). Pop. 1335.
+
+BAT´TLEMENT, a notched or indented parapet of a fortification, formed by a
+series of raised parts called _cops_ or _merlons_, separated by openings
+called _crenelles_ or _embrasures_, the soldier sheltering himself behind
+the merlon, while he fires through the embrasure. Battlements were
+originally military, but were afterwards used freely in ecclesiastical and
+civil buildings by way of ornament, on parapets, cornices, tabernacle work,
+&c.
+
+BATTLE-PIECE, a painting representing a battle. Some of the greatest pieces
+of this kind are the _Battle of Constantine_, of which the cartoons were
+drawn by Raphael, and which was executed by Giulio Romano; Lebrun's
+_Battles of Alexander_; and the _Battles of the Amazons_, by Rubens.
+
+BATTUE (ba-tü´), a method of killing game by having persons to beat a wood,
+copse, or other cover, and so drive the animals (pheasants, hares, &c.)
+towards the spot where sportsmen are stationed to shoot them.
+
+BATTUS, legendary founder of the Greek colony of Cyrene, in Libya, about
+650 B.C. There were eight rulers of the family founded by him, bearing
+alternately the names Battus and Arcesilaus.
+
+BATU KHAN, Mongol ruler of the Western conquests of his grandfather,
+Genghis Khan, from 1224 to 1255. He overran Russia, Poland, Hungary, and
+Dalmatia, holding Russia for ten years.
+
+BATUM. See _Batoum_.
+
+BAUDELAIRE (b[=o]d-l[=a]r), Charles Pierre, French poet, born 1821. His
+first work of importance was a series of translations from Poe, ranking
+among the most perfect translations in any literature. A volume of poems,
+_Les Fleurs du Mal_ (1857), established his reputation as a leader of the
+Romanticists, though the police thought it necessary to deodorize them. Of
+a higher tone were his _Petits Poèmes en Prose_; followed in 1859 by a
+monograph on Théophile Gautier, in 1860 by _Les Paradis Artificiels_ (opium
+and hashish studies), and in 1861 by _Wagner et Tannhäuser à Paris_. He
+died in 1867. The best English rendering of the _Fleurs du Mal_ is by A.
+Symons (1905).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Henry James, _French Poets and Novelists_;
+Asselineau, _Charles Baudelaire, sa vie et son oeuvre_; F. Gautier,
+_Charles Baudelaire_.
+
+BAUDRY (b[=o]-dr[=e]), Paul Jacques Aimé, a prominent modern French
+painter, born in 1828, died Jan., 1886. He took the grand prix de Rome in
+1850, and exhibited many important works, of which the better known are his
+_Charlotte Corday_ and _La Perle et la Vague_. The decoration of the
+_foyer_ of the New Opera House at Paris was entrusted to him--an enormous
+work, occupying a total surface of 500 sq. metres, but admirably
+accomplished by him in eight years.
+
+BAUER (bou´er), Bruno, German philosopher, historian, and Biblical critic
+of the rational school, born 1809, died 1882. Wrote _Critique of the Gospel
+of John_ (1840); _Critique of the Synoptic Gospels_ (1840); _History of the
+French Revolution to the Founding of the Republic_ (1847); _History of
+Germany during the French Revolution and the Rule of Napoleon_ (1846);
+_Critique of the Gospels_ (1850-1); _Critique of the Pauline Epistles_
+(1850); _Philo, Strauss, Renan, and Primitive Christianity_ (1874); _Christ
+and the Cæsars_ (1877), &c.
+
+BAUHIN (b[=o]-an), Gaspard, born at Basel in 1560; in 1580 elected to the
+Greek chair at Basel, and in 1589 to that of anatomy and botany. He died in
+1624. His fame rests chiefly on his _Pinax Theatri Botanici_ and _Theatrum
+Botanicum_. Linnæus gave his name to a genus of plants.
+
+BAUHIN´IA, a genus of plants, ord. Leguminosæ, usually lianes, found in the
+woods of hot countries, and often stretching from tree to tree like cables.
+Many are showy and interesting. The bark of _B. varieg[=a]ta_ is used in
+tanning; the bast fibres of some Indian species are made into ropes and
+twine.
+
+BAUMGARTEN (boum´g[.a]r-tn), Alexander Gottlieb, a German philosopher, born
+in 1714 at Berlin; in 1740 was made professor of philosophy at
+Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and died there in 1762. He is the founder of
+æsthetics as a science, and the inventor of this name. His ideas were first
+developed in his _De Nonnullis ad Poema pertinentibus_ (1735), and
+afterwards in the two volumes of his uncompleted _Æsthetica_, published
+1750-8.
+
+BAUR (bour), Ferdinand Christian, German theologian, founder of the
+'Tübingen School' of theologians and Hegelian thinkers, born in 1792. The
+publication of his first work, _Symbolism and Mythology, or The Natural
+Religion of Antiquity_, in 1824-5, led to his appointment as professor in
+the evangelical faculty of Tübingen University, a position occupied by him
+till his death in 1860. His chief works in the department of the history of
+Christian dogma are: _The Christian Gnosis, or The Christian Philosophy of
+Religion_ (1835); _The Christian Doctrine of the Atonement_ (1838); _The
+Christian Doctrine of the Trinity and the Incarnation_ (1841-3); _The
+Compendium of and Lectures on the History of Christian Dogmas_ (1847,
+1865). To the department of New Testament criticism and the early history
+of Christianity belong the so-called _Pastoral Epistles of the Apostle
+Paul_ (1835); _Paul the Apostle of Jesus Christ_ (1845); _Critical
+Inquiries Concerning the Canonic Gospels_ (1847); _A History of Christian
+Doctrine to the End of the Eighteenth Century_ (1853-63). Baur's views in
+regard to the Church of the earliest times and the New Testament Scriptures
+have been very influential. He saw different and opposing tendencies at
+work in the Church of apostolic times, and believed that the New Testament
+mainly took form in the second century, the only genuine writings previous
+to A.D. 70 being the four great Pauline epistles and _Revelation_.
+
+BAUTZEN (bout´sen), or BUDISSIN, a German town in Saxony, upon a height on
+the right bank of the Spree, with some old and interesting buildings. The
+inhabitants are mostly Lutheran, and both Catholics and Protestants worship
+in the same cathedral. Chief manufactures: woollen goods, paper, gunpowder,
+machines. Napoleon defeated the united armies of the Russians and the
+Prussians at Bautzen on the 21st May, 1813. Pop. 32,754.
+
+BAUXITE (b[a:]k´s[=i]t), a rock resembling clay, but consisting of hydrated
+aluminium oxides, with, in good examples, a silica content of less than 2
+per cent. Bauxite is mined at Les Baux in Provence, in Arkansas, and other
+places, including County Antrim, where it occurs between basaltic lavas. It
+is the source of commercial aluminium, and is also used for bricks for
+high-temperature furnaces, and in alum manufacture. Like laterite (q.v.),
+it results from tropical conditions of weathering acting on a variety of
+silicate rocks.
+
+BAVA´RIA (Ger. _Bayern_; Fr. _Bavière_), previous to the changes caused by
+the European War (1914-8), a kingdom in the south of Germany, the second
+largest State of the _Reich_, composed of two isolated portions, the larger
+comprising about eleven-twelfths of the monarchy, having Würtemberg, Baden,
+&c., on the west, while the smaller portion, the Pfalz or Palatinate, is
+separated from the other by Würtemberg and Baden, and lies west of the
+Rhine; total area, 30,346 sq. miles. The main political divisions are:
+Upper Bavaria (pop. 1,532,065; chief town, Munich, the capital of the
+country, pop. 596,467); Lower Bavaria (724,331); Palatinate (937,085);
+Upper Palatinate and Regensburg (600,284); Upper Franconia (661,862);
+Middle Franconia (930,868); Lower Franconia and Aschaffenburg (710,943);
+Sehwaben and Neuburg (789,853); total in (1919), 7,150,146. Next towns
+after Munich are Nürnberg, Augsburg, Würzburg, and Ratisbon (Regensburg).
+The main portion of the country is hilly; in the south, where it belongs to
+the Alps, it is mountainous; but north of the Alps and south of the Danube,
+which flows east through the country from Ulm to Passau, there is a
+considerable plateau, averaging about 1600 feet above the sea-level. The
+south frontier is formed by a branch of the Noric Alps, offsets from which
+project far into the plateau; principal peaks: the Zugspitze, 10,394 feet,
+and the Watzmann, 9470 feet. The highest summits on the Bohemian (Austrian)
+frontier, belonging to the Böhmerwald Mountains, are the Rachel, 5102 feet,
+and the Arber, 5185 feet. Ranges of less elevation bordering on or
+belonging to the country are the Fichtelgebirge in the north-east, the
+Frankenwald, Rhöngebirge, and Spessart in the north, and the Steigerwald
+and Franconian Jura in the middle. The Palatinate is traversed by the north
+extremity of the Vosges Mountains, the highest peak being the Konigstuhl,
+2162 feet. The greater part of the country belongs to the basin of the
+Danube, which is navigable, its tributaries on the south being the Iller,
+Lech, Isar, and Inn; on the north, the Wornitz, Altmühl, Nab, and Regen.
+The northern portion belongs to the basin of the Main, which receives the
+Regnitz and Saale, and is a tributary of the Rhine. The Palatinate has only
+small streams that flow into its boundary river the Rhine. The chief lakes
+of Bavaria are all on the higher part of the south plateau; the smaller
+within the range of the Alps. The Ammer-See is about 10 miles long by 2½
+broad, 1736 feet above the sea; the Würm-See or Starnberger-See, about 12
+miles long by 3 broad, 1899 feet; and Chiem-See, 9 miles long by 9 to 4
+broad, 1651 feet. The climate in general is temperate and healthy, though
+somewhat colder than the other South German States; yearly average about
+47° F.
+
+As regards soil, Bavaria is one of the most fertile countries in Germany,
+producing the various cereals in abundance, the best hops in Germany,
+fruit, wine, tobacco, &c., and having extensive forests. Lower Franconia
+(the Main valley) and the Palatinate are the great vine-growing districts.
+The celebrated Steinwein and Leistenwein are the produce of the slopes of
+the Steinberg and Marienberg at Würzburg (on the Main). The forests of
+Bavaria, chiefly fir and pine, yield a large revenue, much timber being
+annually exported, together with potash, tar, turpentine, &c. The principal
+mineral products are salt, coal, and iron, some of the mining works
+belonging to the State. The minerals worked include copper, quicksilver,
+manganese, cobalt, porcelain clay, alabaster, graphite. Large numbers of
+horses and cattle are reared, as also sheep and swine. The return of cattle
+in 1917 showed 272,667 horses, 3,896,702 cattle, and 616,464 sheep. The
+manufactures are individually mostly on a small scale. The principal
+articles manufactured are linens, woollens, cottons, leather, paper, glass,
+earthen and iron ware, jewellery, &c. The optical and mathematical
+instruments made are excellent. A most important branch of industry is the
+brewing of beer, for which there are upwards of 7000 establishments,
+producing over 300 millions of gallons a year. The distilleries produce
+over 4 millions of gallons of alcohol. A number of the people maintain
+themselves by the manufacture of articles in wood, and by felling and
+hewing timber. The trade of Bavaria in home produce exported and goods
+imported for consumption in the country is not large. Principal exports:
+corn, timber, wine, cattle, glass, hops, fruit, beer, wooden wares, &c. The
+chief imports are sugar, coffee, cotton, rice, spices, dye-stuffs, silk and
+silk goods, lead, &c. From its position Bavaria has a considerable transit
+trade. The Konig Ludwig Canal connects the Main at Bamberg with the Altmühl
+a short distance above its embouchure in the Danube, thus establishing
+water communication between the North Sea and the Black Sea. The railway
+system has a total mileage of 5290, mostly belonging to the State.
+
+Education is in a less satisfactory condition than in most German States.
+There are about 7500 elementary schools, at which attendance is compulsory
+up to fourteen years of age. There are three universities, two of which
+(Munich and Würzburg) are Roman Catholic, and one (Erlangen) Protestant. In
+art Bavaria is best known as the home of the Nürnberg school, founded about
+the middle of the sixteenth century by Albert Dürer. Hans Holbein is also
+claimed as a Bavarian; and to these have to be added the eminent sculptors
+Kraft and Vischer, both born about the middle of the fifteenth century. The
+restoration of the reputation of Bavaria in art was chiefly the work of
+Ludwig I, under whom the capital became one of the most prominent seats of
+the fine arts in Europe. The religion of the State is Roman Catholicism,
+over 70 per cent of the population being Roman Catholics. All citizens,
+whatever their creed, possess the same civil and political rights. The
+dioceses of Bavaria comprise two Roman Catholic archbishopries, Munich and
+Bamberg; and six bishopries, Augsburg, Ratisbon, Eichstädt, Passau,
+Würzburg, and Spires.
+
+For over a century Bavaria was a kingdom, and the crown hereditary in the
+male line of the descendants of the ancient Counts of Wittelsbach. The
+executive power was vested in the king, but his ministers were responsible
+for his acts. The legislature consisted of two chambers--one of senators,
+composed of princes of the royal family, the great officers of the State,
+the two archbishops, the heads of certain noble families, and certain
+members appointed by the Crown; the other of deputies, 163 in number,
+elected by direct and secret vote, and calculated at the rate of 1 for
+every 38,000 inhabitants. The lower chamber was elected for six years. The
+Budget for each of the years 1916 and 1917 balanced at £12,183,411; for
+1918 and 1919 at £42,639,595; the public debt on 1st July, 1917, was
+£128,719,000, £98,179,000 being railway debt. The army (peace footing,
+72,000) was raised by conscription--every man being liable to serve from
+the 1st of January of the year in which he completes his twentieth year. In
+time of peace the army was under the command of the King of Bavaria, but in
+time of war under that of the Emperor of Germany, as commander-in-chief of
+the whole German army.
+
+As a result of the revolutionary movement in Nov., 1918, the Bavarian
+dynasty was deposed and a republican form of government set up. The
+provisional constitution, made public on 7th Jan., 1919, established a
+Socialist Republic in Bavaria. The supreme power lies with the people; the
+Diet consists of one chamber; the suffrage is universal; the privileges of
+birth and caste are abolished. The supreme executive power is exercised by
+the ministry as a whole. The Church is separated from the State, and all
+religious associations have equal rights.
+
+_History._--The Bavarians take their name from the Boii, a Celtic tribe
+whose territory was occupied by a confederation of Germanic tribes, called
+after their predecessors Boiarii. These were made tributary first to the
+Ostrogoths, and then to the Franks; and on the death of Charlemagne his
+successors governed the country by lieutenants with the title of margrave,
+afterwards converted (in 921) into that of duke. In 1070 Bavaria passed to
+the family of the Guelphs, and in 1180 by imperial grant to Otho, Count of
+Wittelsbach, founder of the dynasty reigning until 1918. In 1623 the
+reigning duke was made one of the Electors of the empire. Elector
+Maximilian II joined in the War of the Spanish Succession on the side of
+France, and this led, after the battle of Blenheim, 1704, to the loss of
+his dominions for the next ten years. His son, Charles Albert, likewise
+lost his dominions for a time to Austria, but they were all recovered again
+by Charles's son, Maximilian III (1745). In the wars following the French
+revolution Bavaria was in a difficult position between France and Austria,
+but in the end joined Napoleon, from whom its Elector Maximilian IV
+received the title of king (1805), a title afterwards confirmed by the
+treaties of 1814 and 1815. King Maximilian I was succeeded by his son,
+Ludwig (or Louis) I, under whom various circumstances helped to quicken a
+desire for political change. Reform being refused, tumults arose in 1848,
+and Ludwig resigned in favour of his son, Maximilian II, under whom certain
+modifications of the constitution were carried out. At his death in 1864 he
+was succeeded by Ludwig II. In the war of 1866 Bavaria sided with Austria,
+and was compelled to cede a small portion of its territory to Prussia, and
+to pay a war indemnity of £2,500,000. Soon after Bavaria entered into an
+alliance with Prussia, and in 1867 joined the Zollverein. In the
+Franco-German War of 1870-1 the Bavarians took a prominent part, and it was
+at the request of the King of Bavaria, on behalf of all the other princes
+and the senates of the free cities of Germany, that the King of Prussia
+agreed to accept the title of Emperor of Germany. From Jan., 1871, to 1918
+Bavaria formed part of the German Empire, and was represented in the
+Bundesrath by six, and in the Reichstag by forty-eight members. The
+eccentricity early displayed by Ludwig II developed to such an extent that
+in June, 1886, he was placed under control, and a regency established under
+Prince Luitpold (Leopold). The change was almost immediately followed by
+the suicide of the king, and as Prince Otto, the brother and heir of the
+late king, was insane, the regency was continued. Prince Luitpold died on
+12th Dec., 1912, and his son, Ludwig, became regent. On 5th Nov., 1913, the
+prince was proclaimed king, under the name of Ludwig III, in succession to
+his cousin, King Otto, who was declared incapable of ruling. King Otto died
+on 12th Oct., 1916. Ludwig III abdicated in Nov., 1918, and the Bavarian
+Government was taken over by a cabinet under the leadership of Kurt Eisner.
+Eisner was assassinated in Feb., 1919, and a struggle ensued between the
+moderate Socialists and the extremists of the Left. The moderate party,
+however, returned to power in May, 1919.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Riezler,
+_Geschichte Bayerns_ (4 vols.); R. Piloty, _Die Verfassungsgeschichte des
+Königreichs Bayern_; Götz, _Geographisch-historisches Handbuch von Bayern_;
+M. Docberl, _Entwickelungsgeschichte Bayerns_; C. P. Higby, _Religious
+Policy of the Bavarian Government during the Napoleonic Period_.
+
+BAXTER, Richard, the most eminent of the English nonconforming divines of
+the seventeenth century, born in Rowton, Shropshire, 1615; ordained in
+1638; parish minister of Kidderminster in 1640. The imposition of the oath
+of universal approbation of the doctrine and discipline of the Church of
+England (the _et cætera oath_) detached him from the Establishment. After
+the battle of Naseby he accepted the chaplaincy of Colonel Whalley's
+regiment. He can scarcely be said, however, to have separated as yet in
+spirit from the Establishment. He upheld the monarchy, condemned the
+execution of the king and the election of Cromwell, preached against the
+Covenant and against separatists and sectaries, but his piety won him the
+respect of all parties. At the Restoration he became king's chaplain, but
+declined the bishopric of Hereford, and on the passage of the Act of
+Uniformity threw in his lot entirely with the nonconformists. In 1685 he
+was arrested, refused a hearing by Jeffreys, and imprisoned. After his
+release he lived in retirement till his death in 1691. He left about 150
+treatises, of which his _Saints' Everlasting Rest_, _Call to the
+Unconverted_, and _Reformed Pastor_ have been the most
+popular.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: William Orme, _Life and Times of Richard Baxter_;
+J. Stalker, _Lecture on Baxter_ in _The Evangelical Succession_; McAdam
+Muir, _Religious Writers of England_; Currier, _Nine Great Preachers_.
+
+BAXTERIANS, followers of Baxter in respect of his attempted compromise
+between Calvinism and Arminianism. They reject the doctrine of reprobation,
+admit a universal potential salvation, becoming actual in the case of the
+elect, and assert the possibility of falling from grace. The Baxterians
+never formed a sect or even a school, but were men of independent minds,
+distinguishing between essentials and non-essentials: in things necessary,
+unity; in things doubtful, liberty; in all things, charity. The two most
+eminent Baxterians were Dr. Isaac Watts and Dr. Philip Doddridge.--Cf.
+McAdam Muir, _Religious Writers of England_.
+
+BAY, the laurel tree, noble laurel, or sweet-bay (_Laurus nob[)i]lis_); but
+the term is loosely given to many trees and shrubs resembling this. A fatty
+or fixed oil (used in veterinary medicine) and also a volatile oil are
+obtained from the berries, but what is called 'bayberry oil' is also
+obtained from the genus Myrica or candleberry. In N. America the
+fragrant-flowered _Magnolia glauca_ is called sweet-bay, the red-bay being
+_Laurus carolinensis_, the loblolly-bay _Gordonia lasianthus_. See
+_Laurel_.
+
+BAY, in geography, an indentation of some size into the shore of a sea or
+lake, generally said to be one with a wider entrance than a gulf.
+
+BAY, in architecture, a term applied to a recessed division or compartment
+of a building, as that marked off by buttresses or pillars.
+
+[Illustration: Nests of Baya (_Ploceus philipp[=i]nus_)]
+
+BA´YA, the weaver-bird (_Ploc[)e]us philipp[=i]nus_), an interesting East
+Indian passerine bird, somewhat like the bullfinch. Its nest resembles a
+bottle, and is suspended from the branch of a tree. The entrance is from
+beneath, and there are two chambers, one for the male, the other for the
+female. The baya is easily tamed, and will fetch and carry at command.
+
+BAYADERES (b[=a]-a-d[=e]rz´), the general European name for the dancing and
+singing girls of India, some of whom are attached to the service of the
+Hindu temples, while others travel about and dance at entertainments for
+hire. Those in the service of the temples are generally devoted to this
+profession (including that of prostitution) from their childhood.
+
+BAYAMO (b[.a]-yä´m[=o]), or ST. SALVADOR, a town in the east of Cuba, near
+the Cauto. Pop. 18,180.
+
+BAYARD (b[.a]-yär), Pierre du Terrail, Seigneur de, the _Chevalier sans
+peur et sans reproche_, born in 1476 in Castle Bayard, near Grenoble, in
+Southern France. At the age of eighteen he accompanied Charles VIII to
+Italy, and in the battle of Fornovo took a standard. At the beginning of
+the reign of Louis XII, in a battle near Milan, he entered the city at the
+heels of the fugitives, and was taken prisoner, but released by Ludovico
+Sforza without ransom. In Apulia he killed his calumniator, Sotomayor, and
+afterwards defended a bridge over the Garigliano singly against the
+Spaniards, receiving for this exploit as a coat of arms a porcupine, with
+the motto _Vires agminis unus habet_ ('one has the strength of a band'). He
+distinguished himself equally against the Genoese and the Venetians, and,
+when Julius II declared himself against France, went to the assistance of
+the Duke of Ferrara. He was severely wounded at the assault of Brescia, but
+returned, as soon as cured, to the camp of Gaston de Foix, before Ravenna,
+and after new exploits was again dangerously wounded in the retreat from
+Pavia. In the war commenced by Ferdinand the Catholic he displayed the same
+heroism, and the fatal reverses which embittered the last years of Louis
+XII only added to the personal glory of Bayard. When Francis I ascended the
+throne he sent Bayard into Dauphiné to open a passage over the Alps and
+through Piedmont. Prosper Colonna lay in wait for him, but was made
+prisoner by Bayard, who immediately after further distinguished himself in
+the battle of Marignano. After his defence of Mézières against the invading
+army of Charles V he was saluted in Paris as the saviour of his country,
+receiving the honour paid to a prince of the blood. His presence reduced
+the revolted Genoese to obedience, but failed to prevent the expulsion of
+the French after the capture of Lodi. In the retreat the safety of the army
+was committed to Bayard, who, however, was mortally wounded by a stone from
+a blunderbuss in protecting the passage of the Sesia. He kissed the cross
+of his sword, confessed to his squire, and died, 30th April, 1524. He was
+buried in a church of the Minorites, at Grenoble.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: "Le Loyal
+Serviteur" (supposed to be Jacques de Mailles), _La très joyeuse ...
+histoire ... des faiz, gestes, triumphes et prouesses du bon chevalier sans
+paour et sans reproche, le gentil seigneur de Bayart_ (printed in 1527);
+modern edition of this work by M. J. Roman; A. de Terrebasse, _Histoire de
+Pierre Terrail, Seigneur de Bayart_.
+
+BAYAZID´, a ruined town in Armenia, 140 miles S.E. of Erzerum, S.W. of
+Mount Ararat, at various times the scene of warlike operations, and twice
+occupied by the Russians in 1877. Total pop. 4000.
+
+BAYAZID. See _Bajazet_.
+
+BAYBERRY. See _Bay_ (tree) and _Candleberry_.
+
+BAY CITY, an American city, Michigan, on the east side of Saginaw River,
+near its mouth in Saginaw Bay, Lake Huron. Chief articles of trade, lumber
+and salt. Pop. (1920), 47,554.
+
+BAYEUX, (b[.a]-y_eu_) an ancient town, France, department Calvados, 16
+miles N.W. of Caen, with manufactures of lace, calico, and porcelain. In
+its cathedral, said to be the oldest in Normandy, the famous Bayeux
+tapestry was preserved for a long time. Pop. 7638.
+
+[Illustration: A section of the Bayeux Tapestry showing the Norman cavalry
+attacking the English footmen at the Battle of Hastings]
+
+BAYEUX TAPESTRY, so called because it was originally found in the cathedral
+of Bayeux, in the public library of which town it is still preserved.
+Formerly known as the 'Toile de St. Jean', it is supposed to have been
+worked by Matilda, Queen of William the Conqueror, and to have been
+presented by Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, the half-brother of William, to the
+church in which it was found. It is 231 feet in length and 20 inches in
+breadth, and is divided into seventy-two compartments, the subject of each
+scene being indicated by a Latin inscription. These scenes give a pictorial
+history of the invasion and conquest of England by the Normans, beginning
+with Harold's visit to the Norman Court, and ending with his death at
+Hastings.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bolton Corney, _Researches and Conjectures on the
+Bayeux Tapestry_; Jules Comte, _Tapisserie de Bayeux_; F. R. Fowke, _The
+Bayeux Tapestry_.
+
+BAY ISLANDS, an island group, Bay of Honduras, off N. coast of State of
+Honduras, incorporated as a British colony in 1852, and ceded to Honduras
+in 1856. The largest is Ruatan, 30 miles long. Pop. about 5000.
+
+BAYLE (b[=a]l), Pierre, French critic and miscellaneous writer, the son of
+a Calvinist preacher, born at Carlat (Languedoc) in 1647, died at Rotterdam
+1706. A statue in his honour was erected at Pamiers in 1906. He studied at
+Toulouse, and was employed for some time as a private tutor at Geneva and
+Rouen. He went to Paris in 1674, and soon after was appointed professor of
+philosophy at Sedan. Six years after he removed to Rotterdam, where he
+filled a similar chair. The appearance of a comet, in 1680, which
+occasioned an almost universal alarm, induced him to publish, in 1682, his
+_Pensées Diverses sur la Comète_, a work full of learning, in which he
+discussed various subjects of metaphysics, morals, theology, history, and
+politics. It was followed by his _Critique Générale de l'Histoire du
+Calvinisme de Maimbourg_. This work excited the jealousy of his colleague,
+the theologian Jurieu, and involved Bayle in many disputes. In 1684 he
+undertook a periodical work, _Nouvelles de la République des Lettres_,
+containing notices of new books in theology, philosophy, history, and
+general literature. This publication, which lasted for three years, added
+much to his reputation as a philosophical critic. In 1693 Jurieu succeeded
+in inducing the magistrates of Rotterdam to remove Bayle from his office.
+He now devoted all his attention to the composition of his _Dictionnaire
+Historique et Critique_, which he first published in 1696, in 2 vols. fol.
+It is a vast storehouse of facts, discussions, and opinions, and though it
+was publicly censured by the Rotterdam consistory for its frequent
+impurities, its pervading scepticism, and tacit atheism, it long remained a
+favourite book both with literary men and with men of the world. The
+articles in his dictionary, in themselves, are generally of little value,
+and serve only as a pretext for the notes, in which the author displays, at
+the same time, his learning and the power of his logic. The best editions
+are that of 1740, in 4 vols. fol. (Amsterdam and Leyden), and that in 16
+vols., published in 1820-4 at Paris.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. A. Feuerbach,
+_Pierre Bayle_; F. Brunetière, _Études Critiques_ (5th series); A. Cazes,
+_Pierre Bayle, sa vie, ses idées, son influence, son oeuvre_.
+
+BAY-LEAF, the leaf of the sweet-bay or laurel tree (_Laurus nobilis_).
+These leaves are aromatic, and are used in cookery and confectionery. See
+_Bay_.
+
+BAYLEN (b[=i]-len´). Same as _Bailen_.
+
+BAYLY (b[=a]´li), Thomas Haynes, English poet, novelist, dramatist, and
+miscellaneous writer, born 1797, died 1839. He was educated at Oxford, and
+intended for the Church. He wrote thirty-six pieces for the stage, most of
+which were successful; several novels: _The Aylmers_, _A Legend of
+Killarney_, &c.; and numerous songs. As a song-writer he was most prolific
+and most popular. _The Soldier's Tear_, _We met--'twas in a Crowd_, were
+the best known.
+
+BAY MAHOGANY, that variety of mahogany exported from Honduras. It is softer
+and less finely marked than the variety known as Spanish mahogany, but is
+the largest and most abundant kind.
+
+BAYNES (b[=a]nz), Thomas Spencer, LL.D., born at Wellington, Somerset, in
+1823, died suddenly in London, 1887. He studied under Sir William Hamilton
+at Edinburgh, and acted as his class assistant from 1851 to 1855. From 1857
+to 1863 he was resident in London, where he acted as examiner in logic and
+mental philosophy in the University of London, and as assistant editor of
+the _Daily News_. In 1864 he was appointed to the chair of logic, rhetoric,
+and metaphysics in St. Andrews University, a post he held till his death.
+In 1873, when he became editor of the ninth edition of the _Encyclopædia
+Britannica_, his wide acquaintance with men of letters and learning
+assisted him greatly in the selection of suitable contributors. He
+translated the _Port Royal Logic_ (see _Arnauld_), and was a frequent
+contributor to the principal reviews and literary journals.
+
+BAY OF ISLANDS, a large, deep, and safe harbour on the N.E. coast of the N.
+Island of New Zealand. On it is Kororarika, the first European settlement
+in New Zealand.--Also a large bay formed by the Gulf of St. Lawrence, on
+the west coast of Newfoundland. See _New Zealand_.
+
+BAY´ONET (Fr. _baïonnette_), a straight, sharp-pointed weapon, invented by
+a Frenchman (probably a native of Bayonne) in the seventeenth century. A
+bayonet was originally screwed into the muzzle of the firelock, converting
+it into a short pike. This system, which practically precluded any further
+use of the firelock as such, was later improved by a Scotchman, who fitted
+the weapon with a socket and bolt, enabling it to be placed over the muzzle
+of the musket instead of being screwed into it. The firelock could then be
+used for both missile and shock action, according to requirements. The
+bayonet replaced the pike in the English army after the revolution of 1690.
+The length, shape, and weight of the bayonet have varied considerably at
+different periods and in different countries; that at present in use in the
+British army is a short sword-shaped weapon, 1 foot 6 inches long and
+weighing about 1 pound. In war it is considered that an attack with the
+bayonet or the immediate threat of one is a necessary preliminary to a
+successful assault.
+
+BAYONNE (b[.a]-yon), a well-built fortified town, the largest in the French
+department Basses-Pyrénées, at the confluence of the Nive and the Adour,
+about 2 miles from their mouth in the Bay of Biscay; with a citadel
+commanding the harbour and city, a cathedral--a beautiful ancient
+building--shipbuilding and other industries, and a considerable trade.
+Among the lower class the Basque language is spoken. Catherine de' Medici
+had an important interview with the Duke of Alva in Bayonne, June, 1565, at
+which it is said the massacre of St. Bartholomew was arranged. It was also
+the scene of the abdication of Charles IV of Spain in favour of Napoleon
+(1808). In 1814 the British forced the passage of the Nive and invested the
+town, from which the French made a desperate but unsuccessful sortie. Pop.
+27,886.
+
+BAYONNE CITY, a suburb of New York, in Hudson County, New Jersey. Pop.
+76,754.
+
+BAYOU (b[=a]-yö´), in the southern States of North America, a stream which
+flows from a lake or other stream: frequently used as synonymous with creek
+or tidal channel.
+
+BAYREUTH (b[=i]´roit). See _Baireuth_.
+
+BAY RUM, a spirit obtained by distilling the leaves of _Myrica acris_, or
+other West Indian trees of the same genus. It is used for toilet purposes,
+and as a liniment in rheumatic affections.
+
+BAY-SALT, a general term for coarse-grained salt, but properly applied to
+salt obtained by spontaneous or natural evaporation of sea-water in large
+shallow tanks or _bays_.
+
+[Illustration: Bay-window at Bramhall Hall, Cheshire]
+
+BAY-WINDOW, a window forming a recess or bay in a room, projecting
+outwards, and rising from the ground or basement on a plan rectangular,
+semi-octagonal, or semi-hexagonal, but always straight-sided. One of the
+finest examples of bay-windows is that of the banqueting-hall at Hampton
+Court. The term is, however, also often employed to designate a
+_bow-window_, which more properly forms the segment of a circle, and an
+_oriel-window_, which is supported on a kind of bracket, and is usually on
+the first floor.
+
+BAZA (bä´th[.a]), an old town of Spain, Andalusia, province of Granada,
+formerly a large and flourishing city. In 1810 the French, under Marshal
+Soult, here defeated the Spaniards under Generals Blake and Freire. Pop.
+15,964.
+
+BAZAAR. See _Bazar_.
+
+BAZAINE (b[.a]-z[=a]n), François Achille, French general, born 1811, died
+1888. He entered the army as a private soldier in 1831, and served in
+Algeria with distinction, gaining the cross of the Legion of Honour, and
+rising to the rank of lieutenant. He next went to Spain and fought in the
+Foreign Legion against the Carlists; and in 1839 returned to Algeria, where
+he eventually held the rank of colonel (1850). He was next engaged in the
+Crimean War, being at first commander of a brigade and then general of
+division, leading the French troops sent to attack the fortress of Kinburn
+(1855). He did good service also in the Italian war of 1859, being actively
+engaged in the battle of Solferino. His military reputation was increased
+by the part he took in the Mexican expedition (1862-4), in which he led the
+first division under Forey, and when this general was recalled became
+commander-in-chief of the French forces in Mexico and marshal of France.
+His loyalty, however, to the cause of the Emperor Maximilian was very
+doubtful. In 1870 he took command of the army of the Rhine, or the third
+army corps, in the Franco-German War, collected a very large army in the
+neighbourhood of Metz, and had the intention of joining his forces with
+those of MacMahon at Châlons. He found this impossible, however, especially
+after Gravelotte, and was forced into Metz, where he capitulated after a
+seven weeks' siege, with an army of 175,000 men. For this act he was tried
+by court-martial in 1871, found guilty of treason, and condemned to death.
+The sentence was commuted to twenty years' seclusion in the Isle of St.
+Marguerite, from which he escaped in 1874, and retired to Spain. He
+published _Épisodes de la Guerre de 1870_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: La Brugère,
+_L'Affaire Bazaine_; Comte d'Herisson, _La Légende de Metz_.
+
+BAZAR´, or BAZAAR´, in the East an exchange, market-place, or place where
+goods are exposed for sale, usually consisting of small shops or stalls in
+a narrow street or series of streets. These bazar-streets are frequently
+shaded by a light material laid from roof to roof, and sometimes are arched
+over. Marts for the sale of miscellaneous articles, chiefly fancy goods,
+are now to be found in most European cities, bearing the name of _bazars_.
+The term bazar is popularly applied to a sale of miscellaneous articles,
+mostly of fancy work, and contributed gratuitously, in furtherance of some
+charitable or other purpose.
+
+BAZAR´JIK, now officially called Dobritsh (q.v.).
+
+BAZIGARS´, a tribe of Indians dispersed throughout the whole of Hindustan
+mostly in wandering tribes. They are divided into seven castes; their chief
+occupation is that of jugglers, acrobats, and tumblers, in which both males
+and females are equally skilful. They present many features analogous to
+the gipsies of Europe, and like these each clan has its king.
+
+BAZIN, René, French novelist, born 1853. For some time he was professor of
+law in the Catholic University of Angers. His literary reputation was
+established by _Une Tache d'Encre_. His other novels include _La Terre qui
+meurt_, _De Toute son Âme_, _Les Oberlé_, _Les Noellet_, _Davidée Birot_,
+all of which have been translated into English by Dr. A. S. Rappoport. He
+has also written _Questions littéraires et sociales_, &c. Bazin was elected
+a member of the Académie Française in 1903.
+
+BAZOCHE (b[.a]-zosh´), or BASOCHE (a corruption of _Basilica_), a
+brotherhood formed by the clerks of the Parliament of Paris at the time it
+ceased to be the grand council of the French king. They had a king,
+chancellor, and other dignitaries; and certain privileges were granted them
+by Philip the Fair early in the fourteenth century, as also by subsequent
+monarchs. They had an annual festival, having as a principal feature
+dramatic performances in which satirical allusions were freely made to
+passing events. These farces or satires were frequently interdicted, but
+they had a considerable influence on the French drama. The Bazoche took an
+active part in the French Revolution, but the order was suppressed by the
+decree of 13th Feb., 1791.
+
+BAZZI (b[.a]t´s[=e]). See _Sodoma_.
+
+BDELLIUM (del´i-um), an aromatic gum resin brought chiefly from Africa and
+India, in pieces of different sizes and figures, externally of a dark
+reddish brown, internally clear, and not unlike glue. To the taste it is
+slightly bitterish and pungent; its odour is agreeable. It is used as a
+perfume and a medicine, being a weak deobstruent. Indian bdellium is the
+produce of _Balsamodendron Roxburghii_; African of _B. africanum_; Egyptian
+bdellium is obtained from the doum palm; and Sicilian is produced by
+_Daucus gummifer_, a species of the genus to which the carrot belongs. The
+bdellium mentioned in _Gen._ ii, 12, was apparently a precious stone,
+perhaps a pearl. See _Myrrh_.
+
+BEACHES, RAISED, a term applied to those long, terraced, level pieces of
+land, consisting of sand and gravel, and containing marine shells, now, it
+may be, a considerable distance above and away from the sea, but bearing
+sufficient evidences of having been at one time sea-beaches. In Scotland
+such a terrace has been traced extensively along the coasts at about 25
+feet above the present sea-level.
+
+BEACHY HEAD, a promontory in the south of England, on the coast of Sussex,
+rising 575 feet above sea-level, with a revolving light, visible in clear
+weather from a distance of 28 miles. A naval battle took place here, 30th
+June, 1690, in which a French fleet under Tourville defeated an English and
+Dutch combined fleet under Lord Torrington.
+
+BEACON (b[=e]´kon), an object visible at some distance, and serving to
+notify the presence of danger; commonly applied to a fire-signal set on a
+height to spread the news of hostile invasion or other great event; and
+also applied to a mark or object of some kind placed conspicuously on a
+coast or over a rock or shoal at sea for the guidance of vessels, often an
+iron structure of considerable height.
+
+BEACONSFIELD (b[=e]´konz-f[=e]ld), a village of Buckinghamshire, the parish
+church of which contains the remains of Edmund Burke, whose seat was in the
+neighbourhood; while a marble monument to the poet Waller, who owned the
+manor, is in the churchyard. It gave the title of earl to the English
+statesman and novelist Benjamin Disraeli. Pop. (1921), 3642.
+
+BEACONSFIELD, formerly known as Du Toit's Pan, a town of Cape Province
+about a mile to the east of Kimberley, of which it forms a suburb. Pop.
+20,364.
+
+BEACONSFIELD, Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of, an eminent English statesman and
+novelist, of Jewish extraction; eldest son of Isaac D'Israeli, author of
+the _Curiosities of Literature_; born in London in 1804, died there in
+1881, buried at Hughenden. He attended for a time a private school, and was
+first destined for the law, but showing a decided taste for literature he
+was allowed to follow his inclination. In 1826 he published _Vivian Grey_,
+his first novel; and subsequently travelled for some time, visiting Italy,
+Greece, Turkey, and Syria, and gaining experiences which were afterwards
+reproduced in his books. His travels and impressions are embodied in a
+volume of letters addressed to his sister and his father. In 1831 another
+novel, _The Young Duke_, came from his pen. It was followed at short
+intervals by _Contarini Fleming_, _Alroy_, _Henrietta Temple_, _Venetia_,
+_The Revolutionary Epic_ (a poem), &c. In 1832, and on two subsequent
+occasions, he appeared as candidate for the representation of High Wycombe,
+with a programme which included vote by ballot and triennial parliaments,
+but was unsuccessful. His political opinions gradually changed: in 1835 he
+unsuccessfully contested Taunton as a Tory. In 1837 he gained an entrance
+to the House of Commons, being elected for Maidstone. His first speech in
+the House was treated with ridicule; but he finished with the prophetic
+declaration that the time would come when they would hear him. During his
+first years in Parliament he was a supporter of Peel; but when Peel pledged
+himself to abolish the corn-laws, Disraeli became the leader of the
+protectionists. About this time he became a leader of what was known as the
+'Young England' party, the most prominent characteristic of which was a
+sort of sentimental advocacy of feudalism. This spirit showed itself in his
+two novels of _Coningsby_ and _Sybil_, published respectively in 1844 and
+1845. Having acquired the manor of Hughenden, in Buckinghamshire, he was in
+1847 elected for this county, and he retained his seat till raised to the
+peerage nearly thirty years later. His first appointment to office was in
+1852, when he became Chancellor of the Exchequer under Lord Derby. The
+following year, however, the ministry was defeated. He remained out of
+office till 1858, when he again became Chancellor of the Exchequer, and
+brought in a Reform Bill which wrecked the Government. During the time the
+Palmerston Government was in office Disraeli led the opposition in the
+Lower House with conspicuous ability and courage. In 1866 the Liberals
+resigned, and Derby and Disraeli came into power, the latter being again
+Chancellor of the Exchequer. They immediately brought in, and carried,
+after a violent and bitter struggle, a Reform Bill on the basis of
+household suffrage. In 1868 he became Premier on the resignation of Lord
+Derby, but his tenure of office was short. In 1874 he again became Prime
+Minister with a strong Conservative majority, and he remained in power for
+six years. This period was marked by his elevation to the peerage in 1876
+as Earl of Beaconsfield, and by the prominent part he took in regard to the
+Eastern question and the conclusion of the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. In
+1880 Parliament was rather suddenly dissolved, and, the new Parliament
+showing an overwhelming Liberal majority, he resigned office, though he
+still retained the leadership of his party. Within a few months of his
+death the publication of a novel called _Endymion_ (his last, _Lothair_,
+had been published ten years before) showed that his intellect was still
+vigorous. Among others of his writings, besides those already mentioned,
+are: _A Vindication of the English Constitution_ (1834); _Alarcos, a
+Tragedy_ (1839); and _Lord George Bentinck, a Political Biography_
+(1852).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Selected Speeches of the Earl of Beaconsfield_
+(edited by T. E. Kebbel); T. Martin, _Memorials of Lord Beaconsfield_; the
+article _Disraeli_, by T. E. Kebbel, in _Dictionary of National Biography_;
+Sir William Fraser, _Disraeli and his Day_; Sichel, _Disraeli_; the best
+work, however, is W. F. Monypenny's _Life of Disraeli, Earl of
+Beaconsfield_ (continued by G. E. Buckle).
+
+BEAD (b[=e]d), originally a prayer; then a small perforated ball of gold,
+pearl, amber, glass, or the like, to be strung on a thread, and used in a
+rosary by Roman Catholics in numbering their prayers, one bead being passed
+at the end of each ejaculation or short prayer; finally any such small
+ornamental body. The use of beads among pagans is of greater antiquity than
+their Christian use, but there is no evidence to show that the latter is
+derived from the former. Glass beads are now the most common sort; they
+form a considerable item in the African trade.--In architecture and joinery
+the bead is a small round moulding. It is of frequent occurrence in
+architecture, particularly in the classical styles, and is used in
+picture-frames and other objects carved in wood.--_St. Cuthbert's Beads_,
+the popular name of the detached and perforated joints of encrinites.
+
+BEADLE (b[=e]´dl), an officer in a university, whose chief business is to
+walk with a mace in a public procession: also, a parish officer whose
+business is to punish petty offenders, and a church officer (chiefly,
+although not exclusively, in Scotland) with various subordinate duties, as
+waiting on the clergyman, keeping order in church, attending meetings of
+vestry or session, &c. The primary meaning of the word (from O.E. _beodan_,
+to offer, announce) appears to be 'herald', one who announces or proclaims
+something.
+
+BEAD-SNAKE (_Elaps fulvus_), a beautiful snake of North America, inhabiting
+cultivated grounds, especially plantations of the sweet-potato, and
+burrowing in the ground. It is finely marked with yellow, carmine, and
+black. Though it possesses poison-fangs it never seems to use them.
+
+BEAGLE (b[=e]´gl), a small hound, resembling a foxhound or harrier, and
+used to hunt rabbits and hares, being often kept in packs. The beagle is
+smaller than the harrier, compactly built, smooth-haired, and with
+pendulous ears. The smallest of them are little larger than the lap-dog.
+
+BEALE, Lionel Smith, English physician and biologist, born in 1828, died in
+1906. He was educated at King's College School and King's College, London,
+and was a professor in the medical department of the latter institution for
+forty-three years, finally holding the chair of the principles and practice
+of medicine. His numerous published works treat of medical, anatomical,
+physiological, and biological subjects; the microscope; various questions
+of morality, &c. They include _How to Work with the Microscope_, _The
+Structure of the Tissues_, _Protoplasm_, _Disease Germs_, _Life Theories
+and Religious Thought_, _The Mystery of Life_, _Bioplasm_, _On Slight
+Ailments_, _Religio Medici_, _Religio Scientiæ_, _Religio Vitæ_, &c.
+
+BEAM, a long, straight, and strong piece of wood, iron, or steel,
+especially when holding an important place in some structure, and serving
+for support or consolidation; often equivalent to _girder_. In a balance it
+is the part from the ends of which the scales are suspended. In a loom it
+is a cylindrical piece of wood on which weavers wind the warp before
+weaving; also, the cylinder on which the cloth is rolled as it is woven. In
+a ship, one of the strong transverse pieces stretching across from one side
+to the other to support the decks and retain the sides at their proper
+distance: hence a ship is said to be 'on her beam ends' when lying over on
+her side. For calculations relating to beams, see Morley's _Strength of
+Materials_ and _Theory of Structures_.
+
+BEAM TREE (_Pyrus aria_), a tree of the same genus as the apple,
+mountain-ash, and service tree found throughout Britain, having berries
+that are edible when quite mellow, and yielding a hard and fine-grained
+wood.
+
+BEAN, a name given to several kinds of leguminous seeds and the plants
+producing them, probably originally belonging to Asia. They belong to
+several genera, particularly to Vicia, garden and field bean; Phase[)o]lus,
+French or kidney bean; and Dolichos, tropical bean. The common bean (_Vicia
+Faba_) is cultivated both in fields and gardens as food for man and beast.
+Beans were believed by some of the ancients to contain the souls of their
+ancestors, and Pythagoras would not eat beans for this reason. One of the
+bean family still retains the name of the Pythagorean bean. Beans were
+introduced by the Moors into Spain, whence they came to France and later to
+England. It is possible, however, that they were brought to Britain by the
+Romans. They are now largely imported from Egypt, Turkey, Greece, and the
+Netherlands. There are many varieties, as the Mazagan, the Windsor, the
+long-pod, &c., in gardens, and the horse or tick bean in fields. The soil
+that best suits is a good strong clay. The seed of the Windsor is fully an
+inch in diameter; the horse bean is much less, often not much more than
+half an inch in length and three-eighths of an inch in diameter. Beans are
+very nutritious, containing nearly 50 per cent of digestible carbohydrate
+and 25 per cent of nitrogenous matter. The bean is an annual, from 2 to 4
+feet high. The flowers are beautiful and fragrant. The _kidney bean_,
+_French bean_, or _haricot_ is the _Phase[)o]lus vulg[=a]ris_, a well-known
+culinary vegetable. There are two principal varieties, annual dwarfs and
+runners. The beans cultivated in America and largely used as articles of
+food belong to the genus Phase[)o]lus. The _scarlet-runner bean_
+(_Phase[)o]lus multiflorus_), a native of Mexico, is cultivated on account
+of its long rough pods and its scarlet flowers.
+
+BEAN-GOOSE (_Anser seg[)e]tum_), a species of wild goose, a migratory bird
+which arrives in Britain in autumn and retires to the north in the end of
+April, though some few remain to breed. Being rather less in size than the
+common wild goose, it is sometimes called the _small grey goose_.
+
+BEAN-KING, the person chosen king in Twelfth Night festivities in virtue of
+having got the piece of cake containing the bean buried in the cake for
+this purpose.
+
+[Illustration: Brown or Black Bear (_Ursus arctos_)]
+
+[Illustration: The Polar or White Bear (_Ursus mar[)i]timus_)]
+
+BEAR, the name of several large plantigrade carnivorous mammals of the
+genus Ursus. The teeth are forty-two in number, as in the dog, but there is
+no carnassial or sectorial tooth, and the molars have a more tubercular
+character than in other carnivores. The eyes have a nictitating membrane,
+the nose is prominent and mobile, and the tail very short. The true bears
+are about ten in number, natives chiefly of Europe, Asia, and N. America.
+They generally lie dormant in their den during the winter months. The brown
+or black bear of Europe is the _Ursus arctos_. It is a native of almost all
+the northern parts of Europe and Asia, and was at one time common in the
+British Islands. It feeds on fruits, roots, honey, ants, and, in case of
+need, on mammals. It sometimes reaches the length of 7 feet, the largest
+specimens being found farthest to the north. It lives solitarily. The
+American black bear is the _U. americ[=a]nus_, with black shining fur, and
+rarely above 5 feet in length. It is a great climber, is less dangerous
+than the brown bear, and is hunted for its fur and flesh. It is very
+amusing in captivity. The grizzly bear (_U. ferox_ or _horribilis_) is an
+inhabitant of the Rocky Mountains; it is a ferocious animal, sometimes 9
+feet in length, and has a bulky and unwieldy form, but is nevertheless
+capable of great rapidity of motion. The extinct cave-bear (_U. spelæus_)
+seems to have been closely akin to the grizzly. The Siberian bear (_U.
+coll[=a]ris_) is perhaps a variety of the brown bear. The polar or white
+bear (_U. marit[)i]mus_) is an animal possessed of great strength and
+fierceness. It lives in the polar regions, frequents the sea, feeds on
+fish, seals, &c., and usually is 7 to 8 feet in length. The Malayan or
+coco-nut palm bear (_U. malay[=a]nus_) inhabits Cochin-China, Nepaul, the
+Sunda Islands, &c., lives exclusively on vegetable food, and is an expert
+climber. It is called also sun-bear and bruang. The Indian black bear or
+sloth-bear of India and Ceylon (_U. labi[=a]tus_) is reputed to be a fierce
+and dangerous animal.
+
+BEAR, or BERE, a species of barley (_Hord[)e]um hexastichum_), having six
+rows in the ear, cultivated in Scotland and the north of England.
+
+[Illustration: The Constellation of the Great Bear. The two stars on the
+right are the Pointers]
+
+BEAR, GREAT and LITTLE, the popular names of two constellations in the
+northern hemisphere. The Great Bear (_Ursa Major_) is situated near the
+pole. It is remarkable for its well-known seven stars, by two of which,
+called the Pointers, the pole-star is always readily found. These seven
+stars are popularly called the _Wagon_, _Charles's Wain_, or the _Plough_.
+The Little Bear (_Ursa Minor_) is the constellation which contains the
+pole-star. This constellation has seven stars placed together in a manner
+resembling those in the Great Bear.
+
+BEAR-BAITING, the sport of baiting bears with dogs, formerly one of the
+established amusements, not only of the common people, but of the nobility
+and even royalty itself. The places where bears were publicly baited were
+called bear-gardens. Butler gives a description of bear-baiting in his
+_Hudibras_. Bear-baiting was prohibited by Act of Parliament in 1835.
+
+BEARBERRY (_Arctostaphylos uva-ursi_), an evergreen shrub of the heath
+family growing on the barren moors of Scotland, Northern Europe, Siberia,
+and N. America. The leaves, under the name of _uva ursi_, are used in
+medicine as an astringent and tonic.
+
+BEARD, the hair round the chin, on the cheeks, and the upper lip, which is
+a distinction of the male sex and of manhood. It differs from the hair on
+the head by its greater hardness and its form. Some nations have hardly
+any, others a great profusion. The latter generally consider it as a great
+ornament; the former pluck it out; as, for instance, the American Indians.
+The beard has often been considered as a mark of the sage and the priest.
+Moses forbade the Jews to shave their beards. With the ancient Germans the
+cutting off another's beard was a high offence. Even now the beard is
+regarded as a mark of great dignity among many nations in the East, as the
+Turks. Alexander the Great introduced shaving among the Greeks, by ordering
+his soldiers to wear no beards; among the Romans it was introduced in 296
+B.C. The custom of shaving came into use in modern times during the reigns
+of Louis XIII and XIV of France, both of whom ascended the throne without a
+beard. Till then fashion sanctioned divers forms of moustaches and beards.
+In the reign of Henry VIII of England, the authorities of Lincoln's Inn
+prohibited wearers of beards from sitting at the great table unless they
+paid double commons. Taxation of beards was introduced in the reign of
+Elizabeth, beards of above a fortnight's growth being subject to a yearly
+tax of 3s. 4d. This impost was copied by Peter the Great in Russia. It is
+only in comparatively recent times that beards and moustaches have again
+become common.--Cf. Philippe, _Histoire philosophique, politique, et
+religieuse de la barbe_.
+
+BEARD-MOSS (_Usnea barb[=a]ta_), a lichen of grey colour, forming a shaggy
+coat on many forest trees.
+
+BEARDSLEY, Aubrey Vincent, artist in black and white, born 1872, died 1898;
+took up art as a profession at the age of nineteen, and executed a large
+number of drawings for books and periodicals, showing great technical
+skill, originality, and disregard of conventionality, with sometimes a
+tendency towards the repulsive or morbid. Consumption had marked him as its
+victim from the first. Collections of his drawings were published under the
+titles _A Book of Fifty Drawings_, _The Early Work of Aubrey Beardsley_,
+_The Late Work of Aubrey Beardsley_, &c. _Under the Hill_, with his letters
+and poems, was published in 1904. Cf. G. Derry, _An Aubrey Beardsley
+Scrap-book_.
+
+BEARER SECURITIES. See _Stock Exchange_.
+
+BEARING, the direction or point of the compass in which an object is seen,
+or the situation of one object in regard to another, with reference to the
+points of the compass. Thus, if from a certain situation an object is seen
+in the direction of north-east, the _bearing_ of the object is said to be
+N.E. from the situation.--_To take bearings_, to ascertain on what point of
+the compass objects lie.
+
+BEAR LAKE, GREAT, an extensive sheet of fresh water in the North-West
+Territory of Canada, between about 65° and 67° 32´ N. lat.; and under the
+120th degree of W. long.; of irregular shape; area about 14,000 sq. miles.
+The water is very clear and the lake abounds in fish.--_Bear Lake River_,
+the outlet at the S.W. extremity of Great Bear Lake, runs S.W. for 70 miles
+and joins the Mackenzie River.
+
+BÉARN (b[=a]-[.a]r), one of the provinces into which France was formerly
+divided, now chiefly included in the department of Lower Pyrénées. Pau is
+the chief town (pop. 35,000). There is a peculiar and well-marked
+dialect--the Béarnese--spoken in this district, which has much more
+affinity with Spanish than with French.
+
+BEAR-PIT, a deep, open pit with perpendicular walls, built in a zoological
+garden for keeping bears, and having in the centre a pole on which they may
+exercise their climbing powers.
+
+BEAR RIVER, a river of the United States, 400 miles long; rises in the
+north of Utah, and flows northward into Idaho; turns abruptly southward,
+re-enters Utah, and empties into Great Salt Lake.
+
+BEARS AND BULLS. See _Stock Exchange_.
+
+BEAR´S-GREASE, the fat of bears, esteemed as of great efficacy in
+nourishing and promoting the growth of hair. The unguents sold under this
+name, however, are in a great measure made of hog's lard or veal fat, or a
+mixture of both, scented and slightly coloured.
+
+BEAS, river of India. See _Bias_.
+
+BEAT, in acoustics and music, the beating or pulsation resulting from the
+joint vibrations of two sounds of the same strength, and all but in unison.
+Also a short shake or transient grace-note struck immediately before the
+note it is intended to ornament. The word is also used for the movement of
+the hand or baton, by which the rhythm of a piece of music is indicated,
+and by which a conductor ensures perfect agreement in tempo and accent on
+the part of the orchestra or chorus.
+
+BEATH (b[=e]th), a populous parish of Fifeshire, Scotland, containing the
+towns of Cowdenbeath, Kelty, and Hill of Beath. Pop. 24,350, (Cowdenbeath
+having 7908).
+
+BEATIFICATION, in the Roman Catholic Church, an act by which the Pope
+declares a person beatified or blessed after his death. It is the first
+step to canonization, that is, the raising one to the honour and dignity of
+a saint. No person can be beatified till fifty years after his or her
+death. All certificates or attestations of virtues and miracles, the
+necessary qualifications for saintship, are examined by the Congregation of
+Rites. This examination often continues for several years; after which his
+Holiness decrees the beatification, and the corpse and relics of the future
+saint are exposed to the veneration of all good Christians. The present
+custom dates from a Bull of Urban VIII in 1634, although local veneration
+may be traced back to the earliest Christian ages.--In the Orthodox Eastern
+Church beatification is not distinguished from canonization.
+
+BEATING THE BOUNDS, the periodical survey or perambulation by which the
+boundaries of parishes in England are preserved. It was the custom in some
+places that the clergyman of the parish, with the parochial officers and
+the boys of the parish school, should march to the boundaries, where the
+boys were struck with willow rods. A similar ceremony in Scotland was
+called _riding the marches_.
+
+BEA´TON, David, Archbishop of St. Andrews, and cardinal, born 1494. Pope
+Paul III raised him to the rank of cardinal in Dec., 1538. On the death of
+his uncle, Archbishop James Beaton, he succeeded him in the see of St.
+Andrews in 1539. After the accession of Mary he became Chancellor of
+Scotland, and distinguished himself by his zeal in persecuting members of
+the Reformed party, among the rest the famous Protestant preacher George
+Wishart, whose sufferings at the stake he viewed from his window with
+apparent exultation. At length a conspiracy was formed against him, and he
+was assassinated at his own castle of St. Andrews, on the 29th May, 1546.
+His private character was marked by pride, cruelty, and licentiousness.
+
+BEATRICE PORTINARI (b[=a]-[.a]-tr[=e]´ch[=a] por-t[=e]-nä´r[=e]), the
+"glorious lady" of Dante, born about 1266, died 1290; the daughter of a
+wealthy citizen of Florence, and wife of Simone de Bardi. She was but eight
+years of age, and Dante nine, when he met her first at the house of her
+father. He altogether saw her only once or twice, and she probably knew
+little of him. The story of his love is recounted in the _Vita Nuova_,
+which was mostly written after her death.
+
+BEATTIE (b[=e]´ti), James, a Scottish poet and philosophical writer, born
+at Laurencekirk, Kincardineshire, in 1735, died at Aberdeen 1803. He
+studied at Marischal College, Aberdeen, for four years, and received the
+M.A. degree. In 1753 he was appointed schoolmaster at Fordoun, a few miles
+from his native place; from whence he obtained a mastership in the Grammar
+School of Aberdeen, and ultimately was installed professor of moral
+philosophy and logic in Marischal College. In 1760 he published a volume of
+poems, which he subsequently endeavoured to buy up, considering them
+unworthy of him. In 1765 he published a poem, _The Judgment of Paris_, and
+in 1770 his celebrated _Essay on the Nature and Immutability of Truth_,
+attacking Helvetius and Hume and advocating what was afterwards called the
+doctrine of Common Sense, for which the University of Oxford conferred on
+him the degree of D.C.L., and George III honoured him, when on a visit to
+London, with a private conference and a pension. He next published in 1771
+the first book of his poem _The Minstrel_, and in 1774 the second; this is
+the only work by which he is now remembered. In 1776 he published
+dissertations on _Poetry and Music_, _Laughter and Ludicrous Composition_,
+&c.; in 1783 _Dissertations, Moral and Critical_; in 1786 _Evidences of the
+Christian Religion_; and in 1790-3 _Elements of Moral Science_. His closing
+years were darkened by the death of his two sons.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Margaret
+Forbes, _Beattie and His Friends_; A. Mackie, _James Beattie, the Minstrel:
+Some Unpublished Letters_.
+
+BEATTIE, William, M.D., Scottish physician, poet, and miscellaneous writer,
+born in 1793, died at London 1875. He was author of the standard _Life of
+Thomas Campbell_, whose intimate friend he was; published several poems,
+including _John Huss_, _The Heliotrope_, and _Polynesia_; wrote a series of
+descriptive and historical works, beautifully illustrated by his friend and
+fellow-traveller, W. H. Bartlett, on Switzerland, Scotland, &c. He had a
+very extensive and lucrative medical practice.
+
+BEATTY, Admiral of the Fleet, Earl, born in 1871. He entered the navy in
+1884, became Commander in 1898, Rear-Admiral in 1910, and Vice-Admiral in
+1915. He served in the Sudan from 1896 to 1897, and in China in 1900. In
+1912 he was Naval Secretary to the First Lord of the Admiralty, and from
+1912 to 1916 commanded the First Battle Cruiser Squadron. He distinguished
+himself in the battle of Jutland in 1916, and until 1919, when he succeeded
+Admiral Sir Rosslyn Wemyss (now Lord Wester Wemyss) as First Sea Lord, he
+was in command of the Grand Fleet. When the entire German High Seas Fleet
+left port on 31st May, 1916, and steamed up the west coast of Denmark, it
+was quickly sighted by the British scouts, so that the main British fleet
+immediately steamed out from its base to engage the enemy. The British
+Battle Cruiser Squadron, under the command of Earl Beatty (then Sir David)
+was nearer the scene than the main battle fleet under Sir John Jellicoe
+(Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa since 1918). The admiral sighted the enemy
+fleet north-west of the Horn Reef, and about 3.30 in the afternoon the
+ships engaged. The Jutland battle lasted only a few hours. At the end of
+Nov., 1916, Admiral Sir John Jellicoe was made First Sea Lord of the
+Admiralty, and Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty took over the supreme command
+of the Grand Fleet.
+
+He is a D.S.O., an O.M., a G.C.B., a G.C.V.O., and a Grand Officer of the
+French Legion of Honour. He was knighted in 1914, and received a grant of
+£100,000 in Aug., 1919, when he was created an earl. He was elected Lord
+Rector of Edinburgh University in 1917.
+
+BEAUCAIRE (b[=o]-k[=a]r), a small commercial city of Southern France,
+department Gard, on the Rhone opposite Tarascon, with which it communicates
+by a fine suspension-bridge. It is chiefly famous for its great fair
+(founded in 1217), held yearly from the 21st to the 28th July. Pop. 8488.
+
+BEAUCHAMP (b[=o]-shän), Alphonse de, French historian and publicist, born
+at Mon[)a]co 1767, died at Paris 1832. Under the Directory he had the
+surveillance of the press, a position which supplied him with materials for
+his _History of La Vendée_. He contributed to the _Moniteur_ and the
+_Gazette de France_. Among his chief works are the _History of the Conquest
+of Peru_, the _History of Brazil_, and the _Life of Louis XVIII_. The
+_Mémoires de Fouché_ is also with good reason ascribed to him.
+
+BEAUFORT, (b[=o]´fort), Henry, cardinal, natural son of John of Gaunt and
+half-brother of Henry IV, King of England, born 1377, died 1447; was made
+Bishop of Lincoln, whence he was translated to Winchester. He repeatedly
+filled the office of Lord Chancellor, and took part in all the most
+important political movements of his times.
+
+BEAUFORT SCALE. See _Wind Scale_; _Navigation_.
+
+BEAUFORT WEST, a town of Cape Province, capital of the division of that
+name, 339 miles by railway north-east of Cape Town, well built and well
+supplied with water, though in a district with a small rainfall, and
+chiefly yielding wool. It is a popular health resort. Pop. 4530.
+
+BEAUGENCY (b[=o]-zh[.a][n.]-s[=e]), an ancient town, France, department
+Loiret, on the Loire, of some historical interest. General Chanzy was
+defeated there by the Grand-Duke of Mecklenburg, 7th-8th Dec., 1870. Pop.
+3532.
+
+BEAUHARNAIS (b[=o]-[.a]r-n[=a]), Alexandre, Viscount, was born in 1760 in
+Martinique. He married Joséphine Tascher de la Pagerie, who was afterwards
+the wife of Napoleon. At the breaking out of the French Revolution he was
+chosen a member of the National Assembly, of which he was for some time
+president. In 1792 he was general of the army of the Rhine. He was falsely
+accused of having promoted the surrender of Mainz, and was sentenced to
+death 23rd July, 1794.
+
+BEAUHARNAIS, Eugène de, Duke of Leuchtenberg, Prince of Eichstädt, and
+Viceroy of Italy during the reign of Napoleon, was born 1781, died at
+Munich 1824. He was the son of Alexandre Beauharnais and Joséphine,
+afterwards wife of Napoleon and Empress of France. After his father's death
+he joined Hoche in La Vendée, and subsequently studied for a time in Paris.
+He accompanied Napoleon to Egypt in 1798, rose rapidly in the army, was
+appointed Viceroy of Italy in 1805, and married a daughter of the King of
+Bavaria in 1806. He administered the government of Italy with great
+prudence and moderation, and was much beloved by his subjects. In the
+Russian campaign he commanded the third _corps d'armée_, and greatly
+distinguished himself. To him and to Ney France was mainly indebted for the
+preservation of the remains of her army during the retreat from Moscow.
+After the battle of Lützen of 2nd May, 1813, where, by surrounding the
+right wing of the enemy, he decided the fate of the day, he went to Italy,
+which he defended against the Austrians until the deposition of Napoleon.
+After the fall of Napoleon he concluded an armistice, by which he delivered
+Lombardy and all Upper Italy to the Austrians. He then went immediately to
+Paris, and thence to his father-in-law at Munich, where he afterwards
+resided.--His sister, Hortense Eugénie, Queen of Holland, was born in 1783,
+died in 1837. She became Queen of Holland by marrying Louis Bonaparte, and
+after Louis's abdication of the throne she lived apart from him. She wrote
+several excellent songs, and composed some deservedly popular airs, among
+others the well-known _Partant pour la Syrie_. Napoleon III was her third
+and youngest son.
+
+BEAULY (b[=u]´li), a small seaport of Scotland, Inverness-shire, near the
+mouth of the River Beauly, which enters the Beauly Firth, a sea loch
+branching off from Inverness Firth, with interesting ruins of an old
+priory. Pop. 882.
+
+BEAUMARCHAIS (b[=o]-mär-sh[=a]), Pierre Augustin Caron de, a French wit and
+dramatist, was born at Paris in 1732, died 1799. He was the son of a
+watchmaker named Caron, whose trade he practised for a time. He early gave
+striking proofs of his mechanical and also of his musical talents; attained
+proficiency as a player on the guitar and harp, and was appointed
+harp-master to the daughters of Louis XV. By a rich marriage (after which
+he added 'de Beaumarchais' to his name) he laid the foundation of the
+immense wealth which he afterwards accumulated by his speculations, and
+which was also increased by a second marriage. In the meantime he occupied
+himself with literature, and published two dramas--_Eugénie_ in 1767 and
+_Les Deux Amis_ in 1770. He first really distinguished himself by his
+_Mémoires_ (Paris, 1774), or statements in connection with a lawsuit, which
+by their wit, satire, and liveliness entertained all France. The _Barber of
+Seville_ (1775) and the _Marriage of Figaro_ (1784) have given him a
+permanent reputation. His last work was _Mes Six Époques_, in which he
+relates the dangers to which he was exposed in the revolution. He lost
+about a million livres by his edition of the works of Voltaire (1785), and
+still more at the end of 1792 by his attempt to provide the French army
+with 60,000 muskets. He was a singular instance of versatility of talent,
+being at once an artist, politician, projector, merchant, and
+dramatist.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. de Loménie, _Beaumarchais et son temps_
+(English translation by H. S. Edwards); Gudin de la Brenellerie, _Histoire
+de Beaumarchais_.
+
+BEAUMARIS (b[=o]-ma´ris), a seaport town, North Wales, Isle of Anglesey, on
+the Menai Strait. It is a favourite watering-place, and contains the
+remains of a castle built by Edward I about 1295. Pop. (1921), 1839.
+
+BEAUMONT, a city of the United States, in Eastern Texas, in a region rich
+in cotton, timber, and petroleum, and an important railway centre. Pop.
+28,851.
+
+BEAUMONT (b[=o]´mont), Francis, and FLETCHER, John, two eminent English
+dramatic writers, contemporaries of Shakespeare, and the most famous of
+literary partners. The former, son of a common-pleas judge, was born at
+Grace-Dieu, in Leicestershire, in 1584, died in 1616, and was buried in
+Westminster Abbey. At the age of sixteen he published a translation, in
+verse, of Ovid's _Fable of Salmacis and Hermaphroditus_, and before
+nineteen became the friend of Ben Jonson. With Fletcher also he was early
+on terms of friendship. He married Ursula, daughter of Henry Isley of
+Sundridge, in Kent, by whom he left two daughters.--_John Fletcher_ was
+born at Rye, Sussex, in 1579. His father was successively Dean of
+Peterborough, Bishop of Bristol, Worcester, and London. _The Woman Hater_,
+produced in 1606-7, is the earliest work known to exist in which he had a
+hand. It does not appear that he was ever married. He died in London of the
+plague, Aug., 1625, and was buried at St. Saviour's, Southwark. The
+friendship of Beaumont and Fletcher, like their literary partnership, was
+singularly close; they lived in the same house, and are said to have even
+had their clothes in common. The works that pass under their names consist
+of over fifty plays, a masque, and some minor poems. It is believed that
+all the minor poems except one were written by Beaumont. After the death of
+Beaumont, Fletcher continued to write plays alone or with other dramatists.
+It is now difficult, if not indeed impossible, to determine with certainty
+the respective shares of the two poets in the plays passing under their
+names. According to the testimony of some of their contemporaries, Beaumont
+possessed the deeper and more thoughtful genius, Fletcher the gayer and
+more idyllic. _Four Plays in One_, _Wit at Several Weapons_, _Thierry and
+Theodoret_, _Maid's Tragedy_, _Philaster_, _King and no King_, _Knight of
+the Burning Pestle_, _Cupid's Revenge_, _Little French Lawyer_, _Scornful
+Lady_, _Coxcomb_, and _Laws of Candy_ have been assigned to Beaumont and
+Fletcher conjointly. To Beaumont alone--_The Masque of the Inner Temple and
+Gray's Inn_. To Fletcher alone--_The Faithful Shepherdess_, _Woman Hater_,
+_Loyal Subject_, _Mad Lover_, _Valentinian_, _Double Marriage_, _Humorous
+Lieutenant_, _Island Princess_, _Pilgrim_, _Wild-goose Chase_, _Spanish
+Curate_, _Beggar's Bush_, _Rule a Wife and Have a Wife_, _Fair Maid of the
+Inn_, &c. To Fletcher and Rowley--_Queen of Corinth_, _Maid of the Mill_,
+and _Bloody Brother_. To Fletcher and Massinger--_False One_ and _Very
+Woman_. To Fletcher and Shirley--_Noble Gentleman_, _Night-walker_, and
+_Love's Pilgrimage_. To Fletcher and Shakespeare--_Two Noble
+Kinsmen_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. C. Macaulay, _Francis Beaumont, a Critical
+Study_; Sir A. W. Ward, _History of English Dramatic Literature_ (vol. ii).
+
+BEAUMONT, Sir George, born of an ancient family in Leicestershire in 1753,
+died 1827. He possessed considerable skill as a landscape-painter, but was
+noted more especially as a munificent patron of the arts. The establishment
+of the National Gallery was mainly owing to his exertions. He was a friend
+of Wordsworth, who dedicated to him the 1815 edition of his Poems.
+
+BEAUMONT, Sir John, born 1582, died 1627, brother of Francis Beaumont the
+dramatist; was author of _Bosworth Field_, an historical poem, and various
+sacred and other poems. A poem in eight books, called _The Crown of
+Thorns_, has been lost.
+
+BEAUMONT, Joseph, D.D., born 1615, died 1699; descended from an old
+Leicestershire family. In 1663 he became master of Peterhouse, Cambridge.
+He wrote _Psyche, or Love's Mystery_, a poem once very popular, and an
+attack on Henry More's _Mystery of Godliness_, for which he received the
+thanks of the university.
+
+BEAUMONT, William, M.D., an American surgeon, born 1785, died 1853. His
+experiments on digestion with the Canadian St. Martin, who lived for years
+after receiving a gunshot wound in the stomach which left an aperture of
+about two inches in diameter, were of great importance to physiological
+science.
+
+BEAUMONT-HAMEL, village of France, department Somme, the scene of fierce
+fighting in 1918. See _Somme, Battles of the_.
+
+BEAUNE (b[=o]n), a town, France, department Côte d'Or, 23 miles S.S.W. of
+Dijon, well built, with handsome church, public library, museum, &c., and a
+trade in the fine Burgundy and other wines of the district. Pop. 13,409.
+
+BEAUNE (b[=o]n), Florimond, a distinguished mathematician and friend of
+Descartes, born at Blois 1601, died at the same place 1652. He may be
+regarded as the originator of the integral calculus.
+
+BEAUREGARD (b[=o]´r[.e]-g[.a]rd), Pierre Gustavus Toutant, a general of the
+Confederate troops in the American Civil War, born in 1818 near New
+Orleans. He studied at the military academy, West Point, and left it as
+artillery lieutenant in 1838. He served in the Mexican War, and on the
+outbreak of the Civil War joined the Confederates. He commanded at the
+bombardment of Fort Sumter, gained the battle of Bull Run, lost that of
+Shiloh, assisted in the defence of Charleston, and aided Lee in that of
+Richmond. He was the author of _Principles and Maxims of the Art of War_
+(1863). He died in 1893.
+
+BEAUSOBRE (b[=o]-s[=o]-br), Isaac, born in 1659 at Niort, in France, died
+at Berlin 1738. In 1683 he became Protestant minister of
+Chatillon-sur-Indre, but was compelled by persecution to go into exile in
+1685. In 1694 he became minister to French Protestants at Berlin. He
+enjoyed much of the favour both of Frederick William I and of the Crown
+Prince, afterwards Frederick the Great, and died in 1738. His most
+remarkable work is the _Histoire Critique de Manichée et du Manichéisme_
+(1734).
+
+BEAUVAIS (b[=o]-v[=a]; ancient, _Bellovacum_), a town, France, capital of
+the department of Oise, at the confluence of the Avelon with the Thérain,
+43 miles north of Paris, poorly built, but with some fine edifices, the
+choir of the uncompleted cathedral being one of the finest specimens of
+Gothic architecture in France. In 1472 Beauvais resisted an army of 80,000
+Burgundians under Charles the Bold. On this occasion the women particularly
+distinguished themselves, and one of them, Jeanne Lainé, called La
+Hachette, seeing a soldier planting a standard on the wall, seized it and
+hurled him to the ground. The banner is preserved in the town hall, and an
+annual procession of young girls commemorates the deed. Manufactures:
+tapestry and carpets, trimmings, woollen cloth, cottons, &c. Pop. 20,250.
+
+[Illustration: Beavers (_Castor fiber_)]
+
+BEAVER, the largest rodent quadruped now existing in the northern
+hemisphere, about 2 feet in length exclusive of the tail, genus Castor (_C.
+fiber_), is now found in considerable numbers only in North America, living
+in colonies, but occurring solitary in Central Europe and Asia. It has
+short ears, a blunt nose, small fore-feet, large webbed hind-feet, with a
+flat ovate tail covered with scales on its upper surface. It is valued for
+its fur, which used to be largely employed in the manufacture of hats, but
+for which silk is now for the most part substituted, and for an odoriferous
+secretion named castor, at one time in high repute, and still largely used
+in some parts of the world as an antispasmodic medicine. The food of the
+beaver consists of the bark of trees, leaves, roots, and berries. Their
+favourite haunts are rivers and lakes which are bordered by forests. In
+winter they live in houses, which are 3 to 4 feet high, are built on the
+water's edge, and, being substantial structures with the entrance under
+water, afford them protection from wolves and other wild animals. These
+dwellings are called beaver 'lodges', and accommodate a single family. They
+also live in burrows. They can gnaw through large trees with their strong
+teeth, this being done partly to obtain food, partly to get materials for
+houses or dam-building. When they find a stream not sufficiently deep for
+their purpose, they throw across it a dam constructed with great ingenuity
+of wood, stones, and mud. Beavers were fairly numerous in Britain in very
+early times, at least in Scotland and Wales. Their existence has been
+recorded in Wales till the thirteenth century, and in Scotland to a later
+date, but they are now extinct in Britain. A colony was some years ago
+introduced into the Island of Bute, but they died out again.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+Harting, _British Animals Extinct within Historic Times_; E. A. Mills, _In
+Beaver World_; A. A. R. Dugmore, _The Romance of the Beaver_.
+
+BEAVER (from Fr. _baviére_, a child's bib, from _bave_, saliva), the
+movable face-guard of a helmet, so fitted on as to be raised and lowered at
+pleasure.
+
+BEAVER FALLS, a town of the United States, Pennsylvania, on Beaver River,
+30 miles north-west of Pittsburg, in the coal and natural-gas region. Pop.
+12,191.
+
+BEAVER-RAT (_Hydromys chrysogaster_), a Tasmanian rodent quadruped,
+inhabiting the banks both of salt and fresh waters. They are admirable
+swimmers and divers, and exceedingly shy.
+
+BEBEE´RU. See _Greenheart_.
+
+BEBEL (b[=a]´bl), Ferdinand August, German Socialist, born in 1840, died in
+1913. He became a master turner in Leipzig, was elected to the Reichstag or
+Diet of the new German Empire in 1871, in which he was prominent until his
+death. He opposed the leadership of Prussia in Germany and the
+establishment of the empire, and showed himself favourable to the Paris
+Commune and the International. Found guilty of treasonable practices, he
+was condemned to two years' imprisonment in a fortress in 1872, with six
+months' ordinary imprisonment for insulting the Kaiser. His influence kept
+on increasing as leader of the Social Democrats in Germany and in the
+German Parliament, where he spoke strongly against militarism and the
+emperor's naval policy. His works include _Die Frau und der Socialismus_
+(Woman and Socialism), in which he went so far as to attack marriage as an
+institution; _Die Socialdemokratic und das allgemeine wahlrecht_; _Für
+Volkswehr gegen Militarismus_; _Aus meinem Leben_; &c.
+
+BEC, a celebrated abbey of France, in Normandy, near Brionne, founded in
+the eleventh century, now represented only by some ruins. Lanfranc and
+Anselm were both connected with this abbey.
+
+BECCAFI´CO, a European bird (_Sylvia hortensis_), the garden-warbler. These
+birds are much esteemed as dainties in the autumn, when they have fattened
+on figs and grapes.
+
+BECCAFU´MI, Domen´ico, Italian painter, born near Sienna in the latter half
+of the fifteenth century, enriched the churches of Sienna with many noble
+frescoes and other paintings. He drew and coloured well, and possessed
+strong inventive powers. He died at Sienna in 1551, and was buried in its
+cathedral.
+
+BECCARIA (bek-[.a]-r[=e]´[.a]), Cesare Bonesana, Marchese di, Italian
+economist and writer on penal laws, born 1738, died 1794. He is principally
+known from his treatise, _On Crimes and Punishments_, which was speedily
+translated into various languages, and to which many of the reforms in the
+penal codes of the principal European nations are traceable. He became
+professor of political economy at Milan, where he died.
+
+BECCARIA (bek-[.a]-r[=e]´[.a]), Giovanni Battista, an Italian natural
+philosopher, born 1716, died 1781; was appointed professor of experimental
+physics at Turin, 1748; author of a treatise on _Natural and Artificial
+Electricity_, _Letters on Electricity_, &c. He contributed several articles
+to the _Transactions of the Royal Society of London_, and was commissioned
+in 1759 to measure an arc of the meridian in the neighbourhood of Turin.
+
+BECCLES (bek´lz), a municipal borough in Suffolk, England, 33 miles N.N.E.
+from Ipswich, on the right bank of the Waveney; has a fine church of the
+fourteenth century, and a good trade coastwise. Pop. (1921), 7077.
+
+BECELÆRE, town of Belgium, province of West Flanders. It was the scene of
+fighting in the third battle of Ypres (1917), and in the battle of Flanders
+(1918).
+
+BECERRA (be-ther´[.a]), Gaspar, Spanish painter and sculptor, born 1520,
+died 1570. He studied under Michel Angelo at Rome, and is credited with the
+chief share in the establishment of the fine arts in Spain.
+
+BECHE (b[=a]sh), Sir Henry de Ia, an English geologist, born 1796, died
+1855. He founded the geological survey of Great Britain, which was soon
+undertaken by the Government, De la Beche being appointed director-general.
+He also founded the Jermyn Street Museum of Economic or Practical Geology,
+and the School of Mines. His principal works are: _Geology of Jamaica_,
+_Classification of European Rocks_, _Geological Manual_, _Researches in
+Theoretical Geology_, _Geology of Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset_, &c.
+
+BÊCHE-DE-MER (b[=a]sh-d[=e]-m[=a]r). See _Trepang_.
+
+BECHER (be_h_´er), Johann Joachim, German chemist, born in 1625 or 1635,
+died in London 1682. He became a professor at Mainz; was elected a member
+of the Imperial Council at Vienna, 1660, but fell into disgrace and
+subsequently resided in various parts of Germany, Holland, Italy, Sweden,
+and Great Britain. His chief work, _Physica Subterranea_, containing many
+of the fanciful theories of the alchemists, was published in 1669, and
+enlarged in 1681. Among his other works are _Laboratorium portabile_ and
+_Alphabetum minerale_.
+
+BECHSTEIN (be_h_´st[=i]n), Johann Matthäus, German naturalist, born in
+1757, died in 1822. He wrote a popular _Natural History of Germany_, and
+various works on forestry, in which subject his labours were highly
+valuable. In Britain he is best known by a treatise on cage birds.
+
+BECHUANAS, or BETCHUANAS (bech-wan´az), a widely-spread race of people
+inhabiting the central region of South Africa north of Cape Province. They
+belong to the great Kaffir stem, and are divided into tribal sections. They
+live chiefly by husbandry and cattle-rearing, and they work with some skill
+in iron, copper, ivory, and skins. They were led to seek British protection
+owing to the encroachments of the Boers. The southern portion of their
+territory was first placed under British protection in 1885, and
+subsequently the whole Bechuana country up to the Zambezi was annexed. In
+1895 the southern portion (then a Crown colony) was united to the Cape
+Colony; the remainder is still a protectorate partly under native chiefs.
+The head-quarters of the British administration are at Mafeking in the Cape
+Province. Bechuanaland Protectorate comprises the territory lying between
+the Molopo River on the south and the Zambezi on the north, and extending
+from the Transvaal Province and Matabeleland on the east to South-West
+Africa; area, 275,000 sq. miles; pop. 125,350, of whom about 1700 are
+Europeans. It is generally flat or slightly undulating, and is essentially
+a grass country, the grasses being nutritious and standing drought well.
+Surface water is scarce, but there is underground water, besides swampy
+lakes such as Ngami. Some parts are wooded and well watered. Gold, coal,
+and copper have been found. There is railway connection both with south and
+north.--Cf. G. W. Stow, _The Native Races of South Africa_.
+
+BECK CASE, THE, a celebrated case of mistaken identity, which involved a
+grave miscarriage of justice. Adolf Beck, a Swede, had been sentenced in
+1890 to seven years' penal servitude for a series of mean frauds committed
+against some women, and in 1904 he was again convicted and sentenced for a
+similar offence. Soon after his second trial a Jew named John Smith, who
+had been convicted of fraudulency in 1877, was arrested for similar frauds
+committed while Beck was in custody. The resemblance between the two men
+was remarkable, and it was eventually discovered that Beck was entirely
+innocent. He received two King's pardons, and the sum of £5000 from the
+Home Office as compensation. A commission which considered the case drew
+attention in its report to the carelessness of the police in identifying
+Beck with Smith, though the latter was a Jew; and stated that further legal
+training was desirable for the subordinate officials in the Home Office.
+Beck died in poverty in 1909. Cf. J. Kempster, _Perversion of Justice as
+exhibited in the Beck Case_.
+
+BECKENHAM, a suburban locality on the south of London, in West Kent, now
+forming an urban district, lying south of Sydenham. Pop. 33,350.
+
+BECK´ER, Wilhelm Adolf, German archæologist, born at Dresden 1796, died at
+Meissen 1846. In 1828 he became a teacher at Meissen, in 1837 was appointed
+extraordinary professor of classical archæology at Leipzig, and in 1842
+ordinary professor. Best-known works: _Gallus, or Roman Scenes of the Time
+of Augustus_; and _Charicles, or Illustrations of the Life of the Ancient
+Greeks_, which wonderfully reproduce the social life of old Rome and
+Greece.
+
+BECK´ET, Thomas (the form À Becket is also common), Archbishop of
+Canterbury, born in London 1117 or 1119, assassinated in Canterbury
+Cathedral, 29th Dec., 1170. He was educated at Oxford and Paris, and was
+sent, by the favour of Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury, to study civil
+law at Bologna in Italy, and on his return made Archdeacon of Canterbury
+and Provost of Beverley. In 1158 Henry II appointed him High Chancellor and
+preceptor to his son, Prince Henry--the first instance after the Conquest
+of a high office being filled by a native Englishman. At this period he was
+a complete courtier, conforming in every respect to the humour of the king.
+He was, in fact, the king's prime companion, held splendid levees, and
+courted popular applause. On the death of Theobald, 1162, he was
+consecrated archbishop, when he affected an extraordinary austerity of
+character, and appeared as a zealous champion of the Church against the
+aggressions of the king, whose policy was to have the clergy in
+subordination to the civil power. Becket was forced to assent to the
+Constitutions of Clarendon, but a series of bitter conflicts with the king
+followed, ending in Becket's flight to France, when he appealed to the
+Pope, by whom he was supported. After much negotiation a sort of
+reconciliation took place in 1170, and Becket returned to England, resumed
+his office, and renewed his defiance of the royal authority. A rash hint
+from the king induced four barons, Reginald Fitz-Urse, William de Tracy,
+Hugh de Morville, and Richard Breto, to go to Canterbury and murder the
+archbishop while at vespers in the cathedral. He was canonized in 1172 by
+Pope Alexander III, and the splendid shrine erected at Canterbury for his
+remains was, for three centuries, a favourite place of
+pilgrimage.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. C. Robertson and J. B. Sheppard, _Materials
+for the History of Archbishop Becket_ (Rolls Series); Canon Morris, _Life
+and Martyrdom of St. Thomas Becket_; Lhuillier, _Saint Thomas de
+Cantorbéry_; Abbott, _St. Thomas of Canterbury, His Death and His
+Miracles_.
+
+BECKETT, Gilbert Abbot À. See _À Beckett_.
+
+BECK´FORD, William, an English writer famous in his time for his immense
+wealth and his eccentricities. He was born at Fonthill, his father's estate
+in Wiltshire, in 1759. In 1770 the death of his father left him in the
+possession of £1,000,000 of money, and an income of £100,000 a year. He
+travelled much, and for some time lived in Portugal. He expended an
+enormous sum in building and rebuilding Fonthill Abbey, near Salisbury,
+which he filled with rare and expensive works of art. Here he lived in
+seclusion for twenty years. In 1822 the abbey and greater part of its
+contents were sold, and he retired to Bath, where, with a much-diminished
+fortune, but one amply sufficient, he lived till 1844. His literary fame
+rests upon his Eastern tale _The History of the Caliph Vathek_, which he
+wrote in French, and a translation of which by the Rev. Samuel Henley
+appeared at London in 1786. The tale is still much read, and was highly
+commended by Lord Byron. He had two daughters, one of whom became Duchess
+of Hamilton, and brought his valuable library to this family.--_William
+Beckford_, his father, a London merchant and West Indian proprietor, was
+famous for a spirited speech made to George III when Lord Mayor of
+London.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Cyrus Redding, _Memoir_; R. Garnett, _Vathek_ (with
+a critical essay); Melville, _The Life and Letters of William Beckford of
+Fonthill_.
+
+BECKMANN, Johann, German writer on the industrial arts and agriculture,
+born 1739, died 1811. He was for a short time professor of physics and
+natural history at Petrograd, and afterwards for almost forty-five years
+professor of philosophy and economy in Göttingen. His _History of
+Inventions_ is well known in the English translation of it. This work
+entitled the author to be regarded as the founder of scientific technology.
+
+BECKX (beks), Pierre Jean, general of the order of Jesuits, born near
+Louvain, Belgium, 1795, died 1887. The success of the Jesuits, especially
+in non-Catholic countries, was greatly due to his tact and energy.
+
+BECQUEREL (bek-rel), Antoine César, French physicist, born 1788, died 1878.
+He served as an officer of engineers, and retired in 1815, after which he
+devoted himself to the study of electricity, especially electro-chemistry.
+In 1837 he was awarded the Copley medal of the Royal Society of London. He
+refuted the 'theory of contact' by which Volta explained the action of his
+pile or battery. Becquerel may be considered one of the creators of
+electro-chemistry.--His son, Alexandre Edmond (1820-91), was associated
+with him in much of his work. He was the author of a work _La Lumière, ses
+causes et ses effets_ (1867-8).
+
+BECQUEREL RAYS (bek-rel), the rays given out by radium and other
+'radioactive' substances, so named from their discoverer, the French
+physicist, Henri Becquerel (born 1852, died 1908), son of Alexandre Edmond
+Becquerel. They were first detected in 1896, as proceeding from uranium
+salts; and it is only by uranium, thorium, radium, and one or two other
+elements that they are emitted, these bodies giving them out spontaneously
+and without any apparent loss of radioactive power or change of any kind.
+The Becquerel rays are invisible, and only known by their effects, which
+are of various kinds: thus, like the Röntgen rays, they blacken a
+photographic plate, even after passing through glass or other intervening
+substances; they cause a number of different substances to give out a
+fluorescent light, and they render air a conductor of electricity. Like the
+Röntgen rays, they act strongly on the human skin. They consist of a
+mixture of [alpha]-, [beta]-, and [gamma]-rays. See _Radio-activity_;
+_Radium_.
+
+BECSE (bech´e), OLD, a town of Hungary, 48 miles S. of Szegedin, on the
+right bank of the Theiss. Pop. 19,000.--NEW BECSE, a market-town on the
+left bank of the Theiss, 5 miles E. of Old Becse. Pop. 7725, or, with the
+immediately adjoining village of Franyova, about 15,000. Both towns carry
+on an extensive trade in grain.
+
+BECSKEREK (bech´ke-rek), two towns of South Hungary.--_Great Becskerek_,
+now in Yugo-Slavia, is on the Bega, 45 miles N. of Belgrade, with which it
+communicates by the Bega Canal. Trade in cattle and agricultural produce.
+Pop. 26,407.--_Little Becskerek_, now belonging to Roumania, is 11 miles by
+railway from Temesvar. Pop. 3660.
+
+BED, BEDSTEAD, an article of furniture to sleep or rest on. The term _bed_
+properly is applied to a large flat bag filled with feathers, down, wool,
+or other soft material, and also to a mattress supported on spiral springs
+or form of elastic chains or wirework which is raised from the ground on a
+bedstead. The term, however, sometimes includes the bedstead or frame for
+supporting the bed. The forms of beds are necessarily very various--every
+period and country having its own form of bed. Air-beds and water-beds are
+much used by invalids.
+
+BED, in geology, a layer or stratum, usually a stratum of considerable
+thickness.
+
+BEDA. See _Bede_.
+
+BÉDARIEUX (b[=a]-där-i-_eu_), a thriving town, Southern France, department
+Hérault, situated on the Orb. Pop. 6186.
+
+BED-BUG. See _Bug_.
+
+BED-CHAMBER, LORDS OF THE, officers of the royal household of Britain under
+the Groom of the Stole. They are twelve in number, and wait a week each in
+turn. In the case of a queen regnant these posts are occupied by ladies,
+called _Ladies of the Bed-chamber_.
+
+BEDDOES (bed´[=o]z), Thomas, physician and author, born 1760; educated at
+Oxford, London, and Edinburgh. After taking his doctor's degree, and
+visiting Paris, he was appointed professor of chemistry at Oxford. There he
+published some excellent chemical treatises, and essays upon such subjects
+as the calculus, sea-scurvy, consumption, catarrh, and fever. His expressed
+sympathy with the French revolutionists led to his retirement from his
+professorship in 1792, soon after which he published his _Observations on
+the Nature of Demonstrative Evidence_, and the exceedingly popular _History
+of Isaac Jenkins_. In 1794 he married a sister of Maria Edgeworth; and in
+1798, with the pecuniary aid of Wedgwood, opened a pneumatic institution
+for curing phthisical and other diseases by inhalation of gases. It
+speedily became an ordinary hospital, but was noteworthy as connected with
+the discovery of the properties of nitrous oxide, and as having been
+superintended by the young Humphry Davy. Beddoes' essays _On Consumption_
+(1779) and _On Fever_ (1807), and his _Hygeia_ (3 vols., 1807) had a high
+contemporary repute. He died in 1808.
+
+BEDDOES, Thomas Lovell, poet, son of above, born 1803, died 1849; published
+_The Bride's Tragedy_ while a student at Oxford, studied medicine, and
+lived long abroad. His work was largely fragmentary, but his posthumous
+_Death's Jest-book, or The Fool's Tragedy_ (1850), received the high praise
+of such judges as Landor and Browning. His _Poems_, with memoir, appeared
+in 1851.
+
+BEDE, BEDA, or BÆDA, known as the Venerable, English historian and
+theologian, born in 672 or 673 in the neighbourhood of Monkwearmouth,
+County Durham; educated at St. Peter's Monastery, Wearmouth; took deacon's
+orders in his nineteenth year at St. Paul's Monastery, Jarrow, and was
+ordained priest at thirty by John of Beverley, Bishop of Hexham. His life
+was spent in studious seclusion, the chief events in it being the
+production of homilies, hymns, lives of saints, commentaries, and works in
+history, chronology, grammar, &c. He was the most learned Englishman of his
+day, and in some sense the father of English history, his most important
+work being his _Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum_ (or _Ecclesiastical
+History of England_), afterwards translated by King Alfred into
+Anglo-Saxon. Besides his familiarity with Latin, he knew Greek and had some
+acquaintance with Hebrew. Most of his writings were on scriptural and
+ecclesiastical subjects, but he also wrote on chronology, physical science,
+grammar, &c., and had considerable ability in the writing of Latin verse.
+He died in 735, an interesting record of his closing days being preserved
+in a letter by his pupil Cuthbert. His body was after a lapse of time
+removed from Jarrow church to Durham, but of the shrine which formerly
+enclosed them only the Latin inscription remains, ending with the
+verse--'Hac sunt in fossa Bedæ venerabilis ossa'. On 13th Nov., 1899, Leo
+XIII decreed that the feast of the Venerable Bede should be celebrated in
+the Church on 27th May. An edition of the whole works of Bede (12 vols.),
+with an English translation, was prepared by Dr. Giles
+(1843-4).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gehle. _De Bedæ Venerabilis Vita et Scriptis_;
+Browne, _The Venerable Bede_; C. Plummer's introduction to his edition of
+the _Historia Ecclesiastica_.
+
+BEDEGUAR, or BEDEGAR (bed´e-gär), a spongy excrescence or gall, sometimes
+termed sweet-brier sponge, found on various species of roses, and produced
+by several insects as receptacles for their eggs, especially by the _Cynips
+rosæ_, It was once thought to be a diuretic and vermifuge.
+
+BEDELL´, William, a celebrated Irish bishop, born in Essex in 1570. In 1604
+he went to Venice as chaplain to Sir Henry Wotton, and remained eight
+years. After holding the living of Horingsheath from 1615-27, he became
+Provost of Trinity College, Dublin, and in 1629 Bishop of Kilmore and
+Ardagh, though he resigned the latter of the united sees in 1630. He set
+himself to reform abuses and promote the spread of Protestantism, procured
+the translation of the Old Testament into Irish, and by his tact and wisdom
+conciliated the adherents of both creeds. He underwent a brief imprisonment
+on the breaking out of the rebellion in 1641, and died in the year
+following. His biography was written by Bishop Burnet.
+
+BE´DER WARE. See _Bidery_.
+
+BED´FORD, a municipal and, until 1918, a parliamentary borough, England,
+county town of Bedfordshire, on the Ouse. The chief buildings are the law
+courts, a range of public schools, a large infirmary, county jail, &c., and
+the churches. The town is rich in charities and educational institutions,
+the most prominent being the Bedford Charity, embracing grammar and other
+schools, and richly endowed. There is an extensive manufactory of
+agricultural implements; lace is also made, and there is a good trade. John
+Bunyan was born at Elstow, a village near the town, and it was at Bedford
+that he lived, preached, and was imprisoned. Bedford gives its name to a
+parliamentary division of the county. Pop. 40,247.--_Bedfordshire_ or
+_Beds_, the county, is bounded by Northampton, Bucks, Herts, Cambridge, and
+Huntingdon; area, 302,942 acres, of which 260,000 are under tillage or in
+permanent pasture. Chalk hills, forming a portion of the Chilterns, cross
+it on the south; north of this is a belt of sand; the soil of the vale of
+Bedford, consisting mostly of clay and loam, is very fertile; and the
+meadows on the Ouse, Ivel, and other streams furnish rich pasturage.
+Two-thirds of the soil is under tillage. Besides the usual cereal and other
+crops, culinary vegetables are extensively cultivated for the London
+market. Principal manufactures: agricultural implements, and straw-plait
+for hats, which is made up principally at Dunstable and Luton. The county
+returns three members to Parliament (divisions: Bedford, Luton, Midlands).
+Pop. (1921), 206,478.
+
+BEDFORD, John, Duke of, one of the younger sons of Henry IV, King of
+England; famous as a statesman and a warrior. He defeated the French fleet
+in 1416, commanded an expedition to Scotland in 1417, and was lieutenant of
+England during the absence of Henry V in France. On the king's death he
+became Regent of France, and for several years his policy was as successful
+as it was able and vigorous, the victory of Verneuil in 1424 attesting his
+generalship. The greatest stain on his memory is his execution of the Maid
+of Orleans (Joan of Arc) in 1431. He died in 1435 at Rouen, and was buried
+in the cathedral of that city.
+
+BEDFORD LEVEL, a large tract of marshy land in England, of about 400,000
+acres total area, comprising 63,000 in Norfolk, 30,000 in Suffolk, 50,000
+in Huntingdon, the Peterborough fen in Northampton, the Holland district in
+Lincolnshire, and most of the Isle of Ely in Cambridge. It derives its name
+from Francis, Earl of Bedford, who in 1634 made an agreement with Charles I
+for the drainage of the Level, in consideration of receiving 95,000 acres
+of the reclaimed land. A great part of the Level is under cultivation, and
+produces grain, flax, and cole-seed; the remainder yields a winter harvest
+of wild-fowl for the London market. See _Fenland_.
+
+BEDFORDSHIRE REGIMENT, THE, raised in 1688 on the approach of the Prince of
+Orange, suffered severely at Blenheim, and distinguished itself in a marked
+manner at the siege of Lille. In 1797 it went to Scotland and there
+recruited 1000 'parish boys' under sixteen years old, who later made
+excellent soldiers. The regiment shared in the Chitral and South African
+(1900-2) campaigns; on going to the front in 1914, sustained heavy losses
+at Givenchy, and distinguished itself at Ypres and the Aisne.
+
+BEDIVERE, the last knight of the Round Table (q.v.). See _Morte d'Arthur_.
+
+BED´LAM, a corruption of Bethlehem (Hospital), the name of a religious
+house in London, converted, after the general suppression by Henry VIII,
+into a hospital for lunatics. The original Bedlam stood in Bishopsgate
+Street; its modern successor in St. George's Fields was opened in 1815,
+having been built on the site of the notorious tavern called 'The Dog and
+the Duck'. The lunatics were at one time treated as little better than wild
+beasts, and hence Bedlam came to be typical of any scene of wild confusion.
+The average number of patients is about 300.
+
+BED´LINGTON, a town and urban district of England, in Northumberland, near
+the mouth of the Blyth, and not far from the seaport of Blyth, with
+collieries, ironworks, &c. Pop. 25,440.
+
+BEDLINGTON TERRIER, an English Dog, deriving its name from Bedlington, in
+Northumberland, having first become well known as a favourite among the
+miners of that place. It is a dog of moderate size, head rather long, with
+a light, silky tuft on top, ears hanging close to the cheeks, legs
+moderately long and strong, tail tapering to the point, which is almost
+bare; colour, dark blue, blue and tan, liver, liver and tan, sandy, or
+sandy and tan; courageous, intelligent, and generally useful.
+
+BEDLIS. See _Betlis_.
+
+_Printed and bound in Great Britain_
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Corrections made to printed original.
+
+Article Barthélmy-Saint-Hilaire. "Buddhism, Mohammed and Mohammedanism":
+'Mohammedansim' in original.
+
+Article Baryta. "barium carbonate or witherite (BaCO_3)": 'BaCo_3' in
+original.
+
+Article Bass. "from its voracity sea-wolf": 'it voracity' in original.
+
+Article Batoum. "in July, 1886, the Russian Government ...": 'Goverment' in
+original.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1
+Part 3, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW GRESHAM ENCYC. VOL 1 PART 3 ***
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+   </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 3
+       Atrebates to Bedlis
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: October 15, 2010 [EBook #34075]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW GRESHAM ENCYC. VOL 1 PART 3 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #ccccff;">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber's note:
+</td>
+<td>
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage.<br /><br />
+
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<h2>THE</h2>
+
+<h1>NEW . GRESHAM</h1>
+
+<h1>ENCYCLOPEDIA</h1>
+
+<h2>VOLUME . I . PART . 3</h2>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:19%;">
+      <a href="images/image000.png"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image000.png"
+      alt="Publishers Mark" title="Publishers Mark" /></a>
+  </div>
+<h2><i>The</i> GRESHAM . PUBLISHING<br />
+COMPANY . <i>Limited</i></h2>
+
+<h3>66 CHANDOS STREET . STRAND<br />
+LONDON W.C.2.<br />
+1922</h3>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h3>LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS</h3>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<h3>VOLUME I PART 3</h3>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p class="cenhead">PLATES</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width:60%" summary="List of Plates." title="List of Plates.">
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle"> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> Page</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Bacteria</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> <a href="#page348">348</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="cenhead">MAPS IN COLOUR</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width:60%" summary="List of Maps in Colour." title="List of Maps in Colour.">
+
+<tr><td class="hspcsingle"><span class="sc">Australia</span> </td><td class="hspcsingle" align="right"> <a href="#page316">316</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h3>KEY TO PRONUNCIATION</h3>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+  <p>The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by
+  marking the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system
+  of transliteration, to which the following is the Key:&mdash;</p>
+
+<h3>VOWELS</h3>
+
+  <p>&#x101;, as in f<i>a</i>te, or in b<i>a</i>re.</p>
+
+  <p>ä, as in <i>a</i>lms, Fr. <i>â</i>me, Ger. B<i>a</i>hn = á of Indian
+  names.</p>
+
+  <p>a<span class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>, the same
+  sound short or medium, as in Fr. b<i>a</i>l, Ger. M<i>a</i>nn.</p>
+
+  <p>a, as in f<i>a</i>t.</p>
+
+  <p>a<span class="x1"><span class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>, as in
+  f<i>a</i>ll.</p>
+
+  <p><i>a</i>, obscure, as in rur<i>a</i>l, similar to <i>u</i> in
+  b<i>u</i>t, &#x117; in h<i>e</i>r: common in Indian names.</p>
+
+  <p>&#x113;, as in m<i>e</i> = <i>i</i> in mach<i>i</i>ne.</p>
+
+  <p>e, as in m<i>e</i>t.</p>
+
+  <p>&#x117;, as in h<i>e</i>r.</p>
+
+  <p>&#x12B;, as in p<i>i</i>ne, or as <i>ei</i> in Ger. m<i>ei</i>n.</p>
+
+  <p>i, as in p<i>i</i>n, also used for the short sound corresponding to
+  &#x113;, as in French and Italian words.</p>
+
+  <p><i>eu</i>, a long sound as in Fr. j<i>eû</i>ne = Ger. long <i>ö</i>,
+  as in S<i>ö</i>hne, G<i>ö</i>the (Goethe).</p>
+
+  <p>eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p<i>eu</i> = Ger.
+  <i>ö</i> short.</p>
+
+  <p>&#x14D;, as in n<i>o</i>te, m<i>oa</i>n.</p>
+
+  <p>o, as in n<i>o</i>t, s<i>o</i>ft&mdash;that is, short or medium.</p>
+
+  <p>ö, as in m<i>o</i>ve, tw<i>o</i>.</p>
+
+  <p>&#x16B; as in t<i>u</i>be.</p>
+
+  <p>u, as in t<i>u</i>b: similar to &#x117; and also to <i>a</i>.</p>
+
+  <p>u<span class="x1"><span class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>, as in
+  b<i>u</i>ll.</p>
+
+  <p>ü, as in Sc. ab<i>u</i>ne = Fr. <i>û</i> as in d<i>û</i>, Ger.
+  <i>ü</i> long as in gr<i>ü</i>n, B<i>ü</i>hne.</p>
+
+  <p>u<span class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>, the
+  corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b<i>u</i>t, Ger.
+  M<i>ü</i>ller.</p>
+
+  <p>oi, as in <i>oi</i>l.</p>
+
+  <p>ou, as in p<i>ou</i>nd; or as <i>au</i> in Ger. H<i>au</i>s.</p>
+
+<h3>CONSONANTS</h3>
+
+  <p>Of the <i>consonants</i>, <b>b,</b> <b>d,</b> <b>f,</b> <b>h,</b>
+  <b>j,</b> <b>k,</b> <b>l,</b> <b>m,</b> <b>n,</b> <b>ng,</b> <b>p,</b>
+  <b>sh,</b> <b>t,</b> <b>v,</b> <b>z,</b> always have their common English
+  sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words. The letter <b>c</b> is
+  not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, <b>s</b> or <b>k</b>
+  being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require
+  explanation are the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <p>ch is always as in ri<i>ch</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><i>d</i>, nearly as <i>th</i> in <i>th</i>is = Sp. <i>d</i> in
+  Ma<i>d</i>ri<i>d</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p>g is always hard, as in <i>g</i>o.</p>
+
+  <p><i>h</i> represents the guttural in Scotch lo<i>ch</i>, Ger.
+  na<i>ch</i>, also other similar gutturals.</p>
+
+  <p>n<span class="x1"><span class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>, Fr. nasal
+  <i>n</i> as in bo<i>n</i>.</p>
+
+  <p>r represents both English <i>r</i>, and <i>r</i> in foreign words,
+  which is generally much more strongly trilled.</p>
+
+  <p>s, always as in <i>s</i>o.</p>
+
+  <p>th, as <i>th</i> in <i>th</i>in.</p>
+
+  <p><i>th</i>, as <i>th</i> in <i>th</i>is.</p>
+
+  <p>w always consonantal, as in <i>w</i>e.</p>
+
+  <p>x = ks, which are used instead.</p>
+
+  <p>y always consonantal, as in <i>y</i>ea (Fr. <i>ligne</i> would be
+  re-written l&#x113;ny).</p>
+
+  <p>zh, as <i>s</i> in plea<i>s</i>ure = Fr. <i>j</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p><!-- Page 303 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page303"></a>[303]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Atreb´ates</b>, ancient inhabitants of that part of Gallia Belgica,
+  afterwards called <i>Artois</i>. A colony of them settled in Britain, in
+  a part of Berkshire and Oxfordshire.</p>
+
+  <p><b>At´rek</b>, a river of Asia, forming the boundary between Persia
+  and the Russian Transcaspian territory, and flowing into the Caspian;
+  length 250 miles.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atreus</b> (at´r&#x16B;s), in Greek mythology, a son of Pelops and
+  Hippodam&#x12B;a, and grandson of Tant&#x103;lus. Atreus was the father
+  of Agamemnon, according to Homer; other writers call him Agamemnon's
+  grandfather. He succeeded Eurystheus, his father-in-law, as King of
+  Myc&#x113;næ, and in revenge for the seduction of his wife by his brother
+  Thyestes gave a banquet at which the latter partook of the flesh of his
+  own sons. Atreus was killed by Ægisthus, a son of Thyestes. The tragic
+  events connected with this family furnished materials to some of the
+  great Greek dramatists.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atri</b> (ancient, <b>Hadria</b>), an episcopal city in the
+  province of Teramo, Italy, 8 miles from the Adriatic. It has an old
+  (thirteenth century) Gothic cathedral, ruins of ancient Roman walls and
+  buildings, and a palace of the Agraviva family, who were Dukes of Atri
+  from 1398 to 1775. Pop. 14,043.</p>
+
+  <p><b>At´riplex.</b> See <i>Orache</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´trium</b>, the entrance-hall and most important apartment of a
+  Roman house, generally ornamented with statues, pictures, and
+  <i>imagines</i> or ancestral likenesses, which were portrait masks in wax
+  kept in cases. The <i>atrium</i> formed the reception-room for visitors
+  and clients. It was lighted by the <i>compluvium</i>, an opening in the
+  roof, towards which the roof sloped so as to throw the rainwater into a
+  cistern in the floor called the <i>impluvium</i>.</p>
+
+  <p>In zoology the term is applied to the large chamber or 'cloaca' into
+  which the intestine opens in the Tunicata.</p>
+
+  <p><b>At´ropa</b>, the nightshade genus of plants. See
+  <i>Belladonna</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>At´rophy</b>, a wasting of the flesh due to some interference with
+  the nutritive processes. It may arise from a variety of causes, such as
+  permanent, oppressive, and exhausting passions, organic disease, a want
+  of proper food or of pure air, suppurations in important organs, copious
+  evacuations of blood, saliva, semen, &amp;c., and it is also sometimes
+  produced by poisons, for example arsenic, mercury, lead, in miners,
+  painters, gilders, &amp;c. In old age the whole frame except the heart
+  undergoes atrophic change, and it is of frequent occurrence in infancy as
+  a consequence of improper, unwholesome food, exposure to cold, damp, or
+  impure air, &amp;c. Single organs or parts of the body may be affected
+  irrespective of the general state of nutrition; thus local atrophy may be
+  superinduced by palsies, the pressure of tumours upon the nerves of the
+  limbs, or by artificial pressure, as in the feet of Chinese ladies.</p>
+
+  <p><b>At´ropin</b>, or <b>At´ropine</b>, a crystalline alkaloid obtained
+  from the deadly nightshade (<i>Atr&#x14F;pa Belladonna</i>). It is very
+  poisonous, and produces persistent dilation of the pupil.</p>
+
+  <p><b>At´ropos</b>, the eldest of the three Fates (the others being
+  Clotho and Lach&#x115;sis), who cuts the thread of life with her
+  shears.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Attaché</b> (at´a-sh&#x101;), a junior member of the diplomatic
+  services attached to an embassy or legation.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Attach´ment</b>, in English law, a taking of the person, goods, or
+  estate by virtue of a writ or precept. It is distinguished from an
+  <i>arrest</i> by proceeding out of a higher court by precept or writ,
+  whereas the latter proceeds out of an inferior court by precept only. An
+  arrest lies only against the body of a man, whereas an attachment lies
+  often against the goods only, and sometimes against the body and goods.
+  It differs from a <i>distress</i> in that an attachment does not extend
+  to lands, while a distress cannot touch the body.&mdash;<i>Foreign
+  attachment</i> answers to what in Scotland is termed arrestment, by means
+  of which a creditor may obtain the security of the goods or other
+  personal property of his debtor in the hands of a third person for the
+  purpose of enforcing the appearance of the debtor to answer to an action,
+  and afterwards, upon his continued default, of obtaining the property
+  absolutely in satisfaction of the demand.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Attack´</b>, the opening act of hostility by a force seeking to
+  dislodge an enemy from its position. It is considered more advantageous
+  to offer than to await attack, even in a defensive war. The historic
+  forms of attack are: (1) the parallel; (2) the form in which both wings
+  attack and the centre is kept back; (3) the form in which the centre is
+  pushed forward and the wings kept back; (4) the famous oblique mode,
+  dating at least from Epaminondas, and employed by Frederick the Great,
+  where one wing advances to engage, whilst the other is kept back, and
+  occupies the attention of the enemy by pretending an attack. Napoleon
+  preferred to mass heavy columns against an enemy's centre. The forms of
+  attack have changed with the weapons used. In the days of the pike heavy
+  masses were the rule, but the use of the musket led to an extended
+  battle-front to give effect to the fire. The advance in long and slender
+  lines which grew out of this has been not less famous in the annals of
+  British attack than the square formation in those of defence. In the
+  European War (1914-18) the Germans often attacked in mass-formation; but
+  British attacks were usually carried out by successive <i>waves</i>; one
+  wave secured its objective <!-- Page 304 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page304"></a>[304]</span>and consolidated it while another wave
+  passed through to attack a more advanced objective. Artillery preparation
+  became of increasingly great importance; it broke down the enemy's wire,
+  counteracted his artillery-fire, and made his infantry keep under cover.
+  In trench-to-trench attacks machine-guns and trench-mortars were of great
+  value, and many casualties were avoided by the skilful use of tanks in
+  the attack. But it is still a fundamental principle of tactics that the
+  infantry is the chief factor in the attack, and that no attack can be
+  considered overwhelmingly successful without the use of the bayonet.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Attain´der</b>, the legal consequences of a sentence of death or
+  outlawry pronounced against a person for treason or felony, the person
+  being said to be <i>attainted</i>. It resulted in forfeiture of estate
+  and 'corruption of blood', rendering the party incapable of inheriting
+  property or transmitting it to heirs; but these results now no longer
+  follow. Formerly persons were often subjected to attainder by a special
+  Bill or Act passed in Parliament called <i>Bills of Attainder</i>, the
+  last being passed in 1798, in the case of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, one of
+  the Irish rebel leaders.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Attaint´</b>, a writ at common law against a jury for a false
+  verdict, finally abolished in England in 1825.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Attale´a</b>, a genus of American palms, comprising the piassava
+  palm, which produces coquilla-nuts.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Att´alus</b>, the names of three kings of ancient Pergamus (241-133
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), the last of whom bequeathed his kingdom
+  to the Romans. They were all patrons of art and literature.</p>
+
+  <p><b>At´tar</b>, in the East Indies, a general term for a perfume from
+  flowers; in Europe generally used only of the <i>attar</i> or <i>otto of
+  roses</i>, an essential oil made from <i>Rosa centifolia</i>, the
+  hundred-leaved or cabbage-rose, <i>R. damasc&#x113;na</i>, or
+  damask-rose, <i>R. mosch&#x101;ta</i>, or musk-rose, &amp;c., 100,000
+  roses yielding only 180 grains of attar. Cashmere, Shiraz, and Damascus
+  are celebrated for its manufacture, and there are extensive rose farms in
+  the valley of Kezanlik in Roumelia and at Ghazipur in Benares. The oil is
+  at first greenish, but afterwards it presents various tints of green,
+  yellow, and red. It is concrete at all ordinary temperatures, but becomes
+  liquid about 84° F. It consists of two substances, a hydrocarbon and an
+  oxygenated oil, and is frequently adulterated with the oils of rhodium,
+  sandal-wood, and geranium, with the addition of camphor or
+  spermaceti.</p>
+
+  <p><b>At´terbury</b>, Francis, an English prelate, born in 1662, and
+  educated at Westminster and Oxford. In 1687 he took his degree of M.A.,
+  and appeared as a controversialist in a defence of the character of
+  Luther, entitled, <i>Considerations on the Spirit of Martin Luther</i>,
+  &amp;c. He also assisted his pupil, the Hon. Charles Boyle, in his famous
+  controversy with Bentley on the <i>Epistles of Phalaris</i>. Having taken
+  orders in 1691 he settled in London, became chaplain to William and Mary,
+  preacher of Bridewell, and lecturer of St. Bride's. Controversy was
+  congenial to him, and in 1706 he commenced one with Dr. Wake, which
+  lasted four years, on the rights, privileges, and powers of convocations.
+  For this service he received the thanks of the lower house of convocation
+  and the degree of Doctor of Divinity from Oxford. Soon after the
+  accession of Queen Anne he was made Dean of Carlisle, aided in the
+  defence of the famous Sacheverell, and wrote <i>A Representation of the
+  Present State of Religion</i>. In 1712 he was made Dean of Christ Church,
+  and in 1713 Bishop of Rochester and Dean of Westminster. After the death
+  of the queen in 1714 he distinguished himself by his opposition to George
+  I; and, having entered into a correspondence with the Pretender's party,
+  was apprehended in Aug., 1722, and committed to the Tower. Being banished
+  the kingdom, he settled in Paris, where he chiefly occupied himself in
+  study and in correspondence with men of letters. But even here, in 1725,
+  he was actively engaged in fomenting discontent in the Scottish
+  Highlands. He died in 1731, and his body was privately interred in
+  Westminster Abbey. His sermons and letters are marked by ease and grace;
+  but as a critic and a controversialist he is rather dexterous and popular
+  than accurate and profound.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Attercliffe</b>, a parliamentary division of the borough of
+  Sheffield.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Attic</b>, an architectural term variously used. An <i>Attic
+  base</i> is a peculiar kind of base, used by the ancient architects in
+  the Ionic order and by Palladio and some others in the Doric. An <i>Attic
+  story</i> is a low story in the upper part of a house rising above the
+  main portion of the building. In ordinary language an attic is an
+  apartment lighted by a window in the roof.</p>
+
+  <p><b>At´tica</b>, a State of ancient Greece, the capital of which is
+  Athens. The territory was triangular in shape, with Cape Sunium (Colonna)
+  as its apex and the ranges of Mounts Cithæron and Parnes as its base. On
+  the north these ranges separated it from B&oelig;otia; on the west it was
+  bounded by Megaris and the Saronic Gulf; on the east by the Ægean. Its
+  most marked physical divisions consisted of the highlands, midland
+  district, and coast district, with the two famous plains of Eleusis and
+  of Athens. The Cephissus and Ilissus, though small, were its chief
+  streams; its principal hills, Cithæron, Parnes, Hymettus, Pentelicus, and
+  Laurium. Its soil has probably undergone considerable deterioration, but
+  produced good fruit, especially <!-- Page 305 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page305"></a>[305]</span>olives and figs. These are still
+  cultivated, as well as the vine and cereals, but Attica is better suited
+  for pasture than tillage. According to tradition the earliest inhabitants
+  of Attica lived in a savage manner until the time of Cecrops, who came,
+  1550 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, with a colony from Egypt, taught
+  them all the essentials of civilization, and founded Athens. One of
+  Cecrops' descendants founded eleven other cities in the regions round,
+  and there followed a period of mutual hostility. To Theseus is assigned
+  the honour of uniting these cities in a confederacy, with Athens as the
+  capital, thus forming the Attic State. After the death of Codrus, 1068
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, the monarchy was abolished, and the
+  government vested in archons elected by the nobility, at first for life,
+  in 752 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> for ten years, and in 683 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> for one year only. The severe constitution of
+  Draco was succeeded in 594 by the milder code of Solon, the democratic
+  elements of which, after the brief tyranny of the Pisistratids, were
+  emphasized and developed by Clisthenes. He divided the people into ten
+  classes, and made the Senate consist of 500 persons, establishing as the
+  Government an oligarchy modified by popular control. Then came the
+  splendid era of the Persian War, which elevated Athens to the summit of
+  fame. Miltiades at Marathon, and Themistocles at Salamis, conquered the
+  Persians by land and by sea. The chief external danger being removed, the
+  rights of the people were enlarged; the archons and other magistrates
+  were chosen from all classes without distinction. The period from the
+  Persian War to the time of Alexander (500 to 336 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>) was most remarkable for the development of the
+  Athenian constitution. Attica appears to have contained a territory of
+  nearly 850 sq. miles, with some 500,000 inhabitants, 360,000 of whom were
+  slaves, while the inhabitants of the city numbered 180,000. Cimon and
+  Pericles (444 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) raised Athens to its point
+  of greatest splendour, though under the latter began the Peloponnesian
+  War, which ended with the conquest of Athens by the Lacedæmonians. The
+  succeeding tyranny of the Thirty, under the protection of a Spartan
+  garrison, was overthrown by Thrasybulus, with a temporary partial
+  restoration of the power of Athens; but the battle of Cheronæa (338 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>) made Attica, in common with the rest of Greece,
+  a dependency of Macedon. The attempts at revolt after the death of
+  Alexander were crushed, and in 260 B.C. Attica was still under the sway
+  of Antigonus Gonatas, the Macedonian king. A period of freedom under the
+  shelter of the Achæan League then ensued, but their support of
+  Mithridates led, in 146 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, to the
+  subjugation of the Grecian States by Rome. After the division of the
+  Roman Empire, Attica belonged to the Empire of the East until, in <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 396, it was conquered by Alaric the Goth and the
+  country devastated. Attica and B&oelig;otia now form a nome or province
+  of the kingdom of Greece, with a population of 407,063.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Sir J.&nbsp;G. Frazer, <i>Pausanias's
+  Description of Greece</i>, vols. ii and v; C. Wordsworth, <i>Athens and
+  Attica</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>At´ticus</b>, Titus Pomponius, a Roman of great wealth and culture,
+  born 109 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and died 32 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> On the death of his father he removed to Athens
+  to avoid participation in the civil war, to which his brother Sulpicius
+  had fallen a victim. There he so identified himself with Greek life and
+  literature as to receive the surname Atticus. It was his principle never
+  to mix in politics, and he lived undisturbed amid the strife of factions.
+  Sulla and the Marian party, Cæsar and Pompey, Brutus and Antony, were
+  alike friendly to him, and he was in favour with Augustus. Of his close
+  friendship with Cicero proof is given in the series of letters addressed
+  to him by Cicero. He married at the age of fifty-three, and had one
+  daughter, Pomponia, named by Cicero Atticula and Attica. He reached the
+  age of seventy-seven years without sickness, but, being then attacked by
+  an incurable disease, ended his life by voluntary starvation. He was a
+  type of the refined Epicurean, and an author of some contemporary repute,
+  though none of his works have reached us.&mdash;The name Atticus was
+  given to Addison by Pope, in a well-known passage (Prologue to the
+  <i>Satires</i>, addressed to Dr. Arbuthnot).</p>
+
+  <p><b>At´tila</b> (in Ger. <i>Etzel</i>), the famous leader of the Huns,
+  was the son of Mundzuk, and the successor, in conjunction with his
+  brother Bleda, of his uncle Roua. The rule of the two leaders extended
+  over a great part of Northern Asia and Europe, and they threatened the
+  Eastern Empire, and twice compelled the weak Theodosius II to purchase an
+  inglorious peace. Attila caused his brother Bleda to be murdered (444),
+  and in a short time extended his dominion over all the peoples of Germany
+  and exacted tribute from the Eastern and Western emperors. The Vandals,
+  the Ostrogoths, the Gepidæ, and a part of the Franks united under his
+  banners, and he speedily formed a pretext for leading them against the
+  Empire of the East. He laid waste all the countries from the Black to the
+  Adriatic Sea, and in three encounters defeated the Emperor Theodosius,
+  but could not take Constantinople. Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece all
+  submitted to the invader, who destroyed seventy flourishing cities; and
+  Theodosius was obliged to purchase a peace. Turning to the west, the
+  'scourge of God', as his defeated enemies termed him, crossed with an
+  immense army the Rhine, the Moselle, and the Seine, came to the Loire,
+  and laid siege to Orleans. The inhabitants of this city repelled the
+  first attack, and the united forces of the Romans under Aetius, and of
+  the Visigoths under <!-- Page 306 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page306"></a>[306]</span>their king, Theodoric, compelled Attila to
+  raise the siege. He retreated to Champagne, and waited for the enemy in
+  the plains of Châlons. In apparent opposition to the prophecies of the
+  soothsayers the ranks of the Romans and Goths were broken; but when the
+  victory of Attila seemed assured, the Gothic prince Thorismond, the son
+  of Theodoric, poured down from the neighbouring height upon the Huns, who
+  were defeated with great slaughter. Rather irritated than discouraged, he
+  sought in the following year a new opportunity to seize upon Italy, and
+  demanded Honoria, the sister of Valentinian III, in marriage, with half
+  the kingdom as a dowry. When this demand was refused he conquered and
+  destroyed Aquileia, Padua, Vicenza, Verona, and Bergamo, laid waste the
+  plains of Lombardy, and was marching on Rome when Pope Leo I went with
+  the Roman ambassadors to his camp and succeeded in obtaining a peace.
+  Attila went back to Hungary, and died on the night of his marriage with
+  Hilda or Ildico (453), either from the bursting of a blood-vessel or by
+  her hand. The description that Jordanès (or Jornandes) has left us of him
+  is in keeping with his Kalmuck-Tartar origin. He had a large head, a flat
+  nose, broad shoulders, and a short and ill-formed body; but his eyes were
+  brilliant, his walk stately, and his voice strong and
+  well-toned.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Thierry,
+  <i>Koenig Attila und seine Zeit</i>; E. Hutton, <i>Attila and the
+  Huns</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Attilly</b>, a village in France. See <i>Scarpe, Battle of
+  the</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Attleborough</b>, a manufacturing town of the United States, in
+  Massachusetts. Pop. 19,731.</p>
+
+  <p><b>At´tock</b>, a town and fort in Rawal Pindi district, Punjab,
+  overhanging the Indus at the point where it is joined by the Kabul River.
+  It is at the head of the steam navigation of the Indus, and is connected
+  with Lahore by railway. It is an important post on the military road to
+  the frontier. Pop. 2822.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Attor´ney</b>, a person appointed to do something for and in the
+  stead and name of another. An attorney may have <i>general</i> powers to
+  act for another; or his power may be <i>special</i>, and limited to a
+  particular act or acts. A special attorney is appointed by a deed called
+  a <i>power</i> or <i>letter of attorney</i>, specifying the acts which he
+  is authorized to do. An <i>attorney at law</i> is a person qualified to
+  appear for another before a court of law to prosecute or defend any
+  action on behalf of his client. The term in England was formerly applied
+  especially to those practising before the supreme courts of common law at
+  Westminster, and corresponded to the term <i>solicitor</i> used in courts
+  of Chancery; but this distinction was abolished in 1873, and
+  <i>solicitor</i> is now the regular term for all such legal agents. In
+  the United States the term is in common use, and is wide enough to
+  include what in England would be called barristers (or counsel), in
+  Scotland advocates, having indeed the general sense of lawyer. In America
+  women are admitted as attorneys.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Attorney-General</b>, in England and Ireland, the first law-officer
+  and legal adviser of the Crown, acting on its behalf in its revenue and
+  criminal proceedings, carrying on prosecutions in crimes that have a
+  public character, guarding the interests of charitable endowments, and
+  granting patents. He is <i>ex officio</i> the leader of the bar, and, as
+  a member of Parliament, has charge of all Government measures on legal
+  questions. The Solicitor-General holds a similar position, and may act in
+  his place. In Scotland the Attorney-General is called Lord-Advocate.
+  There are also Attorneys-General in the colonies. In the United States he
+  is head of the Department of Justice. The individual States have also an
+  Attorney-General.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Attrac´tion</b>, the tendency of all material bodies, whether
+  masses or particles, to approach each other, to unite, and to remain
+  united. Newton was the first to adopt the theory of a universal
+  attractive force, and to determine its laws. When bodies tend to come
+  together from sensible distances the tendency is termed either the
+  attraction of <i>gravitation</i>, <i>magnetism</i>, or
+  <i>electricity</i>, according to circumstances; when the attraction
+  operates at insensible distances it is known as <i>adhesion</i> with
+  respect to surfaces, as <i>cohesion</i> with respect to the particles of
+  a body, and as <i>affinity</i> when the particles of different bodies
+  tend together. It is by the attraction of gravitation that all bodies
+  fall to the earth when unsupported.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Newton, <i>Principia</i>; Thomson and
+  Tait, <i>Natural Philosophy</i>; Laplace, <i>Mécanique Céleste</i>;
+  Poynting, <i>The Mean Density of the Earth</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Attrek.</b> See <i>Atrek</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>At´tribute</b>, in philosophy, a quality or property of a
+  substance, as whiteness or hardness. A substance is known to us only as a
+  congeries of attributes.</p>
+
+  <p>In the fine arts an attribute is a symbol regularly accompanying and
+  marking out some personage. Thus the caduceus, purse, winged hat, and
+  sandals are attributes of Mercury, the trampled dragon that of St.
+  George.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Attwood</b>, George, <span class="scac">F.R.S.</span>, an English
+  mathematician, born 1746, died 1807, best known by his invention, called
+  after him <i>Attwood's Machine</i>, for verifying the laws of falling
+  bodies. It consists essentially of a freely-moving pulley over which runs
+  a fine cord with two equal weights suspended from the ends. A small
+  additional weight is laid upon one of them, causing it to descend with
+  uniform acceleration. Means are provided by which the added weight can be
+  removed at any point of the descent, thus <!-- Page 307 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page307"></a>[307]</span>allowing the motion to
+  continue from this point onward with uniform velocity. See
+  <i>Gravitation</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Atys</b>, or <b>Attis</b> (at'is), in classical mythology, the
+  shepherd lover of Cyb&#x115;le, who, having broken the vow of chastity
+  which he made her, castrated himself. In Asia Minor Atys seems to have
+  been a deity, with somewhat of the same character as Adonis. Catullus has
+  written a celebrated poem (Carmen 63) on the subject of Attis.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aubagne</b> (&#x14D;-ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n-y&#x117;), a town in France, department
+  of Bouches-du-Rhône, with manufactures of cottons, pottery, cloth. Pop.
+  8800.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aubaine, Droit d'</b> (drwä d&#x14D;-b&#x101;n). See <i>Droit
+  d'Aubaine</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aube</b> (&#x14D;b), a north-eastern French department; area 2326
+  sq. miles; pop. 227,745. The surface is undulating, and watered by the
+  Aube, &amp;c. The <span class="scac">N.</span> and <span
+  class="scac">N.W.</span> districts are bleak and infertile, the southern
+  districts remarkably fertile. A large extent of ground is under forests
+  and vineyards, and the soil is admirable for grain, pulse, and hemp. The
+  chief manufactures are worsted and hosiery. Troyes is the
+  capital.&mdash;The River Aube, which gives name to the department, rises
+  in Haute-Marne, flows <span class="scac">N.W.</span>, and after a course
+  of 113 miles joins the Seine.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aubenas</b> (&#x14D;b-nä), a town of France, department Ardèche,
+  with a trade in coal, silk, &amp;c. Pop. 7206.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auber</b> (&#x14D;-b&#x101;r), Daniel François Esprit, a French
+  operatic composer, born 1782, at Caen, in Normandy, died at Paris 1871.
+  He was originally intended for a mercantile career, but devoted himself
+  to music, studying under Cherubini. His first great success was his opera
+  <i>La Bergère Châtelaine</i>, produced in 1820. In 1822 he had associated
+  himself with Scribe as librettist, and other operas now followed in quick
+  succession. Chief among them were <i>Masaniello</i> or <i>La Muette de
+  Portici</i> (1828), <i>Fra Diavolo</i> (1830), <i>Lestocq</i> (1834),
+  <i>L'Ambassadrice</i> (1836), <i>Le Domino Noir</i> (1837), <i>Les
+  Diamants de la Couronne</i> (1841), <i>Marco Spada</i> (1853), <i>La
+  Fiancée du Roi de Garbe</i> (1864). Despite his success in
+  <i>Masaniello</i>, his peculiar field was comic opera, in which his
+  charming melodies, bearing strongly the stamp of the French national
+  character, his uniform grace and piquancy, won him a high place.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aubergine</b> (&#x14D;'b&#x117;r-zh&#x113;n), the fruit of the
+  eggplant (q.v.).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aubervilliers</b> (&#x14D;-b&#x101;r-v&#x113;l-y&#x101;), a
+  suburban locality of Paris, with a fort belonging to the defensive works
+  of the city. Pop. 37,558.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aubigné</b>, Merle d'. See <i>Merle d'Aubigné</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aubin</b> (&#x14D;-ban<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a town of Southern France, department
+  of Aveyron, 20 miles <span class="scac">N.E.</span> of Villefranche;
+  mining district: coal, sulphur, alum, and iron. Pop. 9574.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Au´brey</b>, John, <span class="scac">F.R.S.</span>, an English
+  antiquary, born in Wiltshire in 1625 or 1626, died about 1700. He was
+  educated at Oxford; collected materials for the <i>Monasticon
+  Anglicanum</i>, and afforded important assistance to Wood, the antiquary.
+  He left large collections of manuscripts, which have been used by
+  subsequent writers. His <i>Miscellanies</i> (London, 1696) contain much
+  curious information, but display credulity and superstition. His
+  <i>Survey of Surrey</i> was incorporated in Rawlinson's <i>Natural
+  History and Antiquities of the County of Surrey</i>, which was published
+  in 1719.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Au´burn</b>, the name of many places in America, the chief being a
+  handsome city of New York State, at the north end of Owasco Lake. It is
+  chiefly famous for its State prison, large enough to receive 1000
+  prisoners. In the town or vicinity various manufactures are carried on.
+  Pop. 36,142.&mdash;Another Auburn is in Maine, on the Androscoggin River,
+  a manufacturing town. Pop. (1920), 16,985.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aubusson</b> (&#x14D;-bu<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-s&#x14D;n), a town of the interior of
+  France, department Creuse, celebrated for its carpets. Pop. 7211.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aubusson</b> (&#x14D;-bu<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-s&#x14D;n), Pierre d', grand-master of
+  the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, born in 1423 of a noble French
+  family, served in early life against the Turks, then entered the order of
+  St. John, obtained a commandery, was made grand-prior, and in 1476
+  succeeded the Grand-master Orsini. In 1480 the Island of Rhodes, the
+  head-quarters of the order, was invaded by a Turkish army of 100,000 men.
+  The town was besieged for two months and then assaulted, but the Turks
+  were obliged to retire with great loss. He died at Rhodes in 1503.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auch</b> (&#x14D;sh), a town in S.W. France, capital of department
+  Gers; the seat of an archbishop, with one of the finest Gothic cathedrals
+  in France; manufactures linens, leather, &amp;c. Pop. 13,638.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auchenia</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>-k&#x113;'ni-a). See <i>Llama</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auchterar´der</b>, a town, Perthshire, Scotland, with manufactures
+  of tweeds, tartans, &amp;c. The opposition to the presentee to the church
+  of Auchterarder (1839) originated the struggle which ended in the
+  formation of the Free Church of Scotland. Pop. (1921), 3151.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auck´land</b>, a town of New Zealand, in the North Island, founded
+  in 1840, and situated on Waitemata Harbour, one of the finest harbours of
+  New Zealand, where the island is only 6 miles across, there being another
+  harbour (Manukau) on the opposite side of the isthmus. At dead low water
+  there is sufficient depth in the harbour for the largest steamers. The
+  working ship channel has an average depth of 36 feet, and varies in width
+  from 1 to 2 miles. The harbour has two good entrances, with a lighthouse;
+  and is defended by batteries. There are numerous wharves and jetties, and
+  two graving-docks, one of <!-- Page 308 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page308"></a>[308]</span>which&mdash;the Calliope Dock, opened in
+  1887&mdash;is one of the largest in the whole of the Southern Seas. Its
+  site is picturesque, the streets are spacious, and the public
+  buildings&mdash;churches, educational establishments, including a
+  university college&mdash;are numerous and handsome. It has a large and
+  increasing trade, there being connection with the chief places on the
+  island by rail, and regular communication with the other ports of the
+  colony, Australia, and Fiji by steam. It was formerly the capital of the
+  colony. Pop. (including suburbs) 157,750.&mdash;The provincial district
+  of Auckland forms the northern part of North Island, with an area of
+  25,364 sq. miles. Pop. 308,766. The surface is very diversified; volcanic
+  phenomena are common, including geysers, hot lakes, &amp;c.; rivers are
+  numerous; wool, timber, kauri-gum, &amp;c., are exported. Much gold has
+  been obtained in the Thames Valley and elsewhere.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auckland</b>, William Eden, Lord, an English statesman, born 1744;
+  educated at Eton and Oxford, called to the bar 1768, Under-Secretary of
+  State 1772, and in 1776 a lord of the Board of Trade. In 1778 he was
+  nominated in conjunction with Lord Howe and others to act as mediator
+  between Britain and the insurgent American colonies. He was afterwards
+  Secretary of State for Ireland, Ambassador Extraordinary to France,
+  Ambassador Extraordinary to the Netherlands, &amp;c. He was raised to the
+  peerage in 1788, and died in 1814.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auckland Islands</b>, a group of islands about 180 miles S. of New
+  Zealand, discovered in 1806, and belonging to Britain. They are of
+  volcanic origin and fertile; and the largest, which is 30 miles by 15,
+  has two good harbours. There are no settled inhabitants.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auction</b> is a public sale to the party offering the best price
+  where the buyers bid against each other, or to the bidder who first
+  accepts the terms offered by the vendor where he sells by reducing his
+  terms until someone accepts them. The latter form is known as a <i>Dutch
+  Auction</i>. A sale by auction must be conducted in the most open and
+  public manner possible; and there must be no collusion on the part of the
+  buyers. Puffing, or mock bidding, to raise the value by apparent
+  competition, is illegal.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auctioneer´</b>, a person who conducts sales by auction. It is his
+  duty to state the conditions of sale, to declare the respective biddings,
+  and to terminate the sale by <i>knocking down</i> the thing sold to the
+  highest bidder. In Britain an auctioneer must have a licence (for which
+  he pays £10), renewable annually. Verbal declarations by an auctioneer
+  are not suffered to control the printed conditions of sale. The
+  Auctioneers' Institute of the United Kingdom was founded in 1886.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Au´cuba</b>, a genus of plants, ord. Cornaceæ, one species of
+  which, <i>A. japoníca</i>, a laurel-like shrub with spotted leaves, a
+  native of Japan and China, is now common in ornamental grounds in Europe.
+  The flowers are di&oelig;cious and inconspicuous. For a long time only
+  the female plant, introduced into Britain from Japan in 1783, was
+  cultivated, but in 1850 the male was introduced, and the fruit, which
+  consists of beautiful coral-red berries, is now frequently developed, and
+  adds greatly to the attractiveness of the plant. <i>A. himalaica</i>,
+  also brought to Europe, is less hardy.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aude</b> (&#x14D;d), a maritime department in the S. of France;
+  area 2448 sq. miles, mainly covered by hills belonging to the Pyrenees or
+  the Cevennes, and traversed <span class="scac">W.</span> to <span
+  class="scac">E.</span> by a valley drained by the Aude. The loftier
+  districts are bleak and unproductive; the others tolerably fertile,
+  yielding good crops of grain. The wines, especially the white wines, are
+  famous; olives and other fruits are also cultivated. The manufactures are
+  varied; the trade is facilitated by the Canal du Midi. Carcassonne is the
+  capital; other towns are Narbonne and Castelnaudary. Pop. 286,552. The
+  River Aude rises in the Eastern Pyrenees, and, flowing nearly parallel to
+  the Canal du Midi, falls into the Mediterranean after a course of 130
+  miles.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Audebert</b> (&#x14D;d-b&#x101;r), Jean Baptiste, French engraver
+  and naturalist, born in 1759, died in 1800; published <i>Histoire
+  Naturelle des Singes, des Makis, et des Galéopithèques</i>; <i>Histoire
+  des Colibris</i>, &amp;c.; and began <i>Histoire des Grimpereaux et des
+  Oiseaux de Paradis</i>, finished by Desray&mdash;all finely-illustrated
+  works.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Au´denshaw</b>, a town of England, in Lancashire, 4 miles E. of
+  Manchester, with cotton-mills, engineering-works, &amp;c. Pop. (1921),
+  7878.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Audiometer</b>, an instrument for the measurement of hearing,
+  invented by Professor D.&nbsp;E. Hughes, of London, in 1879.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Au´diphone</b>, an acoustic instrument by means of which deaf
+  persons are enabled to hear. It consists essentially of a fan-shaped
+  plate of hardened caoutchouc, which is bent to a greater or less degree
+  by strings, and is very sensitive to sound-waves. When used, the up edge
+  is pressed against the upper front teeth, with the convexity outward, and
+  the sounds being collected are conveyed from the teeth to the auditory
+  nerve without passing through the external ear.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Au´dit</b>, an examination into accounts or dealings with money or
+  property, along with vouchers or other documents connected therewith,
+  especially by proper officers, or persons appointed for the purpose. Also
+  the occasion of receiving the rents from the tenants on an estate.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Au´ditor</b>, a person appointed to examine accounts, public or
+  private, to see whether they <!-- Page 309 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page309"></a>[309]</span>are correct and in accordance with
+  vouchers. In Britain the public accounts are audited by the Exchequer and
+  Audit Department, Somerset House, at the head of it being a comptroller
+  and auditor-general, and an assistant-comptroller and auditor, with a
+  large staff of clerks. In Scotland there is an auditor attached to the
+  Court of Session appointed to tax costs in litigation.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auditory Nerves.</b> See <i>Ear</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Audley</b>, a town (urban district) of England, in Staffordshire,
+  to the north-west of the district of The Potteries, with coal and iron
+  mines. Pop. (1921), 14,751.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Audran</b> (&#x14D;-drän), Gerard, a celebrated French engraver,
+  born 1640; studied at Rome; was appointed engraver to Louis XIV; died at
+  Paris 1703. He engraved Le Brun's <i>Battles of Alexander</i>, two of
+  Raphael's cartoons, Poussin's <i>Coriolanus</i>, &amp;c., and takes a
+  first place among historical engravers. Other members of the family were
+  successful in the same profession: Benoît, 1661-1721; Claude <i>père</i>,
+  1592-1677; Claude <i>fils</i>, 1640-84; Germain, 1631-1710; Jean,
+  1667-1756.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Au´dubon</b>, John James, an American naturalist of French
+  extraction, born near New Orleans in 1775, was educated in France, and
+  studied painting under David. In 1798 he settled in Pennsylvania, but
+  having a great love for ornithology he set out in 1810 with his wife and
+  child, descended the Ohio, and for many years roamed the forests in every
+  direction, drawing the birds which he shot. In 1826 he came to England,
+  exhibited his drawings in Liverpool, Manchester, and Edinburgh, and
+  finally published them in an unrivalled work of double-folio size, with
+  435 coloured plates of birds the size of life (<i>The Birds of
+  America</i>, 4 vols., 1827-39), with an accompanying text
+  (<i>Ornithological Biography</i>, 5 vols., 8vo, partly written by
+  Professor Macgillivray). On his final return to America he laboured with
+  Dr. Bachman on a finely-illustrated work entitled <i>The Quadrupeds of
+  America</i> (1843-50, 3 vols.). He died at New York in 1851.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auerbach</b>, a manufacturing town of Germany, in Saxony. Pop.
+  2200.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auerbach</b> (ou'&#x117;r-bä<i>h</i>), Berthold, a distinguished
+  German author of Jewish extraction, born 1812, died 1882. He abandoned
+  the study of Jewish theology in favour of philosophy, publishing in 1836
+  his <i>Judaism and Modern Literature</i>, and a translation of the works
+  of Spinoza with critical biography (5 vols., 1841). His later works were
+  tales or novels, and his <i>Village Tales of the Black Forest</i>
+  (<i>Schwarzwälder Dorfgeschichten</i>), as well as others of his
+  writings, have been translated into several languages. Other works:
+  <i>Barfüssele</i>, <i>Joseph im Schnee</i>, <i>Edelweiss</i>, <i>Auf der
+  Höhe</i>, <i>Das Landhaus am Rhein</i>, <i>Waldfried</i>,
+  <i>Brigitta</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auerstädt</b> (ou'&#x117;r-stet), battle at, 14th Oct., 1806. See
+  <i>Jena</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Augeas</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>-j&#x113;'as), a fabulous king of Elis, in
+  Greece, whose stable contained 3000 oxen, and had not been cleaned for
+  thirty years. Hercules undertook to clear away the filth in one day in
+  return for a tenth part of the cattle, and executed the task by turning
+  the River Alph&#x113;us through it. Augeas, having broken the bargain,
+  was deposed and slain by Hercules.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auger</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>'g&#x117;r), an instrument for boring
+  holes considerably larger than those bored by a gimlet, used by
+  carpenters and joiners, ship-wrights, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Augereau</b> (&#x14D;zh-r&#x14D;), Pierre François Charles, Duke of
+  Castiglione, Marshal of France, son of a mason, born at Paris 1757. He
+  adopted the life of a soldier, and by 1796 had reached the rank of
+  general of division in the army of Italy. At Casale, Lodi, Castiglione,
+  and Arcole he highly distinguished himself. In 1797 he was at Paris, and
+  was the instrument of the <i>coup d'état</i> of the 18th of Fructidor
+  (4th Sept.). In 1799 he was chosen a member of the Council of Five
+  Hundred. He then obtained the command of the army in Holland, and fought
+  till the end of the campaign. In 1803 he was appointed to lead the army
+  collected at Bayonne against Portugal. In 1804 he was named marshal of
+  the empire, and grand officer of the Legion of Honour. He subsequently
+  took part in the battles of Jena and Eylau, held a command in Spain, and
+  in July, 1813, led the army in Bavaria against Saxony, taking part in the
+  battle of Leipzig. On Napoleon's abdication he submitted to Louis XVIII,
+  who named him a peer. He died 1816.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aughrim</b>, a village in Co. Galway, Ireland, memorable for the
+  decisive victory gained in the neighbourhood, 12th July, 1691, by the
+  forces of William of Orange, under Ginkel, over the Irish and French
+  troops, under St. Ruth. The total English casualties were about 1700,
+  while the Irish lost at least 7000 men as well as all their war material.
+  This battle caused the complete submission of the country.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Augier</b> (&#x14D;-zhi-&#x101;), Emile, noted French dramatist,
+  born 1820, came young to Paris, entered a lawyer's office, but
+  relinquished law for literature; elected an academician in 1857, in 1868
+  a commander of the Legion of Honour. His first and one of his best dramas
+  was the comedy <i>La Ciguë</i> (1844); among his other works are
+  <i>L'Aventurière</i>, <i>Gabrielle</i>, <i>Paul Forestier</i>, <i>Le
+  Mariage d'Olympe</i>, <i>Le Gendre de M. Poirier</i>, <i>Les
+  Effrontés</i>, <i>Le Fils de Giboyer</i>, <i>Les Lions et les
+  Renards</i>, <i>Maître Guérin</i>, <i>Les Fourchambault</i>, &amp;c. He
+  died in 1889.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Augite</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>'j&#x12B;t) is the commonest member of the
+  pyroxene group of minerals; a constituent of many igneous rocks, such as
+  basalt, gabbro, &amp;c. It crystallizes in short almost rectangular <!--
+  Page 310 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page310"></a>[310]</span>prisms of the monoclinic system, modifying
+  planes causing cross-sections to be eight-sided. Its specific gravity is
+  about 3.2; lustre vitreous; hardness sufficient to scratch glass; colour
+  usually dark. It is a silicate of calcium, magnesium, iron, and
+  aluminium, and alters in geological time by slow recrystallization into
+  hornblende, possibly with some loss of calcium. It may be imitated by the
+  artificial fusion of its constituents. A transparent, green,
+  non-aluminous variety found at Zillertal, in Tyrol, is used in
+  jewellery.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Augsburg</b> (ougz'bu<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>r<i>h</i>; Lat. <i>Augusta
+  Vindelicorum</i>), a city of Bavaria, at the junction of the Wertach and
+  Lech, antique in appearance, but with some fine streets, squares, and
+  handsome or interesting buildings, including a splendid town hall, a
+  lofty belfry (Perlach Tower), cathedral, with paintings by Domenichino,
+  Holbein, &amp;c.; St. Ulrich's Church; the bishop's palace, where the
+  Augsburg Confession was presented to the Diet, afterwards a royal
+  residence; the Fugger Palace, or mansion of the celebrated Fugger family;
+  the public library; the theatre; the Academy of Arts; and the Fuggerei, a
+  separate quarter of the city, consisting of fifty-three small houses,
+  tenanted at a merely nominal rent by indigent Roman Catholics. Augsburg
+  was a renowned commercial centre in the Middle Ages, and is still an
+  important emporium of South German and Italian trade; industries: cotton
+  spinning and weaving, dyeing, woollen manufacture, machinery and metal
+  goods, books and printing, chemicals, &amp;c. The Emperor Augustus
+  established a colony here about 12 B.C. In 1276 it became a free city,
+  and, besides being a great mart for the commerce between the north and
+  south of Europe, it was a great centre of German art in the Middle Ages.
+  It early took a conspicuous part in the Reformation. (See next article.)
+  In 1806 it was incorporated in Bavaria. Pop. (1919), 154,555.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Augsburg Confession</b>, a document which was presented by the
+  Protestants at the Diet of Augsburg, 1530, to the Emperor Charles V and
+  the Diet, and being signed by the Protestant States was adopted as their
+  creed. Luther made the original draft; but as its style appeared too
+  violent it was given to Melanchthon for amendment. The original is to be
+  found in the imperial Austrian archives. Afterwards Melanchthon
+  arbitrarily altered some of the articles, and there arose a division
+  between those who held the original and those who held the altered
+  Augsburg Confession. The former is received by the Lutherans, the latter
+  by the German Reformed.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Au´gurs</b>, a board or college of diviners who, amongst the
+  Romans, predicted future events and announced the will of the gods from
+  the occurrence of certain signs. These consisted of signs in the sky,
+  especially thunder and lightning; signs from the flight and cries of
+  birds; from the feeding of the sacred chickens; from the course taken or
+  sounds uttered by various quadrupeds or by serpents; from accidents or
+  occurrences, such as spilling the salt, sneezing, &amp;c. The answers of
+  the augurs as well as the signs by which they were governed were called
+  <i>auguries</i>, but bird-predictions were properly termed
+  <i>auspices</i>. Nothing of consequence could be undertaken without
+  consulting the augurs, and by the mere utterance of the words <i>alio
+  die</i> ('meet on another day') they could dissolve the assembly of the
+  people and annul all decrees passed at the meeting.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Au´gust</b>, the eighth month from January. It was the sixth of the
+  Roman year, and hence was called <i>Sext&#x12B;lis</i> till the Emperor
+  Augustus affixed to it his own name.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Augus´ta</b>, the name of many ancient places, as Augusta
+  Trevirorum, now <i>Trèves</i>; Augusta Taurinorum, now <i>Turin</i>;
+  Augusta Vindelicorum, now <i>Augsburg</i>; &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Augusta</b> (ou-gu<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>s'ta<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), or <b>Agos´ta</b>, a seaport in the
+  south-east of Sicily, 12 miles north of Syracuse. It exports salt, oil,
+  honey, &amp;c. Pop. 17,250.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Augus´ta</b>, capital of Maine, United States, on the River
+  Kennebec, which is crossed by a bridge and is navigable for small vessels
+  43 miles from its mouth, while a dam enables steamboats to ply for 20
+  miles farther up and furnishes immense water-power. Pop. (1920),
+  14,144.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Augusta</b>, the capital of Richmond county, Georgia, United
+  States, on the left bank of the Savannah River, 231 miles from its mouth;
+  well built, and connected with the river by high-level canals; an
+  important manufacturing centre, having cotton-mills, machine-shops, and
+  railroad works, &amp;c. Pop. (1920), 52,548.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Au´gustine</b> (Aurelius Augustinus), <b>St.</b>, a renowned father
+  of the Christian Church, was born at Tagaste, in Africa, in 354, his
+  mother Monica being a Christian, his father Patricius a pagan. His
+  parents sent him to Carthage to complete his education, but he
+  disappointed their expectations by his neglect of serious study and his
+  devotion to pleasure. A lost book of Cicero's, called <i>Hortensius</i>,
+  led him to the study of philosophy; but dissatisfied with this he went
+  over to the Manichæans. He was one of their disciples for nine years, but
+  left them, went to Rome, and thence to Milan, where he announced himself
+  as a teacher of rhetoric. St. Ambrose, the bishop of this city, converted
+  him to the faith of his boyhood, and the reading of Paul's
+  <i>Epistles</i> wrought an entire change in his life and character. He
+  retired into solitude, and prepared himself for baptism, which he
+  received in his thirty-third year from the hands of Ambrose. Returning to
+  <!-- Page 311 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page311"></a>[311]</span>Africa, he sold his estate and gave the
+  proceeds to the poor, retaining only enough to support him. At the desire
+  of the people of Hippo, Augustine became the assistant of the bishop of
+  that town, preached with extraordinary success, and in 395 succeeded to
+  the see. He entered into a warm controversy with Pelagius concerning the
+  doctrines of free-will, grace, and predestination, and wrote treatises
+  concerning them, but of his various works his <i>Confessions</i> is most
+  secure of immortality. He died 28th Aug., 430, while Hippo was besieged
+  by the Vandals. He was a man of great enthusiasm, self-devotion, zeal for
+  truth, and powerful intellect, and though there have been fathers of the
+  Church more learned, none have wielded a more powerful influence. His
+  doctrine of grace, which was an important contribution to Christian
+  thought, triumphed at last in the Reformation and evangelical religion.
+  His writings are partly autobiographical, as the <i>Confessions</i>,
+  partly polemical, homiletic, or exegetical. The greatest is the <i>City
+  of God</i> (<i>De Civitate Dei</i>), a vindication of
+  Christianity.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Joseph McCabe,
+  <i>St. Augustine and his Age</i>; Nourrisson, <i>La Philosophie de St.
+  Augustin</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Au´gustine</b>, or <b>Austin, St.</b>, the <i>Apostle of the
+  English</i>, first Archbishop of Canterbury, flourished at the close of
+  the sixth century, was sent, in 596, with forty monks by Pope Gregory I
+  to introduce Christianity into Saxon England, and was kindly received by
+  Ethelbert, King of Kent, whom he converted, baptising 10,000 of his
+  subjects in one day. In acknowledgment of his tact and success Augustine
+  received the archiepiscopal pall from the Pope, with instructions to
+  establish twelve sees in his province, but he could not persuade the
+  British bishops in Wales to unite with the new English Church. He died in
+  604 or 605. Cf. Sir H.&nbsp;H. Howorth, <i>St. Augustine of
+  Canterbury</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Au´gustins</b>, or <b>Augustines</b>, members of several monastic
+  fraternities who follow rules framed by the great St. Augustine, or
+  deduced from his writings, of which the chief are the Canons Regular of
+  St. Augustine, or Austin Canons, and the Begging Hermits or Austin
+  Friars. The Austin Canons were introduced into Britain about 1100, and
+  had about 170 houses in England and about twenty-five in Scotland. They
+  took the vows of chastity and poverty, and their habit was a long black
+  cassock with a white rochet over it, having over that a black cloak and
+  hood. The Austin Friars, originally hermits, were a much more austere
+  body, went barefooted, and formed one of the four orders of mendicants.
+  An order of nuns had also the name of Augustines. Their garments, at
+  first black, were afterwards violet.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Augusto´vo</b>, a town of Poland, formerly in Russia, in the
+  government of Suwalki, founded in 1557 by Sigismund II. Pop. 11,797. The
+  battle of Augustovo was fought between the Russians and the Germans
+  between 14th Sept and 3rd Oct., 1914.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Augus´tulus</b>, Romulus, the last of the Western Roman emperors;
+  reigned for one year (475-6), when he was overthrown by Odoacer and
+  banished.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Augus´tus</b>, Gaius Julius Cæsar Octavianus (originally called
+  Gaius Octavius), Roman emperor, was the son of Gaius Octavius and Atia, a
+  daughter of Julia, the sister of Julius Cæsar. He was born 63 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, and died <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 14.
+  Octavius was at Apollonia, in Epirus, when he received news of the death
+  of his uncle (44 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), who had previously
+  adopted him as his son. He returned to Rome to claim Cæsar's property and
+  avenge his death, and now took, according to usage, his uncle's name with
+  the surname Octavianus. He was aiming secretly at the chief power, but at
+  first he joined the republican party, and assisted at the defeat of
+  Antony at Mutina. He got himself chosen consul in 43. Soon after the
+  second triumvirate was formed between him and Antony and Lepidus, and
+  this was followed by the conscription and assassination of three hundred
+  Senators and two thousand knights of the party opposed to the
+  triumvirate. Next year Octavianus and Antony defeated the republican army
+  under Brutus and Cassius at Philippi. The victors now divided the Roman
+  world between them, Octavianus getting the West, Antony the East, and
+  Lepidus Africa. Sextus Pompeius, who had made himself formidable at sea,
+  had now to be put down; and Lepidus, who had hitherto retained an
+  appearance of power, was deprived of all authority (36 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>) and retired into private life. Antony and
+  Octavianus now shared the Empire between them; but while the former, in
+  the East, gave himself up to a life of luxury, and alienated the Romans
+  by his alliance with Cleopatra and his adoption of Oriental manners,
+  Octavianus skilfully cultivated popularity, and soon declared war
+  ostensibly against the Queen of Egypt. The naval victory of Actium, in
+  which the fleet of Antony and Cleopatra was defeated, made Octavianus
+  master of the world, 31 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> He returned to
+  Rome, 29 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, celebrated a splendid triumph,
+  and caused the temple of Janus to be closed in token of peace being
+  restored. Gradually all the highest offices of State, civil and
+  religious, were united in his hands, and the new title of Augustus was
+  also assumed by him, being formally conferred by the Senate in 27 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> Great as was the power given to him, he
+  exercised it with wise moderation, and kept up the show of a republican
+  form of government. Under him successful wars were carried on in Africa
+  and Asia (against the Parthians), in Gaul <!-- Page 312 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page312"></a>[312]</span>and Spain, in Pannonia,
+  Dalmatia, &amp;c.; but the defeat of Varus by the Germans under Arminius
+  with the loss of three legions, <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 9, was a
+  great blow to him in his old age. Many useful decrees proceeded from him,
+  and various abuses were abolished. He gave a new form to the Senate,
+  employed himself in improving the morals of the people, enacted laws for
+  the suppression of luxury, introduced discipline into the armies, and
+  order into the games of the circus. He adorned Rome in such a manner that
+  it was said: "He found it of brick, and left it of marble". The people
+  erected altars to him, and, by a decree of the Senate, the month Sextilis
+  was called <i>Augustus</i> (our August). He was a patron of literature;
+  Virgil and Horace were befriended by him, and their works and those of
+  their contemporaries are the glory of the <i>Augustan Age</i>. His death,
+  which took place at Nola, plunged the Empire into the greatest grief. He
+  was thrice married, but had no son, and was succeeded by his stepson
+  Tiberius, whose mother Livia he had married after prevailing on her
+  husband to divorce her.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: J.&nbsp;B.
+  Firth, <i>Augustus Cæsar</i> (in Heroes of the Nations series); E.&nbsp;S.
+  Shuckburgh, <i>Augustus</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Augustus II</b> (or <b>Frederick Augustus I</b>), Elector of Saxony
+  and King of Poland, second son of John George III, Elector of Saxony, was
+  born at Dresden in 1670, died at Warsaw 1733. He succeeded his brother in
+  the Electorate in 1694, and the Polish throne having become vacant, in
+  1696, by the death of John Sobieski, Augustus presented himself as a
+  candidate for it and was successful. He joined with Peter the Great in
+  the war against Charles XII of Sweden, invaded Livonia, but was defeated
+  by Charles near Riga, and at Clissow, between Warsaw and Cracow. In 1704
+  he was deposed, and two years later formally resigned the crown to
+  Stanislaus I, now devoting himself to his Saxon dominions. In 1709, after
+  the defeat of Charles at Poltava, the Poles recalled Augustus, who united
+  himself anew with Peter. The two monarchs, in alliance with Denmark, sent
+  troops into Pomerania, but the Swedish general Steinbock defeated the
+  allies at Gadebusch, 20th Dec., 1712. The death of Charles XII put an end
+  to the war, and Augustus concluded a peace with Sweden. A confederation
+  was now formed in Poland against the Saxon troops, but through the
+  mediation of Peter an arrangement was concluded by which the Saxon troops
+  were removed from the kingdom. Augustus now gave himself up to
+  voluptuousness and a life of pleasure. His Court was one of the most
+  splendid and polished in Europe. The Poles yielded but too readily to the
+  example of their king, and the last years of his reign were characterized
+  by boundless luxury and corruption of manners. His wife left him one son.
+  The Countess of Königsmark bore him the celebrated commander Marshal Saxe
+  (Maurice of Saxony).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Augustus III</b> (or <b>Frederick Augustus II</b>), Elector of
+  Saxony and King of Poland, son of Augustus II, born at Dresden 1696,
+  succeeded his father as Elector in 1733, and was chosen King of Poland
+  through the influence of Austria and Russia. He closely followed the
+  example of his father, distinguishing himself by the splendour of his
+  feasts and the extravagance of his Court. He preferred Dresden to Warsaw,
+  and through his long absence from Poland the government sank into entire
+  inactivity. During the first Silesian war he formed a secret alliance
+  with Austria. The consequence was that during the second Silesian war
+  Frederick the Great of Prussia pushed on into Saxony, and occupied the
+  capital, from which Augustus fled. By the peace of Dresden, 25th Dec.,
+  1745, he was reinstated in the possession of Saxony. In 1756 he was
+  involved anew in a war against Prussia. When Frederick declined his
+  proposal of neutrality he left Dresden, and entered the camp at Pirna,
+  where 17,000 Saxon troops were assembled. Frederick surrounded the
+  Saxons, who were obliged to surrender, and Augustus fled to Poland. On
+  the threat of invasion by Russia he returned to Dresden, where he died in
+  1763. His son, Frederick Christian, succeeded him as Elector of Saxony,
+  and Stanislaus Poniatowski as King of Poland.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:22%;">
+      <a href="images/image121.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image121.jpg"
+      alt="Auk - Razor-bill" title="Auk - Razor-bill" /></a>
+    Razor-bill (<i>Alca torda</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Auk</b>, a name of certain swimming birds, family Alcidæ, including
+  the great auk, the little auk, the puffin, &amp;c. The genus Alca, or
+  auks proper, contains only two species, the great auk (<i>Alca
+  impennis</i>), and the razor-bill (<i>Alca torda</i>). The great auk or
+  gair-fowl, a bird about 3 feet in length, used to be plentiful in
+  northerly regions, and also visited the British shores, but has become
+  extinct. Some seventy skins, about as many eggs, with bones representing
+  perhaps a hundred individuals, are preserved in various <!-- Page 313
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page313"></a>[313]</span>museums.
+  Though the largest species of the family, the wings were only 6 inches
+  from the carpal joint to the tip, totally useless for flight, but
+  employed as fins in swimming, especially under water. The tail was about
+  3 inches long; the beak was high, short, and compressed; the head, neck,
+  and upper parts were blackish; a large spot under each eye, and most of
+  the under parts white. Its legs were placed so far back as to cause it to
+  sit nearly upright. The razor-bill is about 15 inches in length, and its
+  wings are sufficiently developed to be used for flight. It is found in
+  numbers on some parts of the British shores, as the Isle of Man.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aulap´olay</b>, or <b>Alleppi</b>, a seaport on the south-west
+  coast of Hindustan, Travancore, between the sea and a lagoon, with a safe
+  roadstead all the year round; exports timber, coir, coconuts, &amp;c.
+  Pop. 24,918.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auld Lichts.</b> See <i>Presbyterianism</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aulic</b> (Lat. <i>aula</i>, a court or hall), an epithet given to
+  a council (the <i>Reichshofrath</i>) in the old German Empire, one of the
+  two supreme courts of the German Empire, the other being the court of the
+  imperial chamber (<i>Reichskammergericht</i>). It had not only concurrent
+  jurisdiction with the latter court, but in many cases exclusive
+  jurisdiction, in all feudal processes, and in criminal affairs, over the
+  immediate feudatories of the Emperor and in affairs which concerned the
+  imperial Government.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Au´lis</b>, in ancient Greece, a seaport in B&oelig;otia, on the
+  strait called Euripus, between B&oelig;otia and Eub&oelig;a. See
+  <i>Iphigenia</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aullagas</b> (ou-lyä'gäs), a salt lake of Bolivia, which receives
+  the surplus waters of Lake Titicaca through the Rio Desaguadero, and has
+  only one perceptible insignificant outlet, so that what becomes of its
+  superfluous water is still a matter of uncertainty.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aulnoy</b> (&#x14D;-nwä), Countess d', French writer, born 1650,
+  died 1705, was the author of <i>Contes des Fées</i> (<i>Fairy Tales</i>),
+  many of which, such as <i>The White Cat</i>, <i>The Yellow Dwarf</i>,
+  &amp;c., have been translated into English. She also wrote a number of
+  novels, historical memoirs, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aumale</b> (&#x14D;-mäl), a small French town, department of Seine
+  Inférieure, 35 miles <span class="scac">N.E</span>. of Rouen, which has
+  given titles to several notables in French history.&mdash;Jean d'Arcourt,
+  Eighth Count d'Aumale, fought at Agincourt, and defeated the English at
+  Gravelle (1423).&mdash;Claude II, Duc d'Aumale, one of the chief
+  instigators of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, was killed
+  1573.&mdash;Charles de Lorraine, Duc d'Aumale, was an ardent partisan of
+  the League in the politico-religious French wars of the sixteenth
+  century.&mdash;Henri-Eugene-Philippe Louis d'Orleans, Duc d'Aumale, son
+  of Louis Philippe, king of the French, was born in 1822. In 1847 he
+  succeeded Marshal Bugeaud as Governor-General of Algeria, where he had
+  distinguished himself in the war against Abd-el-Kader. After the
+  revolution of 1848 he retired to England; but he returned to France in
+  1871, and was elected a member of the Assembly; became Inspector-General
+  of the army in 1879, and was expelled along with the other royal princes
+  in 1886, but was allowed to return. Author of a <i>History of the House
+  of Condé</i>, &amp;c. He died in 1897.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aun´gerville</b>, Richard, known as Richard de Bury (from his
+  birthplace Bury St. Edmund's), English statesman, bibliographer, and
+  correspondent of Petrarch, born 1281, died 1345. He entered the order of
+  Benedictine monks, and became tutor to the Prince of Wales, afterwards
+  Edward III. Promoted to several offices of dignity, he ultimately became
+  Bishop of Durham, and Lord Chancellor of England. During his frequent
+  embassies to the Continent he made the acquaintance of many of the
+  eminent men of the day. He was a diligent collector of books, and formed
+  a library at Oxford. Author of <i>Philobiblon</i>, printed at Cologne in
+  1473; <i>Epistol&oelig; Familiarium</i>, including letters to Petrarch,
+  &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aurangabad´</b>, a town of India, in the territory of the Nizam of
+  Hyderabad, 175 miles from Bombay. It contains a ruined palace of
+  Aurangzib and a mausoleum erected to the memory of his favourite wife. It
+  was formerly a considerable trading centre, but its commercial importance
+  decreased when Hyderabad became the capital of the Nizam. Pop.
+  34,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aurangzib</b> ('ornament of the throne'), one of the greatest of
+  the Mogul emperors of Hindustan, born in Oct. 1618 or 1619. When he was
+  nine years old his weak and unfortunate father, Shah Jehan, succeeded to
+  the throne. Aurangzib was distinguished, when a youth, for his serious
+  look, his frequent prayers, his love of solitude, his profound hypocrisy,
+  and his deep plans. In his twentieth year he raised a body of troops by
+  his address and good fortune, and obtained the government of the Deccan.
+  He stirred up dissensions between his brothers, made use of the
+  assistance of one against the other, and finally shut his father up in
+  his harem, where he kept him prisoner. He then murdered his relatives one
+  after the other, and in 1659 ascended the throne. Notwithstanding the
+  means by which he had got possession of power, he governed with much
+  wisdom. Two of his sons, who endeavoured to form a party in their own
+  favour, he caused to be arrested and put to death by slow poison. He
+  carried on many wars, conquered Golconda and Bijapur, and drove out, by
+  degrees, the Mahrattas from their country. After his death, on 4th March,
+  1707, the Mogul Empire declined.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aurantia´ceæ</b>, the orange tribe, a nat. ord. of <!-- Page 314
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page314"></a>[314]</span>plants,
+  polypetalous dicotyledons, with leaves containing a fragrant essential
+  oil in transparent dots, and a superior pulpy fruit, originally natives
+  of India; examples comprise the orange, lemon, lime, citron, and
+  shaddock.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auray</b> (&#x14D;-r&#x101;), a seaport of North-West France,
+  department Morbihan, with a deaf and dumb institute, and within 2 miles
+  of St. Anne of Auray, a famous place of pilgrimage. Pop. 6653.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aure´lian</b>, Lucius Domitius Aurelianus, Emperor of Rome, of
+  humble origin, was born about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 212, rose to
+  the highest rank in the army, and on the death of Claudius II (270) was
+  chosen emperor. He delivered Italy from the barbarians (Alemanni and
+  Marcomanni), and conquered the famous Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra. He
+  followed up his victories by the reformation of abuses, and the
+  restoration throughout the Empire of order and regularity. He lost his
+  life, <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 275, by assassination, when heading
+  an expedition against the Persians.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aure´lius Antoni´nus</b>, Marcus, often called simply <b>Marcus
+  Aurelius</b>, Roman emperor and philosopher, son-in-law, adopted son, and
+  successor of Antoninus Pius, born <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 121,
+  succeeded to the throne 161, died 180. His name originally was Marcus
+  Annius Verus. He voluntarily shared the government with Lucius Verus,
+  whom Antoninus Pius had also adopted. Brought up and instructed by
+  Plutarch's nephew, Sextus, the orator Herodes Atticus, and L. Volusius
+  Mecianus, the jurist, he had become acquainted with learned men, and
+  formed a particular love for the Stoic philosophy. A war with Parthia
+  broke out in the year of his accession, and did not terminate till 166. A
+  confederacy of the northern tribes now threatened Italy, while a
+  frightful pestilence, brought from the East with the army, raged in Rome
+  itself. Both emperors set out in person against the rebellious tribes. In
+  169 Verus died, and the sole command of the war devolved on Marcus
+  Aurelius, who prosecuted it with the utmost rigour, and nearly
+  exterminated the Marcomanni. His victory over the Quadi (174) is
+  connected with a famous legend. Dion Cassius tells us that the twelfth
+  legion of the Roman army was shut up in a defile, and reduced to great
+  straits for want of water, when a body of Christians enrolled in the
+  legion prayed for relief. Not only was rain sent, which enabled the
+  Romans to quench their thirst, but a fierce storm of hail beat upon the
+  enemy, accompanied by thunder and lightning, which so terrified them that
+  a complete victory was obtained, and the legion was ever after called
+  <i>The Thundering Legion</i> (<i>Legio Fulminatrix</i>). After this
+  victory the Marcomanni, the Quadi, as well as the rest of the barbarians,
+  sued for peace. The sedition of the Syrian governor Avidius Cassius, with
+  whom Faustina, the empress, was in treasonable communication, called off
+  the emperor from his conquests, but before he reached Asia the rebel was
+  assassinated. Aurelius returned to Rome, after visiting Egypt and Greece,
+  but soon new incursions of the Marcomanni compelled him once more to take
+  the field. He defeated the enemy several times, but was taken sick at
+  Sirmium, and died at Vindobona (Vienna) in 180. His only extant work is
+  the <i>Meditations</i>, written in Greek. It has been translated into
+  most modern languages (into English first by George Long in 1862, and by
+  J. Jackson in 1906). This may be regarded as a manual of practical
+  morality, in which wisdom, gentleness, and benevolence are combined in
+  the most fascinating manner. Many believe it to have been intended for
+  the instruction of his son Commodus. Aurelius was one of the best
+  emperors Rome ever saw, although his philosophy and the magnanimity of
+  his character did not restrain him from the persecution of the
+  Christians, whose religious doctrines he was led to believe were
+  subversive of good government, and whom he charged, therefore, with
+  obstinacy, the greatest social crime in the eyes of Roman authority.
+  Marcus Aurelius was not so much a philosopher as a seeker after
+  righteousness.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: P.&nbsp;B. Watson,
+  <i>M. Aurelius Antoninus</i>; Sir Samuel Dill, <i>Roman Society from Nero
+  to Marcus Aurelius</i>; Translations of the <i>Meditations</i> by G.&nbsp;H.
+  Kendall, and J. Jackson.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aurengzebe.</b> See <i>Aurangzib</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aure´ola</b>, or <b>Au´reole</b>, in paintings, an illumination
+  surrounding the whole figure of a holy person, as Christ, a saint, or a
+  martyr, intended to represent a luminous cloud or haze emanating from
+  him. It is generally of an oval shape, or may be nearly or quite
+  circular, and is of similar character with the nimbus surrounding the
+  heads of sacred personages.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Au´r&#x115;us</b>, the first gold coin which was coined at Rome,
+  207 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Its value varied at different times,
+  from about 12<i>s.</i> to £1, 4<i>s</i>. See <i>Numismatics</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aurich</b> (ou´r&#x113;<i>h</i>), a German town, province of
+  Hanover. Pop. 6070.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Au´ricle.</b> See <i>Heart</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auric´ula</b>, a garden flower derived from the yellow
+  <i>Prim&#x16D;la Auric&#x16D;la</i>, found native in the Swiss Alps, and
+  sometimes called bear's-ear from the shape of its leaves. It has for over
+  three centuries been an object of cultivation by florists, who have
+  succeeded in raising from seed a great number of beautiful varieties. Its
+  leaves are obovate, entire or serrated, and fleshy, varying, however, in
+  form in the numerous varieties. The flowers are borne on an erect umbel
+  and central scape with involucre. The original colours of the corolla are
+  yellow, purple, and <!-- Page 315 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page315"></a>[315]</span>variegated, and there is a mealy covering
+  on the surface. There are auricula clubs and societies in the north of
+  England.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auricular Confession.</b> See <i>Confession</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Au´rifaber</b>, the Latinized name of Johann Goldschmidt, one of
+  Luther's companions, born 1519, became pastor at Erfurt in 1566, died
+  there in 1579. He collected the unpublished MSS. of Luther, and edited
+  the <i>Epistolæ</i> and the <i>Table-talk</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auriflamme.</b> See <i>Oriflamme</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auri´ga</b>, in astronomy, the <i>Waggoner</i>, a constellation of
+  the northern hemisphere, containing Capella, a star of the first
+  magnitude. <i>Nova Aurigæ,</i> a temporary star, appeared in the
+  constellation in 1892.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aurillac</b> (&#x14D;-r&#x113;-ya<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>k), a town of France, capital of the
+  department Cantal, in a valley watered by the Jordanne, about 270 miles
+  S. of Paris; well built, with wide streets; copper-works, paper-works,
+  manufactures of lace, tapestry, leather, &amp;c. Pop. 18,036.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aurochs</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>'roks), a species of wild bull or buffalo,
+  the <i>urus</i> of Cæsar, <i>bison</i> of Pliny, the European bison,
+  <i>Bos</i> or <i>Bonassus Bison</i> of modern naturalists. The animal was
+  once abundant in Europe, but were it not for the protection afforded by
+  the late Emperor of Russia to a few herds which inhabit the forests of
+  Lithuania it would before this have been extinct.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auro´ra</b>, an American city, of Kane county, Illinois, on Fox
+  River, 40 miles W. by S. of Chicago; it has flourishing manufactures,
+  railway-works, and a considerable trade. Pop. (1920), 36,265.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auro´ra</b> (Gr. <i>E&#x14D;s</i>), in classical mythology, the
+  goddess of the dawn, daughter of Hyperion and Theia, and sister of Helios
+  and Sel&#x113;n&#x113; (Sun and Moon). She was represented as a charming
+  figure, 'rosy-fingered', clad in a yellow robe, rising at dawn from the
+  ocean and driving her chariot through the heavens. Among the mortals
+  whose beauty captivated the goddess, poets mentioned Orion,
+  Tith&#x14D;nus, and Ceph&#x103;lus.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auro´ra</b>, one of the New Hebrides Islands, S. Pacific Ocean,
+  about 30 miles long by 5 wide. It rises to a considerable elevation, and
+  is covered with a luxuriant vegetation.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image122.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image122.jpg"
+      alt="Aurora Borealis" title="Aurora Borealis" /></a>
+    Aurora Borealis
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Auro´ra Borea´lis</b>, a luminous meteoric phenomenon appearing in
+  the north, most frequently in high latitudes, the corresponding
+  phenomenon in the southern hemisphere being called <i>Aurora
+  Australis</i>, and both being also called <i>Polar Light</i>,
+  <i>Streamers</i>, &amp;c. The northern aurora has been far the most
+  observed and studied. It usually manifests itself by streams of light
+  ascending towards the zenith from a dusky line of cloud or haze a few
+  degrees above the horizon, and stretching from the north towards the west
+  and east, so as to form an arc with its ends on the horizon, and its
+  different parts and rays are constantly in motion. Sometimes it appears
+  in detached places; at other times it almost covers the whole sky. It
+  assumes many shapes and a variety of colours, from a pale red or yellow
+  to a deep red or blood colour; and in far northern latitudes serves to
+  illuminate the earth and cheer the gloom of the long winter nights. The
+  appearance of the aurora borealis so exactly resembles the effects of
+  experimental electrical phenomena that there is every reason to believe
+  that their causes are similar. When electricity passes through rarefied
+  air it exhibits a diffused luminous stream which has all the
+  characteristic appearances of the aurora, and hence it is highly probable
+  that this natural phenomenon is occasioned by the passage of electricity
+  through the upper regions of the atmosphere. The synchronism of auroral
+  display with disturbances of the magnetic needle is an ascertained fact,
+  and the connection between auroræ and magnetism is further evident from
+  the fact that the beams or coruscations <!-- Page 316 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page316"></a>[316]</span>issuing from a point in
+  the horizon west of north are frequently observed to run in the magnetic
+  meridian. What are known as magnetic storms are invariably connected with
+  exhibitions of the aurora, and with spontaneous galvanic currents in the
+  ordinary telegraph wires; and this connection is found to be so certain
+  that, upon remarking the display of one of the three classes of
+  phenomena, we can at once assert that the other two are also present. In
+  recent years it has been established that auroræ wax and wane in
+  frequency <i>pari passu</i> with sun-spots in an 11-year cycle, and that
+  they often manifest themselves about the time of transit of a conspicuous
+  spot across the sun's central meridian. Also they frequently recur at
+  successive intervals of about 27 days, which is the period of a solar
+  rotation relative to the earth. It is therefore inferred that auroræ are
+  largely excited by influences proceeding from the sun, and it is
+  suggested that they are the result of the impinging upon our upper
+  atmosphere of streams of electric corpuscles expelled from the solar orb,
+  these streams when approaching our planet being mainly directed to its
+  higher latitudes as a consequence of its magnetic polarity. The aurora
+  borealis is said to be frequently accompanied by sound, which is
+  variously described as resembling the rustling of pieces of silk against
+  each other, or the sound of wind against the flame of a candle. The
+  aurora of the southern hemisphere is quite a similar phenomenon to that
+  of the north.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: A. Angot,
+  <i>Les Aurores Polaires</i>; Captain H.&nbsp;P. Dawson, <i>Observations of the
+  International Polar Expeditions, 1882-3, Fort Rae</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aurungabad.</b> See <i>Aurangabad</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aurungzebe.</b> See <i>Aurangzib</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ausculta´tion</b>, a method of distinguishing the state of the
+  internal parts of the body, particularly of the thorax and abdomen, by
+  observing the sounds arising in the part either through the immediate
+  application of the ear to its surface (immediate auscultation), or by
+  applying the stethoscope to the part, and listening through it (mediate
+  auscultation). Auscultation may be used with more or less advantage in
+  all cases where morbid sounds are produced, but its general applications
+  are: the <i>auscultation</i> of respiration, the <i>auscultation</i> of
+  the voice; <i>auscultation</i> of coughs; <i>auscultation</i> of sounds
+  foreign to all these, but sometimes accompanying them;
+  <i>auscultation</i> of the actions of the heart; obstetric
+  <i>auscultation</i>. The parts when struck also give different sounds in
+  health and disease.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auso´nia</b>, an ancient poetical name of Italy.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auso´nius</b>, Decimus Magnus (<i>c.</i> <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 310-395), Roman poet, born at Burdigala
+  (Bordeaux). Valentinian entrusted to him the education of his son
+  Gratian, and appointed him afterwards quæstor and pretorian prefect.
+  Gratian appointed him consul in Gaul, and after this emperor's death he
+  lived upon an estate at Bordeaux, devoted to literary pursuits. He wrote
+  epigrams, idyls, eclogues, letters in verse, &amp;c., still extant, and
+  was probably a Christian. He was rather a man of letters than a poet, and
+  his poems are devoid of inspiration.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aus´pices</b>, among the ancient Romans strictly omens or auguries
+  derived from birds, though the term was also used in a wider sense.
+  Nothing of importance was done without taking the auspices, which,
+  however, simply showed whether the enterprise was likely to result
+  successfully or not, without supplying any further information.
+  Magistrates possessed the right of taking the auspices, in which they
+  were usually assisted by an augur. Before a war or campaign a Roman
+  general always took the auspices, and hence the operations were said to
+  be carried out 'under his auspices'. See <i>Augur</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aus´sig</b>, a town in Bohemia, in the republic of Czecho-Slovakia,
+  formerly in Austria, near the junction of the Bila with the Elbe, 42
+  miles <span class="scac">N.N.W.</span> of Prague; has large manufactures
+  of woollens, chemicals, &amp;c. The town is now known as Ousti nad Labem.
+  Pop. 40,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aus´ten</b>, Jane, English novelist, born 1775, at Steventon, in
+  Hants, of which parish her father was rector. Her principal novels are,
+  <i>Sense and Sensibility; Pride and Prejudice</i>, which Disraeli is said
+  to have read seventeen times; <i>Mansfield Park</i>; and <i>Emma</i>. Two
+  more were published after her death, entitled <i>Northanger Abbey</i> and
+  <i>Persuasion</i>, which were, however, her most early attempts. Her
+  novels are marked by ease, humour, and a complete knowledge of the
+  domestic life of the English middle classes of her time. She died in
+  1817.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Austenite</b>, a constituent of high-carbon steel (q.v.).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aus´terlitz</b>, a town with 3703 inhabitants, in Moravia, 10 miles
+  <span class="scac">E.</span> of Brünn, famous for the battle of 2nd Dec.,
+  1805, fought between the French (70,000 in number) and the allied
+  Austrian and Russian armies (95,000). The decisive victory of the French
+  led to the Peace of Pressburg between France and Austria.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aus´tin</b>, capital of the State of Texas, on the Colorado, about
+  200 miles from its mouth, and accessible to steamboats during certain
+  seasons. There is a State university and other institutions, and a
+  splendid capitol built of red granite. Pop. (1920), 34,876.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Austin</b>, Alfred, English poet, born at Hedingley, near Leeds, in
+  1835, educated at Stonyhurst and St. Mary's College, Oscott; took the
+  degree of <span class="scac">B.A.</span> at London in 1853, was called to
+  the bar and practised, but gave up law for literature in 1861. He
+  published, in 1861, a <!-- Page 317 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page317"></a>[317]</span>satire called <i>The Season</i>, followed
+  by many poems, including <i>The Human Tragedy</i>, <i>The Golden Age</i>,
+  <i>Savonarola</i> (a tragedy), <i>English Lyrics</i>, <i>Fortunatus the
+  Pessimist</i>, <i>Lyrical Poems</i>, <i>Narrative Poems</i>, <i>Prince
+  Lucifer</i>, <i>Alfred the Great</i>, <i>A Tale of True Love</i>,
+  <i>Flodden Field</i> (a tragedy), &amp;c. His works in prose include
+  <i>The Garden that I love</i>, <i>In Veronica's Garden</i>, <i>Spring and
+  Autumn in Ireland</i>, <i>Haunts of Ancient Peace</i>, <i>The Bridling of
+  Pegasus</i>, &amp;c. He was made Poet Laureate in 1896, about four years
+  after the death of Tennyson. He died in 1913.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aus´tin,</b> John, an English writer on jurisprudence, born 1790,
+  died 1859. From 1826 to 1835 he filled the chair of jurisprudence at
+  London University. He served on several royal commissions, one of which
+  took him to Malta; lived for some years on the Continent, and finally
+  settled at Weybridge, in Surrey. His fame rests solely on his great
+  works: <i>The Province of Jurisprudence Determined</i>, published in
+  1832; and his <i>Lectures on Jurisprudence</i>, published by his widow
+  between 1861 and 1863.&mdash;His wife, Sarah, one of the Taylors of
+  Norwich, produced translations of German works, and other books bearing
+  on Germany or its literature; also, <i>Considerations on National
+  Education</i>, &amp;c. Born 1793, died 1867. Her daughter, Lady Duff
+  Gordon, translated Meinhold's <i>Mary Schweidler, the Amber Witch</i>,
+  and other German works.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Austin, St.</b> See <i>Augustine</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Austin Friars.</b> See <i>Augustins</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Australasia,</b> a division of the globe usually regarded as
+  comprehending the Islands of Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, New
+  Caledonia, the New Hebrides, the Solomon Islands, New Ireland, New
+  Britain, the Admiralty Islands, New Guinea, and the Arru Islands, besides
+  numerous other islands and island groups; estimated area, 3,400,000 sq.
+  miles; pop. 6,000,000. It forms one of the three portions into which some
+  geographers have divided Oceania, the other two being Malaysia and
+  Polynesia. The British territories in Australasia comprise the
+  Commonwealth of Australia, the Australian dependencies of Papua and
+  Northern Territory, New Zealand and adjacent islands, and the crown
+  colony of Fiji.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:80%;">
+      <a href="images/image123.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image123.jpg"
+      alt="Australia - political" title="Australia - political" /></a>
+  </div>
+  <p><b>Australia</b> (older name, <b>New Holland</b>), the largest island
+  in the world, a sea-girt continent, lying between the Indian and Pacific
+  Oceans, <span class="scac">S.E.</span> of Asia; between lat. 10° 39' and
+  39° 11' <span class="scac">S.</span>; long. 113° 5' and 153° 16' <span
+  class="scac">E.</span>; greatest length, from <span
+  class="scac">W.</span> to <span class="scac">E.</span>, 2400 miles;
+  greatest breadth, from <span class="scac">N.</span> to <span
+  class="scac">S.</span>, 1700 to 1900 miles. It is separated from New
+  Guinea on the north by Torres Strait, from Tasmania on the south by Bass
+  Strait. It is divided into two unequal parts by the Tropic of Capricorn,
+  and consequently belongs partly to the South Temperate, partly to the
+  Torrid Zone. It is occupied by five British colonies, namely, New South
+  Wales, Victoria, and Queensland in the east; South Australia in the
+  middle, stretching from sea to sea; and Western Australia in the west,
+  which, with the Island of Tasmania, form the Commonwealth of Australia.
+  Their area and population are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Australian states and territories." title="Australian states and territories.">
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> Area in<br />sq. m. </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;"> Pop. in<br />1920</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> New South Wales </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 309,432 </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 2,091,115</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Victoria </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 87,884 </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 1,528,151</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Queensland </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 670,500 </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 752,245</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> South Australia </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 380,070 </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 491,177</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Western Australia </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 975,920 </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 330,819</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Tasmania </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 26,215 </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 212,847</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Northern Territory&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 523,620 </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 3,992</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Federal Territory </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 940 </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 1,972</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+  <p>Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Brisbane, and Perth are the chief towns.
+  The population of the Commonwealth of Australia was 4,895,894 in 1917 and
+  5,412,318 in 1920.</p>
+
+  <p>Although there are numerous spacious harbours on the coasts, there are
+  few remarkable indentations, the principal being the Gulf of Carpentaria,
+  on the <span class="scac">N.</span>, the Great Australian Bight, and
+  Spencer's Gulf, on the <span class="scac">S.</span> The chief projections
+  are Cape York Peninsula and Arnhem Land in the north. Parallel to the
+  <span class="scac">N.E.</span> coast runs the Great Barrier Reef for 1000
+  miles. In great part the <span class="scac">E.</span> coast is bold and
+  rocky, and is fringed with many small islands. Part of the <span
+  class="scac">S.</span> coast is low and sandy, and part presents cliffs
+  of several hundred feet high. The <span class="scac">N.</span> and <span
+  class="scac">W.</span> coasts are generally low, with some elevations at
+  intervals.</p>
+
+  <p>The interior, so far as explored, is largely composed of rocky tracts
+  and barren plains with little or no water. The whole continent forms an
+  immense plateau, highest in the east, low in the centre, and with a
+  narrow tract of land usually intervening between the elevated area and
+  the sea. The base of the table-land is granite, which forms the
+  surface-rock in a great part of the south-west, and is common in the
+  higher grounds along the east side. Secondary (cretaceous) and tertiary
+  rocks are largely developed in the interior. Silurian rocks occupy a
+  large area in South Australia, on both sides of Spencer Gulf. The
+  mountainous region in the south-east and east is mainly composed of
+  volcanic, Silurian, carbonaceous, and carboniferous rocks yielding good
+  coal. No active volcano is known to exist, but in the south-east there
+  are some craters only recently extinct. The highest and most extensive
+  mountain-system is a belt about 150 miles wide skirting the whole eastern
+  and south-eastern border of the continent, and often called, in whole or
+  in part, the Great Dividing Range, from forming the great water-shed of
+  Australia. A part of it, called the Australian Alps, in the south-east,
+  contains the highest summits in Australia, Mount Kosciusko (7175 feet),
+  Mount <!-- Page 318 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page318"></a>[318]</span>Clarke (7256 feet), and Mount Townshend
+  (7353 feet). West of the Dividing Range are extensive plains or downs
+  admirably adapted for pastoral purposes. The deserts and scrubs, which
+  occupy large areas of the interior, are a characteristic feature of
+  Australia. The former are destitute of vegetation, or are covered only
+  with a coarse, spiny grass that affords no sustenance to cattle or
+  horses; the latter are composed of a dense growth of shrubs and low
+  trees, often impenetrable till the traveller has cleared a track with his
+  axe.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:46%;">
+      <a href="images/image124.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image124.jpg"
+      alt="Australia - Geological" title="Australia - Geological" /></a>
+    COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Geological
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The rivers of Australia are nearly all subject to great irregularities
+  in volume, many of them at one time showing a channel in which there is
+  merely a series of pools, while at another they inundate the whole
+  adjacent country. The chief is the Murray, which, with its affluents the
+  Murrumbidgee, Lachlan, and Darling, drains a great part of the interior
+  west of the Dividing Range, and falls into the sea on the south coast
+  (after entering Lake Alexandrina). Its greatest tributary is the Darling,
+  which may even be regarded as the main stream. On the east coast are the
+  Hunter, Clarence, Brisbane, Fitzroy, and Burdekin; on the west, the Swan,
+  Murchison, Gascoyne, Ashburton, and De Grey; on the north, the Fitzroy,
+  Victoria, Flinders, and Mitchell. The Australian rivers are of little
+  service in facilitating internal communication. Many of them lose
+  themselves in swamps or sandy wastes of the interior. A considerable
+  river of the interior is Cooper's Creek, or the Barcoo, which falls into
+  Lake Eyre, one of a group of lakes on the south side of the continent
+  having no outlet, and accordingly salt. The principal of these are Lakes
+  Eyre, Torrens, and Gairdner, all of which vary in size and saltness
+  according to the season. Another large salt lake of little depth, Lake
+  Amadeus, lies a little west of the centre of Australia. Various others of
+  less magnitude are scattered over the interior.</p>
+
+  <p>The climate of Australia is generally hot and dry, but very healthy.
+  In the tropical portions there are heavy rains, and in most of the coast
+  districts there is a sufficiency of moisture, but in the interior the
+  heat and drought are extreme. Considerable portions now devoted to
+  pasturage are liable at times to suffer from drought. At Melbourne the
+  mean temperature is about 56°, at Sydney about 63°. The south-eastern
+  settled districts are at times subject to excessively hot winds from the
+  interior, which cause great discomfort, and are often followed by a
+  violent cold wind from the south ('southerly bursters'). In the
+  mountainous and more temperate parts snow-storms are common in winter
+  (June, July, and August).</p>
+
+  <p>Australia is a region containing a vast quantity of mineral wealth.
+  Foremost come its rich and extensive deposits of gold, which, since the
+  precious metal was first discovered in 1851, have produced a total of
+  nearly £600,000,000. The greatest quantity has been obtained in Victoria,
+  <!-- Page 319 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page319"></a>[319]</span>but New South Wales and Queensland have
+  also yielded a considerable amount, and now Western Australia stands
+  first in respect of annual output. Australia also possesses silver,
+  copper, tin, lead, zinc, antimony, mercury, plumbago, &amp;c., besides
+  coal (now worked to a considerable extent in New South Wales) and iron.
+  Various precious stones are found, as the garnet, ruby, topaz, sapphire,
+  and even the diamond. Of building-stone there are granite, limestone,
+  marble, and sandstone.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:47%;">
+      <a href="images/image125.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image125.jpg"
+      alt="Australia - Climate" title="Australia - Climate" /></a>
+    COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Mean Annual Rainfall and Temperature
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The Australian flora presents peculiarities which mark it off by
+  itself in a very decided manner. Many of its most striking features have
+  an unmistakable relation to the general dryness of the climate. The trees
+  and bushes have for the most part a scanty foliage, presenting little
+  surface for evaporation, or thick leathery leaves well fitted to retain
+  moisture. The most widely-spread types of Australian vegetation are the
+  various kinds of gum tree (<i>Eucalyptus</i>), the shea-oak
+  (<i>Casuar&#x12B;na</i>), the acacia or wattle, the grass tree
+  (<i>Xanthorrh&oelig;a</i>), many varieties of Proteaceæ, and a great
+  number of ferns and tree-ferns. Of the gum tree there are found upwards
+  of 150 species, many of which are of great value. Individual specimens of
+  the 'peppermint' (<i>E. amygdal&#x12D;na</i>) have been found to measure
+  from 480 to 500 feet in height. As timber trees the most valuable members
+  of this genus are the <i>E. rostr&#x101;ta</i> (or red gum), <i>E.
+  leucox&#x45E;lon</i>, and <i>E. margin&#x101;ta</i> (jarrah), the timber
+  of which is hard, and almost indestructible. A number of the gum trees
+  have deciduous bark. The wattle or acacia includes about 300 species,
+  some of them of considerable economic value, yielding good timber or bark
+  for tanning. The most beautiful and most useful is that known as the
+  golden wattle (<i>A. dealb&#x101;ta</i>) which in spring is adorned with
+  rich masses of fragrant yellow blossom. Palms&mdash;of which there are
+  twenty-four species, all except the coco-palm peculiar to
+  Australia&mdash;are confined to the north and east coasts. In the
+  'scrubs' already mentioned hosts of densely-intertwisted bushes occupy
+  extensive areas. The <i>mallee</i> scrub is formed by a species of dwarf
+  eucalyptus, the <i>mulga</i> scrub by a species of thorny acacia. A plant
+  which covers large areas in the arid regions is the <i>spinifex</i> or
+  porcupine grass, a hard, coarse, and excessively spiny plant, which
+  renders travelling difficult, wounds the feet of horses, and is utterly
+  uneatable by any animal. Other large tracts are occupied by herbs or
+  bushes of a more valuable kind, from their affording fodder. Foremost
+  among those stands the salt-bush (<i>Atriplex nummularia</i>, ord.
+  Chenopodiaceæ). Beautiful flowering plants are numerous. Australia also
+  possesses great numbers of turf-forming grasses, such as the
+  kangaroo-grass (<i>Anthistiria austr&#x101;lis</i>), which survives even
+  a tolerably-protracted drought. The native fruit trees are few and
+  unimportant, and the same may be said of the plants yielding roots used
+  as food; but exotic fruits and vegetables may now be had in the different
+  colonies in great abundance and of excellent quality. The vine, the
+  olive, and mulberry thrive well, and quantities of wine are now produced.
+  The cereals of Europe and maize are extensively cultivated, and large
+  tracts of country, particularly in Queensland, are under the
+  sugar-cane.</p>
+
+  <p>The Australian fauna is almost unique in its character. Its great
+  feature is the nearly total <!-- Page 320 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page320"></a>[320]</span>absence of all the forms of mammalia which
+  abound in the rest of the world, their place being supplied by a great
+  variety of marsupials&mdash;these animals being nowhere else found,
+  except in the opossums of America. There are about 110 kinds of
+  marsupials (of which the kangaroo, wombat, bandicoot, and phalangers or
+  opossums, are the best-known varieties), over twenty kinds of bats, a
+  wild dog (the dingo), and a number of rats and mice. Two extraordinary
+  animals, the platypus, or water-mole of the colonist (Ornithorhynchus),
+  and the porcupine ant-eater (Echidna) constitute the lowest order of
+  mammals (Monotremata), and are confined to Australia. Their young are
+  produced from eggs. Australia now possesses a large stock of the domestic
+  animals of Britain, which thrive there remarkably well. The breed of
+  horses is excellent. Horned cattle and sheep are largely bred, the first
+  attaining a great size, while the sheep improve in fleece and their flesh
+  in flavour. There are upwards of 650 different species of birds, the
+  largest being the emu, or Australian ostrich, and a species of cassowary.
+  Peculiar to the country are the black swan, the honey-sucker, the
+  lyre-bird, the brush-turkey, and other mound-building birds, the
+  bower-birds, &amp;c. The parrot tribe preponderates over most other
+  groups of birds in the continent. There are many reptiles, the largest
+  being the alligator, found in some of the northern rivers. There are
+  upwards of sixty different species of snakes, some of which are very
+  venomous. Lizards, frogs, and insects are also numerous in various parts.
+  The seas, rivers, and lagoons abound in fish of numerous varieties, and
+  other aquatic animals, many of them peculiar. Whales and seals frequent
+  the coasts. On the northern coasts are extensive fisheries of trepang,
+  much visited by native traders from the Indian Archipelago. Some animals
+  of European origin, such as the rabbit and the sparrow, have developed
+  into real pests in several of the colonies.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:63%;">
+      <a href="images/image126.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image126.jpg"
+      alt="Australia - topography" title="Australia - topography" /></a>
+    COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Surface Features
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The natives belong to the Australian negro stock, and are sometimes
+  considered the lowest as regards intelligence in the whole human family,
+  though this is doubtful. At the census of 1891 they were believed to
+  number about 60,000, exclusive of those in the unexplored parts. They are
+  of a dark-brown or black colour, with jet-black curly but not woolly
+  hair, of medium size, but inferior muscular development. In the settled
+  parts of the continent they are inoffensive, and rapidly dying out. They
+  have no fixed habitations; in the summer they live almost entirely in the
+  open air, and in the more inclement weather they shelter themselves with
+  bark erections of the rudest construction. They have no cultivation and
+  no domestic animals. Their food consists of such animals as they can
+  kill, and no kind of living creature seems to be rejected, snakes,
+  lizards, frogs, and even insects being eaten, often half raw. They are
+  ignorant of the potter's art. <!-- Page 321 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page321"></a>[321]</span>In their natural condition they wear
+  little or no clothing. They speak a number of different languages or
+  dialects. The women are regarded merely as slaves, and are frequently
+  maltreated. They have no religion; they practise polygamy, and are said
+  sometimes to resort to cannibalism, but only in exceptional
+  circumstances. They are occasionally employed by the settlers in light
+  kinds of work, and as horse-breakers; but they dislike continuous
+  occupation, and soon give it up. The weapons of all the tribes are
+  generally similar, consisting of spears, shields, boomerangs, wooden
+  axes, clubs, and stone hatchets. Of these the boomerang is the most
+  singular, being an invention confined to the Australians.</p>
+
+  <p>The five colonies, independently of each other, having declared their
+  desire for a federal union, the Commonwealth of Australia was proclaimed.
+  A Convention, which sat at Adelaide in 1897-8, drafted a Constitution
+  Bill, and on 9th July, 1900, the British Parliament passed the Act to
+  constitute the Commonwealth. There is now a Governor-General and Central
+  or Federal Parliament, consisting of a Senate and a House of
+  Representatives, while each State has also (as before) a Governor, an
+  administration, and a Parliament of its own. Each Parliament consists of
+  two Houses corresponding to the British House of Lords and House of
+  Commons, but both Houses are elected by popular vote. Altogether the
+  machinery of government very much resembles that of the home country. The
+  aggregate annual revenue of the colonies is over £30,000,000. The public
+  debt on 30th June, 1917, was £372,517,623. The former militia and
+  volunteer units have been gradually merged into the new Citizen Army
+  started by the Australian Government in 1911. The Government also agreed
+  in the same year to furnish an Australian fleet unit, upon which King
+  George conferred the title of 'Royal Australian Navy'. There is no
+  established Church in the colonies. The denomination which numbers most
+  adherents is the English or Anglican Church, next to which come the Roman
+  Catholics, Presbyterians, and Methodists. Education is well provided for,
+  instruction in the primary schools being in some cases free and
+  compulsory, and the higher education being more and more attended to.
+  There are flourishing universities in Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide.
+  Newspapers are exceedingly numerous, and periodicals of all kinds are
+  abundant. There is as yet no native literature of any distinctive type,
+  but names of Australian writers of ability both in prose and poetry are
+  beginning to be known beyond their own country.</p>
+
+  <p>Pastoral and agricultural pursuits and mining are the chief
+  occupations of the people, though manufactures and handicrafts also
+  employ large numbers. The total land area under cultivation was
+  calculated at 13,298,576 acres in 1919-20. For sheep-rearing and the
+  growth of wool the Australian colonies are unrivalled, and while the
+  production of gold has considerably decreased, that of wool is constantly
+  on the increase. The great bulk of the wool exported goes to Britain,
+  which receives over 300,000,000 pounds from the Australian colonies
+  annually (£37,256,915 in 1919-20). The commerce is rapidly extending, and
+  becoming every year more important to Britain, whence the colonists
+  derive their chief supplies of manufactured goods in return for wool,
+  gold, and other produce. Next to wool come gold, tin, copper, wheat,
+  preserved meat, and tallow, hides and skins, cotton, tobacco, sugar, and
+  wine as the most important items of export. The chief imports consist of
+  textile fabrics, haberdashery, and clothing, machinery and metal goods.
+  The aggregate imports in 1920 amounted to about £97,456,899 in value, the
+  exports to £148,564,523. There are upwards of 23,000 miles of railway in
+  actual use or in course of construction, and about 133,000 miles of
+  telegraph. In 1912 the building of the Trans-Australian railway from Port
+  Augusta to Kalgoorlie was commenced. The longest telegraph line is that
+  running northwards across the continent from Adelaide. The two chief
+  routes for mails between Britain and the Australian colonies are by way
+  of the Suez Canal, and by San Francisco across the American continent.
+  The coinage is the same as in the mother country. Banks and banking
+  offices are numerous, including post office or other savings banks for
+  the reception of small sums.</p>
+
+  <p>It is doubtful when Australia was first discovered by Europeans.
+  Between 1531 and 1542 the Portuguese published the existence of a land
+  which they called Great Java, and which corresponded to Australia, and
+  probably the first discovery of the country was made by them early in the
+  sixteenth century. The first authenticated discovery is said to have been
+  made in 1601 by a Portuguese named Manoel Godinho de Eredia. In 1606
+  Torres, a Spaniard, passed through the strait that now bears his name,
+  between New Guinea and Australia. Between this period and 1628 a large
+  portion of the coastline of Australia had been surveyed by various Dutch
+  navigators. In 1664 the continent was named New Holland by the Dutch
+  Government. In 1688 Dampier coasted along part of Australia, and about
+  1700 explored a part of the <span class="scac">W.</span> and <span
+  class="scac">N.W.</span> coasts. In 1770 Cook carefully surveyed the
+  <span class="scac">E.</span> coast, named a number of localities, and
+  took possession of the country for Britain. He was followed by Bligh in
+  1789, who carried on a series of observations on the <span
+  class="scac">N.E.</span> coast, adding largely to the knowledge already
+  obtained of this new world. Colonists had now arrived on the <!-- Page
+  322 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page322"></a>[322]</span>soil, and
+  a penal settlement was formed (1788) at Port Jackson. In this way was
+  laid the foundation of the future colony of New South Wales. The Moreton
+  Bay district (Queensland) was settled in 1825; in 1835 the Port Phillip
+  district. In 1851 the latter district was erected into a separate colony
+  under the name of Victoria. Previous to this time the colonies both of
+  Western Australia and of South Australia had been founded&mdash;the
+  former in 1829, the latter in 1836. The latest of the colonies is
+  Queensland, which dates from 1859. The discovery of gold in abundance
+  took place in 1851 and caused an immense excitement and great influx of
+  immigrants. The population was then only about 350,000, and was slowly
+  increasing; but the discovery of the precious metal started the country
+  on that career of prosperity which has since been almost uninterrupted.
+  Convicts were long sent to Australia from the mother country, but
+  transportation to New South Wales practically ceased in 1840, and the
+  last convict vessel to W. Australia arrived in 1868. Altogether about
+  70,000 convicts were landed in Australia (besides almost as many in
+  Tasmania).</p>
+
+  <p>The record of interior exploration forms an interesting part of
+  Australian history. This has been going on since early last century, and
+  is as yet far from complete. There is still a large area of the continent
+  of which little or nothing is known, comprising especially a vast
+  territory belonging to Western Australia, and a portion of South
+  Australia. Among the men who have won fame in the field of Australian
+  exploration are Oxley (1817-23), who partly explored the Lachlan and
+  Macquarie, discovered the Brisbane, &amp;c.; Hume and Hovell (1824), who
+  crossed what is now the colony of Victoria from north to south;
+  Cunningham (1827), who discovered the Darling Downs; Sturt (1828-9), who
+  examined the Macquarie, part of the Darling, and the Murrumbidgee, which
+  he traced to the Murray, sailing down the latter to Lake Alexandrina; in
+  1844 he penetrated to near the middle of the continent from the south;
+  Mitchell (1831-6) made extensive explorations in New South Wales and
+  Victoria; M&lsquo;Millan (1839) explored and traversed Gippsland; Eyre
+  (1840) travelled by the coast from Adelaide to King George's Sound;
+  Leichhardt in 1844-5 travelled from Brisbane to Port Essington,
+  discovering fine tracts of territory and the numerous rivers flowing into
+  the Gulf of Carpentaria; in 1848 he was lost in the northern interior, in
+  attempting to cross Australia from east to west, and nothing further
+  regarding his fate has been discovered; Kennedy (1848) was killed in
+  exploring Cape York Peninsula; A.&nbsp;C. Gregory (1855-6) explored part of
+  North-Western Australia, and crossed from that to the Brisbane district,
+  an important exploring journey; M&lsquo;Douall Stuart (1859-60-2) crossed
+  the continent from south to north and back again nearly in the line of
+  the present overland telegraph; Burke, Wills, Gray, and King (1860-1)
+  crossed from Melbourne to the Gulf of Carpentaria, but Burke, Wills, and
+  Gray perished on the return journey; F.&nbsp;T. Gregory (1861) explored the
+  region of the Ashburton, Fortescue, and other rivers of North-West
+  Australia; Warburton (1873) travelled with camels from the centre of the
+  continent to the north-west coast; J. Forrest (1874) made an important
+  journey in Western Australia; Giles (1874-6) explored Central Western
+  Australia; Favenc (1878-9) travelled from Brisbane to Port Darwin; A.
+  Forrest (1879) explored part of Northern Australia; Mills (1883)
+  traversed with camels a considerable stretch of new ground in Western
+  Australia; Winnicke (1883-4), also with camels, explored and mapped about
+  40,000 sq. miles of the unknown interior; Lindsay (1885-6) travelled
+  north-west from Lake Eyre, and then north-east to the Gulf of
+  Carpentaria. Among subsequent explorations mention may be made of
+  Carnegie's eight months' journeyings in W. Australia (1896-7). (See
+  articles on the separate colonies.)&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Wall, <i>Physical Geography of
+  Australia</i>; Aflalo, <i>Natural History of Australia</i>; T.&nbsp;A.
+  Coghlan, <i>A Statistical Account of the Seven Colonies of
+  Australasia</i> (Sydney); G.&nbsp;W. Rusden, <i>History of Australia</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Austra´lioids</b>, one of the five groups into which Professor
+  Huxley classifies man, comprising the indigenous non-Aryan inhabitants of
+  Central and Southern India, the ancient Egyptians and their descendants,
+  and the modern Fellahs.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Austria</b>, or <b>German Austria</b>, a republic formed out of the
+  fragments of the old Austro-Hungarian Empire. The republic was proclaimed
+  on 12th Nov., 1918, and the government was taken in hand by the National
+  Constitutional Assembly. The new republic, the frontiers of which were
+  provisionally defined by the treaty of St. Germain (q.v.), includes Upper
+  Austria, Lower Austria, Salzburg, and parts of Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol,
+  and Vorarlberg, some districts having been assigned to Yugo-Slavia and
+  Italy. German Austria now has an area of 30,716 sq. miles, and a pop. of
+  6,130,197.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Austria-Hungary</b> (in Ger. <i>Oesterreich</i>, that is, Eastern
+  Empire), previous to the changes resulting from the European War
+  (1914-18), a Central European monarchy, inhabited by several
+  nationalities, and consisting of the Austrian Empire, the Hungarian
+  monarchy, and the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina annexed by Austria
+  on 5th Oct., 1908. The States had together a total area of about 261,242
+  sq. miles, and were bounded <span class="scac">S.</span> by Turkey, the
+  Adriatic, and Italy; <span class="scac">W.</span> by Switzerland,
+  Bavaria, and <!-- Page 323 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page323"></a>[323]</span>Saxony; <span class="scac">N.</span> by
+  Prussia and Russian Poland; and <span class="scac">E.</span> by Russia
+  and Roumania. On 12th Nov., 1918, the German-Austrian Republic was
+  proclaimed, and the government was taken in hand by the National
+  Constitutional Assembly. The account given in the following pages applies
+  to the countries only as they existed before the end of the European
+  War.</p>
+
+  <p>The population of Austria proper in 1913 was estimated at
+  29,193,293.</p>
+
+  <p>The prevailing character of the Austrian dominions is mountainous or
+  hilly, the plains not occupying more than a fifth part of the whole
+  surface. The loftiest ranges belong to the Alps, and are found in Styria,
+  Salzburg, and Carinthia, the highest summits being the Ortlerspitzen
+  (12,814 feet) on the western boundary of Tyrol, and the Grossglockner
+  (12,300 feet) on the borders of Salzburg, Tyrol, and Carinthia. Another
+  great range is that of the Carpathians. The chief rivers are the Danube,
+  with its tributaries, and the Dniester. The Danube is navigable for
+  pretty large vessels; the tributaries also are largely navigable. The
+  lakes are numerous and often picturesque, the chief being Lake Balaton or
+  the Plattensee. The climate is exceedingly varied, but generally good.
+  The principal products of the north are wheat, barley, oats, and rye; in
+  the centre vines and maize are added; and in the south olives and various
+  fruits. The cereals grow to perfection, other crops being hops, tobacco,
+  flax, and hemp. Sheep and cattle are largely reared.&mdash;Wild deer,
+  wild swine, chamois, foxes, lynxes, and a species of small black bear are
+  found in many districts, the fox and lynx being particularly
+  abundant.&mdash;In mineral productions Austria is very rich, possessing,
+  with the exception of platinum, all the useful metals, the total annual
+  value of the mineral products of Austria being estimated at upwards of
+  £15,000,000, the principal being coal, salt, and iron.</p>
+
+  <p>Before the European War, manufactures were in the most flourishing
+  condition in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Lower Austria; less so in the
+  eastern provinces, and insignificant in Dalmatia, Bukowina, Herzegovina,
+  &amp;c. Among the most important manufactures were those of machinery and
+  metal goods, Austria holding a high place for the manufacture of musical
+  and scientific instruments, gold and silver plate and jewellery; of stone
+  and china-ware and of glass, which is one of the oldest and most
+  highly-developed industries in Austria; of chemicals; of sugar from beet;
+  of beer, spirits, &amp;c.; and especially the manufactures of wool,
+  cotton, hemp, and flax.</p>
+
+  <p>In addition to the general import and export trade, Austria carried on
+  a very considerable amount of business in the transit of goods through
+  her territory. In 1914 the total value of imports into Austria-Hungary
+  was £114,716,000, of exports £83,996,000; the value of imports in 1913
+  was £141,433,000, the exports £115,129,000. Among imports were cotton and
+  other fibres, textile goods and yarn, metals, machinery, drugs,
+  chemicals, oils, fats, hides, skins, &amp;c. The chief exports were
+  cereals, animals, metallic goods, woven fabrics, pottery and glass
+  manufactures. Nearly two-thirds of the commerce are with Germany, next in
+  importance being the trade with Roumania, Italy, and Russia. The exports
+  direct to the United Kingdom in 1913 were £7,705,949; the imports of
+  British produce direct, £4,480,760; but these amounts do not include
+  indirect exports and imports through other countries. The staple exports
+  to the United Kingdom were corn and flour. The chief imports from it were
+  cotton manufactures, machinery and metals, woollen goods, fish, &amp;c.
+  In 1913 the mercantile navy of Austria had a total burden of about
+  471,252 tons. The principal ports were Trieste, in Austria, and Fiume, in
+  Hungary.</p>
+
+  <p>None of the European States, except Russia, exhibited such a diversity
+  of race and language as the former dual monarchy. The Slavs&mdash;who
+  differ greatly, however, amongst themselves in language and
+  civilization&mdash;amounted to above 20,000,000, or 46 per cent of the
+  total population, and formed the great mass of the population of Bohemia,
+  Moravia, Carniola, Galicia, Dalmatia, Croatia, and Slavonia, and Northern
+  Hungary, and half the population of Silesia and Bukowina. The Germans,
+  about 9,950,266, formed almost the sole population of the archduchy of
+  Austria, Salzburg, the greatest portion of Styria and Carinthia, almost
+  the whole of Tyrol and Vorarlberg, large portions of Bohemia and Moravia,
+  the whole of West Silesia, &amp;c.; and they were also numerous in
+  Hungary and Transylvania. The Magyars or Hungarians (10,061,549) formed
+  nearly half of the inhabitants of the former Kingdom of Hungary and the
+  connected provinces.</p>
+
+  <p>The State religion of the former dual monarchy was the Roman Catholic.
+  In 1910 there were in the Austrian portion of the monarchy 22,530,000
+  Roman Catholics, 3,417,000 Greek Catholics united to the Roman Church,
+  689,000 non-united, 589,000 Protestants, and 1,314,000 Jews.</p>
+
+  <p>The intellectual culture of the people was highest in the German
+  provinces, but in some of the other provinces the percentage of
+  uneducated was very high. Attendance at the elementary schools was
+  compulsory on all children from their sixth to the end of their
+  fourteenth year in most of the Austrian provinces; to at least the
+  twelfth year in the whole empire. There were numerous gymnasia and 'real
+  schools', the gymnasia being <!-- Page 324 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page324"></a>[324]</span>intended chiefly to prepare pupils for the
+  universities, while in the real schools a more practical end was kept in
+  view, and modern languages and physical science formed the groundwork of
+  the educational course. The technical high schools in Austria were very
+  important institutions, and there are many other special schools where
+  the students received training in mining, agriculture, industries of all
+  kinds, art, music, commerce, &amp;c. In 1917 there were eight
+  universities maintained by the State, viz. in Vienna, Prague (2), Gratz,
+  Cracow, Lemberg, Innsbruck, and Czernowitz. Most of these have four
+  faculties&mdash;Catholic theology, law and politics, medicine, and
+  philosophy.</p>
+
+  <p>Before the revolution of 1918 the ruler of the dual monarchy had the
+  title of emperor in his Austrian dominions, but he was only king of
+  Hungary. The Parliament of the Austrian division of the empire was known
+  as the Reichsrath, or council of the realm, consisting of an Upper House
+  (Herrenhaus), composed of princes of the imperial family, nobles with the
+  hereditary right to sit, archbishops, and life-members nominated by the
+  Emperor; and a Lower House (Abgeordnetenhaus) of 516 deputies elected on
+  the basis of universal suffrage. There were seventeen provincial Diets or
+  Assemblies, each provincial division having one. In the Hungarian
+  division of the Empire the legislature was a Parliament consisting of an
+  Upper House or House of Magnates and of a Lower House or House of
+  Representatives, the latter elected by all citizens of full age paying a
+  small amount in taxes, or otherwise qualified. Its powers corresponded to
+  those of the Austrian Parliament or Reichsrath. All matters affecting the
+  joint interests of the two divisions of the monarchy, such as foreign
+  affairs, war, and finance, were dealt with by the Parliaments of the two
+  States. There were three Budgets, viz. one for common affairs, one for
+  Austria, and one for Hungary. The Budget estimates for the former
+  Austrian kingdom in 1913 were £130,716,773 (the revenue balancing the
+  expenditure). In 1918 the estimates were: expenditure 24,321,140,000
+  crowns, revenue 4,854,789 crowns. Austria's special debt in Feb., 1918,
+  was placed at 54,081,765,681 crowns, of which 29,274,603,300 crowns were
+  war debt. On 20th Nov., 1918, the Provisional Government of the Austrian
+  Republic passed a law adopting the Budget of 1918-9, and empowering the
+  Minister of Finance to make good the difference between revenue and
+  expenditure.</p>
+
+  <p>Military service was compulsory and universal throughout the dual
+  monarchy. The old Austro-Hungarian army numbered about 820,000 men on a
+  peace footing.</p>
+
+  <p><i>History.</i>&mdash;In 791 Charlemagne drove the Avars from the
+  territory between the Ens and the Raab, and united it to his empire under
+  the name of <i>the Eastern Mark</i> (that is, March or boundary land);
+  and from the establishment by him of a margraviate in this new province
+  the former Austrian Empire took its rise. On the invasion of Germany by
+  the Hungarians it became subject to them from 900 till 955, when Otho I,
+  by the victory of Augsburg, reunited a great part of this province to the
+  German Empire, which by 1043 had extended its limits to the Leitha. The
+  margraviate of Austria was hereditary in the family of the Counts of
+  Babenberg (Bamberg) from 982 till 1156, in which year the boundaries of
+  Austria were extended so as to include the territory above the Ens, and
+  the whole was created a duchy. The territory was still further increased
+  in 1192 by the gift of the duchy of Styria as a fief from the Emperor
+  Henry VI, Vienna being by this time the capital. The male line of the
+  House of Bamberg became extinct in 1246, and the Emperor Frederick II
+  declared Austria and Styria a vacant fief, the hereditary property of the
+  German emperors. In 1282 the Emperor Rudolph granted Austria, Styria, and
+  Carinthia to his two sons, Albert and Rudolph. The former became sole
+  ruler (duke), and since then, until 12th Nov., 1918, Austria remained
+  under the House of Habsburg. Albert, who was an energetic ruler, was
+  elected emperor in 1298, but was assassinated in 1308. The first of his
+  successors whom we need specially mention was Albert V, son-in-law of the
+  Emperor Sigismund. He assisted Sigismund in the Hussite wars, and was
+  elected, after his death, King of Hungary and of Bohemia, and German
+  emperor (1438). Ladislaus, his posthumous son, was the last of the
+  Austrian line proper, and its possessions devolved upon the collateral
+  Styrian line in 1457; since which time the House of Austria furnished an
+  unbroken succession of German emperors.</p>
+
+  <p>In 1453 the Emperor Frederick III, a member of this House, had
+  conferred upon the country the rank of an archduchy before he himself
+  became ruler of all Austria. His son Maximilian I, by his marriage with
+  Mary, the surviving daughter of Charles the Bold, united the Netherlands
+  to the Austrian dominions. After the death of his father, in 1493,
+  Maximilian was made Emperor of Germany, and transferred to his son Philip
+  the government of the Netherlands. He also added to his paternal
+  inheritance Tyrol, with several other territories, particularly some
+  belonging to Bavaria, and acquired for his family new claims to Hungary
+  and Bohemia. The marriage of his son Philip to Joanna of Spain raised the
+  House of Habsburg to the throne of Spain. Philip, however, died in 1506,
+  and the death of Maximilian, in 1519, was followed by the union of Spain
+  and Austria, his grandson (the eldest son of Philip), Charles I, King of
+  <!-- Page 325 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page325"></a>[325]</span>Spain, being elected Emperor of Germany as
+  Charles V. Charles thus became the greatest monarch in Europe, but in
+  1521 he ceded to his brother Ferdinand all his dominions in Germany.
+  Ferdinand I, by his marriage with Anna, the sister of Louis II, King of
+  Hungary, acquired the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, with Moravia,
+  Silesia, and Lusatia, the appendages of Bohemia. To oppose him the
+  woywode of Transylvania, John Zapolya, sought the help of the Sultan,
+  Soliman II, who appeared in 1529 at the gates of Vienna, but was
+  compelled to retreat. In 1535 a treaty was made by which John Zapolya was
+  allowed to retain the royal title and half of Hungary, but after his
+  death new disputes arose, and Ferdinand maintained the possession of
+  Lower Hungary only by paying Soliman the sum of 30,000 ducats annually
+  (1562). In 1556 Ferdinand obtained the imperial crown, when his brother
+  Charles laid by the sceptre for a cowl. He died in 1564, leaving his
+  territories to be divided amongst his three sons.</p>
+
+  <p>Maximilian II, the eldest, succeeded his father as emperor, obtaining
+  Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia; Ferdinand, the second son, received Tyrol
+  and Lower Austria; and Charles, the youngest, obtained Styria, Carinthia,
+  Carniola, and Görz. Maximilian died in 1576, and was succeeded on the
+  imperial throne by his eldest son Rudolph II, who had already been
+  crowned King of Hungary in 1572, and King of Bohemia in 1575. Rudolph's
+  reign was distinguished by the war against Turkey and Transylvania; the
+  persecutions of the Protestants, who were driven from his dominions; the
+  cession of Hungary in 1608; and in 1611 of Bohemia and his hereditary
+  estates in Austria to his brother Matthias. Matthias, who succeeded
+  Maximilian on the imperial throne, concluded a peace with the Turks, but
+  was disturbed by the Protestant Bohemians, who took up arms in defence of
+  their religious rights, thus commencing the Thirty Years' War. After his
+  death in 1619 the Bohemians refused to acknowledge his successor,
+  Ferdinand II, until after the battle of Prague in 1620, when Bohemia had
+  to submit, and was deprived of the right of choosing her king.
+  Lutheranism was strictly forbidden in all the Austrian dominions.
+  Hungary, which revolted under Bethlem Gabor, Prince of Transylvania, was,
+  after a long struggle, subdued. During the reign of Ferdinand III
+  (1637-57), successor of Ferdinand II, Austria was continually the theatre
+  of war; Lusatia was ceded to Saxony in 1635; and Alsace to France in
+  1648, when peace was restored in Germany by the Treaty of Westphalia.</p>
+
+  <p>The Emperor Leopold I, son and successor of Ferdinand III, was
+  victorious through the talents of Prince Eugene in two wars with Turkey;
+  and Vienna was delivered by Sobieski and the Germans from the attacks of
+  Kara Mustapha in 1683. In 1687 he united Hungary to Transylvania, and in
+  1699 restored to Hungary the country lying between the Danube and the
+  Theiss. It was the chief aim of Leopold to secure to Charles, his second
+  son, the inheritance of the Spanish monarchy, and in 1701, upon the
+  victory of French diplomacy in the appointment of the grandson of Louis
+  XIV, the War of the Spanish Succession commenced. Leopold died in 1705,
+  but Joseph I, his eldest son, continued the war. As he died without
+  children in 1711, his brother Charles was elected emperor, but was
+  obliged to accede in 1714 to the Peace of Utrecht, by which Austria
+  received the Netherlands, Milan, Mantua, Naples, and Sardinia. In 1720
+  Sicily was given to Austria in exchange for Sardinia. This monarchy now
+  embraced over 190,000 sq. miles; but its power was weakened by new wars
+  with Spain and France. In the peace concluded at Vienna (1735 and 1738)
+  Charles VI was forced to cede Naples and Sicily to Spain and part of
+  Milan to the King of Sardinia; and in 1739, by the Peace of Belgrade, he
+  was obliged to transfer to the Porte Belgrade, Serbia, &amp;c., partly in
+  order to secure the succession to his daughter, Maria Theresa, by the
+  Pragmatic Sanction. He died in 1740.</p>
+
+  <p>On Maria Theresa's marriage to Francis Stephen, Duke of Lorraine (the
+  dynasty henceforth being that of Habsburg-Lorraine), and her accession to
+  the Austrian throne, the Empire was threatened with dismemberment.
+  Frederick II of Prussia subdued Silesia; the Elector of Bavaria was
+  crowned in Lintz and Prague, and in 1742 chosen emperor under the name of
+  Charles VII; Hungary alone supported the heroic and beautiful queen.
+  Charles, however, died in 1745, and the husband of Theresa was crowned
+  Emperor of Germany as Francis I; but a treaty concluded in 1745 confirmed
+  to Frederick the possession of Silesia, and by the Peace of
+  Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748, Austria was obliged to cede the duchies of Parma,
+  Piacenza, and Guastalla to Philip, Infant of Spain, and several districts
+  of Milan and Sardinia. To recover Silesia, Maria Theresa formed an
+  alliance with France, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden, and entered upon the
+  Seven Years' War; but by the Peace of Hubertsberg, 1763, Silesia was
+  recognized as Prussian territory. On the death of Francis I, in 1765,
+  Joseph II, his eldest son, was appointed to assist his mother in the
+  government and elected Emperor of Germany. The partition of Poland (1772)
+  gave Galicia and Lodomeria to Austria, which also obtained Bukowina from
+  the Porte in 1777. At the death of the Empress in 1780 Austria contained
+  235,000 sq. miles, with a pop. estimated at 24,000,000.</p>
+
+  <p>The liberal home administration of the Empress <!-- Page 326 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page326"></a>[326]</span>was continued and
+  extended by her successor, Joseph II, who did much to further the spread
+  of religious tolerance, education, and the industrial arts. The Low
+  Countries, however, revolted, and he was unsuccessful in the war of 1788
+  against the Porte. His death took place in 1790. He was succeeded by his
+  eldest brother, Leopold II, under whom peace was restored in the
+  Netherlands, and in Hungary, and also with the Porte. On the death of his
+  sister and her husband Louis XVI of France he formed an alliance with
+  Prussia, but died in 1792, before the French revolutionary war broke
+  out.</p>
+
+  <p>His son, Francis II, succeeded, and was elected German Emperor, by
+  which time France had declared war against him as King of Hungary and
+  Bohemia. In 1795, in the third partition of Poland, West Galicia fell to
+  Austria, and by the Peace of Campo-Formio (1797) she received the largest
+  part of the Venetian territory as compensation for her loss of Lombardy
+  and the Netherlands. In 1799 Francis, in alliance with Russia, renewed
+  the war with France until 1801, when the Peace of Lunéville was
+  concluded. In 1804 Francis declared himself hereditary Emperor of Austria
+  as Francis I, and united all his States under the name of the Empire of
+  Austria, immediately taking up arms once more with his allies Russia and
+  Great Britain against France. The war of 1805 was terminated by the Peace
+  of Pressburg (26th Dec.), by which Francis had to cede to France the
+  remaining provinces of Italy, as well as to give up portions of territory
+  to Bavaria, Würtemberg, and Baden, receiving in return Salzburg and
+  Berchtesgaden. After the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine
+  (12th July, 1806) Francis was forced to resign his dignity as Emperor of
+  Germany, which had been in his family more than 500 years. A new war with
+  France in 1809 cost the monarchy 42,380 sq. miles of territory and
+  3,500,000 subjects. Napoleon married Maria Louisa, daughter of the
+  Emperor, and in 1812 concluded an alliance with him against Russia. But
+  in 1813 Francis again declared war against France, and formed an alliance
+  with Britain, Prussia, and Sweden against his son-in-law. By the Congress
+  of Vienna (1815) Austria gained Lombardy and Venetia, and recovered,
+  together with Dalmatia, the hereditary territories which it had been
+  obliged to cede.</p>
+
+  <p>In the troubled period following the French revolution of 1830
+  insurrections took place in Modena, Parma, and the Papal States (1831-2),
+  but were suppressed without much difficulty; and though professedly
+  neutral during the Polish insurrections Austria clearly showed herself on
+  the side of Russia, with whom her relations became more intimate as those
+  between Great Britain and France grew more cordial. The death of Francis
+  I (1835) and accession of his son, Ferdinand I, made little change in the
+  Austrian system of government, and much discontent was the consequence.
+  In 1846 the failure of the Polish insurrection led to the incorporation
+  of Cracow with Austria. In Italy the declarations of Pio Nono in favour
+  of reform increased the difficulties of Austria, and in Hungary the
+  opposition under Kossuth and others assumed the form of a great
+  constitutional movement. In 1848, when the expulsion of Louis Philippe
+  shook all Europe, Metternich found it impossible any longer to guide the
+  helm of the State, and the Government was compelled to admit a free press
+  and the right of citizens to arms. Apart from the popular attitude in
+  Italy and in Hungary, where the Diet declared itself permanent under the
+  presidency of Kossuth, the insurrection made equal progress in Vienna
+  itself, and the royal family, no longer in safety, removed to Innsbruck.
+  After various ministerial changes the Emperor abdicated in favour of his
+  nephew, Francis Joseph; more vigorous measures were adopted; and Austria,
+  aided by Russia, reduced Hungary to submission.</p>
+
+  <p>The year 1855 is memorable for the Concordat with the Pope, which put
+  the educational and ecclesiastical affairs of the Empire entirely into
+  the hands of the Papal see. In 1859 the hostile intentions of France and
+  Sardinia against the possessions of Austria in Italy became so evident
+  that she declared war by sending an army across the Ticino; but after
+  disastrous defeats at Magenta and Solferino she was compelled to cede
+  Milan and the north-west portion of Lombardy to Sardinia. In 1864 she
+  joined with the German States in the war against Denmark, but a dispute
+  about Schleswig-Holstein involved her in a war with her allies (1866),
+  while at the same time Italy renewed her attempts for the recovery of
+  Venice. The Italians were defeated at Custozza and driven back across the
+  Mincio; but the Prussians, victorious at Königgrätz (or Sadowa),
+  threatened Vienna. Peace was concluded with Prussia on 23rd Aug. and with
+  Italy on 3rd Oct., the result of the war being the cession of Venetia
+  through France to Italy and the withdrawal of Austria from all
+  interference in the affairs of Germany.</p>
+
+  <p>For nearly half a century (from 1866 to 1914) the internal affairs of
+  Austria-Hungary gave much occupation to statesmen of the dual monarchy.
+  Hungarian demands for self-government were finally agreed to, and the
+  Empire was divided into the two parts already mentioned&mdash;Austria and
+  Hungary. This settlement was consummated by the coronation of the Emperor
+  Francis Joseph I, at Budapest, as King of Hungary, on 8th June, 1867. In
+  the same year the Concordat of 1855 came up for discussion, <!-- Page 327
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page327"></a>[327]</span>and measures
+  were passed for the re-establishment of civil marriage, the emancipation
+  of schools from the domination of the Church, and the placing of
+  different creeds on a footing of equality. The fact of the
+  Austro-Hungarian dominions comprising so many different nationalities
+  gave the central Government much trouble, both in regard to internal and
+  to external affairs. In regard to the 'Eastern Question', for instance,
+  the action of Austria was hampered by the sympathies shown by the Magyars
+  for their blood relations, the Turks, while the Slavs were naturally more
+  favourable to Russia. During the war between Russia and Turkey in 1877-8
+  Austria remained neutral; but at its close it was decided at the Congress
+  of Berlin that Bosnia and Herzegovina should in future be administered by
+  Austria instead of Turkey. In 1908, taking advantage of the condition of
+  Turkey, Austria formally annexed these provinces. By the middle of Oct.,
+  1918, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy began to break up into independent
+  national States. Four States of some size laid claim to independence,
+  viz. German-Austria, Czecho-Slovakia (recognized by the Allies), Hungary,
+  and Yugo-Slavia. On 13th Oct., 1921, German Austria signed with Hungary
+  the Burgenland pact, agreeing to a plebiscite in several districts. For
+  recent history of Austria, see <i>Francis Joseph; European
+  War.</i>&mdash;Cf. S. Whitman, <i>Austria</i> (in Story of the Nations
+  Series); H.&nbsp;W. Steed, <i>The Hapsburg Monarchy.</i></p>
+
+  <p><b>Auteuil</b> (&#x14D;-t&#x117;-y&#x117;), formerly a suburban
+  village of Paris, but now enclosed within the fortifications.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Autobiog´raphy</b>, a department of literature of which, as a
+  definite branch or form at least, we have no very ancient examples,
+  though many autobiographical details are contained, for instance, in
+  Cicero's and Pliny's letters, while St. Augustine has left a fragmentary
+  autobiography in his <i>Confessions</i>. Various writers of note, without
+  claiming or perhaps intending to write a formal autobiography, have left
+  similar materials in the form of their own memoirs or reminiscences, or,
+  for a portion of their lives, in diaries. The chief English diarists are
+  Pepys and Evelyn, while Crabb Robinson is an admirable modern example.
+  Brief autobiographies were written by Gibbon, Hume, and Sir Walter Scott
+  (of his early life only), and among other writers who have given us
+  autobiographies or kindred works are Fanny Burney, Cobbett, Haydon, Miss
+  Mitford, Harriet Martineau, Leigh Hunt, Hugh Miller (in <i>My Schools and
+  Schoolmasters</i>), John Stuart Mill, Anthony Trollope, Sir Henry Taylor,
+  Miss F.&nbsp;P. Cobbe, Carlyle, Ruskin, Herbert Spencer, Alexander Bain, and
+  Alfred Russel Wallace. Lord Roberts's <i>Forty-one Years in India</i> and
+  General Grant's <i>Personal Memoirs</i> are most interesting
+  autobiographical works by men of action. One of the most famous of
+  autobiographies is that of the Italian Benvenuto Cellini. See
+  <i>Biography</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Autochrome.</b> See <i>Photography</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Autochthones</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>-tok'tho-n&#x113;z), the Greek name for
+  the aboriginal inhabitants of a country. See <i>Aborigines</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Au´toclave</b> (derived from the Gr. <i>autos</i>, self, and Lat.
+  <i>clavis</i>, key) is a strong steam-tight vessel in which hydrolysis of
+  liquids can be carried out, under pressure, at temperatures considerably
+  higher than their normal boiling-points. The vessels may be of copper,
+  iron, or other suitable material, are sometimes enamelled within, or may
+  have renewable refractory linings when used for corrosive liquids. Some
+  types have mechanical agitators. Used in the manufacture of candles,
+  coal-tar colours, &amp;c. May be heated by high-pressure steam or in
+  baths of oil or molten lead. See <i>Papin</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Au´tocrat</b> (Gr. <i>autos</i>, self, <i>kratos</i>, rule), an
+  absolute or uncontrolled ruler; the head of a State who is not controlled
+  by any constitutional limitations, such as the Tsars of Russia till
+  1917.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auto-de-fe</b> (Sp.); <b>Auto-da-fe</b> (Pg.), literally, 'act of
+  faith'. See <i>Inquisition</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Au´tograph,</b> a person's own handwriting; an original manuscript
+  or signature, as opposed to a copy. The practice of collecting autographs
+  or signatures originated in Germany and the Low Countries, chiefly among
+  members of the universities, and dates at least from the sixteenth
+  century. Among the earliest collections known are those of John Cotton
+  and Hans Sloane in the British Museum, and of Philippe de Bethune,
+  brother of Sully, and Loménie de Brienne at the Bibliothèque Nationale.
+  The most celebrated collection formed in England in recent years is that
+  of Alfred Morrison.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Automatic Writing.</b> See <i>Psychical Research</i>;
+  <i>Spiritualism</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Autom´atism,</b> the confinement of activity in men or animals
+  within a purely mechanical limit, resulting from injury to or partial
+  removal of the brain.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Autom´aton</b> (Gr. <i>automatos</i>, spontaneous), a self-moving
+  machine performing actions like those of a living being, and often shaped
+  like one. The walking statues of Dædalus, the flying dove of Archytas,
+  the brazen head of Friar Bacon, the iron fly of Regiomontanus, the
+  door-opening figure of Albertus Magnus, the parading knights of the clock
+  presented to Charlemagne by Harun al Rashid, the toy carriage and
+  attendants constructed by Camus for Louis XIV, the flute-player,
+  tambour-player, and duck of Vaucanson, and the writing child of the
+  brothers Droz are among the more noteworthy of traditional automata. See
+  <i>Conjuring</i>.</p>
+
+<p><!-- Page 328 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page328"></a>[328]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Automobile.</b> See <i>Motor Vehicles</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auton´omy</b>, the power of a State, institution, &amp;c., to
+  legislate for itself.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Autoph´agi</b> (-j&#x12B;), birds which feed themselves as soon as
+  hatched.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Au´toplasty</b>, the operation by which wounds and diseased parts
+  are repaired with healthy tissues taken from other parts of the same
+  person's body.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Autoplate.</b> See <i>Printing</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Autop´sy</b>, literally, personal observation or inspection,
+  commonly restricted to post-mortem examination. See <i>Coroner</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Au´totype</b>, a species of photographic print. A thin sheet of
+  gelatine on paper is rendered sensitive to light by treatment with
+  bichromate of potash, and then exposed under an ordinary photographic
+  negative. The portions of gelatine affected by the light become
+  insoluble, the remainder of the gelatine is then washed away, and the
+  picture remains reproduced in the gelatine, there being slight elevations
+  and depressions corresponding with the distribution of light and shade.
+  This may be printed from, but it is more often made use of to obtain
+  electrotypes or other reverses, from which impressions can more easily be
+  taken.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Autumn</b>, the season between summer and winter, in the northern
+  hemisphere often regarded as embracing August, September, and October, or
+  three months about that time. The beginning of the astronomical autumn is
+  22nd Sept., the autumnal equinox; and the end is 21st Dec., the shortest
+  day. The autumn of the southern hemisphere takes place at the time of the
+  northern spring.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Autun</b> (&#x14D;-tu<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n; ancient, <b>Bibracte</b>, later,
+  <b>Augustodunum</b>), a town, South-Eastern France, department of
+  Saône-et-Loire. It has two Roman gates of exquisite workmanship, the
+  ruins of an amphitheatre and of several temples, the cathedral of St.
+  Lazare, a fine Gothic structure of the twelfth century with chapels added
+  in the fifteenth; manufactures of carpets, woollens, cotton, velvet,
+  hosiery, &amp;c. Pop. 15,498.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Autunite</b>, a hydrous phosphate of uranium and calcium,
+  crystallizing in the rhombic system in yellow plates. Like other minerals
+  of the uranium series it shows radio-activity.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auvergne</b> (&#x14D;-v&#x101;r-ny&#x117;), a province, Central
+  France, now merged into departments Cantal and Puy-de-Dôme, and an
+  arrondissement of Haute-Loire. The Auvergne Mountains, separating the
+  basins of the Allier, Cher, and Creuse from those of the Lot and
+  Dordogne, contain the highest points of Central France: Mount Dor, 6188
+  feet; Cantal, 6093 feet, and Puy-de-Dôme, 4806 feet. The number of
+  extinct volcanoes and general geologic formation make the district one of
+  great scientific interest. The minerals include iron, copper, and lead,
+  and there are warm and cold mineral springs. Auvergne contributes a large
+  supply to the labour markets of Paris and Belgium, there being in Paris
+  alone some 50,000 Auvergnats.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auxerre</b> (&#x14D;-s&#x101;r), a town, France, department of
+  Yonne, 110 miles S.E. of Paris. Principal edifices: a fine Gothic
+  cathedral, unfinished; the abbey of St. Germain, with curious crypts; and
+  an old episcopal palace, now the Hôtel de Prefecture; it manufactures
+  woollens, hats, casks, leather, earthenware, violin strings, &amp;c.;
+  trade, chiefly in wood and wines, of which the best known is white
+  Chablis. Pop. 21,930.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auxom´eter</b>, an instrument to measure the magnifying powers of
+  an optical apparatus.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Auxonne</b> (&#x14D;-son; ancient, <b>Aussona</b>), a town, France,
+  department of Côte-d'Or (Burgundy), on the Saône; a fortified place, with
+  some manufactures. Pop. 6300.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´va</b>, a town in Asia, formerly the capital of Burma, on the
+  Irawadi, now almost wholly in ruins.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ava-Ava</b>, <b>Arva</b>, <b>Kava</b>, or <b>Yava</b>
+  (<i>Macropiper methysticum</i>), a plant of the nat. ord. Piperaceæ
+  (pepper family), so called by the inhabitants of Polynesia, who make an
+  intoxicating drink out of it. Its leaves are chewed with betel, in
+  South-Eastern Asia.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avad´avat.</b> See <i>Amadavat</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Av´alanches</b>, large masses of snow or ice precipitated from the
+  mountains, and distinguished as <i>wind</i> or <i>dust avalanches</i>
+  when they consist of fresh-fallen snow whirled like a dust-storm into the
+  valleys; as <i>sliding avalanches</i> when they consist of great masses
+  of snow sliding down a slope by their own weight; and as <i>glacier</i>
+  or <i>summer avalanches</i> when ice-masses are detached by heat from the
+  high glaciers.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avâl Islands.</b> Same as <i>Bahrein Islands</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avallon</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-va<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-l&#x14D;n), a town of Central France,
+  department Yonne. Pop. 5900.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Av´alon</b>, a sort of fairyland or elysium mentioned in connection
+  with the legends of King Arthur, being his abode after disappearing from
+  the haunts of men: called also <i>Avilion</i>. The name is also
+  identified with Glastonbury; and has been given to a peninsula of
+  Newfoundland.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avan´turine</b>, or <b>Aven´turine</b>, a variety of quartz
+  containing glittering spangles of mica through it; also a sort of
+  artificial gem of similar appearance.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Av´ars</b>, a nation, probably of Turanian origin, who at an early
+  period may have migrated from the region east of the Tobol in Siberia to
+  that about the Don, the Caspian Sea, and the Volga. A part advanced to
+  the Danube in <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 555, and settled in Dacia.
+  They served in Justinian's army, aided the Lombards in destroying the
+  kingdom of the Gepidæ, and in the sixth century <!-- Page 329 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page329"></a>[329]</span>conquered under their
+  Khan Bajan the region of Pannonia. They then won Dalmatia, pressed into
+  Thuringia and Italy against the Franks and Lombards, and subdued the
+  Slavs dwelling on the Danube, as well as the Bulgarians on the Black Sea.
+  But they were ultimately limited to Pannonia, where they were overcome by
+  Charlemagne, and nearly extirpated by the Slavs of Moravia. After 827
+  they disappear from history. Traces of their fortified settlements are
+  found, and known as Avarian rings. See <i>Lesghians</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avatar´</b>, more properly <b>Avatara</b>, in Hindu mythology, an
+  incarnation of the Deity. Of the innumerable avatars the chief are the
+  ten incarnations of Vishnu, who appeared successively as a fish, a
+  tortoise, a boar, a man-lion, a dwarf, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avatch´a</b>, a volcano and bay in Kamchatka. The volcano, which is
+  9000 feet high, was last active in 1855. The town of Petropavlovsk lies
+  in the bay.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avebury</b> (&#x101;v´be-ri), a village of England, in Wiltshire,
+  occupying the site of a so-called Druidical temple, which originally
+  consisted of a large outer circle of 100 stones, from 15 to 17 feet in
+  height, and about 40 feet in circumference, surrounded by a broad ditch
+  and lofty rampart, and enclosing two smaller circles. Few traces now
+  remain of the structure. On the neighbouring downs are numerous barrows
+  or tumuli, one of which, called Silbury Hill, rises to the height of 130
+  feet, with a circumference of 2027 feet at the base, covering fully 5
+  acres.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avebury</b>, John Lubbock, first Baron. See <i>Lubbock</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aveiro</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-v&#x101;´i-ru<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>), a coast town in Portugal, province of
+  Douro, with a cathedral, an active fishery, and a thriving trade. Pop.
+  11,523.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avellino</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-vel-l&#x113;´n&#x14D;), a town in
+  Southern Italy, capital of the province of Avellino, 29 miles east of
+  Naples, the seat of a bishop. Avellino nuts were celebrated under the
+  Romans. Pop. 24,620. Area of the province, 1165 sq. miles; pop.
+  411,813.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´ve Mari´a</b> ('Hail, Mary'), the first two words of the angel
+  Gabriel's salutation (<i>Luke</i>, i, 28), and the beginning of the very
+  common Latin prayer to the Virgin in the Roman Catholic Church. Its lay
+  use was sanctioned at the end of the twelfth century, and a papal edict
+  of 1326 ordains the repetition of the prayer thrice each morning, noon,
+  and evening, the hour being indicated by sound of bells called the Ave
+  Maria or Angelus Domini. The prayers are counted upon the small beads of
+  the rosary, as the pater-nosters are upon the large ones.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ave´na.</b> See <i>Oat</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Av´ens</b>, the English name of two rosaceous plants of the genus
+  Geum. Common avens, or herb-bennet, <i>G. urb&#x101;num</i>, possesses
+  astringent properties, and was formerly used in medicine. The mountain
+  avens, <i>Dryas octopetala</i>, belongs to the same nat. ord.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Av´entaile</b>, the movable face-guard of the helmet, through which
+  the wearer breathed.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Av´entine</b>, one of the seven hills of Rome, east of the Tiber.
+  It was included in the city by Servius Tullius.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aven´turine.</b> See <i>Avanturine</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Av´erage</b>, in maritime law, any charge or expense over and above
+  the freight of goods, and payable by their owner.&mdash;<i>General
+  average</i> is the sum falling to be paid by the owners of ship, cargo,
+  and freight, in proportion to their several interests, to make good any
+  loss or expense intentionally incurred for the general safety of ship and
+  cargo, e.g. throwing goods overboard, cutting away masts, port dues in
+  cases of distress, &amp;c.&mdash;<i>Particular average</i> is the sum
+  falling to be paid for unavoidable loss when the general safety is not in
+  question, and therefore chargeable on the individual owner of the
+  property lost. A policy of insurance generally covers both general and
+  particular average, unless specially excepted.&mdash;<i>Averaging</i>, in
+  Stock Exchange language, denotes the operation of a speculator in
+  increasing transactions at a higher or lower price when the price is
+  moving against him, so that the average price of the whole will be higher
+  or lower than his original purchase or sale.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aver´nus</b>, a lake, now called <b>Lago d'Averno</b>, in Campania,
+  Italy, between the ancient Cumæ and Puteoli, about 8 miles from Naples.
+  It is the crater of an old volcano, and is in some places 180 feet deep.
+  Formerly the gloom of its forest surroundings and its mephitic
+  exhalations caused it to be regarded as the entrance to the infernal
+  regions. It was the fabled abode of the Cimmerians, and especially
+  dedicated to Proserpine.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Averroes</b> (a-ver´o-es; corrupted from <b>Ibn Roshd</b>), the
+  most renowned Arabian philosopher, born at Cordova, in Spain, 1126, died
+  at Morocco 1198. His ability procured him the succession to his father's
+  office of chief magistrate, and the King of Morocco appointed him at the
+  same time cadi in the province of Mauretania. Accused of being an
+  infidel, he was, however, deprived of his offices, and banished to Spain;
+  but, being persecuted there also, he fled to Fez, where he was condemned
+  to recant and undergo public penance. Upon this he went back to his own
+  country, where the Caliph Almansur finally restored him to his dignities.
+  Averroes regarded Aristotle as the greatest of all philosophers, and
+  devoted himself so largely to the exposition of his works as to be called
+  among the Arabians <i>The Interpreter</i>. He wrote a compendium of
+  medicine, and treatises on theology, philosophy, jurisprudence, &amp;c.
+  His commentaries upon <!-- Page 330 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page330"></a>[330]</span>Aristotle appeared before 1250 in a Latin
+  translation attributed to Michael Scott, the reputed wizard (1194-1250),
+  and others. Averroes was at once a philosopher, a theologian, and a
+  theosophist.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Averrunca´tor</b>, a garden implement for pruning trees without a
+  ladder, consisting of two blades similar to stout shears, one fixed
+  rigidly to a long handle, and the other moved by a lever to which a cord
+  passing over a pulley is attached.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aver´sa</b>, a well-built town of Southern Italy, 7 miles <span
+  class="scac">N.</span> of Naples, in a beautiful vine and orange
+  district, the seat of a bishop, with a cathedral and various religious
+  institutions, and a large lunatic asylum. Andreas of Hungary, husband of
+  Queen Joanna I, was strangled in a convent here, 18th Sept., 1345. Pop.
+  23,203.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avesnes</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-v&#x101;n), a town of France, department
+  Nord. Pop. 5829.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avesta.</b> See <i>Zendavesta</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aveyron</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-v&#x101;-r&#x14D;n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a department occupying the southern
+  extremity of the central plateau of France, traversed by mountains
+  belonging to the Cevennes and the Cantal ranges; principal rivers:
+  Aveyron, Lot, and Tarn, the Lot alone being navigable. The climate is
+  cold, and agriculture is in a backward state, but considerable attention
+  is paid to sheep-breeding. It is noted for its 'Roquefort cheese'. It has
+  coal, iron, and copper mines, besides other minerals. Area, 3385 sq.
+  miles; capital, Rhodez. Pop. (1921), 332,940.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avezzano</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-vet-zä'n&#x14D;), a town of S. Italy,
+  province Aquila. Pop. 11,279.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Av´iary</b>, a building or enclosure for keeping, breeding, and
+  rearing birds. Aviaries appear to have been used by the Persians, Greeks,
+  and Romans, and are highly prized in China. In England they were in use
+  at least as early as 1577, when William Harrison refers to "our costlie
+  and curious aviaries". An aviary may be simply a kind of very large cage,
+  or a series of enclosures.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aviatik</b>, a German type of biplane. It was originally built at
+  Mulhausen in Alsace.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aviation.</b> See <i>Aeronautics</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avicen´na</b>, or <b>Ebn-Sina</b>, an Arabian philosopher and
+  physician, born at Kharmaithen, in the province of Bokhara, <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 980. After practising as a physician he quitted
+  Bokhara at the age of twenty-two, and for a number of years led a
+  wandering life, settling at last at Hamadan, subsequently as vizier of
+  the Emir. On the death of his patron he lived in retirement at Hamadan,
+  but having secretly offered his services to the Sultan of Ispahan he was
+  imprisoned by the new Emir. Escaping, he fled to Ispahan, was received
+  with great honour by the Sultan, and passed there in quietness the last
+  fourteen years of his life, writing upon medicine, logic, metaphysics,
+  astronomy, and geometry. His philosophy was Aristotelianism mingled with
+  neo-Platonism, and his influence is most marked in Dante and the Mystics.
+  He died at Hamadan, in Northern Persia, 1037, leaving many writings,
+  mostly commentaries on Aristotle. Of his 100 treatises the best known is
+  the <i>Canon Medicinæ</i>, which was still in use as a textbook at
+  Louvain and Montpellier in the middle of the seventeenth century. His
+  <i>Philosophia Orientalis</i>, mentioned by Roger Bacon, is lost.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avie´nus</b>, Rufus Festus, a Latin descriptive poet, who
+  flourished about the end of the fourth century <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span>, and wrote <i>Descriptio Orbis Terræ</i>, a
+  general description of the earth; <i>Ora Maritima</i>, an account of the
+  Mediterranean coasts, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avifau´na</b>, a collective term for the birds of any region.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avigliano</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-v&#x113;l-yä´n&#x14D;), a town of S.
+  Italy, province Potenza. Pop. 17,413.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avignon</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-v&#x113;-ny&#x14D;n; ancient,
+  <b>Avenio</b>), an old town of S.E. France, capital of department
+  Vaucluse, on the left bank of the Rhone; enclosed by lofty battlemented
+  and turreted walls, well built, but with rather narrow streets. It is an
+  archbishop's see since 1475, and has a large and ancient cathedral on a
+  rock overlooking the town, the immense palace in which the Popes resided
+  (used as a barracks and prison for a long time), and other old buildings.
+  The industries of the city are numerous and varied, the principal being
+  connected with silk. The silk manufacture and the breeding of silk-worms
+  are the principal employments in the district. Here Petrarch lived
+  several years, and made the acquaintance of Laura, whose tomb is in the
+  Franciscan church. From 1309 to 1377 seven Popes in succession, from
+  Clement V to Gregory XI, resided in this city. After its purchase by Pope
+  Clement VI, in 1348, Avignon and its district continued, with a few
+  interruptions, under the rule of a vice-legate of the Pope's till 1791,
+  when it was formally united to the French Republic. Pop. 49,304.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avignon Berries.</b> See <i>French Berries</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avila</b> (ä'v&#x113;-la<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a town of Spain, capital of province
+  of Avila, a modern division of Old Castile. It is the see of the Bishop
+  suffragan of Santiago, with fine cathedral. Once one of the richest towns
+  of Spain. Principal employment in the town, spinning; in the province,
+  breeding sheep and cattle. Pop., town, 12,060; province, 214,008.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avila</b>, Gil Gonzalez d', a Spanish antiquary and biographer,
+  1577-1658; made historiographer of Castile in 1612, and of the Indies in
+  1641. Most valuable works: <i>Teatro de las Grandezas de Madrid</i>,
+  1623, and <i>Teatro Ecclesiastico</i>, 1645-53.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avila y Zuñiga</b> (ä´v&#x113;-la<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span> &#x113; thö-ny&#x113;´ga<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), Don Luis d', Spanish
+  general, diplomatist, and historian; a favourite of Charles V; born about
+  <!-- Page 331 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page331"></a>[331]</span>1490, died about 1560. His chief work,
+  printed in 1548 and translated into five languages, was on the war of
+  Charles V in Germany.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aviles</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-v&#x113;'les), a town of Northern Spain,
+  province Oviedo, with a good harbour. Pop. 13,660.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aviz</b>, an order of knighthood in Portugal, instituted by Sancho,
+  its first king, and having as its original object the subjection of the
+  Moors.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avizan´dum</b>, in Scots law, private consideration. To make
+  <i>avizandum</i> is to remove a cause from the public court to the
+  private consideration of the judge.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avlo´na</b> (Ital. <i>Valona</i>), a seaport of Albania on the
+  Adriatic, with a considerable trade. It was occupied and made a naval and
+  military base by the Italians during the European War. Pop. 6500.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avo´ca</b>, or <b>Ovoca</b>, a river and valley in Ireland, County
+  Wicklow, celebrated as the scene and subject of one of Moore's <i>Irish
+  Melodies</i>. The river is formed by the union of the Avonbeg and
+  Avonmore, and below the junction receives the Aughrim, the name in Celtic
+  signifying 'the meeting of the waters'. After a course of about 9 miles
+  it falls into the sea about a mile below Arklow. The scenery here is
+  singularly beautiful, and attracts many visitors.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avoca´do-pear</b>. See <i>Alligator-pear</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avogad´ro's Law</b>, in physics, asserts that equal volumes of
+  different gases at the same pressure and temperature contain an equal
+  number of molecules.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avoirdupois</b> (a-v&#x117;r'du<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>-pois; from old French, literally, 'goods
+  of weight'), a system of weights used for all goods except precious
+  metals, gems, and medicines, and in which a pound contains 16 ounces, or
+  7000 grains, while a pound troy contains 12 ounces, or 5760 grains. A
+  hundredweight contains 112 pounds avoirdupois; a <i>cental</i> of 100
+  pounds is common in America, and is a legal British weight. See
+  <i>Weights and Measures</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Av´ola</b>, a seaport on the east of Sicily, with a trade in
+  almonds, sugar, &amp;c. Pop. 17,711.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´von</b>, the name of several rivers in England, of which the
+  principal are: 1. The Upper Avon, rising in Leicestershire, and flowing
+  <span class="scac">S.W.</span> into the Severn at Tewkesbury.
+  Stratford-on-Avon lies on this river. 2. The Lower Avon, rising in
+  Gloucestershire, and falling into the Severn <span
+  class="scac">N.W.</span> of Bristol; navigable as far as Bath. 3. In
+  Monmouthshire. 4. In Wiltshire and Hampshire, entering the English
+  Channel at Christchurch Bay. There are also streams of this name in Wales
+  and Scotland.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avonmouth</b>, a place at the mouth of the River Avon, 6 miles from
+  Bristol, and connected with it by rail and river, with large docks
+  belonging to the Bristol corporation, and forming part of the shipping
+  accommodation of that city.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:20%;">
+      <a href="images/image127.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image127.jpg"
+      alt="Avoset" title="Avoset" /></a>
+    Avoset (<i>Recurvirostra avosetta</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Av´oset</b>, a bird about the size of a lapwing, of the genus
+  Recurvirostra (<i>R. avosetta</i>), family Scolopacidæ (snipes), ord.
+  Grallatores. The bill is long, slender, elastic, and bent upward toward
+  the tip, the legs long, the feet webbed, and the plumage variegated with
+  black and white. The bird feeds on worms and other small animals, which
+  it scoops up from the mud of the marshes and fens that it frequents. It
+  is found in Europe, Asia, Africa, and America; but the American species
+  is slightly different from the others.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Avranches</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-vrän<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>sh; ancient, <b>Abrincæ</b>), a town,
+  France, department La Manche, about 3 miles from the Atlantic. It
+  formerly had a fine cathedral, destroyed during the first French
+  revolution. Manufactures: lace, thread, and candles. Pop. 7174.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Awe</b> (a<span class="x1"><span class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>),
+  a Scottish loch in Argyllshire, about 28 miles long and 2 broad, and
+  communicating by the Awe with Loch Etive. Ben Cruachan stands at its
+  northern extremity. It has many islands and beautiful scenery, and
+  abounds in trout, salmon, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Axe</b>, or <b>Ax</b>, a well-known tool for cutting or chipping
+  wood, consisting of an iron head with an arched cutting edge of steel,
+  which is in line with the wooden handle of the tool, and not at right
+  angles to it as in the adze.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Axel</b>. See <i>Absalon</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Axe-stone.</b> See <i>Jade</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Axholme Isle</b> (aks'&#x14D;m), a sort of island in <!-- Page 332
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page332"></a>[332]</span>England formed
+  by the Rivers Trent, Idle, and Don, in the north-west angle of
+  Lincolnshire, 17 miles long, 4½ broad.</p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:17%;">
+      <a href="images/image128.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image128.jpg"
+      alt="Axil" title="Axil" /></a>
+    Leaf and stem of Horse-chestnut, showing axil
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Axil</b>, or <b>Axilla</b>, in botany, the angle between the upper
+  side of a leaf and the stem or branch from which it springs. Buds usually
+  appear in the axils, and flowers or flower-stalks growing in this way are
+  called <i>axillary</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ax´im</b>, a town of W. Africa, on the Gold Coast.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ax´inite</b>, a mineral, silicate of alumina, lime, &amp;c., with
+  boracic acid, deriving its name from the form of the crystals, the edges
+  of which bear some resemblance to the edge of an axe.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Axin´omancy</b>, an ancient method of divination by the movements
+  of an axe (Gr. <i>axin&#x113;</i>) balanced on a stake, or of an agate
+  placed on a red-hot axe. The names of suspected persons being uttered,
+  the movements at a particular name indicated the criminal.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ax´iom</b>, a universal proposition, which the understanding must
+  perceive to be true as soon as it perceives the meaning of the words, and
+  therefore called a <i>self-evident truth</i>: e.g. <i>A</i> is <i>A</i>.
+  In mathematics, axioms are those propositions which are assumed without
+  proof, as being in themselves independent of proof, and which are made
+  the basis of all the subsequent reasoning; as, 'The whole is greater than
+  its part'; 'Things that are equal to the same thing are equal to one
+  another'. See <i>Geometry</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Axis</b>, the straight line, real or imaginary, passing through a
+  body or magnitude, on which it revolves, or may be supposed to revolve;
+  especially a straight line with regard to which the different parts of a
+  magnitude, or several magnitudes, are symmetrically arranged; e.g. the
+  <i>axis of the world</i>, the imaginary line drawn through its two
+  poles.</p>
+
+  <p>In <i>botany</i> the word is also used, the stem being termed the
+  <i>ascending axis</i>, the root the <i>descending axis</i>.</p>
+
+  <p>In <i>anatomy</i> the name is given to the second vertebra from the
+  head, that on which the <i>atlas</i> moves. See <i>Atlas</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Axis</b> (<i>Cervus axis</i>), a species of Indian deer, also known
+  as the Spotted Hog-deer, of a rich fawn colour, nearly black along the
+  back, with white spots, and under parts white. Breeds freely in many
+  parks in Europe.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ax´minster</b>, a market town, England, county Devon, on the Axe,
+  at one time celebrated for its woollen cloth and carpet manufactures, and
+  giving name to an expensive variety of carpet having a thick soft pile,
+  and also to a cheaper variety. Pop. (1921), 2049.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ax´olotl</b> (<i>Amblyst&#x14F;ma macul&#x101;tum</i>), a curious
+  Mexican amphibian, not unlike a newt, from 8 to 10 inches in length, with
+  gills formed of three long ramified or branch-like processes floating on
+  each side of the neck. It reproduces by laying eggs, and was for some
+  time regarded as a perfect animal with permanent gills. It is said,
+  however, that they frequently lose their gills like the other members of
+  the genus, though some authorities maintain that the true axolotl never
+  loses its gills, and that merely confusion with <i>A. tigr&#x12B;num</i>
+  has led to the belief, as this species sometimes retains its branchiæ,
+  though usually it loses them. The axolotl is esteemed a luxury by the
+  Mexicans. There are a number of species of Amblystoma in North
+  America.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ax´um</b>, or <b>Aksum</b>, a town in Tigré, a division of
+  Abyssinia, once the capital of an important kingdom, and at one time the
+  great depot of the ivory trade in the Red Sea. It is the seat of an
+  <i>abuna</i> or Patriarch, and has a pop. of 5000. The site of the town
+  still exhibits many remains of its former greatness.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ayacucho</b> (ä-ya<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-kö'ch&#x14D;), the name of a department
+  of Peru, and of its capital. The department has an area of 18,185 sq.
+  miles; a pop. of 302,469. The town (formerly Guamanga or Huamanga) has a
+  cathedral and a university, and a pop. of 20,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ayala</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-yä'la<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), Pedro Lopez de, Spanish historian and
+  poet, Chancellor of Castile in the second half of the fourteenth century,
+  and the author of a history of Castile from 1350 to 1396. He took an
+  active part in the struggle between Henry II and Pedro the Cruel, and was
+  taken prisoner by the English in 1367. During his English captivity he
+  wrote part of his chief poetical work, <i>A Book in Rhyme concerning
+  Court Life</i>. Died 1407.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ayamonte</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ya<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-mon't&#x101;), a seaport town, Spain,
+  province of Huelva, 2 miles from the mouth of the Guadiana. Pop.
+  6000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ayass´oluk</b>. See <i>Ephesus</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:28%;">
+      <a href="images/image129.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image129.jpg"
+      alt="Aye-aye" title="Aye-aye" /></a>
+    Aye-aye (<i>Cheir&#x14F;mys madagascariensis</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Aye-aye</b> (&#x12B;-&#x12B;; <i>Cheir&#x14F;mys
+  madagascariensis</i>), an animal of Madagascar, so called from its cry;
+  now referred to the lemur family. It is about the size of a hare, has
+  large flat ears and a bushy tail; large eyes; long sprawling fingers, the
+  third so slender as to appear shrivelled; colour, musk-brown, mixed with
+  black and grey ash; feeds on grubs, fruits, &amp;c.; habits, nocturnal.
+  See <i>Primates</i>, <i>Lemurs</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ayesha</b> (a-yesh'a), daughter of Abu-Bekr and favourite wife of
+  Mahomet, though she bore him no child, born in 610 or 611. After his
+  death she opposed the succession of Ali, but was <!-- Page 333 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page333"></a>[333]</span>defeated and taken
+  prisoner. She died at Medina in 677 or 678 (<span
+  class="scac">A.H.</span> 58).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aylesbury</b> (&#x101;lz´be-ri), county town of Buckinghamshire,
+  England, with a fine old parish church; chief industries, silk-throwing,
+  printing, making condensed milk, and poultry-rearing for the London
+  market. The Aylesbury duck, also called 'white English', is famous.
+  Previous to 1885 it and its hundred sent two members to Parliament, and
+  it still gives its name to a parliamentary division. Pop. (1921),
+  12,114.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ay´loffe,</b> Sir Joseph, an English antiquary, born about 1708,
+  died 1781; member of the first council of the Society of Antiquaries, a
+  commissioner for the preservation of State papers, the author and editor
+  of several works, of which the best known is his <i>Calendars of the
+  Auntient Charters</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aymaras</b> (&#x12B;´ma<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>z), an Indian race of Bolivia and Peru,
+  speaking a language akin to the Quichua.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ay´mon,</b> the surname of four brothers, Alard, Richard, Guiscard,
+  and Renaud, who hold a first place among the heroes of the Charlemagne
+  cycle of romance. Their exploits were the subject of a romance, <i>Les
+  Quatre Fils d'Aymon</i>, by Huon de Villeneuve, a trouvère of the
+  thirteenth century, and Renaud is a leading figure in Ariosto's
+  <i>Orlando</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ayr</b> (&#x101;r), a town of Scotland, a royal and parliamentary
+  burgh, and capital of Ayrshire, at the mouth of the River Ayr, on the
+  Firth of Clyde. It was the site of a Roman station. William the Lion
+  built a castle there in 1197 and constituted it a royal burgh in 1202;
+  and the Parliament which confirmed Robert Bruce's title to the crown sat
+  in Ayr. It is picturesquely situated, and has excellent public and other
+  buildings. Two bridges connect Ayr proper with the suburbs of Newton and
+  Wallacetown, a third stands farther up the river. The 'New Brig' of
+  Burns's 'Brigs of Ayr' (built in 1788) had to be replaced by a new
+  structure in 1879, while the 'Auld Brig' (built in 1252) still stands,
+  after being repaired. Carpets, lace goods, leather, iron goods, &amp;c.,
+  are manufactured. The harbour accommodation is good, and in particular
+  coals are largely exported. The house in which Burns was born stands
+  within 1½ miles of the town, and near 'Alloway's auld haunted kirk', and
+  a monument to him is near. Ayr unites with Ardrossan, Irvine, Prestwick,
+  Saltcoats, and Troon in sending a member to Parliament. Pop.
+  32,986.&mdash;The county has an area of 724,523 acres. It is divided into
+  the districts of Carrick in the south, Kyle in the middle, and Cunningham
+  in the north. The surface is irregular, and a large portion of it hilly,
+  but much of it is fertile. The principal streams are the Ayr, Stinchar,
+  Girvan, Doon, Irvine, and Garnock. Coal and iron are abundant; and there
+  are numerous collieries and ironworks. Limestone and freestone are also
+  abundant. Agriculture is in a flourishing state, the principal crops
+  being oats, turnips, and early potatoes, while dairy husbandry is
+  extensively practised; the Ayrshire cows, referred to in the eighteenth
+  century as the Cunningham, are celebrated as milkers, and Ayrshire cheese
+  ('Dunlop' and 'Cheddar') has a high reputation. Woollen manufactures are
+  extensive, particularly carpets and bonnets; lace goods are largely made;
+  Kilmarnock is a centre of engineering and of dairying education. Goods
+  made include explosives, boots and shoes, chemicals, and leather. Chief
+  towns, Ayr, Kilmarnock, Irvine, Ardrossan, Saltcoats, Stevenston,
+  Maybole. Ayr and Buteshire send three members to Parliament. Pop. 267,600
+  (1918).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ayrer</b> (&#x12B;´rer), Jacob, a German dramatist of the sixteenth
+  century, who almost rivalled Hans Sachs in copiousness and importance. He
+  was a citizen and legal official of Nuremberg, and died in 1605. His
+  works, published at Nuremberg in 1618, under the title <i>Opus
+  Theatricum</i>, include thirty comedies and tragedies and thirty-six
+  humorous pieces.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ayrton,</b> William Edward, English physicist and electrical
+  engineer, born in 1847. From 1873 to 1879 he was professor of natural
+  philosophy and telegraphy in the Imperial College of Engineering at
+  Tokio. In 1879 he was appointed professor of applied physics in the City
+  and Guilds of London Institute. He invented an ammeter, voltmeter,
+  &amp;c., in conjunction with Professor Perry. He died in 1908. He
+  published <i>Practical Electricity</i>, and many papers on scientific
+  subjects.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aytoun</b> (&#x101;´tun), Sir Robert, poet, born in Fifeshire,
+  Scotland, 1570, died 1638. After studying at St. Andrews he lived for
+  some time in France, whence, in 1603, he addressed a panegyric in Latin
+  verse to King James on his accession to the crown of England. By the <!--
+  Page 334 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page334"></a>[334]</span>grateful monarch he was appointed one of
+  the gentlemen of the bedchamber, and private secretary to the queen,
+  receiving also the honour of knighthood. At a later period of his life he
+  was secretary to Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. His poems are few
+  in number, but are distinguished by elegance of diction. Several of his
+  Latin poems are preserved in the work called <i>Delitiæ Poetarum
+  Scotorum</i>, published at Amsterdam in 1637 at the expense of Sir John
+  Scot of Scotstarvet.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aytoun</b>, William Edmonstoune, poet and prose writer, born at
+  Edinburgh in 1813, died at Blackhills, Elgin, 1865. He studied at the
+  University of Edinburgh, became a writer to the signet in 1835, and
+  passed as advocate in 1840. He issued a volume of poems in 1832, by 1836
+  was a contributor to <i>Blackwood's Magazine</i>, and in 1840 he
+  published the <i>Life and Times of Richard 1</i>. In 1848 he published a
+  collection of ballads entitled <i>Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers</i>,
+  which has proved the most popular of all his works. It was followed in
+  1854 by <i>Firmilian, a Spasmodic Tragedy</i> (intended to ridicule
+  certain popular writers); the <i>Bon Gaultier Ballads</i> (parodies and
+  other humorous pieces, in conjunction with Theodore Martin), 1855; in
+  1856 the poem <i>Bothwell</i>; and in subsequent years by <i>Norman
+  Sinclair</i>, <i>The Glenmutchkin Railway</i>, and other stories. In 1858
+  he edited a critical and annotated collection of the <i>Ballads of
+  Scotland</i>. A translation of the poems and ballads of Goethe was
+  executed by him in conjunction with Theodore Martin. In 1845 he became
+  professor of rhetoric and English literature in the University of
+  Edinburgh&mdash;a position which he held till his death. In 1852 he was
+  appointed Sheriff of Orkney and Shetland.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ayuntamiento</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-yu<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>n-ta<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-m&#x113;-en´t&#x14D;), the name given to
+  the town and village councils in Spain and Spanish America.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ayu´thia</b>, the ancient capital of Siam, on the Menam, now a
+  scene of splendid ruin.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Aza´lea</b>, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Ericaceæ, or heaths,
+  remarkable for the beauty and fragrance of their flowers, and
+  distinguished from the rhododendrons chiefly by the flowers having five
+  stamens instead of ten. Many beautiful rhododendrons with deciduous
+  leaves are known under the name of <i>azalea</i> in gardens. The azaleas
+  are common in North America, and two species of these&mdash;<i>A.
+  visc&#x14D;sa</i> and <i>A. nudifl&#x14D;ra</i>&mdash;are well known in
+  Britain. An Asiatic species, <i>A. pontica</i>, famous for the stupefying
+  effect which its honey is said to have produced on Xenophon's army (cf.
+  <i>Anabasis</i>, book iv, chap. 8), is also common in British gardens and
+  shrubberies; and another, <i>A. indica</i>, is a brilliant greenhouse
+  plant.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Azamgarh</b>, or <b>Azimgarh</b>, a town of India, United
+  Provinces, capital of district of same name. Pop. 18,835.&mdash;The
+  district has an area of 2418 sq. miles; a pop. of 1,530,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Azeglio</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>d-zel´y&#x14D;), Massimo Taparelli,
+  Marquis d', an Italian 'admirable Crichton', artist, novelist, publicist,
+  statesman, and soldier, born at Turin in 1798, died 1866. After gaining
+  some reputation in Rome as a painter, he married the daughter of Manzoni,
+  and achieved success in literature by his novels <i>Ettore Fieramosca</i>
+  (1833) and <i>Niccolo dei Lapi</i> (1841). These embodied much of the
+  patriotic spirit, and in a short time he devoted himself exclusively to
+  fostering the national sentiment by personal action and by his writings.
+  Many of the reforms of Pius IX were due to him. He commanded a legion in
+  the Italian struggle of 1848, and was severely wounded at Vincenza.
+  Chosen a member of the Sardinian Chamber of Deputies, he was, after the
+  battle of Novara, made president of the cabinet, and in 1859 appointed to
+  the military post of general and commissioner-extraordinary for the Roman
+  States.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Azerbaijan</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-zer-b&#x12B;-jän´), a province of
+  North-Western Persia; area, 40,000 sq. miles; pop. estimated at
+  2,000,000. It consists generally of lofty mountain ranges, some of which
+  rise to a height of between 12,000 and 13,000 feet. Principal rivers: the
+  Aras or Araxes, and the Kizil-Uzen, which enter the Caspian; smaller
+  streams discharge themselves within the province into the great salt lake
+  of Urumiyah. Agricultural products: wheat, barley, maize, fruit, cotton,
+  tobacco, and grapes. Horses, cattle, sheep, and camels are reared in
+  considerable numbers. Chief minerals: iron, lead, copper, salt,
+  saltpetre, and marble. Tabriz is the capital; pop. 200,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Azerbaijan</b>, a new republic proclaimed in 1918, after the
+  Russian revolution. It consists of the former Russian province of Baku on
+  the coast of the Caspian Sea. In 1920 the Bolshevist party overthrew the
+  Government and broke off relations with the Entente. See
+  <i>Russia</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Az´imuth</b> of a heavenly body, the arc of the horizon
+  comprehended between the meridian of the observer and a vertical circle
+  passing through the centre of the body. The azimuth and altitude give the
+  exact position of the body with reference to the horizon.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Azincourt.</b> See <i>Agincourt</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Azo Compounds</b>, a class of substances which belong to the
+  benzene series and contain carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. All azo
+  compounds are highly coloured, and in some cases they are direct cotton
+  dyes. The simplest azo compound is <i>azobenzene</i>, the chemical
+  formula of which is
+  C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>&mdash;N&nbsp;=&nbsp;N&mdash;C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>.
+  It is prepared from nitrobenzene by reducing it with stannous chloride
+  and sodium hydroxide. Azobenzene is <!-- Page 335 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page335"></a>[335]</span>a highly-coloured
+  crystalline substance, but it is not a dye; it forms, however, the basis
+  of the dyes known as <i>azodyes</i>. The azodyes form one of the largest
+  groups of dyes, and derive their name from the presence of the
+  characteristic chemical group &mdash;N&nbsp;=&nbsp;N&mdash;, known as the
+  <i>azo</i> group. Azo compounds may become exceedingly complicated in
+  structure. They are divided into mon-azo, di-azo, tri-azo compounds
+  according to the number of azo groups present. The well-known dyes Congo
+  Red and Bismarck Brown are azo compounds of complicated structure. Azo
+  dyes were discovered by Griess in 1856, but as a class did not come on
+  the market until about 1876.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Azof.</b> See <i>Azov</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Azo´ic.</b> See <i>Pre-Cambrian</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Azoimide</b>, or <b>Hydrazoic Acid</b>, N<sub>3</sub>H, is an acid
+  liquid of disagreeable odour, producing headache if inhaled. The acid
+  itself and its salts, with the exception of the alkali salts, are
+  exceedingly explosive and dangerous to handle. Lead hydrazoate,
+  PbN<sub>6</sub>, is one of the most stable of these salts. It is a more
+  powerful explosive than mercury fulminate, and has been used instead, in
+  the manufacture of detonators.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Azores</b> (a-z&#x14D;rz' or a-z&#x14D;'res), or <b>Western
+  Islands</b>, a group belonging to and 900 miles west of Portugal, in the
+  North Atlantic Ocean. They are nine in number, and form three distinct
+  groups&mdash;a <span class="scac">N.W.</span>, consisting of Flores and
+  Corvo; a central, consisting of Terceira, São Jorge, Pico, Fayal, and
+  Graciosa; and a <span class="scac">S.E.</span>, consisting of São Miguel
+  (or St. Michael) and Santa Maria. The total area is 922 sq. miles; São
+  Miguel (containing the capital Ponta Delgada), Pico, and Terceira are the
+  largest. The islands, which are volcanic and subject to earthquakes, are
+  of comparatively recent origin, and are conical, lofty, precipitous, and
+  picturesque. The most remarkable summit is the peak of Pico, about 7600
+  feet high. There are numerous hot springs. They are covered with
+  luxuriant vegetation, and diversified with woods, corn-fields, vineyards,
+  lemon and orange groves, and rich, open pastures. The mild and somewhat
+  humid climate, combined with the natural fertility of the soil, brings
+  all kinds of vegetable products rapidly to perfection, among the most
+  important being grain, oranges, pine-apples, bananas, potatoes, yams,
+  beans, coffee, and tobacco. The inhabitants are mainly of Portuguese
+  descent, indolent and devoid of enterprise. Principal exports: wine and
+  brandy, oranges, maize, beans, pineapples, cattle. The climate is
+  recommended as suitable for consumptive patients. The Azores were
+  discovered by Cabral about 1431, shortly after which date they were taken
+  possession of and colonized by the Portuguese. When first visited they
+  were uninhabited, and had scarcely any other animals except birds,
+  particularly hawks, to which, called in Portuguese <i>açores</i>, the
+  islands owe their name. Pop. 242,613 (1911).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Az´ote</b>, a name formerly given to nitrogen; hence substances
+  containing nitrogen and forming part of the structure of plants and
+  animals are known as <i>azotized</i> bodies. Such are albumen, fibrine,
+  caseine, gelatine, urea, kreatine, &amp;c. See <i>Nitrogen</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´zov</b>, or <b>Asov</b>, a town in the Russian government of
+  Ekaterinoslav, upon an island at the mouth of the Don, where it flows
+  into the Sea of Azov; formerly a place of extensive trade, but its
+  harbour has become almost sanded up. Pop. 31,111.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Azov, Sea of</b> (ancient, <b>Palus Moe&#x14D;tis</b>), an arm of
+  the Black Sea, with which it is united by the Straits of Kertch or Kaffa;
+  length about 170 miles, breadth about 80 miles; greatest depth not more
+  than 8 fathoms. The W. part, called the Putrid Sea, is separated from the
+  main expanse by a long sandy belt called Arabat, along which runs a
+  military road. The sea teems with fish. The Don and other rivers enter
+  it, and its waters are very fresh.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Azpeitia</b> (a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>th-p&#x101;'i-ti-a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a town of N.E. Spain, province
+  Guipuzcoa. Near it is the convent of Loyola, a large edifice, now a
+  museum. Pop. 6692.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Az´rael.</b> See <i>As'rael</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Az´tecs</b> (from <i>Aztatl</i> (heron), and <i>Flacatl</i> (man),
+  'people of the heron'), a race of people who settled in Mexico early in
+  the fourteenth century, ultimately extended their dominion over a large
+  territory, and were still extending their supremacy at the time of the
+  arrival of the Spaniards, by whom they were speedily subjugated. Their
+  political organization, termed by the Spanish writers an absolute
+  monarchy, consisted of a military chief exercising important, but not
+  unlimited, power in civil affairs, in which the council of chiefs and
+  periodic assemblies of the judges had also a voice. Their most celebrated
+  ruler was Montezuma, who was reigning when the Spaniards arrived, about
+  the middle of the fifteenth century. It is inferred that considerable
+  numbers of them lived in large communal residences, and that land was
+  held and cultivated upon the communal principle. Slavery and polygamy
+  were both legitimate, but the children of slaves were regarded as free.
+  Although ignorant of the horse, ox, &amp;c., they had a considerable
+  knowledge of agriculture, maize and the agave being the chief produce.
+  Silver, lead, tin, and copper were obtained from mines, and gold from the
+  surface and river beds, but iron was unknown to them, their tools being
+  of bronze and obsidian. Metal coins were not in use. In metal-work,
+  feather-work, weaving, and pottery they possessed a high degree of skill.
+  To record events they used picture-writing, and their lunar calendars
+  were of unusual accuracy. Two <!-- Page 336 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page336"></a>[336]</span>special deities claimed their reverence:
+  Huitzilo-pochtli, the god of war, propitiated with human sacrifices; and
+  Quetzalcoatl, the beneficent god of light and air, with whom at first the
+  Aztecs were disposed to identify Cortez. Their temples, with large
+  terraced pyramidal bases, were in the charge of an exceedingly large
+  priesthood, to whom the education of the young was entrusted. As a
+  civilization of apparently independent origin, yet closely resembling in
+  many features the archaic Oriental civilizations, the Aztec civilization
+  is of the first interest, but in most accounts of it a large speculative
+  element has to be discounted.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Az´uline</b>, or <b>Az´urine</b>, blue dyes belonging to the
+  coal-tar class.</p>
+
+  <p><b>A´zure</b>, the heraldic term for the colour blue, represented in
+  engraving by horizontal lines.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Az´urine</b> (<i>Leuciscus cærul&#x115;us</i>), a fresh-water fish
+  of the same genus as the roach, chub, and minnow, found in some parts of
+  Europe, but rare in Britain; called also <i>Blue Roach</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Az´urite</b>, a blue mineral, a carbonate of copper, often
+  occurring in crystals. Its formula is
+  2CuCO<sub>3</sub>.Cu(OH)<sub>2</sub>, and it is also called <i>Blue
+  Malachite</i>. Also a name of lazulite.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Azymite.</b> See <i>Eucharist</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><br style="clear:both" /></p>
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<h2>B</h2>
+
+  <p><b>B</b> is the second letter and the first consonant in the English
+  and most other alphabets. It is a mute and labial, pronounced solely by
+  the lips, and is distinguished from <i>p</i> by being sonant, that is,
+  produced by the utterance of voice as distinguished from breath.</p>
+
+  <p><b>B</b>, in <i>music</i>, the seventh note of the model diatonic
+  scale or scale of C. It is called the leading note, as there is always a
+  feeling of suspense when it is sounded until the keynote is heard.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baader</b>, Franz Xaver von (fra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>nts-zä'fer fon bä'der), German
+  philosopher and theologian, born in Munich, 1765, died 1841. He studied
+  engineering, became superintendent of mines, and was ennobled for
+  services. He was deeply interested in the religious speculations of
+  Eckhart, St. Martin, and Böhme, and in 1826 was appointed professor of
+  philosophy and speculative theology in the University of Munich. During
+  the last three years of his life he was interdicted from lecturing for
+  opposing the interference in civil matters of the Roman Catholic
+  Church.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ba´al</b>, or <b>Bel</b>, a Semitic word, which primarily signified
+  lord or proprietor, and was afterwards applied to many different
+  divinities, or, with qualifying epithets, to the same divinity regarded
+  in different aspects, describing him as an occupier of some physical
+  object or locality, or as a possessor of some attribute. Thus in
+  <i>Hos.</i> ii, 16 it is applied to Jehovah himself, while
+  <i>Baal-berith</i> (the Covenant-lord) was the god of the Shechemites,
+  and <i>Baal-zebub</i> (the Fly-god) the idol of the Philistines at Ekron.
+  Baal was the sacred title applied to the Sun as the principal male deity
+  of the Ph&oelig;nicians and their descendants, the Carthaginians, as well
+  as of the ancient Canaanitish nations, and was worshipped as the supreme
+  ruler and vivifier of nature. The word enters into the composition of
+  many Hebrew, Ph&oelig;nician, and Carthaginian names of persons and
+  places; thus, <i>Jerubaal</i>, <i>Hasdrubal</i> (help of Baal),
+  <i>Hannibal</i> (grace of Baal), and <i>Baal-Hammon</i>,
+  <i>Baal-Thamar</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baalbek´</b> (ancient, <b>Heliop&#x14F;lis</b>, 'city of the sun'),
+  a place in Syria, in a fertile valley at the foot of Antilibanus, 40
+  miles from Damascus, famous for its magnificent ruins. Of these the chief
+  is the Temple of the Sun, built either by Antoninus Pius or by Septimius
+  Severus. Some of the blocks used in its construction are 60 feet long by
+  12 thick; and its fifty-four columns, of which six are still standing,
+  were 72 feet high and 22 in circumference. Near it is a temple of
+  Jupiter, of smaller size though larger than the Parthenon at Athens, and
+  there are other structures of an elaborately ornate type. Originally a
+  centre of Sun-worship, it became a Roman colony under Julius Cæsar, was
+  garrisoned by Augustus, and acquired increasing renown under Trajan as
+  the seat of an oracle. Under Constantine its temples became churches, but
+  after being sacked by the Arabs in 748, and more completely pillaged by
+  Tamerlane in 1401, it sank into hopeless decay. The work of destruction
+  was completed by an earthquake in 1759.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baal-zebub.</b> See <i>Beelzebub</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baba</b>, a cape near the north-west point of Asia Minor.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Babadagh</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-däg'), a town of Roumania, capital of
+  the Dobrudsha, carrying on a considerable Black Sea trade; it was
+  bombarded by the Russians in 1854. Pop. 10,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bab´bage</b>, Charles, English mathematician and inventor of the
+  calculating-machine, born 1792, died 1871. He graduated at Cambridge in
+  1814, and occupied the Lucasian chair of mathematics at Cambridge for
+  eleven years, but delivered no lectures. As early as 1812 he conceived
+  the idea of calculating numerical tables by machinery, and in 1823 he
+  received a grant from Government for the construction of such a machine.
+  After a series of experiments lasting eight years, and an expenditure of
+  £17,000 <!-- Page 337 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page337"></a>[337]</span>(£6000 of which was sunk by himself, the
+  balance voted by Government), Babbage abandoned the undertaking in favour
+  of a much more enlarged work, an analytical engine, worked with cards
+  like the jacquard-loom; but the project was never completed. The
+  incompleted machine is now in the South Kensington Museum. Among the many
+  treatises he published on subjects connected with mathematics and
+  mechanics few can be regarded as finished performances. Babbage was
+  instrumental in founding the Astronomical and Statistical Societies (1820
+  and 1834).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Babbit-metal</b>, a soft metal resulting from alloying together
+  certain proportions of copper, tin, and zinc or antimony, used with the
+  view of as far as possible obviating friction in the bearings of
+  journals, cranks, axles, &amp;c., invented by Isaac Babbit (1799-1862), a
+  goldsmith of Taunton, Massachusetts.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ba´bel.</b> See <i>Babylon</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ba´bel, Tower of</b>, according to the 11th chapter of
+  <i>Genesis</i>, a structure in the Plain of Shinar, Mesopotamia,
+  commenced by the descendants of Noah subsequent to the deluge, but which
+  was not allowed to proceed to completion. It has commonly been identified
+  with the great temple of Belus, or Bel, that was one of the chief
+  edifices in Babylon, and the huge mound called Birs Nimrud is generally
+  regarded as its site, though another mound, which to this day bears the
+  name of Babil, has been assigned by some as its site. Babel means
+  literally 'gate of God'. The meaning 'confusion' assigned to it in the
+  Bible really belongs to a word of similar form. See <i>Babylon</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bab-el-Mandeb</b> ('gate of tears', from being dangerous to small
+  craft), a strait, 15 miles wide, between the Indian Ocean and the Red
+  Sea, formed by projecting points of Arabia in Asia, and Abyssinia in
+  Africa. The Island of Perim is here.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ba´ber</b>, first Grand Mogul, the founder of the Mogul dynasty in
+  Hindustan, born in 1483, died 1530. He was a grandson of the great Tartar
+  prince, Timur or Tamerlane, and was sovereign of Cabul. He invaded
+  Hindustan, and in 1525 overthrew and killed Sultan Ibrahim, the last
+  Hindu emperor of the Pathan or Afghan race. He made many improvements,
+  social and political, in his empire, and left a valuable autobiography
+  (English translation, 1826).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Babeuf</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-beuf), François Noel, a French political
+  agitator, born in 1764; started a democratic journal in Paris, called
+  <i>Le Tribun du Peuple, par 'Gracchus' Babeuf</i>, and wrote with great
+  severity against the Jacobins. After the fall of Robespierre, to which he
+  powerfully contributed, he openly attacked the terrorists, and advocated
+  the most democratic principles. He was accused of a conspiracy against
+  the directorial Government, condemned to death, and guillotined in 1797.
+  He was one of the pioneers of Socialism in France.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bab´ington</b>, Anthony, a Catholic gentleman of Derbyshire, born
+  1561. He associated with others of his own persuasion to assassinate
+  Queen Elizabeth, and deliver Mary, Queen of Scots. The plot being
+  discovered, the conspirators were executed in 1586.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Babiroussa.</b> See <i>Babyroussa</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bab´ism</b>, the doctrines of a Mohammedan sect whose head-quarters
+  is Persia, founded by Seyd Ali Mohammed in 1844. He took the name of
+  Bab-ed-din, 'the gate of the faith', and afterwards that of Nokteh, 'the
+  point', as not merely the recipient of a new divine revelation, but the
+  focus in which all preceding dispensations would converge. One of his
+  most successful disciples was a highly-gifted woman, Gurred-ul-Ayn,
+  'consolation of the eyes', who perished with many others during a
+  persecution in 1852. The Bab himself had been executed about two years
+  before this, and was succeeded by a noble youth, Mirza Yahya. The sect
+  holds that all individual existence is an emanation from the supreme
+  deity, by whom it will be ultimately reabsorbed. The morality of the sect
+  is pure and cheerful, and it shows great advancement in the treatment of
+  woman. Moses, Christ, and Mohammed are acknowledged as prophets, though
+  only mere precursors of the Bab. A schism divided the followers of Babism
+  into two sects, Bahais and Ezelis. The former have carried on an active
+  propaganda in America.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ba´boo</b>, or <b>Babu</b>, a Hindu title of respect equivalent to
+  <i>sir</i> or <i>master</i>, usually given to wealthy and educated native
+  gentlemen, especially when of the mercantile class.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:31%;">
+      <a href="images/image130.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image130.jpg"
+      alt="Baboons" title="Baboons" /></a>
+    Family of Common Baboons (<i>Cynoceph&#x103;lus babouin</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Baboon´</b>, a common name applied to a division of old-world
+  quadrumana (apes and <!-- Page 338 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page338"></a>[338]</span>monkeys), comprehending the genera
+  Cynoceph&#x103;lus and Papio. They have elongated abrupt muzzles like a
+  dog, strong tusks or canine teeth, usually short tails, cheek-pouches,
+  small deep eyes with large eyebrows, and naked callosities on the
+  buttocks. Their hind and fore feet are well proportioned, so that they
+  run easily on all fours, but they do not maintain themselves in an
+  upright posture with facility. They are generally of the size of a
+  moderately large dog, but the largest, the mandrill, is, when erect,
+  nearly of the height of a man. They are almost all African, ugly, sullen,
+  fierce, lascivious, and gregarious, defending themselves by throwing
+  stones, dirt, &amp;c. They live on fruits and roots, eggs and insects.
+  They include the chacma, drill, common baboon, and mandrill. The chacma
+  or pig-tailed baboon (<i>Cynoceph&#x103;lus porcarius</i>) is found in
+  considerable numbers in parts of the S. African colonies, where the
+  inhabitants wage war against them on account of the ravages they commit
+  in the fields and gardens. The common baboon (<i>C. babouin</i>) inhabits
+  a large part of Africa farther to the north. It is of a brownish-yellow
+  colour, while the chacma is greyish-black, or in parts black. The
+  hamadryas (<i>C. hamadryas</i>) of Abyssinia is characterized by long
+  hair, forming a sort of shoulder-cape. The black baboon (<i>C. niger</i>)
+  is found in Celebes.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Babour</b> (bä´bu<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>r). See <i>Baber</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bab´rius</b>, a Greek poet who flourished during the second or
+  third century of the Christian era, and wrote a number of Æsopian fables.
+  Several versions of these made during the Middle Ages have come down to
+  us as <i>Æsop's Fables</i>. In 1840 a manuscript containing 120 fables by
+  Babrius, previously unknown, was discovered on Mount Athos.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Babuya´nes Islands</b>, a group in the Pacific Ocean, between Luzon
+  and Formosa, belonging to United States. Pop. 12,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baby-farming.</b> The law relating to the protection of children
+  and young persons has been subjected to amendment and consolidation by
+  the Children Act of 1908, which wholly repealed the Infant Life
+  Protection Act of 1897 dealing with baby-farming and infant life
+  protection.</p>
+
+  <p>The Act of 1908 (Part I) deals with baby-farming, and requires that
+  notice shall be given to the Local Authority (in Scotland the Parish
+  Council) by the person undertaking for reward the nursing and maintenance
+  of any infant or infants under seven years of age apart from their
+  parents, within forty-eight hours after reception, unless the period for
+  which it is received be only forty-eight hours or less. The notice
+  requires the name, sex, date and place of birth of the child to be
+  stated, where it is to be kept, and from whom it is received. The Act
+  also provides that such a person shall notify any change in his residence
+  or the removal or death of the infant to the Local Authority within
+  forty-eight hours. In regard to all these matters the Act is
+  retrospective, and necessitates persons who had undertaken nursing and
+  maintenance of such infants before its coming into operation to comply
+  with its provisions within a month after the commencement thereof. But it
+  exempts any person who may have given the similar notice required by the
+  Infant Life Protection Act of 1897, although it does not exempt any
+  person whose duty it was to have given notice thereunder from any
+  liability which such a person may have incurred thereunder.</p>
+
+  <p>A duty is imposed upon Local Authorities to inquire regarding persons
+  willing to undertake the nursing and maintenance of infants, to appoint
+  infant-protection visitors of either sex in so far as it provides for
+  infant life protection and gives powers to such Local Authorities and
+  visitors for fulfilling the requirements of the Act. It is an offence for
+  the person undertaking the nursing to refuse to allow such visitors
+  access to the infant or the premises in which it is kept; and, if need
+  be, application may be made to the court for a warrant to enter the house
+  in which an infant is farmed out, and where there is reason to believe
+  that the Act is being contravened. It is an offence for any infant to be
+  kept (1) by any person from whose care an infant has been removed under
+  the Act or the Infant Life Protection Act, or (2) by any person convicted
+  of any offence under Part II of the Children Act of 1908 or the
+  Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act, 1904.</p>
+
+  <p>The Local Authority may fix the number of infants under the age of
+  seven years which may be kept in any dwelling, and it is an offence to
+  keep more. Provision is also made for the removal of an infant from
+  overcrowded, dangerous, or insanitary premises, or from the custody of a
+  person unfit to take charge of the child; and an application may be made
+  by a visitor to a magistrate for a removal order enforceable by the
+  visitor or a constable. Should the infant die, notice of the fact must be
+  given by the person with whom it is farmed out to the Procurator-fiscal
+  of the district, if in Scotland, and, if in England, to the Coroner of
+  the district, within twenty-four hours. He shall hold an inquest unless a
+  certificate by a medical practitioner specifying the cause of death shall
+  be forwarded. Failure to give such notice is punishable under the
+  Act.</p>
+
+  <p>A person nursing an infant for reward shall have no interest in the
+  life of the child for the purposes of life assurance. It is not
+  permissible for such a person or insurance company to insure the life of
+  such a child. To do so renders both <!-- Page 339 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page339"></a>[339]</span>the person and the
+  insurance company liable to prosecution.</p>
+
+  <p>Any person knowingly or wilfully making any false statement in any
+  notice required to be given under the Act commits an offence under the
+  Act.</p>
+
+  <p>Imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months, or a fine not
+  exceeding £25, may be imposed upon any person found guilty upon summary
+  conviction of an offence against Part I of the Children Act, 1908; in
+  addition the court may order the removal of the infant to a place of
+  safety. All fines are payable to the Local Authority for the purposes of
+  the Act.</p>
+
+  <p>Legal guardians of an infant, as well as institutions established for
+  the protection and care of infants, are exempted from the provisions of
+  Part I of the Children Act, 1908.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bab´ylon</b>, the capital of Babylonia, on the left of the
+  Euphrates, one of the largest and most splendid cities of the ancient
+  world, now a scene of ruins, and earth-mounds containing them. Babylon
+  was a royal city sixteen hundred years before the Christian era; but the
+  old city was almost entirely destroyed in 683 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> A new city was built by Nebuchadnezzar nearly a
+  century later. This was in the form of a square, each side 15 miles long,
+  with walls of such immense height and thickness as to constitute one of
+  the wonders of the world. It contained splendid edifices, large gardens
+  and pleasure-grounds, especially the 'hanging-gardens', a sort of lofty
+  terraced structure supporting earth enough for trees to grow, and the
+  celebrated Tower of Babel or Temple of Belus, rising by stages to the
+  height of 625 feet. (See <i>Babel, Tower of</i>.) After the city was
+  taken by Cyrus in 538 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and Babylonia made
+  a Persian province, it began to decline, and had suffered severely by the
+  time of Alexander the Great. He intended to restore it, but was prevented
+  by his death, which took place here in 323 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, from which time its decay was rapid.
+  Interesting discoveries have been made on its site, more especially of
+  numerous and valuable inscriptions in the cuneiform or arrow-head
+  character. The modern town of Hillah is believed to represent the ancient
+  city, and the plain here for miles round is studded with vast mounds of
+  earth and brick and imposing ruins. The greatest mound is Birs Nimrud,
+  about 6 miles from Hillah. It rises nearly 200 feet, is crowned by a
+  ruined tower, and is commonly believed to be the remains of the ancient
+  Temple of Belus. Another great ruin-mound, called Mujellibeh, has also
+  been assigned as its site.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Babylonia and Assyria.</b> These ancient seats of Mesopotamian
+  civilization lay across the western Asian trade-routes, Babylonia being
+  in the south and Assyria in the north. The area, in which they flourished
+  is embraced by the Rivers Tigris and Euphrates, and extends from the head
+  of the Persian Gulf to the frontiers of Armenia and Northern Syria, is
+  bordered on the east by Persia and on the west by the Syro-Arabian
+  desert. 'Mesopotamia' is a term borrowed by the ancient Greeks from the
+  Semites, and was first applied to the north-western region. There was a
+  Roman province of that name. The northern area of the Tigro-Euphrates
+  valley is partly mountainous and partly steppe land, with wide stretches
+  of elevated grazing-lands and fertile districts on the banks of rivers.
+  Assyria, derived from A-usar ('the river-bank region'), had origin in
+  north-eastern Mesopotamia. Its most ancient capital, Asshur (modern
+  Kal'at Sherkat), was situated on the western bank of the River Tigris,
+  between the tributaries the Upper Zab and the Lower Zab. Nineveh, the
+  last capital of all, lay farther north on the eastern bank of the Tigris,
+  and right opposite modern Mosul. The Assyrians called themselves
+  Asshurai, and their national god was Ashur (earlier Ashir), written
+  A-Shur, but confused in time with Ash-Shur, the name of the capital. The
+  southern area of Mesopotamia, below Bagdad, where the Tigris and
+  Euphrates come within 35 miles of one another, is a flat alluvial plain.
+  Babylonia proper is that fish-shaped region between the rivers, which
+  broadens out to about 100 miles and gradually narrows to the point at
+  Kurnah where the rivers meet and form the Shatt-el-Arab. From Kurnah to
+  the head of the Persian Gulf is the ancient area of Chaldea, which means
+  'Sea-land'. The inhabitants called themselves Kaldu (Sea-landers) and
+  were known to the Hebrews as the Kasdim, and to the Greeks as the
+  Chaldaioi. Babylonia, and the rest of the alluvial plain, is the 'gift'
+  of the rivers which rise in flood each year when the snow melts on the
+  Armenian mountains. Both the Tigris and the Euphrates bring down enormous
+  quantities of sediment&mdash;indeed five times as much as does the
+  Egyptian Nile&mdash;and they have withal more destructive tendencies. The
+  accumulating silt tends to divert the flow of the rivers in the south,
+  and a process of land-making which began at the close of the Ice Age is
+  still in progress, thrusting back the head of the Persian Gulf. At one
+  time the Tigris and Euphrates entered the gulf by separate mouths, and
+  Chaldea was then a narrow fringe of steppe land, plain, and marshes. The
+  River Tigris is about 1146 miles long, and begins to rise early in March,
+  reaching its height in May, and subsiding before the end of June. The
+  Euphrates is a slower river, about 1780 miles in length. It begins to
+  rise a fortnight later than the Tigris, is longer in flood, and does not
+  reach its lowest level until September. As there is a drop of only <!--
+  Page 340 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page340"></a>[340]</span>120
+  feet between Bagdad and the sea, a distance, as the crow flies, of about
+  300 miles, the ancient Babylonians did their utmost to conserve the water
+  which came down in such abundance and was rapidly drained away, after
+  doing much damage. Near Bagdad the Tigris is on a higher level than the
+  Euphrates, and could be run into it through a canal; farther south the
+  Euphrates, being on the higher level, could be run by canal into the
+  Tigris. The ancient engineers cut these and other canals; indeed, they
+  covered the whole valley with a network of them. To store the Euphrates
+  water for the season of drought and great heat, they formed canals which
+  carried the roaring flood into two depressions in the western desert
+  between the modern towns of Kerbela and Rama<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>di. These depressions are utilized for
+  the British irrigation scheme. The Babylonians did their utmost to
+  control the Tigris by erecting earthen dams so as to hold up as much of
+  the water as possible. Earthen dykes were also erected to raise its
+  banks. The right bank protected the farms from disastrous flooding. These
+  ancient irrigation works made Babylonia the greatest grain-yielding area
+  in the ancient world. Its vast surplus of food stimulated trade and
+  brought Babylonia immense wealth, while its strategic situation made it
+  very powerful. Its cultural influence flowed along the trade routes,
+  eastward across Persia and the Iranian plateau, northward through Assyria
+  to Armenia (ancient Urartu) and beyond, and north-westward along the
+  Euphrates banks into Syria and Palestine, and into Asia Minor, the land
+  of the Hittites, and then along the highway to Europe, called later by
+  the Persians 'the royal road'. The road to Egypt ran southward from North
+  Syria through Palestine, skirting the maritime valley by 'the way of the
+  Philistines'. The merchants of many nations met in the city of Babylon,
+  the London of the ancient western Asian world, and in the trading centres
+  of North Syria, including Carchemish.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image131.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image131.jpg"
+      alt="Assyrian Soldiers" title="Assyrian Soldiers" /></a>
+    Assyrian Soldiers
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The earliest agriculturists and traders of Babylonia were the
+  Sumerians, a non-Semitic people, who built a number of cities in the
+  irrigated valley and founded colonies in Assyria. No trace has been found
+  of a Neolithic Age in Babylonia. Its civilization, so far as our
+  knowledge goes, began after copper was introduced. At an early period
+  Semites filtered into the valley. They absorbed Sumerian civilization,
+  and ultimately became politically predominant in the northern part of the
+  valley, which was called Akkad (the biblical Accad). The southern part
+  was then known as Sumer or Sumeria (the biblical 'Plain of Shinar').
+  Akkad embraced the city States of Agade, Babylon, Borsippa, Sippar, Kish,
+  Opis, and Kutha. The Sumerian city States included Eridu, Ur (later 'of
+  the Chaldees' and the birthplace of Abraham), Lagash, Shuruppak, Erech,
+  Umma, and Adab. Inter-state wars resulted time and again in the formation
+  of confederacies which were more of political than racial character, and
+  the predominance of one city or another. Religious ideas were fused, and
+  local pantheons appear to have reflected local politics. The chief seat
+  of early Sumerian civilization was the city of Eridu, a name signifying
+  'on the seashore'. Its site is marked by modern Abu-Shahrein on the
+  eastern bank of the Euphrates, and south-east of Ur, modern Mukayyar.
+  Eridu was originally a seaport on the Persian Gulf, from which it is now
+  separated by about 125 miles of land formed by river silt. The chief god
+  of Eridu was Ea, a name also rendered Ae and Aa, and apparently meaning
+  'waters' or 'house (region) of waters'. That the term 'waters' had a
+  special significance for the inhabitants of a water-formed land is
+  evident by the fact that the Semitic equivalent of Ea is Enki, which
+  means 'lord of earth'. Other titles of the god were 'lord of Heaven and
+  Earth', 'ruler of the land', 'the deep', 'god of the abyss', and 'king of
+  the river'. He was withal the 'Creator', water having created Sumeria,
+  and Nadimmud, 'lord of everything', as the Egyptian Osiris in his
+  character of god of the Nile was 'Neb-er-Zer', also 'lord of everything'.
+  Ea had a ship with a crew including his son Marduk (Merodach or Marad,
+  the Ni-marad or Nimrod of legend) and In-ab, 'the pilot of Eridu'. The
+  ship was hailed, in religious literature, as the bringer of fertility and
+  joy. Evidently the beginning of Sumerian civilization had some connection
+  with ancient seafarers. Of special interest in this connection are the
+  references made by the Greek writer Berosus to Oannes, a sea-dweller who
+  came daily from the Persian Gulf to instruct the early <!-- Page 341
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page341"></a>[341]</span>Babylonians
+  how to irrigate the land, grow crops, erect houses, make laws, write,
+  calculate and measure, and engage in trade. Texts have been discovered
+  which tend to identify Oannes with the god Ea. As the early Sumerians
+  bore a strong physical resemblance to the ancient Egyptians, and there
+  were links between the early religious beliefs and customs of the two
+  peoples, it is suspected that they represented two branches of the same
+  ancient stock. Some think Sumerian civilization was founded by colonists
+  from Egypt, while others believe that Egyptian civilization was
+  stimulated by settlers from Sumeria. The question as to who first
+  invented ships has an important bearing in this connection. When we turn
+  to Sumero-Babylonian religious myths we find that some reflect local
+  natural phenomena. In one the Euphrates is hailed as the River (god) "who
+  didst create all things". Another, referring to the creation of man, says
+  that Marduk (earlier the god Gilimma) "tied reeds on the face of the
+  waters, he formed dust and poured it out beside the reeds ... he formed
+  mankind". Another version is that man was created from the god's blood
+  and bone, or, as Berosus has it, from the god's blood and earth. The
+  oldest Sumerian creation myth states that all things came from primeval
+  water. Then many deities were created by the pre-existing triad of gods,
+  Anu (the sky-god), Enlil ('the elder Bel', the earth-god, and 'lord of
+  grain'), and Ea, who was associated with the goddess Ninkharsagga. Ea had
+  several other wives, including Ninshar or Ninkurra, Ninella, Nintu, and
+  Damkina. These goddesses were ultimately all absorbed by Ishtar, the
+  Semitic name of the love and mother goddess. In the later Babylonian
+  'Seven Tablets' version of the creation myth a conflict is introduced.
+  The female chaos-dragon Tiamat is slain by Marduk, the chief god of
+  Babylon, 'the later Bel', who cuts up her body and uses part to form the
+  sky and part to keep the waters in their place. After a time a deluge
+  took place. In the Sumerian myth a priest-king called Ziusudu (earlier
+  named Tatug or Uttu) corresponds both to Adam and to Noah, and builds a
+  large vessel, having been warned by Ea of the approaching disaster. The
+  Gilgamesh Epic refers to the hero as Ut-na-pishtim (or Pir-na-pishtim).
+  He and his wife afterwards become immortal, and they are visited on their
+  island by Gilgamesh (the Babylonian Hercules), when, smitten by disease,
+  he searches for the Plant of Life, which he finds and afterwards loses.
+  Ishtar, the goddess who plays a part in this epic, is also the heroine of
+  the poetic legend which tells of her descent to Hades in quest of Tammuz,
+  whose story resembles somewhat that of Adonis and has Osirian
+  characteristics. The Babylonian Persephone was Eresh-ki-gal with whom
+  Tammuz dwelt in her underworld for part of the year. Associated with her
+  was Nergal, chief god of Kutha, whose planet was Mars. He conquered
+  Hades. He and other city gods appear to have been developed from
+  attributes vaguely shared by the earlier triad Anu, Bel-Enlil, and Ea.
+  The moon-god of Ur was Sin (Sumerian Nannara), whose name clings to the
+  desert of Sinai. Shamash was the Semitic name of the sun-god of Sippar,
+  the Sumerian being Utu; Gishnu, the Light, and Ma-banda-anna, 'the boat
+  of heaven' (like the Egyptian Ra), and Mitra were among his other
+  non-Semitic names. Dagan, the god of the Euphrates, is regarded as a form
+  of Ea, and as probably the same deity as Dagon of the Philistines. In
+  later times the astrologers coloured with their doctrines the religious
+  beliefs of Babylonia.</p>
+
+  <p>Among the early empire-builders of Babylonia were Lugal-zaggisi of
+  Sumerian Erech, who claimed to have subdued all lands from the Lower Sea
+  (Persian Gulf) to the Upper Sea (the Mediterranean). He flourished about
+  2800 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Another was Sargon of Akkad, who
+  lived about a century and a half later. He must not be confused with the
+  much later biblical Sargon of Assyria. His son or grandson, Naram-Sin,
+  recorded his great trading activities and victories over his enemies,
+  including the Elamites, whose chief stronghold was Susa in south-western
+  Persia. Elam was a rival power of considerable strength. About 2200 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> it had overrun a great part of Sumeria, and
+  Akkad fell to the invading bands of Amorites. These Amorites founded the
+  Hammurabi Dynasty, of which the king of that name was sixth in
+  succession; Hammurabi extinguished the last sparks of Elamite power in
+  Sumeria, which, with Akkad, was united to form the kingdom of Babylonia,
+  named after Babylon, the capital. It was during this period that Abraham
+  migrated from Ur to Palestine. Hammurabi (<i>c.</i> 2123-2081 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>) codified the ancient Sumerian laws and did much
+  to develop trade. The chief god of his kingdom was Marduk, 'the later
+  Bel', whose temple was called Esagilla. Babylon became the greatest
+  trading centre in Western Asia and a rival of the Egyptian Memphis.
+  Sumerian gradually ceased to be a spoken language, being supplanted by
+  Semitic, but remained, like Latin, in mediæval Europe, the language of
+  law, culture, and religion, while the Babylonian language became the
+  language of trade and diplomacy, and was used in international
+  correspondence by all the great Powers. The Hammurabi dynasty came to an
+  end about 1926 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, when the Hittites raided
+  Babylonia and carried off the statues of Marduk and his consort.
+  Kassites, assisted by Elamites, had been attacking <!-- Page 342 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page342"></a>[342]</span>Babylonia from the
+  east, and the Sea-landers, who were Arabians mixed with Sumerians,
+  established their independence. In the end the Kassites, who were
+  probably Aryan by race, conquered Babylonia and established a new
+  dynasty. Like the Trojans they were 'tamers of horses'. Their military
+  successes are believed to have been due to the use of the horse, which
+  was a rarity in Babylonia before their time, but became common as a beast
+  of burden as soon as the Kassite dynasty was established. Kassite
+  supremacy lasted for over 570 years, and during that period Babylonia was
+  known as Karduniash. One of its early kings brought back from Khani
+  (Mitanni) the statues of Marduk and his consort which had been carried
+  off by the Hittites. Babylonian civilization was not changed by Kassite
+  conquest, and its trade went on as of yore. The Kassites formed an
+  aristocracy like the Normans in England. During the Kassite period
+  Assyria was a growing power. It had origin as a Sumerian colony, but
+  above the relics of the Sumerians at Asshur have been found those of a
+  people whose kings had such non-Semitic and probably Aryan names as
+  Ushpia, Kikia, and Adasi. The Amorites afterwards swept into Assyria,
+  which they Semitized. During the Hammurabi dynasty it was subject to
+  Babylonian overlordship. It grew independent during the latter period of
+  the Kassite dynasty, and its kings formed compacts with the Kassites.
+  Their western neighbours were by this time the Mitannians. An Aryan
+  military aristocracy had formed a powerful State in north-western
+  Mesopotamia, where they worshipped Indra, Varuna, and Mitra, gods which
+  figure in the mythology of the Aryan invaders of India. Egypt, under
+  Thothmes III, extended her Syrian empire to the borders of Mitannia and a
+  friendship sprang up between the two Powers. Assyria was during the
+  period subject to Mitanni. The Tell-el-Amarna letters reveal the fact
+  that Egyptian monarchs had married princesses from Mitanni, and the
+  famous Akhenaton had Mitannian blood in his veins.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image132.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image132.jpg"
+      alt="Ashur-natsir-pal in Chariot" title="Ashur-natsir-pal in Chariot" /></a>
+    Ashur-natsir-pal in Chariot, hunting Lions about 884 <span
+    class="scac">B.C.</span> From a relief in the Palace of Nimrod
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:18%;">
+      <a href="images/image133.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image133.jpg"
+      alt="Sennacherib tablet" title="Sennacherib tablet" /></a>
+    Tablet recording the Wars of Sennacherib
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The Hittites conquered Northern Syria and overran Mitannia when the
+  Egyptian Asian empire went to pieces. Assyria then became powerful and
+  independent again, the first great king of its new age being
+  Ashur-uballit, who was strong enough to interfere with Babylonia's
+  domestic politics. Shalmaneser I of Assyria (<i>c.</i> 1300 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>) conquered the whole of the Mitanni kingdom and
+  extended the Assyrian empire westward across the Babylonian caravan road
+  to North Syria. He built a new capital at Kalah (Nimrud). His son,
+  Tulkulti&mdash;Nineb I&mdash;(<i>c.</i> 1275 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>), conquered Babylonia and reigned over it for
+  seven years. In the end he was murdered by political conspirators, with
+  whom his son was associated. Civil war ensued, and Assyria's history is
+  found to be obscure for a century afterwards. In Babylon the Kassite
+  dynasty, under which trade flourished, came to an end as a result of an
+  Elamite invasion about 1185 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> A new
+  Babylonian dynasty then arose, and the third king, Nebuchadnezzar I,
+  revived the old empire and waged war against Assyria. But the future lay
+  with Assyria, which was organized as a military State. It did not have
+  Babylonia's natural resources, and could only exist as a great Power by
+  imposing tribute on weaker States. A standing army was the basis of its
+  strength. The national god was Ashur, who was symbolized by a winged
+  disk, an adaptation of the Egyptian winged disk of Horus. It was carried
+  to battle with the king, so that wherever the king was, there was the
+  national god of war. The heavily-bearded Assyrians were a fiercer and
+  more war-like people than the mild shaven Babylonians, who were ever
+  influenced by Sumerian modes of thought. The Assyrian temperament is
+  reflected in its art, which at its best is characterized by vigorous
+  realism and brilliant ferocity. Much of it is harsh, exaggerated, and
+  pompous. A sharp contrast is presented by the calmer and more idealistic
+  art of the Sumero-Babylonians. The records of Assyrian monarchs deal
+  mainly with extensive conquests. They did their utmost to set up a reign
+  of terror in Western Asia, and when subject States revolted the chief men
+  in them were flayed alive or impaled on stakes. The wholesale destruction
+  of trading city States and the massacres of thousands of innocents were
+  fit subjects for an Assyrian conqueror to boast of in his inscriptions.
+  Hittites, North Syrians, Babylonians, and Urartians (Armenians), were
+  time and again plundered and subjected. A great conqueror of the Middle
+  Period was Tiglath-Pileser I (<i>c.</i> 1100 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>), and <!-- Page 343 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page343"></a>[343]</span>other monarchs of the same name repeated
+  his conquests and atrocities during the last century of Assyria's
+  existence. The military glory of such a monarch as Ashur-natsir-pal III
+  (885-860 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), whose armies swept through
+  western Asia like cyclones, has a lurid background of savage cruelty and
+  oppression. He fought for no greater cause than plunder and the
+  maintenance of Assyria's ability to wring tribute from the oppressed. His
+  son, Shalmaneser III, extended the empire but died under a cloud of
+  internal revolt. Subsequent rulers dominated Babylonia, and one,
+  Adad-nirari IV (810-782 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>), married the
+  Babylonian princess, Sammurammat, the Semiramis of tradition.
+  Tiglath-Pileser IV (745-727 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>) was overlord
+  of Babylon, and, indeed, Babylonia was more or less under Assyrian sway
+  for the next century. Sargon II ('Sargon the later') did his utmost to
+  break the national spirit in subject States by transporting whole
+  communities from one to another. He removed a portion of the 'ten lost
+  tribes' to the Median hills, and dispatched Babylonians from Kutha to
+  Samaria, where they made Nergal their chief god. His campaigns extended
+  to Ph&oelig;nicia, Cilicia, and Armenia. Sennacherib, his son, defeated
+  Egypt and her allies in Palestine and besieged Hezekiah in Jerusalem. A
+  revolution in Babylonia broke out, and he swept into it and devastated
+  Babylon, so that Nineveh might become the chief city in Mesopotamia. But
+  Babylon had to be rebuilt by his son Esarhaddon, so that its dislocated
+  trade might be restored. Esarhaddon, recognizing that the great
+  commercial rival of Babylonia was Egypt, and that Egypt instigated the
+  Palestinian and Syrian revolts against Assyria, invaded the Nile valley
+  and captured and sacked Memphis. Ashur-bani-pal (668-626 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>), the next Assyrian emperor, punished the
+  Egyptian rebels by sweeping southwards and capturing and sacking Thebes,
+  which is referred to as No (Nu-Amon) in the Bible (<i>Nahum</i>, iii,
+  8-10): "Populous No ... Yet was she carried away ... her young children
+  also were dashed in pieces at the top of all the streets: and they (the
+  Assyrians) cast lots for her honourable men, and all her great men were
+  bound in chains". Egypt became for a time an Assyrian province. Elam was
+  similarly dealt with, the great capital Susa being treated like Thebes.
+  On the north and east Assyrian power was established with characteristic
+  Assyrian ferocity and thoroughness. The result was that the predatory
+  nomadic tribes of Scythians and Medes were able to sweep through the
+  devastated territories and strike at the very heart of the empire.
+  Ashur-bani-pal was the last great monarch of Assyria. In private life he
+  was cultured and scholarly, and his library, which contained copies of
+  many ancient records and literary works, is one of the sources of
+  Mesopotamian history. Although the Sardanapulus of Greek tradition, he
+  was not the actual monarch who perished when Nineveh was captured and
+  sacked about 606 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> by the fiery hillmen from
+  the east. The Assyrian military organization collapsed and Assyria ceased
+  to be. The factors that led to the downfall of Assyria can only be
+  guessed at. It may be that its many wars of conquest had left it in a
+  state of exhaustion. It is also possible that the new generation of the
+  aristocratic class that grew up in wealth and luxury was disorganized by
+  intrigues and corruption. After Ashur-bani-pal died, no great leader
+  arose, and the vast unwieldy empire suffered from internal decay.
+  Babylonia was the first to foster organized revolt. It was overrun by the
+  Chaldeans from the south, who, two years after Ashur-bani-pal's death,
+  set on the throne at Babylon their leader, King Nabopolassar. With him
+  began the Neo-Babylonian dynasty which lasted for 86 years. He had an
+  ambitious and capable son named Nebuchadnezzar, who set out, as soon as
+  Nineveh fell, to seize the western portion of the Assyrian
+  Empire&mdash;the Medes, with whom the Chaldeans had an agreement, being
+  content to retain north-eastern Mesopotamia. The Egyptians, having
+  overcome the Assyrian garrisons in the Nile valley, were by this time
+  moving northward through Palestine with the idea of re-establishing their
+  ancient empire in Asia. Memphis and Babylon were rival trading centres,
+  and the struggle that ensued was one which was to decide which should
+  have preeminence on the western Asian trade-routes, and especially the
+  'clearing-houses' of North Syria. In 604 <span class="scac">B.C.</span>
+  Nebuchadnezzar met and defeated Pharaoh Necho's Egyptian army at
+  Carchemish. The Egyptians retreated in confusion and were pursued to
+  their frontier. Nabopolassar's death in Babylon caused Nebuchadnezzar to
+  return home and ascend the throne. Eight years later, <!-- Page 344
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page344"></a>[344]</span><span
+  class="figright" style="width:64%;"><a href="images/image134.jpg"><img
+  style="width:100%" src="images/image134.jpg" alt="Israelites before
+  Shalmaneser." title="Israelites before Shalmaneser." /></a>Israelites
+  before Shalmaneser. From the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser II.</span>
+  however, he was back in Palestine again. Judah had been plotting with
+  Egypt, its ally, and the Babylonian monarch besieged and captured
+  Jerusalem. Thousands of Jews were carried off as captives to Babylonia.
+  In 587 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Egypt involved Judah in a second
+  revolt. Nebuchadnezzar II again captured Jerusalem. This time he
+  destroyed the city and carried away the greater part of the remnant of
+  the Jewish people to serve his artisans and agriculturists "by Babel's
+  streams". Babylon was triumphant as a political and trading centre, and,
+  during Nebuchadnezzar's long reign of 42 years, prospered greatly. Its
+  products and its culture were carried far and wide, and Chaldean
+  astrologers as well as merchants became known in Egypt and Greece.
+  Babylonia was the birthplace of the science of astronomy, which developed
+  from astrology. Nebuchadnezzar was a great builder. It is the ruins of
+  his Babylon that have been excavated in our own day. Although Greek
+  descriptions of the city have been found to be somewhat exaggerated, it
+  was yet made very strong and impressive. The royal palace was rebuilt,
+  and the Hanging Garden on its terraced platform became one of the seven
+  wonders of the world. Trade flourished in the capital, and a harbour was
+  built at the head of the Persian Gulf to promote sea traffic. In 539
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span> Cyrus, the Persian conqueror, having
+  defeated the Babylonian army, entered Babylon in state and was welcomed
+  by the priests, Nabo-nidus, the last king of the Neo-Babylonian empire,
+  having made them his enemies. The independence of Babylonia then came to
+  an end, but the importance of its capital as a trading centre did not
+  suffer sudden decline. When it was captured by Alexander the Great in 331
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span> it had been much damaged in consequence of
+  revolts against Persia. The Macedonian conqueror resolved to make it his
+  capital, but his early death, and subsequent political developments,
+  hastened its decay. The Greeks had removed the rocks that blocked the
+  Tigris, which then could be navigated by vessels from the Persian Gulf.
+  Seleucus built the new capital of Seleucia on the right bank of the
+  Tigris, and the traders followed the officials to the new Babylon. In
+  time Ctesiphon arose on the left bank, and after the fall of the Parthian
+  empire it was the principal city of the province. The Moslem conquest of
+  Mesopotamia in the seventh century of our era brought about the rise of
+  Bagdad, a few miles to the north of Ctesiphon. It will be noted that all
+  these cities are strategically situated in the neck of land, between the
+  rivers, which is crossed by the caravan roads leading east and west.
+  During the reign of the famous Harun al Rashid (786-809) Bagdad was at
+  the height of its splendour. A portion of this ruler's great palace still
+  remains, and the tomb of Zobiede, his queen, is a prominent feature on
+  the outskirts of the city. Bagdad declined as a trading centre after
+  Vasco da Gama discovered the sea-route to India, and diverted the
+  merchandise previously carried to Europe across the overland routes
+  across Persia and through Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. Bagdad afterwards
+  depended chiefly on the traffic caused by pilgrim caravans to and from
+  Mecca. The disastrous neglect of Babylonia's irrigation system occurred
+  under Turkish rule. Towards the close of the nineteenth century Germany
+  obtained concessions from the Turks and planned the Bagdad railway, so as
+  to reopen the ancient overland trade-route for Indo-Persian trade.
+  British interests in the Persian Gulf were seriously threatened by this
+  scheme. When war broke out in 1914, a British force landed in ancient
+  Chaldea and pushed northward. Bagdad, the modern Babylon, was captured in
+  1917, and Mosul (Nineveh) was occupied in 1918. The Peace Treaty between
+  the Allied Powers and Turkey placed Mesopotamia under the protection of
+  Great Britain, which thus secured control of the Bagdad railway. An
+  extensive irrigation scheme in the <!-- Page 345 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page345"></a>[345]</span>southern alluvial
+  valley promises to restore ancient Babylonia to its importance as one of
+  the great grain-yielding areas of the world.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: R.&nbsp;W. Rogers, <i>History of Babylonia and
+  Assyria</i>; H. Winckler, <i>History of Babylonia and Assyria</i>; L.&nbsp;W.
+  King and H.&nbsp;R.&nbsp;H. Hall, <i>Egypt and Western Asia in the Light of recent
+  Discoveries</i>; P.&nbsp;S.&nbsp;P. Handcock, <i>The Latest Light on Bible
+  Lands</i>; L.&nbsp;W. King, <i>History of Babylon</i>; D.&nbsp;A. Mackenzie,
+  <i>Myths of Babylonia and Assyria</i>; T.&nbsp;G. Pinches, <i>The Religion of
+  Babylon and Assyria</i>; <i>The Old Testament in the Light of the Records
+  of Assyria and Babylonia</i>; A.&nbsp;H. Sayce, <i>Religions of Ancient Egypt
+  and Babylonia</i>; M. Jastrow, <i>Aspects of Religious Belief and
+  Practice in Babylonia and Assyria</i>; R. Koldeweg, <i>The Excavations of
+  Babylon</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Babyroussa</b> (bab-i-ru<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>s´a; a Malay word signifying stag-hog), a
+  species of wild hog (<i>Sus</i> or <i>Porcus Babyrussa</i>), a native of
+  the Indian Archipelago. From the outside of the upper jaw spring two
+  teeth 12 inches long, curving upwards and backwards like horns, and
+  almost touching the forehead. The tusks of the lower jaw also appear
+  externally, though they are not so long as those of the upper jaw. Along
+  the back are some weak bristles, and on the rest of the body only a sort
+  of wool. These animals live in herds, feed on herbage, are sometimes
+  tamed, and their flesh is well flavoured.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bac´carat</b>, a gambling card game of French origin, played by any
+  number of players, or rather betters, and a banker. The latter deals two
+  cards to each player and two to himself, and covers the stakes of each
+  with an equal sum. The cards are then examined, and according to the
+  scores made the players take their own stake and the banker's, or the
+  latter takes all or a certain number of the stakes.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baccarat</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>k-a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-rä), a town of France, about 15 miles
+  south-east of Lunéville, department Meurthe-et-Moselle, on the River
+  Meurthe, with a handsome new church, and one of the largest works for
+  plate-glass and crystal in France. Pop. 7277.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bacchana´lia</b>, or <b>Dionysia</b>, feasts in honour of Bacchus
+  or Dionysus, characterized by licentiousness and revelry, and celebrated
+  in ancient Athens. In the processions were bands of Bacchantes of both
+  sexes, who, inspired by real or feigned intoxication, wandered about
+  rioting and dancing. They were clothed in fawn-skins, crowned with ivy,
+  and bore in their hands <i>thyrsi</i>, that is spears entwined with ivy,
+  or having a pine-cone stuck on the point. These feasts passed from the
+  Greeks to the Romans, who celebrated them with still greater
+  dissoluteness till the Senate abolished them, 187 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Bacchante</b> (bak-an´te), a person taking part in revels in honour
+  of Bacchus. See <i>Bacchanalia</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bacchiglione</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>k-kil´y&#x14D;-n&#x101;), a river of
+  Northern Italy, rises in the Alps, passes through the towns of Vicenza
+  and Padua, and enters the Adriatic near Chioggia, after a course of about
+  90 miles.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bacchus</b> (bak´us; in Greek, generally <i>Dion&#x45E;sus</i>),
+  the god of wine, son of Zeus (Jupiter) and S&#x115;m&#x115;l&#x113;. He
+  first taught the cultivation of the vine and the preparation of wine. To
+  spread the knowledge of his invention he travelled over various countries
+  and received in every quarter divine honours. Drawn by lions (some say
+  panthers, tigers, or lynxes), he began his march, which resembled a
+  triumphal procession. Those who opposed him were severely punished, but
+  on those who received him hospitably he bestowed rewards. His love was
+  shared by several; but Ariadne, whom he found deserted upon Naxos, alone
+  was elevated to the dignity of a wife, and became a sharer of his
+  immortality. In art he is represented with the round, soft, and graceful
+  form of a maiden rather than with that of a young man. His long waving
+  hair is knitted behind in a knot, and wreathed with sprigs of ivy and
+  vine leaves. He is usually naked; sometimes he has a loose mantle hung
+  negligently round his shoulders; sometimes a fawn-skin hangs across his
+  breast. He is often accompanied by Silenus, Bacchantes, Satyrs, &amp;c.
+  See <i>Bacchanalia</i>.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>:
+  Farnell, <i>Cults of the Greek States</i>; J.&nbsp;E. Harrison, <i>Prolegomena
+  to the Study of Greek Religion</i>; Sir J.&nbsp;G. Frazer, <i>The Golden
+  Bough</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bacchylides</b> (bak-kil'i-d&#x113;z), born in the Island of Cos,
+  about the middle of the fifth century <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, the
+  last of the great lyric poets of Greece, a nephew of Simonides and a
+  contemporary of Pindar. The extant remains of his odes, hymns, pæans,
+  &amp;c., were augmented in 1897 by papyrus discoveries.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bacciocchi</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>t-chok´&#x113;), Maria Anne Eliza
+  Bonaparte, sister of Napoleon, born at Ajaccio, 1777, died near Trieste,
+  1820; a great patroness of literature and art. She married Captain
+  Bacciocchi, who in 1805 was created Prince of Lucca and Piombino. She
+  virtually ruled these principalities herself, and as Grand-Duchess of
+  Tuscany she enacted the part of a queen. She fell with the Empire.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baccio Delia Porta</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>ch´&#x14D;). See <i>Bartolommeo</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bach</b> (ba<i>h</i>), Johann Sebastian, one of the greatest of
+  German musicians, born in 1685 at Eisenach, died in 1750 at Leipzig.
+  Being the son of a musician he was early trained in the art, and soon
+  distinguished himself. In 1703 he was engaged as a player at the Court of
+  Weimar, and subsequently he was musical director to the Duke of
+  Anhalt-Köthen, and afterwards held an appointment at Leipzig. He paid a
+  visit to <!-- Page 346 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page346"></a>[346]</span>Potsdam on the invitation of Frederick the
+  Great. As a player on the harpsichord and organ he had no equal among his
+  contemporaries; but it was not till a century after his death that his
+  greatness as a composer was fully recognized. His compositions, many of
+  which are pieces of sacred music, show great originality. They include
+  pieces, vocal and instrumental, for the organ, piano, stringed and keyed
+  instruments; church cantatas, oratorios, masses, passion music, &amp;c.
+  More than fifty musical performers have proceeded from this family.
+  Sebastian himself had eleven sons, all distinguished as musicians. The
+  most renowned were the following:&mdash;Wilhelm Friedemann, born in 1710
+  at Weimar, died at Berlin in 1784. He was one of the most scientific
+  harmonists and most skilful organists.&mdash;Karl Philipp Emmanuel, born
+  in 1714 at Weimar, died in 1788 at Hamburg. He composed mostly for the
+  piano, and published melodies for Gellert's hymns; he also wrote <i>The
+  True Manner of Playing the Harpsichord</i>.&mdash;Johann Christoph
+  Friedrich, born at Weimar, 1732, died in 1795, a great organist, is known
+  also by the music he published.&mdash;Johann Christian, born in 1735 at
+  Leipzig, died in London, 1782, was a favourite composer and conductor
+  with the English public.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: P.
+  Spitta, <i>Johann Sebastian Bach</i>; A. Pirro, <i>L'Esthétique de Jean
+  Sebastian Bach</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bacharach</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span><i>h</i>´a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span><i>h</i>), a small place of 2000
+  inhabitants on the Rhine, 12 miles <span class="scac">S.</span> of
+  Coblenz. The vicinity produces excellent wine, which was once highly
+  esteemed. The view from the ruins of the castle is one of the sublimest
+  on the Rhine.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bach´elor</b>, a term applied anciently to a person in the first or
+  probationary stage of knighthood who had not yet raised his standard in
+  the field. It also denotes a person who has taken the first degree in the
+  liberal arts and sciences, or in divinity, law, or medicine, at a college
+  or university; or a man of any age who has not been married.&mdash;A
+  <i>knight bachelor</i> is one who has been raised to the dignity of a
+  knight without being made a member of any of the orders of chivalry such
+  as the Garter, the Thistle, or the Bath.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bachelor's Buttons</b>, the double-flowering buttercup
+  (<i>Ranunculus acris</i>), with white or yellow blossoms, common in
+  gardens.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bachian</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>ch´a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n), one of the Molucca Islands,
+  immediately <span class="scac">S.</span> of the equator, <span
+  class="scac">S.W.</span> of Gilolo; area, 800 sq. miles. It is ruled by a
+  native sultan under the Dutch.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bachmut</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span><i>h</i>-möt'), a town in the Ukraine,
+  government of Ekaterinoslav, with a trade in cattle, tallow, &amp;c., and
+  coal and rock-salt mines. Pop. 20,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bacilla´ria</b>, a genus of microscopic algæ, belonging to the
+  class Diatomaceæ, the siliceous remains of which abound in cretaceous,
+  tertiary, and more recent geological deposits.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bacil´lus.</b> See <i>Bacteria</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Back</b>, Admiral Sir George, eminent English Arctic discoverer,
+  born 1796, died 1878. He accompanied Franklin and Richardson in their
+  northern expeditions, and in 1833-4 headed an expedition to the Arctic
+  Ocean through the Hudson Bay Company's territory, on which occasion he
+  wintered at the Great Slave Lake, and discovered the Back or Great Fish
+  River.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Backergunge.</b> See <i>Bakarganj</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Backgam´mon</b>, a game played by two persons upon a table or board
+  made for the purpose, with pieces or men, dice-boxes, and dice. The table
+  is in two parts, on which are twenty-four black and white spaces called
+  points. Each player has fifteen men of different colours for the purpose
+  of distinction. The movements of the men are made in accordance with the
+  numbers turned up by the dice.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Backhaus</b>, Wilhelm, one of the greatest living pianists, born at
+  Leipzig in 1884. At the age of twenty-one he was appointed a professor at
+  the Royal College of Music, Manchester. This position, however, he soon
+  gave up, and since 1905 has devoted his time to concert tours.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Backhuysen</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>k´hoi-zn), Ludolf, a painter of the Dutch
+  school, particularly celebrated for sea pieces, born in 1631, died 1709.
+  His most famous picture is a sea piece which the burgomasters of
+  Amsterdam commissioned him to paint as a present to Louis XVI. It is
+  still at Paris.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Backwarda´tion</b>, a stock exchange term signifying the rate paid
+  by a speculative seller of stock for the privilege of carrying over or
+  continuing a bargain from one fortnightly account to another, instead of
+  closing it on the appointed day.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bacninh</b>, a town of Tongking, on the Red River, fortified and
+  containing a French garrison, being in an important strategic position.
+  Pop. 7000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ba´con</b>, Anthony, elder brother of the celebrated Lord
+  Chancellor, was born in 1558 and died in 1601. He was a skilful
+  politician, and much devoted to learned pursuits. He became personally
+  acquainted with most of the foreign literati of the day, and gained the
+  friendship of Henri IV of France. Francis Bacon dedicated to him the
+  first edition of the <i>Essays</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bacon</b>, Francis, Baron Verulam, Viscount St. Albans, and Lord
+  High Chancellor of England, was born at London in 1561, died at Highgate
+  in 1626. His father, Nicholas Bacon, was Keeper of the Great Seal under
+  Queen Elizabeth. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and in
+  1575 was admitted to Gray's Inn. From 1576 to 1579 he was at Paris with
+  Sir Amyas <!-- Page 347 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page347"></a>[347]</span>Paulet, the English ambassador. The death
+  of his father called him back to England, and being left in straitened
+  circumstances he zealously pursued the study of law, and was admitted a
+  barrister in 1582. In 1584 he became member of Parliament for Melcombe
+  Regis, and soon after drew up a <i>Letter of Advice</i> to Queen
+  Elizabeth, an able political memoir. In 1586 he was member for Taunton,
+  in 1589 for Liverpool. A year or two after he gained the Earl of Essex as
+  a friend and patron. Bacon's talents and his connection with the
+  Lord-Treasurer Burleigh, who had married his mother's sister, and his
+  son, Sir Robert Cecil, First Secretary of State, seemed to promise him
+  the highest promotion; but he had displeased the queen, and when he
+  applied for the attorney-generalship, and next for the
+  solicitor-generalship (1595), he was unsuccessful. Essex endeavoured to
+  indemnify him by the donation of an estate in land. Bacon, however,
+  forgot his obligations to his benefactor, and not only abandoned him as
+  soon as he had fallen into disgrace, but without being obliged took part
+  against him on his trial, in 1601, and was active in obtaining his
+  conviction. He had been chosen member for the county of Middlesex in
+  1593, and for Southampton in 1597, and had long been a Queen's Counsel.
+  The reign of James I was more favourable to his interest. He was
+  assiduous in courting the king's favour, and James, who was ambitious of
+  being considered a patron of letters, conferred upon him in 1603 the
+  honour of knighthood. In 1604 he was appointed King's Counsel, with a
+  pension of £60; in 1606 he married; in 1607 he became Solicitor-General,
+  and six years after Attorney-General. Between James and his Parliament he
+  was anxious to produce harmony, but his efforts were without avail, and
+  his obsequiousness and servility gained him enmity and discredit. In 1617
+  he was made Lord-Keeper of the Seal; in 1618 Lord High Chancellor of
+  England and Baron Verulam. In this year he lent his influence to bring a
+  verdict of guilty against Raleigh. In 1621 he was made Viscount St.
+  Albans. Soon after this his reputation received a fatal blow. A new
+  Parliament was formed in 1621, and the Lord Chancellor was accused before
+  the House of bribery, corruption, and other malpractices. It is difficult
+  to ascertain the full extent of his guilt; but he seems to have been
+  unable to justify himself, and handed in a 'confession and humble
+  submission', throwing himself on the mercy of the Peers. He was condemned
+  to pay a fine of £40,000, to be committed to the Tower during the
+  pleasure of the king, declared incompetent to hold any office of State,
+  and banished from Court for ever. The sentence, however, was never
+  carried out. The fine was remitted almost as soon as imposed, and he was
+  imprisoned for only a few days. He survived his fall a few years, during
+  this time occupying himself with his literary and scientific works, and
+  vainly hoping for political employment. In 1597 he published his
+  celebrated <i>Essays</i>, which immediately became very popular, were
+  successively enlarged and extended, and translated into Latin, French,
+  and Italian. The treatise on the <i>Advancement of Learning</i> appeared
+  in 1605; <i>The Wisdom of the Ancients</i> in 1609 (in Latin); his great
+  philosophical work, the <i>Novum Organum</i> (in Latin), in 1620; and the
+  <i>De Augmentis Scientiarum</i>, a much enlarged edition (in Latin) of
+  the <i>Advancement</i>, in 1623. His <i>New Atlantis</i> was written
+  about 1614-7; <i>Life of Henry VII</i> about 1621. Various minor
+  productions also proceeded from his pen. Numerous editions of his works
+  have been published, by far the best being that of Messrs. Spedding,
+  Ellis, and Heath, 1857-9 (reprinted, 1879-90). Bacon was great as a
+  moralist, a historian, a writer on politics, and a rhetorician; but it is
+  as the father of the inductive method in science, as the powerful
+  exponent of the principle that facts must be observed and collected
+  before theorizing, that he occupies the grand position he holds among the
+  world's great ones. His moral character, however, was not on a level with
+  his intellectual, self-aggrandizement being the main aim of his life. We
+  need do no more than allude to the preposterous attempt that has been
+  made to prove that Bacon was the real author of the plays attributed to
+  Shakespeare, an attempt that only ignorance of Bacon and Shakespeare
+  could uphold and tolerate.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: J.
+  Spedding, <i>Life and Letters of Francis Bacon</i>; R.&nbsp;W. Church,
+  <i>Bacon</i> (in English Men of Letters Series); Sir Sidney Lee, <i>Great
+  Englishmen of the Sixteenth Century</i>; J.&nbsp;M. Robertson, <i>Short
+  History of Free-thought</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bacon</b>, John, English sculptor, born 1740, died 1799. Among his
+  chief works are two groups for the interior of the Royal Academy; the
+  statue of Judge Blackstone for All Souls College, Oxford; another of
+  Henry VI for Eton College; the monument of Lord Chatham in Westminster
+  Abbey; and the statues of Dr. Johnson and Mr. Howard in St. Paul's
+  Cathedral.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bacon</b>, Sir Nicholas, father of Francis Bacon, Lord-Keeper of
+  the Great Seal, born 1510, died 1579. Henry VIII gave him several
+  lucrative offices, which he retained under Edward VI. He lived in
+  retirement during the reign of Mary, but Queen Elizabeth appointed him
+  Lord-Keeper for life. He was the intimate friend of Lord Burleigh, a
+  sister of whose wife he married, and by her became the father of the
+  great Chancellor.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bacon</b>, Roger, an English monk, and one of the most profound and
+  original thinkers of his day, was born about 1214, near Ilchester, <!--
+  Page 348 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page348"></a>[348]</span>Somersetshire, died at Oxford in 1294. He
+  first entered the University of Oxford, and went afterwards to that of
+  Paris, where he is said to have distinguished himself and received the
+  degree of Doctor of Theology. About 1250 he returned to England, entered
+  the order of Franciscans and fixed his abode at Oxford; but having
+  incurred the suspicion of his ecclesiastical superiors, he was sent to
+  Paris and kept in confinement for ten years, without writing-materials,
+  books, or instruments. The cause seems to have been simple enough. He had
+  been a diligent student of the chemical, physical, and mathematical
+  sciences, and had made discoveries, and deduced results, which appeared
+  so extraordinary to the ignorant that they were believed to be works of
+  magic. This opinion was countenanced by the jealousy and hatred of the
+  monks of his fraternity. In subsequent times he was popularly classed
+  among those who had been in league with Satan. Having been set at
+  liberty, he enjoyed a brief space of quiet while Clement IV was Pope; but
+  in 1278 he was again thrown into prison, where he remained for at least
+  ten years. Of the close of his life little is known. His most important
+  work is his <i>Opus Majus</i>, where he discusses the relation of
+  philosophy to religion, and then treats of language, metaphysics, optics,
+  and experimental science. He was undoubtedly the earliest philosophical
+  experimentalist in Britain; he made signal advances in optics; was an
+  excellent chemist; and in all probability discovered gunpowder. He was
+  intimately acquainted with geography and astronomy, as appears by his
+  discovery of the errors of the calendar, and their causes, and by his
+  proposals for correcting them, in which he approached very nearly to
+  truth.&mdash;Cf. E. Charles, <i>Roger Bacon, sa vie, ses ouvrages, ses
+  doctrines</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:29%;">
+      <a href="images/image135.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image135.jpg"
+      alt="Bacteria" title="Bacteria" /></a>
+    Bacteria&mdash;Forms of cells
+
+    <p class="cenhead">1. Coccus. 2. Bacillus. 3. Spirillum (vibrio). 4.
+    Spirillum (spirochæte).</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Bacte´ria</b> (Gr. <i>bakt&#x113;rion</i>, a rod), a general term
+  applied to the lowest visible forms of life; other names given are
+  <i>germs</i> or <i>microbes</i>. They are divided into three classes: (1)
+  <i>cocci</i>&mdash;these are minute spheres about one twenty-five
+  thousandth of an inch in diameter, arranged in chains or clusters; (2)
+  <i>bacilli</i>&mdash;these are straight rods about the breadth of a
+  coccus and two to four times as long; (3) <i>spirilla</i>&mdash;here
+  there are two forms; one is like a bacillus, but curved (spirillum proper
+  or vibrio); the other is a very fine spiral thread (spirochaete) often
+  only half the thickness of a vibrio and two to six times as long.
+  Bacteria consist of protoplasm surrounded by a membrane, and many show
+  active movements; they all multiply asexually by splitting, and so
+  rapidly may the process occur that 17,000,000 organisms or more may be
+  formed from one bacterium in twenty-four hours. The chief part played by
+  bacteria in nature is to cause putrefaction. They are found on all
+  organic matter, and are therefore omnipresent. When grown artificially
+  (see <i>Bacteriology</i>) they usually require organic matter for their
+  food, and this they split up into simpler chemical compounds, some of
+  which are very poisonous to animals (toxins); they can also split up
+  sugars to produce various alcohols, acids, and gases. When certain of the
+  bacilli are starved, the living matter gathers itself up into a spore
+  surrounded by a very resisting membrane, and it can survive for a long
+  time in this condition. All ordinary bacteria, including most of those
+  which produce disease, can be killed by a few minutes' boiling, but the
+  sporing varieties (e.g. many putrefactive forms) withstand much longer
+  boiling&mdash;up to one and a half hours; they can also be killed by
+  chemical means (see <i>Disinfection</i>). Many bacteria are useful to
+  man, and a few give rise to disease (see <i>Germ Theory</i>).</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:62%;">
+      <a href="images/image136.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image136.jpg"
+      alt="Bacteria" title="Bacteria" /></a>
+    BACTERIA
+
+    <p class="cenhead">All the above are magnified 560 times.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Bacteriology</b>, the branch of science which deals with the
+  structure and properties of bacteria. Though the existence of bacteria
+  had been known from the time when Leeuwenhock arranged lenses so as to
+  form a microscope, it was through the work of Pasteur that modern
+  knowledge regarding the group originated. Pasteur's discovery that yeasts
+  are the cause of the formation of alcohol from sugar was followed by his
+  showing that bacteria are responsible for other processes of a similar
+  character, e.g. the formation of vinegar from alcohol, the occurrence of
+  the rancid change in butter, &amp;c. When he went on to prove that a
+  bacterium was the cause of a disease of silkworms, a stimulus was given
+  to the germ theory of infection, and bacteriology was thus early brought
+  intimately into contact with medical science. Another stimulus to
+  bacteriological inquiry came from the controversy on spontaneous
+  generation, and Pasteur was one of those who helped to establish the
+  principle that the new development of living things, as represented by
+  bacteria, out of non-living matter does not take place. This led to the
+  inevitable deduction that all putrefactive processes are due to bacteria.
+  On this Lister founded his antiseptic treatment of wounds, the practical
+  effects of which focused attention on the important part played by
+  bacteria in human affairs. The modern science of bacteriology really
+  dates from 1877, when Koch proved that <i>Bacillus anthracis</i> is the
+  cause of anthrax in <!-- Page 349 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page349"></a>[349]</span>cattle. The outstanding feature of Koch's
+  research was that in it, for the first time, methods were employed
+  whereby all extraneous organisms were excluded from the inquiry, and the
+  way was thus opened up for the study of the properties and effects of one
+  species of bacterium acting by itself. The chief aspects of his work were
+  as follows: (1) the determination of the temperatures at which bacteria
+  are killed; the knowledge of this enables investigators to render free
+  from living organisms their apparatus and the food materials (usually
+  called <i>media</i>) necessary to support bacterial life (this is called
+  <i>sterilization</i>); (2) the discovery that the insertion of a plug of
+  cotton-wool in the neck of a vessel (e.g. a flask or test-tube) before
+  its sterilization constitutes a sufficient filter, which prevents
+  bacteria in the outside air gaining access to its interior or to any food
+  medium placed in it for sterilization; (3) the elaboration of a series of
+  media capable of acting as food for all the commonly occurring bacteria;
+  (4) the introduction of a simple method of separating from one another
+  bacterial species which in nature are often growing side by side. This is
+  effected by making media containing a jelly (e.g. gelatine) which melts
+  at a relatively low temperature. The bacterial mixture is well diluted in
+  the melted medium, and this is poured out in a thin layer on a sterile
+  glass plate and allowed to set. Each individual bacterial cell can thus
+  multiply apart from neighbouring cells, and, it may be, in a few hours
+  the resulting growth (a 'colony') is visible to the naked eye. A minute
+  part of the colony is picked off with a heated needle and placed on a
+  mass of sterile medium. In this way a 'pure culture' of each species
+  present in the original mixture can be obtained. Koch's work was chiefly
+  concerned with disease bacteria, and between 1880 and 1895 many such
+  organisms were isolated in pure culture and their properties investigated
+  (see <i>Germ Theory of Disease</i>).</p>
+
+  <p>While in the evolution of knowledge the progress of bacteriology has
+  been most associated with that of medicine and surgery, the science has
+  fundamental relations with many other human interests, and the same
+  methods are used in investigating such relationships. The adaptation of
+  these methods on a commercial scale underlies all industrial processes
+  concerned in the preserving of milk and in the canning and bottling of
+  meat and fruit (apart from the addition of chemical preservatives). Since
+  bacteriology came into existence, many of the most primitive domestic
+  procedures have been improved and placed on a scientific basis. Thus,
+  butter-making involves a previous souring of the milk; this is due to
+  bacterial action, and standard mixtures of milk-souring bacteria are now
+  regularly supplied by the laboratory as 'starters' of the process. It is
+  recognized that the disorders of milk, e.g. 'ropiness', 'blue milk',
+  &amp;c., are due to certain 'wild' bacteria gaining access to the dairy.
+  The ripening of such cheeses as Gorgonzola and Stilton is due to bacteria
+  and allied organisms, and here again light has been shed on the
+  'diseases' of cheese by bacteriological investigation. The pickling of
+  foods by salt, or vinegar, or nitre, is due to the action of these
+  substances as antiseptics, and a similar principle, aided by boiling,
+  underlies the making of jams. Again, certain kinds of bacteria which only
+  flourish at high temperatures are responsible for the heating of hay and
+  corn stacks, and for the production of ensilage. Bacteriology is also
+  throwing important light on factors concerned in the fertility of soils.
+  For example, it has been shown that the little nodules on the roots of
+  plants of the pea tribe are caused by bacteria; these, in growing, take
+  up nitrogen from the air, and form compounds which promote the growth of
+  the plant on which they are parasites and remain to enrich the soil when
+  the plant dies. In short, there is no industry, which depends on natural
+  putrefaction being prevented or modified so as to stop at a particular
+  stage, which bacteriology cannot guide towards securing the most perfect
+  results.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Fischer, <i>The
+  Structure and Functions of Bacteria</i>; Abbot, <i>Principles of
+  Bacteriology</i>; Muir and Ritchie, <i>Manual of Bacteriology</i>; E.&nbsp;R.
+  Stitt, <i>Practical Bacteriology</i>; P.&nbsp;H. Hiss and H. Zinsser, <i>A
+  Textbook of Bacteriology</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bactria´na</b>, or <b>Bactria</b>, a country of ancient Asia, south
+  of the Oxus and reaching to the west of the Hindu Kush. It is often
+  regarded as the original home of the Indo-European races. A
+  Græco-Bactrian kingdom flourished about the third century <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span>, but its history is obscure.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baculi´tes</b>, a fossil genus allied to the ammonites,
+  characteristic of cretaceous strata, having a straight tapering shell.
+  See <i>Cephalopoda</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ba´cup</b>, a municipal borough of England, in Lancashire, 18 miles
+  <span class="scac">N.</span> of Manchester. The chief manufacturing
+  establishments are connected with cotton-spinning and power-loom weaving;
+  there are also ironworks, Turkey-red dyeing-works, and in the
+  neighbourhood numerous coal-pits and immense stone-quarries. Pop. (1921),
+  21,256.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Badagry</b>, seaport in the British province of Southern Nigeria,
+  West Africa, 50 miles <span class="scac">E.N.E.</span> of Whydah. Pop.
+  about 10,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Badajoz</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-<i>d</i>a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-<i>h</i>&#x14D;th´; ancient, <b>Pax
+  Augusta</b>), the fortified capital of the Spanish province of Badajoz,
+  on the left bank of the Guadiana, which is crossed by a stone bridge of
+  twenty-eight arches. It is a bishop's see, and has an interesting
+  cathedral. During the Peninsular War <!-- Page 350 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page350"></a>[350]</span>Badajoz was besieged by
+  Marshal Soult, and taken in March, 1811. It was twice attacked by the
+  English, on 5th and 29th May, 1811, and was besieged by Wellington on
+  16th March, and taken 6th April, 1812. Pop. 37,600.&mdash;The province of
+  Badajoz has an area of 8451 sq. miles. Pop. 644,220.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Badakshan´</b>, a territory of Central Asia, tributary to the Ameer
+  of Afghanistan. It has the Oxus on the north, and the Hindu Kush on the
+  south, and has lofty mountains and fertile valleys; the chief town is
+  Faizabad. The inhabitants profess Mahommedanism. Pop. 20,957.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Badalona</b> (bä-<i>d</i>a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-l&#x14D;´na), a Mediterranean seaport of
+  Spain, 5 miles from Barcelona. Pop. 19,240.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baden</b> (bä´d&#x117;n), formerly a Grand-Duchy and one of the
+  more important States of the German Empire, situated in the <span
+  class="scac">S.W.</span> of Germany, to the west of Württemberg. It is
+  divided into four districts, Constance, Freiburg, Karlsruhe, and
+  Mannheim. It has an area of 5819 sq. miles, and a pop. of 2,142,833. It
+  is mountainous, being traversed to a considerable extent by the lofty
+  plateau of the Schwarzwald or Black Forest, which attains its highest
+  point in the Feldberg (4904 feet). The nucleus of this plateau consists
+  of gneiss and granite. In the north it sinks down towards the Odenwald,
+  which is, however, of different geological structure, being composed for
+  the most part of red sandstone. The whole of Baden, except a small
+  portion in the <span class="scac">S.E.</span>, in which the Danube takes
+  its rise, belongs to the basin of the Rhine, which bounds it on the south
+  and west. Numerous tributaries of the Rhine intersect it, the chief being
+  the Neckar. Lakes are numerous, and include a considerable part of the
+  Lake of Constance. The climate varies much. The hilly parts, especially
+  in the east, are cold and have a long winter, while the valley of the
+  Rhine enjoys the finest climate of Germany. The principal minerals worked
+  are coal, salt, iron, zinc, and nickel. The number of mineral springs is
+  remarkably great, and of these not a few are of great celebrity. The
+  vegetation is peculiarly rich, and there are magnificent forests. The
+  cereals comprise wheat, oats, barley, and rye. Potatoes, hemp, tobacco,
+  wine, and sugar-beet are largely produced. Several of the wines, both
+  white and red, rank in the first class. Baden has long been famous for
+  its fruits also. Of the total area 55.4 per cent is under cultivation,
+  39.4 per cent under forest, and 5.2 per cent uncultivated (houses, roads,
+  water, &amp;c.). The farms are mostly quite small. The manufactures are
+  important. Among them are textiles, tobacco and cigars, chemicals,
+  machinery, pottery ware, jewellery (especially at Pforzheim), wooden
+  clocks, confined chiefly to the districts of the Black Forest, musical
+  boxes and other musical toys. The capital is Karlsruhe, about 5 miles
+  from the Rhine; the other chief towns are Mannheim, Freiburg-im-Breisgau
+  (with a Roman Catholic university), Baden, and Heidelberg. Baden has warm
+  mineral springs, which were known and used in the time of the Romans.
+  Heidelberg has a university (Protestant), founded in 1386, the oldest in
+  Germany. The railways have a length of 1200 miles, and are all State
+  property. In the time of the Roman Empire southern Baden belonged to the
+  Roman province of Rhætia. Under the old German Empire it was a
+  margraviate, which in 1533 was divided into Baden-Baden and
+  Baden-Durlach, but reunited in 1771. The title of grand-duke was
+  conferred by Napoleon in 1806, and in the same year Baden was extended to
+  its present limits. Until 1918 the executive power was vested in the
+  grand-duke, the legislative in a house of legislature, consisting of an
+  upper and a lower chamber. The former consisted partly of hereditary
+  members; the latter of elected representatives of the people. In the
+  break-up of the German Empire in Nov., 1918, Baden was among the first
+  States to feel the shock of revolution. The Grand-Duke Frederick I
+  abdicated, and the Provisional Government, under the Socialist Herr
+  Jeiss, proclaimed Baden a Republic. Two-thirds of the population are
+  Roman Catholics, the rest Protestants.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baden</b> (or <b>Baden-Baden</b>, to distinguish it from other
+  towns of the same name; German <i>Bad</i>, a bath), a town and
+  watering-place, in the former Grand-Duchy of Baden, 18 miles <span
+  class="scac">S.S.W.</span> of Karlsruhe, built in the form of an
+  amphitheatre on a spur of the Black Forest, overhanging a valley, through
+  which runs a little stream Oosbach. Baden has been celebrated from the
+  remotest antiquity for its thermal baths; and it used also to be
+  celebrated for its gaming-saloons. It has many good buildings, and a
+  castle, the summer residence of the former grand-dukes. Pop. 22,066.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baden</b>, a town of Austria, 15 miles <span
+  class="scac">S.W.</span> of Vienna. It has numerous hot sulphurous
+  springs, used both for bathing and drinking, and much frequented. Pop.
+  19,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baden</b>, a small town of Switzerland, canton Aargau, celebrated
+  for its hot sulphurous baths, which attract many visitors. Pop. 8318.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baden-Powell.</b> See <i>Powell</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Badge</b> (baj), a distinctive device, emblem, mark, honorary
+  decoration, or special cognizance, used originally to identify a knight
+  or distinguish his followers, now worn as a sign of office or licensed
+  employment, as a token of membership in some society, or generally as a
+  mark showing the relation of the wearer to any person, <!-- Page 351
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page351"></a>[351]</span>occupation, or
+  order. See <i>Cockade</i>, <i>Heraldry</i>, <i>Totems</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:33%;">
+      <a href="images/image137.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image137.jpg"
+      alt="Badger" title="Badger" /></a>
+    Common Badger (<i>Meles vulg&#x101;ris</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Badger</b> (baj´&#x117;r), a plantigrade, carnivorous mammal,
+  allied both to the bears and to the weasels, of a clumsy make, with short
+  thick legs, and long claws on the fore-feet. The common badger (<i>Meles
+  vulg&#x101;ris</i>) is as large as a middling-sized dog, but much lower
+  on the legs, with a flatter and broader body, very thick tough hide, and
+  long coarse hair. It inhabits the north of Europe and Asia, burrows, is
+  indolent and sleepy, feeds by night on vegetables, small quadrupeds,
+  &amp;c. Its flesh may be eaten, and its hair is used for artists' brushes
+  in painting. The American badger belongs to a separate genus. <i>Badger
+  baiting</i>, or <i>drawing the badger</i>, is a barbarous sport, long a
+  favourite amusement in England, but declared illegal in the middle of
+  last century, and yet to some extent practised, generally as an
+  attraction to public-houses of the lowest sort. A badger is put in a
+  barrel, and one or more dogs are put in to drag him out. When this is
+  effected he is returned to his barrel, to be similarly assailed by a
+  fresh set. The badger usually makes a most determined and savage
+  resistance.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Badger Dog</b>, a long-bodied, short-legged dog, with rather large
+  pendulous ears, usually short haired, black, and with yellow extremities;
+  often called by its German name <i>Dachshund</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bad´minton</b>, a game closely resembling lawn-tennis, but played
+  with battledore and shuttle-cock instead of ball and racket: named after
+  a seat of the Duke of Beaufort, in Gloucestershire.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Badrinath</b> (-ät´), a peak of the main Himalayan range, in
+  Garhwál District, in the United Provinces, 23,210 feet above the sea. On
+  one of its shoulders, at an elevation of 10,400 feet, stands a celebrated
+  temple of Vishnu, which some years attracts as many as 50,000
+  pilgrims.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baedeker</b> (b&#x101;´de-k&#x117;r), Karl, a German publisher,
+  born 1801, died 1859; originator of a celebrated series of guide-books
+  for travellers.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baelz's Disease</b>, an affection of the mouth characterized by
+  swelling of the mucous glands of the mouth and lips, leading to the
+  formation of small abscesses and ulcers.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baena</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-&#x101;´na<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a town of Spain, in Andalusia,
+  province of Cordova, and 24 miles <span class="scac">S.S.E.</span> of the
+  city of that name. Pop. 14,730.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baeza</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-&#x101;´tha<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>; anciently, <b>Beatia</b>), a town of
+  Spain, in Andalusia, 22 miles <span class="scac">E.N.E.</span> of Jaen,
+  with 15,843 inhabitants. The principal edifices are the cathedral, the
+  university (now suppressed), and the old monastery of St. Philip de
+  Neri.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baffa</b> (ancient, <b>Paphos</b>), a seaport on the <span
+  class="scac">S.W.</span> coast of Cyprus. Pop. 1000. It occupies the site
+  of New Paphos, which, under the Romans, was full of beautiful temples and
+  other public buildings. Old Paphos stood a little to the south-east.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baffin</b>, William, an English navigator, born 1584, famous for
+  his discoveries in the Arctic regions; in 1616 he ascertained the limits
+  of Baffin Bay. He was killed at the siege of Ormuz, in the East Indies,
+  1622.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baffin Bay</b>, on the <span class="scac">N.E.</span> of North
+  America, between Greenland and Baffin Land and other islands that lie on
+  the <span class="scac">N.</span> of the continent; discovered by Baffin
+  in 1616.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bafulabe</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-fu<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>-lä-b&#x101;), a trading-place in French
+  West Africa, on the Upper Senegal, and on the railway that runs from
+  Kayes on the Senegal to Bammako on the Niger.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bagamo´yo</b>, a seaport of former German East Africa, a short
+  distance north-west of Dar-el-Salaam. There is no proper harbour, only a
+  shallow and rather exposed roadstead where ships have to anchor some
+  distance from the shore, yet it is the chief trading-centre of the
+  colony, and as the terminus of the caravan route to Tanganyika is a place
+  of some importance. Pop. about 25,000. See <i>European War</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bagasse´</b>, the sugar-cane in its dry crushed state as delivered
+  from the mill, and after the main portion of its juice has been
+  expressed; used as fuel in the sugar factory, and called also
+  <i>cane-trash</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bagatelle´</b>, a game played on a long flat board covered with
+  cloth like a billiard-table, with spherical balls and a cue or mace. At
+  the end of the board are nine cups or sockets of just sufficient size to
+  receive the balls. These sockets are arranged in the form of a regular
+  octagon, with the ninth in the middle, and are numbered consecutively
+  from one upwards. Nine balls are used, generally one black, four white,
+  and four red, the distinction between white and red being made only for
+  the sake of variety. In the ordinary game, at starting, the black ball is
+  placed on a point in the longitudinal middle line of the board, a few
+  inches in front of the nearest <!-- Page 352 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page352"></a>[352]</span>of the sockets, and the player places one
+  of his eight balls on a corresponding point at the other end of the
+  board, and tries to strike the black ball into one of the sockets with
+  his own. After this his object is to place as many of his balls as
+  possible in the sockets. Each ball so placed counts as many as the socket
+  is numbered for, and the black ball always counts double. He who first
+  makes the number of points agreed on wins.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bagdad´</b>, or <b>Baghdad</b>, a city of a vilayet of same name
+  (54,540 sq. miles; pop. 900,000) in what was anciently Mesopotamia. The
+  greater part of it lies on the eastern bank of the Tigris, which is
+  crossed by a bridge of boats; old Bagdad, the residence of the caliphs
+  (now in ruins), was on the western bank of the river. The city occupies a
+  large area. The houses are mostly built of brick, the streets unpaved and
+  very narrow, and there are few buildings of any note. The palace of the
+  governor is spacious. Of the mosques only a few attract notice, many are
+  in ruins; the bazaars are large and well stocked; that of Dawd Pasha
+  still ranks as one of the most splendid in the world. Manufactures:
+  leather, silks, cottons, woollens, carpets, &amp;c. Steamers ply on the
+  river between Bagdad and Bassorah, and the town exports wheat, dates,
+  galls, gums, mohair, carpets, &amp;c., to Europe, the chief import being
+  cotton goods. The estimated population is over 200,000; of these about
+  86,000 are Mahommedans, 52,000 Jews, and 7000 Christians. The city has
+  been frequently visited by the plague. Bagdad was founded in 762 by the
+  Caliph Almansur, and raised to a high degree of splendour in the ninth
+  century by Harun Al Rashid. It is the scene of a number of the tales of
+  the <i>Arabian Nights</i>. It was long the chief city of the Mahommedan
+  world, and at one time is said to have had two millions of inhabitants.
+  In the thirteenth century it was stormed by Hulaku, grandson of
+  Genghis-Khan, who caused the reigning caliph to be slain, and destroyed
+  the caliphate. It was again laid waste by Timur in 1401. For a
+  considerable period it was the object of contention between the Persians
+  and the Turks, until it was besieged and captured by Sultan Murad IV in
+  1638. Since that date it remained a part of the Turkish Empire. It was
+  captured by the British on 11th March, 1917.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bagdad Railway</b>, a railway which, under arrangement with the
+  Turkish Government, was intended to run from Konia, which is the terminus
+  of the Anatolian railway system, to Bagdad, Basra (Bassorah), and the
+  Persian Gulf. It was built chiefly by means of funds provided by German
+  and French financiers, in association with the Anatolian Railway Company,
+  a German company. The line has been constructed continuously as far as
+  Kara Bunar in Cilicia. Farther on, the following sections have been
+  completed: Dorak to Bagtché, on the Ordana side of the Taurus Mountains;
+  Radjun, via Muslimié, to Jerablus, on the Euphrates, with a branch from
+  Muslimié to Aleppo; Jerablus to El-Abiad, and Bagdad to Samara. A branch
+  line has also been completed from Alexandretta to Toprak Kalé. Of the
+  distance from Konia to Bagdad (1509 miles), 1117 miles (with gaps) are
+  already working. In 1919 the railway system passed to the Allies, and in
+  1920 it was announced that the line between Basra and Bagdad had been
+  completed.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bagehot</b> (bag´ot), Walter, English economist and journalist,
+  born at Langport, Somerset, 1826, died at the same place 1877. He studied
+  at Bristol, and at University College, London, and graduated as <span
+  class="scac">B.A.</span> and <span class="scac">M.A.</span> at the London
+  University (1848). He was for some time associated with his father in the
+  banking business at Langport, and for a number of years he acted as
+  London agent for the bank. He was one of the editors of the <i>National
+  Review</i> (1855-64), and from 1860 till his death he was editor and part
+  proprietor of the <i>Economist</i>. His chief works are: <i>Physics and
+  Politics</i>; <i>The English Constitution</i>; <i>Lombard Street</i>; and
+  <i>Studies, Literary, Biographic, and Economic</i>. He was a high
+  authority on economics, banking, and finance, and was often consulted by
+  public men.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:31%;">
+      <a href="images/image138.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image138.jpg"
+      alt="Baggala" title="Baggala" /></a>
+    Baggala
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Bag´gala</b>, a two-masted Arab boat, generally 200-250 tons
+  burden, used for trading in the Indian Ocean, Red Sea, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baggesen</b> (bag´e-sen), Jens, a Danish poet, who also wrote much
+  in German, born 1764, at Korsör, died at Hamburg, 1826. He led a rather
+  wandering and unsettled life, spending some time in England as well as in
+  France and Germany. <!-- Page 353 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page353"></a>[353]</span>He tried lyric, epic, and dramatic poetry,
+  but was most successful as a humorist and satirist. One of his best poems
+  is his famous song <i>There was a Time when I was very Little</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bagging</b> is the name of the textile material which is used in
+  the making of bags. Baltic hemp was the first material used for the
+  purpose, but now all kinds of fibres are used, though the majority of
+  bags are made of jute fibre. The style of the bagging used depends,
+  naturally, upon the requirements of the bag; for the export of raw cotton
+  from the United States of America we find the coarsest of all
+  cotton-bagging used. When intended to carry grain, spices, sugar,
+  &amp;c., the bag must be made of closely-woven material. In many cases
+  bags to carry sugar are lined with paper.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baghelkand</b>, a tract of country in Central India, occupied by a
+  collection of native States (Rewah being the chief), under the
+  Governor-General's agent for Central India; area, 11,323 sq. miles. Pop.
+  1,772,574.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bagheria</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-g&#x101;´r&#x113;-a<span
+  class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a town of Sicily,
+  province of Palermo, 9 miles by railway from the city of Palermo. Pop.
+  21,212.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bagimont's Roll</b>, a rent-roll of Scotland, made up in 1275 by
+  <i>Baiamund</i> or <i>Boiamond</i> de Vicci, vulgarly called
+  <i>Bagimont</i>, who was sent from Rome by the Pope, in the reign of
+  Alexander III, to collect the tithe of all the church livings in Scotland
+  for an expedition to the Holy Land. It remained the statutory valuation,
+  according to which the benefices were taxed, till the Reformation. A copy
+  of it as it existed in the reign of James V is in the Advocates' Library,
+  Edinburgh.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bagirmi</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-gir´m&#x113;), or <b>Baghermi</b>, a
+  Mohammedan Negro State in Central Africa, situated to the south-east of
+  Lake Tchad. It is mostly a plain; has an area of about 20,000 sq. miles,
+  and about 100,000 inhabitants. The people are industrious, and fairly
+  civilized. The country is in the French sphere of influence, but the
+  people are still under a native ruler.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bagnara</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-nyä´ra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a seaport near the <span
+  class="scac">S.W.</span> extremity of Italy. Pop. 11,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bagnères de Bigorre</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n-y&#x101;r d&#x117; b&#x113;-gorr), a
+  watering-place, France, department Hautes-Pyrénées, on the left bank of
+  the Adour. It owes its chief celebrity to its sulphurous and saline
+  baths. The springs were known to and used by the Romans. The site is one
+  of the most romantic in the Pyrénées, and the town is well built and well
+  provided with accommodation for visitors. Pop. 8455.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bagnères de Luchon</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n-y&#x101;r d&#x117; lu-sh&#x14D;n), a
+  town, France, department Haute-Garonne, in a picturesque valley
+  surrounded by wooded hills, one of the principal watering-places of the
+  Pyrénées, having sulphurous thermal waters, beneficial in rheumatic
+  complaints. There is a large bathing establishment, and a large and
+  splendid casino building, comprising a theatre, concert and ball rooms,
+  &amp;c. Resident pop. 4000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bagni</b> (bän´y&#x113;), Italian for 'baths', a name in Italy for
+  various places which possess natural baths or thermal springs, with some
+  designation added to mark the particular locality. <i>Bagni di Lucca</i>,
+  in the province of Lucca, and about 13 miles north-east of the city of
+  Lucca, is one of the most frequented of these bathing-places, its waters
+  being recommended against gout, rheumatism, affections of the skin,
+  &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bagpipe</b>, a musical wind-instrument of very great antiquity,
+  having been used among the ancient Greeks, and being a favourite
+  instrument over Europe generally in the fifteenth century. It still
+  continues in use among the country people of Poland, Italy, the south of
+  France, and in Scotland and Ireland. Though now often regarded as the
+  national instrument of Scotland, especially Celtic Scotland, it is only
+  Scottish by adoption, being introduced into that country from England. It
+  consists of a leathern bag, which receives the air from the mouth, or
+  from bellows; and of pipes, into which the air is pressed from the bag by
+  the performer's elbow. In the common or Highland form, one pipe (called
+  the <i>chanter</i>) plays the melody; of the three others (called
+  <i>drones</i>) two are in unison with the lowest <i>A</i> of the chanter,
+  and the third and longest an octave lower, the sound being produced by
+  means of reeds. The chanter has eight holes, which the performer stops
+  and opens at pleasure, but the scale is imperfect and the tone harsh. The
+  Highland bagpipe is a powerful instrument, and calls for great exertion
+  of the lungs in order that the air may be supplied in sufficient
+  quantity. There are several other species of bagpipes, as the soft and
+  melodious Irish bagpipe, supplied with wind by a bellows, and having
+  several keyed drones and a keyed chanter; the old English bagpipe (now no
+  longer used); the Italian bagpipe, a very rude instrument, &amp;c. The
+  Irish bagpipe is, musically speaking, the most perfect of
+  all.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Sir J.&nbsp;G. Dalyell,
+  <i>Musical Memoirs of Scotland</i>; E. de Bricqueville, <i>Les
+  Musettes</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bagration</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>g-rä´ty&#x14D;n), Peter, Prince,
+  distinguished Russian general, descended from a noble Georgian family. He
+  was born in 1765, entered the Russian army in 1782, and henceforth was
+  constantly engaged in active service, distinguishing himself in many
+  actions and gradually rising in military rank. He fought in Poland, in
+  Italy, and against the Turks, was engaged in the battles of Austerlitz,
+  Eylau, and Friedland, and at last was mortally wounded at the battle of
+  Borodino, Sept., 1812.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bagshot-sand</b>, in geology, the collective name <!-- Page 354
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page354"></a>[354]</span>for a series
+  of sands of the Eocene age, occupying extensive tracts round Bagshot, in
+  Surrey, and in the New Forest, Hampshire, the whole reposing on the
+  London-clay; generally devoid of fossils.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bagster</b>, Samuel, publisher, founder of the firm of Bagster
+  &amp; Sons, celebrated for their bibles, was born in 1772, and died in
+  1851. He began business as a London bookseller in 1794, and soon turned
+  his attention to the publication of bibles, bringing out a Hebrew bible,
+  the <i>Septuagint</i> (Greek) version, and the English version, with
+  60,000 parallel references, followed by his great polyglot bible, which
+  in its final form showed eight languages at the opening of the volume.
+  Separate versions in different languages were also brought out, with
+  various other aids to the study of Scripture; a polyglot <i>Book of
+  Common Prayer</i>, in eight languages; &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baha´dur Shah</b>, the last of the Grand Moguls of India, a
+  descendant of Tamerlane. In 1857, during the Indian Mutiny, the
+  Mahommedans, who wished to restore the Empire of the Moguls, placed him,
+  then a very old man, at the head of the movement in Delhi; but the city
+  was soon retaken by the British, and the Emperor was banished to Rangoon,
+  where he died in 1862.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baha´ma Islands</b>, or <b>Lucayos</b>, a group of islands in the
+  West Indies, forming a colony belonging to Britain, lying <span
+  class="scac">N.E.</span> of Cuba and <span class="scac">S.E.</span> of
+  the coast of Florida, the Gulf Stream passing between them and the
+  mainland. They extend a distance of upwards of 600 miles, and are said to
+  be twenty-nine in number, besides keys and rocks innumerable. The
+  principal islands are Grand Bahama, Great and Little Abaco, Andros
+  Islands, New Providence, Eleuthera, San Salvador, Great Exuma, Watling
+  Island, Long Island, Crooked Island, Acklin Island, Mariguana Island,
+  Grand Inagua. Of the whole group about twenty are inhabited, the most
+  populous being New Providence, which contains the capital, Nassau; the
+  largest being Andros, 100 miles long, 20 to 40 broad. They are low and
+  flat, and have in many parts extensive forests. Total area, 4400 sq.
+  miles. The soil is a thin but rich vegetable mould, and an important
+  product is pineapples, which form a large export (both canned and green).
+  Other fruits are also grown, with sisal hemp (a valuable export), cotton,
+  sugar, maize, yams, ground nuts, coco-nuts, &amp;c. Sponges are obtained
+  in large quantity, and are at present the chief export. Total exports
+  about £382,140 (1919). The Bahama Islands are a very favourite winter
+  resort for persons suffering from lung trouble. San Salvador, or Cat
+  Island, is generally believed to be the same as Guanahani, the land first
+  touched on by Columbus (12th Oct., 1492) on his first great voyage. The
+  first British settlement was made on New Providence towards the close of
+  the seventeenth century. A number of loyal Americans settled in the
+  islands after the War of Independence. Pop. 55,944, including 14,000
+  whites.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baha´walpur</b>, a town of India, capital of State of same name in
+  the Punjab, 2 miles from the Sutlej; surrounded by a mud wall and
+  containing the extensive palace of the Nawab. Pop. 18,700. The State has
+  an area of 15,000 sq. miles, of which 10,000 is desert, the only
+  cultivated lands lying along the Indus and Sutlej. Pop. 780,641.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bahia</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-&#x113;´a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>; formerly <b>St. Salvador</b>), a town
+  of Brazil, on the Bay of All Saints, State of Bahia. It consists of a
+  lower town, which is little more than an irregular, narrow, and dirty
+  street, stretching about 4 miles along the shore; and an upper town,
+  larger and much better built, with various outlying suburbs. The harbour
+  is one of the best in South America; and the export trade, chiefly in
+  sugar, cotton, coffee, tobacco, hides, piassava, and tapioca, is very
+  extensive. Pop. 348,000. The State, area 164,600 sq. miles, pop.
+  3,013,007, has much fertile land, both along the coast and in the
+  interior.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bahia Blanca</b>, a seaport of the Argentine Republic, on a bay of
+  same name opening into the Atlantic, about 350 miles south-west of Buenos
+  Ayres; it is a rising place connected by railway with the capital, and a
+  terminus of other railways from the interior. It carries on a
+  considerable trade directly with Europe, exporting mutton, wheat, &amp;c.
+  Pop. 75,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bahr</b> (bär), an Arabic word signifying sea or large river; as in
+  Bahr-el-Huleh, the Lake Merom in Palestine; Bahr-el-Abiad, the White
+  Nile, Bahr-el-Azrek, the Blue Nile, which together unite at Khartoum.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bahraich</b> (bä-r&#x101;ch´), a flourishing town of India, in
+  Oudh, Faizabad division. It carries on a good local trade, and has a
+  shrine that attracts many Hindu and Mohammedan pilgrims. It is the seat
+  of an American Methodist mission. Pop. 27,304.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bahrein</b> (bä´r&#x12B;n) <b>Islands</b>, a group of islands in
+  the Persian Gulf, in an indentation on the Arabian coast, since 1867
+  under British protection. The principal island, usually called Bahrein,
+  is about 27 miles in length and 10 in breadth. It is in general very flat
+  and low, and the soil is not very fertile except in a few places; but
+  irrigation is employed and excellent dates are grown. The principal town
+  is Menamah or Manama; pop. 30,000. The smaller island of Moharrek,
+  separated by a shallow strait 2 miles wide, contains the town of
+  Moharrek, the present seat of government; pop. 25,000. The Bahrein
+  Islands are chiefly noted for their pearl-fisheries, which were known to
+  the ancients, and which employ in the season from 2000 to 3000 boats <!--
+  Page 355 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page355"></a>[355]</span>manned by from 8 to 20 men each. Total
+  pop. estimated at 110,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bahr-el-Ghazal</b>, a large river of Central Africa, a western
+  tributary of the White Nile (or Bahr-el-Abiad). It flows through a very
+  swampy region, and is liable to inundations. The head of steam navigation
+  is Meshra-er-Rek. The river gives its name to a province of the
+  Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, yielding ivory, rubber, timber, &amp;c., and suited
+  for cotton growing.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baiadeer.</b> See <i>Bayadere</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baiæ</b> (b&#x12B;´&#x113;), an ancient Roman watering-place on the
+  coast of Campania, 10 miles west of Naples. Many of the wealthy Romans
+  had country houses at Baiæ, which was a favourite resort of Horace. Ruins
+  of temples, baths, and villas still attract the attention of
+  archæologists.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baikal</b> (b&#x12B;´ka<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l), a large freshwater lake in Eastern
+  Siberia, 360 miles long, and about 50 in extreme breadth, interspersed
+  with islands; in the line of the great Siberian Railway. It is surrounded
+  by rugged and lofty mountains; contains seals, and many fish,
+  particularly salmon, sturgeon, and pike. Its greatest depth is over 4000
+  feet. It receives the waters of the Upper Angara, Selenga, Barguzin,
+  &amp;c., and discharges its waters by the Lower Angara. It is frozen over
+  in winter.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baikie</b>, William Balfour, born in the Orkney Islands 1824, died
+  at Sierra Leone 1863. He joined the British navy, and was made surgeon
+  and naturalist of the Niger Expedition, 1854. He took the command on the
+  death of the senior officer, and explored the Niger for 250 miles.
+  Another expedition, which started in 1857, passed two years in exploring,
+  when the vessel was wrecked, and all the members, with the exception of
+  Baikie, returned to England. With none but native assistants he formed a
+  settlement at the confluence of the Benué and the Quorra, in which he was
+  ruler, teacher, and physician, and within a few years he opened the Niger
+  to navigation, made roads, and established a market.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bail</b>, the person or persons who procure the release of a
+  prisoner from custody by becoming surety for his appearance in court at
+  the proper time; also, the security given for the release of a prisoner
+  from custody. In the United States bail is a matter of right in all cases
+  where a sentence of death cannot be pronounced, and even in such a case
+  it may be allowed by one of the judges.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baildon</b>, an urban district in the W. Riding of Yorkshire, about
+  5 miles north of Bradford, with worsted manufactures, chemical works, and
+  quarries. Pop. (1921), 6527.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bailen</b> (b&#x12B;-len´), a town of Southern Spain, province
+  Jaen, with lead-mines. Pop. 8334.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bailey</b> (b&#x101;´li), the name given to the courts of a castle
+  formed by the spaces between the circuits of walls or defences which
+  surrounded the keep.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bailey</b>, or <b>Baily</b>, Nathaniel, an English lexicographer,
+  school teacher at Stepney, and author of several educational works. His
+  <i>Dictionary</i>, published in 1721, passed through a great many
+  editions.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bailey</b>, Philip James, English poet, born near Nottingham, 1816,
+  called to the bar 1840, died 1902. He published <i>Festus</i>, his best
+  work, in 1839; <i>The Mystic</i>, 1855; <i>The Age</i>, 1858; and <i>The
+  Universal Hymn</i>, 1867.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bailie</b>, or <b>Baillie</b>, a municipal officer or magistrate in
+  Scotland, corresponding to an <i>alderman</i> in England. The criminal
+  jurisdiction of the provost and bailies of royal burghs extends to
+  breaches of the peace, drunkenness, adulteration of articles of diet,
+  thefts not of an aggravated character, and other offences of a less
+  serious nature.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bailiff</b>, a civil officer or functionary, subordinate to someone
+  else. There are several kinds of bailiffs, whose offices widely differ,
+  but all agree in this, that the keeping or protection of something
+  belongs to them. In England the sheriff is the monarch's bailiff, and his
+  county is a bailiwick. The name is also applied to the chief magistrates
+  of some towns, to keepers of royal castles, as of Dover, to persons
+  having the conservation of the peace in hundreds and in some special
+  jurisdictions, as Westminster, and to the returning officers in the same.
+  But the officials commonly designated by this name are the
+  <i>bailiffs</i> of sheriffs, or sheriffs' officers, who execute
+  processes, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bailleul</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-yeul), an ancient French town,
+  department of Nord, near the Belgian frontier, about 19 miles west of
+  Lille. Much fighting took place in its vicinity during the European War,
+  but it was not destroyed until the campaign of 1918. Pop. 12,828.&mdash;A
+  village of the same name in department Orne gave its name to the Baliol
+  family.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baillie</b>, Joanna, a Scottish authoress, born at Bothwell,
+  Lanarkshire, in 1762, died at Hampstead, 1851. She removed in early life
+  to London, where her brother, Matthew Baillie, was settled as a
+  physician. Here in 1798 she published her first work, entitled <i>A
+  Series of Plays</i>, in which she attempted to delineate the stronger
+  passions by making each passion the subject of a tragedy and a comedy.
+  The series was followed up by a second volume in 1802, and a third in
+  1812. A second series appeared in 1836, and a complete edition of her
+  whole dramatic works in 1850. She also published a volume of
+  miscellaneous poetry, including songs, in 1841. Her only plays performed
+  on the stage were a tragedy entitled the <i>Family Legend</i>, brought
+  out at Edinburgh under the patronage <!-- Page 356 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page356"></a>[356]</span>of Sir Walter Scott;
+  and <i>De Montfort</i>, brought out by John Kemble, who acted in it with
+  Mrs. Siddons.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baillie</b>, Matthew, <span class="scac">M.D.</span>, physician and
+  anatomist, brother of the preceding, was born 1761 at Shotts,
+  Lanarkshire, died at Cirencester, Gloucestershire, in 1823. In 1773 he
+  was sent to the University of Glasgow. He afterwards studied anatomy
+  under his maternal uncles, John and William Hunter, and entered Oxford,
+  where he graduated as <span class="scac">M.D.</span> In 1783 he succeeded
+  his uncle as lecturer on anatomy in London, where he acquired a high
+  reputation as a teacher and demonstrator, having also a large practice.
+  In 1810 he was appointed physician to George III. His work on <i>The
+  Morbid Anatomy of Some of the Most Important Parts of the Human Body</i>
+  gave him a European reputation.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baillie</b>, Robert, an eminent Scottish Presbyterian clergyman,
+  was born at Glasgow in 1599, died 1662. Though educated and ordained as
+  an Episcopalian, he resisted the attempt of Archbishop Laud to introduce
+  his <i>Book of Common Prayer</i> into Scotland, and joined the
+  Presbyterian party. In 1638 he represented the presbytery of Irvine in
+  the General Assembly at Glasgow, which dissolved Episcopacy in Scotland.
+  In 1640 he was selected to go to London, with other commissioners, to
+  draw up the accusation against Archbishop Laud. Of this, and almost all
+  the other proceedings of his public life, he has left a minute account in
+  his letters and journals, which form a most valuable collection for the
+  history of his time. In 1642 he was appointed professor of divinity at
+  Glasgow. He was a member of the Westminster Assembly of Divines, and
+  attended its sittings from 1643-6. After the Restoration, though made
+  principal of his college through Court patronage, he did not hesitate to
+  express his dissatisfaction with the reintroduction of Episcopacy.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baillie</b>, Robert, of Jerviswood, in Lanarkshire, a Scottish
+  patriot of the reign of Charles II. He brought himself into notice by
+  opposing the tyrannical measures of Archbishop Sharpe against the
+  Nonconformists, for which he was fined 6000 merks (or £500) and
+  imprisoned for four months. In 1683 he went to London in furtherance of a
+  scheme of emigration to South Carolina taken up by a number of Scottish
+  gentlemen, as being the only way of escaping the tyranny of the
+  Government. He became associated with Monmouth, Sydney, Russell, and the
+  rest of that party, and was charged with complicity in the Rye-house
+  plot. After a long imprisonment, during which vain attempts were made to
+  obtain evidence against him, he was brought before the Court of
+  Justiciary (23rd Dec., 1684), was found guilty, and condemned to be
+  executed that afternoon.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baillieston</b>, a town of Scotland, in Lanarkshire, a few miles
+  east of Glasgow, with extensive collieries, in which many of the
+  inhabitants are employed. Pop. 5500.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bailly</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-y&#x113;), Jean Sylvain, French
+  astronomer and statesman, born at Paris 1736. After some youthful essays
+  in verse, he was induced by Lacaille to devote himself to astronomy, and
+  on the death of the latter in 1753, being admitted to the Academy of
+  Sciences, he published a reduction of Lacaille's observations on the
+  zodiacal stars. In 1764 he competed ably but unsuccessfully for the
+  Academy prize offered for an essay upon Jupiter's satellites, Lagrange
+  being his opponent; and in 1771 he published a treatise on the light
+  reflected by these satellites. In the meantime he had won distinction as
+  a man of letters by his <i>Éloges</i> on Pierre Corneille, Leibnitz,
+  Molière, and others; and the same qualities of style shown by these were
+  maintained in his <i>History of Astronomy</i> (1775-87), his most
+  extensive work. In 1784 the French Academy elected him a member. The
+  revolution drew him into public life. Paris chose him, 12th May, 1789,
+  first deputy of the <i>tiers-état</i>, and in the Assembly itself he was
+  made first president, a post occupied by him on 20th June, 1789, in the
+  session of the Tennis Court, when the deputies swore never to separate
+  till they had given France a new constitution. As Mayor of Paris his
+  moderation and impartial enforcement of the law failed to commend
+  themselves to the people, and his forcible suppression of mob violence,
+  17th July, 1791, aroused a storm which led to his resignation and retreat
+  to Nantes. In 1793 he attempted to join Laplace at Melun, but was
+  recognized and sent to Paris, where he was condemned by the revolutionary
+  tribunal, and executed on 12th Nov.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bailment</b>, in law, is the delivery of a chattel or thing to a
+  person in trust, either for the use of the bailer or person delivering,
+  or for that of the bailee or person to whom it is delivered. A bailment
+  always supposes the subject to be delivered only for a limited time, at
+  the expiration of which it must be re-delivered to the bailer, the
+  responsibility of the bailee being dependent, in some degree, upon the
+  contract on which the bailment is made. Pledging and letting for hire are
+  species of bailment. <i>Agistment</i>, or the taking in of cattle or live
+  stock to feed at a rate of so much per head, is a contract of
+  bailment.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baily</b>, Edward Hodges, an English sculptor, born at Bristol
+  1788, died at London 1867. He became a pupil of Flaxman in 1807, gained
+  the Academy Gold Medal in 1811, and was elected <span
+  class="scac">R.A.</span> in 1821. Principal works: <i>Eve at the
+  Fountain</i>, <i>Eve Listening to the Voice</i>, <i>Maternal
+  Affection</i>, <i>Girl Preparing for the Bath</i>, <i>The Graces</i>,
+  &amp;c. The bas-reliefs on the south side of the Marble <!-- Page 357
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page357"></a>[357]</span>Arch, Hyde
+  Park, the statue of Nelson on the Trafalgar Square monument, and other
+  public works, were by him.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baily</b>, Francis, astronomer, born in Berkshire 1774; settled in
+  London as a stockbroker in 1802. While thus actively engaged he published
+  <i>Tables for the Purchasing and Renewing of Leases</i>, <i>The Doctrine
+  of Interest and Annuities</i>, <i>The Doctrine of Life Annuities and
+  Assurances</i>, and an epitome of universal history. On retiring from
+  business with an ample fortune in 1825 he turned his attention to
+  astronomy, became one of the founders of the Astronomical Society,
+  contributed to its <i>Transactions</i>, and in 1835 published a life of
+  Flamsteed. He died in 1844.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baily's Beads</b>, a phenomenon attending eclipses of the sun, the
+  unobscured edge of which appears discontinuous and broken immediately
+  before and after the moment of complete obscuration. It is classed as an
+  effect of irradiation, and is caused by the sun shining through the
+  depressions between the lunar mountains.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bain</b>, Alexander, Scottish philosopher and educationalist, was
+  born at Aberdeen in 1818. He was educated at Marischal College (then a
+  separate university), Aberdeen; was for some years a deputy professor in
+  the university; subsequently held official posts in London; and in 1860
+  was appointed professor of logic and English in Aberdeen University, a
+  post which he held till his resignation in 1881. His most important works
+  are: <i>The Senses and the Intellect</i> (1855); <i>The Emotions and the
+  Will</i> (1859), together forming a complete exposition of the human
+  mind; <i>Mental and Moral Science</i> (1868); <i>Logic, Deductive and
+  Inductive</i> (1870); <i>Mind and Body</i> (1873); <i>Education as a
+  Science</i> (1879); <i>James Mill, a Biography</i> (1881); <i>John Stuart
+  Mill, a Criticism with Personal Recollections</i> (1882); besides an
+  <i>English Grammar</i>; <i>English Composition and Rhetoric</i>; an
+  <i>Autobiography</i>, &amp;c. Bain was at once grammarian, rhetorician,
+  educationalist, and logician, but his fame rests on his contributions to
+  psychology. He died in 1903.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bainsizza Plateau.</b> See <i>European War</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bairam</b> (b&#x12B;´ram), the Easter of the Mohammedans, which
+  follows immediately after the Ramadan or Lent (a month of fasting), and
+  lasts three days. This feast during the course of thirty-three years
+  makes a complete circuit of all the months and seasons, as the Turks
+  reckon by lunar years. Sixty days after this first great Bairam begins
+  the lesser Bairam. They are the only two feasts prescribed by the
+  Mohammedan religion.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baird</b>, Sir David, a distinguished British soldier, was born in
+  Aberdeenshire in 1757, and entered the army 1772. Having been promoted to
+  a lieutenancy in 1778 he sailed for India, distinguished himself as a
+  captain in the war against Hyder Ali, was wounded and taken prisoner, and
+  confined in the fortress of Seringapatam for nearly four years. He and
+  his fellow-prisoners were treated with great barbarity, and many of them
+  died or were put to death, but at last (in 1784) all that survived were
+  set at liberty. In 1787 he became major, and in 1791 joined the army
+  under Cornwallis as lieutenant-colonel, and was appointed to the command
+  of a brigade in the war against Tippoo. After much hard service he was
+  made a colonel in 1795, went in 1797 to the Cape of Good Hope as
+  brigadier-general, and in 1798, on his appointment as major-general,
+  returned to India. In 1799 he commanded the storming party at the assault
+  of Seringapatam, and, in requital, was presented with the State sword of
+  Tippoo Saib. Being appointed in 1800 to command an expedition to Egypt,
+  he landed at Kosseir in June, 1801, crossed the desert, and, embarking on
+  the Nile, descended to Cairo, and thence to Alexandria, which he reached
+  a few days before it surrendered to General Hutchinson. Next year he
+  returned to India, but being soon after superseded by Sir Arthur
+  Wellesley (Wellington), he sailed for Britain, where he was knighted and
+  made <span class="scac">K.B.</span> With the rank of lieutenant-general
+  he commanded an expedition in 1805 to the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1806,
+  after defeating the Dutch, he received the surrender of the colony. He
+  commanded a division at the siege of Copenhagen, and after a short period
+  of service in Ireland sailed with 10,000 men for Corunna, where he formed
+  a junction with Sir John Moore. He commanded the first division of
+  Moore's army, and in the battle of Corunna lost his left arm. By the
+  death of Sir John Moore, Sir David succeeded to the chief command,
+  receiving for the fourth time the thanks of Parliament, and a baronetcy.
+  In 1814 he was made a general. He died in 1829.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baird</b>, Spencer Fullerton, American naturalist, born 1823, died
+  1887. From 1850 to 1878 he was assistant secretary, and then became
+  secretary, of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and was also chief
+  Government commissioner of fish and fisheries. He wrote much on natural
+  history, his chief works being <i>The Birds of North America</i> (in
+  conjunction with John Cassin), <i>The Mammals of North America</i>,
+  <i>Review of American Birds in the Smithsonian Institution</i>, and (with
+  Messrs. Brewer and Ridgeway) <i>History of North American Birds</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baireuth</b> (b&#x12B;´roit), a well-built and pleasantly-situated
+  town of Bavaria, on the Red Main, 41 miles north-east of Nürnberg. The
+  principal edifices, besides churches, are the old and the new palace, the
+  opera-house, the gymnasium, and the national theatre, constructed after
+  the design of the composer Wagner, and opened in <!-- Page 358 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page358"></a>[358]</span>1876 with a grand
+  performance of his tetralogy of the <i>Nibelungen Ring</i>. Industries:
+  cotton-spinning, sugar-refining, musical instruments, sewing-machines,
+  leather, brewing, &amp;c. There is a monument to Jean Paul F. Richter,
+  who died here. Pop. 34,547.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baius</b>, or <b>De Bay</b>, Michael, Catholic theologian, was born
+  1513, in Hainaut, educated at Louvain, made professor of theology there
+  in 1552, and chosen a member of the Council of Trent in 1563. Leaving the
+  scholastic method, he founded systematic theology directly upon the Bible
+  and the Christian fathers, of whom he particularly followed St.
+  Augustine. His doctrines of original sin and of salvation by grace led to
+  his persecution as a heretic by the old Scotists, and the Jesuits, who
+  succeeded in obtaining a Papal bull in 1567, condemning the doctrines
+  imputed to him. Baius, however, remained in the possession of his
+  dignities, was appointed in 1575 Chancellor of Louvain University; and
+  the King of Spain even conferred upon him the office of
+  Inquisitor-General in the Netherlands. He died in 1589. His Augustinian
+  views descended to the Jansenists, while his doctrine of pure undivided
+  love to God formed the staple of Quietism. His system is called
+  <i>Baianism</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baize</b>, a sort of coarse woollen fabric with a rough nap, now
+  generally used for linings, and mostly green or red in colour.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baja</b> (bä´ya<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a market town of Hungary, district of
+  Bacs, on the Danube, with a trade in grain and wine, and a large annual
+  hog fair. Pop. 20,361.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bajaderes.</b> See <i>Bayaderes</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bajazet</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ya<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-zet´), or <b>Bayezid, I</b>, Turkish
+  emperor, who, in 1389, having strangled his brother Jacob, succeeded his
+  father Murad or Amurath, who fell in the battle of Kossovo while fighting
+  against the Serbians. From the rapidity of his conquests he received the
+  name of <i>Ilderim</i>, the Lightning. In three years he overcame
+  Bulgaria, part of Serbia, Macedonia, Thessaly, and the States of Asia
+  Minor, and besieged Constantinople for ten years, defeating Sigismund and
+  the allied Hungarians, Poles, and French in 1395. The attack of Timur
+  (Tamerlane) on Natolia, in 1400, saved the Greek Empire, Bajazet being
+  defeated and taken prisoner by him near Ancyra, Galatia, 1402. The story
+  of his being carried about in a cage by Timur is improbable; but Bajazet
+  died, in 1409, in Timur's camp, in Caramania. His successor was Soliman
+  I.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bajazet II</b> succeeded his father, Mohammed II, Sultan of the
+  Turks, in 1481. He increased the Turkish Empire by conquests on the <span
+  class="scac">N.W.</span> and in the <span class="scac">E.</span>, took
+  Lepanto, Modon, and Durazzo in a war against the Venetians, and ravaged
+  the coasts of the Christian States on the Mediterranean, to revenge the
+  expulsion of the Moors from Spain. Having abdicated in favour of his
+  younger son Selim, he died on his way to a residence near Adrianople in
+  1513. He did much for the improvement of his empire and the promotion of
+  the sciences.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bajimont's Roll.</b> See <i>Bagimonts Roll</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bajocco</b>, or <b>Baiocco</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-yok´o), was a copper coin in the Papal
+  States, the hundredth part of a scudo, or rather more than a halfpenny.
+  The name was also given in Sicily to the Neapolitan <i>grano</i>, the
+  hundredth part of the ducato (3<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bajus.</b> See <i>Baius</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bajza</b> (boi´za), Anton, Hungarian lyric poet, historian, and
+  critic, born 1804, died 1858. As contributor to and editor of various
+  periodicals he played an important part in the development of modern
+  Hungarian literature and drama. A volume of his poems, of high merit, was
+  published in 1835. He also translated a collection of foreign dramas, and
+  edited a series of historical works.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bakalaha´ri</b>, a Bechuana tribe inhabiting the Kalahari Desert,
+  S. Africa.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bak´arganj</b>, a maritime district and town in Eastern Bengal;
+  chief rivers: Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna. Area, 3649 sq. miles. Pop.
+  2,292,000. The town now lies in ruins. Pop. 7000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bakau</b> (bä´kou), a town of Roumania, on the Bistritza. Pop.
+  16,187.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bakchisarai</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>k-chi-sa<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-r&#x12B;´), or <b>Bagtcheserai</b>
+  (Bakh-chi-Sarai) (bäg-che-se-r&#x12B;; Turk., 'Garden Palace'), an
+  ancient town of Russia, in the Crimea, picturesquely situated at the
+  bottom of a narrow valley, hemmed in by precipices. It contains the
+  palace of the ancient Crimean khans, restored by the Russian Government.
+  Pop. 15,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baker</b>, Sir Richard, an English historian, born in Kent in 1568,
+  educated at Oxford, knighted in 1603 by James I, and in 1620 appointed
+  High Sheriff of Oxfordshire, where he had estates. Having given security
+  for a debt incurred by his wife's family, he was thrown into Fleet
+  Prison, where, after remaining some years, he died in 1645. During his
+  imprisonment he wrote some devotional books and his <i>Chronicle of the
+  Kings of England</i>, first published in 1641, and afterwards continued
+  by Edward Phillips, the nephew of Milton, and others&mdash;a work of
+  great popularity in its day, though of no permanent value.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baker</b>, Sir Samuel White, a distinguished English traveller,
+  born in 1821. He resided some years in Ceylon; in 1861 began his African
+  travels, which lasted several years, in the Upper Nile regions, and
+  resulted, among other discoveries, in that of Albert Nyanza Lake in 1864,
+  and of the exit of the White Nile from it. In <!-- Page 359 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page359"></a>[359]</span>Africa he encountered
+  Speke and Grant after their discovery of the Victoria Nyanza. On his
+  return home he was received with great honour and was knighted. In 1869
+  he returned to Africa as head of an expedition sent by the Khedive of
+  Egypt to annex and open up to trade a large part of the newly-explored
+  country, being raised to the dignity of pasha. He returned in 1873,
+  having finished his work, and was succeeded by the celebrated Gordon. His
+  writings include: <i>The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon</i>; <i>Eight
+  Years' Wanderings in Ceylon</i>; <i>The Albert Nyanza</i>; <i>The Nile
+  Tributaries of Abyssinia</i>; <i>Ismailia: a Narrative of the Expedition
+  to Central Africa</i>; <i>Cyprus as I saw it in 1879</i>; also, <i>Cast
+  up by the Sea</i>, a story published in 1868. He died 30th Dec.,
+  1893.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baker</b>, Thomas, antiquary, born 1656, educated at Cambridge. As
+  a non-juror he lost his living at Long-Newton in 1690, and was compelled
+  to resign his fellowship on the accession of George I, but continued to
+  reside at St. John's College till his death in 1740. His <i>Reflections
+  on Learning</i> (1709-10) went through seven editions. He left in MS.
+  forty-two folio volumes of an <i>Athenæ Cantabrigienses</i>, from which a
+  <i>History of St. John's College</i> was edited by Professor Mayor in
+  1869.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bakewell</b>, an ancient market town, England, county of Derby,
+  between Buxton and Matlock, possessing a fine Gothic church, a chalybeate
+  spring, a cotton-mill erected by Arkwright, and a large marble-cutting
+  industry. Pop. 3062.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bakewell</b>, Robert, an English agriculturist, celebrated for his
+  improvements in the breeding of sheep, cattle, and horses, was born in
+  Leicestershire in 1725, and died in 1795. He commenced experiments in
+  breeding sheep, about 1755, upon his father's farm at Dishley, and for
+  fifty years devoted himself to the acquisition and diffusion of
+  information upon the subject. He was the originator of the new
+  Leicestershire breed of sheep, which has since been so well known, and
+  also of a breed of cattle very famous in their day. The demand for his
+  rams increased so considerably, that whereas he let them for the season
+  at £16 per head in 1755, by 1789 they were hired at 6000 guineas. Various
+  improvements in farm management were also introduced by him.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bakhmut.</b> See <i>Bachmut</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bakhuisen.</b> See <i>Backhuysen</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baking</b>, a term meaning 'to cook by dry heat', and primarily
+  applied to the baking of bread. A common application of the term is to a
+  mode of cooking food in a close oven, baking in this case being opposed
+  to roasting or broiling, in which an open fire is used. The oven should
+  not be too close, but ought to be properly ventilated. Baking is also
+  applied to the hardening of earthenware or porcelain by fire. See
+  <i>Bread</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baking Powder</b>, a mixture of bicarbonate of soda and tartaric
+  acid, usually with some flour added. The water of the dough causes the
+  liberation of carbonic acid, which makes the bread 'rise'.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bakony</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-kon´y&#x117;) <b>Wald</b>, a thickly
+  wooded mountain range dividing the Hungarian plains, famous for the herds
+  of swine fed on its mast.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baksheesh´</b>, an Eastern term for a present or gratuity. A demand
+  for baksheesh meets travellers in the East everywhere from Turkey and
+  Egypt to Hindustan.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baku</b> (bä-kö´), a Russian port on the western shore of the
+  Caspian, occupying part of the Peninsula of Apsheron. The naphtha or
+  petroleum springs of Baku have long been known; and the Field of Fire, so
+  called from emitting inflammable gases, has long been a place of
+  pilgrimage with the Guebres or Fire-worshippers. From the development of
+  the petroleum industry, Baku has greatly increased, and is now a large
+  and flourishing town. About 1500 oil-wells are in operation, producing
+  immense quantities of petroleum (6,448,000 tons in 1917), much of which
+  is led direct in pipes from the wells to the refineries in Baku, and it
+  is intended to lay a pipe for its conveyance all the way to the Black Sea
+  at Batoum, which is already connected with Baku by railway. Some of the
+  wells have had such an outflow of oil as to be unmanageable, and the Baku
+  petroleum now competes successfully with any other in the markets of the
+  world. Baku, formerly the station of the Caspian fleet, is strongly
+  fortified, and has a large shipping trade. The district of Baku lies
+  within the limits of the new Republic of Azerbaijan. Pop. 237,000; pop.
+  of the province, 1,119,600.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baku´nin</b>, Michael, Russian anarchist, the founder of Nihilism,
+  born 1814 of a rich and noble family, entered the army, but threw up his
+  commission after two years' service, and studied philosophy at Moscow,
+  with his friends Hertzen, Turgeniev, Granovski (historian), and Byelinski
+  (critic). Having adopted Hegel's system as the basis of a new revolution,
+  he went in 1841 to Berlin, and thence to Dresden, Geneva, and Paris, as
+  the propagandist of anarchism. Wherever he went he caused disturbance,
+  and after undergoing imprisonment in various States, was handed over to
+  Russia in 1851 by Austria, imprisoned for five years, and finally sent to
+  Siberia. Escaping thence through Japan, he joined Hertzen in London on
+  the staff of the <i>Kolokol</i>. His extreme views, however, ruined the
+  paper and led to a quarrel with Marx and the Internationale; and having
+  fallen into disrepute with his own party in Russia, he died <!-- Page 360
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page360"></a>[360]</span>suddenly and
+  almost alone at Berne in 1878. He demanded the entire abolition of the
+  State as a State, the absolute equalization of individuals, and the
+  extirpation of hereditary rights and of religion, his conception of the
+  next stage of social progress being purely negative and annihilatory.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bala</b>, a lake 4 miles long, and an urban district of N. Wales,
+  in Merionethshire. Pop. 1408.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balaam</b> (b&#x101;'lam), a prophet, invited by Balak, King of
+  Moab, to curse the Israelites, but compelled by miracle to bless them
+  instead (<i>Num.</i> xxii-xxiv). In another account he is represented as
+  aiding in the perversion of the Israelites to the worship of Baal, and as
+  being, therefore, slain in the Midianitish war (<i>Num.</i> xxxi;
+  <i>Josh.</i> xiii). He is the subject of many rabbinical fables, the
+  Targumists and Talmudists regarding him, as most of the fathers did, in
+  the light of an impious and godless man.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bala Beds</b>, or <b>Bala Series</b>, a deposit of Upper Ordovician
+  Age, named from the Bala district, North Wales, consisting of slates,
+  grits, sandstones, and limestones, there being two limestones separated
+  by sandy and slaty rocks about 1400 feet thick. They contain trilobites
+  of many species, and other marine fossils. The lower Bala limestone (25
+  feet thick) may be traced over a large area in North Wales. See
+  <i>Caradoc Series</i>, <i>Ordovician System</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balachong´</b>, an Oriental condiment, composed of small fishes, or
+  shrimps, pounded up with salt and spices and then dried.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balæ´na</b>, the genus which includes the Greenland or right whale,
+  type of the family Balænidæ, or whale-bone whales.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balæ´niceps</b> ('whale-head'), a genus of wading birds belonging
+  to the Sudan, intermediate between the herons and storks, and
+  characterized by an enormous bill, broad and swollen, giving the only
+  known species (<i>B. rex</i>), also called shoe-bird, a peculiar
+  appearance. It feeds on fishes, water-snakes, carrion, &amp;c., and makes
+  its nest in reeds or grass adjoining water. The bill is yellow, blotched
+  with dark-brown, the general colour of the plumage dusky-grey, the head,
+  neck, and breast slaty, the legs blackish.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balænop´tera.</b> See <i>Rorqual</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balagarh</b> (bä-lä-g<i>a</i>r'), town of Hindustan, in the Punjab.
+  Pop. 11,233.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balaghat´</b>, a district of India, in the Central Provinces,
+  Nagpur division; area, 3146 sq. miles; capital, Burha, a small place. The
+  surface is diversified, comprising extensive uplands as well as lowlands;
+  forests are extensive, and a comparatively small part of the area is
+  under cultivation, rice being the chief crop. Iron exists in considerable
+  quantities, and it is worked in a small way; gold is also worked. Pop.
+  330,000, almost entirely rural.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balaguer</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-la<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-g&#x101;r'), Victor, Spanish author and
+  politician, important writer in the Catalonian dialect, born 1824, died
+  1901. Born at Barcelona, he studied law there, and, becoming learned in
+  Catalonian history, was appointed archivist and soon after professor of
+  history. In 1869 he entered the Cortes as a Liberal; in 1872 was Minister
+  of Public Works; from 1886 to 1888 Colonial Minister. He wrote much both
+  in prose and verse, his prose comprising historical works, novels,
+  &amp;c., his verse lyrics, ballads, tragedies, odes, &amp;c. His
+  tragedies were partly on subjects taken from Catalonian history, partly
+  on subjects connected with Greek and Roman history or literature. Among
+  his lyrical and other poems are: <i>El Trovador de Montserrat</i>;
+  <i>Primavera de Ultimo Trovador Catalan</i>; <i>Poesias Completas</i>
+  (1874); <i>Obras Poeticas</i> (1880). <i>Don Juan de Serrallonga</i> is
+  the most popular of his novels. Among other works of his are: <i>Historia
+  Politica y Literaria de los Trovadores</i>; <i>Historia de Cataluña</i>;
+  <i>Los Pirineos</i>; <i>Cristobal Colon</i>; <i>Estudios Historicos y
+  Politicos</i>; <i>Historias y Tradiciones</i>; <i>Instituciones y Reyes
+  de Aragon</i>. As a poet he was imitative, reminding us of Quintana,
+  Zorilla, and Byron.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balaklava</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-la<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-klä'va), a small seaport in the Crimea,
+  8 miles <span class="scac">S.S.E.</span> Sevastopol. In the Crimean war
+  it was captured by the British, who used the harbour as a base of
+  supplies. The famous battle of Balaklava was fought some distance to the
+  north of the seaport, on 25th Oct., 1854. The Russians brought a force of
+  25,000 men against the allies, a much larger force than they had to
+  encounter, and the chief incidents in the battle were as follows: The
+  Russians captured a series of positions occupied by the Turks in front of
+  the British position; a Russian cavalry charge was repulsed by the 93rd
+  Highlanders; a great mass of Russian cavalry was defeated by a charge of
+  British heavy cavalry; the British light cavalry brigade charged and took
+  a Russian battery, and put to flight the cavalry behind it, but were
+  compelled by overpowering force to retreat with heavy loss, their retreat
+  being covered by a brilliant charge of the French. The celebrated charge
+  of the light brigade, or of the 'six hundred', though a brilliant feat of
+  arms, was made under an erroneous interpretation of orders; that of the
+  heavy brigade was equally glorious, and contributed far more to the final
+  repulse of the enemy.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balako´vo</b>, a river-port of South-Eastern Russia, on the left
+  bank of the Volga, government of Samara, with a very important trade in
+  grain. Pop. 16,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balalai´ka</b>, a musical instrument of very ancient Slavonic
+  origin, common among the Russians and Tartars. It is a narrow, shallow
+  guitar with only two strings. <!-- Page 361 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page361"></a>[361]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Bal´ance</b>, an instrument for determining the relative weights of
+  bodies. Balances are of various forms; in that most commonly used a
+  horizontal beam rests so as to turn easily upon a fulcrum in the middle.
+  From the extremities of the beam, called the centres of suspension, hang
+  the scales; and a slender metal pointer between them, and in front of the
+  fulcrum, indicates when the beam is level. The characteristics of a good
+  balance are: (1) that the beam should rest in a horizontal position when
+  the scales are either empty or loaded with equal weights; (2) that a very
+  small addition of weight put into either scale should cause the beam to
+  deviate from the level, which property is denominated the sensibility of
+  the balance; (3) that when the beam is deflected from the horizontal
+  position by inequality of the weights on the scales, it should have a
+  tendency speedily to restore itself and come to rest in the level, which
+  property is called the stability of the balance. To secure these
+  qualities the arms of the beam should be exactly similar, equal in weight
+  and length, and as long as possible; the centres of gravity and
+  suspension should be in one straight line, and the fulcrum immediately
+  above the centre of gravity; and the fulcrum and the centres of
+  suspension should cause as little friction as possible. The fulcrum ought
+  to be a knife-edge; and if the balance requires to be very delicate, the
+  centres of suspension ought to be knife-edges also. If the balance has no
+  tendency to one position more than another, when the scales are either
+  loaded, empty, or off altogether, it is proof that the centre of gravity
+  and the fulcrum coincide, and the remedy is to lower the centre of
+  gravity. If the beam is disturbed by a small addition of weight to either
+  scale, and exhibits no tendency to resume the horizontal position, we may
+  infer that the centre of gravity is above the fulcrum. If it requires a
+  considerable excess of weight to deflect the beam from the level, we may
+  infer either that there is too much friction at the fulcrum, or that the
+  centre of gravity is too low. If two weights are found to be in
+  equipoise, one being in each scale, and if, when that which is in one
+  scale is put into the other, there is no longer equilibrium, then we may
+  infer that the arms of the beam are of unequal lengths. For purposes of
+  accuracy, balances have occasionally means of raising or depressing the
+  centre of gravity, of regulating the length of the arms, &amp;c., and the
+  whole apparatus is usually enclosed in a glass case, to prevent the heat
+  from expanding the arms unequally, or currents of air from disturbing the
+  equilibrium. A refinement in weighing is obtained by the use of the
+  milligram rider, a short bent wire which can be moved along a scale
+  engraved on the beam.</p>
+
+  <p>Of the other forms of balance, the Roman balance, or steel-yard,
+  consists of a lever moving freely upon a suspended fulcrum, the shorter
+  arm of the lever having a scale or pan attached to it, and the longer
+  arm, along which slides a weight, being graduated to indicate quantities.
+  It is commonly used for weighing loaded carts, for luggage at railway
+  stations, &amp;c. A variety of this, the Danish balance, has the weight
+  fixed at the end of the lever, the fulcrum being movable along the
+  graduated index. The spring-balance registers the weight of an article by
+  the extent to which it draws out or compresses a spiral spring. It is of
+  service where a high degree of exactness is not required, as in its
+  domestic use, and it also finds application in the dynamometer for
+  measuring horse-power of machinery. An extremely ingenious balance, used
+  in the Mint and the Bank of England, for weighing 'blanks' and
+  sovereigns, distributes them automatically into three compartments
+  according as they are light, heavy, or the exact weight. The Roberval
+  balance is a form in common use for weighing letters and
+  parcels.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: E.&nbsp;A. Brauer, <i>The
+  Construction of the Balance</i>; E. Nicholson, <i>Men and Measures: a
+  history of weights and measures, ancient and modern</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balance of Power</b>, a political principle which first came to be
+  recognized in modern Europe in the sixteenth century, though it appears
+  to have been also acted on by the Greeks in ancient times, in preserving
+  the relations between their different States. The object in maintaining
+  the balance of power is to secure the general independence of nations as
+  a whole, by preventing the aggressive attempts of individual States to
+  extend their territory and sway at the expense of weaker countries. The
+  first European monarch whose ambitious designs induced a combination of
+  other States to counteract them was the Emperor Charles V, similar
+  coalitions being formed in the end of the seventeenth century, when the
+  ambition of Louis XIV excited the fears of Europe, and a century later
+  against the exorbitant power and aggressive schemes of the first
+  Napoleon. Since that time we have the instance of the Crimean War,
+  entered into to check the ambition of Russia. Of late years there has
+  been a marked tendency among British politicians to decry and impugn the
+  principle of the balance of power, as calculated only to propagate a
+  system of mutual hostility, and retard the cause of progress, by the
+  expenditure both of money and life thus occasioned. An equilibrium
+  between the various Powers is, of course, essential to the very existence
+  of international law. The war of 1914-8 has proved to the world that in
+  the absence of any central authority neither treaties nor signatures
+  could prevent a State sufficiently powerful from ignoring <!-- Page 362
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page362"></a>[362]</span>the law and
+  acting solely according to its interests and ambitious designs. See
+  <i>Society of Nations</i>.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>:
+  Hume, <i>Essay on the Balance of Power</i>; Von Gentz, <i>Fragments on
+  the Balance of Power</i>; Professor L. Oppenheim, <i>International
+  Law</i>, vol. i; Vattel, <i>Le droit des gens</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balance of Trade</b>, the difference between the stated money
+  values of the exports and imports of a country. The balance is
+  erroneously said to be 'in favour' of a country when the value of the
+  exports is in excess of that of the imports, and 'against it' when the
+  imports are in excess of the exports. The phrases date from the days of
+  the mercantile system, the characteristic doctrine of which alleged the
+  desirability of regulating commerce with a view to amassing treasure by
+  exporting produce largely, importing little merchandise in return, and
+  receiving the balance in bullion. In certain conceivable political and
+  industrial conditions this may have had beneficial results; but its
+  importance was greatly overestimated, and the state of this balance came
+  to be regarded as an invariable criterion of the industrial condition of
+  a country. The false analogy of the successful merchant who gains more
+  than he spends became the basis of popular reasoning, the products of a
+  country being mistakenly identified with its exports, its consumption
+  with its importation. It is now generally recognized that if bullion be
+  exported from a country it is because it is at the time the cheapest
+  commodity available for export; and further, that there are certain
+  natural limits to its undue exportation, in that the increased scarcity
+  of money is attended with a fall in the money-value of other commodities,
+  which thus in turn become preferable objects of exportation, while
+  bullion flows back. The excess of the value of imports over that of
+  exports, which is regarded by some as an adverse and alarming symptom in
+  British trade, is in large part readily accounted for on the ground of
+  shipping receipts, insurance returns, interest on capital employed in
+  foreign trade, merchants' profits, and the income derived from foreign
+  investments.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:14%;">
+      <a href="images/image139.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image139.jpg"
+      alt="Balanus" title="Balanus" /></a>
+    Group of <i>Bal&#x103;nus tintinnab&#x16D;lum</i>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Bal´anus</b> ('acorn-shells'), a genus of sessile cirripeds, family
+  Balanidæ, of which colonies are to be found on rocks at low water, on
+  timbers, crustaceans, shells of mollusca, &amp;c. They differ from the
+  barnacles in having a symmetrical shell, and being destitute of a
+  flexible stalk. The shell consists of six plates, with an operculum of
+  four valves. They pass through a larval state, in which they are not
+  fixed, moving by means of swimming feet which disappear in the final
+  state. All the Balanidæ are hermaphrodite. A South American species
+  (<i>Bal&#x103;nus psitt&#x103;cus</i>) is eaten on the coast of Chile,
+  the <i>Bal&#x103;nus tintinnab&#x16D;lum</i> by the Chinese. The old
+  Roman epicures esteemed the larger species.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balapur´</b>, town of India, in Akola district, Berar, with strong
+  fort and fine pavilion of black stone. Pop. 10,500.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bal´as</b>, a name used to distinguish the rose-coloured species of
+  ruby from the ruby proper.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balasor´</b>, a seaport town, Hindustan, presidency of Bengal,
+  province of Orissa, head-quarters of a district and subdivision bearing
+  the same name. It carries on a considerable traffic with Calcutta. Pop.
+  21,362.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bala´ta</b>, a gum yielded by <i>Mim&#x16B;sops Balata</i>, a tree
+  growing abundantly in British, French, and Dutch Guiana, Honduras and
+  Brazil, obtained in a milky state by 'tapping' the tree, and hardening to
+  a substance like leather. Used for similar purposes to india-rubber, and
+  in the United States chewed as a masticatory.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bal´aton</b>, or <b>Plattensee</b>, a lake of Hungary, 55 miles
+  <span class="scac">S.W.</span> of Pesth; length, 50 miles; breadth, 3 to
+  10 miles; area, about 390 sq. miles. Of its thirty-two feeders the Szala
+  is the largest, and the lake communicates with the Danube by the Rivers
+  Sio and Sarviz. It abounds with a species of perch.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balbec.</b> See <i>Baalbek</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balbi</b>, Adrien, geographer and statistician, born at Venice in
+  1782. In 1808 his first work on geography, <i>Prospetto
+  Politico-Geografico</i>, procured his appointment as professor of
+  geography in the College of San Michele at Murano, and he became in 1811
+  professor of natural philosophy in the Lyceum at Fermo. In 1820 he
+  proceeded to Portugal, and collected there materials for his <i>Essai
+  Statistique sur le Royaume de Portugal et d'Algarve</i> and <i>Variétés
+  Politiques et Statistiques de la Monarchie Portugaise</i>, both published
+  in 1822 at Paris, where he resided till 1832. He then settled in Padua,
+  where he died in 1848. Balbi's admirable <i>Abrégé de Géographie</i> was
+  written at Paris, and translated into the principal European
+  languages.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balbi</b>, Gasp&#x101;ro, a Venetian dealer in precious stones,
+  born about the middle of the sixteenth century, who travelled first to
+  Aleppo and thence down the Euphrates and Tigris to the Malabar coast,
+  sailing finally for Pegu, where he remained for two years. His <i>Viaggio
+  all' Indie Orientale</i>, published on his return to Venice in 1590,
+  contains the earliest account of India beyond the Ganges.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balbo</b>, Ces&#x101;re, Italian author and statesman, born in 1789
+  at Turin. After holding one or two posts under the patronage of Napoleon,
+  he <!-- Page 363 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page363"></a>[363]</span>devoted himself to history, publishing a
+  history of Italy prior to the period of Charlemagne, a compendium of
+  Italian history, &amp;c. His <i>Speranze d'Italia</i> (1843), a statement
+  of the political condition of Italy, and of the practicable ideals to be
+  kept in view, gave him a wide reputation. He died in 1853.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balbo´a</b>, Vasco Nuñez de, one of the early Spanish adventurers
+  in the New World, born 1475. Having dissipated his fortune, he went to
+  America, and was at Darien with the expedition of Francisco de Enciso in
+  1510. An insurrection placed him at the head of the colony, but rumours
+  of a western ocean and of the wealth of Peru led him to cross the
+  isthmus. On 25th Sept., 1513, he saw for the first time the Pacific, and
+  after annexing it to Spain, and acquiring information about Peru,
+  returned to Darien. Here he found himself supplanted by a new governor,
+  Pedrarias Davila, with much consequent grievance on the one side, and
+  much jealousy on the other. Balboa submitted, however, and in the
+  following year was appointed Viceroy of the South Sea. Davila was
+  apparently reconciled to him, and gave him his daughter in marriage, but
+  shortly after, in 1517, had him beheaded on a charge of intent to rebel.
+  Pizarro, who afterwards completed the discovery of Peru, served under
+  Balboa.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balbriggan</b>, a seaport and favourite watering-place, Ireland,
+  county of Dublin; celebrated for its hosiery. Pop. 2273.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bal´cony</b>, in architecture, is a gallery projecting from the
+  outer wall of a building, supported by columns or brackets, and
+  surrounded by a balustrade. Balconies were not used in Greek and Roman
+  buildings, and in the East the roof of the house has for centuries served
+  similar purposes on a larger scale. Balconies properly so styled came
+  into fashion in Italy in the Middle Ages, and were introduced into
+  Britain in the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:31%;">
+      <a href="images/image140.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image140.jpg"
+      alt="Baldachin:" title="Baldachin:" /></a>
+    Baldachin: Church of St. Ambrogio, Milan
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Bal´dachin</b> (-kin; It. <i>baldachino</i>), a canopy or tent-like
+  covering of any material, either suspended from the roof, fastened to the
+  wall, or supported on pillars over altars, thrones, pulpits, beds,
+  portals, &amp;c. Portable baldachins of rich materials were formerly used
+  to shield the heads of dignitaries in processions, and are still so used
+  in the processions of the Roman Catholic Church, and in the East. The
+  enormous bronze baldachin designed by Bernini for Pope Urban VIII, and
+  placed over the tomb of the apostles in St. Peter's at Rome, is one of
+  the most famous, though surpassed in beauty by many in other European
+  cathedrals and churches.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balder</b>, or <b>Baldur</b>, a Scandinavian divinity, represented
+  as the son of Odin and Frigga, beautiful, wise, amiable, and beloved by
+  all the gods. His mother took an oath from every creature, and even from
+  every inanimate object, that they would not harm Balder, but omitted the
+  mistletoe. Balder was therefore deemed invulnerable, and the other gods
+  in sport flung stones and shot arrows at him without harming him. But the
+  evil god Loki fashioned an arrow from the mistletoe and got Balder's
+  blind brother H&#x14D;der to shoot it, himself guiding his aim. Balder
+  fell dead, pierced to the heart, to the deep grief of all the gods. He is
+  believed to be a personification of the brightness and beneficence of the
+  sun.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baldi</b>, Bernardino, mathematician, theologian, geographer,
+  historian, poet, &amp;c., born at Urbino 1533; studied at Padua; became
+  abbot of Guastalla. He knew upwards of twelve languages, and is said to
+  have written over a hundred works, most of which remain in MS. His works
+  include a poem on <i>Navigation</i>, various translations and
+  commentaries, <i>Lives of Celebrated Mathematicians</i>, &amp;c. He died
+  in 1617.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baldness</b>, loss of the hair, complete or partial, usually the
+  latter, and due to various causes. Most commonly it results as one of the
+  changes belonging to old age, due to wasting of the skin, hair-sacs,
+  &amp;c. It may occur as a result of some acute disease, or at an
+  unusually early age, without any such cause. In both the latter cases it
+  is due to defective nourishment of the hair, owing to lessened
+  circulation of the blood in <!-- Page 364 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page364"></a>[364]</span>the scalp. The best treatment for
+  preventing loss of hair seems to consist in such measures as bathing the
+  head with cold water and drying it by vigorous rubbing with a rough towel
+  and brushing it well with a hard brush. Various stimulating lotions are
+  also recommended, especially those containing cantharides. But probably
+  in most cases senile baldness is unpreventable. When extreme scurfiness
+  of the scalp accompanies loss of the hair, an ointment that will clear
+  away the scurf will prove beneficial.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baldovinet´ti</b>, Alessio, Florentine artist, born 1427. Few of
+  his works remain except a <i>Nativity</i> in the church of the
+  Annunziato, and two altarpieces in the gallery of the Uffizi and the
+  Academy of Arts, Florence. Died 1499. His portrait by himself is in the
+  gallery at Bergamo.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baldric</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>ld´rik), a broad belt formerly worn over
+  the right or left shoulder diagonally across the body, often highly
+  decorated and enriched with gems, and used not only to sustain the sword,
+  dagger, or horn, but also for purposes of ornament, and as a military or
+  heraldic symbol.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bal´dung</b>, Hans, or <b>Hans Grün</b> (grün), German painter and
+  wood engraver, born in Swabia 1470, died in Strasburg 1552. His work,
+  though inferior to Dürer's, possessed many of the same characteristics,
+  and on this account he has been sometimes considered a pupil of the
+  Nuremberg master. His principal paintings are the series of panels (of
+  the date 1516) over the altar in Freiburg Cathedral; others of his works
+  are to be found at Berlin, Colmar, and Basel. His numerous and often
+  fantastic engravings have the monogram H and B, with a small <span
+  class="scac">G</span> in the centre of the H.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baldwin I</b>, Emperor of Constantinople, founder of the
+  short-lived dynasty of Latin sovereigns of the Eastern Empire, was born
+  in 1172, and was hereditary Count of Flanders and Hainault. His courage
+  and conduct in the fourth crusade led to his unanimous election as
+  Emperor of the East after the capture of Constantinople by the French and
+  Venetians in 1204. In the absence of Baldwin's brother with a large part
+  of the army, the Greeks rose in revolt under the instigation of
+  Joannices, King of Bulgaria. Baldwin marched on Adrianople, but was taken
+  prisoner and died in captivity, 1205. Baldwin was succeeded by his
+  brother Henry.&mdash;<b>Baldwin II</b>, fifth and last Latin Emperor of
+  Constantinople, was born 1217. During his minority John de Brienne was
+  regent, but on his assuming the power himself the Empire fell to pieces.
+  In 1261 Constantinople was taken by the forces of Michael Palæologus, and
+  Baldwin retired to Italy, dying in 1270.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baldwin I</b>, King of Jerusalem, reigned 1100-18, having assumed
+  the title which his elder brother, Godfrey de Bouillon, had refused. He
+  subdued Cæsarea, Ashdod, Tripolis, and Acre.&mdash;<b>Baldwin II</b>, his
+  cousin and successor, reigned from 1118-31. During his reign the
+  reduction of Tyre and institution of the order of Templars took
+  place.&mdash;<b>Baldwin III</b>, King of Jerusalem from 1143 to 1162, was
+  son and successor of Foulques of Anjou, and the embodiment of the best
+  aspects of chivalry. After defeating Noureddin in 1152, and again in
+  1157, he was enabled to devote himself to the hopeless task of improving
+  the kingdom and establishing the Christian chivalry in the East. His
+  death in 1162 was almost immediately followed by the total collapse of
+  the kingdom.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baldwin</b>, James Mark, American philosopher, born in Columbia,
+  12th Jan., 1861. He was educated at Princeton College, Leipzig and Berlin
+  Universities; was instructor of German and French at Princeton College,
+  1885-7; professor of philosophy in Lake Forest University, 1887-9;
+  professor of psychology at Princeton University, 1893-1903. From 1903-9
+  he was professor of philosophy and psychology at the Johns Hopkins
+  University, Baltimore. Professor Baldwin is best known by his
+  experimental psychology and his theories of genetic logic. He
+  distinguishes between genetic logic, as theory of thought, and genetic
+  philosophy, as theory of reality. Genetic sciences, according to Baldwin,
+  are psychology, sociology, ethics, &amp;c., and his point of view he
+  terms 'Æsthonomical Idealism'. Among his numerous works are: <i>Handbook
+  of Psychology</i> (2 vols., 1891-2); <i>Mental Development in the Child
+  and the Race</i> (3rd edition, 1906); <i>Social and Ethical
+  Interpretations in Mental Development</i> (1904); <i>Thought and Things,
+  or Genetic Logic</i> (1906-8). He also edited the <i>Dictionary of
+  Philosophy and Psychology</i> (1901-9) and <i>The Psychological
+  Review</i> (1894-1909).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bâle</b> (bäl). See <i>Basel</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bale</b>, John, an English ecclesiastic, born in Suffolk in 1495,
+  died in 1563. Although educated a Roman Catholic, he became a Protestant,
+  and the intolerance of the Catholic party drove him to the Netherlands.
+  On the accession of Edward VI he returned to England, was presented to
+  the living of Bishop's Stoke, Southampton, and soon after nominated
+  Bishop of Ossory, in Ireland. Here, on his preaching the reformed
+  religion, the popular fury against him reached such a pitch that in one
+  tumult five of his domestics were murdered in his presence. On the
+  accession of Mary he lay some time concealed in Dublin, and after many
+  hardships found refuge in Switzerland. At her death he was appointed by
+  Elizabeth a prebend of Canterbury, where he died. His fame as an author
+  rests upon his <i>Scriptorum Illustrium Majoris <!-- Page 365 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page365"></a>[365]</span>Britanniæ
+  Catalogus</i>, or <i>An Account of the Lives of Eminent Writers of
+  Britain</i>, commencing with Japhet the son of Noah, and ending with the
+  year 1557. It is compiled from various writers, chiefly from the
+  antiquary Leland. He was also the author of nineteen miracle plays,
+  printed in 1558. One of his plays, <i>Kynge Johan</i>, is a link between
+  the old morality plays and the historical drama.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balear´ic Crane</b> (<i>Balear&#x12D;ca pavon&#x12B;na</i>), a
+  handsome species of crested crane inhabiting North-West Africa.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balear´ic Islands</b>, an archipelago of four large and eleven
+  small islands, south-east of Spain, including Majorca, Minorca, Iviza,
+  and Formentera. The popular derivation of the ancient name Baleares (Gr.
+  <i>ballein</i>, to throw) has reference to the repute of the inhabitants
+  for their skill in slinging, in which they distinguished themselves both
+  in the army of Hannibal and under the Romans, by whom the islands were
+  annexed in 123 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> After being taken by the
+  Vandals, under Genseric, and in the eighth century by the Moors, they
+  were taken by James I, King of Aragon, 1220-34, and constituted a
+  kingdom, which in 1343 was united to Spain. The islands now form a
+  Spanish province, with an area of 1935 sq. miles, and 330,167
+  inhabitants. See separate articles.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baleen´</b>. See <i>Whale-bone</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bale-fire</b>, any great fire kindled in the open air, especially
+  the fire of a funeral pile, or a beacon-fire.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balen</b> (bä´len), Hendrik van, painter, born at Antwerp 1560,
+  died 1632. His works, chiefly classical, religious, and
+  allegorical&mdash;some of them executed in partnership with
+  Breughel&mdash;are to be found in most of the European galleries. He was
+  the first master of Van Dyck and Snyders. Three of his sons also followed
+  the art.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balfe</b> (balf), Michael William, composer, was born in Dublin,
+  15th May, 1808. In his seventh year he performed in public on the violin,
+  and at sixteen took the part of the Wicked Huntsman in <i>Der
+  Freischütz</i> at Drury Lane. In 1825 he went to Italy, wrote the music
+  for a ballet, <i>La Pérouse</i>, for the Scala at Milan, and in the
+  following year sang at the Théâtre-Italien, Paris, with moderate success.
+  He returned to Italy, and at Palermo was given his first opera, <i>I
+  Rivali</i> (1829). For five years he continued singing and composing
+  operas for the Italian stage. In 1835 he came to England, and composed a
+  number of operas, amongst others <i>The Bohemian Girl</i> (1843), <i>The
+  Rose of Castile</i> (1857), <i>Satanella</i> (1858), and <i>The
+  Talisman</i> (first performed in 1874). He died 20th Oct., 1870. His
+  operas are melodious, and many of the airs are excellent.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balfour</b> (bal-för´), Sir Andrew, Bart., a Scottish botanist and
+  physician, born in Fifeshire in 1630. After completing his studies at St.
+  Andrews and London, and travelling on the Continent, he settled at
+  Edinburgh, where he planned, with Sir Robert Sibbald, the Royal College
+  of Physicians, and was elected its first president. He also laid the
+  foundation of a hospital in Edinburgh, which expanded into the Royal
+  Infirmary. He died in 1694. His familiar letters were published in
+  1700.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bal´four</b>, Right Hon. Arthur James, First Earl of (created
+  1922), son of J.&nbsp;M. Balfour of Whittingehame, Haddingtonshire, and of
+  Lady Blanche Cecil, sister of the third Marquess of Salisbury, was born
+  25th July, 1848, and educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge. He
+  represented Hertford from 1874-5, East Manchester from 1885 to 1906, and
+  has been representative for the City of London since 1906. For a time he
+  was private secretary to his uncle, Lord Salisbury, under whom he was
+  President of the Local Government Board, and afterwards Secretary for
+  Scotland (1886-7), with a seat in the cabinet. He showed much firmness
+  and ability as Chief Secretary for Ireland during Lord Salisbury's
+  administration from 1887-91. He succeeded Rt. Hon. W.&nbsp;H. Smith as leader
+  of the House of Commons and First Lord of the Treasury in 1891-2, and
+  held the position again from 1895 till 1900, and from that year till
+  1902. On the retirement of Lord Salisbury in 1902 he became Prime
+  Minister, a position which he retained till Dec., 1905. Under him as
+  Premier was passed the new English Education Act (which owed much to his
+  personal influence and exertions), that for London, and the new Licensing
+  Act, and he advocated a change of our fiscal policy, at least as far as
+  having recourse to retaliation, denying that he in any way favoured
+  protection. He became First Lord of the Admiralty in the Coalition
+  Government of 1915, and Foreign Secretary in 1916. He was one of the
+  British delegates to the Peace Conference in 1919. He is given to studies
+  bearing on philosophy and religion, and has published a <i>Defence of
+  Philosophic Doubt</i> (1879), <i>Essays and Addresses</i> (1893), <i>The
+  Foundations of Belief</i> (1895), <i>Economic Notes on Insular
+  Free-Trade</i> (1903), <i>Criticism and Beauty</i> (1909), <i>Theism and
+  Humanism</i> (1915), &amp;c. He was President of the British Association
+  in 1904, and Gifford Lecturer, Glasgow University, 1913-4. In 1919 he was
+  elected to succeed Lord Rayleigh, O.M., as Chancellor of Cambridge
+  University.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balfour</b>, Francis Maitland, writer on embryology, brother of the
+  foregoing, born in 1851, early distinguished himself in his special
+  study, and in 1874, in conjunction with Dr. M. Foster, published <i>The
+  Elements of Embryology</i>; but the promise of his chief work,
+  <i>Comparative <!-- Page 366 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page366"></a>[366]</span>Embryology</i> (1880-1) was unfulfilled,
+  as in 1882 he was killed by a fall on Mont Blanc.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balfour</b>, Sir James, Scottish lawyer and politician, born about
+  1522, took part in the conspiracy against Cardinal Beaton, and was
+  condemned with Knox to the galleys; but after his release found it to his
+  interest to change his opinions, and was appointed, through the favour of
+  Queen Mary, Lord of Session and member of the Privy Council. In 1567 he
+  was appointed Governor of Edinburgh Castle, but had no scruple in
+  surrendering it to Murray, who made him President of the Court of
+  Session. He was charged with a share in the murder of Darnley, and helped
+  to bring Regent Morton to his death. He died in 1583. <i>The Practicks of
+  Scots Law</i>, attributed to him, was long a textbook.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balfour</b>, John Hutton, a distinguished botanist, born 1808, died
+  1884. He graduated at Edinburgh University in arts and in medicine; from
+  1841 to 1845 was professor of botany in Glasgow University; and in the
+  latter year removed to Edinburgh to occupy a similar post, resigning his
+  chair in 1879. He wrote valuable botanical textbooks, including
+  <i>Elements</i>, <i>Outlines</i>, <i>Manual</i>, and <i>Class-book</i>,
+  besides various other works.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balfroosh´</b>, or <b>Barfurush´</b>, a town, Persia, province of
+  Mazanderan, about twelve miles from the Caspian, a great emporium of the
+  trade between Persia and Russia. Pop. estimated at 50,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ba´li</b>, an island of the Indian Archipelago east of Java,
+  belonging to Holland; greatest length, 85 miles, greatest breadth, 55
+  miles; area, about 2160 sq. miles. It consists chiefly of a series of
+  volcanic mountains, of which the loftiest, Agoong (11,326 feet), became
+  active in 1843 after a long period of quiescence. Principal products:
+  rice, cocoa, coffee, indigo, cotton, &amp;c. The people are akin to those
+  of Java and are mostly Brahmans in religion. It is divided into eight
+  provinces under native rajahs, and since 1882 has formed one colony with
+  Lombok, the united pop. being 1,363,000, of whom about 900,000 belong to
+  Bali.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bal´iol</b>, or <b>Balliol</b>, John de, of Barnard Castle,
+  Northumberland, father of King John Baliol, a great English (or Norman)
+  baron in the reign of Henry III, to whose cause he strongly attached
+  himself in his struggles with the barons. In 1263 he laid the foundation
+  of Balliol College, Oxford, which was completed by his widow Devorguila
+  or Devorgilla. She was daughter and co-heiress of Allan of Galloway, a
+  great baron of Scotland, by Margaret, eldest daughter of David, Earl of
+  Huntingdon, brother of William the Lion. It was on the strength of this
+  genealogy that his son John Baliol became temporary King of Scotland. He
+  died 1269.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bal´iol</b>, or <b>Balliol</b>, John, King of Scotland, born about
+  1249, died 1315. On the death of Margaret, the Maid of Norway and
+  grandchild of Alexander III, Baliol claimed the vacant throne by virtue
+  of his descent from David, Earl of Huntingdon, brother to William the
+  Lion, King of Scotland (see above article). Robert Bruce (grandfather of
+  the king) opposed Baliol; but Edward I's decision was in favour of
+  Baliol, who did homage to him for the kingdom, 20th Nov., 1292. Irritated
+  by Edward's harsh exercise of authority, Baliol concluded a treaty with
+  France, then at war with England; but after the defeat at Dunbar he
+  surrendered his crown into the hands of the English monarch. He was sent
+  with his son to the Tower, but, by the intercession of the Pope in 1297,
+  obtained liberty to retire to his Norman estates, where he
+  died.&mdash;His son, Edward, in 1332 landed in Fife with an armed force,
+  and, having defeated a large army under the Regent Mar (who was killed),
+  got himself crowned king, but was driven out in three months.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balis´tidæ.</b> See <i>Trigger-fishes</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balize</b> (ba-l&#x113;z´). See <i>Belize</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bal´kan</b> (ancient, <b>Hæmus</b>), a rugged chain of mountains
+  extending from Cape Emineh, on the Black Sea, in Eastern Roumelia,
+  westwards to the borders of Serbia, though the name is sometimes used to
+  include the whole mountain system from the Black Sea to the Adriatic, the
+  region south of Austria and Russia, or south of the Danube and Save,
+  forming the Balkan Peninsula. The range, which is over 200 miles in
+  length, forms the water-shed between the streams flowing northward into
+  the Danube and those flowing southward to the Ægean, the chief of the
+  latter being the Maritza. The average height is not more than 5000 feet,
+  but the highest point, Tchat-al-dagh, is 8340 feet. In the Russo-Turkish
+  war of 1877-8 the Russian troops managed to cross it without great
+  difficulty, though they had to encounter a stubborn resistance at the
+  Shipka Pass, where a Turkish army of 32,000 men ultimately surrendered to
+  them.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balkan League, The.</b> After the annexation of Bosnia and
+  Herzegovina by Austria, in 1908, the Balkan League of Bulgaria, Serbia,
+  Montenegro, and Greece was formed, apparently at the instigation of the
+  Powers of the Triple Entente, primarily to constitute a bulwark against
+  Austrian aggression towards the southeast. The League, however, directed
+  its activities against Turkey, taking advantage of Turkish embarrassments
+  in Libya and of the success of an insurrection in Albania to attempt in
+  1912 the overthrow of the Turkish regime in Europe. The declaration of
+  hostilities by the League in Oct., 1912, began the First Balkan War
+  (q.v.). The League was maintained during the two <!-- Page 367 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page367"></a>[367]</span>campaigns of the war,
+  but jealousy of Bulgarian pre-eminence led to its disruption in June,
+  1913, when Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece went to war with their former
+  ally.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balkan States.</b> See <i>Bulgaria</i>, <i>Greece</i>,
+  <i>Roumania</i>, <i>Serbia</i>, <i>Turkey</i>, and <i>Yugo-Slavs</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balkan War, The.</b> The First Balkan War (Oct., 1912-May, 1913)
+  was the effort of the Balkan League (q.v.) to dismember Turkey in Europe.
+  Each member of the League was allotted a definite strategic object, and
+  each gained a considerable measure of success. Bulgaria defeated the
+  Turks at Kirk Kilisseh and Lule Burgas, and drove them behind the lines
+  of Tchataldja. The Greeks captured Salonica; the Serbians forced their
+  way to the sea at Durazzo. The Montenegrins invested Scutari. An
+  armistice in December was followed by indecisive negotiations, in which
+  the Great Powers took part. Renewed hostilities in the spring of 1913
+  (during which the Turks lost Adrianople) came to an end with the Treaty
+  of London in May. Before its promises could be carried out, Serbia,
+  Greece, and Roumania joined to crush Bulgaria in the Second Balkan War,
+  alleging that her claims to conquered territory in Macedonia were
+  excessive. The Treaty of Bucharest (Aug., 1913) finally concluded the
+  war. The net results were: (1) to confine Turkey to Constantinople and
+  the vilayet of Adrianople; (2) to extend Bulgarian territory to the Ægean
+  and to increase greatly both Serbia and Montenegro; (3) to grant Salonica
+  to Greece; (4) to create an autonomous Albania.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: E. Ashmead-Bartlett, <i>With the Turks in
+  Thrace</i>; <i>The Balkan War Drama</i>, by a Special Correspondent;
+  D.&nbsp;J. Cassvetti, <i>Hellas and the Balkan Wars</i>; Sir J.&nbsp;R.&nbsp;L. Rankin,
+  <i>The Inner History of the Balkan War</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balkash´</b>, or <b>Balkhash</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-<i>h</i>a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>sh´), a salt lake in Russian Central
+  Asia, surrounded by steppes and plains; length about 330 miles, area 8500
+  sq. miles, depth nowhere more than 80 feet; formerly of much greater area
+  and gradually growing smaller; receives the Ili and other smaller
+  streams.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balkh</b> (bälk or bäl<i>h</i>), a city in the north of
+  Afghanistan, in Afghan Turkestan, at one time the emporium of the trade
+  between India, China, and Western Asia. It was long the centre of
+  Zoroastrianism, and was also an important Buddhist centre. In 1220 it was
+  sacked by Genghis Khan, and again by Timur in the fourteenth century. The
+  remains of the ancient city extend for miles. The town is now merely a
+  village, but a new town has been built an hour's journey north of the
+  old, the residence of the Afghan governor, with a pop. of about 20,000.
+  The district, which formed a portion of ancient Bactria, lies between the
+  Oxus and the Hindu-Kush, with Badakshan to the east and the desert to the
+  west. In the vicinity of the Oxus, where there are facilities for
+  irrigation, the soil is rich and productive, and there are many populous
+  villages.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bal´kis</b>, the Arabian name of the Queen of Sheba who visited
+  Solomon. She is the central figure of innumerable Eastern legends and
+  tales.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ball, Game of.</b> Ball-playing was practised by the ancients, and
+  old and young amused themselves with it. The Phæacian damsels are
+  represented in the <i>Odyssey</i> as playing it to the sound of music;
+  and Horace represents Mæcenas as amusing himself thus during a journey.
+  In the Greek gymnasia, the Roman baths, and in many Roman villas, a
+  <i>sphæristerium</i> (a place appropriated for playing ball) was to be
+  found; the games played being similar to those of the present day. In the
+  Middle Ages the sport continued to be very popular both as an indoor and
+  outdoor exercise, and was a favourite Court pastime until about the end
+  of the eighteenth century. In England football and tennis are mentioned
+  at an early date, and a favourite game prior to the English revolution
+  was one in which a <i>mall</i> or mallet was used, hence the name
+  <i>pall-mall</i> (It. <i>palla</i>, Lat. <i>pila</i>, a ball) for the
+  game and the place where it was played. The most popular modern forms are
+  cricket, base-ball, football, golf, lawn-tennis, fives, and polo.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ball</b>, John, an itinerant preacher of the fourteenth century,
+  excommunicated about 1367 for promulgating "errors, schisms, and scandals
+  against the Pope, archbishops, bishops, and clergy". He was one of the
+  most active promoters of the popular insurgent spirit which found vent
+  under Wat Tyler in 1381, and the couplet</p>
+
+  <div class="poem">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="hg3">"When Adam delved and Eve span</p>
+      <p>Who was then the gentleman?"</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>is attributed to him. He was hanged, drawn, and quartered on 15th
+  July, 1381.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ball</b>, Sir Robert Stawell, astronomer, born at Dublin 1840,
+  educated at Chester and Trinity College, Dublin. In 1865 he was appointed
+  Lord Rosse's astronomer at Parsonstown, and subsequently held various
+  official posts, including those of Andrews professor of astronomy in the
+  University of Dublin and Astronomer Royal for Ireland (1874), Lowndean
+  professor of astronomy and geometry in the University of Cambridge and
+  director of the observatory (1892). He became <span
+  class="scac">F.R.S.</span> in 1873, and was knighted in 1886. Besides
+  many memoirs and articles, he published <i>The Story of the Heavens</i>,
+  <i>Starland</i>, <i>In Starry Realms</i>, <i>Time and Tide</i>, <i>The
+  Story of the Sun</i>, <i>Great Astronomers</i>, <i>The Earth's
+  Beginning</i>, <i>Popular Guide to the Heavens</i> (numerous plates with
+  <!-- Page 368 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page368"></a>[368]</span>accompanying text), <i>Natural Sources of
+  Power</i>, &amp;c. He died in 1913.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bal´lad</b>, a term loosely applied to various poetic forms of the
+  song type, but in its most definite sense a poem in which a short
+  narrative is subjected to simple lyrical treatment. It was, as indicated
+  by its name, which is related to the Low Latin <i>ballare</i> and O.
+  French <i>baller</i>, to dance, originally a song accompanied by a dance.
+  The ballad, like the nursery tales and the <i>Märchen</i>, is probably
+  one of the earliest forms of rhythmic poetic expression, constituting a
+  species of epic in miniature, out of which by fusion and remoulding
+  larger epics were sometimes shaped. Their present form is, of course,
+  relatively recent. As in the folk-tales, so in the ballads of different
+  nations, the resemblances are sufficiently numerous and close to point to
+  the conclusion that they have often had their first origin in the same
+  primitive folk-lore or popular tales. But in any case, excepting a few
+  modern literary ballads of a subtler kind, they have been the popular
+  expression of the broad human emotions clustering about some
+  strongly-outlined incidents of war, love, crime, superstition, or death.
+  It is probable that in the Homeric poems fragments of older ballads are
+  embedded; but the earliest ballads, properly so called, of which we have
+  record were the <i>ballistea</i> or dancing-songs of the Romans, of the
+  kind sung in honour of the deeds of Aurelian in the Sarmatic war by a
+  chorus of dancing boys. In their less specialized sense of lyric
+  narratives, their early popularity among the Teutonic race is evidenced
+  by the testimony of Tacitus, of the Gothic historian Jornandes, and the
+  Lombard historian Paulus Diaconus; and many appear to have been written
+  down by order of Charlemagne and used as a means of education. Of the
+  ballads of this period, however, only a general conception can be formed
+  from their traces in conglomerates like the <i>Niebelungenlied</i>; the
+  more artificial productions of the Minnesingers and Meistersingers
+  overlying the more popular ballad until the fifteenth century, when it
+  sprang once more into vigorous life. A third German ballad period was
+  initiated by Bürger, under the inspiration of the revived interest in the
+  subject shown in Great Britain and the publication of the Percy
+  <i>Reliques</i>; and the movement was sustained by Herder, Schiller,
+  Goethe, Heine, Uhland, and others. The earlier German work is, however,
+  of inferior value to that of Scandinavia, where, though comparatively few
+  manuscripts have survived, and those not more than three or four
+  centuries old, a more perfect oral tradition has rendered it possible to
+  trace the original stock of the twelfth century.</p>
+
+  <p>Of the English and Scottish ballads anterior to the thirteenth century
+  there are few traces beyond the indication that they were abundant, if
+  indeed anything can be definitely asserted of them earlier than the
+  fourteenth century. Among the oldest may be placed <i>The Little Gest of
+  Robin Hood</i>, <i>Hugh of Lincoln</i>, <i>Sir Patrick Spens</i>, and the
+  <i>Battle of Otterbourn</i>. In the fifteenth century specimens multiply
+  rapidly: ballad-making became in the reign of Henry VIII a fashionable
+  amusement, the king himself setting the example; and though in the reign
+  of Elizabeth ballads came into literary disrepute and ballad singers were
+  brought under the law, yet there was no apparent check upon the rate of
+  their production. Except perhaps in the north of England and south of
+  Scotland, there was, however, a marked and increasing tendency to
+  vulgarization as distinct from the preservation of popular qualities. The
+  value of the better ballads was lost sight of in the flood of dull,
+  rhythmless, and frequently scurrilous verse. The modern revival in
+  Britain dates from the publication of Allan Ramsay's <i>Evergreen</i> and
+  <i>Tea-table Miscellany</i> (1724-7) and of the selection <i>Reliques</i>
+  made by Bishop Percy from his seventeenth-century MSS. (1765), a revival
+  not more important for its historic interest than for the influence which
+  it has exercised upon all subsequent poetry.</p>
+
+  <p>The threefold wave discernible in German, if not in British, ballad
+  history, is equally to be traced in Spain, which alone among the
+  Latinized countries of Europe has songs of equal age and merit with the
+  British historic ballads. The principal difference between them is, that
+  for the most part the Spanish romance is in trochaic, the British ballad
+  in iambic metre. The ballads of the Cid date from about the end of the
+  twelfth and beginning of the thirteenth century; and then followed an
+  interval of more elaborate production, a revival of ballad interest in
+  the sixteenth century, a new declension, and finally a modern and
+  still-persisting enthusiasm.</p>
+
+  <p>The French poetry of this kind never reached any high degree of
+  perfection, the romance, farce, and lyric flourishing at the expense of
+  the ballad proper. Of Italy much the same may be said, though Sicily has
+  supplied a great store of ballads; and nearly all the Portuguese poetry
+  of this kind is to be traced to a Spanish origin. The Russians have
+  lyrico-epic poems, of which some, in old Russian, are excellent, and the
+  Serbians are still in the ballad-producing stage of civilization. Modern
+  Greece has also its store of ballads, published in several collections.
+  In Greece, Russia, and elsewhere the old habit of improvising song as an
+  accompaniment to dance still exists.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Professor Child, <i>English and Scottish
+  Popular Ballads</i>; Professor Gummere, <i>The Beginnings of Poetry</i>;
+  Sir W. Scott, <i>Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border</i> <!-- Page 369
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page369"></a>[369]</span>(edited by
+  T.&nbsp;F. Henderson); T.&nbsp;F. Henderson, <i>The Ballad in Literature</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ballade</b> (bal-a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>d´), the earlier and modern French
+  spelling of <i>ballad</i>, but now limited in its use to a distinct
+  verse-form introduced into English literature of late years from the
+  French, and chiefly used by writers of <i>vers-de-société</i>. It
+  consists of three stanzas of eight lines each, with an <i>envoy</i> or
+  closing stanza of four lines. The rhymes, which are not more than three,
+  follow each other in the stanzas thus: a, b, a, b; b, c, b, c, and in the
+  envoy, b, c, b, c; and the same line serves as a refrain to each of the
+  stanzas and to the envoy. There are other varieties, but this may be
+  regarded as the strictest, according to the precedent of Villon and
+  Marot.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bal´lantyne</b>, James, the printer of Sir Walter Scott's works,
+  born at Kelso 1772, died at Edinburgh 1833. Successively a solicitor and
+  a printer in his native town, at Scott's suggestion he removed to
+  Edinburgh, where the high perfection to which he had brought the art of
+  printing, and his connection with Scott, secured him a large trade. The
+  printing firm of James Ballantyne &amp; Co. included Scott, James
+  Ballantyne, and his brother John (who died in 1821). For many years he
+  conducted the <i>Edinburgh Weekly Journal</i>. His firm was involved in
+  the bankruptcy of Constable &amp; Co., by which Scott's fortunes were
+  wrecked, but Ballantyne was continued by the creditors' trustee in the
+  literary management of the printing-house. He survived Scott only about
+  four months.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ballantyne</b>, Robert Michael, writer of books for boys, born at
+  Edinburgh 1825, died in Rome 1894, was a nephew of James Ballantyne, the
+  printer of Sir Walter Scott's works. He was for some years in North
+  America in the service of the Hudson's Bay Company, and his experiences
+  there supplied him with materials for some of his earlier books,
+  especially <i>Hudson's Bay, or Life in the Wilds of North America</i>
+  (1848); <i>The Young Fur Traders</i>; and <i>Ungava, a Tale of Eskimo
+  Land</i>. For many years he continued to produce popular and instructive
+  boys' books, dealing with scenes and subjects of the most varied kind;
+  and he also published a volume entitled <i>Personal Reminiscences of
+  Book-Making</i> (1893).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ballarat´</b>, or <b>Ballaarat</b>, an Australian town in Victoria,
+  chief centre of the gold-mining industry of the colony, and next in
+  importance to Melbourne, from which it is distant <span
+  class="scac">W.N.W.</span> about 60 miles direct. It consists of two
+  distinct municipalities, Ballarat West and Ballarat East, separated by
+  the Yarrowee Creek, and has many handsome buildings, and all the
+  institutions of a progressive and flourishing city, including hospital,
+  mechanics' institute and library, free public library, Anglican and Roman
+  Catholic cathedrals, &amp;c. Gold was first discovered in 1851, and the
+  extraordinary richness of the field soon attracted hosts of miners. The
+  surface diggings having been exhausted, the precious metal is now got
+  from greater depths, and there are mines as deep as some coal-pits, the
+  gold being obtained by crushing the auriferous quartz. There are also
+  foundries, woollen mills, flour-mills, breweries and distilleries,
+  &amp;c. Pop. 42,252.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bal´last</b>, a term applied (1) to heavy matter, as stone, sand,
+  iron, or water placed in the bottom of a ship or other vessel to sink it
+  in the water to such a depth as to enable it to carry sufficient sail
+  without oversetting. (2) The sand placed in bags in the car of a balloon
+  to steady it and to enable the aeronaut to lighten the balloon by
+  throwing part of it out. (3) The material used to fill up the space
+  between the rails on a railway in order to make it firm and solid.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ball´ater</b>, a village and favourite summer resort in
+  Aberdeenshire, on the Dee, at the terminus of the Deeside Railway, about
+  43 miles from Aberdeen, a centre from which Balmoral, Lochnagar, Braemar,
+  &amp;c., are easily reached. The Pananich chalybeate springs are
+  adjacent. Pop. (1921), 1542.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:42%;">
+      <a href="images/image141.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image141.jpg"
+      alt="Ball-cock" title="Ball-cock" /></a>
+    Ball-cock
+
+    <p class="poem">1. Cistern with ball-cock attached: <i>a</i>, rising
+    main; <i>b</i>, supply to house. 2. Outside view of valve (cistern
+    full). 3. Piston with rubber disk. 4. Section of valve (cistern full).
+    5. Section of valve with piston pulled down.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Ball-cock</b>, a kind of self-acting stopcock opened and shut by
+  means of a hollow sphere or ball of metal attached to the end of a lever
+  connected with the cock. Such cocks are often employed to regulate the
+  supply of water to cisterns. The ball floats on the water in the cistern
+  by its buoyancy, and rises and sinks as <!-- Page 370 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page370"></a>[370]</span>the water rises and
+  sinks, shutting off the water in the one case and letting it on in the
+  other.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bal´lentyne</b>, or <b>Bellenden</b>, John, a Scottish poet; was a
+  native of Lothian, and appears to have been born towards the close of the
+  fifteenth century. He was in the service of James V from the king's
+  earliest years, and at his request he translated Boece's <i>Latin
+  History</i>, which had been published at Paris in 1526, the translation
+  being printed in 1536. As a reward he was made Archdeacon of Moray and a
+  canon of Ross. He was a bitter opponent of the Reformation, and is said
+  to have died at Rome in 1550.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ballet</b> (bal´&#x101;), a species of dance, usually forming an
+  interlude in theatrical performances, but principally confined to opera.
+  Its object is to represent, by mimic movements and dances, actions,
+  characters, sentiments, passions, and feelings, in which several dancers
+  perform together. The ballet is an invention of modern times, though
+  pantomimic dances were not unknown to the ancients. The dances frequently
+  introduced into operas seldom deserve the name ballet, as they usually do
+  not represent any action, but are destined only to give the dancers an
+  opportunity of showing their skill. The modern ballet was developed and
+  perfected in France, and introduced into England in the eighteenth
+  century. From an artistic point of view, the modern ballet is often a
+  very low-class entertainment.</p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:18%;">
+      <a href="images/image142.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image142.jpg"
+      alt="Ball-flower" title="Ball-flower" /></a>
+    Ball-flower
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Ball-flower</b>, an architectural ornament resembling a ball placed
+  in a circular flower, the three petals of which form a cup round it;
+  usually inserted in a hollow moulding, and generally characteristic of
+  the Decorated Gothic style of the fourteenth century.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ballia</b>, a town of India, in the United Provinces, on the
+  Ganges, the administrative head-quarters of a district of the same name.
+  Pop. 16,680.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ballina´</b>, a town and river-port, Ireland, County Mayo, on both
+  banks of the Moy, about 5 miles above its mouth in Killala Bay, with a
+  considerable local and also a little coasting and foreign trade. Pop.
+  4662.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ballinasloe´</b> (-sl&#x14D;), a town, Ireland, in Galway and
+  Roscommon counties, 15 miles south-west of Athlone, on both sides of the
+  Suck, noted for its cattle fair, from 5th till 9th Oct., the most
+  important in Ireland. The town contains remains of a castle of
+  Elizabethan date. Pop. 5170.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:40%;">
+      <a href="images/image143.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image143.jpg"
+      alt="Ballista" title="Ballista" /></a>
+    Ballista as used by the Romans
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Ballis´ta</b>, a machine used in military operations by the
+  ancients for hurling heavy missiles, thus serving in some degree the
+  purpose of the modern cannon. The motive power appears to have been
+  obtained by the torsion of ropes, fibres, catgut, or hair. They are said
+  to have sometimes had an effective range of a quarter of a mile, and to
+  have thrown stones weighing as much as 300 lb. The ballistæ differed from
+  the <i>catapultæ</i>, in that the latter were used for throwing
+  darts.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ballis´tic Pendulum</b>, an apparatus for ascertaining the velocity
+  of military projectiles, and consequently the force of fired gunpowder. A
+  piece of ordnance is fired against bags of sand supported in a strong
+  case or frame suspended so as to swing like a pendulum. The arc through
+  which it vibrates is shown by an index, and the amount of vibration forms
+  a measure of the force or velocity of the ball.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ballistics</b>, the science of the motion of projectiles.
+  <i>Interior ballistics</i> deals with the motion of the shot while inside
+  the gun, and with the results of the explosion of the charge. <i>Exterior
+  ballistics</i> comprises a study of the trajectory or path of the
+  projectile in the air, and the causes which affect the shape of this
+  path, such as the density of the air, shape and weight of the shot,
+  rifling of the barrel, angle of fire and speed of the projectile. If the
+  air-resistance be neglected, it can be shown that the trajectory is a
+  <i>parabola</i>. This result, given by Galileo, is of little use in
+  gunnery except when taken along with a knowledge of air-resistance.
+  Robins, in 1742, first measured the muzzle-speed of the shot by firing
+  into a ballistic pendulum and noting the swing of the pendulum.
+  Wheatstone, in 1840, suggested measuring the speed by causing the shot to
+  cut successive wire screens, each of which formed part of an electric
+  circuit. The Boulangé chronograph is a modern development of this idea.
+  Rev. F. Bashforth's experiments, carried out between 1865 and 1880, form
+  the basis of <!-- Page 371 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page371"></a>[371]</span>our knowledge of air-resistance. He found
+  that the latter was proportional to the square of the diameter of the
+  shot, and that, although the resistance is expressible in terms of a
+  power of the speed, this power changes with the speed. The air-resistance
+  is a maximum at about the speed at which sound travels, viz. 1100 feet
+  per second. Artillerists employ ballistic tables based on the results
+  obtained by Bashforth and others, by means of which, given the kind of
+  projectile, its initial velocity, and angle of fire, they can calculate
+  the range and time of flight of the projectile. See
+  <i>Gunnery</i>.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: F. Bashforth,
+  <i>The Motion of Projectiles</i>; J.&nbsp;M. Ingalls, <i>Interior
+  Ballistics</i>; P. Charbonnier, <i>Balistique Extérieure</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balloon-fish</b> (<i>Tetra&#x14F;don line&#x101;tus</i>), ord.
+  Plectognathi, a curious tropical fish that can inflate itself so as to
+  resemble a balloon.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balloons</b>, the most elementary form of lighter-than-air
+  air-craft, unprovided with any means of propulsion or steering. Deriving
+  its power of sustentation from the gas contained in the gas-bag, the free
+  balloon is spherical in form. It is usually filled with coal-gas, which
+  has a lifting-force of 35 lb. per 1000 cu. feet. Varying in size from
+  5000 to 20,000 cu. foot capacity, the gas-bag is covered with a 'net',
+  from which is hung the 'basket' for the accommodation of the aeronaut, or
+  pilot, and passengers. The spherical gas-bag has at the bottom an
+  elongation, known as the 'neck', which is open to the air in order that
+  the gas may escape as it expands during the rise into the rarefied
+  atmosphere of the upper air. A 'valve' is fitted at the top, which may be
+  opened by a cord from the basket when it is desired to allow gas to
+  escape in order to descend. Bags containing sand are carried in order
+  that ballast may be dropped when it is desired to rise. A free balloon is
+  completely at the mercy of the wind, and simply drifts where the wind
+  takes it. Balloons are usually constructed of cotton fabric, though
+  occasionally of gold-beater's skin, in which case they are commonly
+  filled with hydrogen in place of coal-gas. A 'trail-rope' is usually
+  carried, with which the practice of 'trailing' may be effected over open
+  country or the sea. This consists in allowing the end of the trail-rope
+  to drag on the ground. As the balloon rises it raises more of the rope
+  off the ground, the additional weight bringing it down again. <i>Per
+  contra</i>, as it falls the weight of the trail-rope is taken by the
+  ground and so lightens the balloon. This tends to maintain the balloon at
+  a uniform height. The greatest height ever attained by a balloon is
+  37,000 feet, reached by Glaisher and Coxwell in Sept., 1862. Both
+  aeronauts nearly perished from the effects of the cold and rarefaction of
+  the atmosphere. In 1895 Parseval and Siegsfield, two officers of the
+  Prussian army, invented the 'Drachen-ballon' or 'Kite-balloon' (Fr.
+  <i>Saucisse</i>). This consists of a captive balloon comprising an
+  elongated gas-bag fitted with an automatic air-chamber, or 'ballonet',
+  for maintaining the pressure, and automatic stabilizers to prevent yawing
+  off the wind, rolling from side to side, and pitching horizontally. This
+  was improved upon by Captain Caquot of the French army, who in 1916
+  produced an improved type, offering many advantages, which was used in
+  large numbers by the British, French, and American armies and navies
+  during the Great European War of 1914-8. See also <i>Aeronautics</i>,
+  <i>Air-ships</i>.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: <i>British
+  Military Manual of Ballooning</i>; Rev. J.&nbsp;M. Bacon, <i>The Dominion of
+  the Air</i>; H. Coxwell, <i>My Life and Balloon Experiences</i>; J.
+  Glaisher, <i>Travels in the Air</i>; G. Tissandier, <i>Histoire de mes
+  Ascensions</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bal´lot, Voting by</b>, signifies literally voting by means of
+  little balls (called by the French <i>ballottes</i>), usually of
+  different colours, which are put into a box in such a manner as to enable
+  the voter, if he chooses, to conceal for whom or for what he gives his
+  suffrage. The method is adopted by most clubs in the election of their
+  members&mdash;a white ball indicating assent, a black ball dissent.
+  Hence, when an applicant is rejected, he is said to be
+  <i>blackballed</i>. The term voting by ballot is also applied in a
+  general way to any method of secret voting, as, for instance, when a
+  person gives his vote by means of a ticket bearing the name of the
+  candidate whom he wishes to support. In this sense vote by ballot is the
+  mode adopted in electing the members of legislative assemblies in most
+  countries, as well as the members of various other bodies. In ancient
+  Greece and Rome the ballot was in common use. In Britain it had long been
+  advocated in the election of members of Parliament and of municipal
+  corporations, but it was only introduced by an Act passed in 1872.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ballyme´na</b>, a town of Ireland, County Antrim, 22 miles from
+  Belfast, with a considerable trade in linens and linen yarns, the
+  manufacture of which is carried on to a great extent. Pop. 11,380.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ballymo´ney</b>, a town of Ireland, County Antrim, 38 miles <span
+  class="scac">N.W.</span> of Belfast; linen, chemicals, tanning, and
+  brewing. Pop. 3100.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ballyshan´non</b>, a small seaport of Ireland, County Donegal, on
+  the Erne, about 1 mile from the <span class="scac">S.E.</span> shore of
+  Donegal Bay. Pop. 2471.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balm</b> (bäm; <i>Melissa officin&#x101;lis</i>), a plant,
+  belonging to the Labiatæ;, formerly in great repute for its medicinal
+  virtues. A native of the south of Europe, it is cultivated in English
+  gardens. It is a herbaceous perennial, with an <!-- Page 372 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page372"></a>[372]</span>erect branching stem
+  about 2 feet high. The leaves arise with the flower-stems from a thick
+  joint at the extremity of the stalk. The flowers are whitish; they are
+  produced in a round terminal umbel, and appear in June. The stems and
+  leaves are slightly stimulating and tonic. They contain an essential oil
+  of a yellowish colour and with a fragrant smell, called oil of balm.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balm of Gilead</b>, the exudation of a tree, <i>Balsamodendron
+  gileadense</i>, nat. ord. Amyridaceæ, a native of Arabia Felix, and also
+  obtained from the closely-allied species <i>Balsamodendron
+  Opobals&#x103;mum</i>. The leaves of the former tree yield when bruised a
+  strong aromatic scent; and the balm of Gilead of the shops, or balsam of
+  Mecca or of Syria, is obtained from it by making an incision in its
+  trunk. It has a yellowish or greenish colour, a warm, bitterish, aromatic
+  taste, and an acidulous fragrant smell. It is valued as an odoriferous
+  unguent and cosmetic by the Turks. It is frequently adulterated for
+  market.&mdash;The <i>balm of Gilead fir</i>, which produces a turpentine
+  called Canada balsam, is the <i>Abies balsamif&#x115;ra</i>, a North
+  American species, whose range is from Virginia to Canada. The name is
+  derived from <i>Jeremiah</i>, viii, 22.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balmain´</b>, a populous western suburb of Sydney, <span
+  class="scac">N.S.W.</span>, with extensive docks and various industrial
+  works. Pop. 33,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balmer´ino</b>, Arthur Elphinstone, Lord, a Scottish Jacobite, born
+  1688, executed 1746. He took part in the Jacobite rebellion of 1715, and
+  fought at Sheriffmuir. Having joined the young Pretender in 1745, he was
+  taken prisoner at Culloden, tried at Westminster, found guilty, and
+  beheaded. His title was from Balmerino in Fife.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balmor´al Castle</b>, a private residence of the British sovereign,
+  beautifully situated on the <span class="scac">S.</span> bank of the Dee,
+  in Aberdeenshire, 45 miles <span class="scac">W.</span> by <span
+  class="scac">S.</span> of Aberdeen. It stands in the midst of fine and
+  varied mountain scenery, is built of granite in the Scottish baronial
+  style, mainly in two connected blocks, and has an imposing appearance.
+  The estate, purchased by the Prince Consort in 1852 and bequeathed to
+  Queen Victoria, extends to about 40,000 acres, mostly deer forest.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balnaves´</b>, Henry, of Halhill, a Scottish reformer, was born at
+  Kirkcaldy, educated at St. Andrews, and became a lord of session and a
+  member of the Scottish Parliament in 1538. He was one of the
+  commissioners appointed in 1543 to treat of the proposed marriage between
+  Edward VI and Mary. In 1547 he was one of the prisoners taken in the
+  castle of St. Andrews and exiled to France. Recalled in 1554, he busily
+  engaged in the establishment of the reformed faith, assisted in revising
+  the <i>Book of Discipline</i>, and accompanied Murray to England in
+  connection with Darnley's murder. He died in 1579.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balrampur.</b> See <i>Bulrampur</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balsa</b>, a kind of raft or float used on the coasts and rivers of
+  Peru and other parts of South America for fishing, for landing goods and
+  passengers through a heavy surf, and for other purposes where buoyancy is
+  chiefly wanted. It is formed generally of two inflated seal-skins,
+  connected by a sort of platform on which the fisherman, passengers, or
+  goods are placed.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bal´sam</b>, the common name of succulent plants of the genus
+  Impatiens, family Balsaminaceæ, having beautiful irregular flowers,
+  cultivated in gardens and green-houses. <i>Impatiens balsam&#x12B;na</i>,
+  native of the East Indies, is a common cultivated species. <i>I.
+  noli-me-tangere</i> grows wild in Britain, but is not native. See
+  <i>Impatiens</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balsam</b>, an aromatic, resinous substance, flowing spontaneously
+  or by incision from certain plants. A great variety of substances pass
+  under this name. But in chemistry the term is confined to such vegetable
+  juices as consist of resins mixed with volatile oils, and yield the
+  volatile oil on distillation. The resins are produced from the oils by
+  oxidation. A balsam is thus intermediate between a volatile oil and a
+  resin. It is soluble in alcohol and ether, and capable of yielding
+  benzoic acid. The balsams are either liquid or more or less solid; as,
+  for example, the balm of Gilead, and the balsams of copaiba, Peru, and
+  Tolu. Benzoin, dragon's-blood, and storax are not true balsams, though
+  sometimes called so. The balsams are used in perfumery, medicine, and the
+  arts. See <i>Copaiba</i>, &amp;c.&mdash;<i>Balsam of Gilead</i> or <i>of
+  Mecca</i>, balm of Gilead (q.v.).&mdash;<i>Canada balsam</i>. See
+  <i>Canada balsam</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balsam Fir.</b> See <i>Balm of Gilead</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balsa´mo</b>, Joseph. See <i>Cagliostro, Count</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balsamoden´dron</b>, a genus of trees or bushes, ord. Amyridaceæ,
+  species of which yield such balsamic or resinous substances as balm of
+  Gilead, bdellium, myrrh, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balta</b>, a town in the Ukraine, government of Podolia, on the
+  Kodema, an affluent of the Bug, 115 miles <span
+  class="scac">N.N.W.</span> of Odessa. Pop. 18,450.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baltic, Battle of the.</b> See <i>Copenhagen</i>; <i>Parker, Sir
+  Hyde</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baltic Provinces</b>, a term commonly given to the former Russian
+  governments of Courland, Livonia, and Esthonia (q.v.).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baltic Sea</b>, an inland sea or large gulf connected with the
+  North Sea, washing the coasts of Denmark, Germany, Russia, and Sweden;
+  nearly 900 miles long, extending to 200 broad; superficial extent,
+  together with the Gulfs of <!-- Page 373 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page373"></a>[373]</span>Bothnia and Finland, 171,743 sq. miles.
+  Its greatest depth is 126 fathoms; mean, 44 fathoms. A chain of islands
+  separates the southern part from the northern, or Gulf of Bothnia. The
+  water of the Baltic is colder and clearer than that of the ocean: it
+  contains a smaller proportion of salt, and the ice obstructs the
+  navigation three or four months in the year. Among the rivers that enter
+  it are the Neva, Dwina, Oder, Vistula, and Niemen. Islands: Samsoe, Moen,
+  Bornholm, Langeland, Laaland, which belong to Denmark (besides Zealand
+  and Funen); Gottland and Oeland, belonging to Sweden; Rügen, belonging to
+  Prussia; Dagoe and Oesel, belonging to Russia; and the Åland Islands. The
+  Sound, the Great and the Little Belt lead from the Kattegat into the
+  Baltic. The Baltic and North Sea were long connected by the Eider and a
+  canal from it to the neighbourhood of Kiel, but this has been superseded
+  by the great ship canal, starting from the Elbe near its mouth and ending
+  in Kiel Bay.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bal´timore</b>, a city and port in Maryland, United States, finely
+  situated on the <span class="scac">N.</span> side of the Patapsco, 14
+  miles above Chesapeake Bay. Baltimore takes its name from Lord Baltimore,
+  the founder of Maryland; it was first laid out as a town in 1729; and was
+  erected into a city in 1797. It is well built, chiefly of brick, and is
+  known as the 'monumental city', from the public monuments which adorn it,
+  the principal being the Washington monument. Among its buildings are the
+  city hall, built in Renaissance style, of white marble, with a tower and
+  dome rising 240 feet; the Peabody Institute, containing a library, art
+  gallery, &amp;c.; the Maryland Institute; the custom-house; the post
+  office; the United States court-house and jail, the Johns Hopkins
+  hospital, the Roman Catholic cathedral, &amp;c. The chief educational
+  institution, now one of the most important in the States, is the Johns
+  Hopkins University, endowed with 3,500,000 dollars by its founder (whose
+  name it bears). There is a Roman Catholic archbishop with the rank of
+  primate, and a Protestant episcopal bishop. Industries: shipbuilding;
+  manufactures of iron, wool, cotton, pottery, &amp;c.; sugar-refining,
+  distilling, tanning, the making of agricultural implements, canning
+  oysters and fruits, &amp;c. As a flour market Baltimore is an important
+  centre; and it does an immense trade in exporting tobacco and other
+  products. The harbour is very extensive. Pop. (1920), 733,826.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baltimore</b>, George Calvert, Lord, born in Yorkshire about 1580,
+  died in London 1632. He was for some time Secretary of State to James I,
+  but this post he resigned in 1624 in consequence of having become a Roman
+  Catholic. Notwithstanding this he retained the confidence of the king,
+  who in 1625 raised him to the Irish peerage, his title being from
+  Baltimore, a fishing-village of Cork. He had previously obtained a grant
+  of land in Newfoundland, but as this colony was much exposed to the
+  attacks of the French he left it, and obtained another patent for
+  Maryland. He died before the charter was completed, and it was granted to
+  his son Cecil, who deputed the governorship to his brother Leonard
+  (1606-47).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baltimore Bird</b>, an American bird, the <i>Ict&#x115;rus
+  Baltimorii</i>, family Icteridæ, nearly allied to the Sturnidæ, or
+  starlings. It is a migratory bird, and is known also by the names of
+  'golden robin', 'hang-bird', and 'fire-bird'. It is about 7 inches long;
+  the head and upper parts are black, the under parts of a brilliant orange
+  hue. It builds a pouch-like nest, very skilfully constructed of threads
+  deftly interwoven, suspended from a forked branch and shaded by
+  overhanging leaves. It feeds on insects, caterpillars, beetles, &amp;c.
+  Its song is a clear, mellow whistle.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baluchistan</b> (ba-lö´chi-stän), a country in Asia, the coast of
+  which is continuous with the north-western seaboard of India, bounded on
+  the north by Afghanistan, on the west by Persia, on the south by the
+  Arabian Sea, and on the east by Sindh. It has an area of about 135,000
+  sq. miles, and a population estimated at 834,703. The general surface of
+  the country is rugged and mountainous, with some extensive intervals of
+  barren sandy deserts, and there is a general deficiency of water. Various
+  kinds of grain are cultivated, and there is abundance of excellent
+  fruits. The main body of the inhabitants are divided into two great
+  branches, the Baluchis and Brahuis, differing in language, figure, and
+  manners. The Baluchi language resembles the modern Persian, the Brahui
+  presents points of agreement with the Dravidian languages of India. The
+  Baluchis in general have tall figures, long visages, and prominent
+  features; the Brahuis have shorter, thicker bodies, with round faces and
+  rather flat features. Both races are Mahommedans, hospitable and brave.
+  There are also many Afghans and others in the country. The Khan of
+  Khelat, the nominal ruler of the whole land, in 1877 concluded a treaty
+  with Britain, in virtue of which he became a feudatory of India. Since
+  then Quetta, in the north-east, occupying an important position, and
+  certain portions of territory, have been absolutely annexed, and in 1887
+  a separate administration was constituted, and British authority
+  established, under the Governor-General's agent. The area of British
+  Baluchistan, including tribal areas, is 54,228 sq. miles; pop. 414,412.
+  The country nominally under the Khan of Khelat has an area of 72,280 sq.
+  miles; pop. 359,086. Under British administration roads and railways have
+  been made, with telegraphs and a postal <!-- Page 374 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page374"></a>[374]</span>service. Wool, fruits,
+  &amp;c., are exported, cottons and other goods imported, and there is a
+  fair transit trade.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Floyer,
+  <i>Unexplored Baluchistan</i>; T. Thornton, <i>Life of Sandeman</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bal´uster</b>, a small column or pilaster, of various forms and
+  dimensions, often adorned with mouldings, used for balustrades.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balustrade´</b>, a range of balusters, together with the cornice or
+  coping which they support, used as a parapet for bridges or the roofs of
+  buildings, or as a mere ornament; also serving as a fence or enclosure
+  for balconies, terraces, staircases, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baluze</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-lüz), Étienne, French historian and
+  miscellaneous writer, born 1630, died 1718. For more than thirty years he
+  was librarian to M. de Colbert, and was appointed professor of canon law
+  in the Royal College, but displeasing Louis XIV with his <i>Histoire
+  Générale de la Maison d'Auvergne</i>, he was thrown into prison and his
+  property confiscated. He recovered his liberty in 1713, but did not
+  regain his position. He left some 1500 MSS. in the national library of
+  Paris, besides forty-five printed works, including <i>Regum Francorum
+  Capitularia</i> (2 vols.) and <i>Miscellanea</i> (7 vols.).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balzac</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-za<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>k), Honoré de, a celebrated French
+  novelist, was born at Tours in 1799, died 1850. Before completing his
+  twenty-fourth year he had published a number of novels under various
+  assumed names, but the success attending all was very indifferent; and it
+  was not till 1829, by the publication of <i>Le Dernier Chouan</i>, a tale
+  of La Vendée, and the first novel to which Balzac appended his name, that
+  the attention of the public was diverted to the extraordinary genius of
+  the author. A still greater popularity attended his <i>Physiologie de
+  Mariage</i>, a work full of piquant and caustic observations on human
+  nature. He wrote a large number of novels, all marked by a singular
+  knowledge of human nature and distinct delineation of character, but apt
+  to be marred by exaggeration. Among his best-known works are: <i>Scènes
+  de la Vie de Province</i>, <i>Scènes de la Vie Parisienne</i>, <i>Le Père
+  Goriot</i>, <i>Eugénie Grandet</i>, and <i>Le Médecin de Campagne</i>.
+  The publication of this last, in 1835, led to a correspondence between
+  Balzac and the Countess Eveline de Hanska, a Polish lady whom, after
+  about fifteen years, he visited and married. A collected edition of his
+  works, under the title <i>La Comédie Humaine</i>, was published in 45
+  vols., Paris, 1856-9, and another in 1869. In 1899 appeared the first
+  volume of Balzac's <i>&OElig;uvres Posthumes</i>, and in 1906 the
+  second.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: F. Wedmore,
+  <i>Balzac</i>; M.&nbsp;F. Sandars, <i>Balzac</i>; W.&nbsp;H. Helm, <i>Aspects of
+  Balzac</i>; Taine, <i>Essay on Balzac</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Balzac</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l-za<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>k), Jean Louis Guez de, French writer,
+  born 1594, died 1654. His writings, which had a great reputation in their
+  day owing to the elegance of his style, are now neglected. The most
+  esteemed are his <i>Familiar Letters</i>, <i>Le Prince</i>, <i>Le Socrate
+  Chrétien</i>, and <i>Aristippe</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bamako</b>, capital of the French colony of Upper Senegal and Niger
+  since 1904. It is an important trade-centre and the terminus of the
+  Niger-Senegal railway. Pop. 8000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bamba</b>, a district of the Congo, <span class="scac">W.</span>
+  coast of Africa, lying to the south of the River Ambriz. It is thickly
+  populated, and is rich in gold, silver, copper, salt, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bambar´ra</b>, a territory of Western Africa, on the Upper Niger,
+  first visited by Mungo Park, now in the French portion of the Sudan. The
+  country is generally very fertile, producing wheat, rice, maize, yams,
+  &amp;c. The inhabitants are of negro or mixed race, and some are
+  Mohammedans. Excellent cotton cloth is made. The chief town is Segou.
+  Pop. estimated at 2,000,000. See <i>Senegal</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bam´berg</b>, a town of Germany, Bavaria, charmingly situated on
+  several hills, on the navigable River Regnitz, some 3 miles from its
+  mouth in the Main. It is the seat of a Catholic archbishop; the
+  cathedral, founded in 1004 (the present structure dates from 1111), is
+  one of the finest churches in Germany. The royal library contains 100,000
+  volumes and valuable MSS. Bamberg carries on a large trade; its
+  industries are cotton-spinning, tobacco-manufacture, brewing, &amp;c.
+  Pop. 48,063.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bambino</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>m-b&#x113;´n&#x14D;; It., an infant), the
+  figure of our Saviour represented as an infant in swaddling-clothes. The
+  <i>Santissimo Bambino</i> in the church of Ara C&oelig;li at Rome, a
+  richly-decorated figure carved in wood, is believed to be able to perform
+  miracles and heal the sick. According to popular belief, the painting was
+  miraculously done by St. Luke or by an angel. Bambinos are set up for the
+  adoration of the faithful in many places in Catholic countries.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bambocciades</b> (bam-boch-&#x101;dz´), pictures, generally
+  grotesque, of common, rustic, or low life, such as those of Peter Van
+  Laar, a Dutch painter of the seventeenth century, who on account of his
+  deformity was called <i>Bamboccio</i> (cripple). Teniers is the great
+  master of this style.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:42%;">
+      <a href="images/image144.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image144.jpg"
+      alt="Bamboo" title="Bamboo" /></a>
+    Bamboo (<i>Bambusa arundinac&#x115;a</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Bamboo´</b>, the common name of the arborescent grasses belonging
+  to the genus Bamb&#x16B;sa. There are many species, belonging to the
+  warmer parts of Asia, Africa, and America, and growing from a few feet to
+  as much as 100 feet, requiring much moisture to thrive properly. A
+  peculiarity of the bamboo family is that they flower on reaching a
+  certain age, generally about 130 years. <!-- Page 375 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page375"></a>[375]</span>The best-known species
+  is <i>B. arundinac&#x115;a</i>, common in tropical and sub-tropical
+  regions. From the creeping underground rhizome, which is long, thick, and
+  jointed, spring several round jointed stalks, which send out from their
+  joints several shoots, the stalks also being armed at their joints with
+  one or two sharp rigid spines. The oval leaves, 8 or 9 inches long, are
+  placed on short footstalks. The flowers grow in large panicles from the
+  joints of the stalk. Some stems grow to 8 or 10 inches in diameter, and
+  are so hard and durable as to be used for building purposes. The smaller
+  stalks are used for walking-sticks, flutes, &amp;c.; and indeed the plant
+  is used for innumerable purposes in the East Indies, China, and other
+  Eastern countries. Cottages are almost wholly made of it; also, bridges,
+  boxes, water-pipes, ladders, fences, bows and arrows, spears, baskets,
+  mats, paper, masts for boats, &amp;c. The young shoots may be either
+  pickled or salted and eaten with rice, or candied and preserved in sugar;
+  the seeds of some species are also eaten. The substance called
+  <i>tabasheer</i> is a siliceous deposit that gathers at the internodes of
+  the stems. The bamboo is imported into Europe for various purposes, and
+  is grown in British gardens.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bambook´</b>, a country in Western Africa between the Falémé and
+  Senegal Rivers, about 140 miles in length, by 80 to 100 in breadth. It is
+  on the whole hilly and somewhat rugged. The valleys and plains are
+  remarkably fertile. The natives are Mandingoes, mostly professed
+  Mahommedans ruled by independent chieftains, most of whom acknowledge the
+  supremacy of France. Gold and ivory are exchanged for European goods.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bambook-butter</b>, shea-butter (q.v.).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bam´borough Castle</b>, an ancient English castle on the coast of
+  Northumberland, formerly with connected estate the property of the
+  Forsters, and forfeited to the Crown in 1715, both being purchased by
+  Lord Crewe, Bishop of Durham, and bequeathed by him for charitable
+  purposes.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bambu´sa.</b> See <i>Bamboo</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bam´ian</b>, a valley and pass of Afghanistan, the latter at an
+  elevation of 8496 feet, the only known pass over the Hindu Kush for
+  artillery and heavy transport. The valley is one of the chief centres of
+  Buddhist worship, and contains two remarkable colossal statues and other
+  ancient monuments.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bamo.</b> See <i>Bhamo</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bampton Lectures</b>, a course of lectures established in 1751 by
+  John Bampton, Canon of Salisbury, who bequeathed certain property to the
+  University of Oxford for the endowment of eight divinity lectures to be
+  annually delivered. The subjects prescribed are mainly connected with the
+  evidences of Christianity, and the lecturer must have taken the degree of
+  M.A. at Oxford or Cambridge. The first course of lectures was delivered
+  in 1780, and they have been delivered every year since, with the
+  exceptions of 1834, 1835, and 1841. Among the more remarkable lectures
+  were those by Dr. White in 1784, by Dr. Mant in 1812, by Reginald Heber
+  in 1815, Whately in 1822, Milman in 1827, Dr. Hampden in 1832, H.L.
+  Mansel in 1858, Canon Liddon in 1866, Canon Gore in 1891, J.&nbsp;R.
+  Illingworth in 1894, and W.&nbsp;R. Inge in 1899. A similar course of
+  lectures, the Hulsean, is annually delivered at Cambridge.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ban</b>, in political law, is equivalent to excommunication in
+  ecclesiastical. In Teutonic history the <i>ban</i> was an edict of
+  interdiction or proscription: thus, to put a prince under the ban of the
+  empire was to divest him of his dignities, and to interdict all
+  intercourse and all offices of humanity with the offender. Sometimes
+  whole cities have been put under the <i>ban</i>, that is, deprived of
+  their rights and privileges.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ban</b>, anciently, a title given to the military chiefs who
+  guarded the eastern marches of Hungary; till 1919 the title of the
+  Governor of Croatia and Slavonia. A province over which a ban is placed
+  is called <i>banat</i>, and is equivalent <!-- Page 376 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page376"></a>[376]</span>to the German term
+  <i>mark</i>. During the European War, Serbia occupied the banat to the
+  south of Hungary, and her claims to that region were disputed both by
+  Hungary and Roumania. The territory is bounded almost entirely by the
+  Danube, Theiss, and Maros Rivers, except on the east, where it is shut in
+  by the Transylvanian Carpathians. The banat was ultimately divided
+  between Yugo-Slavia and Roumania. See <i>Temesvar</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:43%;">
+      <a href="images/image145.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image145.jpg"
+      alt="Banana" title="Banana" /></a>
+    Banana (<i>Musa sapientum</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Bana´na</b>, a plant of the genus Musa, nat. ord. Musaceæ, being
+  <i>M. sapientum</i>, while the plantain is <i>M. paradisi&#x103;ca</i>.
+  It is originally indigenous to the East Indies, and an herbaceous plant
+  with an underground stem. The apparent stem, which is sometimes as high
+  as 30 feet, is formed of the closely-compacted sheaths of the leaves. The
+  leaves are 6 to 10 feet long and 1 or more broad, with a strong midrib,
+  from which the veins are given off at right angles; they are used for
+  thatch, basket-making, &amp;c., besides yielding a useful fibre. The
+  spikes of the flowers grow nearly 4 feet long, in bunches, covered with
+  purple-coloured bracts. The fruit is 4 to 10 or 12 inches long, and 1
+  inch or more in diameter; it grows in large bunches, weighing often from
+  40 to 80 lb. The pulp is soft and of a luscious taste; when ripe it is
+  eaten raw or cooked. The banana is cultivated in tropical and
+  sub-tropical countries, and is the food of millions. It is estimated that
+  in Jamaica alone 40,000 acres are devoted to its culture. Excellent
+  biscuits may be made from banana meal, but it is not suitable for bread.
+  Vast quantities are imported by Britain and the United States. Manila
+  hemp is the product of a species of banana.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bana´na</b>, an African port, in Belgian Congo, at the mouth of the
+  Congo.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banana-bird</b>, a pretty insessorial bird (<i>Ict&#x115;rus
+  leucopt&#x115;ryx</i>), a native of the West Indies and the warmer parts
+  of America. It is a lively bird, easily domesticated, tawny and black in
+  colour, with white bars upon the wings.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banat.</b> See <i>Ban</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ban´bridge</b>, a town of Ireland, County Down, 22 miles <span
+  class="scac">S.W.</span> of Belfast, on the Bann. The manufacture of
+  linen is carried on to a great extent in town and neighbourhood. Pop.
+  5101.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banbury</b> (ban'be-ri), a town of England, in Oxfordshire, long
+  celebrated for its cheese, its cakes, and its ale; a parliamentary
+  borough till 1885, and now giving name to a parliamentary division of the
+  county. Pop. (municipal borough) (1921), 13,347.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banca</b>, an island belonging to the Dutch East Indies, between
+  Sumatra and Borneo; area, 4446 sq. miles; pop. 113,658, of which a
+  considerable proportion are Chinese. It is celebrated for its excellent
+  tin, of which the annual yield is above 6000 tons; but it produces
+  nothing else of any importance.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banco</b>, in commerce, a term employed to designate the money in
+  which the banks of some countries keep or kept their accounts, in
+  contradistinction to the current money of the place, which might vary in
+  value or consist of light and foreign coins. The term was applied to the
+  Hamburg bank accounts before the adoption (in 1873) of the new German
+  coinage. The mark <i>banco</i> had a value of 1<i>s.</i> 5½<i>d.</i>; but
+  there was no corresponding coin. See <i>Bank</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ban´croft</b>, George, American historian, born near Worcester,
+  Mass., 1800, died 1891. He was educated at Harvard and in Germany, where
+  he made the acquaintance of many literary men of note. In 1823 he
+  published a translation of Heeren's <i>Politics of Ancient Greece</i>,
+  and a small volume of poems, and was also meditating and collecting
+  materials for a history of the United States. Between 1834 and 1840 three
+  volumes of his history were published. In 1845 he was appointed Secretary
+  of the Navy, and effected many reforms and improvements in that
+  department. He was American ambassador to Britain from 1846 to 1849, when
+  the University of Oxford conferred on him the honorary degree of <span
+  class="scac">D.C.L.</span> He took the opportunity while in Europe to
+  perfect his collections on American history. He returned to New York in
+  1849, and began to prepare for the press the fourth and fifth volumes of
+  his history, which appeared in 1852. The sixth appeared in 1854, the
+  seventh in 1858, the eighth soon after, but the ninth did not appear till
+  1866. From 1867 to 1874 he was Minister Plenipotentiary at the Court of
+  Berlin. The tenth and last volume of his great <!-- Page 377 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page377"></a>[377]</span>work appeared in 1874.
+  An additional section appeared first as a separate work in 1882:
+  <i>History of the Formation of the Constitution of the United States</i>,
+  and the whole came out in 6 vols. in 1884-5. He has also published many
+  essays in the <i>North American Review</i> and other periodicals, a
+  selection from which was published in 1855 under the title of
+  <i>Miscellanies</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ban´croft</b>, Richard, born in Lancashire 1544, died 1610, studied
+  at Cambridge, entered the Church, and rose rapidly during the reign of
+  Elizabeth till he obtained the see of London in 1597. James I made him
+  Archbishop of Canterbury on the death of Whitgift. He suppressed the
+  Puritans mercilessly, and they in return never ceased to abuse him.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ban´croft</b>, Sir Squire, English actor, born in London in 1841.
+  After playing in Dublin and elsewhere he made his first appearance in
+  London, at the Prince of Wales's Theatre, in 1865. He married Miss Marie
+  Effie Wilton in 1867, and was knighted in 1897. In collaboration with his
+  wife he has written <i>The Bancrofts: Recollections of Sixty Years</i>
+  (1909).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banda</b>, a town and district of India, in the United Provinces.
+  The town stands on a plain on the right bank of the Ken River, 95 miles
+  <span class="scac">S.W.</span> from Allahabad, and is a considerable
+  cotton mart. Pop. 22,000.&mdash;Area of district 2965 sq. miles. Pop.
+  660,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banda Islands</b>, a group belonging to Holland, Indian
+  Archipelago, south of Ceram, Great Banda, the largest, being 12 miles
+  long by 2 broad. They are beautiful islands, of volcanic origin, yielding
+  quantities of nutmeg. Goenong Api, or Fire Mountain, is a cone-shaped
+  volcano which rises 2320 feet above the sea. Pop. 10,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bandajan´</b>, a pass over a range of the Himálaya, Kashmir State,
+  14,854 feet above sea-level.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bandan´na</b>, a variety of silk handkerchief having a
+  uniformly-dyed ground, usually of bright red or blue, ornamented with
+  white or yellow circular, lozenge-shaped, or other simple figures
+  produced by discharging the groundcolour.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banda Oriental.</b> See <i>Uruguay</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bandel´lo</b>, Matteo, an Italian writer of <i>novelle</i> or
+  tales, born about 1480, died about 1562. He was, in his youth, a
+  Dominican monk, and having been banished from Italy as a partisan of the
+  French, Henry II of France gave him in 1550 the bishopric of Agen. He
+  left the administration of his diocese to the Bishop of Grasse, and
+  employed himself, at the advanced age of seventy, in the completion of
+  his <i>novelle</i>. He also wrote poetry, but his fame rests on his
+  <i>novelle</i>, which are in the style of Boccaccio's <i>Decameron</i>
+  and the Queen of Navarre's <i>Heptameron</i>, and have been made use of
+  by Shakespeare, Massinger, and Beaumont and Fletcher.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bande Noire.</b> See <i>French Revolution</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Band-fish</b>, the popular name of fishes of the genus
+  Cep&#x14F;la, from their long, flat, thin bodies. <i>C. rubescens</i>, a
+  very fragile creature, is sometimes cast up on British shores. Also
+  called <i>Snake-fish</i>, <i>Ribbon-fish</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:37%;">
+      <a href="images/image146.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image146.jpg"
+      alt="Bandicoot" title="Bandicoot" /></a>
+    Pig-footed Bandicoot (<i>Chæropus castanotis</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Ban´dicoot</b> (Perameles), a genus of small Australian marsupials.
+  The most common species (<i>P. nasuta</i>), the long-nosed bandicoot,
+  measures about 1½ feet from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail.
+  It is not unlike an overgrown rat, and is most destructive to
+  farm-produce.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ban´dicoot Rat</b>, the <i>Mus gigant&#x113;us</i>, the largest
+  known species of rat, attaining the weight of 2 or 3 lb., and the length,
+  including the tail, of 24 to 30 inches. It is a native of India, and is
+  very abundant in Ceylon. Its flesh is said to be delicate and to resemble
+  young pork, and is a favourite article of diet with the coolies. It is
+  destructive upon rice-fields and gardens.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bandinelli</b>, Baccio, Italian sculptor, born at Florence 1493,
+  died there 1560. He was jealous of and strove to rival Michael Angelo.
+  Among his works are a <i>Hercules and Cacus</i>, <i>The Dead Body of
+  Christ held up by an Angel</i>, <i>Adam and Eve</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ban´dit</b>, It. <i>bandito</i>, originally an <i>exile</i>,
+  banished man, or outlaw, and hence, as persons outlawed frequently
+  adopted the profession of brigand or highwayman, the word came to be
+  synonymous with brigand, and is now applied to members of the organized
+  gangs which infest some districts of Italy, Sicily, Spain, Greece, and
+  Turkey.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Band of Hope.</b> See <i>Temperance</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ban´dolier</b>, a large leathern belt or baldrick, to which were
+  attached a bag for balls and a number of pipes or cases of wood or metal
+  covered with leather, each containing a charge of gunpowder. It was worn
+  by ancient musketeers, and hung from the left shoulder under the right
+  arm with the ball bag at the lower extremity, and the pipes suspended on
+  either side. The name is now given to a similar belt, worn by mounted
+  troops, for carrying cartridges. Another form of the word is
+  <i>bandoleer</i>. <!-- Page 378 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page378"></a>[378]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Ban´doline</b>, a gummy perfumed substance used to impart gloss and
+  stiffness to the hair.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ban´don</b>, a town, Ireland, County Cork, on both sides of the
+  Bandon. Pop. 3122.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bands</b>, a small article of clerical dress, made of linen, going
+  round the neck and hanging down in front for a short distance in two
+  pieces with square ends, supposed to be a relic of the amice.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baneberry</b>, or <b>Herb Christopher</b> (<i>Actæa
+  spic&#x101;ta</i>), a European plant, ord. Ranunculaceæ, local in
+  England, with a spike of white flowers and black, poisonous berries. Two
+  American species are considered remedies for rattlesnake bite.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banér</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-n&#x101;r´), Johan Gustafsson, a Swedish
+  general in the Thirty Years' War, born 1596, died 1641. He made his first
+  campaigns in Poland and Russia, and accompanied Gustavus Adolphus, who
+  held him in high esteem, to Germany. After the death of Gustavus in 1632
+  he had the chief command of the Swedish army, and in 1634 invaded
+  Bohemia, defeated the Saxons at Wittstock, 24th Sept., 1636, and took
+  Torgau. He ravaged Saxony again in 1639, gained another victory at
+  Chemnitz, and in 1640 defeated Piccolomini. In Jan., 1641, he very nearly
+  took Ratisbon by surprise.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banff</b> (bamf), county town of Banffshire, Scotland, a seaport on
+  the Moray Firth at the mouth of the Deveron. It is well built, carries on
+  some boat-building, and has ropeworks, a brewery, &amp;c., fishing and
+  shipping. Near the town are the county lunatic asylum, and Duff House, a
+  seat of the Duke of Fife, now public property; on the east side of the
+  Deveron is the town of Macduff, where an extensive fishing trade is
+  carried on. Banff is one of the Elgin burghs, which together return a
+  member to Parliament. Pop. 3517.&mdash;The county has an area of 403,053
+  acres. In the south it is mountainous; but the northern part is
+  comparatively low and fertile; principal rivers, the Spey and Deveron;
+  principal mountains, Cairngorm (4095 feet) and Ben Macdhui (4296 feet),
+  on its southern boundary. Little wheat is raised, the principal crops
+  being barley, oats, turnips, and potatoes. Fishing is an important
+  industry; as is also the distilling of whisky. Serpentine abounds in
+  several places, especially at Portsoy, where it is known as 'Portsoy
+  marble', and Scotch topazes or cairngorm stones are found on the
+  mountains in the south. Banffshire returns one member to Parliament. Pop.
+  (1921), 57,293.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banff</b>, a town of N.&nbsp;W. Canada, at the foot of the Rocky
+  Mountains, on the Canadian Pacific Railway, with National Park, hot
+  springs, coal-mines, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bang.</b> See <i>Bhang</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bangalore´</b>, a town of Hindustan, capital of Mysore, and giving
+  its name to a considerable district in the east of Mysore State. The town
+  stands on a healthy plateau 3000 feet above sea-level, has a total area
+  of nearly 14 sq. miles, and is one of the pleasantest British stations in
+  India. In the old town stands the fort, reconstructed by Hyder Ali in
+  1761, and taken by Lord Cornwallis in 1791. Under English administration
+  the town has greatly prospered in recent times. There are manufactures of
+  silks, cotton cloth, carpets, gold and silver lace, &amp;c. Pop.
+  189,485.&mdash;The Bangalore district has an area of 3070 sq. miles, of
+  which more than half represent cultivable land. Pop. about 760,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bangkok´</b>, or <b>Bankok</b>, the capital of the kingdom of Siam,
+  extending for several miles on both sides of the Menam, which falls into
+  the Gulf of Siam about 15 miles below. The inner city occupies an island
+  surrounded with walls and bastions, and contains the palace of the king
+  and other important buildings. The dwellings of the common people are of
+  wood or bamboo, often raised on piles; a large portion of the population,
+  however, dwell in boats or wooden houses erected on bamboo rafts moored
+  in the river, and forming a floating town. Temples are numerous and
+  lavishly decorated. Houses in the European style have been erected in
+  modern times, and the telegraph, telephone, gas, fire-engines, and
+  omnibuses introduced. A university with eight faculties has recently been
+  established. The trade, both inland and foreign, is very extensive, the
+  exports consisting chiefly of rice, sugar, silk, cotton, tobacco, pepper,
+  sesame, ivory, aromatic wood, cabinet woods, tin, hides, &amp;c.; and the
+  imports consisting chiefly of British cotton, woollen, and other goods.
+  Pop. 628,675, of whom about a half are Chinese. See <i>Siam</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ban´gor</b>, a city of North Wales, in Carnarvonshire,
+  picturesquely situated near the northern entrance of the Menai Strait. It
+  appears to have possessed a cathedral in the sixth century, which was
+  destroyed by the Normans in 1071. The present cathedral&mdash;the
+  third&mdash;only dates from the reign of Henry VII. It has a college of
+  the University of Wales (founded in 1903), and a Normal College. Bangor
+  has risen into importance as a popular resort; its principal trade is in
+  the export of slates from the neighbouring quarries. Pop. (1921),
+  11,032.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ban´gor</b>, a seaport town, Ireland, County Down, on the south
+  side of Belfast Lough. Principal trade: cotton, linen, and embroideries.
+  Pop. 7776.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ban´gor</b>, a port of the United States, in Maine, on the <span
+  class="scac">W.</span> side of Penobscot River, a flourishing and
+  pleasantly-situated town, and one of the largest lumber depots in the
+  world. The river is navigable to the town for vessels of the largest
+  size. Pop. (1920), 25,948. <!-- Page 379 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page379"></a>[379]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Bango´rian Controversy</b>, a controversy stirred up by a sermon
+  preached before George I in 1717 by Dr. Hoadly, Bishop of Bangor, from
+  the text "My kingdom is not of this world" (<i>John</i>, xviii, 36), in
+  which the bishop contended in the most pronounced manner for the
+  spiritual nature of Christ's kingdom. The controversy was carried on with
+  great heat for many years, and resulted in an enormous collection of
+  pamphlets.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bangs´ring.</b> See <i>Banxring</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bangweo´lo</b>, or <b>Bangweulu, Lake</b>, in South Africa, the
+  southernmost of the great lake reservoirs of the Congo, heard of in 1798,
+  was reached by Livingstone in 1868, an oval-shaped shallow sheet of
+  water, said to be 150 miles in length along its greater axis, from east
+  to west, and about 75 miles in width, but its exact limits are uncertain.
+  It was first circumnavigated by Poulett Weatherley in 1896. See
+  <i>Congo</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ban´ian</b>, or <b>Ban´yan</b>, an Indian trader or merchant, one
+  engaged in commerce generally, but more particularly one of the great
+  traders of Western India, as in the seaports of Bombay, Kurrachee,
+  &amp;c., who carry on a large trade by means of caravans with the
+  interior of Asia, and with Africa by vessels. They form a class of the
+  Vaisya caste, wear a peculiar dress, and are strict in the observance of
+  fasts and in abstaining from the use of flesh. Hence, <i>Banian days</i>,
+  days in which sailors in the navy had no flesh meat served out to them.
+  Banian days are now abolished, but the term is still applied to days of
+  poor fare.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banian Tree.</b> See <i>Banyan</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ba´nim</b>, John, an Irish novelist, dramatist, and poet, born in
+  1798, died 1842. His chief early work was a poem, <i>The Celt's
+  Paradise</i> (1821). Having settled in London, he made various
+  contributions to magazines and to the stage; but his fame rests on his
+  novels, particularly the <i>O'Hara Tales</i>, in which Irish life is
+  admirably portrayed. In these, as in some of his other publications, his
+  brother, Michael Banim (born 1796, died 1874), had an important share, if
+  not an equal claim to praise. The two brothers have been justly called
+  'the first national novelists of Ireland'.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banishment.</b> See <i>Exile</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ban´jarmassin</b>, a district and town in the south-east of Borneo,
+  under the government of the Dutch. The town is situated on an arm of the
+  Banjar, about 14 miles above its mouth, in a marshy locality, the houses
+  being built on piles, and many of them on rafts. Exports: pepper,
+  benzoin, bezoar, ratans, dragon's-blood, birds'-nests, &amp;c.; imports:
+  rice, salt, sugar, opium, &amp;c. Pop. 52,000, mostly Dyaks.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ban´jo</b> (a negro corruption of <i>bandore</i>; It.
+  <i>pandora</i>, from Lat. <i>pandura</i>, a three-stringed instrument),
+  the favourite musical instrument of the negroes of the Southern States of
+  America. It is six-stringed, has a body like a tambourine and a neck like
+  a guitar, and is played by stopping the strings with the fingers of the
+  left hand and twitching or striking them with the fingers of the right.
+  The upper or octave string, however, is never stopped. The banjo was
+  introduced into England in 1846.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banjoemas</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n´yö-ma<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>s), a town in Java, near the centre of
+  the island, well built and of commercial importance; it is 22 miles from
+  the coast, and is the residence of a Dutch governor. Pop. 6500.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banking and Banks.</b> Banks are establishments for the deposit,
+  custody, and repayment on demand of money, and obtain the bulk of their
+  profits from the investment of sums thus derived and not in immediate
+  demand. The term is a derivative of the <i>banco</i> or bench of the
+  early Italian money-dealers, being analogous in its origin to the terms
+  <i>trapez&#x12B;tai</i> (<i>trapeza</i>, a bench or table) applied to the
+  ancient Greek money-changers, and <i>mensarii</i> (<i>mensa</i>, a table)
+  applied to the public bankers of Rome.</p>
+
+  <p>In respect of constitution there is a broad division of banks into
+  public and private; public banks including such establishments as are
+  under any special state or municipal control or patronage, or whose
+  capital is in the form of stock or shares which are bought and sold in
+  the open market; private banks embracing those which are carried on by
+  one or more individuals without special authority or charter and under
+  the laws regulating ordinary trading companies. In respect of function
+  three kinds of banks may be discriminated: (1) banks of deposit merely,
+  receiving and returning money at the convenience of depositors; (2) banks
+  of discount or loan, borrowing money on deposit and lending it in the
+  discount of promissory notes, bills of exchange, and negotiable
+  securities; (3) banks of circulation or issue, which give currency to
+  promissory notes of their own, payable to bearer and serving as a medium
+  of exchange within the sphere of their banking operations. The more
+  highly-organized banks discharge all three functions, but all modern
+  banks unite the two first. For the successful working of a banking
+  establishment certain resources other than the deposits are of course
+  necessary, and the capital paid up by shareholders on their shares and
+  forming the substantial portion of their claim to public credit is held
+  upon a different footing from the sums received from depositors. It is
+  usually considered that for sound banking this capital should not be
+  traded with for the purpose of making gain in the same way as the moneys
+  deposited in the bank; and it is for the most part invested in Government
+  or other securities <!-- Page 380 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page380"></a>[380]</span>subject to little fluctuation in value and
+  readily convertible into money. But in any case prudence demands that a
+  <i>reserve</i> be kept sufficient to meet all probable requirements of
+  customers in event of commercial crises or minor panics. The reserve of
+  the banking department of the Bank of England is always in coin, or in
+  notes against which an equivalent value of coin and bullion is lying in
+  the issue department. In other English banks the reserve is usually kept
+  partly in gold and partly in Government stocks and Bank of England notes;
+  but it sometimes lies as a deposit in the Bank of England. The working
+  capital proper of a bank is constituted by moneys on deposit, for which
+  the bank may or may not pay interest; the advantages of security, of ease
+  in the transmission of payments, &amp;c., being regarded in the cases of
+  banks little affected by competition as a sufficient return to the
+  depositor. Thus the Bank of England pays no interest on deposits, while
+  the contrary practice has prevailed in Scotland since 1729, where
+  interest is paid on deposits although not on current accounts.</p>
+
+  <p>Of the methods of making profit upon the money of depositors, one of
+  the most common is to advance it in the discounting of bills of exchange
+  not having long periods (seldom more than three months with the Bank of
+  England) to run; the banker receiving the amounts of the bills from the
+  acceptors when the bills arrive at maturity. Loans or advances are also
+  often made by bankers upon exchequer bills or other Government
+  securities, on railway debentures or the stock of public companies of
+  various kinds, as well as upon goods lying in public warehouses, the
+  dock-warrant or certificate of ownership being transferred to the banker
+  in security. In the case of a well-established credit they may be
+  advanced upon notes of hand without other security. Money is less
+  commonly advanced by bankers upon mortgages on land, in which the money
+  loaned is almost invariably locked up for a number of years. To banks of
+  issue a further source of profit is open in their note circulation,
+  inasmuch as the bank is enabled to lend these notes, or promises to pay,
+  as if they were so much money and to receive interest on the loan
+  accordingly, as well as to make a profitable use of the money or property
+  that may be received in exchange for its notes, so long as the latter
+  remain in circulation. It is obvious, however, that this interest on its
+  loaned notes may not run over a very extended period, in that the person
+  to whom they are issued may at once return them to the bank to lie there
+  as a deposit and so may actually draw interest on them from the bank of
+  issue; or he may present them to be exchanged for coin, or by putting
+  them at once into circulation may ensure a certain number speedily
+  finding their way back through other hands or other banks to the
+  establishment from which he received them. A considerable number of the
+  notes issued will, however, be retained in circulation at the convenience
+  of the public as a medium of exchange; and on this circulating portion a
+  clear profit accrues. This rapid return of notes through other banks,
+  &amp;c., in exchange for portions of the reserve of the issuing bank, is
+  one of the restraints upon an issue of notes in excess of the ability of
+  the bank to meet them. In the United Kingdom a more obvious restraint
+  upon an unlimited note issue, originating partly in a desire for greater
+  security, partly in the belief that the note augmentation of the currency
+  might lead to harmful economic results in its influence upon prices, is
+  to be found in the Bank Acts of 1844 and 1845, which impose upon banks of
+  issue the necessity of keeping an equivalent in gold for all notes issued
+  beyond a certain fixed amount. The wisdom of these legal restrictions,
+  which are not uniform throughout the kingdom, and the desirability of the
+  acquisition and control by the State of the whole business of issue, are
+  still matters of debate.</p>
+
+  <p>In specific relation to his customer the banker occupies the position
+  of debtor to creditor, holding money which the customer may demand at any
+  time in whole or in part by means of a cheque payable at sight on
+  presentation during banking hours. For the refusal to cash a cheque from
+  the erroneous supposition that he has no funds of his customer's in his
+  hands, or for misleading statements respecting the position in which the
+  bank stands, the banker is legally responsible. Moreover, the law regards
+  him as bound to know his customer's signature, and the loss falls upon
+  him in event of his cashing a forged cheque. In their relations to the
+  community, the chief services rendered by banks are the following: By
+  receiving deposits of money they are the means by which the surplus
+  capital of one part of a country is transferred to another where it may
+  be advantageously employed in stimulating industry; they enable vast and
+  numerous money transactions to be carried on without the intervention of
+  coin or notes at all, thus obviating trouble, risk, and expense. The
+  mechanism by which the last of these benefits is secured is to be found
+  in perfection in the London Clearing House.</p>
+
+  <p>The modern tendency of banks is towards amalgamation. The large
+  English banking institutions have absorbed many of the smaller banks.
+  They have also made working arrangements with Scotch and Irish banks and
+  with similar institutions abroad.</p>
+
+  <p>The result of these amalgamations is to give control of immense
+  financial resources to a smaller number of banks. In 1918 the <!-- Page
+  381 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page381"></a>[381]</span>Government
+  appointed a Committee to inquire into the effect of such amalgamations
+  and absorptions. The terms of reference were: "To consider and report to
+  what extent, if at all, amalgamations between banks may affect
+  prejudicially the interests of the industrial and mercantile community,
+  and whether it is desirable that legislation should be introduced to
+  prohibit such amalgamations or to provide safeguards under which they
+  might continue to be permitted"; and the Committee reported: "That
+  legislation be passed requiring that the prior approval of the Government
+  must be obtained before any amalgamations are announced or carried into
+  effect".</p>
+
+  <p>In order, however, that such legislation may not have the effect of
+  producing secret amalgamations, the Committee decided that "all proposals
+  for agreements which would alter the status of a bank as regards its
+  separate entity and control, or for purchase by one bank of the shares of
+  another bank, be also submitted for the prior approval of the Government
+  before they are carried out".</p>
+
+  <p>Another development is the registration of the British Overseas Bank,
+  Limited, with a nominal capital of £5,000,000. The principal object of
+  this institution is to carry on general banking business in all parts of
+  the world. Four banks&mdash;two English, one Scotch, and one having
+  connections with South America&mdash;are financially interested in the
+  Overseas Bank.</p>
+
+  <p>Banking operations on a considerable scale appear to have been
+  conducted by the ancients, and recent excavations have proved that in the
+  seventh century <span class="scac">B.C.</span> banking was practised at
+  Bagdad by a firm of Egibi &amp; Sons. Modern banking, however, must be
+  regarded as having had an independent origin in the reviving civilization
+  of the Middle Ages. In the twelfth century almost the whole trade of
+  Europe was in the hands of the Italian cities, and it was in these that
+  the need of bankers was first felt. The earliest public bank, that of
+  Venice, established in 1171 and existing down to the dissolution of the
+  Republic in 1797, was for some time a bank of deposit only, the
+  Government being responsible for the deposits, and the whole capital
+  being in effect a public loan. In the early periods of the operations of
+  this bank deposits could not be withdrawn, but the depositor had a credit
+  at the bank to the amount deposited, this credit being transferable to
+  another person in place of money payment. Subsequently deposits were
+  allowed to be withdrawn, the original system proving inconvenient outside
+  the Venetian boundaries. It is, however, less from the Bank of Venice
+  than from the Florentine bankers of the thirteenth and fourteenth
+  centuries that modern banking specially dates, the magnitude of their
+  operations being indicated by the fact that between 1430 and 1433, 76
+  bankers of Florence issued on loan nearly 5,000,000 gold florins. The
+  Bank of St. George at Genoa also furnished a striking chapter in
+  financial history. The important Bank of Amsterdam, taken by Adam Smith
+  as a type of the older banks, was established in 1509, and owed its
+  origin to the fluctuation and uncertainty induced by the clipped and worn
+  currency. The object of the institution (established under guarantee of
+  the city) was to give a certain and unquestionable value to a bill on
+  Amsterdam; and for this purpose the various coins were received in
+  deposit at the bank at their real value in standard coin, less a small
+  charge for recoinage and expense of management. For the amount deposited
+  a credit was opened on the books of the bank, by the transfer of which
+  payments could be made, this so-called <i>bank money</i> being of uniform
+  value as representing money at the mint standard. It bore, therefore, an
+  <i>agio</i> or premium above the worn-coin currency, and it was legally
+  compulsory to make all payments of 600 guilders and upwards in bank
+  money. The deposits were supposed to remain in the coffers of the bank,
+  but they were secretly traded with in the eighteenth century till the
+  collapse of the bank in 1790. Banks of a similar character were
+  established at Nuremberg and other towns, the most important being the
+  Bank of Hamburg, founded in 1619. In England there was no corresponding
+  institution, the London merchants being in the habit of lodging their
+  money at the Mint in the Tower, until Charles I appropriated the whole of
+  it (£200,000) in 1640. Thenceforth they lodged it with the goldsmiths,
+  who began to do banking business in a small way, encouraging deposits by
+  allowing interest for their use, lending money for short periods,
+  discounting bills, &amp;c. The bank-note was first invented and issued in
+  1690 by the Bank of Stockholm, founded by Palmstruck in 1688, and one of
+  the most successful of banking establishments. About the same time the
+  banks of England and Scotland began to take shape, opening up a new era
+  in the financing of commerce and industry.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Bank of England.</i>&mdash;The Bank of England, the most important
+  banking establishment in the world, was projected by William Paterson,
+  who was afterwards the promoter of the disastrous Darien scheme. It was
+  the first public bank in the United Kingdom, and was chartered in 1694 by
+  an Act which, among other things, secured certain recompenses to such
+  persons as should advance the sum of £1,500,000 towards carrying on the
+  war against France. Subscribers to the loan became, under the Act,
+  stockholders, to the amount of their respective subscriptions, <!-- Page
+  382 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page382"></a>[382]</span>in the
+  capital stock of a corporation, denominated the <i>Governor and Company
+  of the Bank of England</i>. The company thus formed advanced to the
+  Government £1,200,000 at an interest of 8 per cent&mdash;the Government
+  making an additional bonus or allowance to the bank of £4000 annually for
+  the management of this loan (which, in fact, constituted the capital of
+  the bank), and for settling the interest and making transfers, &amp;c.,
+  among the various stockholders. This bank, like that of Venice, was thus
+  originally an engine of the Government, and not a mere commercial
+  establishment. Its capital has been added to from time to time, the
+  original capital of £1,200,000 having increased to £14,553,000 in 1816,
+  since which no further augmentation has taken place. There exists
+  besides, however, a variable 'rest' of over £3,000,000. The charter of
+  the bank was originally granted for eleven years certain, or till a
+  year's notice after 1st Aug., 1705. It was subsequently renewed for
+  various periods in 1697, 1708, 1713, 1742, 1764, 1781, 1800, 1833, and
+  1844, certain conditions which the bank had to fulfil being specified at
+  each renewal. On this last occasion it was continued till twelve months'
+  notice from 1855. At the same time the issue department of the bank was
+  established as distinct from the general banking department, the sole
+  business entrusted to the former being the issue of notes. By this
+  arrangement the bank was authorized to issue notes to the value of
+  £14,000,000 upon securities specially set apart, the most important of
+  the securities being the sum of £11,015,100 due to the bank by the
+  Government, together with so much of the coin and bullion then held by
+  the bank as was not required by the banking department. The bank has
+  since been permitted to increase its issue on securities to £18,450,000,
+  but for every note that the issue department may issue beyond the total
+  sum of £18,450,000 an equivalent amount of coin or bullion must be paid
+  into the coffers of the bank. For its special privileges the bank has to
+  pay to the Government an annual sum of £180,000, and the profit derived
+  from the issue of notes beyond £14,000,000. The Bank of England notes are
+  practically equivalent to gold. They are (like all English bank-notes) of
+  the value of £5 and upwards, and are legal tender throughout England.
+  Notes once issued by the bank and returned to it are not reissued but are
+  destroyed&mdash;a system adopted in order to facilitate the keeping of an
+  account of the numbers of the notes in circulation, and so prevent
+  forgery. On 7th Aug., 1914, Government notes for £1, and ten shillings,
+  were issued convertible into gold at the Bank of England.</p>
+
+  <p>In compliance also with the Bank Charter Act of 1844 the bank is
+  compelled to publish a weekly account, of which the following is a
+  specimen:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Weekly Account." title="Weekly Account.">
+<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="4"><i>Dr</i>. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <span class="sc">Issue Department.</span> Week ending 11th August, 1920 &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp; <i>Cr</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Notes issued </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:right;"> £139,980,460 </td><td class="spacsingle"> Government debt </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> £11,015,100</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:right;"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Other securities </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 7,434,900</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:right;"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gold coin and bullion </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 121,530,460</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:right;"> </td><td class="spacsingle"> Silver bullion </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> &mdash;&mdash; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:right;border-top : 1px solid black;"> £139,980,460 </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;border-top : 1px solid black;"> £139,980,460</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"> &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:center;" colspan="4">&nbsp; &nbsp;<i>Dr</i>. &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <span class="sc">Banking Department</span> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <i>Cr</i>.&nbsp; &nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Capital </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:right;"> £14,553,000 </td><td class="spacsingle"> Government securities </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> £68,250,449</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Rest </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:right;"> 3,458,795 </td><td class="spacsingle"> Other securities </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 73,805,565</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Public deposits </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:right;"> 15,999,059 </td><td class="spacsingle"> Notes </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 14,452,665</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Other deposits </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:right;"> 124,018,988 </td><td class="spacsingle"> Gold and silver coin </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;"> 1,537,092</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> Seven-day and other bills </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:right;"> 15,929 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="rightbsing" style="text-align:right;border-top : 1px solid black;"> £158,045,771 </td><td class="spacsingle"> </td><td class="spacsingle" style="text-align:right;border-top : 1px solid black;"> £158,045,771</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+  <p>The total of the notes given out by the issue department is called the
+  'issue circulation', the portion of it in the hands of the public being
+  the 'active circulation', and that still in the banking department being
+  the 'note reserve'. This 'note reserve' represents really the amount of
+  bullion in the issue department available for the use of the banking
+  department. Of the other items in the account it may be noted that the
+  proprietors' 'rest' is a varying surplus increased always by accumulated
+  profits up to 5th April and 10th Oct., when the bank dividends are paid
+  to the shareholders; and that the public deposits, which include sums
+  lodged on account of the customs, inland revenue, &amp;c., increase
+  through revenue receipts until the dividend terms in January, April,
+  July, and October. The other or private deposits comprise those of
+  bankers, merchants, and other persons. An increase in these private
+  deposits indicates an increase of monetary ease, while a decrease informs
+  us that bankers, merchants, and traders have calls upon them for money. A
+  better indication of the demand for money is furnished, however, by the
+  advances on commercial securities, and it is by this and the condition of
+  the reserve that the bank rate of discount is regulated. When the reserve
+  is high and the advances moderate the discount rate is low, and it is
+  raised according as the reserve falls and advances are more in request,
+  especially during an adverse foreign exchange and drain of gold. Gold is
+  thus restrained from going abroad, and its influx into <!-- Page 383
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page383"></a>[383]</span>the country is
+  encouraged. In addition to the profit which the bank may make by ordinary
+  banking business, by the Bank Act of 1892 and the Revenue Act of 1906, it
+  receives an allowance for the management of the national debt, at the
+  rate of £325 per million on 500 millions, and £100 per million on all
+  debt above that sum. The annual sum is not to be less than £160,000. It
+  also derives a profit from foreign gold coin and bullion brought to it,
+  for which it pays £3, 17<i>s.</i> 9<i>d.</i>, or 1½<i>d.</i> per ounce
+  less than the real value.</p>
+
+  <p>The management of the bank is in the hands of a governor,
+  deputy-governor, and twenty-four directors, elected by stock-holders who
+  have held £500 of stock for six months previous to the election. A
+  director is required to hold £2000, a deputy-governor £3000, and a
+  governor £4000 of the stock. The court or board of directors meets every
+  Thursday, when the weekly account is presented. The Bank of England has
+  branches in Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Birmingham, Leeds, Hull,
+  Bristol, Plymouth, and Portsmouth.</p>
+
+  <p>The other English banks consist of numerous joint-stock and private
+  banks in London and the provinces, many of the provincial establishments
+  of both kinds having the right to issue notes. Private banks in London
+  with not more than six partners have never been prevented from issuing
+  notes, but they could not profitably compete with the Bank of England.
+  The maximum issues of the provincial banks are limited to a certain
+  amount, against which they are not compelled to hold gold in reserve, and
+  they have no power to issue against specie in excess of the fixed
+  circulation. Their actual issues are considerably below this amount. No
+  union can take place between a joint-stock bank and a private bank, or
+  between two joint-stock banks of issue, without one of them losing its
+  issue. Their total authorized circulation is about £2,958,900, but the
+  actual circulation of these banks is now only about £1,200,000, being
+  distributed among about eighteen private and about twenty joint-stock
+  banks. The notes of these banks are payable in Bank of England paper. The
+  greater number of joint-stock banks are of limited liability, though
+  their liability in respect of their notes is unlimited. Some of them have
+  a large number of branches. All the joint-stock banks allow interest on
+  money deposited with them. The total paid-up capital and reserves of the
+  English joint-stock banks is about £100,000,000.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Scotland</i>.&mdash;In Scotland there are no private banks, the
+  only banks in that portion of the United Kingdom being eight joint-stock
+  banks of issue, and their branches (the Mercantile and Savings not being
+  banks of issue). By the Act of 1845 new banks of issue were prohibited, a
+  monopoly being given to such establishments (nineteen in number) as
+  existed in the year previous to 1st May, 1845. At the same time the issue
+  of each was limited to the amount of its average circulation during that
+  year, together with the specie held at the head office. Any bank issuing
+  notes in excess of this limit is supposed to hold an equivalent amount of
+  gold. The aggregate authorized circulation is now £2,676,350; the average
+  actual circulation is fully £7,000,000. The Bank of Scotland, established
+  by Act of Parliament in 1695, had for its original capital only £100,000,
+  increased to £200,000 in 1744; but it now has a capital of £1,325,000
+  paid up. It remained the only bank in Scotland till the Royal Bank of
+  Scotland was established in 1727, with an original capital of £151,000,
+  which has grown to £2,000,000 paid up. The British Linen Company was
+  incorporated in 1746, for the purpose of promoting the linen manufacture,
+  but soon became a general banking company; capital, £1,250,000 paid up.
+  These three banks claim to be by their charters banks of limited
+  liability. All the other Scottish banks have been established within the
+  nineteenth century. They are all incorporated by royal charter or Act of
+  Parliament, which enables them to sue and be sued as a corporation, and
+  latterly they have all become banks of limited liability, except that
+  their liability is not to be limited in respect to their note issue. The
+  total paid-up capital of the Scotch banks is £9,300,000. A large number
+  of one-pound notes circulate in Scotland, thus tending to keep the
+  requirements for gold low. From allowing a moderate rate of interest on
+  deposit accounts (although not on current accounts) it is not uncommon
+  for depositors in Scottish banks to lodge their money permanently as an
+  investment; and the habit of keeping an account with a banker is much
+  more general in Scotland than in England, branch offices of the banks
+  being very numerous. Several of the Scotch banks have branch offices in
+  London, but of course they cannot issue their own notes from these
+  offices. The Scotch banks have enjoyed a high reputation for stability,
+  and though public confidence was somewhat shaken by the failure of the
+  Western Bank in 1857, and even more rudely by that of the City of Glasgow
+  Bank in 1878, their shares are generally looked upon as a safe and
+  remunerative investment. Their total deposits amount to fully
+  £107,000,000.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Ireland.</i>&mdash;The banks in Ireland consist of one public or
+  national bank, the Bank of Ireland, and of sundry joint-stock and private
+  banks. The authorized note circulation is arranged on the same footing as
+  that of the Scotch banks. If any bank discontinues its issue and issues
+  notes of the Bank of Ireland, the circulation of <!-- Page 384 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page384"></a>[384]</span>the latter may be to an
+  equal amount increased. The authorized circulation is £6,354,494; the
+  actual circulation is sometimes a little above, sometimes a little below.
+  The Bank of Ireland, which was established by charter in 1783 with
+  similar privileges to those granted to the Bank of England, has lent the
+  greater portion of its capital to Government. Its capital is £2,769,230
+  (or £3,000,000 Irish); it has also a rest or reserve of over £1,000,000.
+  The bank allows interest on deposits when lodged for a stated period.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Banque de France.</i>&mdash;The Bank of France is second in
+  importance only to the Bank of England. It was established in the
+  beginning of the nineteenth century, at first with a capital of
+  45,000,000 francs, and with the exclusive privilege in Paris of issuing
+  notes payable to bearer, a privilege which was extended in 1848 to cover
+  the whole of France. It has numerous branches in the larger towns, a
+  number of these having been acquired in 1848, when certain joint-stock
+  banks of issue were by Government decree incorporated with the Bank of
+  France, the capital of which was then increased to 91,250,000 francs
+  (£3,650,000), in 91,250 shares of 1000 francs each. In 1857 the capital
+  was doubled, and besides this it has a large surplus capital or rest.
+  Like the Bank of England, it is a bank of deposit, discount, and
+  circulation, and is a large creditor of the State. The Government
+  appoints the governor and the two deputy-governors, who are all required
+  to be stockholders. There is also a body of fifteen directors and three
+  censors, nominated by the shareholders. The value of its note circulation
+  in March, 1922, was 36,225,852,000 francs.</p>
+
+  <p><i>British Colonies.</i>&mdash;With regard to the banks in British
+  colonies little need be said. All the more important are joint-stock
+  concerns, and they are carried on subject to Acts passed by the
+  respective colonial legislatures. Some of them have their head-quarters
+  in London, and have been established by English capital. In Canada the
+  banks are not allowed to issue notes of lower denominations than five
+  dollars, notes for one and two dollars and higher amounts being issued by
+  the Dominion Government; and the banking laws are such that there is no
+  possibility of holders of bank-notes being losers by them. The total
+  paid-up capital of the Canadian banks is about £20,000,000; their total
+  deposits about £135,000,000.</p>
+
+  <p><i>United States.</i>&mdash;The more important of the banks of the
+  United States are what are called national banks, established in
+  accordance with an Act passed in 1863. Associations of this kind at
+  starting must invest at least a third of their paid-up capital in
+  Government bonds, which pay them an interest of 4 per cent more or less.
+  They then obtain from the Government bureau, established for the purpose,
+  90 per cent of paper-money sheets, which they sign and pay out, this
+  constituting their note circulation. These banks pay no interest to
+  depositors. Besides the notes of these banks a large portion of the
+  currency of the United States consists of Government notes issued from
+  the national treasury. There are also banks chartered by the different
+  States and private banks.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Savings-banks</i> are banks established for the receiving of small
+  sums, so as to be taken advantage of by the poorer classes, and they are
+  carried on entirely for the benefit of the depositors. They are of
+  comparatively recent origin, one of the earliest having been an
+  institution in which small sums were received, and interest allowed on
+  them, established by Mrs. Priscilla Wakefield, at Tottenham, near London,
+  in 1803. The first savings-bank in Scotland was formed in 1810 by the
+  Rev. Henry Duncan, of Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire. In 1814 the Edinburgh
+  savings-bank was established on the same principles, and the system soon
+  spread over the kingdom. The first Act relating to savings-banks was
+  passed in 1817. By it all deposits in savings-banks, as soon as they
+  reached £50, were placed in the hands of the National Debt Commissioners,
+  who allowed interest on them. In 1824 it was enacted that the deposits
+  for the first year should not exceed £50, nor those in subsequent years
+  £30, the total deposits being limited to £150, and interest ceasing to be
+  paid when accrued interest made the total £200. By the Act of 1893 the
+  limit of annual deposit was raised to £50, and the interest is now rather
+  less than 3 per cent. An Act of 1833 had provided for the purchase of
+  Government annuities by depositors either for life or for a term of
+  years; and an annuity of any amount up to £100 may now be obtained.
+  Depositors in savings-banks (by an Act of 1880) can also have their money
+  invested for them in Government stock, the banks collecting and paying
+  the dividends; and when accrued interest raises an account above £200 the
+  excess is now so invested for the depositor. The total amount invested by
+  one person in Government stock is not to exceed £500, nor £200 in one
+  year. These banks are managed by local trustees having no personal
+  interest in the business, and by certain paid officers. A new class of
+  savings-banks, namely, <i>Post Office Savings-banks</i>, was established
+  in Britain in connection with the money-order department of the Post
+  Office in 1861. Any sum not less than a shilling is received, provided
+  that the total amount banked does not exceed £50 in one year, or more
+  than £200 in all; the excess of accrued interest above this being
+  invested in Government stock. Interest is paid on every complete pound at
+  the rate of 2½ per cent. For the deposits the Government is <!-- Page 385
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page385"></a>[385]</span>responsible,
+  and they may be drawn from any Post Office Savings-bank in the kingdom.
+  These savings-banks have become very numerous, and much of the funds
+  formerly in the trustees' savings-banks has been transferred to them. The
+  total amount deposited in the old banks is now about £52,000,000, in the
+  new about £157,600,000. The regulations regarding the purchase of
+  Government stock and annuities correspond with those given above.
+  Savings-banks are now well known in all civilized countries, and the good
+  they have done is incalculable. In the United States there is an enormous
+  amount of money deposited in them. Post Office Savings-banks have been
+  proposed to be established in the States, but have not yet been so. In
+  Canada, Australia, and other British colonies they are established, as
+  well as savings-banks of several other kinds. School savings-banks are
+  the most recent institutions of this kind, and have had a marked effect
+  for good.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Bank Holidays</i>, in England and Ireland, Good Friday, Easter
+  Monday, Whit Monday, first Monday in August, Christmas and following day,
+  or 27th (if next day is a Sunday); in Scotland, New-Year's Day, first
+  Monday of May and August and Christmas.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bankrupt</b> (from It. <i>banca rotta</i> 'bank broken' or 'bench
+  broken'. Dr. Johnson said that the word originated from the Italian
+  custom of breaking the bench of an insolvent money-changer; but
+  <i>rotta</i> also means 'interrupted' or 'stopped', and is here used more
+  in the sense of our colloquial word <i>broken</i>, and means
+  'insolvent'), a person whom the law does or may take cognizance of as
+  unable to pay his debts. Properly it is of narrower signification than
+  <i>insolvent</i>, an insolvent person simply being unable to pay all his
+  debts. In England up till 1861 the term <i>bankrupt</i> was limited to an
+  insolvent trader, and such traders were on a different footing from other
+  insolvent persons, the latter not getting the same legal relief from
+  their debts. In all civilized communities laws have been passed regarding
+  bankruptcy. At present bankruptcy in England is regulated by the
+  Bankruptcy Acts of 1883 and 1890, which have as one chief feature the
+  intervention of the Board of Trade in the proceedings, with the object of
+  obtaining full official supervision and control. A bankruptcy petition
+  may be presented either by a creditor or a debtor. A creditor's petition
+  must be founded on a debt of not less than fifty pounds, due to one or
+  more creditors, and on an 'act of bankruptcy' committed by the debtor
+  within three months before the presentation of the petition. A debtor
+  commits an act of bankruptcy if he makes a conveyance of his property to
+  a trustee for the benefit of his creditors; if he makes a fraudulent
+  transfer of any part of his property; if, to defeat or delay his
+  creditors, he conceal himself either at home or abroad; if execution
+  issued against him has been enforced by seizure and sale of his goods
+  under process in an action in any court; if he files in court a
+  declaration of inability to pay his debts, or presents a bankruptcy
+  petition against himself; if a creditor has obtained a final judgment
+  against him for any amount and he fail to pay the judgment debt without
+  satisfactory reason; or if the debtor gives notice to any of his
+  creditors that he has suspended, or is about to suspend, payment of his
+  debts. In London jurisdiction in bankruptcy now rests with the High Court
+  of Justice, while the county courts continue to have jurisdiction in
+  bankruptcy outside the London district. When the court is satisfied as to
+  the petition, a 'receiving order' is issued to protect the debtor's
+  estate by constituting the official appointed by the Board of Trade
+  receiver of the debtor's property, and to stay the remedies of all
+  creditors until the meeting of creditors. The debtor must make out a full
+  statement of his affairs, accounting as best he can for his insolvency.
+  The official receiver summons the meeting of creditors, a summary of the
+  debtor's affairs being sent to each creditor with the notice of the
+  meeting, which is also advertised in the <i>London Gazette</i>. The
+  creditors must send to the official receiver, one day before the meeting,
+  sworn proofs of their claims to enable them to vote. At the meeting the
+  creditors (unless the debtor's proposal for a composition or scheme be
+  entertained) pass a resolution adjudging the debtor bankrupt, and appoint
+  a trustee of the bankrupt's property, with a committee of inspection
+  selected from their own body to superintend the administration of the
+  bankrupt's property by the trustee, who divides the available realized
+  assets amongst all creditors who have sent sworn proofs of claims. Rates,
+  assessments, and taxes, and all wages or salary of a clerk, servant,
+  labourer, or workman during four months before the date of the receiving
+  order not exceeding £50 are paid in priority to all other debts. The
+  trustee is required to give satisfactory security to the Board of Trade,
+  by which his accounts are audited not less than twice in each year. All
+  moneys received by the trustee under the bankruptcy must be paid
+  forthwith to an account kept at the Bank of England by the Board of
+  Trade, called the 'Bankruptcy Estates Account'. The debtor is bound to be
+  publicly examined upon oath in court, and any creditor who has tendered a
+  proof, or his representative, may take part in the examination. Until the
+  debtor has passed his public examination he cannot apply for an order of
+  discharge, and upon proof of misdemeanour the court refuses or <!-- Page
+  386 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page386"></a>[386]</span>suspends
+  the discharge. A discharged bankrupt is disqualified for five years from
+  acting as member of Parliament, justice of peace, alderman, overseer of
+  the poor, county councillor, or as a member of any school, highway, or
+  burial board. An undischarged bankrupt obtaining credit to the extent of
+  £20 or upwards from any person, without informing such person of his
+  status, is guilty of a misdemeanour. By the Act of 1883 the creditors may
+  at the first meeting resolve to entertain a proposal for a composition or
+  scheme of arrangement of the debtor's affairs, but the composition or
+  scheme shall not be binding on the creditors, unless confirmed at a
+  second meeting by a majority in number representing three-fourths in
+  value of all the creditors who have proved. The composition or scheme has
+  then to be formally brought before the court for approval, which may be
+  refused. A composition or scheme may be sanctioned by the court after the
+  debtor's adjudication as a bankrupt, and in this case the bankruptcy is
+  annulled. Though imprisonment for debt has been abolished, fraudulent
+  bankrupts may be punished, and the conduct of prosecutions for offences
+  arising out of any bankruptcy proceeding falls to the public prosecutor.
+  The estates of persons dying insolvent may be administered according to
+  the law of bankruptcy. The Act of 1913 embodies suggestions of the
+  Bankruptcy Law Amendment Committee of 1906. Thus, the Summary
+  Jurisdiction Act can now be applied to offenders under the Debtors' Act.
+  Whereas previously conviction for such offences as failure to keep proper
+  accounts and concealment of debt could only be by trial before a jury,
+  they are punishable after summary trial before a stipendiary magistrate
+  or justice of the peace, the onus of proving innocence falling on the
+  debtor. A married woman, too, may be made bankrupt even if not trading
+  separately from her husband.</p>
+
+  <p>According to Scots law bankruptcy is notorious insolvency, that is, a
+  public acknowledgment of inability to discharge obligations. By a
+  judicial proceeding, called <i>sequestration</i>, authorized by the Court
+  of Session or sheriff court, on the petition of the debtor himself with
+  the concurrence of one creditor swearing to a debt of £50, two whose
+  debts together amount to £70, or of any number of creditors whose debts
+  together amount to £100; or on the petition of a creditor or creditors to
+  the foregoing extent without the concurrence of the debtor, if he has
+  clearly shown himself to be insolvent (or a <i>notour bankrupt</i>), the
+  whole estates and effects of the debtor, real and personal, are legally
+  taken for behoof of the creditors. The debtor's estate is then made over
+  to a trustee chosen by the creditors, the trustee being charged to bring
+  the whole estate into the form of money, with certain precautions, and to
+  receive, investigate, and reject or admit the claims of the creditors,
+  subject to review of the Court of Session or sheriff court by summary
+  petition. The debtor, and all who can give information as to the estate,
+  must submit to public examination on oath before the sheriff of the
+  county, and the debtor may thereafter, or by petition after six, twelve,
+  or eighteen months from sequestration, be discharged of all debts by the
+  court with consent of the creditors or a number of them, or at the expiry
+  of two years without consent. These proceedings may be partly superseded
+  by 'composition' if such be assented to by a majority in number and
+  nine-tenths in value of creditors, or by a majority in number and
+  four-fifths in value of the creditors, according to the period at which
+  such arrangement may be proposed. They may also be terminated by a deed
+  of arrangement entered into between the bankrupt and a majority in number
+  and four-fifths in value of his creditors, approved of by the court.
+  Before a discharge is given there must be a report from the trustee as to
+  the conduct of the bankrupt, whether he has complied with the provisions
+  of the Act, whether his bankruptcy is culpable or not, &amp;c. Before the
+  abolition of imprisonment for ordinary civil debts by Act passed in 1880,
+  an insolvent debtor often took advantage of a form of process by which,
+  on making a complete <i>cessio bonorum</i>, or surrender to his creditors
+  of all his property, he might obtain protection from imprisonment. Though
+  no person can now be imprisoned for ordinary debts, a creditor of a
+  <i>notour</i> bankrupt may present a petition to the sheriff, praying him
+  to decern that the debtor assign over all his goods for behoof of his
+  creditors and that a trustee be appointed; and this proceeding is still
+  designated a process of <i>cessio bonorum</i>. The Act of 1880 also
+  provides for the better punishment of fraudulent debtors in Scotland. If
+  the debtor's liabilities exceed £200, the sheriff may award
+  <i>sequestration</i> of the debtor's estate instead of <i>cessio
+  bonorum</i>. There is no appeal from the sheriff's decision with respect
+  to discharge.</p>
+
+  <p>In Ireland there is a special code of bankruptcy contained in special
+  Acts, differing to some extent from the regulations prevailing both in
+  England and Scotland. Thus in Ireland it is not an offence for an
+  undischarged bankrupt to obtain credit to any amount without disclosing
+  the fact of his bankruptcy. All bankruptcy business comes before the
+  court at Dublin, Belfast, or Cork. Imprisonment for debt was abolished in
+  1872.</p>
+
+  <p>Official returns in Great Britain show a tendency towards a smaller
+  number of failures, but a larger amount of money is involved. <!-- Page
+  387 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page387"></a>[387]</span></p>
+
+  <p>In the different British colonies the laws regulating bankruptcy
+  naturally differ, and the same is the case with the individual States of
+  the American Union, though Congress has the power of legislating for the
+  whole country in regard to this, and has oftener than once done
+  so.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: H. Goudy, <i>Treatise of
+  the Law of Bankruptcy in Scotland</i>; Sir R.&nbsp;H. J. Palgrave,
+  <i>Dictionary of Political Economy</i>; E.&nbsp;T. Baldwin, <i>The Law of
+  Bankruptcy and Bills of Sale</i>; Sir R.&nbsp;L.&nbsp;V. Williams, <i>The Law and
+  Practice of Bankruptcy</i>; R. Ringwood, <i>The Principles of
+  Bankruptcy</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banks</b>, Sir Joseph, Baronet, a distinguished naturalist, born in
+  London 1743. After studying at Harrow and Eton he went to Oxford in 1760,
+  and formed there amongst his fellow-undergraduates a voluntary class in
+  botany, &amp;c. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1766, and
+  soon after went to Newfoundland and Hudson's Bay to collect plants. In
+  1768, with Dr. Solander, a Swedish gentleman, pupil of Linnæus, and then
+  assistant librarian at the British Museum, he accompanied Cook's
+  expedition as naturalist. In 1772 he visited Iceland along with Dr.
+  Solander, and during this voyage the Hebrides were examined, and the
+  columnar formation of the rocks of Staffa first made known to geologists.
+  In 1777 Banks was chosen President of the Royal Society, and in 1781 was
+  made a baronet, and in 1795 received the Order of the Bath. He wrote only
+  essays, papers for learned societies, and short treatises. He died in
+  1820, and bequeathed his collections to the British Museum.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banks</b>, Thomas, an English sculptor, born in 1735, died in 1805.
+  He studied sculpture in the Royal Academy, where he obtained the gold
+  medal for a bas-relief of the <i>Rape of Proserpine</i>. In 1772 he went
+  to Italy, where he executed several excellent pieces, particularly
+  <i>Cupid tormenting a Butterfly</i>, which was afterwards purchased by
+  the Empress Catherine. On leaving Italy he spent two unsatisfactory years
+  in Russia, and then returned to England, where he was soon after made an
+  Academician. One of his best-known works is <i>Shakespeare attended by
+  Painting and Poetry</i>. Among his other works was a colossal
+  statue&mdash;<i>Achilles mourning the loss of Briseis</i>&mdash;in the
+  hall of the British Institution, and the monument of Sir Eyre Coote in
+  Westminster Abbey. His bust of Warren Hastings is in the National
+  Gallery.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bank´sia</b> (named after Sir Joseph Banks), a genus of Australian
+  shrubs and trees, order Proteaceæ, with leathery leaves generally
+  dark-green on the upper surface and pale below, often cultivated in
+  conservatories for their peculiar foliage and flowers. They are named
+  "honeysuckles" by the colonists, from the honey the flowers contain.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banks´ring.</b> See <i>Banxring</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bankura´</b>, a town of Bengal, on the Dhalkisor River, healthy and
+  with a considerable trade Pop. 21,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bann</b>, Upper and Lower, two rivers in the N. of Ireland, the
+  former rising in the mountains of Mourne, County Down, and, after flowing
+  38 miles in a northerly direction, falling into Lough Neagh, the latter
+  being the outlet of Lough Neagh, and falling into the Atlantic Ocean 4
+  miles below Coleraine, after a course of nearly 40 miles.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ban´natyne Club</b>, a literary society instituted in Edinburgh
+  (1823) by Sir Walter Scott (its first president), David Laing (secretary
+  till its dissolution in 1861), Archibald Constable, and Thomas Thomson.
+  It started with thirty-one members, subsequently extended to 100, having
+  as its object the printing of rare works on Scottish history, literature,
+  geography, &amp;c. It derived its name from George Bannatyne (1545-1609),
+  the collector of the famous MS. of early Scottish poetry.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ban´neret</b>, formerly, in England, a knight made on the field of
+  battle as a reward for bravery, with the ceremony of cutting off the
+  point of his pennon and making it a banner. The first banneret in England
+  was made by King Edward I, and the last (John Smith) by Charles I after
+  the battle of Edgehill in 1642.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ban´nock</b>, a cake made of oatmeal, barley-meal, or peasemeal
+  baked on an iron plate or griddle over the fire. From a supposed
+  resemblance the turbot is sometimes called in Scotland the
+  <i>Bannock-fluke</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bannockburn</b>, a village of Scotland, in Stirlingshire, 2 miles
+  <span class="scac">S.E.</span> Stirling, famous for the decisive battle
+  in which King Robert Bruce of Scotland defeated Edward II of England, on
+  the 24th June, 1314. It has manufactures of woollens, such as tartans,
+  carpets, &amp;c.; pop. 4103.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banns of Marriage</b>, public notice of the intended celebration of
+  a marriage given either by proclamation, viva voce, by a clergyman,
+  session-clerk, or precentor in some religious assembly, or by posting up
+  written notice in some public place. Dissent of parents or guardians
+  renders null and void the publication of the banns of minors. In France
+  the banns must be published on two distinct Sundays, and the marriage
+  cannot take place until three days after the second publication. In
+  America the practice is confined to the Roman Catholics, although it is
+  still recognized in the statutes of some of the States.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bannu</b>, a district in the north-west of Hindustan, traversed by
+  the Indus; area, 3847 sq. miles; pop. 390,000, nearly half being
+  Afghans.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banquette</b> (bang-ket´) in fortification, the <!-- Page 388
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page388"></a>[388]</span>elevation of
+  earth behind a parapet, on which the garrison or defenders may stand. The
+  height of the parapet above the banquette is usually about 4 feet 6
+  inches; the breadth of the banquette from 2½ or 3 feet to 4 or 6 feet,
+  according to the number of ranks to occupy it. It is frequently made
+  double, that is, a second is made still lower.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banshee´</b>, or <b>Benshi´</b>, a fairy woman believed in Ireland
+  and some parts of Scotland to attach herself to a particular house, and
+  to appear or make her presence known by wailing before the death of one
+  of the family.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ban´tam</b>, a residency occupying the whole of the <span
+  class="scac">W.</span> end of the Island of Java. It formed an
+  independent kingdom, governed by its own sultan, till 1683, and the Dutch
+  exercised suzerainty with brief intermission until its formal
+  incorporation by them at the beginning of last century. It produces rice,
+  coffee, sugar, cinnamon, &amp;c. Serang is its capital. The town Bantam
+  was the first Dutch settlement in Java (1595), and for some time their
+  principal mart, though now not so prosperous.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ban´tam Fowl</b>, a small but spirited breed of domestic fowl,
+  first brought from the East Indies, supposed to derive its name from
+  Bantam in Java. Most of the sub-varieties have feathered legs; but these
+  are not to be preferred. In point of colour the black and nankeen
+  varieties are the best. A well-bred bantam does not weigh more than a
+  pound.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banteng´</b> (<i>Bos Banteng</i> or <i>Sondaicus</i>), a wild
+  species of ox, native of Java and Borneo, having a black body, slender
+  white legs, short sleek hair, sharp muzzle, and the back humped behind
+  the neck.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banting System</b>, a course of diet for reducing superfluous fat,
+  adopted and recommended in 1863 by W. Banting of London. The dietary
+  recommended was the use of butcher-meat principally, and abstinence from
+  beer, farinaceous food, and vegetables. See <i>Corpulence</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ban´try</b>, a seaport near the head of Bantry Bay, County Cork,
+  Ireland. Pop. 3159.&mdash;The <i>bay</i>, one of three large inlets at
+  the <span class="scac">S.W.</span> extremity of Ireland, affords an
+  unsurpassed anchorage, and is about 25 miles long by 4 to 6 broad, and
+  from 10 to 40 fathoms deep, with no dangerous rocks or shoals.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bantu</b> (bän-tö´), the ethnological name of a group of African
+  races below about 6° <span class="scac">N.</span> latitude, and including
+  the Kaffirs, Zulus, Bechuanas, the tribes of the Loango, Congo, &amp;c.,
+  but not the Hottentots.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>:
+  Deniker, <i>Races of Man</i>; J. Roscoe, <i>The Northern Bantu</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banu.</b> See <i>Bannu</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Banx´ring</b> (genus Tapaia), a quadruped belonging to the
+  Insectivora, inhabiting the Indian Archipelago, bearing some resemblance
+  externally to a squirrel, but having a long pointed snout.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:42%;">
+      <a href="images/image147.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image147.jpg"
+      alt="Banyan" title="Banyan" /></a>
+    Banyan (<i>Ficus benghalensis</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Ban´yan</b> (<i>Ficus benghalensis</i>), a tree of India, of the
+  fig genus. The most peculiar feature of this tree is its method of
+  throwing out from the horizontal branches supports which take root as
+  soon as they reach the ground, enlarge into trunks, and, extending
+  branches in their turn, soon cover a prodigious extent of ground. A
+  celebrated banyan tree has been known to shelter 7000 men beneath its
+  shade. The wood is soft and porous, and from its white glutinous juice
+  bird-lime is sometimes prepared. Both juice and bark are regarded by the
+  Hindus as valuable medicines, and the tree itself is sacred. The banyan
+  tree is described by Southey in his poem <i>The Curse of Kehama</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:43%;">
+      <a href="images/image148.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image148.jpg"
+      alt="Baobab" title="Baobab" /></a>
+    Baobab or Monkey-bread Tree (<i>Adansonia digitata</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Ba´obab</b> (<i>Adansonia digit&#x101;ta</i>) or <b>Monkey-bread
+  Tree</b>, a tree belonging to the nat. ord. (or sub-ord.) Bombaceæ, and
+  the best-known species of its genus, which was named after the naturalist
+  Adanson. Though not tall, it is one of the bulkiest of trees, its trunk
+  sometimes measuring 30 feet in diameter, and as the profusion of leaves
+  <!-- Page 389 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page389"></a>[389]</span>and drooping boughs sometimes almost hides
+  the stem, the whole forms a hemispherical mass of verdure 140 to 150 feet
+  in diameter and 60 to 70 feet high. It is a native of the African
+  savannahs, and is cultivated in many of the warmer parts of the world.
+  The roots are of extraordinary length, a tree 77 feet in girth having a
+  tap-root 110 feet in length. The leaves are deep green, divided into five
+  unequal parts lanceolate in shape, and radiating from a common centre.
+  The flowers resemble the white poppy, having snowy petals and
+  violet-coloured stamens; and the fruit, which is large and of an oblong
+  shape, is said to taste like gingerbread, with a pleasant acid flavour.
+  The wood is pale-coloured, light, and contains a large store of water,
+  which enables the tree to withstand prolonged drought. The tree is liable
+  to be attacked by a fungus which, growing in the woody part, renders it
+  soft and pithlike. By the negroes of the west coast these trunks are
+  hollowed into chambers, and dead bodies are suspended in them. There they
+  become perfectly dry and well preserved, without further preparation or
+  embalming. The baobab is emollient and mucilaginous; the pulverized
+  leaves constitute <i>lalo</i>, which the natives mix with their daily
+  food.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bapaume</b>, a French town in the department of Pas-de-Calais. It
+  has been the scene of several battles. In 1793 the French were compelled
+  by the allied troops to abandon the place, and in the Franco-German war
+  one of the most closely-contested battles was fought there on 3rd Jan.,
+  1871. Bapaume, occupied by the Germans in the European War, was
+  recaptured by British troops on 29th Aug., 1918, the great battle of
+  Bapaume having begun on 21st Aug. Pop. (1911) 2917.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baph´omet</b>, the imaginary idol or symbol which the Templars were
+  accused of employing in their mysterious rites, and of which little is
+  known. The word is supposed to be a corruption of Mahomet, to whose faith
+  the Templars were accused of having a leaning. See <i>Gnosticism</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baptism</b> (from the Gr. <i>baptiz&#x14D;</i>, from
+  <i>bapt&#x14D;</i>, to immerse or dip), a rite which is generally thought
+  to have been usual with the Jews even before Christ, being administered
+  to proselytes. All that can be said, however, with some certainty is that
+  the Jewish baptism was not of later origin than the Christian baptism.
+  Anyhow, from this baptism that of St. John the Baptist differed, because
+  he baptized Jews also as a symbol of the necessity of perfect
+  purification from sin. Christ himself never baptized, but directed his
+  disciples to administer this rite to converts (<i>Mat.</i> xxviii, 19);
+  and baptism, therefore, became a religious ceremony among Christians,
+  taking rank as a sacrament with all sects which acknowledge sacraments.
+  It should, however, be borne in mind that among many peoples a rite is
+  found which has considerable likeness to Christian baptism. In the
+  primitive Church the person to be baptized was dipped in a river or in a
+  vessel, with the words which Christ had ordered, generally adopting a new
+  name further to express the change. Sprinkling, or, as it was termed,
+  <i>clinic</i> baptism, was used only in the case of the sick who could
+  not leave their beds. The Greek Church and Eastern schismatics retained
+  the custom of immersion; but the Western Church adopted or allowed the
+  mode of baptism by pouring or sprinkling, since continued by most
+  Protestants. This practice can be traced back certainly to the third
+  century, before which its existence is disputed. Since the Reformation
+  there have been various Protestant sects called Baptists, holding that
+  baptism should be administered only by immersion, and to those who can
+  make a personal profession of faith. The Montanists in Africa baptized
+  even the dead, and in Roman Catholic countries the practice of baptizing
+  church bells&mdash;a custom of tenth-century origin&mdash;continues to
+  this day. Being an initiatory rite, baptism is only administered once to
+  the same person. The Roman and Greek Catholics consecrate the water of
+  baptism, but Protestants do not. The act of baptism is accompanied only
+  with the formula that the person is baptized in the name of the Father,
+  Son, and Holy Ghost; but, among most Christians, it is preceded by a
+  confession of faith made by the person to be baptized if an adult, and by
+  his parents or sponsors if he be a child. The Roman Catholic form of
+  baptism is far more elaborate than the Protestant. This Church teaches
+  that all persons not baptized are damned, and that even unbaptized
+  infants are not admitted into Heaven; but for those whose chief fault was
+  that they had not been baptized, even St. Augustine himself believed in a
+  species of mitigated damnation. Protestants hold that though the neglect
+  of the sacrament is a sin, yet the saving new birth may be found without
+  the performance of the rite which symbolizes it. Naming the person
+  baptized forms no essential part of the ceremony, but has become almost
+  universal, probably from the ancient custom of renaming the
+  catechumen.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: E.&nbsp;B. Tylor,
+  <i>Primitive Culture</i> (vol. ii); S. Baring-Gould, <i>Origin and
+  Development of Religious Belief</i>; J.&nbsp;E. Hanaver, <i>Baptism, Jewish
+  and Christian</i>; Harnack, <i>History of Dogma</i>; article
+  <i>Baptism</i> in <i>Encyclopedia of Ethics and Religion</i>; Corblet,
+  <i>Histoire du Sacrément du Baptême</i>; P. Mauro, <i>Baptism: its place
+  and importance in Christianity</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:44%;">
+      <a href="images/image149.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image149.jpg"
+      alt="Baptistery" title="Baptistery" /></a>
+    Baptistery of S. Giovanni in Laterano, Rome
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Bap´tistery</b>, a building or a portion of a building in which is
+  administered the rite of baptism. In the early Christian Church the
+  baptistery was <!-- Page 390 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page390"></a>[390]</span>distinct from the basilica or church, but
+  was situated near its west end, and was generally circular or octagonal
+  in form, and dome-roofed. About the end of the sixth century the
+  baptistery began to be absorbed into the church, the font being placed
+  within and not far from the western door. Some detached baptisteries
+  still remain in use, as those of the Lateran, Rome (the earliest in
+  existence), at Pisa, Parma, Ravenna, Aquileia, Siena, Florence, &amp;c.,
+  that of Florence being 108 feet in diameter externally, and richly
+  decorated. Baptisteries were dedicated to St. John the Baptist.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bap´tists</b>, a Protestant sect, distinguished by their opinions
+  respecting the mode and subjects of baptism. With regard to the mode,
+  they maintain the necessity of immersion, and with regard to the
+  subjects, they consider that baptism ought not to be administered to
+  children at all, nor to adults in general, but to those only who profess
+  repentance and faith. They are sometimes called <i>Anti-pædobaptists</i>,
+  to express their variance from those who defend infant baptism, and who
+  are called <i>Pædobaptists</i>. Apart from the special sect of that name,
+  Baptists are to be found equally among Calvinists and Arminians,
+  Trinitarians and Unitarians. The Baptists as a whole adopt the
+  Independent or Congregational form of church government, and their
+  ecclesiastical assemblies are held for the purpose of mutual stimulus and
+  intercourse, and not for the general government of the body, or for
+  interference with individual churches. The Particular Baptists of England
+  (so called from believing that Christ died only for the elect), the
+  Baptists of Scotland and Ireland, the Associated Baptists of America, and
+  some of the Seventh-day Baptists, are Calvinistic. The other classes,
+  such as the General Baptists (who believe that Christ died for all), are
+  Arminian, or at least not Calvinistic. Most Baptists profess to be
+  Trinitarians. The Free-will Baptists, the Christian Society, and most of
+  the General Baptists of England admit of open communion; the other bodies
+  decline communion with any Christians but Baptists. The Associated or
+  Calvinistic Baptists long ranked in the United States as the most
+  numerous denomination of Christians. The Seventh-day Baptists, or
+  Sabbatarians, observe the seventh day of the week. The Free-will Baptists
+  profess the doctrine of free salvation. The Anabaptists of the
+  Reformation period are not to be confounded with the Baptists, by whom
+  their principles were expressly disclaimed. The first regular Baptist
+  Church appears to have been formed in the reign of Elizabeth, but we may
+  date their first public acknowledgment as distinct from the Anabaptists
+  from their petition to Parliament in 1620. The year 1633 provides the
+  earliest record of the formation of a Particular Baptist Church in
+  London. In 1689 a Baptist General Assembly, held in London, formulated a
+  confession of thirty-two articles and a catechism. The Baptist Union,
+  formed in 1832, comprehends the greater number of members of the sect in
+  Great Britain and Ireland. In July, 1905, a world-congress of Baptists
+  was held in London, and the Baptist World Alliance was constituted. The
+  total number of members of Baptist Churches in the United Kingdom was
+  405,104 in 1922, and 408,029 in 1920. There are nine colleges for
+  training ministers, of which the chief are: Bristol Baptist College;
+  Regent's Park; Rawdon, Bradford; and the Metropolitan Pastors' College.
+  The Regular Baptists in the United States numbered 7,504,447 members in
+  1922, and nearly 6,000,000 in 1920, in addition to which there are
+  Anti-mission Baptists, Free-will Baptists, and Seventh-day Baptists. In
+  Canada there are in all about 128,730 Baptists.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: H.&nbsp;C. Vedder, <i>A Short History of the
+  Baptists</i>; A.&nbsp;H. Newman, <i>History of the Baptist Churches in the
+  United States</i>; <i>The Baptist Handbook</i> (annually); <i>The
+  American Baptist Year-book</i> (annually); W.&nbsp;E. MacIntyre, <i>Baptist
+  Churches, 1500-1914</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar</b>, in law, the railing that encloses the place which counsel
+  occupy in courts of justice; hence the phrase, <i>at the bar of the
+  court</i>, that is, in open court. Hence also persons duly admitted as
+  pleaders or advocates before the courts of England are denominated
+  <i>barristers</i> (see <i>Barrister</i>), and the whole body of such
+  barristers or advocates are called the <i>bar</i>. The enclosed place
+  <!-- Page 391 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page391"></a>[391]</span>or dock in which persons accused of crimes
+  stand in court is also called the bar. Near the door of both Houses of
+  Parliament there is also a bar, beyond which none but the members and
+  clerks are admitted, and at which counsel, witnesses, offenders against
+  privilege, &amp;c., are heard.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar</b>, in music, is a line drawn through the stave to mark the
+  rhythm of small portions; the notes composing these are also called a
+  bar.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar</b>, in heraldry, an ordinary resembling the fesse, stretching
+  like it horizontally across the shield but narrower.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar, Confederation of.</b> See <i>Poland</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´aba</b>, the name of a great steppe in the West Siberian
+  governments of Tomsk, Akmolinsk, and Tobolsk.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barabin´zians</b>, a rude, uncultivated tribe of Tartars, living on
+  the banks of the River Irtish, and subsisting chiefly on the produce of
+  their herds and on fish supplied by the lakes of the Baraba steppe.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baraguey-d'Hilliers</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-g&#x101;-d&#x113;l-y&#x101;),Louis, a
+  distinguished French general under the first Empire, born in Paris, 1764.
+  After serving under Custine and other generals he joined the army of
+  Italy, and took Bergamo and Venice, of which he became Governor. He took
+  part in the expedition to Egypt, served in the campaigns in Germany and
+  Spain, and commanded a division of the "Great Army" in the Russian
+  campaign of 1812. He was entrusted with the direction of the vanguard in
+  the retreat, but was compelled to capitulate. Napoleon ordered him to
+  return to France as under arrest, but, overcome with grief and fatigue,
+  he died at Berlin on the way, Dec., 1812.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baranovitchi</b>, a town in Russia, government of Minsk. A battle
+  was fought here between the Russians and the Germans in July, 1916. See
+  <i>European War</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barb</b>, a horse of the Barbary breed, introduced by the Moors
+  into Spain, and of great speed, endurance, and docility.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:41%;">
+      <a href="images/image150.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image150.jpg"
+      alt="Barbacan" title="Barbacan" /></a>
+    Barbacan. Walmgate Bar, York
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´bacan</b>, or <b>Barbican</b>, generally an advanced work
+  defending the entrance to a castle or fortified town, as before the gate
+  or drawbridge, and often of formidable size and strength.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barba´does</b>, or <b>Barbados</b>, the most eastern of the West
+  India Islands, first mentioned in 1518, and occupied by the British in
+  1625. Length, 21 miles; breadth, 13; area, 106,470 acres or 166 sq,
+  miles, about 74,000 being under cultivation. It is divided into eleven
+  Church of England parishes; capital, Bridgetown. It is one of the most
+  densely-populated areas in the world, the population in 1917 being
+  estimated at 186,656, or nearly 1100 to the square mile. The climate is
+  very hot, though moderated by the constant trade-winds; and the island is
+  subject to dreadful hurricanes. The surface is broken, now without
+  forests, and with few streams; the highest point is 1145 feet above the
+  sea-level. There are few indigenous mammals or birds. The black lowland
+  soil gives great returns of sugar in favourable seasons. The chief
+  exports, besides sugar, are molasses and rum; imports: rice, salt meat,
+  corn, butter, flour, &amp;c. Both exports and imports were over
+  £2,000,000 in 1918. Barbadoes has a considerable transit trade, being in
+  some measure the central mart for all the Windward Islands. It is the see
+  of a bishop and the head-quarters of the British forces in the West
+  Indies. There is a railway across the island, also tramways, telephones,
+  &amp;c. The island forms a distinct government under a Governor, an
+  Executive and a Legislative Council of 9 members, and a House of Assembly
+  of 24 members. Liberal provision is made for education both by old
+  foundations and by annual vote.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barbadoes Leg</b>, a form of elephantiasis.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´bara, St.</b>, according to the legend, belonged to Nicomedia,
+  in Asia Minor, and was beheaded by her father for having turned
+  Christian, he being immediately thereafter struck dead by lightning. The
+  latter part of this legend caused her, probably, to be invoked in storms,
+  and to be considered the patron saint of artillerists.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barbarelli.</b> See <i>Giorgione</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barbarian</b> (Gk. <i>barbaros</i>), a name given by the Greeks,
+  and afterwards by the Romans, to everyone who spoke an unintelligible
+  language; and hence coming to connote the idea of <i>rude</i>,
+  <i>illiterate</i>, <i>uncivilized</i>. This word, therefore, did not
+  always convey the idea of something odious or savage; thus a Greek
+  character in <!-- Page 392 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page392"></a>[392]</span>Plautus calls Nævius a barbarous poet,
+  because he had not written in Greek; and Cicero terms illiterate persons
+  without taste 'barbarians'.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barbarossa</b> ('red-beard'), the name of two famous Turkish
+  corsairs of the sixteenth century, who ravaged the shores of the
+  Mediterranean, and established themselves in Algiers. The elder of the
+  brothers, Aruch or Horuk, was killed in 1518; the younger and more
+  notorious, Hayraddin, who captured Tunis, died in 1546. See <i>Frederick
+  Barbarossa</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´bary</b>, a general name for the most northerly portion of
+  Africa, extending about 2600 miles from Egypt to the Atlantic, with a
+  breadth varying from about 140 to 550 miles, comprising Morocco, Algeria,
+  Tunisia, and Libya (Tripolitania, Barqa, and Fezzan). The principal races
+  are: the Berbers, the original inhabitants, from whom the country takes
+  its name; the Arabs, who conquered an extensive portion of it during the
+  times of the caliphs; the Bedouins, Jews, Turks, and the French colonists
+  of Algeria, &amp;c. The country, which was prosperous under the
+  Carthaginians, was, next to Egypt, the richest of the Roman provinces,
+  and the Italian States enriched themselves by their intercourse with it.
+  In the fifteenth century, however, it became infested with adventurers
+  who made the name of Barbary corsair a terror to commerce, a condition of
+  things finally removed by the French occupation of Algeria.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barbary Ape</b> (<i>In&#x16D;us ecaud&#x101;tus</i>), a species of
+  ape, or tailless monkey, with greenish-brown hair, of the size of a large
+  cat, remarkable for docility, also called the <i>magot</i>. It is common
+  in Barbary and other parts of Africa, and some used to live formerly on
+  Gibraltar Rock, being the only European monkey, though probably not
+  indigenous. It has been the 'showman's ape' from time immemorial.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´bastel</b>, or <b>Barbastelle</b>, a bat with hairy lips
+  (<i>Barbastellus comm&#x16B;nis</i>), a native of England.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barbas´tro</b>, a city, Spain, Arragon, province of Huesca, with an
+  interesting cathedral, and some trade and manufactures. Pop. 7202.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´bauld</b>, Anna Letitia, English poet and general writer, was
+  born in Leicestershire, 1743, daughter of a Presbyterian minister named
+  Aikin. She published a small volume of miscellaneous poems in 1772, and
+  in 1773, in conjunction with her brother, Dr. John Aikin, a collection of
+  pieces in prose. In 1774 she married the Rev. Rochemont Barbauld. Her
+  <i>Early Lessons and Hymns for Children</i>, and various essays and
+  poems, won considerable popularity. She edited a collection of English
+  novels, with critical and biographical notices; a selection from the
+  British essayists of the reign of Anne, and another from Richardson's
+  correspondence. Her last long poem, <i>Eighteen Hundred and Eleven</i>,
+  appeared in 1812. She died at Stoke-Newington, 1825.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´becue</b>, a word of West Indian origin, meaning a hog, or
+  other large animal, roasted whole. In the United States the word means a
+  large gathering of people in the open air, for a social or political
+  feast, where whole animals are roasted and eaten.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barbed Wire</b>, wire-rope for fencing or other purposes, having
+  fixed in it short bent pieces of wire with sharp projecting points, which
+  serve to keep animals from pressing against it. There is an Act of
+  Parliament (1893) to prevent the use of barbed-wire fences that form a
+  nuisance on a public road or path; and a person employing barbed wire for
+  fencing may render himself liable for damages caused by it to another
+  person who is legitimately using the adjoining ground. Barbed wire plays
+  an important part in the construction of obstacles in modern warfare.
+  During the European War, all systems of trenches were protected by thick
+  belts of wire. This wire was laid out in various different ways, two of
+  the best being known as the Concertina Fence and the Double-apron
+  Fence.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barbel</b> (Barbus), a genus of freshwater fishes of the carp
+  family, distinguished by the four fleshy filaments growing from the lips,
+  two at the nose and one at each corner of the mouth, forming the kind of
+  beard to which the genus owes its name. Of the several species the
+  European <i>Barbus vulg&#x101;ris</i>, common in most rivers, has an
+  average length of from 12 to 18 inches, and in form and habits strongly
+  resembles the pike. Its body is elongated and rounded, olive-coloured
+  above and bluish on the sides, and covered with small scales. The upper
+  jaw, which is much longer than the lower, forms a snout, with which it
+  bores into the mud for worms, insects, aquatic plants, &amp;c. It is
+  common in the Thames, where it gives good sport to the angler; but its
+  flesh is very coarse, and at the time of spawning the roe is dangerous to
+  eat.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barber</b>, one whose occupation is to shave or trim the beard, or
+  to cut and dress hair. The practice of surgery was formerly a part of the
+  craft, and by an Act of Henry VIII the Company of Barbers was
+  incorporated with the Company of Surgeons&mdash;the company being then
+  known as the Barber-surgeons&mdash;with the limitation, however, that the
+  surgeons were not to shave or practise 'barbery', and the barbers were to
+  perform no higher surgical operation than blood-letting and
+  tooth-drawing. This continued till the time of George II. The signs of
+  the old profession&mdash;the pole which the patient grasped, its spiral
+  decoration in imitation of the bandage, and the basin to catch the
+  blood&mdash;are <!-- Page 393 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page393"></a>[393]</span>still sometimes retained. The barbers'
+  shops, always notorious for gossip, were in some measure the news centres
+  of classic and mediæval times. The ancient hall in London, formerly used
+  by the Barber-surgeons, is still standing in Markwell Street,
+  Cripplegate.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barberini</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-be-r&#x113;´n&#x113;), a celebrated
+  Florentine family, which, since the pontificate of Maffeo Barberini
+  (Urban VIII, 1623-44), has occupied a distinguished place among the
+  nobility of Rome. During his reign Urban was chiefly intent on the
+  aggrandizement of his three nephews, of whom two were appointed
+  cardinals, and the third Prince of Palestrina.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:43%;">
+      <a href="images/image151.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image151.jpg"
+      alt="Barberry" title="Barberry" /></a>
+    Barberry <i>(Berb&#x115;ris aristata)</i>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´berry</b>, a genus of shrubs, nat. ord. Berberidaceæ. The
+  common barberry (<i>Berb&#x115;ris vulg&#x101;ris</i>) has serrate,
+  pointed leaves (the primary ones reduced to tripartite spines), hanging
+  clusters of yellow flowers, and small, orange-red berries, which are
+  sometimes made into preserves. The inner bark and roots yield a fine
+  yellow dye (berberine). The shrub is a native of temperate Asia, but is
+  now generally diffused through Europe and N. America. In Britain it has
+  been almost universally banished from hedgerows, owing to its connection
+  with the black rust of wheat. Numerous other species inhabit Asia and
+  America; those of the section Mahonia have pinnate leaves. <i>B.
+  aristata</i> is an erect bush, with furrowed red-brown branches, and
+  pendulous clusters of yellow flowers; it thrives best in the south. See
+  <i>Irritability</i> and <i>Rust</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´berton</b>, the chief mining-centre of De Kaap gold-fields,
+  Transvaal, about 80 miles from Lydenburg, and 150 to 160 from Delagoa
+  Bay. British prisoners were confined here in the Boer War (1899-1902).
+  Pop. about 2000 (whites).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´bets</b> (Bucconidæ), a family of climbing birds with a thick
+  conical beak, having tufts of bristles at its base. Their wings are short
+  and their flight somewhat heavy. They have been divided into three
+  sub-genera: The <i>barbicans</i> (Pogonias), inhabiting India and Africa,
+  and feeding chiefly on fruit; the <i>barbets</i> proper (Bucco), found in
+  Africa and America, and nearly related to the woodpeckers; and the
+  <i>puff-birds</i> (Tamatia), inhabiting America, and feeding on
+  insects.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barbette</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-bet´), an elevation of earth behind the
+  breastwork of a fortification, from which the artillery may be fired over
+  the parapet instead of through an embrasure. In ships of war the name is
+  given to a strong breastwork of armour over which heavy guns are fired.
+  See <i>Fortification</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barbeyrac</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-b&#x101;-ra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>k), Jean, an able writer on jurisprudence
+  and natural law, translator of Grotius and Cumberland, and translator and
+  annotator of Pufendorf. Born 1674; professor of law at Lausanne and
+  Groningen; died 1744.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barbican.</b> See <i>Barbacan</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barbié du Bocage</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>rb-y&#x101; dü b&#x14D;-käzh), Jean
+  Denis, a distinguished geographer, born in Paris in 1760, who laid the
+  foundation of his fame in 1788 by his <i>Atlas</i> to Barthélemy's
+  <i>Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis</i>. His maps and plans to the works of
+  Thucydides, Xenophon, &amp;c., exhibit much erudition, and materially
+  advanced the science of ancient geography. He also prepared many modern
+  maps, and published various excellent dissertations. He held many
+  honourable posts, and died in 1825.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barbier</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>rb-y&#x101;), Antoine Alexandre,
+  bibliographer (1765-1825). He was appointed keeper of the library of the
+  Conseil d'État in 1798; Napoleon made him his librarian in 1807; and he
+  was afterwards librarian to Louis XVIII. His <i>Catalogue de la
+  Bibliothèque du Conseil d'État</i> (1801-3), and <i>Dictionnaire des
+  Ouvrages Anonymes et Pseudonymes</i> (1806-9), are both valuable
+  works.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barbieri</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-b&#x113;-&#x101;´r&#x113;), Giovanni
+  Francesco (otherwise known as <i>Guercino</i> (the squinter) <i>da
+  Cento</i>), an eminent and prolific historical painter, born near Bologna
+  1590, died in 1666. His style showed the influence of Caravaggio and of
+  the Caracci, his best work being of the latter school. Chief work, a
+  <i>St. Petronilla</i> in the Capitol at Rome; but most of the large
+  galleries have pictures by him.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barbieri</b>, Paolo Antonio, a celebrated still-life and animal
+  painter, was a brother of Guercino; born 1596, died 1640. <!-- Page 394
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page394"></a>[394]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Barbitone.</b> See <i>Veronal</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barbizon</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-b&#x113;-z&#x14D;n), a French village
+  about 25 miles south by east of Paris, on the borders of the Forest of
+  Fontainebleau, and 6 miles north-west of the town of that name. It has
+  given its name to a French school of painters, including Corot, Millet,
+  Rousseau, Jules Dupré, and Daubigny.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´bour</b>, John, an ancient Scottish poet, contemporary with
+  Chaucer, born about 1316. By 1357 he was Archdeacon of Aberdeen, and in
+  the following year was appointed a commissioner to treat for the ransom
+  of David II. He appears as Auditor of the Exchequer more than once; he
+  travelled through England on several occasions, and was pensioned by
+  Robert II. His chief poem, <i>The Bruce</i> (Brus), written about 1375,
+  was first published in 1571, and the chief manuscripts of the poem are
+  those in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, dated 1489, and in St. John's
+  College, Cambridge. Of another long poem, setting forth the Trojan origin
+  of the Scottish kings, no MS. remains, unless a portion of two Troy books
+  in the Cambridge and Bodleian libraries may be ascribed to Barbour. He
+  has also been credited with having compiled a <i>Book of Legends of
+  Saints</i>, existing in a single MS. at Cambridge, and published in
+  1881-2 by Horstman in his <i>Legenden Sammlung</i>. He died in 1395. He
+  was the father of Scottish poetry and history, and his <i>Bruce</i> is
+  linguistically of high value. Though wanting in the higher qualities of
+  poetry, it is truthful and natural, and often exhibits a high moral
+  dignity.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Andrew Lang,
+  <i>History of Scotland</i>; Irving, <i>History of Scottish
+  Poetry</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barbuda</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-bö´da), one of the West Indies, annexed
+  by Britain in 1628; about 15 miles long and 8 miles wide; lying north of
+  Antigua; pop. 580. It is flat, fertile, and healthy. Corn, cotton,
+  pepper, and tobacco are the principal produce, but the island is only
+  partially cleared for cultivation. There is no harbour, but a
+  well-sheltered roadstead on the west side. It is a dependency of
+  Antigua.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barbusse</b>, Henri, a French author born at Asnières in 1874. He
+  served in the French army during the European War, and his descriptions
+  of the realities of modern warfare have made him famous. His works
+  include <i>Le Feu</i> and <i>Clarté</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barby</b> (bär´b&#x113;), a German town on the Elbe, in the
+  government of Magdeburg, with an old castle. Pop. 5202.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´ca</b>, a division of N. Africa, between the Gulf of Sidra and
+  Egypt, annexed by Italy in 1911-2; capital, Bengazi. It formed a portion
+  of the ancient Cyrenaica, and from the time of the Ptolemies was known as
+  Pentapolis from its five Greek cities. It became part of Tripoli, and
+  later a separate province under Turkish dominion. On 18th Oct., 1912, it
+  was formally recognized as a dependency of Italy, and forms with Tripoli
+  the Italian colony of Libya. The country consists of a rocky plateau. A
+  large portion of it is desert, but some parts, especially near the coast,
+  are fertile, and yield abundant crops and excellent pasture, the chief
+  being wheat, barley, dates, figs, and olives. Flowering shrubs, roses,
+  honeysuckles, &amp;c., occur in great variety. There are hardly any
+  permanent streams, but the eastern portion is tolerably well watered by
+  rains and springs. The exports are grain and cattle, with ostrich
+  feathers and ivory from the interior. Next to Bengazi (pop. 35,000), the
+  seaport of Derna is the chief town (pop. 8000). The population probably
+  does not exceed 300,000. See <i>Cyrenaica</i> and <i>Tripoli</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barcarolle</b> (-rol´), a species of song sung by the
+  <i>barcaruoli</i>, or gondoliers, of Venice, and hence applied to a song
+  or melody composed in imitation. A very well-known example is to be found
+  in Offenbach's <i>Tales of Hoffmann</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barcellona</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-chel-&#x14D;´na<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), seaport, Sicily, province of Messina,
+  immediately contiguous to Pozzo di Gotto, and practically forming one
+  town with it. Joint pop. 26,172.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barcelona</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-thel-&#x14D;´na<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), next to Madrid the chief city of
+  Spain, capital of the province of Barcelona, and formerly capital of the
+  kingdom of Catalonia; finely situated on the northern portion of the
+  Spanish Mediterranean coast. It is divided into the upper and lower town;
+  the former modern, regular, stone-built, and often of an English
+  architectural type, the latter old, irregular, brick-built, and with
+  traces of Eastern influence in the architecture. The harbour is suited to
+  accommodate large vessels. The principal manufactures are cottons, silks,
+  woollens, machinery, paper, glass, chemicals, stoneware, soap; exports
+  manufactured goods, wine and brandy, fruit, oil, &amp;c.; imports coals,
+  textile fabrics, machinery, cotton, fish, hides, silks, timber, &amp;c.
+  The city contains a university, several public libraries, a museum, a
+  large arsenal, cannon-foundry, &amp;c. Barcelona was, until the twelfth
+  century, governed by its own counts, but was afterwards united with
+  Arragon. In 1640, with the rest of Catalonia, it placed itself under the
+  French Crown; in 1652 it submitted again to the Spanish Government; in
+  1697 it was taken by the French, but was restored to Spain at the Peace
+  of Ryswick. It has had several severe visitations of cholera and yellow
+  fever, and has been the scene of many serious and sanguinary revolts, as
+  in 1836, 1840, and 1909. Pop. 618,766.&mdash;The province has an area of
+  2968 sq. miles; pop. 1,191,386 (1918). It is generally mountainous, but
+  well cultivated, and among the most thickly peopled in Spain. <!-- Page
+  395 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page395"></a>[395]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Barcelona</b>, a town of Venezuela, near the mouth of the Neveri,
+  which is navigable for vessels of small size, but larger vessels anchor
+  off the mouth of the river. Pop. 13,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barcelona Nuts</b>, hazel-nuts exported from the Barcelona district
+  of Spain.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´clay</b>, Alexander, a poet of the sixteenth century, most
+  probably a native of Scotland, born about 1475; for some years a priest
+  and chaplain of St. Mary Ottery, in Devonshire; afterwards a Benedictine
+  monk of Ely; subsequently a Franciscan, and also the holder of one or two
+  livings; died 1552. His principal work was a satire, entitled <i>The Shyp
+  of Folys of this Worlde</i>, part translation and part imitation of
+  Brandt's <i>Narrenschiff</i> (Ship of Fools), and printed by Pynson in
+  1509. He also wrote <i>The Myrrour of Good Maners</i>, and some
+  <i>Egloges</i> (Eclogues), both printed by Pynson, as well as
+  translations, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barclay</b>, John, poet and satirist, son of a Scottish father,
+  born at Pont-à-Mousson (Lorraine) in 1582, and probably educated in the
+  Jesuits' College there. Having settled in England, he published a Latin
+  politico-satirical romance, entitled <i>Euphormionis Satyricon</i>,
+  having as its object the exposure of the Jesuits. In 1616 he left England
+  for Rome, received a pension from Pope Paul V, and died in 1621. His
+  chief work is a singular romance in Latin, entitled <i>Argenis</i>
+  (Paris, 1621), thought by some to be an allegory bearing on the political
+  state of Europe at the period. Several seventeenth-century romances were
+  indebted to this work, among others Fénelon's <i>Télémaque</i> and
+  Calderon's <i>Argenis y Poliarco</i>. It has been translated into several
+  modern languages. His shorter poems appeared in the <i>Delitiæ Poetarum
+  Scotorum</i>,</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barclay</b>, Robert, the celebrated apologist of the Quakers, born
+  in 1648 at Gordonstown, Moray, and educated at Paris, where he became a
+  Roman Catholic. He was recalled home by his father, whose example he
+  followed in becoming a Quaker. His first treatise in support of his
+  adopted principles, published at Aberdeen in the year 1670, under the
+  title of <i>Truth Cleared of Calumnies</i>, together with his subsequent
+  writings, did much to rectify public sentiment in regard to the Quakers.
+  His chief work, in Latin, <i>An Apology for the True Christian
+  Divinity</i>, was soon reprinted at Amsterdam, and quickly translated
+  into German, Dutch, French, and Spanish, and, by the author himself, into
+  English. His fame was now widely diffused; and, in his travels with
+  William Penn and George Fox through England, Holland, and Germany, to
+  spread the opinions of the Quakers, he was received everywhere with the
+  highest respect. The last of his productions, <i>On the Possibility and
+  Necessity of an Inward and Immediate Revelation</i>, was not published in
+  England until 1686; from which time Barclay lived quietly with his
+  family. He died, after a short illness, at his own house of Ury,
+  Kincardineshire, in 1690. He was a friend of and had influence with James
+  II.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barclay</b>, Sir Thomas, British barrister, born in 1853. Educated
+  at the Universities of London, Paris, Bonn, and Jena, he was sent to
+  Paris in 1876 as correspondent of <i>The Times</i>. He has been greatly
+  instrumental in bringing about a better understanding between England and
+  France. He was knighted in 1904, and entered Parliament in 1910. His
+  works include: <i>Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy</i>;
+  <i>The Turco-Italian War and its Problems</i>; <i>Law and Usage of
+  War</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barclay de Tolly</b>, Michael, Prince, a distinguished general and
+  field-marshal of Russia, born in 1755. His family, of Scottish origin,
+  had been established in Livonia since 1689. He entered the army at an
+  early age, served in various campaigns against the Turks, Swedes, and
+  Poles, and in 1811 was named Minister of War. On the invasion of Napoleon
+  he was transferred to the chief command of the army, and adopted a plan
+  of retreat; his forces did not greatly exceed 100,000 men, but the Court
+  became impatient, and after the capture of Smolensk by the French he was
+  superseded by Kutusov. Sinking all personal feeling, he asked leave to
+  serve under his successor, commanded the right wing at the battle of the
+  Moskwa, maintained his position, and covered the retreat of the rest of
+  the army. After the battle of Bautzen, in 1813, he was reappointed to the
+  chief command, which he had soon after to resign to Prince Schwarzenberg.
+  He forced the surrender of General Vandamme after the battle of Dresden,
+  took part in the decisive battle of Leipzig, and was made a field-marshal
+  in Paris. In 1815 he received from the emperor the title of prince, and
+  from Louis XVIII the badge of the Order of Military Merit. He died in
+  1818.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar-cochba</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-ko<i>h</i>´ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), or <b>Bar-cochebas</b>, Simon, a
+  Jewish impostor, who pretended to be the Messiah, raised a revolt, and
+  made himself master of Jerusalem about <span class="scac">A.D.</span>
+  132, and of about fifty fortified places. Hadrian sent to Britain for
+  Julius Severus, one of his ablest generals, who gradually regained the
+  different forts and then took and destroyed Jerusalem. Bar-cochba retired
+  to a mountain fortress, and perished in the assault of it by the Romans
+  three years after, about 135.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´coo.</b> See <i>Cooper's Creek</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bard</b>, one of an order among the ancient Celtic tribes, whose
+  occupation was to compose and sing verses in honour of the heroic
+  achievements of princes and brave men, generally to the accompaniment of
+  the harp. Their verses also <!-- Page 396 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page396"></a>[396]</span>frequently embodied religious or ethical
+  precepts, genealogies, laws, &amp;c. Their existence and function was
+  known to the Romans two centuries <span class="scac">B.C.</span>; but of
+  the Gallic bards only the tradition of their popularity survives. The
+  first Welsh bards of whom anything is extant are Taliesin, Aneurin, and
+  Llywarch, of the sixth century. A considerable lacuna then occurs in
+  their history until the order was reconstituted in the tenth century by
+  King Howel Dha, and again in the eleventh by Gryffith ap Conan. Edward I
+  is said to have hanged all the Welsh bards as promoters of sedition. Some
+  modern attempts have been made in Wales to revive bardism, and the
+  Cambrian Society was formed in 1818, for this purpose and for the
+  preservation of the remains of the ancient literature. The revived
+  Eisteddfodau, or bardic festivals, have been so far exceedingly popular.
+  In Ireland there were three classes of bards: those who sang of war,
+  religion, &amp;c., those who chanted the laws, and those who gave
+  genealogies and family histories in verse. They were famous harpists. In
+  the Highlands of Scotland there are considerable remains of compositions
+  supposed to be those of their old bards still preserved.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: E. Jones, <i>Relics of the Welsh
+  Bards</i>; Walker, <i>Memoirs of the Irish Bards</i>; Dottin, <i>Manuel
+  de l'Antiquité Celtique</i>; John Rhys and D. Brynmor-Jones, <i>The Welsh
+  People</i>; D.&nbsp;D. Evans, <i>Ancient Bards of Britain</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bardesa´nes</b>, a Syrian Gnostic, poet, astrologer, and
+  philosopher, born 154 or 164 at Edessa, died 222. His system started with
+  the statement that from the union of God with matter sprang Christ and a
+  female Holy Ghost, from whom in turn sprang various existences. He
+  propagated his doctrines in Syrian hymns (<i>Hymn on the Soul</i>), the
+  first in the language. His son, Harmonius, was also an able hymn-writer.
+  The Bardesanists maintained themselves till the twelfth century, the
+  later adherents having practically adopted Manichæism.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bardwan´</b>, or <b>Burdwan´</b>, a division of Bengal, upon the
+  Hugli, comprising the six districts of Bardwan, Hugli, Howrah, Midnapur,
+  Bankura, and Birbhum. Area, 13,850 sq. miles; pop. 8,245,000.&mdash;The
+  district <i>Bardwan</i> has an area of 2697 sq. miles, and a pop. of
+  1,532,500. Apart from its products, rice, grain, hemp, cotton, indigo,
+  &amp;c., it has a noted coal-field of about 500 sq. miles in area, with
+  an annual output of about half a million tons.&mdash;The town of
+  <i>Bardwan</i> has a fine palace of the Maharajah and a pop. of
+  35,022.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barebone</b>, or <b>Barbone</b>, Praise-God, the name of a
+  leather-seller in Fleet Street, London, who obtained a kind of lead in
+  the convention which Cromwell substituted for the Long Parliament, and
+  which was thence nicknamed the Barebone Parliament. After its dissolution
+  he disappeared till 1660, when he presented a petition to Parliament
+  against the restoration of the monarchy. In 1661 he was committed to the
+  Tower for some time, but his subsequent history is unknown.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barefooted Friars.</b> See <i>Monasticism</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barége</b> (ba-r&#x101;zh´), a light, open tissue of silk and
+  worsted, or cotton and worsted, for women's dresses, originally
+  manufactured near Baréges. It is now made chiefly at
+  Bagnères-de-Bigorre.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baréges</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-r&#x101;zh), a watering-place, south of
+  France, department Hautes-Pyrénées, about 4000 feet above the sea,
+  celebrated for its thermal springs, which are frequented for rheumatism,
+  scrofula, &amp;c. The place is hardly inhabited except in the bathing
+  season, June till September.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baregine</b> (ba-r&#x101;zh´in; from <i>Baréges</i>), a gelatinous
+  product of certain algæ growing in sulphuric mineral springs, and
+  imparting to them the colour and odour of flesh-broth.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bareilly</b> (ba-r&#x101;´li), a town of Hindustan, in the United
+  Provinces, capital of a district of same name, on a pleasant and elevated
+  site. It has a fort and cantonments, a Government college, and
+  manufactures sword-cutlery, gold and silver lace, perfumery, furniture
+  and upholstery. On the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny the native garrison
+  took possession of the place, but it was retaken by Lord Clyde in May,
+  1858. Pop. 129,462.&mdash;The district has an area of 1595 sq. miles;
+  pop. 1,089,550.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´ents</b>, William, a Dutch navigator of the end of the
+  sixteenth century, who, on an expedition intended to reach China by the
+  North-East Passage, discovered Novaya Zemlya. He wintered there in
+  1596-7, and died before reaching home.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baret´ti</b>, Joseph, an Italian writer, born at Turin, 1719. In
+  1748 he came to England, and in 1753 published in English a <i>Defence of
+  the Poetry of Italy against the Censures of M. Voltaire</i>. In 1760 he
+  brought out a useful <i>Italian and English Dictionary</i>. After an
+  absence of six years, during part of which he edited the <i>Frusta
+  Letteraria</i> (Literary Scourge) at Venice, he returned to England, and
+  in 1768 published an <i>Account of the Manners and Customs of Italy</i>.
+  Not long after, in defending himself in a street brawl, he stabbed his
+  assailant and was tried for murder at the Old Bailey but acquitted,
+  Johnson, Burke, Goldsmith, Garrick, Reynolds, and Beauclerk giving
+  testimony to his good character. An <i>English and Spanish
+  Dictionary</i>, and various other works, followed before his death in
+  1789.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barfleur</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-fl<i>eu</i>r), at one time the best
+  port on the coast of Normandy, and the reputed port from which William
+  the Conqueror sailed. It was destroyed in the year 1346 by Edward III.
+  Present pop. 1304. <!-- Page 397 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page397"></a>[397]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Barfrush´</b>, or <b>Barfurush´</b>, Same as <i>Balfroosh</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bargain and Sale</b>, a legal term denoting the contract by which
+  lands, tenements, &amp;c., are transferred from one person to another.
+  See <i>Conveyancing</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barge</b>, a term similar in origin to <i>barque</i>, but generally
+  used of a flat-bottomed boat of some kind, whether used for loading and
+  unloading vessels, or as a canal-boat, or as an ornamental boat of state
+  or pleasure.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:42%;">
+      <a href="images/image152.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image152.jpg"
+      alt="Barge-board" title="Barge-board" /></a>
+    Barge-board or gable-end of Manor House, Bramley, Hants.
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Barge-board</b> (perhaps a corruption of <i>verge-board</i>), in
+  architecture, a board generally pendent from the eaves of gables, so as
+  to conceal the rafters, keep out rain, &amp;c. They are sometimes
+  elaborately ornamented. The portion of the roof projecting from the wall
+  at the gable-end, and beneath which the barge-board runs, is termed the
+  <i>barge-course</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barham</b> (bar'am), Rev. Richard Harris, a humorous writer, born
+  in 1788 at Canterbury; educated at St. Paul's School, London, and at
+  Brasenose, Oxford; appointed in succession curate of Ashford, curate of
+  Westwell, rector of Snargate in Romney Marsh, and one of the minor canons
+  of St. Paul's Cathedral. He published two novels, <i>Baldwin</i> and
+  <i>My Cousin Nicholas</i>, wrote nearly a third of the articles in
+  Gorton's <i>Biographical Dictionary</i>, and contributed to
+  <i>Blackwood's Magazine</i>. In 1824 he was appointed priest in ordinary
+  of the Chapel Royal, and afterwards rector of St. Mary Magdalene and St.
+  Gregory-by-St.-Paul, London. In 1837, on the starting of <i>Bentley's
+  Miscellany</i>, he laid the main foundation of his literary fame by the
+  publication in that periodical of the <i>Ingoldsby Legends</i>. He died
+  in 1845.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barhebræ´us.</b> See <i>Abulfaragius</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bari</b> (bä'r&#x113;; ancient, <b>Barium</b>), a seaport, S.
+  Italy, on a small promontory of the Adriatic, capital of the province
+  Terra di Bari. It was a place of importance as early as the third century
+  <span class="scac">B.C.</span>, and has been thrice destroyed and
+  rebuilt. The present town, though poorly built for the most part, has a
+  large Norman castle, a fine cathedral and priory, &amp;c. It manufactures
+  cotton and linen goods, hats, soap, glass, and liqueurs; has a trade in
+  wine, grain, almonds, oil, &amp;c., and is now an important seaport. In
+  1915 the town suffered considerably from floods. Pop. 109,218.&mdash;The
+  province has an area of 2048 sq. miles, and is fertile in fruit, wine,
+  oil, &amp;c.; pop. 935,982.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bari</b>, a negro people of Africa, dwelling on both sides of the
+  White Nile, between lat. 3° 30' and 6° <span class="scac">N.</span> They
+  practise agriculture, cattle-rearing, smithwork, &amp;c. Their country
+  was conquered by Baker for Egypt.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baril´la</b>, is the commercial name for impure sodium carbonate
+  imported from Spain and the Levant. At one time all sodium carbonate
+  required for industrial purposes was prepared from barilla obtained by
+  burning various marine plants (Salsola, Salicornia, and others). Only 25
+  per cent of the weight of the ash contained soda, and consequently its
+  import was expensive and considerably added to the price of the
+  manufacture of glass and soap. During the Napoleonic wars the price of
+  barilla rose to such a height that Napoleon offered a reward for the
+  discovery of a process for the manufacture of sodium carbonate. A
+  chemist, Leblanc, in 1791 invented a new process by which sodium
+  carbonate could be obtained from common salt, and this entirely
+  superseded barilla. Plants are still grown in Southern France and Spain
+  to obtain soda and other substances from the ash; but almost all the
+  sodium carbonate of the present day is manufactured chemically.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baring</b>, the name of a famous English family of bankers and
+  financiers, statesmen and diplomats, from which has arisen the financial
+  house of Baring Brothers &amp; Co., and of which members now hold four
+  peerages, namely, two earldoms&mdash;Northbrook and Cromer&mdash;and two
+  baronies&mdash;Ashburton and Revelstoke. The founder of the house was
+  Francis Baring (1740-1810), whose father was a cloth manufacturer near
+  Exeter, and grandfather pastor of the Lutheran Church at Bremen, the
+  family being thus of German origin. Francis Baring settled in London,
+  attained a high position in the mercantile and financial world, was long
+  a member of Parliament and a director of the East India Company, and was
+  made a baronet in 1793. Of his sons, one, Alexander, was created Baron
+  Ashburton (in 1835), and rendered important political services in
+  connection with the boundary treaty concluded between Britain and the
+  United States, and known by his title (see <i>Ashburton</i>, <i>Ashburton
+  Treaty</i>). His son, the second Lord Ashburton (1799-1864), held a
+  position of some note in politics, and his first wife, a daughter of the
+  sixth Earl of Sandwich, was fond of the society of both politicians and
+  literary men, among those who were on friendly terms with her being <!--
+  Page 398 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page398"></a>[398]</span>Carlyle and Thackeray. Sir Francis
+  Baring's eldest son, Thomas, was father of Francis Thornhill Baring,
+  first Lord Northbrook (1796-1866), whose eldest son, Thomas, was created
+  Earl of Northbrook in 1876, and held successively a number of high
+  positions, among them that of Viceroy of India (1872-6) and First Lord of
+  the Admiralty (1880-5). (See <i>Northbrook</i>.) Another son of Sir
+  Francis, Henry Baring, was father of Edward Baring, the first Baron
+  Revelstoke (born in 1828, died in 1897), who was long one of the most
+  conspicuous members of the financial world of London, and was raised to
+  the peerage as baron in 1885. He had full management of the great house
+  of Baring Brothers, which under him was long most prosperous, but in 1890
+  fell into temporary difficulties. Henry Baring was father also of Evelyn
+  Baring, Earl Cromer (q.v.).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baring-Gould</b> (b&#x101;-ring-g&#x14D;ld´), Sabine, English
+  clergyman and author, born at Exeter, 1834. Educated at Cambridge, he
+  held several livings in the English Church, and in 1881 became rector of
+  Lew Trenchard, Devon. After publishing several books on theological and
+  miscellaneous subjects, he distinguished himself as a novelist. Among his
+  works are: <i>Iceland, its Scenes and Sagas</i>; <i>Curious Myths of the
+  Middle Ages</i>; <i>The Origin and Development of Religious Belief</i>;
+  <i>Lives of the Saints</i> (in 15 vols.); <i>Village Sermons</i>; <i>The
+  Vicar of Morwenstowe</i> (an account of the Rev. R.&nbsp;S. Hawker); <i>The
+  Mystery of Suffering</i>; <i>History of the Church in Germany</i>; <i>The
+  Tragedy of the Cæsars</i>; <i>Cliff Castles and Cave Dwellings</i>;
+  <i>The Church Revival</i>; &amp;c.; besides the novels <i>Mehalah</i>,
+  <i>John Herring</i>, <i>Richard Cable</i>, <i>The Gaverocks</i>, <i>Court
+  Royal</i>, <i>The Pennycomequicks</i>, &amp;c.; and short stories or
+  novelettes.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baringo</b>, a lake in Africa, <span class="scac">N.E.</span> of
+  the Victoria Nyanza, about 20 miles long.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´itone</b>, or <b>Bar´ytone</b>, a male voice, the compass of
+  which partakes of those of the common bass and the tenor, but does not
+  extend so far downwards as the one, nor to an equal height with the
+  other. Its best tones are from the lower A of the bass clef to the lower
+  F in the treble.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ba´rium</b> (from the Gr. <i>barys</i>, heavy), the metal of which
+  <i>baryta</i> is the oxide; specific gravity 4; symbol Ba. It is only
+  found in compounds, such as the common sulphate (or <i>barytes</i>) and
+  carbonate, and was isolated by Davy in 1808. It is a yellow malleable
+  metal, which readily oxidizes, decomposes water, and fuses at a low
+  temperature. Its nitrate and chlorate are used in pyrotechny. Barium
+  salts, when brought into a non-luminous flame, burn with a
+  yellowish-green colour. See <i>Baryta</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:42%;">
+      <a href="images/image153.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image153.jpg"
+      alt="Bark" title="Bark" /></a>
+    Magnified Section of Oak-bark.
+
+    <p class="poem">A, Epidermis. B, Cells containing chlorophyll or
+    colouring matter. C, Liber or Bast. D, Cambium. E, Sapwood.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Bark</b>, properly the <i>periderm</i>, or outer covering, of woody
+  stems and roots, composed of dead tissues cut off from the living parts
+  of the organ by one or more layers of impervious cork. It serves to
+  prevent loss of water, and also affords protection against animals and
+  fungi. The outermost bark is continually sloughed in the form of scales
+  (Scots Pine) or sheets (Common Birch), being regenerated from within by
+  the activity of the cork-cambium (<i>phellogen</i>). Bark is usually rich
+  in waste-products, many of which are of economic value, such as tannin,
+  gums, &amp;c. Bottle-cork is the bark of the cork-oak. Bark for tanning
+  is obtained from oak, hemlock-spruce, species of acacia, &amp;c. Peruvian
+  and Angostura barks, cinnamon, &amp;c., are other useful barks. As
+  commonly used, bark denotes all the tissues external to the
+  <i>cambium</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bark.</b> See <i>Barque</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bark, Peruvian.</b> See <i>Cinchona</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barker</b>, Granville, playwright, was born in London in 1877. His
+  principal plays are: <i>The Voysey Inheritance</i> (1905), <i>Waste</i>
+  (1907), <i>The Madras House</i> (1910). He has published a book (in which
+  William Archer collaborated) called <i>A National Theatre</i>, and
+  another entitled <i>The Red Cross in France</i>. His revivals of
+  Shakespeare have introduced some new ideas of mounting and
+  stage-effects.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barker's Mill</b>, also called Scottish turbine, a hydraulic
+  machine on the principle of what is known as the hydraulic tourniquet.
+  This consists of an upright vessel free to rotate about a vertical axis,
+  and having at its lower end two discharging pipes projecting horizontally
+  on either side and bent in opposite directions at the ends, through which
+  the water is discharged horizontally, the direction of discharge being
+  mainly at right angles to a line joining the discharging <!-- Page 399
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page399"></a>[399]</span>orifice to the
+  axis. The backward pressures at the bends of the tubes, arising from the
+  two issuing jets of water, cause the apparatus to revolve in an opposite
+  direction to the issuing fluid. The machine was invented by a Dr. Barker
+  towards the end of the seventeenth century.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barking</b>, a town, England, county of Essex, on the Roding, 7
+  miles <span class="scac">N.E.</span> of London, with some important
+  manufacturing works. Near it is the outfall of the sewage of a large part
+  of London. Pop. (1921), 35,543.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barkston Ash</b>, a parliamentary division of the West Riding of
+  Yorkshire.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bark-stove</b>, or <b>Bark-bed</b>, a sort of hothouse for forcing
+  or for growing plants that require a great heat combined with moisture,
+  both of which are supplied by the fermentation that sets up in a bed of
+  spent tanner's bark contained in a brick pit under glass.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´laam and Jos´aphat</b>, a famous mediæval spiritual romance,
+  which is in its main details a Christianized version of the Hindu legends
+  of Buddha. The story first appeared in Greek in the works of Joannes
+  Damascenus in the eighth century. It is, however, more probably the work
+  of a monk of the Sabbas monastery, near Jerusalem, and written at the
+  beginning of the seventh century. The compilers of the <i>Gesta
+  Romanorum</i>, Boccaccio, Gower, and Shakespeare have all drawn materials
+  from it.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Max Müller, <i>Chips
+  from a German Workshop</i>; J. Jacobs, <i>Barlaam and Josaphat</i>,
+  (There is a translation by Rev. G.&nbsp;R. Woodward and H. Mattingly in the
+  Loeb Library).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar-le-duc</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-l-du<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>k), a town of North-East France, capital
+  of department Meuse, with manufactures of cotton and woollen stuffs,
+  leather, confectionery, &amp;c. Pop. 17,068.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barlet´ta</b>, a seaport in South Italy, province of Bari, on the
+  Adriatic, with a fine Gothic cathedral; it has a considerable export
+  trade in grain, wine, almonds, &amp;c. Pop. 44,233.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´ley</b>, the name of several cereal plants of the genus
+  Hordeum, ord. Gramineæ: (grasses), yielding a grain used as food and also
+  for making malt, from which are prepared beer, porter, and whisky. Barley
+  has been known and cultivated from remote antiquity, and beer was made
+  from it among the Egyptians. It is mentioned in <i>Exodus</i>, in
+  connection with the ten plagues; and it is referred to in ancient Chinese
+  records. Excellent barley is produced in Britain. The species principally
+  cultivated are <i>Hord&#x115;um dist&#x12D;chum</i>, two-rowed barley;
+  <i>H. vulg&#x101;re</i>, four-rowed barley; and <i>H. hexastichum</i>,
+  six-rowed, of which the small variety is the sacred barley of the
+  ancients. The varieties of the four- and six-rowed species are generally
+  coarser than those of the two-rowed, and adapted for a poorer soil and
+  more exposed situation. Some of these are called <i>bere</i> or
+  <i>bigg</i>. In Britain barley occupies more than 22½ per cent of the
+  land under corn, but in N. America the extent of it as a crop is
+  comparatively small, being in Canada, however, relatively greater than in
+  the States, and the Canadian barley is of very high quality. Barley is
+  better adapted for cold climates than any other grain, and some of the
+  coarser varieties are cultivated where no other cereal can be grown.
+  Russia devotes a surface of over 20,000,000 acres to barley, i.e. a
+  little under 11 per cent of the cereal area of the country. Germany has
+  4,000,000 and France 1,800,000 acres of barley. Some species of the
+  genus, three of which are natives of Britain, are mere grasses.
+  <i>Pot</i> or <i>Scotch barley</i> is the grain deprived of the husk in a
+  mill. <i>Pearl barley</i> is the grain polished and rounded and deprived
+  of husk and pellicle. <i>Patent barley</i> is the farina obtained by
+  grinding pearl barley. <i>Barley-water</i>, a decoction of pearl barley,
+  is used in medicine as possessing emollient, diluent, and expectorant
+  qualities.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barley-sugar</b>. See <i>Confectionery</i>; <i>Sugar</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´low</b>, Joel, an American poet and diplomatist, born 1755.
+  After an active and changeful life as chaplain, lawyer, editor,
+  land-agent, lecturer, and consul, he went to Paris and acquired a
+  fortune. On his return to America he was appointed Minister
+  Plenipotentiary to France (1811), but died near Cracow in 1812 on his way
+  to meet Napoleon. His principal poem, <i>The Columbiad</i> (<i>The Vision
+  of Columbus</i>), dealing with American history from the time of
+  Columbus, was published in 1807.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barm.</b> See <i>Yeast</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´mecides</b> (-s&#x12B;dz), a distinguished Persian family,
+  whose virtues and splendour form a favourite subject with Mahommedan
+  poets and historians. Two eminent members of this family were
+  Khaled-ben-Barmek, tutor of Haroun al Rashid, and his son Yahya, grand
+  vizier of Haroun. The expression <i>Barmecide Feast</i>, meaning a
+  visionary banquet or make-believe entertainment, originates from the
+  Barber's story of his Sixth Brother in the <i>Arabian Nights'
+  Entertainments</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´men</b>, a German city on the Wupper, in the Prussian Rhine
+  Province, government of Düsseldorf, and forming a continuation of the
+  town of Elberfeld, in the valley of Barmen. It has extensive ribbon and
+  other textile manufactures; also dyeworks, manufactures of chemicals,
+  metal wares, buttons, yarns, iron, machines, pianos, organs, soap,
+  &amp;c. In 1919 Barmen was the scene of Spartacist disorders. Pop.
+  169,214.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barmouth</b>, Welsh name <b>Abermaw</b>, a small seaport and
+  watering-place of Wales, in Merionethshire, at the entrance of Barmouth
+  Bay, a <!-- Page 400 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page400"></a>[400]</span>fine estuary. It is picturesquely
+  situated, and has become a favourite resort of tourists and others. Pop.
+  (1921), 3559.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´nabas</b>, the surname, according to <i>Acts</i>, iv, 36-7,
+  given by the apostles to Joseph, a fellow-labourer of St. Paul, and, like
+  him, ranked as an apostle. He is said to have founded at Antioch the
+  first Christian community, to have been first Bishop of Milan, and to
+  have suffered martyrdom at Cyprus. His festival is held on the 11th
+  June.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barnabas, Saint, Epistle of</b>, an epistle in twenty-one chapters
+  unanimously ascribed to Barnabas by early Christian writers, but without
+  any support of internal evidence. It was probably written about <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 130 (or, according to others, between <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 70 and 79) by one who was not a Jew, and under
+  the influence of Alexandrian Judaistic thought. See <i>Codex</i>
+  (<i>Sinaiticus</i>).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barnabites</b>, an order of monks founded in Milan in 1530 and
+  named after the Milan church of St. Barnabas which was allotted them to
+  preach in. On their expulsion from France in 1905, the majority of the
+  Barnabites sought refuge in England. A few monasteries of the order still
+  exist in Italy, Belgium, Austria, and Spain.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:42%;">
+      <a href="images/image154.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image154.jpg"
+      alt="Barnacles" title="Barnacles" /></a>
+    Barnacles hanging from timber
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´nacle</b>, the name of a family (Lepadidæ) of marine
+  crustaceous animals, ord. Cirripedia. They are enveloped by a mantle and
+  shell, composed of five principal valves and several smaller pieces,
+  joined together by a membrane attached to their circumference; and they
+  are furnished with a long, flexible, fleshy stalk or peduncle, provided
+  with muscles, by which they attach themselves to ships' bottoms,
+  submerged timber, &amp;c. They feed on small marine animals, brought
+  within their reach by the water and secured by their tentacula. Some of
+  the larger species are edible. According to an old fable, these animals
+  produced barnacle geese.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barnacle Goose</b> (<i>Anser Bernicla</i> or <i>leucopsis</i>), a
+  summer visitant of the northern seas, in size rather smaller than the
+  common wild goose, and having the forehead and cheeks white, the upper
+  body and neck black. A fable asserts that the crustaceans called
+  barnacles changed into geese, and various theories have been framed to
+  account for its origin. Max Müller supposes the geese were originally
+  called <i>Hiberniculæ</i> or Irish geese, and that barnacle is a
+  corruption of this; but the resemblance of a barnacle to a goose hanging
+  by the head may account for it. The Brent Goose is also sometimes called
+  the Barnacle Goose, but the two should not be confused.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barnard-Castle</b>, a town, England, County Durham, giving name to
+  a parliamentary division of the county. There are a large thread-mill and
+  carpet manufactories; the Bowes Museum and Art Gallery, endowed by
+  private munificence, and costing over £80,000; and the Northern Counties
+  School, richly endowed. The castle was originally built about 1178 by
+  Bernard Baliol, grandfather of John Baliol. Pop. 4737.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barnar´do</b>, Thomas John, philanthropist, born in Ireland in
+  1845, qualified as a medical practitioner, studying in London, Edinburgh,
+  and Paris, established his first home for neglected London children in
+  1867, and for the rest of his life was engaged in the same class of work.
+  Up to his death in 1905 he had nearly 60,000 destitute waifs cared for
+  and trained in the institutions with which his name is connected, many of
+  the children having been sent to Canada or other colonies. The Barnardo
+  homes and institutions have become very numerous, being established in
+  various English counties as well as in London, a few being in Canada. A
+  naval training-school for boys is included among them. It was a rule of
+  the founder that no destitute child should be refused admission. The
+  homes have since 1899 been under a council or body <!-- Page 401 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page401"></a>[401]</span>incorporated under the
+  title of the National Incorporated Waifs Association, but continue to be
+  managed on the same lines as before. Dr. Barnardo published <i>Something
+  Attempted, Something Done</i>; <i>The Rescue of Waifs</i>;
+  &amp;c.&mdash;Cf. J.&nbsp;H. Batt, <i>Dr. Barnardo, the Foster-father of
+  Nobody's Children</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barnaul´</b>, a town of Siberia, government of Tomsk, on the
+  Barnaulski, near its influx into the Obi. The town is of wood but well
+  built, with museum, observatory, &amp;c. It is an important mining centre
+  for lead, copper, and silver, has a copper-mint, kilns, and factories.
+  Pop. 61,330.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barnave</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-näv), Antoine-Pierre-Joseph-Marie, a
+  distinguished French revolutionist, born 1761, died 1793. He successfully
+  maintained against Mirabeau the right of the National Assembly, as
+  against that of the king, to declare for peace or war, but afterwards
+  asserted the inviolability of the king's person. He was impeached,
+  condemned, and guillotined.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barnes</b>, an urban district of England, in Surrey, on the right
+  bank of the Thames, a short distance above London, connected with
+  Middlesex by Hammersmith Suspension Bridge. There is here a common of 120
+  acres, one of the preserved open spaces of the metropolitan area. Pop.
+  (1921), 34,281.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barnes</b> (bärnz), Albert, theologian, born in the State of New
+  York, 1798. In 1825 he was ordained pastor of the Presbyterian Church of
+  Morristown, New Jersey, and from 1830 till his death in 1870 had charge
+  of the first Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia. He is chiefly known by
+  his <i>Notes on the New Testament</i> and <i>Notes on the Old
+  Testament</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barnes</b>, Rt. Hon. George Nicoll, British Labour leader, born at
+  Dundee, in Scotland, in 1859. After working as an engineer he became
+  assistant secretary of the Amalgamated Society of Engineers in 1892, and
+  was general secretary from 1896 to 1906. He entered Parliament in 1906,
+  became Minister for Pensions in 1916, member of War Cabinet in 1917, and
+  was Minister without portfolio from 1919 to Jan., 1920. He was a British
+  representative at the Peace Conference in Paris.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barnes</b>, William, English dialect poet and philologist, born in
+  Dorsetshire in 1800, died 1886. Of humble birth, he first entered a
+  solicitor's office, then taught at a school in Dorchester, and having
+  taken orders became rector of Winterbourne Came in his native county and
+  died there. He acquired a knowledge of many languages, and published
+  works on Anglo-Saxon and English, as <i>An Anglo-Saxon Delectus</i>, <i>A
+  Philological Grammar</i> (grounded upon English), <i>Grammar and Glossary
+  of the Dorset Dialect</i>, &amp;c., but is best known by his <i>Poems of
+  Rural Life in the Dorset Dialect</i> and <i>Poems of Rural Life in Common
+  English</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´net</b>, a town of England, in Herts, 11 miles from London,
+  where was fought in 1471 a battle between the Yorkists and Lancastrians,
+  resulting in the defeat of the latter and the death of Warwick, Edward IV
+  being thus established king. Pop. (1921), 11,772.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barnett</b>, John, musical composer, son of Bernhard Beer, a
+  German, born at Bedford 1802, died 1890. He composed music as a lad, and
+  his songs and ballads soon had great vogue. In 1834 his opera <i>The
+  Mountain Sylph</i> was produced with success, and three years after was
+  followed by the less successful <i>Fair Rosamond</i>. For many years
+  before his death he was little heard of.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barnett</b>, John Francis, nephew of the former, born in 1837, died
+  in 1916, was also a distinguished musician and teacher, author of
+  cantatas: <i>The Ancient Mariner</i>, <i>Paradise and the Peri</i>,
+  <i>The Raising of Lazarus</i>, <i>The Building of the Ship</i>, and of
+  various other works.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barneveldt</b> (bär'ne-velt), Johan van Olden, grand pensionary of
+  Holland during the struggle with Philip II of Spain, born in 1547. After
+  the assassination of William of Orange, and the conquest of the south
+  provinces by the Spaniards under Parma, he headed the embassy to secure
+  English aid. Finding, however, that the Earl of Leicester proved a worse
+  than useless ally, he secured the elevation of the young Maurice of
+  Nassau to the post of Stadtholder, at the same time by his own wise
+  administration doing much to restore the prosperity of the State. After
+  serving as ambassador to France and England, he succeeded in 1607 in
+  obtaining from Spain a recognition of the independence of the States, and
+  two years later in concluding with her the twelve years' truce. Maurice,
+  ambitious of absolute rule and jealous of the influence of Barneveldt,
+  was interested in the continuance of the war, and lost no opportunity of
+  hostile action against the great statesman. In this he was aided by the
+  strongly-marked theologic division in the State between the Gomarites
+  (the Calvinistic and popular party) and the Arminians, of whom Barneveldt
+  was a supporter. Maurice, who had thrown in his lot with the Gomarites,
+  encouraged the idea that the Arminians were the friends of Spain, and
+  procured the assembly of a synod at Dort (1618), which violently
+  condemned them. Barneveldt and his friends Grotius and Hoogerbeets were
+  arrested, and subjected to a so-called trial; and Barneveldt, to whom the
+  country owed its political existence and the Commons their retention of
+  legislative power, was beheaded on 13th May, 1619. His sons, four years
+  later, attempted to avenge his death; one was beheaded, the other escaped
+  to Spain. <!-- Page 402 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page402"></a>[402]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Barnoldswick</b>, an urban district of England, West Riding of
+  Yorkshire, 9 miles south-west of Skipton, with cotton manufactures and
+  other industries. Pop. (1921), 11,951.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barns´ley</b>, a municipal borough of England, West Riding of
+  Yorkshire. Its staple industries are the manufacture of linens, iron, and
+  steel, and there are numerous collieries in the neighbourhood. Created a
+  parliamentary borough in 1918, Barnsley returns one member to Parliament.
+  Pop. (1921), 53,670.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barn´staple</b>, a county and municipal borough in England, county
+  of Devon, giving its name to a parliamentary division of the county on
+  the right bank of the Taw, where it receives the Yeo; manufactures of
+  lace, paper, pottery, furniture, toys and turnery, and leather. Pop.
+  14,409.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baroach.</b> See <i>Broach</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baro´da</b>, a non-tributary State, but subordinate to the Indian
+  Government, situated in the north of the Bombay presidency. It consists
+  of a number of detached territories in the province of Guzerat, and is
+  generally level, fertile, and well cultivated, producing luxuriant crops
+  of grain, cotton, tobacco, opium, sugar-cane, and oil-seeds. There is a
+  famous breed of large white oxen used as draught cattle. Area, 8182 sq.
+  miles; pop. (1911) 2,032,798. The ruler is called the <i>Gaekwár</i>. The
+  dissensions of the Baroda family have more than once called for British
+  intervention, and in 1875 the ruling Gaekwár was tried and deposed in
+  connection with the charge of attempting to poison the British Resident.
+  Since 1908 there is a Legislative Council of 17
+  members.&mdash;<i>Baroda</i>, the capital, is the third city in the
+  Bombay presidency. It consists of the city proper within the walls and
+  the suburbs without, and is largely composed of poor and crowded houses,
+  but has also some fine buildings, and is noted for its Hindu temples kept
+  up by the State. Pop. 99,345.&mdash;Cf. E. St. C. Weeden, <i>A Year with
+  the Gaekwár of Baroda</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barograph</b>, a kind of aneroid barometer, which, by means of
+  special mechanism and appliances, is made to furnish automatically a
+  continuous record of the successive changes in atmospheric pressure. The
+  paper that receives the record is made to move by clockwork while in
+  contact with the index pencil, which rises and falls according to
+  alterations of atmospheric pressure.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barom´eter</b>, an instrument for measuring the weight or pressure
+  of the atmosphere and thus determining changes in the weather, the height
+  of mountains, and other phenomena. It had its origin about the middle of
+  the seventeenth century in an experiment of Torricelli, an Italian, who
+  found that if a glass tube about 3 feet in length, open at one end only,
+  and filled with mercury, were placed vertically with the open end in a
+  cup of the same fluid metal, a portion of the mercury descended into the
+  cup, leaving a column only about 30 inches in height in the tube. He
+  inferred, therefore, that the atmospheric pressure on the surface of the
+  mercury in the cup forced it up the tube to the height of 30 inches, and
+  that this was so because the weight of a column of air from the cup to
+  the top of the atmosphere was only equal to that of a column of mercury
+  of the same base and 30 inches high. Pascal confirmed the conclusion in
+  1645; six years afterwards it was found by Perrier that the height of the
+  mercury in the Torricellian tube varied with the weather; and in 1655
+  Boyle proposed to use the instrument to measure the height of
+  mountains.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:37%;">
+      <a href="images/image155.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image155.jpg"
+      alt="Barometers" title="Barometers" /></a>
+    Common Upright Barometer; Marine Barometer
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The common or <i>cistern</i> barometer, which is a modification of the
+  Torricellian tube, consists of a glass tube 33 inches in length and about
+  one-third of an inch in diameter, hermetically sealed at the top, and
+  having the lower end resting in a small vessel containing mercury, or
+  bent upwards and terminating in a glass bulb partly occupied by the
+  mercury and open to the atmosphere. The tube is first filled with
+  purified mercury, and then inverted, and there is affixed to it a scale
+  to mark the height of the mercurial column, which comparatively seldom
+  rises above 31 inches or sinks below 28 inches. In general the rising of
+  the mercury presages fair weather, and its falling the contrary, a great
+  and sudden fall being the usual presage of a <!-- Page 403 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page403"></a>[403]</span>storm. The
+  weather-points on the ordinary barometric scale are as follows: At 28
+  inches, stormy weather; 28½, much rain or snow; 29, rain or snow; 29½,
+  changeable; 30, fair or frost; 30½, settled fair or frost; 31, very dry
+  weather or hard frost. Certain attendant signs, however, have also to be
+  noted: thus, when fair or foul weather follows almost immediately upon
+  the rise or fall of the mercury, the change is usually of short duration;
+  while if the change of weather be delayed for some days after the
+  variation in the mercury, it is usually of long continuance. The
+  direction of the wind has also to be taken into account.</p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;">
+      <a href="images/image156.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image156.jpg"
+      alt="Barometers" title="Barometers" /></a>
+    Siphon Barometer; Wheel Barometer
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The <i>siphon</i> barometer consists of a bent tube, generally of
+  uniform bore, having two unequal legs, the longer closed, the shorter
+  open. A sufficient quantity of mercury having been introduced to fill the
+  longer leg, the instrument is set upright, and the mercury takes such a
+  position that the difference of the levels in the two legs represents the
+  pressure of the atmosphere. In the best siphon barometers there are two
+  scales, one for each leg, the divisions on one being reckoned upwards,
+  and on the other downwards from an intermediate zero point, so that the
+  sum of the two readings is the difference of levels of the mercury in the
+  two branches.</p>
+
+  <p>The <i>wheel</i> barometer is the one that is most commonly used for
+  domestic purposes. It is far from being accurate, but it is often
+  preferred for ordinary use on account of the greater range of its scale,
+  by which small differences in the height of the column of mercury are
+  more easily observed. It usually consists of a siphon barometer having a
+  float resting on the surface of the mercury in the open branch, a thread
+  attached to the float passing over a pulley, and having a weight as a
+  counterpoise to the float at its extremity. As the mercury rises and
+  falls the thread and weight turn the pulley, which again moves the index
+  of the dial.</p>
+
+  <p>The <i>mountain</i> barometer is a portable mercurial barometer with a
+  tripod support and a long scale for measuring the altitude of mountains.
+  To prevent breakage, through the oscillations of such a heavy liquid as
+  mercury, it is usually carried inverted, or it is furnished with a
+  movable basin and a screw, by means of which the mercury may be forced up
+  to the top of the tube. For delicate operations, such as the measurement
+  of altitudes, the scale of the barometer is furnished with a nonius or
+  vernier, which greatly increases the minuteness and accuracy of the
+  scale. For the rough estimate of altitudes the following rule is
+  sufficient: As the sum of the heights of the mercury at the bottom and
+  top of the mountain is to their difference, so is 52,000 to the height to
+  be measured, in feet. (See also <i>Heights, Measurement of</i>.) In exact
+  barometric observations two corrections require to be made, one for the
+  depression of the mercury in the tube by capillary attraction, the other
+  for temperature, which increases or diminishes the bulk of the mercury.
+  In regard to the measurement of heights, the general rule is to subtract
+  the ten-thousandth part of the observed altitude for every degree of
+  Fahrenheit above 32°.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:38%;">
+      <a href="images/image157.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image157.jpg"
+      alt="Aneroid Barometer" title="Aneroid Barometer" /></a>
+    Aneroid Barometer
+  </div>
+
+  <p>In the <i>aneroid</i> barometer, as its name implies (Gr. <i>a</i>,
+  not, <i>n&#x113;ros</i>, liquid), no fluid is employed, the action being
+  dependent upon the susceptibility to atmospheric pressure shown by a flat
+  circular metallic chamber from which the air has been partially
+  exhausted, and which has a flexible top and bottom of corrugated metal
+  plate. By an ingenious arrangement of springs and levers the depression
+  or elevation of the surface of the box is registered by an index on the
+  dial, by which means it is also greatly magnified, being given in inches
+  to correspond with <!-- Page 404 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page404"></a>[404]</span>the mercurial barometer. Aneroids are,
+  however, generally less reliable than mercurial barometers, with which
+  they should be frequently compared. The illustration shows an aneroid
+  without its case. At the centre of the partially exhausted metal chamber
+  is a small pillar [<span class="scac">M</span>], connected with a steel
+  spring [<span class="scac">R</span>]. The rise and fall of the top of the
+  chamber, due to changing atmospheric pressure, is transmitted by means of
+  the levers [<span class="scac">L</span>], and [<i>m</i>] to a metallic
+  axis [<i>r</i>], and this axis carries a lever [<i>t</i>], whose end is
+  attached to a chain [<i>s</i>], which turns a drum on whose axis the
+  index needle is fixed.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: C.
+  Abbe, <i>Meteorological Apparatus</i>; Marvin, <i>Barometers and the
+  Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´on</b>, originally, in the feudal system, the vassal or
+  immediate tenant of any superior; but the term was afterwards restricted
+  to the king's barons, and again to the greater of these only, who
+  attended the Great Council, or who, at a later date, were summoned by
+  writ to Parliament. It was the second rank of nobility, until dukes and
+  marquesses were introduced and placed above the earls, and viscounts also
+  set above the barons, who therefore now hold the lowest rank in the
+  British peerage. The present barons are of three classes: (1) barons by
+  writ, whose ancestors have long sat in the Upper House; (2) by patent;
+  (3) by tenure, i.e. holding the title as annexed to land. The coronet is
+  a plain gold circle with six balls or 'pearls' on its edge, the cap being
+  of crimson velvet.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baron and feme</b>, a term used for husband and wife in English
+  law.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´onet</b>, a hereditary dignity in Great Britain and Ireland,
+  next in rank to the peerage, originally instituted by James I in 1611,
+  nominally to promote the colonization and defence of Ulster, each
+  baronet, on his creation, being then obliged to pay into the treasury a
+  sum of £1095, exclusive of fees. Baronets of Ireland were instituted in
+  1620, and of Scotland in 1625, the latter being called baronets of Nova
+  Scotia, because their creation was originally intended to further the
+  colonization of Nova Scotia. But the baronets of Scotland and of England
+  have been baronets of Great Britain if created since 1707; since 1801 all
+  creations have been known as baronetcies of the United Kingdom. A baronet
+  has the title of 'Sir' prefixed to his Christian and surname, and his
+  wife is 'Lady' so-and-so. Baronets rank before all knights except Knights
+  of the Garter, the Thistle, and St. Patrick. They have as their badge a
+  'bloody hand' (the arms of Ulster), that is, a left hand, erect and open,
+  cut off at the wrist, and red in colour.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Pixley, <i>History of the Baronetage</i>;
+  G.&nbsp;E. Cokayne, <i>Complete Baronetage</i>; <i>The Baronetage under 27
+  Sovereigns, 1309-1910</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baro´nius</b>, or <b>Baronio</b>, Cæsar, Italian ecclesiastical
+  historian, born 1538; educated at Naples; in 1557 went to Rome; was one
+  of the first pupils of St. Philip of Neri, and member of the oratory
+  founded by him; afterwards cardinal and librarian of the Vatican Library.
+  He owed these dignities to the services which he rendered the Church by
+  his <i>Ecclesiastical Annals</i>, comprising valuable documents from the
+  papal archives, on which he laboured from the year 1580 until his death,
+  30th June, 1607. They were continued, though with less power, by other
+  writers, of whom Raynaldus takes the first rank; others are Laderchi and
+  Theiner.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baron of beef</b>, two sirloins not cut asunder.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barons' War</b>, the war carried on for several years by Simon de
+  Montfort and other barons of Henry III against the king, beginning in
+  1263.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barony</b>, a manor or landed estate under a baron, who formerly
+  had certain rights of jurisdiction in his barony and could hold special
+  courts. In Ireland baronies are still the chief subdivisions of the
+  counties.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barosma.</b> See <i>Bucku</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barot´seland</b>, a former kingdom of South Africa, now a part of
+  Rhodesia.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barouche</b> (ba-rösh'), a four-wheeled carriage with a falling top
+  and two inside seats in which four persons can sit, two facing two.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barque</b> (bärk), a three-masted vessel of which the fore-mast and
+  main-mast are square-rigged, but the mizzen-mast has fore-and-aft sails
+  only.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barquisimeto</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-k&#x113;-s&#x113;-m&#x101;'t&#x14D;), a
+  city in the north of the Republic of Venezuela, capital of the State of
+  Lara. Pop. about 32,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´ra</b>, or <b>Bar</b>, a small kingdom in Africa, near the
+  mouth of the Gambia. The Mandingoes, who form a considerable part of the
+  inhabitants, are Mahommedans and the most civilized people on the Gambia.
+  Pop. 200,000. The coast here belongs to Britain. The chief town is
+  Barrinding, where the so-called king resides. See <i>Gambia</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barra</b>, an island of the Outer Hebrides, west coast of Scotland,
+  belonging to Inverness-shire; 8 miles long and from 2 to 5 miles broad,
+  of irregular outline, with rocky coasts, surface hilly but furnishing
+  excellent pasture. On the west coast the Atlantic, beating with all its
+  force, has hollowed out vast caves and fissures. Large herds of cattle
+  and flocks of sheep are reared on the island. The coasts of this and
+  adjacent islands abound with fish, and fishing is an important industry.
+  The inhabitants, about 2500, are Roman Catholics, and speak Gaelic.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barra</b>, a town about 3 miles east of Naples. Pop. 12,080.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barracan´</b>, or <b>Barragan</b>, strictly, a thick strong stuff
+  made in Persia and Armenia of camel's hair, but the name has been
+  applied, by Byron and others, to various wool, flax, and cotton fabrics.
+  <!-- Page 405 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page405"></a>[405]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´rack</b> (Sp. <i>barraca</i>), originally a small cabin or hut
+  for troops, but now applied to the permanent buildings in which troops
+  are lodged. Despite the obvious evils of the quartering system, the
+  introduction of barracks by George III met with considerable opposition
+  in the British Parliament as dangerous to liberty, by estranging the
+  soldier from the citizen, and fitting him to become a tool of
+  despotism.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barrackpur</b> (-pör'), a town and military cantonment, Hindustan,
+  on the left bank of the Hughli, 10 miles <span class="scac">N.N.E.</span>
+  of Calcutta. The suburban residence of the Viceroy is in Barrackpur Park.
+  Pop. 31,907.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barracoon´</b>, a negro barrack or slave depot, formerly plentiful
+  on the west coast of Africa, in Cuba, Brazil, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barracu´da</b>, a name for certain large and ferocious fishes of
+  the genus Sphyræna, and allied to the mullets, inhabiting southern seas,
+  and caught in abundance for food.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barrafran´ca</b>, a town of Sicily, province Caltanissetta. Pop.
+  11,170.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barramun´da.</b> See <i>Ceratodus</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barranquilla</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-ra<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n-k&#x113;l'ya<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a port of S. America, in Colombia, on
+  a branch of the River Magdalena, near its entrance into the Caribbean
+  Sea, connected by rail with the seaport Puerto Colombia. Pop. 64,543.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barras</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-rä), Paul François Jean Nicholas, Comte
+  de, member of the French National Convention and of the Executive
+  Directory, born in Provence 1755, died 1829. After serving in the army in
+  India and Africa, he joined the revolutionary party and was a deputy in
+  the <i>tiers état</i>. He took part in the attack upon the Bastille and
+  upon the Tuileries, and voted for the death of Louis XVI. In the
+  subsequent events he displeased Robespierre, and on this account joined
+  the members of the committee, who foresaw danger awaiting them, and being
+  entrusted with the chief command of the forces of his party he made
+  himself master of Robespierre. On 4th Feb., 1795, he was elected
+  president of the Convention, and on 5th Oct., when the troops of the
+  sections which favoured the royal cause approached, Barras for a second
+  time received the chief command of the forces of the Convention. On this
+  occasion he employed General Bonaparte, for whom he procured the chief
+  command of the army of the interior, and afterwards the command of the
+  army in Italy. From the events of the 18th Fructidor (4th Sept., 1797) he
+  governed absolutely until the 13th June, 1799, when Siéyès entered the
+  Directory, and in alliance with Bonaparte procured his downfall in the
+  revolution of the 18th Brumaire (9th Nov., 1799). He afterwards resided
+  at Brussels, Marseilles, Rome, and Montpellier under surveillance. His
+  <i>Memoirs</i> (in four volumes) were published in French and in English
+  in 1895-6.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´ratry</b>, in commerce, any fraud committed by the master or
+  mariners of a ship, whereby the owners, freighters, or insurers are
+  injured; as by deviation from the proper course of the voyage, by the
+  captain, for his own private purposes; fraudulent negligence;
+  embezzlement of any part of the cargo, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barratry, Common</b>, in law, the stirring up of lawsuits and
+  quarrels between other persons, the party guilty of this offence being
+  indictable as a <i>common barrator</i> or <i>barretor</i>. The commencing
+  of suits in the name of a fictitious plaintiff is common barratry. In old
+  Scots law it denotes the taking of bribes by a judge.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barrel</b>, a well-known variety of wooden vessel; but the term is
+  also used as a definite measure and weight. A barrel of beer is 36
+  gallons, of flour 196 lb., of beef or pork 200 lb. The Italian
+  <i>barile</i> varies from 7 to 31 English gallons; the French
+  <i>barrique</i> of Bordeaux contains 50 English gallons = 228 French
+  litres.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barrel-organ</b>, a musical instrument usually carried by street
+  musicians, in which a barrel, studded with pegs or staples, when turned
+  round, opens a series of valves to admit air to a set of pipes, or acts
+  upon wire strings like those of the piano, thus producing a fixed series
+  of tunes.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barren Grounds</b>, a large tract in the North-West Territories of
+  Canada, extending northwards from Churchill River to the Arctic Ocean
+  between Great Bear and Great Slave Lake and Hudson's Bay. It largely
+  consists of swamps, lakes, and bare rock.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barrhead´</b>, a town, Scotland, Renfrewshire, on the Levern, 7
+  miles <span class="scac">S.W.</span> of Glasgow; chief industries:
+  printing of cottons, the spinning of cotton yarn, dyeing, bleaching, iron
+  and brass founding, and sanitary ware. Pop. 11,387.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barrie</b>, a town of Canada, province Ontario, 55 miles <span
+  class="scac">N.W.</span> Toronto, picturesquely situated on Lake Simcoe,
+  a favourite summer resort. Pop. 6420.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barrie</b>, Sir James Matthew, a novelist and playwright, born in
+  1860 at Kirriemuir, Forfarshire; studied at Edinburgh University,
+  graduating as <span class="scac">M.A.</span> in 1882. After working on a
+  Nottingham journal he was a journalist in London. His first book,
+  <i>Better Dead</i> (1887), a satire on London life, was followed by the
+  highly successful <i>Auld Licht Idylls</i> (1888), with its sequel <i>A
+  Window in Thrums</i> (that is, Kirriemuir) (1889). Among his novels and
+  tales are <i>When a Man's Single</i>, <i>My Lady Nicotine</i>, <i>The
+  Little Minister</i>, <i>Sentimental Tommy</i>, <i>Tommy and Grizel</i>,
+  <i>The Little White Bird</i>. Successful plays are <i>Peter and
+  Wendy</i>, <i>The Professor's Love Story</i>, <i>The Little Minister</i>
+  (based on the novel), <i>The <!-- Page 406 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page406"></a>[406]</span>Admirable Crichton</i>, <i>Quality
+  Street</i>, <i>Little Mary</i>, <i>Peter Pan</i>, <i>What Every Woman
+  Knows</i>, <i>Dear Brutus</i>, <i>A Kiss for Cinderella</i>, <i>Mary
+  Rose</i>. His plays on the whole have been even more successful than his
+  other works. He was created a baronet in 1913, and elected Rector of the
+  University of St. Andrews in 1919.&mdash;Cf. J.&nbsp;A. Hammerton, <i>J.&nbsp;M.
+  Barrie and his Books</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barrier Reef</b>, a coral reef, or rather series of reefs,
+  extending for 1260 miles off the <span class="scac">N.&nbsp;E.</span> coast of
+  Australia, at a distance from land ranging from 10 to 100 miles. In
+  sailing along this coast, steamers generally take the route inside the
+  reef, where there is a channel about 12 fathoms deep throughout,
+  protected by the reefs themselves; the outer channel is safer for sailing
+  vessels.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barrier Treaty</b>, the treaty (1718) by which, when the Spanish
+  Netherlands were ceded to Austria, the Dutch secured the right to
+  garrison several border fortresses of the country at the expense of
+  Austria, to serve as a barrier against France. It was declared void in
+  1781 by Joseph II.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´rington</b>, Daines, son of Viscount Barrington, lawyer,
+  antiquarian, and naturalist, born 1727, died 1800. He wrote many papers
+  for the Royal Society and the Society of Antiquaries; published some
+  separate works, and was a correspondent of White of Selborne, who
+  addressed to him a number of the letters in <i>The Natural History of
+  Selborne</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´rister</b>, in England or Ireland, an advocate or pleader, who
+  has been admitted by one of the Inns of Court, viz. the Inner Temple,
+  Middle Temple, Lincoln's Inn, or Gray's Inn, to plead at the bar. It is
+  they who speak before all the higher courts, being instructed in regard
+  to the case they have in hand by means of the <i>brief</i> which they
+  receive from the solicitor who may happen to engage their services, and
+  which has a certain fee endorsed upon it as the sum to be paid for the
+  barrister's services in the case. Before a student can be admitted to the
+  bar he must have been a member of one of those societies, and have kept
+  twelve terms there. The examinations, which had dwindled into mere forms,
+  have been revived and made more stringent. Barristers are sometimes
+  called <i>utter</i> or <i>outer barristers</i>, to distinguish them from
+  the king's counsel, who sit within the bar in the courts and are
+  distinguished by a silk gown. Barristers are also spoken of as
+  <i>counsel</i>, as in the phrase <i>opinion of counsel</i>, that is, a
+  written opinion on a case obtained from a barrister before whom the facts
+  have been laid. All judges are selected from the barristers. A barrister
+  cannot maintain an action for his fees, which are considered purely
+  honorary. A <i>revising barrister</i> is a barrister appointed to revise
+  the list of persons in any locality who have a vote for a member of
+  Parliament. The term corresponding to barrister is in Scotland
+  <i>advocate</i>, in the United States <i>counsellor-at-law</i>; but the
+  position of the latter is not quite the same.&mdash;Cf. J.&nbsp;R.&nbsp;V.
+  Marchant, <i>Barrister-at-law</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´ros</b>, João de, Portuguese historian, born 1496. He was
+  attached to the Court of King Emmanuel, who, after the publication in
+  1520 of Barros' romance, <i>The Emperor Clarimond</i>, urged him to
+  undertake a history of the Portuguese in India, which appeared thirty-two
+  years later. King John III appointed Barros Governor of the Portuguese
+  settlements in Guinea, and General Agent for these colonies, further
+  presenting him in 1530 with the province of Maranham, in Brazil, for the
+  purpose of colonization. For his losses by the last enterprise the king
+  indemnified him, and he died in retirement in 1570. Besides his standard
+  work, the <i>Decadas</i>, a history of the Portuguese in India (a
+  complete edition of which appeared at Lisbon between 1778 and 1788), he
+  wrote a moral dialogue on compromise, and the first <i>Portuguese
+  Grammar</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barro´sa</b>, a village, Spain, near the <span
+  class="scac">S.&nbsp;W.</span> coast of Andalusia, near which General Graham,
+  when abandoned by the Spaniards, defeated a superior French force in
+  1811.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´row</b>, a river in the south-east of Ireland, province
+  Leinster, rising on the borders of the King's and Queen's Counties, and
+  after a southerly course joining the Suir in forming Waterford harbour.
+  It is next in importance to the Shannon, and is navigable for vessels of
+  200 tons for 25 miles above the sea. Its principal tributary is the
+  Nore.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´row</b>, Isaac, an eminent English mathematician and divine,
+  born in London in 1630; studied at the Charterhouse and at Trinity
+  College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in 1649. After a course
+  of medical studies he turned to divinity, mathematics, and astronomy, and
+  took his <span class="scac">M.&nbsp;A.</span> degree in 1652, and, failing to
+  obtain the Cambridge Greek professorship, went abroad. In 1659 he was
+  ordained; in 1660 elected Greek professor at Cambridge; in 1662 professor
+  of geometry in Gresham College; and in 1663 Lucasian professor of
+  mathematics at Cambridge, a post which he resigned to Newton in 1669. In
+  1670 he was created <span class="scac">D.&nbsp;D.</span>, in 1672 master of
+  Trinity College, and in 1675 vice-chancellor of Cambridge University. He
+  died in 1677. His principal mathematical works (written in Latin) were:
+  <i>Euclidis Elementa</i> (1655); <i>Euclidis Data</i> (1657);
+  <i>Mathematicæ Lectiones</i> (1664-6); <i>Lectiones Opticæ</i> (1669);
+  <i>Lectiones Geometricæ</i> (1670); <i>Archimedis Opera</i>; <i>Apollonii
+  Conicorum lib. iv</i>; <i>Theodosii Spherica</i>, (1675). All his English
+  works, which are theological, were left in MS., and published by Dr. <!--
+  Page 407 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page407"></a>[407]</span>Tillotson in 1685, the best edition being
+  that prepared by the Rev. A. Napier in 1859. As a mathematician Barrow
+  was deemed inferior only to Newton. The Latin edition of his mathematical
+  works was prepared by Whewell in 1860.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barrow</b>, Sir John, Bart., geographer and man of letters, born in
+  1764 in Lancashire. At the age of sixteen he went in a whaler to
+  Greenland; and later on was teacher of mathematics in a school at
+  Greenwich. In 1792 he was sent with Lord Macartney, in his embassy to
+  China, to take charge of philosophical instruments for presentation to
+  the Chinese emperor. His account of this journey was of great value, and
+  not less so was the account of his travels in South Africa, whither he
+  went in 1797 as secretary to Macartney. In 1804 he was appointed second
+  secretary to the Admiralty, a post occupied by him for forty years. In
+  1835 he was made a baronet; and he died in 1848, three years after his
+  retirement. Besides the accounts of his own travels, he published lives
+  of Earl Macartney, Lord Anson, and Lord Howe; <i>Voyages of Discovery and
+  Research within the Arctic Regions</i>; an <i>Autobiography</i> written
+  at the age of eighty-three, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´row-in-Fur´ness</b>, a seaport, county and parliamentary
+  borough of Lancashire, in the district of Furness, opposite the Island of
+  Walney, a town that has increased from a fishing-hamlet with 100
+  inhabitants in 1848 to a town of 74,254 inhabitants in 1921. Its
+  prosperity is due to the mines of red hematite iron-ore which abound in
+  the district, and to the railway rendering its excellent natural harbour
+  available. It has several large docks, besides graving-docks, a floating
+  dock capable of receiving vessels of 3000 tons, a large timber pond,
+  &amp;c. There is an extensive trade in timber, cattle, grain, and flour;
+  and iron-ore and pig-iron are largely shipped. It has numerous
+  blast-furnaces, and one of the largest Bessemer-steel works in the world.
+  Besides ironworks, a large business is done in shipbuilding, the making
+  of railway wagons and rolling-stock, ropes, sails, bricks, &amp;c. A town
+  hall, erected at a cost of £60,000, was opened in 1887. Barrow-in-Furness
+  returns one member to Parliament.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:39%;">
+      <a href="images/image158.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image158.jpg"
+      alt="Barrows" title="Barrows" /></a>
+    Barrows
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´rows</b>, mounds of earth or stones raised to mark the
+  resting-place of the dead, and distinguished, according to their shape,
+  as <i>long</i>, <i>bowl</i>, <i>bell</i>, <i>cone</i>, and <i>broad</i>
+  barrows. The practice of barrow-burial is of unknown antiquity and almost
+  universal, barrows being found all over Europe, in Northern Africa, Asia
+  Minor, Afghanistan, Western India, and in America. In the earliest
+  barrows the enclosed bodies were simply laid upon the ground, with stone
+  or bone implements and weapons beside them. In barrows of later date the
+  remains are generally enclosed in a stone cist. Frequently cremation
+  preceded the erection of the barrow, the ashes being enclosed in an urn
+  or cist. A detailed description of an ancient barrow-burial is given in
+  the Anglo-Saxon poem <i>Beowulf</i>.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Canon W. Greenwell, <i>British
+  Barrows</i>; J. Anderson, <i>Scotland in Pagan Times</i>; W.&nbsp;C. Borlase,
+  <i>The Dolmens of Ireland</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barrow Strait</b>, the connecting channel between Lancaster Sound
+  and Baffin's Bay on the east and the Polar Ocean on the west. Named after
+  Sir John Barrow.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barry</b>, a seaport of S. Wales, Glamorganshire, 7 miles
+  south-west of Cardiff, with large docks, exporting much coal. Pop.
+  (1921), 38,927.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´ry</b>, Sir Charles, an English architect, born in London,
+  1795. After executing numerous important buildings, such as the Reform
+  Clubhouse, London, St. Edward's School, Birmingham, &amp;c., he was
+  appointed architect of the new Houses of Parliament at Westminster, with
+  the execution of which he was occupied for more than twenty-four years.
+  He was elected a Royal Academician in 1844, was knighted in 1852, and
+  died suddenly in 1860.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barry</b>, Comtesse Du. See <i>Du Barry</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barry</b>, Edward Middleton, <span class="scac">R.A.</span>
+  (1830-80), son of Sir Charles Barry, was also a distinguished architect,
+  and designed many important buildings, though he was disappointed in
+  regard to his plans for the Albert Memorial, National Gallery, and New
+  Law Courts.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barry</b>, James, a painter and writer on art, born at Cork, 1741;
+  studied abroad with the <!-- Page 408 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page408"></a>[408]</span>aid of Burke; was elected Royal
+  Academician on his return; and worked seven years on the paintings for
+  the hall of the Society for the Encouragement of the Arts. His first
+  picture which attracted attention was <i>St. Patrick baptizing the King
+  of Cashel</i>. In 1773 he published his <i>Inquiry into the Real and
+  Imaginary Obstructions to the Increase of the Arts in England</i>, and in
+  1782 was elected professor of painting to the Academy. He was expelled in
+  1797 on the ground of his authorship of the <i>Letter to the Society of
+  Dilettanti</i>. His chief painting was his <i>Victors at Olympia</i>. He
+  died in 1806.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barry Cornwall.</b> See <i>Procter, Bryan Waller</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´sabbas</b>, surnamed Justus, son of Alpheus, brother of James
+  the Less and of Judas, and one of the candidates for the apostolical
+  office left vacant by Judas Iscariot. According to tradition, he was
+  afterwards Bishop of Eleutheropolis, near Jerusalem, and suffered
+  martyrdom. Another Barsabbas, surnamed Judas, supposed to be the brother
+  of the above, is mentioned in the <i>Acts</i> as a companion of St. Paul
+  and Barnabas at Antioch. He is supposed to have died in Jerusalem at a
+  very advanced age.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar-shot</b>, a double-headed shot consisting of two pieces
+  connected by a bar.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barsi</b>, a town of India, in Sholapur district, Bombay, 43 miles
+  north of Sholapur and 128 miles east of Poona, with a trade in cotton,
+  oil, &amp;c. Pop. 21,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar-sur-Aube</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-su<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-&#x14D;b), an ancient town, France,
+  department Aube, where, in 1814, a hotly-contested action was fought
+  between Napoleon and the Allies. Pop. 4533.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bart</b>, <b>Barth</b>, or <b>Baert</b> (bärt), Jean, a famous
+  French sailor, born at Dunkirk, 1650, the son of a poor fisherman. He
+  became captain of a privateer, and after some brilliant exploits was
+  appointed captain in the royal navy. In recognition of his further
+  services he was made commodore, subsequently receiving letters of
+  nobility. Brusque, if not vulgar, in manner, and ridiculed by the Court
+  for his indifference to ceremony, he made the navy of the nation
+  everywhere respected, and furnished some of the most striking chapters in
+  the romance of naval warfare. After the Peace of Ryswick he lived quietly
+  at Dunkirk, and died there while equipping a fleet to take part in the
+  War of the Spanish Succession, 1702.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bartas</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-tä), Guillaume de Salluste du, a French
+  poet, termed 'the divine' by contemporary English writers, born 1544.
+  Principal work, <i>La Semaine ou la Création du Monde</i>, a poem on the
+  creation, translated into English by Joshua Sylvester. It is said to have
+  had a considerable influence on Milton's <i>Paradise Lost</i>. He died of
+  wounds received at Ivry, 1590.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bartfeld</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>rt´felt), an old town in Czecho-Slovakia,
+  formerly Hungary, county of Saros, on the Tepl, with mineral springs in
+  the neighbourhood. Pop. 6160, mostly Slovaks.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barth</b> (bärt), Heinrich, African traveller, born at Hamburg,
+  1821, died in 1865. He graduated at the University of Berlin as Ph.D. in
+  1844, and set out in 1845 to explore all the countries bordering on the
+  Mediterranean. The first volume of his <i>Wanderungen durch die
+  Küstenländer des Mittelmeeres</i> was published in 1849, in which year he
+  was invited by the British Government to join Dr. Overweg in accompanying
+  Richardson's expedition to Central Africa. The expedition set out from
+  Tripoli in Feb., 1850, and, in spite of the death both of Richardson and
+  Overweg, Barth did not return to Tripoli till the autumn of 1855. His
+  explorations, which extended over an area of about 2,000,000 sq. miles,
+  determined the course of the Niger and the true nature of the Sahara. The
+  English account of it was entitled <i>Travels and Discoveries in North
+  and Central Africa</i> (5 vols., 1857-8). An important work on the
+  African languages was left unfinished.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barth</b>, Jean. See <i>Bart</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barthélemy</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-t&#x101;l-m&#x113;), Jean Jacques,
+  French author, born 1716. He was educated under the Jesuits, for holy
+  orders, but declined all offers of clerical promotion above the rank of
+  Abbé He gained considerable repute as a worker in philology and
+  archæology; and after his appointment as Director of the Royal Cabinet of
+  Medals, in 1753, spent some time travelling in Italy collecting medals
+  and antiquities. His best-known work, not inaptly characterized by
+  himself as an unwieldy compilation, was his <i>Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis
+  en Grèce</i> (1787). It was very popular and was translated into various
+  tongues. Though taking no part in the revolution, he was arrested on a
+  charge of being an aristocrat in 1793, but was set at liberty, and
+  subsequently offered the post of librarian of the National Library. He
+  died in 1795.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barthélmy-Saint-Hilaire</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-t&#x101;l-m&#x113;-san-t&#x113;-l&#x101;r),
+  Jules, French scholar and statesman, born 1805, died in 1895. He was
+  professor of Greek and Latin philosophy in the Collège de France, but
+  resigned the chair after the <i>coup d'état</i> of 1852 and refused to
+  take the oath. He was reappointed in 1862; and in 1869 was returned to
+  the Corps Législatif. After the revolution he was a member of the
+  National Assembly; and was elected Senator for life in 1876. He published
+  a translation of Aristotle, and works on Buddhism, Mohammed and <span
+  class="correction" title="Original reads 'Mohammedansim'."
+  >Mohammedanism</span>, the Vedas, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barthez</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-t&#x101;), Paul Joseph, an eminent
+  French physician, born at Montpellier 1734, died 1806. At Montpellier he
+  founded a medical <!-- Page 409 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page409"></a>[409]</span>school, which acquired a reputation
+  throughout all Europe. Having settled in Paris, he was appointed by the
+  king consulting physician, and by the Duke of Orleans his first
+  physician. The Revolution deprived him of the greatest part of his
+  fortune, and drove him from Paris, but Napoleon brought him forth again,
+  and loaded him in his advanced age with dignities. Among his numerous
+  writings may be mentioned <i>Nouvelle Mécanique des Mouvements de l'Homme
+  et des Animaux</i>; <i>Traitement des Maladies Goutteuses</i>;
+  <i>Consultation de Médecine</i>, &amp;c. His <i>Traité du Beau</i> was
+  published posthumously (1807).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bartholdi</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-tol´d&#x113;), Auguste, French
+  sculptor, born 1834, died 1904; best known for his colossal statue of
+  Liberty, now overlooking the harbour of New York.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bartholin</b> (bär´to-lin), Kaspar, Swedish writer, born 1585, died
+  1630. He studied medicine, philosophy, and theology; was made doctor of
+  medicine at Basel in 1610, rector of the University of Copenhagen 1618,
+  and professor of theology 1624. His <i>Institutiones Anatomicæ</i> was
+  for long a standard textbook in the universities.&mdash;His son, Thomas,
+  born at Copenhagen 1616, died 1680, was equally celebrated as a
+  philologist, naturalist, and physician. He was professor of anatomy at
+  Copenhagen, 1648; physician to the king, Christian V, in 1670; and
+  Councillor of State, 1675.&mdash;His sons, Kaspar (born 1654, died 1704)
+  and Thomas (born 1659, died 1690) were also highly
+  distinguished&mdash;the former as an anatomist, the latter as an
+  archæologist.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bartholomew, Massacre of St.</b>, the brutal slaughter of the
+  French Protestants, which began on 24th Aug., 1572, by secret orders from
+  Charles IX, at the instigation of his mother, Catherine de' Medici, and
+  in which, according to Sully, 70,000 Huguenots, including women and
+  children, were murdered throughout the country. During the minority of
+  Charles and the regency of his mother, a long war raged in France between
+  the Catholics and Huguenots, the leaders of the latter being the Prince
+  of Condé and Admiral Coligny. In 1570 overtures were made by the Court to
+  the Huguenots, which resulted in a treaty of peace. This treaty blinded
+  the chiefs of the Huguenots, particularly Admiral Coligny, who was tired
+  of the civil war. The king appeared to have entirely disengaged himself
+  from the influence of the Guises and his mother; he invited Coligny to
+  his Court, and honoured him as a father. The most artful means were
+  employed to increase this delusion. The sister of the king was married to
+  the Prince de Béarn (18th Aug., 1572) in order to allure the most
+  distinguished Huguenots to Paris. On 22nd Aug. a shot from a window
+  wounded the admiral. The king hastened to visit him, and swore to punish
+  the author of the villainy; but on the same day he was induced by his
+  mother to believe that the admiral had designs on his life. "God's
+  death!" he exclaimed; "kill the admiral; and not only him, but all the
+  Huguenots; let none remain to disturb us." The following night Catherine
+  held the council, which fixed the execution for the night of St.
+  Bartholomew, 24th Aug., 1572. After the assassination of Coligny, a bell
+  from the tower of the royal palace at midnight gave to the assembled
+  companies of burghers the signal for the general massacre of the
+  Huguenots. The Prince of Condé and the King of Navarre saved their lives
+  by going to mass and pretending to embrace the Catholic religion. By the
+  king's orders the massacre was extended throughout the whole kingdom; and
+  the horrible slaughter continued for thirty days in almost all the
+  provinces.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Henry White,
+  <i>Massacre of St. Bartholomew and History of the Religious Wars</i>;
+  Lavisse, <i>Histoire de France</i> (vol. vi).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barthol´omew, St.</b>, the apostle, is probably the same person as
+  <i>Nathanael</i>, mentioned in the <i>Gospel of St. John</i> as an
+  upright Israelite and one of the first disciples of Jesus. He is said to
+  have taught Christianity in the south of Arabia, into which, according to
+  Eusebius, he carried the <i>Gospel of St. Matthew</i> in the Hebrew
+  language, and to have suffered martyrdom. The ancient Church had an
+  apocryphal gospel bearing his name, of which nothing has been preserved.
+  A festival is held in his memory on 24th Aug.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bartholomew, St.</b>, or <b>St. Barthélemy</b>, an island, one of
+  the West Indies, in the Leeward group, belonging to France, about 24
+  miles in circumference. It produces some tobacco, sugar, cotton, indigo,
+  &amp;c. Pop. 3000. The only town is Gustavia. The island, occupied by
+  France in 1648, was ceded to Sweden in 1784, but was again acquired by
+  France in 1877 at the cost of 275,000 francs.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bartholomew Fair</b>, a celebrated fair, established in the reign
+  of Henry I (1133), formerly held in West Smithfield, London, on St.
+  Bartholomew's Day (24th Aug., <span class="scac">O.&nbsp;S.</span>), but
+  abolished since 1855.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bartholomew's Hospital, St.</b>, one of the great hospitals of
+  London, formerly the priory of St. Bartholomew, and made a hospital by
+  Henry VIII in 1547. On an average over 6000 patients are annually
+  admitted to the hospital, while about 150,000 out-patients are treated at
+  its out-door dispensaries. A medical school is attached to it, attended
+  by more than four hundred students.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barthou</b>, Louis, French statesman, born at Orloron-Sainte-Marie
+  in 1862. He practised as an advocate until he entered the Chamber of <!--
+  Page 410 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page410"></a>[410]</span>Deputies in 1889. He was a member of
+  several Cabinets, and was appointed Premier in March, 1913, but resigned
+  in December of the same year. He was Minister of Foreign Affairs in
+  Painlevé's Cabinet during the European War. In April, 1922, he headed the
+  French delegation to the Genoa Conference. His works include
+  <i>Mirabeau</i>; <i>Lamartine, Orateur</i>; <i>Les Amours d'un Poète</i>,
+  &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:27%;">
+      <a href="images/image159.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image159.jpg"
+      alt="Bartizan" title="Bartizan" /></a>
+    Bartizan, Micklegate Bar, York.
+
+    <p class="cenhead"><i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, Balistraria</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´tizan</b>, a small overhanging turret pierced with one or more
+  apertures for archers, projecting generally from the angles on the top of
+  a tower, or from the parapet, or elsewhere, as in a mediæval castle. The
+  word, probably a corruption of <i>bratticing</i>, was apparently first
+  used by Sir Walter Scott.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bart´lett</b>, William Henry, an English artist, born 1809, died,
+  on a voyage from Malta to Marseilles, 1854. He travelled extensively
+  abroad, and the illustrated works descriptive of the countries visited by
+  him (Switzerland, the Bosporus and the Danube, Syria and Palestine,
+  Egypt, Canada, United States, &amp;c.) obtained great success with the
+  public, the engravings being from sketches by his own pencil.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bartolini</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-to-l&#x113;´n&#x113;), Lorenzo, a
+  celebrated Italian sculptor, born at Florence about 1778, died 1850. He
+  studied and worked in Paris, and was patronized by Napoleon. On the fall
+  of the Empire he returned to Florence, where he continued to exercise his
+  profession. Among his greater works may be mentioned his groups of
+  <i>Charity</i>, and <i>Hercules and Lichas</i>, a colossal bust of
+  Napoleon, and the beautiful monument in the cathedral of Lausanne,
+  erected in memory of Lady Stratford Canning. Bartolini ranks next to
+  Canova among modern Italian sculptors.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bartolommeo</b> (-m&#x101;´o), Fra, or <b>Baccio Della Porta</b>
+  (ba<span class="x1"><span class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>ch&#x14D;´),
+  Italian painter, born at Florence 1475, died there 1517. He studied
+  painting in Florence, and acquired a more perfect knowledge of art from
+  the works of Leonardo da Vinci. He was an admirer and follower of
+  Savonarola, on whose death he took the Dominican habit, and assumed the
+  name of Fra Bartolommeo. He was the friend of Michael Angelo and Raphael;
+  painted many religious pictures, among them a <i>Saint Mark</i> and a
+  <i>Saint Sebastian</i>, which are greatly admired. His colouring, in
+  vigour and brilliancy, comes near to that of Titian and Giorgione. His
+  <i>Holy Family</i> is in the National Gallery, London.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bartolozzi</b> (-lot´s&#x113;), Francesco, a distinguished
+  engraver, born at Florence in 1725, or, according to others, in 1730,
+  died at Lisbon 1815. In Venice, in Florence, and Milan he etched several
+  pieces on sacred subjects, and then went to London, where he received
+  great encouragement. After forty years' residence in London, he went to
+  Lisbon on the invitation of the Prince Regent of Portugal. He became
+  director of the National Academy at Lisbon, where he remained till his
+  death.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bar´ton</b>, Andrew, one of Scotland's first great naval
+  commanders; flourished during the reign of James IV, and belonged to a
+  family which for two generations had produced able and successful seamen.
+  In 1497 he commanded the escort which accompanied Perkin Warbeck from
+  Scotland. After doing considerable damage to English shipping, he was
+  killed in an engagement with two ships which had been specially fitted
+  out against him (1512).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barton</b>, Bernard, known as the Quaker poet, born at Carlisle
+  1784, died 1849. In 1806 he removed to Woodbridge, in Suffolk, where he
+  was long clerk in a bank. He published <i>Metrical Effusions</i> (1812);
+  <i>Poems by an Amateur</i> (1818); <i>Poems</i> (1820); <i>Napoleon, and
+  other Poems</i> (1822); <i>Poetic Vigils</i> (1824); <i>Devotional
+  Verses</i> (1826); <i>A New-year's Eve, and other Poems</i> (1828);
+  besides many contributions to the annuals and magazines. His poetry,
+  though deficient in force, is pleasing, fluent, and graceful. Barton is
+  chiefly remembered as the friend of Charles Lamb, with whom he began to
+  correspond in 1822.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barton</b>, Elizabeth, a country girl born in 1506 at Aldington, in
+  Kent (commonly called the Holy Maid or the Nun of Kent), who gained some
+  notoriety in the reign of Henry VIII. She was subject to epileptic fits,
+  and was persuaded by certain priests that she was a prophetess inspired
+  by God. Among other things she prophesied that Henry, if he persisted in
+  <!-- Page 411 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page411"></a>[411]</span>his purpose of divorce and second
+  marriage, would not be king for seven months longer, and would die a
+  shameful death, and be succeeded by Catherine's daughter. On arrest the
+  imposture was confessed, and Barton and six others were executed 5th May,
+  1534.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barton-upon-Humber</b>, a town of England, in Lincolnshire, on the
+  Humber. It contains two old churches, one of which is an undoubted
+  specimen of Anglo-Saxon architecture. Pop. (1921), 6454.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bartsch</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>rch), Karl Friedrich, a German scholar,
+  born in 1832, died in 1888, whose labours have been of immense service in
+  elucidating the older literature and language of his native country as
+  well as in the field of the Romance tongues. Among his publications were
+  editions of the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>, <i>Walther von der Vogelweide</i>,
+  <i>Kudrun</i>, &amp;c.; <i>Chrestomathie de l'ancien Français</i>;
+  <i>Provençalisches Lesebuch</i>; translations of Burns, of Dante,
+  &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bartsia</b>, a genus of Scrophulariaceæ, green half-parasites upon
+  roots of grasses. Three species are British; <i>B. alpina</i> has
+  underground shoots, not unlike those of the allied Toothwort, with fleshy
+  scale-leaves bearing water-secreting glands.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baru</b> (ba-rö´), a woolly substance used for caulking ships,
+  stuffing cushions, &amp;c., found at the base of the leaves of an East
+  India sago palm.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baruch</b> (b&#x101;´ruk; literally, 'blessed'), a Hebrew scribe,
+  friend and assistant to the prophet Jeremiah. At the captivity, after the
+  destruction of Jerusalem, Jeremiah and Baruch were permitted to remain in
+  Palestine, but were afterwards carried into Egypt, 588 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> His subsequent life is unknown. One of the
+  apocryphal books bears the name of Baruch. The Council of Trent gave it a
+  place in the canon, but its authenticity was not admitted either by the
+  ancient Jews or the early Christian fathers.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barwood</b>, a dyewood obtained from <i>Pterocarpus angolensis</i>,
+  a tall tree of West Africa. It is chiefly used for giving orange-red dyes
+  on cotton yarns. See <i>Camwood</i>; <i>Sandalwood</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bary´ta</b>, oxide of barium (BaO) is found in nature associated
+  with sulphuric acid as barium sulphate, heavy-spar or Barytes
+  (BaSO<sub>4</sub>), and with carbon dioxide as barium carbonate or
+  witherite (<span class="correction" title="Original reads 'BaCo'."
+  >BaCO</span><sub>3</sub>). Baryta is a heavy greyish powder of specific
+  gravity 4.7, obtained by burning barium in oxygen or from barium nitrate
+  or barium carbonate. It has a strong affinity for water, and combines
+  with it in the evolution of lead and the formation of barium hydroxide
+  (Ba(OH)<sub>2</sub>). Barium oxide is manufactured in quantity for the
+  preparation of barium dioxide (BaO<sub>2</sub>), from which oxygen was at
+  one time obtained. (See <i>Oxygen</i>.) Baryta forms white crystalline
+  salts with acids, which are all poisonous with the exception of barium
+  sulphate. Barium hydroxide is soluble in water, forming a
+  strongly-alkaline solution, Baryta water, which is much used in chemical
+  analysis. Barium sulphate is a white substance insoluble in water and in
+  acids, and is the source of most of the barium compounds.
+  Artificially-prepared barium sulphate is used as a pigment, <i>Permanent
+  White</i>, also in the paper industry and in vulcanizing rubber. Other
+  salts of barium of importance are barium chloride, barium nitrate, and
+  barium carbonate, used in pyrotechny and in glass manufacture.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barytes (American Barite)</b>, a rhombic mineral consisting of
+  barium sulphate (specific gravity 4.5) occurring in veins and extensive
+  masses as a subsequent deposit in various rocks. Colourless to brownish,
+  the colourless massive examples being in great demand as a substitute for
+  white lead in paint and for other purposes. Barytes is mined in the north
+  of England and in County Cork.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Barytone.</b> See <i>Baritone</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:41%;">
+      <a href="images/image160.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image160.jpg"
+      alt="Basaltic Columns" title="Basaltic Columns" /></a>
+    Basaltic Columns, Fingal's Cave, Island of Staffa
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Basalt</b> (ba-sa<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>lt´), a well-known igneous rock occurring
+  in the ancient trap and the recent volcanic series of rocks, but more
+  abundantly in the former. It is a fine-grained, heavy, crystalline rock,
+  consisting of felspar, augite, and <!-- Page 412 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page412"></a>[412]</span>magnetic iron, and
+  sometimes contains a little olivine. Basalt is amorphous, columnar,
+  tabular, or globular. The columnar form is straight or curved,
+  perpendicular or inclined, sometimes nearly horizontal; the diameter of
+  the columns from 3 to 18 inches, sometimes with transverse hemispherical
+  joints, in which the convex part of one is inserted in the concavity of
+  another; and the height from 5 to 150 feet. The forms of the columns
+  generally are pentagonal, hexagonal, or octagonal. When decomposed it is
+  found also in round masses, either spherical or compressed and
+  lenticular. These rounded masses are sometimes composed of concentric
+  layers, with a nucleus, and sometimes of prisms radiating from a centre.
+  Fingal's Cave, in the Island of Staffa, furnishes a remarkable instance
+  of basaltic columns. The pillars of the Giant's Causeway, Ireland,
+  composed of this stone, and exposed to the roughest sea for ages, have
+  their angles as perfect as those at a distance from the waves. Basalt
+  often assumes curious and fantastic forms, as, for example, those masses
+  popularly known as 'Samson's Ribs' at Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh, and 'Lot'
+  and 'Lot's Wife' near the south coast of St. Helena.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baschi</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>s'k&#x113;), Matteo, an Italian Minorite
+  friar of the convent of Montefalcone, founder and first general of the
+  Capuchin branch of the Franciscans. He died at Venice, 1552.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bas´cinet</b>, or <b>Bas´net</b>, a light helmet, sometimes with,
+  but more frequently without, a visor, in general use for English infantry
+  in the reigns of Edward II and III and Richard II.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Base</b>, in architecture, that part of a column which is between
+  the top of the pedestal and the bottom of the shaft; where there is no
+  pedestal, the part between the bottom of the column and the pavement. The
+  term is also applied to the lower projecting part of the wall of a room,
+  consisting of a plinth and its mouldings.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Base</b>, in chemistry, a term applied to those compound substances
+  which unite with acids to form salts. The most important bases are oxides
+  of metals, and when brought in contact with acids their oxygen combines
+  with the hydrogen of the acid to form water. They are divided into
+  several sections, of which the most important are the alkalies. These
+  substances are the hydrates of the so-called alkaline metals, and may be
+  compared to water in which part of the hydrogen is replaced by a metallic
+  radicle. Potash, for instance, is the hydrate of the metal potassium. The
+  alkalies are readily soluble in water, restore the blue colour to
+  reddened litmus, and give a green with red cabbage, dahlia, and other
+  vegetable blues, and convert the yellow of turmeric into a brownish red.
+  Most of the bases, however, are insoluble in water, and without any
+  effect on vegetable colours. See <i>Alkali</i>; <i>Acids</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Base</b>, a term in tactics, signifying the original line on which
+  an offensive army forms; or any safe position from which an army takes
+  the field to invade an enemy's country; upon which it depends for its
+  supplies, reinforcements, &amp;c.; to which it sends back its sick and
+  wounded; and upon which it would generally fall back in case of reverse
+  and retreat.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Base-ball</b>, the national game of the United States of America.
+  It holds the position there that is held by cricket in England. It is a
+  scientific development of the old English game of 'rounders', and is
+  played by nine players a side. A diamond-shaped space of ground, 90 feet
+  on the side, is marked out, the corners being the 'bases'. One side takes
+  the field and the other sends a man to bat. When the field side takes its
+  place, the 'pitcher', standing inside the ground near the centre and in
+  front of the batsman, delivers a ball to the batsman, who stands at the
+  'home base' within a certain marked space, and who tries to drive it out
+  of the reach of the fielders, and far enough out of the field to enable
+  him to run round the bases, which scores a run. If he cannot run round
+  all, he may stop at any one, and may be followed by another batsman. If
+  the ball is caught by an opponent before touching the ground when the
+  batsman is running, or if he is touched by the ball, he is out (also in
+  several other cases), and when three on his side are put out, the field
+  side take the bat. Nine of these innings make a game, which the highest
+  score wins. The bat is of a cylindrical shape, not more than 2½ inches in
+  diameter nor more than 42 inches long. The ball is about 9 inches in
+  circumference and weighs 5 - 5¼ oz. Base-ball is not a very old game,
+  having attained its present position only since about 1845. Many
+  professional players now engage in it. Attempts have been made to
+  introduce it into Britain and Australia, but with little
+  success.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: <i>Official
+  Base-ball Guide</i>, in the Spalding Athletic Library (annually); R.&nbsp;H.
+  Barbour, <i>The Book of School and College Sports</i>; A.&nbsp;G. Spalding,
+  <i>America's National Game</i>; W.&nbsp;J. Clarke and F.&nbsp;T. Dawson,
+  <i>Base-ball</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basedow</b> (bä'ze-d&#x14D;), John Bernhard, German educationalist,
+  born in Hamburg 1723, died in 1790. After having gained considerable
+  experience as a teacher, especially at the gymnasium of Altona, he
+  published a number of works dealing with mental and moral philosophy, the
+  teaching of religion and morality, &amp;c., some of which roused a great
+  amount of discussion. His watchword was "Everything according to nature".
+  In 1771 he was called to Dessau by Prince Leopold, and in 1774 took
+  charge of an <!-- Page 413 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page413"></a>[413]</span>educational institution in which his views
+  were to receive practical exemplification. This institution, which he
+  called the <i>Philanthropinum</i>, was a school free from sectarian bias,
+  and in which the pupils were to be disciplined in all
+  studies&mdash;physical, intellectual, and moral. This school led to the
+  establishment of some similar ones, though Basedow retired from it in
+  1776, not having been very successful in the practical working out of his
+  theories. His place was taken by Joachim Heinrich Campe (1746-1818). He
+  henceforth devoted himself to authorship, writing especially on religious
+  subjects. The chief feature of Basedow's system is the full development
+  of the faculties of the young, in pursuance of the notions of Locke and
+  Rousseau. His name still lives in the history of education, and his
+  efforts were not without result.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: J.&nbsp;C. Meyer, <i>Leben, Charakter und
+  Schriften Basedows</i> (2 vols., 1791-2); A. Pinloche, <i>La Réforme de
+  l'Education en Allemagne au dix-huitième Siècle</i>; O.&nbsp;H. Lang,
+  <i>Basedow, His Life and Work</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basel</b> (bä'zl; Fr. <i>Bâle</i>), a canton and city of
+  Switzerland. The canton borders on Alsace and Baden, has an area of 177
+  sq. miles, and a pop. of 222,000 (1916), nearly all speaking German. It
+  is divided into two half-cantons, Basel city (Basel-Stadt) and Basel
+  country (Basel-Land). The former consists of the city and its precincts,
+  the remainder of the canton forming Basel-Land, the capital of which is
+  Liestal. The whole canton belongs to the valley of the Rhine. The soil is
+  generally well cultivated; and the climate in the low grounds allows of
+  the cultivation of the vine and other fruits.&mdash;The city of
+  <i>Basel</i> is 43 miles <span class="scac">N.</span> of Bern, and
+  consists of two parts on opposite sides of the Rhine, and communicating
+  by three bridges, one of them an ancient wooden structure, besides a
+  railway bridge. The older portions are irregularly built with narrow
+  streets, and are now surrounded with pleasant promenades where the old
+  fortifications existed. Basel has an ancient cathedral, founded 1010,
+  containing the tombs of Erasmus and other eminent persons; the fine
+  modern church of St. Elizabeth; town hall (1508); a university, founded
+  by Pius II in 1460; a seminary for missionaries; a bible society; a
+  museum containing the valuable public library, pictures, &amp;c. The
+  industries include silk ribbons (8000 hands), metal articles, tanning,
+  paper, aniline dyes and other chemicals, brewing, &amp;c.; and the
+  position of Basel, a little below where the Rhine becomes navigable and
+  at the terminus of the French and German railways, has made it the
+  emporium of a most important trade. At Basel was signed the treaty of
+  peace between France and Prussia, 5th April, and that between France and
+  Spain, 22nd July, 1795. Pop. (with suburbs), 137,000 (latest
+  estimate).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basel, Council of</b>, a celebrated &oelig;cumenical council of the
+  Church, convoked by Pope Martin V and his successor Eugenius IV. It was
+  opened 14th Dec., 1431, under the presidency of the Cardinal Legate
+  Juliano Cesarini of St. Angelo. The objects of its deliberations were to
+  extirpate heresies (that of the Hussites in particular), to unite all
+  Christian nations under the Catholic Church, to put a stop to wars
+  between Christian princes, and to reform the Church. But its first steps
+  towards a peaceable reconciliation with the Hussites were displeasing to
+  the Pope, who authorized the Cardinal Legate to dissolve the Council.
+  That body opposed the pretensions of the Pope, and, notwithstanding his
+  repeated orders to remove to Italy, continued its deliberations under the
+  protection of the Emperor Sigismund, of the German princes, and of
+  France. On the Pope continuing to issue bulls for its dissolution, the
+  Council commenced a formal process against him, and cited him to appear
+  at its bar. On his refusal to comply with this demand the Council
+  declared him guilty of contumacy, and, after Eugenius had opened a
+  counter-synod at Ferrara, decreed his suspension from the papal chair
+  (24th Jan., 1438). The removal of Eugenius, however, seemed so
+  impracticable that some prelates, who till then had been the boldest and
+  most influential speakers in the Council, including the Cardinal Legate
+  Juliano, left Basel, and went over to the party of Eugenius. The
+  Archbishop of Arles, Cardinal Louis Allemand, was now made first
+  President of the Council, and directed its proceedings with much vigour.
+  In May, 1439, it declared Eugenius, on account of his disobedience of its
+  decrees, a heretic, and formally deposed him. Excommunicated by Eugenius,
+  they proceeded, in a regular conclave, to elect the Duke Amadeus of Savoy
+  to the papal chair. Felix V&mdash;the name he adopted&mdash;was
+  acknowledged by only a few princes, cities, and universities. After this
+  the moral power of the Council declined; its last formal session was held
+  16th May, 1443, though it was not technically dissolved till 7th May,
+  1449, when it gave in its adhesion to Nicholas V, the successor of
+  Eugenius. The decrees of the Council of Basel are admitted into none of
+  the Roman collections, and are considered of no authority by the Roman
+  lawyers. They are regarded, however, as of authority in points of canon
+  law in France and Germany, as their regulations for the Reformation of
+  the Church have been adopted in the pragmatic sanctions of both
+  countries, and, as far as they regard clerical discipline, have been
+  actually enforced.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Base-line</b>, in surveying, a straight line <!-- Page 414 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page414"></a>[414]</span>measured with the
+  utmost precision to form the starting-point of the triangulation of a
+  country or district. See <i>Geodesy</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bash.</b> See <i>Mining</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ba´shan</b>, the name in Scripture for a singularly rich tract of
+  country lying beyond the Jordan between Mount Hermon and the land of
+  Gilead. At the time of the Exodus it was inhabited by the Amorites, who
+  were overpowered by the Israelites, and the land assigned to the
+  half-tribe of Manasseh. The district was, and yet is, famous for its oak
+  forests and its cattle. Remains of ancient cities are common.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bashaw</b>, or <b>Basha</b>. See <i>Pasha</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bashee´ Islands</b>, a group of islands in the Chinese Sea between
+  Luzon and Formosa, long. 122° <span class="scac">E.</span>; lat. 20° 28´
+  to 20° 55´ <span class="scac">N.</span> They were discovered by Dampier
+  in 1687, and belong to the United States. The largest island is Batan,
+  with a population of 8000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bashi-Bazooks´</b>, irregular troops in the Turkish army. They are
+  mostly Asiatics, and have had to be disarmed several times by the regular
+  troops on account of the barbarities by which they have rendered
+  themselves infamous.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bash´kirs</b>, a tribe of Finno-Tartar origin, inhabiting the
+  Russian governments of Ufa, Orenburg, Perm, and Samara. They formerly
+  roamed about under their own princes in Southern Siberia, but in 1556
+  they voluntarily placed themselves under the Russian sceptre. They are
+  nominally Mahommedans, and live by hunting, cattle-rearing, breeding of
+  cattle and horses, and keeping of bees. They are rude and warlike and
+  partially nomadic. They number about 1,000,000.&mdash;Cf. Ujfalvy, <i>Les
+  Bashkirs</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bashkirtsev</b>, Marie, Russian painter and authoress, born 1860,
+  died 1884; educated mostly outside of Russia, in France, Germany, and
+  Italy; became an accomplished linguist and musician, and studied art in
+  Paris, attaining high success, but overtaxing her system, with fatal
+  results. She is best known from her journal, an intimate personal record,
+  interesting not only as revealing her own peculiar character and
+  intellectual gifts, but also for notices of the notable personages with
+  whom she came in contact. It has been translated into various
+  languages&mdash;into English by Mathilde Blind (1890), who has also
+  published <i>A Study of Marie Bashkirtsev</i> (1892). A number of her
+  letters were also published in 1891.&mdash;Cf. <i>The Journal of Marie
+  Bashkirtsev, an Exposure and a Defence</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basic Slag</b>, the slag or refuse-matter which is got in making
+  basic steel, and which, from the phosphate of lime it contains, is a
+  valuable fertilizer. See <i>Manures (Phosphatic)</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basic Steel.</b> See <i>Steel</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basi´diomycetes</b>, one of the two sub-classes of the Eumycetes or
+  septate Fungi, including the bulk of the larger and more familiar
+  saprophytic types, such as the Mushroom, Toad-stools, Shelf-fungi,
+  Puff-balls, and Earth-stars, and also the important parasites known as
+  the Rusts. They are characterized by their principal spores being
+  produced externally, usually in fours, upon an organ called a
+  <i>basidium</i>. The basidia are arranged in a continuous layer
+  (hymenium), and are usually massed together upon a specialized
+  fruit-body, of which an ordinary mushroom is a good example. The
+  principal subdivisions of the group, with representative genera, are as
+  follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <p>A. Basidia septate (Proto-Basidiomycetes).</p>
+
+  <p>1. Family Uredineæ (Rusts). Basidia transversely septate;
+  teleutospores present; parasites. Puccinia, Phragmidium, Melampsora.</p>
+
+  <p>2. Family Auricularineæ. Basidia transversely septate; no
+  teleutospores; saprophytes. Auricularia.</p>
+
+  <p>3. Family Tremellineæ. Basidia longitudinally septate; saprophytes.
+  Tremella.</p>
+
+  <p>B. Basidia not septate (Auto-Basidiomycetes).</p>
+
+  <p>4. Family Exobasidiineæ. Parasites without fruit-body; basidia exposed
+  on surface of host. Exobasidium.</p>
+
+  <p>5. Family Dacryomycetineæ. Fruit-body soft; hymenium on its surface;
+  saprophytes. Dacryomyces, Calocera.</p>
+
+  <p>6. Group Hymenomycetes (several families). Hymenium generally on
+  gills, in tubes, &amp;c.; saprophytes or, less often, parasites. Agaricus
+  Polyporus, Hydnum.</p>
+
+  <p>7. Group Gastromycetes (several families). Hymenium within a closed
+  fruit-body, which does not open until the spores are ripe; saprophytes.
+  Ithyphallus, Lycoperdon.</p>
+
+  <p>The Ustilagineæ (Smuts) are often regarded as Basidiomycetes of a low
+  type, but it is more probable that they are allied to the Unicellular
+  Chytridineæ. The Basidiomycetes are the highest members of the Fungoid
+  alliance; their relations to the lower groups are obscure.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basi´dium</b>, the characteristic spore-producing organ of the
+  Basidiomycetes. Typically, e.g. in the Toad-stools, it is a club-shaped
+  structure, produced at its free end into four slender processes, the
+  <i>sterigmata</i>, each of which bears a <i>basidiospore</i> at its tip.
+  The young basidium contains two nuclei, which later fuse; the
+  fusion-nucleus then undergoes two successive divisions, involving a
+  reduction of chromosomes, and each of the four resultant nuclei passes
+  through a sterigma into a basidiospore. These latter are thus seen to be
+  carpospores, comparable to those of Red Algæ, and to the ascospores of
+  Ascomycetes. The basidia of Uredineæ (Rusts) and of some other primitive
+  Basidiomycetes are septate, <!-- Page 415 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page415"></a>[415]</span>but otherwise agree with the type
+  described above. See <i>Basidiomycetes</i>; <i>Carpospore</i>;
+  <i>Rusts</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basil.</b> See <i>Basilius</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bas´il</b>, a labiate plant, <i>Oc&#x12D;mum basil&#x12D;cum</i>, a
+  native of India, much used in cookery, especially in France, and known
+  more particularly as sweet or common basil. Bush or lesser basil is <i>O.
+  minimum</i>; wild basil belongs to a different genus, being the
+  <i>Calamintha Clinopodium</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basil, St.</b>, called the <i>Great</i>, one of the Greek fathers,
+  was born in 329, and made in 370 Bishop of Cæsarea in Cappadocia, where
+  he died in 379. He was distinguished by his efforts for the regulation of
+  clerical discipline, and, above all, his endeavours for the promotion of
+  monastic life. The Greek Church honours him as one of its most
+  illustrious saints, and celebrates his festival on 1st Jan. The vows of
+  obedience, chastity, and poverty framed by St. Basil are essentially the
+  rules of all the orders of Christendom, although he is particularly the
+  father of the Eastern, as St. Benedict is the patriarch of the Western
+  orders.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basilan´</b>, the principal island of the Sulu Archipelago, now
+  belonging to the Philippines, off the S.W. extremity of Mindanao, from
+  which it is separated by the Strait of Basilan. It is about 30 miles in
+  length by 20 miles in breadth. Pop. about 8000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basile´an Manuscripts</b>, two manuscripts of the Greek New
+  Testament now in the library of Basel. (1) A nearly complete uncial copy
+  of the Gospels of the eighth century; (2) a cursive copy of the whole New
+  Testament except the Apocalypse, tenth century.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basil´ian Liturgy</b>, that form for celebrating the Eucharist
+  drawn up towards the close of the fourth century by Basil the Great,
+  still used in the Greek Church.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basilian Monks</b>, monks who strictly follow the rules of St.
+  Basil, chiefly belonging to the Greek Church.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:41%;">
+      <a href="images/image161.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image161.jpg"
+      alt="Basilica" title="Basilica" /></a>
+    Basilica di S'Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Basil´ica</b>, originally the name applied by the Romans to their
+  public halls, either of justice, of exchange, or other business. The plan
+  of the basilica was usually a rectangle divided into aisles by rows of
+  columns, the middle aisle being the widest, with a semicircular apse at
+  the end, in which the tribunal was placed. The ground-plan of these
+  buildings was generally followed in the early Christian churches, which,
+  therefore, long retained the name of basilica, and it is still applied to
+  some of the churches in Rome by way of distinction, and sometimes to
+  other churches built in imitation of the Roman basilicas.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basilica´ta</b>, also called <b>Potenza</b>, an Italian province,
+  extending north from the Gulf of Taranto, and corresponding pretty
+  closely with the ancient Lucania. Area, 3855 sq. miles; pop. 489,574
+  (1915).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basil´icon</b>, a name of several ointments, the chief ingredients
+  of which are wax, pitch, resin, and olive-oil.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basil´icon Do´ron</b> (the royal gift), the title of a book written
+  by King James I in 1599, containing a collection of precepts of the art
+  of government. It maintains the claim of the king to be sole head of the
+  Church. Printed at Edinburgh, 1603.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basil´ides</b> (d&#x113;z), one of the most famous Gnostic
+  teachers, a native of Alexandria, who lived under the reigns of Adrian
+  and Antoninus Pius about <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 120-40. He was
+  well acquainted with Christianity, but mixed it up with the wildest
+  dreams of the Gnostics, peopling the earth and the air with multitudes of
+  <i>æons</i>. He was also greatly influenced by Platonism and
+  Zoroastrianism. His disciples (Basilidians) were numerous in Syria,
+  Egypt, Italy, and Gaul, but they are scarcely heard of after the fourth
+  century.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bas´ilisk</b>, a fabulous creature formerly believed to exist, and
+  variously regarded as a kind of serpent, lizard, or dragon, and sometimes
+  identified with the cockatrice. It inhabited the deserts of Africa, and
+  its breath and even its look was fatal. The name is now applied to a
+  genus of saurian reptiles (Basiliscus), belonging to the family
+  Iguanidæ;, distinguished by an elevated crest or row of scales, erectable
+  at pleasure, which, like the dorsal fins of some fishes, runs along the
+  whole length of the back and tail. The mitred or hooded basilisk (<i>B.
+  <!-- Page 416 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page416"></a>[416]</span>mitr&#x101;tus</i>) is especially
+  remarkable for a membranous bag at the back of the head, of the size of a
+  small hen's egg, which can be inflated with air at pleasure. The other
+  species have such hoods also, but of a less size. To this organ they owe
+  their name, which recalls the basilisk of fable, though in reality they
+  are exceedingly harmless and lively creatures. The <i>B. amboinensis</i>
+  is a native of the Indian Archipelago, where it is much used for food. It
+  frequents trees overhanging water, into which it drops when alarmed.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basil´ius I</b>, a Macedonian, Emperor of the East, born <span
+  class="scac">A.D.</span> 820, died 886. He was of obscure origin, but
+  having succeeded in gaining the favour of the Emperor Michael III, he
+  became his colleague in the Empire, 866. After the assassination of
+  Michael, 867, Basilius became emperor. Though he had worked his way to
+  the throne by a series of crimes, he proved an able and equitable
+  sovereign. The versatility, if not the depth, of his intellect is
+  strikingly displayed in his <i>Exhortations to his Son Leo</i>, which are
+  still extant.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basilius II</b>, Emperor of the East, born 958, died 1025. On the
+  death of his father, the Emperor Romanus the Younger, in 963, he was kept
+  out of the succession for twelve years by two usurpers. He began to reign
+  in conjunction with his brother Constantine, 975. His reign was spent in
+  almost perpetual warfare, his most important struggle being that which
+  resulted in the conquest of Bulgaria, 1018.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ba´sin</b>, in physical geography, the whole tract of country
+  drained by a river and its tributaries. The line dividing one river basin
+  from another is the water-shed, and by tracing the various water-sheds we
+  divide each country into its constituent basins. The basin of a loch or
+  sea consists of the basins of all the rivers which run into it.&mdash;In
+  geology a basin is any dipping or disposition of strata towards a common
+  axis or centre, due to upheaval and subsidence. It is sometimes used
+  almost synonymously with 'formation' to express the deposits lying in a
+  certain cavity or depression in older rocks. The 'Paris basin' and
+  'London basin' are familiar instances.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ba´singstoke</b>, a town of England, county of Hants, 18 miles
+  <span class="scac">N.N.E.</span> of Winchester. It has a good trade in
+  corn, malt, &amp;c., and now gives its name to one of the parliamentary
+  divisions of the county. Pop. (1921), 12,718.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bas´kerville</b>, John, celebrated English printer and
+  type-founder, born in 1706, died 1775. He settled at Birmingham as a
+  writing-master, subsequently engaged in the manufacture of japanned
+  works, and in 1750 commenced printing. From his press came highly-prized
+  editions of ancient and modern classics, Bibles, prayer-books, &amp;c.,
+  all beautifully-printed works. His first work was a <i>Virgil</i>,
+  published in 1757, followed by his famous edition of Milton in 1758.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basket</b>, a vessel or utensil of wicker-work, made of interwoven
+  osiers or willows, rushes, twigs, grasses, &amp;c. The process of
+  basket-making is very simple, and appears to be well known among the very
+  rudest peoples. The ancient Britons excelled in the art, and their
+  baskets were highly prized in Rome.&mdash;Cf. T. Okey, <i>Introduction to
+  the Art of Basket-making</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basking-shark</b> (<i>Sel&#x103;ch&#x113; maxima</i> or
+  <i>Cetorh&#x12B;nus maximus</i>), a species of shark, so named from its
+  habit of basking in the sun at the surface of the water. It reaches the
+  length of 40 feet, and its liver yields a large quantity of oil. It
+  frequents the northern seas, and is known also as the sail-fish or
+  sun-fish.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basle.</b> See <i>Basel</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basoche.</b> See <i>Bazoche</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basques</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>sks), or <b>Biscayans</b> (in their own
+  language, <i>Euscaldunac</i>), a remarkable race of people dwelling
+  partly in the south-west corner of France (Basses-Pyrénées), but mostly
+  in the north of Spain adjacent to the Pyrenees. They are probably
+  descendants of the ancient Iberi, who occupied Spain before the Celts.
+  They preserve their ancient language, former manners, and national
+  dances, and make admirable soldiers, especially in guerrilla warfare.
+  Their language is highly polysynthetic, and stands isolated from other
+  tongues of Europe. There are eight principal dialects, which are not only
+  distinguished by their pronunciation and grammatical structure, but
+  differ even in their vocabularies. The Basques, who number about 600,000
+  (450,000 in Spain, and 150,000 in France), occupy in Spain the provinces
+  of Biscay, Guipuzcoa, and Al&#x103;va; in France parts of the departments
+  of the Upper and Lower Pyrenees, Ariége, and Upper Garonne. The Basques
+  are very religious and conservative in their religious practices.
+  Ignatius Loyola and Francis Xavier de Navarre were Basques.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Julien Vinson, <i>Les Basques et le pays
+  Basque</i>; <i>Le Folk-lore du pays Basque</i>; Michel, <i>Le pays
+  Basque, sa population, sa langue, ses m&oelig;urs, sa littérature, et sa
+  musique</i>; Van Eys, <i>Outlines of a Basque Grammar</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basra</b>, <b>Bassora</b>, or <b>Basrah</b>, a city in Lower
+  Mesopotamia, on the west bank of the Shat-el-Arab (the united stream of
+  the Tigris and Euphrates), about 50 miles from its mouth, and nearly 300
+  miles south-east of Bagdad. It is surrounded by a wall about 10 miles in
+  circuit, from 20 to 25 feet thick; but much of the area enclosed is
+  occupied by gardens, &amp;c. The houses are generally mean. A
+  considerable transit trade is carried on here between the Turkish and
+  Persian dominions and India, and since <!-- Page 417 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page417"></a>[417]</span>communication by
+  steamer has been established with Bagdad and Bombay the prosperity of the
+  town has greatly increased. The chief exports are: dates, camels and
+  horses, wool and wheat; imports: coffee, indigo, rice, tissues, &amp;c.
+  The inhabitants are estimated at 80,000; but in the eighteenth century
+  they were said to number 150,000. The substitution of date and wheat
+  cultivation for that of rice has rendered the place much more healthy.
+  The ruins of the ancient and more famous Bassora&mdash;founded by Caliph
+  Omar in 636, at one time a centre of Arabic literature and learning and
+  regarded as 'the Athens of the East'&mdash;lie about 9 miles south-west
+  of the modern town. The town was occupied by the British on 22nd Nov.,
+  1914. The first through-train from Basra to Bagdad was run in Jan.,
+  1920.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:42%;">
+      <a href="images/image162.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image162.jpg"
+      alt="Bas-relief" title="Bas-relief" /></a>
+    Bas-relief&mdash;Northern frieze of Parthenon
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Bas-relief</b> (bä´r&#x113;-l&#x113;f or bas´r&#x113;-l&#x113;f) or
+  <b>Basso-Rilievo</b>, low-relief, a mode of sculpturing figures on a flat
+  surface, the figures having a very slight relief or projection from the
+  surface. It is distinguished from <i>haut-relief</i>
+  (<i>alto-rilievo</i>), or high-relief, in which the figures stand
+  sometimes almost entirely free from the ground. Bas-relief work has been
+  described as 'sculptured painting', from the capability of disposing of
+  groups of figures and exhibiting minor adjuncts, as in a painting. The
+  finest specimen of bas-relief is the frieze around the cella of the
+  Parthenon; large portions of it are to be seen in the British Museum.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bass</b> (b&#x101;s; from the It. <i>basso</i>, deep, low), in
+  music, the lowest part in the harmony of a musical composition, whether
+  vocal or instrumental. According to some it is the fundamental or most
+  important part, while others regard the melody or highest part in that
+  light. Next to the melody, the bass part is the most striking, the freest
+  and boldest in its movements, and richest in effect.&mdash;<i>Figured
+  bass</i>, a bass part having the accompanying chords suggested by certain
+  figures written above or below the notes&mdash;the most successful system
+  of shorthand scoring at present in use among organists and
+  pianists.&mdash;<i>Fundamental bass</i>, the lowest note or root of a
+  chord; a bass consisting of a succession of fundamental
+  notes.&mdash;<i>Thorough bass</i>, the mode or art of expressing chords
+  by means of figures placed over or under a given bass. Figures written
+  over each other indicate that the notes they represent are to be sounded
+  simultaneously, those standing close after each other that they are to be
+  sounded successively. The common chord in its fundamental form is
+  generally left unfigured, and accidentals are indicated by using sharps,
+  naturals, or flats along with the figures.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bass</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>s), the name of a number of fishes of
+  several genera, but originally belonging to a genus of sea-fishes
+  (Labrax) of the perch family, distinguished from the true perches by
+  having the tongue covered by small teeth and the preoperculum smooth.
+  <i>L. lupus</i>, the only British species, called also sea-dace, and from
+  <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'it'.">its</span> voracity
+  sea-wolf, resembles somewhat the salmon in shape, and is much esteemed
+  for the table, weighing about 15 lb. <i>L. line&#x101;tus</i> (<i>Roccus
+  line&#x101;tus</i>), or striped bass, an American species, weighing from
+  25 to 30 lb., is much used for food, and is also known as rock-fish. Both
+  species occasionally ascend rivers, and attempts have been made to
+  cultivate British bass in freshwater ponds with success. Two species of
+  black bass (<i>Micropt&#x115;rus salmoides</i> and <i>M. dolomieu</i>),
+  American freshwater fishes, are excellent as food and give fine sport to
+  the angler. The former is often called the large-mouthed black bass, from
+  the size of its mouth. Both make nests and take great care of their eggs
+  and young. The <i>Centropristis nigricans</i>, an American sea-fish of
+  the perch family, and weighing 2 to 3 lb., is known as the sea-bass.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bass</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>s), <b>The</b>, a remarkable insular
+  trap-rock, at the mouth of the Firth of Forth, 3 miles from North
+  Berwick, of a circular form, about 1 mile in circumference, rising
+  majestically out of the sea to a height of 313 feet. It pastures a few
+  sheep, and is a great breeding-place of solan geese. During the
+  persecution of the Covenanters its castle, long since demolished, was
+  used as a State prison, in which several eminent Covenanters were
+  confined. It was held from 1691 to 1694 with great courage and
+  pertinacity by twenty Jacobites, who in the end capitulated on highly
+  honourable terms.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bass.</b> See <i>Basswood</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bassa´no</b>, a commercial city of North Italy, province of
+  Vicenza, on the Brenta, over which is a covered wooden bridge. It has
+  lofty old walls and an old castle, and has various industries and an
+  active trade. Near Bassano, 8th Sept., <!-- Page 418 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page418"></a>[418]</span>1796, Bonaparte
+  defeated the Austrian general Wurmser. Pop. (commune) 17,130.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bassa´no</b> (from his birth-place; real name <b>Giacomo da
+  Ponte</b>), an Italian painter, born 1510, died 1592. He painted
+  historical pieces, landscapes, flowers, &amp;c., and also portraits. He
+  left four sons, who all became painters, Francesco being the most
+  distinguished.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bassano Dam.</b> See <i>Dams</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bas´saris.</b> See <i>Cacomistle</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bassein</b> (bas-s&#x101;n'), a town in Lower Burma, province of
+  Pegu, on both banks of the Bassein River, one of the mouths of the
+  Irawadi, and navigable for the largest ships. It has considerable trade,
+  exporting large quantities of rice, and importing coal, salt, cottons,
+  &amp;c. Pop. 37,081.&mdash;Bassein District has an area of 4127 sq. miles
+  and a pop. of 9598 (1911).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bassein</b> (bas-s&#x101;n'), a town in Hindustan, 28 miles north
+  of Bombay. At the beginning of the eighteenth century it was a fine and
+  wealthy city, with over 60,000 inhabitants; it has now only about 9598
+  (1911).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basselin</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>s-lan), Olivier, an old French poet or
+  song-writer, born in the Val-de-Vire, Normandy, about the end of the
+  fourteenth century, died about 1450. His sprightly songs, famous under
+  the name <i>Vaux-de-Vire</i>, have given origin and name to the modern
+  Vaudevilles.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basselisse Tapestry.</b> See <i>Hautelisse</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basses-Alpes</b> (bäs-a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>lp; 'Lower Alps'). See <i>Alpes</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basses-Pyrénées</b> (bäs-p&#x113;-r&#x101;-n&#x101;; '<b>Lower
+  Pyrenees</b>'). See <i>Pyrénées</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bass´et</b>, the name of a game at cards, formerly much played,
+  especially in France. It is very similar to the modern <i>faro</i>. See
+  <i>Lansquenet</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basset</b>, or <b>Basset-hound</b>, a smooth-haired dog with short
+  crooked legs, rather large head, and large pendulous ears, thus somewhat
+  resembling a bloodhound and a dachshund. It is sometimes used in packs
+  for hunting hares, or in beating and covert work generally.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basseterre</b> (bäs-t&#x101;r), two towns in the West
+  Indies.&mdash;1. Capital of the Island of St. Christopher's, at the mouth
+  of a small river, on the south side of the island. Trade considerable.
+  Pop. about 9000.&mdash;2. The capital of the Island of Guadeloupe. It has
+  no harbour, and the anchorage is unsheltered and exposed to a constant
+  swell. Pop. 8650.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basset-horn</b>, a musical instrument, now practically obsolete, a
+  sort of clarinet of enlarged dimensions, with a curved and bell-shaped
+  metal end. The compass extends from F below the bass staff to C on the
+  second ledger-line above the treble. Mozart wrote several pieces for the
+  basset-horn, and Beethoven employed it in his <i>Prometheus</i>
+  overture.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bassetlaw</b>, a parliamentary division of the county of
+  Nottingham.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bassia</b>, a genus of tropical trees found in the East Indies and
+  Australia, nat. ord., Sapotaceæ. The seeds of <i>B. butyracea</i>, the
+  Indian butter tree, yield a butter-like substance, which makes good soap.
+  <i>B. latifolia</i>, the Mahwa of Bengal, furnishes a valuable hard
+  timber, and has edible flowers, from which a potent spirit is distilled;
+  a gutta-percha is obtained from <i>B. pallida</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bassompierre</b> (bä-son-py&#x101;r), Francois de, Marshal of
+  France, distinguished both as a soldier and a statesman, born 1579, died
+  1646. In 1602 he made his first campaign against the Duke of Savoy, and
+  he fought with equal distinction in the following year in the imperial
+  army against the Turks. In 1622 Louis XIII appointed him Marshal of
+  France, and became so much attached to him that Luynes, the declared
+  favourite, sent him on embassies to Spain, Switzerland, and England.
+  After his return he became an object of suspicion to Cardinal Richelieu,
+  and was sent to the Bastille in 1631, from which he was not released till
+  1643, after the death of the cardinal. During his detention he occupied
+  himself with writing his memoirs, which shed much light on the events of
+  that time.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basso´on</b>, a musical wind-instrument of the reed order, blown
+  with a bent metal mouthpiece, and holed and keyed like the clarinet. Its
+  compass comprehends three octaves rising from B flat below the bass
+  staff. Its diameter at bottom is 3 inches, and for convenience of
+  carriage it is divided into two or more parts, whence its Italian name,
+  <i>fagotto</i>, a bundle. It serves for the bass among wood
+  wind-instruments, as hautboys, flutes, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bassora Gum</b>, an inferior kind of gum resembling gum-arabic.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bass Rock.</b> See <i>Bass</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bass Strait</b>, a channel beset with islands, which separates
+  Australia from Tasmania, 120 miles broad, discovered by George Bass, a
+  surgeon in the Royal Navy, in 1798.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basswood</b>, or <b>Bass</b>, the American lime tree or linden
+  (<i>Tilia americ&#x101;na</i>), a tree common in N. America, yielding a
+  light, soft timber.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bast</b>, a term originally applied to fibrous tissue external to
+  the cambium; now used in two senses: (1) for Phloem (q.v.); (2)
+  commercially, for the fibre of the lime or linden. The manufacture of
+  lime-bast into mats, ropes, &amp;c., is in Russia a considerable
+  industry, bast-mats for packing furniture, covering plants, &amp;c.,
+  being largely exported.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bastar´</b>, a feudatory State in Upper Godavari district, Central
+  Provinces of India; area, 13,062 sq. miles; pop. 433,310. Chief town,
+  Jagdalpur; pop. 4294. <!-- Page 419 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page419"></a>[419]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Bas´tard</b>, a child begotten and born out of wedlock; an
+  illegitimate child. By the civil and canon laws, and by the law of
+  Scotland, a bastard becomes legitimate by the intermarriage of the
+  parents at any future time. In some of the United States, bastards can be
+  legitimized by subsequent marriage, in addition to which, however, the
+  father must also recognize the child as his. By the laws of England a
+  child, to be legitimate, must at least be <i>born</i> after the lawful
+  marriage; it does not require that the child shall be begotten in
+  wedlock, but it is indispensable that it should be born after marriage,
+  no matter how short the time, the law presuming it to be the child of the
+  husband. The only incapacity of a bastard is that he cannot be heir or
+  next of kin to any one save his own issue. In England the maintenance of
+  a bastard in the first instance devolves on the mother, while in Scotland
+  it is a joint burden upon both parents. The mother is entitled to the
+  custody of the child in preference to the father. See
+  <i>Legitimation</i>; <i>Illegitimacy</i>.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Bacquet, <i>Traité de la Bâtardise</i>;
+  Nicholls and Mackay, <i>History of the English Poor Law</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:12%;">
+      <a href="images/image163.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image163.jpg"
+      alt="Bastard Bar" title="Bastard Bar" /></a>
+     Bastard Bar
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Bastard Bar</b>, more correctly <i>baton sinister</i>, the heraldic
+  mark used to indicate illegitimate descent. It is a diminutive of the
+  bend sinister, of which it is one-fourth in width, couped or cut short at
+  the ends, so as not to touch the corners of the shield.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bastard Fallow.</b> See <i>Fallow Land</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bastard Saffron.</b> See <i>Safflower</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bastia</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>s-t&#x113;´a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), the former capital of the Island of
+  Corsica, upon the <span class="scac">N.E.</span> coast, 75 miles <span
+  class="scac">N.E.</span> of Ajaccio, on a hill slope; badly built, with
+  narrow streets, a strong citadel, and an indifferent harbour; with some
+  manufactures, a considerable trade in hides, soap, wine, oil, pulse,
+  &amp;c. Pop. 29,412.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bas´tian</b>, Adolf, German traveller and ethnologist, born in
+  1826, died in 1905. His travels embraced various parts of Europe, the
+  United States, Mexico, Peru, Australia and New Zealand, Southern and
+  Western Africa, Egypt, Arabia, India, South-Eastern Asia, the Asiatic
+  Archipelago, Japan, China, Mongolia, Siberia, &amp;c. His numerous
+  writings throw light on almost every subject connected with ethnology or
+  anthropology, as well as psychology, linguistics, non-Christian
+  religions, geography, &amp;c. Some of his chief works are: <i>Die Völker
+  des östlichen Asien</i> (Peoples of Eastern Asia); <i>Ethnographische
+  Forschungen</i>; <i>Ideale Welten</i>; <i>Die Völkerkunde u. der
+  Völkerverkehr</i>; &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bas´tian</b>, Henry Charlton, English physician and biologist, born
+  at Truro in 1837, died on 17th Nov., 1915. He was educated at Falmouth
+  and at University College, London, where he was assistant curator in the
+  museum from 1860 to 1863. He obtained the degree of <span
+  class="scac">M.A.</span> in 1861 from the University of London,
+  graduating subsequently in medicine at the same university (<span
+  class="scac">M.B.</span> 1863, <span class="scac">M.D.</span> 1866). From
+  1864 to 1866 he was a medical officer in Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic
+  Asylum, and in 1866 was appointed lecturer on pathology and assistant
+  physician in St. Mary's Hospital. In 1867 he became professor of
+  pathological anatomy in University College, subsequently he was also
+  professor of clinical medicine, and in the period 1887-95 he occupied the
+  chair of medicine and clinical medicine. Apart from numerous
+  contributions to medical and other periodicals, and to Quain's
+  <i>Dictionary of Medicine</i>, he published <i>The Modes of Origin of
+  Lowest Organisms</i> (1871); <i>The Beginnings of Life</i> (1872);
+  <i>Evolution and the Origin of Life</i> (1874); <i>Lectures on Paralysis
+  from Brain Disease</i> (1875); <i>The Brain as an Organ of Mind</i>
+  (1880); which has been translated into French and German; <i>The Nature
+  and Origin of Living Matter</i>; <i>Evolution of Life</i>; <i>Origin of
+  Life</i>; &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bastiat</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>s-t&#x113;-a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), Frédéric, French economist, advocate
+  of free-trade, and opponent of protection, born at Bayonne 1801, died at
+  Rome 1850. He became acquainted with Cobden and the English free-traders,
+  whose speeches he translated into French. Whilst combating protectionism,
+  Bastiat was also an opponent of socialism. His chief works are:
+  <i>Sophismes Économiques</i> (1846); <i>Propriété et Loi</i>; <i>Justice
+  et Fraternité</i> (1848); <i>Protectionisme et Communisme</i> (1849);
+  <i>Harmonies Économiques</i> (1849).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bastien-Lepage</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>s-tyan<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>-l&#x117;-päzh), Jules, French painter,
+  born 1848, died 1884. He studied at Paris under Cabanel, and about 1874
+  began to attract some notice as a realistic painter of subjects connected
+  with the country and everyday life, among his first pictures of note
+  being <i>Song of Spring</i>, <i>Portrait of My Grandfather</i>, and
+  <i>The First Communion</i>. Among his most important works are <i>The
+  Hayfield</i>, <i>The Potato Harvest</i>, <i>Portrait of Mme Sarah
+  Bernhardt</i>, <i>The Beggar</i>, and <i>The Forge</i>.&mdash;Cf. Marie
+  Bashkirtsev, <i>Journal Intime</i>; Arnic, J. <i>Bastien-Lepage, lettres
+  et souvenirs</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bastille</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>s-t&#x113;l´), a French name for any
+  strong castle provided with towers, but as a proper name the State prison
+  and citadel of Paris, which was built about 1370 by Charles V. It was
+  ultimately used chiefly for the confinement of persons of rank who had
+  fallen victims to the intrigues of the Court or the caprice of the
+  Government. (See <i>Cachet, Lettres de</i>.) The capture of the Bastille
+  by the Parisian mob, 14th July, 1789, was the opening act of the <!--
+  Page 420 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page420"></a>[420]</span>Revolution. On that date the Bastille was
+  surrounded by a tumultuous mob, who first attempted to negotiate with the
+  Governor, Delaunay, but when these negotiations failed, began to attack
+  the fortress. For several hours the mob continued their siege without
+  being able to effect anything more than an entrance into the outer court
+  of the Bastille; but at last the arrival of some of the Royal Guard with
+  a few pieces of artillery forced the Governor to let down the second
+  drawbridge and admit the populace. The Governor was seized, but on the
+  way to the Hotel de Ville he was torn from his captors and put to death.
+  The next day the destruction of the Bastille commenced. Not a vestige of
+  it exists, but its site is marked by a column in the Place de la
+  Bastille.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: François Ravaisson,
+  <i>Les Archives de la Bastille</i>; Arnold, <i>Histoire de la
+  Bastille</i>; Bingham, <i>The Bastille</i>; Funck-Brentano, <i>The
+  Bastille</i>; M.J. de Staal, <i>La Bastille sous la Régence</i> (edited
+  by Funck-Brentano).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bastina´do</b>, an Eastern method of corporal punishment,
+  consisting of blows upon the soles of the feet, applied with a bamboo
+  cane.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bas´tion</b>, in fortification, a large mass of earth, faced with
+  sods, brick, or stones, standing out from a rampart, of which it is a
+  principal part. A bastion consists of two <i>flanks</i>, each commanding
+  and defending the adjacent <i>curtain</i>, or that portion of the wall
+  extending from one bastion to another, and two <i>faces</i> making with
+  each other an acute angle called the <i>salient angle</i>, and commanding
+  the outworks and ground before the fortification. The distance between
+  the two flanks is the <i>gorge</i>, or entrance into the bastion. The use
+  of the bastion is to bring every point at the foot of the rampart as much
+  as possible under the guns of the place.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bast´wick</b>, John, English physician and ecclesiastical
+  controversialist, born in 1593, died 1654. He settled at Colchester, but,
+  instead of confining himself to his profession, entered keenly into
+  theological controversy, and was condemned by the Star Chamber for his
+  books against Prelacy: <i>Elenchus Religionis Papisticæ</i>, <i>Flagellum
+  Pontificis</i>, and <i>The Letanie of Dr. J. Bastwick</i>. With Prynne
+  and Burton he was sentenced to lose his ears in the pillory, to pay a
+  fine of £5000, and to be imprisoned for life. He was released by the Long
+  Parliament, and entered London in triumph along with Prynne and Burton.
+  He appears to have continued his controversies with the Independents and
+  others to the very last.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Basu´toland</b>, a native province and British South African
+  possession, situated between the Orange Free State, Natal, Griqualand
+  East, and the Cape Province. The Basutos belong chiefly to the great stem
+  of the Bechuanas, and have made greater advances in civilization than
+  perhaps any other South African race. In 1866 the Basutos, who had lived
+  under a semi-protectorate of the British since 1848, were proclaimed
+  British subjects, their country placed under the government of an agent,
+  and in 1871 it was joined to Cape Colony. In 1879 the attempted
+  enforcement of an Act passed for the disarmament of the native tribes
+  caused a revolt under the chief Moirosi, which the Cape forces were
+  unable to put down. When peace was restored Basutoland was separated from
+  Cape Colony (1884), and is now governed by a Resident Commissioner under
+  the High Commissioner for South Africa. Basutoland has an area of about
+  11,716 sq. miles, much of it covered with grass, and there is but little
+  wood. The climate is pleasant. The natives keep cattle, sheep, and
+  horses, cultivate the ground, and export grain. The Basuto ponies, which
+  originally were brought from Batavia by the Dutch in the eighteenth
+  century, are famous. It is divided into eight districts, each under a
+  magistrate. Capital, Maseru. Pop. (European), 1396; (native),
+  404,507.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: J. Widdicombe,
+  <i>Fourteen Years in Basutoland</i>; M. Martin, <i>Basutoland: Its
+  Legends and Customs</i>; Sir G. Lagden, <i>The Basutos</i>; Rev. D.&nbsp;F.
+  Ellenberger, <i>History of the Basuto</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:41%;">
+      <a href="images/image164.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image164.jpg"
+      alt="Bats" title="Bats" /></a>
+    Bats Asleep
+
+    <p class="cenhead">Left&mdash;Serotine (<i>Vespertilio serotinus</i>).
+    Right&mdash;Long-eared bat (<i>Plecotus auritus</i>).</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Bat</b>, one of the group of wing-handed, flying mammals, having
+  the fore-limb peculiarly modified so as to serve for flight, and
+  constituting the order Cheiroptera. Bats are animals of the twilight and
+  darkness, and are common in temperate and warm regions, but are most
+  numerous and largest in the tropics. All European bats are small, and
+  have a mouse-like skin. The body of the largest British species,
+  <i>Vespertilio noct&#x16D;la</i>, is less than that of a mouse, but its
+  wings stretch about 15 inches. During the day <!-- Page 421 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page421"></a>[421]</span>it remains in caverns,
+  in the crevices of ruins, hollow trees, and similar lurking places, and
+  flits out at evening in search of food, which consists of insects.
+  Several species of the same genus are common in North America. Many bats
+  are remarkable for having a singular nasal cutaneous appendage, bearing
+  in some cases a fancied resemblance to a horse-shoe. Bats may be
+  conveniently divided into two sections&mdash;the insectivorous or
+  carnivorous, comprising all European and most African and American
+  species; and the fruit-eating, belonging to tropical Asia and Australia,
+  with several African forms. An Australian fruit-eating bat
+  (<i>Pter&#x14F;pus ed&#x16B;lis</i>), commonly known as the kalong or
+  flying-fox, is the largest of all the bats; it does much mischief in
+  orchards. At least two species of South American bats are known to suck
+  the blood of other mammals, and thence are called 'vampire-bats'. All the
+  British bats belong to the insectivorous group, the fruit-eating and
+  blood-sucking bats being confined to warmer regions. There are fifteen
+  species on the British list, but of these three are very rare. Among the
+  most noteworthy forms are the greater and the lesser horse-shoe bats, in
+  which the ears are nearly as long as the whole body. As winter
+  approaches, in cold climates bats seek shelter in caverns, vaults,
+  ruinous and deserted buildings, and similar retreats, where they cling
+  together in large clusters, hanging head downwards by the feet, and
+  remain in a torpid condition until the returning spring recalls them to
+  active exertions. Bats generally bring forth two young. The parent shows
+  a strong degree of attachment to her offspring, and, when they are
+  captured, will follow them, and even submit to captivity herself rather
+  than forsake her charge.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:41%;">
+      <a href="images/image165.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image165.jpg"
+      alt="Vampire-bat" title="Vampire-bat" /></a>
+    Vampire-bat (<i>Phyllostroma spectrum</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Bataille</b>, Henry, French poet and dramatist, born at Nîmes in
+  1872. His first volume of poems, <i>La Chambre Blanche</i>, appeared in
+  1895. His other works include <i>Le Beau Rivage</i>, <i>Maman
+  Colibri</i>, <i>La Marche Nuptiale</i>, <i>La Femme Nue</i>, <i>La Divine
+  Tragédie</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Batalha</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-ta<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>l'ya<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), a village in Portugal, 69 miles north
+  of Lisbon, with a renowned convent of Dominicans, a splendid
+  building.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Batan´gas</b>, a town of the Philippines, in the Island of Luzon,
+  capital of a province of same name, 58 miles south of Manila. Pop.
+  33,131.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bata´tas.</b> See <i>Sweet-potato</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bat´avi.</b> See <i>Batavians</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bata´via</b>, a city and seaport of Java, on the north coast of the
+  island, the capital of the Dutch East Indies. It is situated on a wide,
+  deep bay, the principal warehouses and offices of the Europeans, the Java
+  Bank, the exchange, &amp;c., being in the old town, which is built on a
+  low, marshy plain near the sea, intersected with canals and very
+  unhealthy; while the Europeans reside in a new and much healthier
+  quarter. Batavia has a large trade, sugar being the chief export. It was
+  founded by the Dutch in 1619, and attained its greatest prosperity in the
+  beginning of the eighteenth century. Its inhabitants are chiefly Malay,
+  with a considerable admixture of Chinese and a small number of Europeans.
+  Pop. 234,697 (1918).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Batavian Republic.</b> See <i>Belgium</i>; <i>Netherlands.</i></p>
+
+  <p><b>Batavians</b>, an old German nation which inhabited a part of the
+  present Holland, especially the island called <i>Batavia</i>, formed by
+  that branch of the Rhine which empties itself into the sea near Leyden,
+  together with the Waal and the Meuse. Tacitus asserts that they were a
+  branch of the Catti. They were subdued by Germanicus, and were granted
+  special privileges for their faithful services to the Romans, but
+  revolted under Vespasian. They were, however, again subdued by Trajan and
+  Adrian, and at the end of the third century the Salian Franks obtained
+  possession of the Island of Batavia.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Batchian.</b> See <i>Bachian</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bates</b>, Henry Walter, traveller and naturalist, born at
+  Leicester 1825, learned the hosiery trade, but in 1847 went to the Amazon
+  with Russel Wallace, and remained there for eleven years studying the
+  natural history of the region. Returning to England, he published in 1862
+  his <i>Naturalist on the River Amazons</i>, a work regarded as a classic.
+  He was assistant secretary to the Royal Geographical Society from 1864
+  till his death in 1892. A large part of his collections is in the British
+  Museum.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bath</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>th), a city of England, in Somersetshire,
+  on the Avon, which is navigable for barges from Bristol; is beautifully
+  placed among the hills, and the houses are built of freestone, obtained
+  from the neighbourhood. The Abbey Church, dating from the fifteenth
+  century, ranks as one of the finest specimens of Perpendicular Gothic
+  architecture. Bath is remarkable for its medicinal waters, the four
+  principal springs yielding no less than 184,000 gallons of water a day;
+  and the baths are both handsome and <!-- Page 422 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page422"></a>[422]</span>roomy. The temperature
+  of the springs varies from 109° to 117° F. They contain carbonic acid,
+  chloride of sodium and of magnesium, sulphate of soda, carbonate and
+  sulphate of lime, &amp;c. Bath was founded by the Romans, and called by
+  them <i>Aquæ Solis</i> (Waters of the Sun). Amongst the Roman remains
+  discovered there have been some fine baths. The height of its prosperity
+  was reached, however, in the eighteenth century, when Beau Nash was
+  leader of the fashion and master of its ceremonies. Since then, though it
+  still attracts large numbers of visitors, it has become the resort of
+  valetudinarians chiefly. Jointly with Wells it is the head of a diocese,
+  and since 1918 returns one member to the House of Commons. Pop. (1921),
+  68,648.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bath</b>, a town, United States, Maine, on the west side and at the
+  head of the winter navigation of the Kennebec, 12 miles from the sea.
+  Chief industries: shipbuilding and allied crafts. Pop. 9396.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bath</b>, the immersion of the body in water, or an apparatus for
+  this purpose.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Ancient Baths.</i>&mdash;The use of the bath as an institution,
+  apart from occasional immersion in rivers or the sea, is, as might be
+  anticipated, an exceedingly old custom. Homer mentions the bath as one of
+  the first refreshments offered to a guest; thus, when Ulysses enters the
+  palace of Circe, a bath is prepared for him, and he is anointed after it
+  with costly perfumes. No representation, however, of a bath as we
+  understand it is given upon the Greek vases, bathers being represented
+  either simply washing at an elevated basin, or having water poured over
+  them from above. In later times, rooms, both public and private, were
+  built expressly for bathing, the public baths of the Greeks being mostly
+  connected with the gymnasia. Apparently, by an inversion of the later
+  practice, it was customary in the Homeric epoch to take first a cold and
+  then a hot bath; but the Lacedæmonians substituted the hot-air sudorific
+  bath, as less enervating than warm water, and in Athens at the time of
+  Demosthenes and Socrates the warm bath was considered by the more
+  rigorous to be an effeminate custom. The fullest details we have with
+  respect to the bathing of the ancients apply to its luxurious development
+  under the Romans. Their bathing establishments consisted of four main
+  sections: the undressing room, with an adjoining chamber in which the
+  bathers were anointed; a cold room with provision for a cold bath; a room
+  heated moderately to serve as a preparation for the highest and lowest
+  temperatures; and the sweating-room, at one extremity of which was a
+  vapour-bath and at the other an ordinary hot bath. After going through
+  the entire course both the Greeks and Romans made use of strigils or
+  scrapers, either of horn or metal, to remove perspiration, oil, and
+  impurities from the skin. Connected with the baths were walks, covered
+  race-grounds, tennis-courts, and gardens, the whole, both in the external
+  and internal decorations, being frequently on a palatial scale. The group
+  of the <i>Laocoon</i> and the <i>Farnese Hercules</i> were both found in
+  the ruins of Roman baths.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Modern Baths.</i>&mdash;With respect to modern baths, that commonly
+  in use in Russia consists of a single hall, built of wood, in the midst
+  of which is a powerful metal oven, covered with heated stones, and
+  surrounded with broad benches, on which the bathers take their places.
+  Cold water is then poured upon the heated stones, and a thick, hot steam
+  rises, which causes the sweat to issue from the whole body. The bather is
+  then gently whipped with wet birch rods, rubbed with soap, and washed
+  with luke-warm and cold water; of the latter, some pailfuls are poured
+  over his head; or else he leaps, immediately after this sweating-bath,
+  into a river or pond, or rolls in the snow. The Turks, by their religion,
+  are obliged to make repeated ablutions daily, and for this purpose there
+  is, in every city, a public bath connected with a mosque. A favourite
+  bath among them, however, is a modification of the hot-air sudorific bath
+  of the ancients introduced under the name of 'Turkish' into other than
+  Mahommedan countries. A regular accompaniment of this bath, when properly
+  given, is the operation known as 'kneading', generally performed at the
+  close of the sweating process, after the final rubbing of the bather with
+  soap, and consisting in a systematic pressing and squeezing of the whole
+  body, stretching the limbs, and manipulating all the joints as well as
+  the fleshy and muscular parts. Public baths are now common in Europe, but
+  the first English public baths and wash-houses of the kind now common in
+  all cities were established in Liverpool and near the London docks in
+  1844. In 1846 an Act was passed for their encouragement, and a series of
+  statutes, known as 'The Baths and Wash-houses Acts 1846 to 1896',
+  followed. The establishment of cheap swimming-baths was authorized in
+  1878.</p>
+
+  <p>The principal natural warm baths in England are at Bath, in
+  Somersetshire (the hottest), and Buxton and Matlock, in Derbyshire. The
+  temperature of the Bath springs ranges from 109° to 117° F., while that
+  of the Buxton and Matlock waters scarcely exceeds 82°. The baths of
+  Harrogate, which are strongly impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas,
+  are also of great repute for the cure of obstinate cutaneous diseases,
+  indurations of the glands, &amp;c. The most celebrated natural hot baths
+  in Europe <!-- Page 423 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page423"></a>[423]</span>are those of Aix-la-Chapelle, and the
+  various Baden, in Germany; Toeplitz, in Bohemia; Bagnières, Baréges, and
+  Dax, in the south of France; and Spa, in Belgium. Besides the various
+  kinds of water-bath with or without medication or natural mineral
+  ingredients, there are also milk, oil, wine, earth, sand, mud, and
+  electric baths, smoke-baths and gas-baths; but these are as a rule only
+  indulged in after specific prescription.</p>
+
+  <p>The practice of bathing as a method of cure in cases of disease falls
+  under the head of hydropathy; but even when it is employed simply for
+  pleasure or purification due regard should be paid to the physiological
+  condition of the bather. In many cases cold bathing should be avoided
+  altogether, especially by those who have any tendency to spitting of
+  blood or consumption, by gouty people, or by those who have any latent
+  visceral disease or apoplectic tendency. Wherever the bath is followed by
+  shivering instead of by a healthy reactionary glow, it is undesirable;
+  and a cold bath in the morning after any debauchery or excess in eating
+  or drinking on the previous evening is exceedingly imprudent. Delicate
+  persons and children ought not to bathe in the sea before ten or eleven
+  o'clock in the morning, and in no case should bathing be indulged in
+  after a long fast. In cold streams and rivers additional precautions
+  should be taken, the cold plunge, when heated or fatigued, being
+  frequently attended with fatal results. Even warm baths are not wholly
+  free from danger; apoplexy and death having been known to follow a hot
+  bath when entered with a full stomach. As a rule the temperature should
+  not exceed 105°, and they should not be too long continued. Frequent
+  indulgence in them has an enervating effect, though the majority of
+  people need as yet no renewal of Hadrian's prohibitive legislation in
+  this matter. See also <i>Douches</i>; <i>Thermæ</i>.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: W.&nbsp;A. Becker, <i>Gallus</i>; J. Farrar,
+  <i>Baths and Bathing</i>; W.&nbsp;P. Gerhard, <i>Modern Baths and Bath
+  Houses</i>; R.&nbsp;F. Fox, <i>Principles and Practice of Medical
+  Hydrology</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bath, Knights of the</b>, an order of England, supposed to have
+  been instituted by Henry IV on the day of his coronation, but allowed to
+  lapse after the reign of Charles II till 1725, when George I revived it
+  as a military order. By the book of statutes then prepared the number of
+  knights was limited to the sovereign and thirty-seven knights companions;
+  but the limits of the order were greatly extended in 1815, and again in
+  1847, when it was opened to civilians. It now consists of three classes,
+  each subdivided into (1) military members, (2) civil members, and (3)
+  honorary members, consisting of foreign princes and officers. The first
+  class consists of Knights of the Grand Cross (<span
+  class="scac">G.C.B.</span>); the second of Knights Commanders (<span
+  class="scac">K.C.B.</span>); and the third of Companions (<span
+  class="scac">C.B.</span>). The Dean of Westminster is dean of the order.
+  In 1917 the Companions of the order were given the privileges and
+  precedence of Commanders, the badge being now worn round the neck. In
+  1918 the statutes were amended in order to admit officers of the Royal
+  Air Force to the military division. The ribbon of the order is crimson;
+  the military badge a gold cross of eight points, with the lion of England
+  between the four principal angles, and having in a circle in the centre
+  the rose, thistle, and shamrock between three imperial crowns; motto:
+  <i>Tria juncta in uno</i>. Stars are worn by the two first classes, with
+  additional motto, <i>Ich dien</i>, for the military members only. See
+  <i>Knighthood</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bath-brick</b>, a preparation of siliceous earth found in the River
+  Parret, in Somersetshire, in the form of a solid brick, used for cleaning
+  knives, &amp;c. See <i>Sand</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bath´gate</b>, a town, Scotland, Linlithgowshire, pleasantly
+  situated, and having in the vicinity the paraffin-works known as Young's,
+  a paper-mill and other works, and coal and iron-stone mines. Pop. (1921),
+  8504.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Batholite</b>, a mass of igneous rock having no visible floor, and
+  presumed to pass down into some region of the earth's crust where molten
+  rocks at one time prevailed over all others. Granite blocks, like those
+  of the Cairngorm Mountains in Scotland, or the long ridge of the Leinster
+  Chain, which have intruded into their surroundings, are regarded as
+  batholites the crests of which have become exposed by denudation. A
+  batholite in its original molten condition may exist under any large area
+  of volcanic activity, and the similarity of the igneous rocks sent to the
+  surface over broad regions of the earth, constituting what are called
+  'petrographical provinces', points to the existence of very considerable
+  continuous rock-cauldrons in the crust.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bathom´eter</b>, an instrument, invented by C. Williams Siemens,
+  for measuring the depth of sea beneath a vessel without casting a line.
+  It is based upon the fact that the attraction exerted upon any given mass
+  of matter on the ship is less when she is afloat than ashore, because of
+  the less density of sea-water as compared with that of earth or rock.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bathonian Stage</b>, a division of the middle Jurassic series of
+  rocks, including the beds between the Inferior Oolite and the Oxford
+  Clay. The name is derived from its excellent development near Bath, in
+  Somersetshire, and the most important member is the Oolitic limestone
+  known as Bath-stone (q.v.). The Bathonian stage includes the following
+  beds in ascending order:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <p>1. <i>Stonesfield Slate</i>, named from a village near <!-- Page 424
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page424"></a>[424]</span>Woodstock; a
+  flaggy limestone used for roofing, with remains of ferns and cycads
+  washed in from the Jurassic land, and of some of the earliest-known
+  mammals, allies of the monotremes or the marsupials. 2. The <i>Great</i>
+  or <i>Bath Oolite</i>, with marine fossils, and also remains of the large
+  reptiles known as dinosaurs. 3. <i>Bradford Clay.</i> 4. <i>Forest
+  Marble.</i> 5. <i>Cornbrash</i>, so called from its 'brashy' or rubbly
+  nature, an earthy oolite yielding fair land for corn.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bathori</b> (bä'to-r&#x113;), or <b>Bathory</b>, a Hungarian
+  family, which gave Transylvania five princes, and Poland one of its
+  greatest kings. The more important members were:&mdash;1. Stephen, born
+  in 1532, elected Prince of Transylvania in 1571, on the death of Zapolya,
+  and in 1575 King of Poland. He accomplished many internal reforms,
+  recovered the Polish territories in possession of the Czar of Moscovy,
+  and reigned prosperously till his death in 1586.&mdash;2. Sigismund,
+  nephew of Stephen, educated by the Jesuits, became Prince of Transylvania
+  in 1581, shook off the Ottoman yoke, and had begun to give hopes of
+  reigning gloriously when he resigned his dominions to the Emperor Rudolph
+  II, in return for two principalities in Silesia, a cardinal's hat, and a
+  pension. Availing himself, however, of an invitation by the
+  Transylvanians, he returned, and placed himself under the protection of
+  the Porte, but was defeated by the Imperialists in every battle, and
+  finally sent to Prague, where he died almost forgotten in 1613.&mdash;3.
+  Elizabeth, niece of Stephen, King of Poland, and wife of Count Nadasdy,
+  of Hungary. She is said to have bathed in the blood of 600 young girls in
+  the hope of renewing her youth, and to have committed other enormities.
+  She was afterwards seized and confined till her death in 1614.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bat-horse.</b> See <i>Batman</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ba´thos</b>, a Greek word meaning depth, now used to signify a
+  ludicrous sinking from the elevated to the mean in writing or speech.
+  First used in this sense by Pope in <i>The Art of Sinking in Poetry</i>
+  (<i>Scriblerus Papers</i>, 1729).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bath-stone</b> (also called <b>Bath-oolite</b> and
+  <b>Roe-stone</b>, from the small rounded grains of which it is composed),
+  a species of English limestone. It is extensively worked near Bath for
+  building purposes. When just quarried it is soft; but though it soon
+  becomes hard on exposure to the atmosphere, and is of handsome
+  appearance, it is not very durable.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bath´urst</b>, a British settlement on the west coast of Africa, on
+  the Island of St. Mary's, near the mouth of the Gambia, with a trade in
+  gum, bees-wax, hides, ivory, gold, rice, cotton, and palm-oil. Pop.
+  8000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bathurst</b>, a town in the western district of New South Wales, on
+  the Macquarie River, with wide, well-laid-out streets at right angles,
+  and a central square, tanneries, railway workshops, breweries,
+  flour-mills, and other industries. Pop. 9200.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bathurst</b>, Allen Bathurst, First Earl, a distinguished statesman
+  in Queen Anne's reign; born 1684. He took part with Harley and St. John
+  in opposing the influence of Marlborough, was raised to the peerage in
+  1711, impeached the promoters of the South Sea scheme, opposed the Bill
+  against Atterbury, and was a leading antagonist of Walpole. He was
+  created earl in 1772. His name is also associated with those of the
+  leading writers and wits of the day. Died 1775.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bathurst</b>, Henry Bathurst, Third Earl, son of the second earl, a
+  prominent Tory statesman, after whom various capes, islands, and
+  districts were named. Born 1762; in 1807, President of Board of Trade; in
+  1809, Secretary for Foreign Affairs; and in 1812, Secretary for the
+  Colonies, a post held by him for sixteen years. He was also President of
+  the Council under Wellington, 1828-30. Died 1834.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bathurst Island</b>, on the North Australian coast, belonging to S.
+  Australia, separated from Melville Island by a narrow strait; triangular
+  in shape, with a wooded area of about 1000 sq. miles.&mdash;Also an
+  island in the Arctic Ocean discovered by Parry, <span
+  class="scac">E.</span> of Cornwallis and <span class="scac">W.</span> of
+  Melville Island, 76° <span class="scac">N.</span>, 100° <span
+  class="scac">W.</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Bathyb´ius</b> (Gr. <i>bathys</i>, deep, <i>bios</i>, life), the
+  name given by Huxley to what was regarded as granular slimy masses of
+  animal matter found covering the sea-bottom at great depths.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Batiste</b> (ba-t&#x113;st'), a fine linen cloth made in Flanders
+  and Picardy, named after its inventor, Jean Baptiste of Cambrai.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bat´ley</b>, a municipal and parliamentary borough of England, West
+  Riding of York, about a mile from Dewsbury; principal manufactures: heavy
+  woollen cloths, such as pilot, beaver, police, army, and frieze cloths,
+  flushings, and blankets. Batley and Morley unite in returning one member
+  to Parliament. Pop. 36,151.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Batman</b> (bat'man or bä'man; from Fr. <i>bât</i>, a pack-saddle),
+  in the British army, a person allowed by the Government to every company
+  of a regiment on foreign service. His duty is to take charge of the
+  cooking utensils, &amp;c., of the company, and he has a bat-horse to
+  convey these utensils from place to place.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Ba´ton</b>, a short staff or truncheon, in some cases used as an
+  official badge, as that of a field-marshal. The conductor of an orchestra
+  has a baton for the purpose of directing the performers as to time,
+  &amp;c. In heraldry, what is usually called the 'bastard bar', or 'bar
+  sinister', is properly a baton sinister. See <i>Bastard Bar</i>. <!--
+  Page 425 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page425"></a>[425]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Bat´on Rouge</b> (rözh), the capital of Louisiana, United States,
+  on the left bank of the Mississippi, with an arsenal, barracks, military
+  hospital, State house, State university, &amp;c. On 5th Aug., 1862, the
+  Confederates under General Breckenridge suffered a severe defeat before
+  it. Pop. (1920), 21,782.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Batoum</b>, or <b>Batum</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-töm´), a port on the east coast of the
+  Black Sea, acquired by Russia by the Treaty of Berlin, on condition that
+  its fortifications were dismantled and it was thrown open as a free port.
+  It rapidly grew to be the main outlet for Transcaucasia; its harbour was
+  enlarged for commercial reasons; an arsenal was built outside it; it was
+  connected by a military road with Kars; and finally, in July, 1886, the
+  Russian <span class="correction" title="Original reads 'Goverment'."
+  >Government</span> declared it to be a free port no longer. Its
+  importance as a naval and military station to Russia was unquestionably
+  great; it is of most importance commercially as an outlet for the mineral
+  oil of Baku. The water is of great depth close inshore, and the shipping
+  lies under protection of the overhanging cliffs of the Gouriel Mountains.
+  Batoum was abandoned by the Bolshevik Government in March, 1918, and
+  occupied by the Turks on 15th April of the same year. By the terms of the
+  armistice concluded with Turkey in Nov., 1918, the Allies occupied the
+  port, and in Nov., 1919, a military governor was appointed by the British
+  Government. On 9th July, 1920, Batoum was evacuated by the British, and
+  occupied by Georgian troops. Pop. 46,000.&mdash;The province of
+  <i>Batoum</i> has an area of 2693 sq. miles. Pop. 186,000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Batrachians</b> (ba-tr&#x101;´ki-anz; Gr. <i>batrach&#x14F;s</i>, a
+  frog), the fourth order in Cuvier's arrangement of the class Reptilia,
+  comprising frogs, toads, newts, salamanders, and sirens. The term is now
+  sometimes employed as synonymous with amphibia, but is more usually
+  restricted to the order Anura or tailless amphibia. See
+  <i>Amphibia</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Batshian.</b> See <i>Bachian</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bat´ta</b>, an allowance which military officers in India receive
+  in addition to their pay. It was originally given only when the officers
+  were on the march or in the field, but now half batta is paid when troops
+  are in cantonments.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Battal´ion</b>, the tactical unit of command in infantry, supposed
+  to be of the maximum strength to be efficiently handled by one officer in
+  chief command, with others under him. In most armies it is about 1000 to
+  1100 men. The former is about the strength of a battalion in the British
+  army, in which battalions now correspond to what were formerly regiments,
+  the chief commanding officer (in actual command) being the
+  lieutenant-colonel. See <i>Army</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Battalion of Death</b>, the legion of Russian women and girls,
+  belonging to all classes, organized in 1917 and commanded by the famous
+  revolutionary Madame Botshkalova. The battalion took part in several
+  engagements.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bat´tas</b>, or <b>Battaks</b>, a people belonging to the Malayan
+  race inhabiting the valleys and plateaus of the mountains that extend
+  longitudinally through the Island of Sumatra. They practise agriculture
+  and cattle-rearing, and are skillful in various handicrafts; they have
+  also a written literature and an alphabet of their own, their books
+  treating of astrology, witchcraft, medicine, war, &amp;c. They are under
+  the rule of hereditary chieftains. In 1908 a Battak Institute was
+  established at Leyden for the study of the Battak country, people,
+  &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bat´tenberg</b>, a village in the Prussian province of
+  Hesse-Nassau, from which the sons (by morganatic marriage) of Prince
+  Alexander of Hesse, uncle of Louis, Grand-Duke of Hesse, the husband of
+  Princess Alice of Britain, derived their titles of princes of Battenberg.
+  One of them, Alexander, was Prince of Bulgaria from 1879 to 1886, and
+  died in 1893. Another, Prince Henry, was married to Princess Beatrice of
+  Great Britain in 1885, and died in 1896.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Battenberg</b>, Prince Louis Alexander of, born 24th May, 1854, in
+  Graz, son of Prince Alexander of Hesse. He became a naturalized British
+  subject, entered the navy in 1868, and in 1884 married Princess Victoria,
+  eldest daughter of Princess Alice Maud, Grand-Duchess of Hesse-Darmstadt,
+  and second daughter of Queen Victoria. He became rear-admiral in 1904,
+  was second admiral of the Mediterranean fleet from 1906 to 1908,
+  commanded the Atlantic fleet from 1908 to 1910, the 3rd and 4th divisions
+  of the Home fleet in 1911, and was appointed Second Sea Lord in Nov.,
+  1911, and First Sea Lord in Dec., 1912, in succession to Sir Francis
+  Bridgeman. In October, 1914, however, in consequence of a campaign
+  against alien enemies which culminated in an attack in the <i>Globe</i>
+  on the First Sea Lord, he tendered his resignation to Mr. Winston
+  Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty, on the ground that his birth
+  and parentage in some respects impaired his usefulness. In 1917 the king
+  determined that those princes of his family who were his subjects and
+  bore German names and titles should relinquish those titles and adopt
+  British surnames, and Prince Louis adopted the title of Marquess of
+  Milford Haven, and the surname of Mountbatten. He was the author of
+  <i>Men-of-war Names, their Meaning and Origin</i> (1908). He was made a
+  Privy Councillor in 1914, and was both a Civil and a Military Knight
+  Grand Cross of the Bath. He died 11th Sept., 1921.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:42%;">
+      <a href="images/image166.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image166.jpg"
+      alt="Battering-ram" title="Battering-ram" /></a>
+    Roman Battering-ram
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Battering-ram</b>, an engine for battering down the walls of
+  besieged places. The ancients employed two different engines of this
+  kind&mdash;one suspended in a frame, the other movable on <!-- Page 426
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page426"></a>[426]</span>wheels or
+  rollers. They consisted of a beam or spar with a massive metal head, and
+  were set in motion either by a direct application of manual force or by
+  means of cords passing over pulleys. Some are said to have been 120 feet
+  or more in length, and to have been worked by 100 men. One is described
+  as being 180 feet long, and having a head weighing 1½ tons. Smaller ones,
+  manned by three or four soldiers, were also frequently employed. They
+  were generally covered with a roof or screen for the protection of the
+  workers. The battering-ram is mentioned by Ezekiel (iv, 2; xxi, 22), and
+  the Romans learnt the use of it from the Greeks.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bat´tersea</b>, a municipal and parliamentary borough of London, in
+  Surrey, in a low situation on the south bank of the Thames, nearly
+  opposite Chelsea, with a fine public park extending over 185 acres. The
+  district is associated with the names of Pope and Bolingbroke, and with
+  the Wellington-Winchilsea duel. Battersea returns two members to
+  Parliament. Pop. (municipal borough), (1921), 167,693.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bat´tery</b>, (1) any number of guns grouped for action in one
+  place and under one control; (2) the tactical and administrative unit of
+  the Royal Regiment of Artillery; (3) an entrenched work constructed as a
+  position for guns in siege warfare.</p>
+
+  <p>The Royal Regiment of Artillery is organized in batteries of horse,
+  field, heavy, siege, and mountain artillery. These differ in the weight
+  and type of gun with which they have to do, but the general principles of
+  organization are the same. (See <i>Army</i>.) Nominally a battery
+  consists of six guns with their attendant ammunition wagons (12) and
+  certain other transport. A major commands the battery, and has a captain
+  and three subalterns to assist him. For all purposes a battery is
+  permanently organized in three sections, each of two guns and four
+  wagons, under subaltern officers; while in action it is divided into two
+  parts, (<i>a</i>) the fighting battery of six guns and six wagons;
+  (<i>b</i>) the wagon line of the remaining wagons, under command of the
+  captain. The change from march formation to that necessary for firing is
+  termed 'coming into action'.</p>
+
+  <p>Horse, field, and some heavy batteries are horse-drawn (six or eight
+  horses to a gun), while other heavy batteries and siege-guns are drawn by
+  mechanical transport or mounted on railway platforms. Mountain batteries
+  are organized for pack transport only&mdash;either mules or
+  carriers&mdash;all the material being specially constructed to this end.
+  Among combinations with the word battery come the following: <i>battery
+  commander</i>, the officer commanding a battery; <i>battery leader</i>,
+  the senior subaltern, who receives and carries out the commander's orders
+  in action; <i>battery-fire</i>, each gun of a battery firing in turn: as
+  opposed to gun-fire, where each gun fires independently. See
+  <i>Artillery</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Battery</b>, in criminal law, an assault by beating or wounding
+  another. The least touching or meddling with the person of another
+  against his will may be held to constitute a battery.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Battery</b>, in electricity and galvanism, a combination of several
+  jars or metallic plates. See <i>Daniell's Cell</i>; <i>Electric
+  Battery</i>; <i>Secondary Cell</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Batthyanyi</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>t-ya<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n´y&#x113;), one of the oldest and most
+  celebrated Hungarian families, traceable as far back as the Magyar
+  invasion of Pannonia in the ninth century. Among later bearers of the
+  name have been&mdash;Count Casmir Batthyanyi, who was associated with
+  Kossuth, was Minister of Foreign Affairs in Hungary during the
+  insurrection of 1849, and died in Paris 1854; Count Louis Batthyanyi,
+  born 1809, of another branch of the family, was leader of the opposition
+  in the Hungarian Diet until the breaking out of the commotions of 1848,
+  when he took an active part in promoting the national cause; but on the
+  entry of Windischgrätz into Pesth he was arrested and shot, 1849.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Battle</b>, a combat between two armies. In ancient times and the
+  Middle Ages the battleground was often chosen by agreement, and the
+  battle was a mere trial of strength, a duel <i>en gros</i>; and as the
+  armies of the ancients were imperfectly organized, and the combatants
+  fought very little at a distance, after the battle had begun
+  manu&oelig;vres were much more difficult, and troops almost entirely
+  beyond the control of the general. Under these circumstances the battle
+  depended almost wholly upon the previous arrangements and the valour of
+  the troops. In modern times, however, the finest combinations, the most
+  ingenious man&oelig;uvres, are rendered possible by the better
+  organization of the armies, and it is the skill of the general rather
+  than the courage of the soldier that now <!-- Page 427 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page427"></a>[427]</span>determines the event of
+  a battle. Battles are distinguished as <i>offensive</i> or
+  <i>defensive</i> on either side, but there is a natural and ready
+  transition from one method to the other. The purely defensive attitude is
+  condemned by tacticians except in cases where the only object desirable
+  is to maintain a position of vital consequence, the weight of precedent
+  being in favour of the dash and momentum of an attacking force even where
+  opposed to superior forces. Where the greatest generals have acted upon
+  the defensive, it has almost always been with the desire to develop an
+  opportunity to pass to the offensive, and, having discovered their
+  opponent's hand, to marshal against the enemy, exhausted with attack, the
+  whole strength of their resources. Napoleon won more than one great
+  victory by this method, and Wellington's reputation was largely based
+  upon his skill in defensive-offensive operations. Tacticians have divided
+  a battle into three periods, which are disposition, combat, and the
+  decisive moment. In some measure they require distinct qualities in a
+  commander, the intellect which can plot a disposition being by no means
+  always of the prompt judgment passing to instant action which avails
+  itself of the crucial moment to crush an enemy. Cooperation and mutual
+  support of all arms and services is essential to success in a modern
+  battle, which may occupy many days or even weeks and embrace a large area
+  of country, e.g. the battle of the Marne, the battle of the Somme. This
+  co-operation is ensured by the most careful and detailed arrangements
+  being made beforehand, such arrangements even including the rehearsal of
+  more important phases over ground prepared to represent the country over
+  which the operations will eventually take place. The modern battle may
+  be, and probably will be, a continuation of many
+  operations&mdash;<i>offensive</i> and <i>defensive</i>&mdash;carried out
+  by distinct and separate formations. The general scope of the operations
+  as a whole will be planned by the supreme commander, while the choice of
+  the methods to be used is left to the commander of the formations
+  affected. See <i>Strategy</i>; <i>Tactics</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Battle</b>, a town in Sussex, so named from the battle of Hastings
+  having been fought there. An abbey built by William the Norman has
+  disappeared, but important remains of a later building exist on the same
+  site; and there is an old church of great interest. Pop. (1921),
+  2891.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Battle</b> (or <b>Battel</b>), <b>Wager of</b>, an obsolete method,
+  according to English law, of deciding civil or criminal cases by personal
+  combat between the parties or their champions in presence of the court. A
+  woman, a priest, a peer, or a person physically incapable of fighting
+  could refuse such a trial. It was not abolished till 1819 (by the Statute
+  of 59 George III, c. 46), but had long previously been in abeyance. See
+  <i>Ordeal</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Battle-axe</b>, a weapon much used in war in the early part of the
+  Middle Ages among knights. It is a weapon which affords hardly any guard,
+  and the heavier the blow given with it the more the fighter is exposed;
+  but its use was to some extent necessitated by the resistance of iron
+  armour to all but heavy blows. In England and Scotland the battle-axe was
+  much employed, the Lochaber-axe remaining a formidable implement of
+  destruction in the hands of the Highlanders to a recent period.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Battle Creek</b>, a town of the United States, in Michigan, at the
+  junction of the Kalamazoo and Battle Creek, with a college, and
+  manufactures of agricultural implements, &amp;c. Pop. 25,267.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Battleford</b>, a trading town of Canada, province of Saskatchewan,
+  at the junction of the Battle and Saskatchewan (North Fork). Pop.
+  1335.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bat´tlement</b>, a notched or indented parapet of a fortification,
+  formed by a series of raised parts called <i>cops</i> or <i>merlons</i>,
+  separated by openings called <i>crenelles</i> or <i>embrasures</i>, the
+  soldier sheltering himself behind the merlon, while he fires through the
+  embrasure. Battlements were originally military, but were afterwards used
+  freely in ecclesiastical and civil buildings by way of ornament, on
+  parapets, cornices, tabernacle work, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Battle-piece</b>, a painting representing a battle. Some of the
+  greatest pieces of this kind are the <i>Battle of Constantine</i>, of
+  which the cartoons were drawn by Raphael, and which was executed by
+  Giulio Romano; Lebrun's <i>Battles of Alexander</i>; and the <i>Battles
+  of the Amazons</i>, by Rubens.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Battue</b> (ba-tü´), a method of killing game by having persons to
+  beat a wood, copse, or other cover, and so drive the animals (pheasants,
+  hares, &amp;c.) towards the spot where sportsmen are stationed to shoot
+  them.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Battus</b>, legendary founder of the Greek colony of Cyrene, in
+  Libya, about 650 <span class="scac">B.C.</span> There were eight rulers
+  of the family founded by him, bearing alternately the names Battus and
+  Arcesilaus.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Batu Khan</b>, Mongol ruler of the Western conquests of his
+  grandfather, Genghis Khan, from 1224 to 1255. He overran Russia, Poland,
+  Hungary, and Dalmatia, holding Russia for ten years.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Batum.</b> See <i>Batoum</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baudelaire</b> (b&#x14D;d-l&#x101;r), Charles Pierre, French poet,
+  born 1821. His first work of importance was a series of translations from
+  Poe, ranking among the most perfect translations in any literature. A
+  volume of poems, <i>Les Fleurs du Mal</i> (1857), established his
+  reputation as a <!-- Page 428 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page428"></a>[428]</span>leader of the Romanticists, though the
+  police thought it necessary to deodorize them. Of a higher tone were his
+  <i>Petits Poèmes en Prose</i>; followed in 1859 by a monograph on
+  Théophile Gautier, in 1860 by <i>Les Paradis Artificiels</i> (opium and
+  hashish studies), and in 1861 by <i>Wagner et Tannhäuser à Paris</i>. He
+  died in 1867. The best English rendering of the <i>Fleurs du Mal</i> is
+  by A. Symons (1905).&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Henry
+  James, <i>French Poets and Novelists</i>; Asselineau, <i>Charles
+  Baudelaire, sa vie et son &oelig;uvre</i>; F. Gautier, <i>Charles
+  Baudelaire</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baudry</b> (b&#x14D;-dr&#x113;), Paul Jacques Aimé, a prominent
+  modern French painter, born in 1828, died Jan., 1886. He took the grand
+  prix de Rome in 1850, and exhibited many important works, of which the
+  better known are his <i>Charlotte Corday</i> and <i>La Perle et la
+  Vague</i>. The decoration of the <i>foyer</i> of the New Opera House at
+  Paris was entrusted to him&mdash;an enormous work, occupying a total
+  surface of 500 sq. metres, but admirably accomplished by him in eight
+  years.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bauer</b> (bou´er), Bruno, German philosopher, historian, and
+  Biblical critic of the rational school, born 1809, died 1882. Wrote
+  <i>Critique of the Gospel of John</i> (1840); <i>Critique of the Synoptic
+  Gospels</i> (1840); <i>History of the French Revolution to the Founding
+  of the Republic</i> (1847); <i>History of Germany during the French
+  Revolution and the Rule of Napoleon</i> (1846); <i>Critique of the
+  Gospels</i> (1850-1); <i>Critique of the Pauline Epistles</i> (1850);
+  <i>Philo, Strauss, Renan, and Primitive Christianity</i> (1874);
+  <i>Christ and the Cæsars</i> (1877), &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bauhin</b> (b&#x14D;-an), Gaspard, born at Basel in 1560; in 1580
+  elected to the Greek chair at Basel, and in 1589 to that of anatomy and
+  botany. He died in 1624. His fame rests chiefly on his <i>Pinax Theatri
+  Botanici</i> and <i>Theatrum Botanicum</i>. Linnæus gave his name to a
+  genus of plants.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bauhin´ia</b>, a genus of plants, ord. Leguminosæ, usually lianes,
+  found in the woods of hot countries, and often stretching from tree to
+  tree like cables. Many are showy and interesting. The bark of <i>B.
+  varieg&#x101;ta</i> is used in tanning; the bast fibres of some Indian
+  species are made into ropes and twine.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baumgarten</b> (boum´ga<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-tn), Alexander Gottlieb, a German
+  philosopher, born in 1714 at Berlin; in 1740 was made professor of
+  philosophy at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and died there in 1762. He is the
+  founder of æsthetics as a science, and the inventor of this name. His
+  ideas were first developed in his <i>De Nonnullis ad Poema
+  pertinentibus</i> (1735), and afterwards in the two volumes of his
+  uncompleted <i>Æsthetica</i>, published 1750-8.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baur</b> (bour), Ferdinand Christian, German theologian, founder of
+  the 'Tübingen School' of theologians and Hegelian thinkers, born in 1792.
+  The publication of his first work, <i>Symbolism and Mythology, or The
+  Natural Religion of Antiquity</i>, in 1824-5, led to his appointment as
+  professor in the evangelical faculty of Tübingen University, a position
+  occupied by him till his death in 1860. His chief works in the department
+  of the history of Christian dogma are: <i>The Christian Gnosis, or The
+  Christian Philosophy of Religion</i> (1835); <i>The Christian Doctrine of
+  the Atonement</i> (1838); <i>The Christian Doctrine of the Trinity and
+  the Incarnation</i> (1841-3); <i>The Compendium of and Lectures on the
+  History of Christian Dogmas</i> (1847, 1865). To the department of New
+  Testament criticism and the early history of Christianity belong the
+  so-called <i>Pastoral Epistles of the Apostle Paul</i> (1835); <i>Paul
+  the Apostle of Jesus Christ</i> (1845); <i>Critical Inquiries Concerning
+  the Canonic Gospels</i> (1847); <i>A History of Christian Doctrine to the
+  End of the Eighteenth Century</i> (1853-63). Baur's views in regard to
+  the Church of the earliest times and the New Testament Scriptures have
+  been very influential. He saw different and opposing tendencies at work
+  in the Church of apostolic times, and believed that the New Testament
+  mainly took form in the second century, the only genuine writings
+  previous to <span class="scac">A.D.</span> 70 being the four great
+  Pauline epistles and <i>Revelation</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bautzen</b> (bout´sen), or <b>Budissin</b>, a German town in
+  Saxony, upon a height on the right bank of the Spree, with some old and
+  interesting buildings. The inhabitants are mostly Lutheran, and both
+  Catholics and Protestants worship in the same cathedral. Chief
+  manufactures: woollen goods, paper, gunpowder, machines. Napoleon
+  defeated the united armies of the Russians and the Prussians at Bautzen
+  on the 21st May, 1813. Pop. 32,754.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bauxite</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#xA8;</span></span>k´s&#x12B;t), a rock resembling clay, but
+  consisting of hydrated aluminium oxides, with, in good examples, a silica
+  content of less than 2 per cent. Bauxite is mined at Les Baux in
+  Provence, in Arkansas, and other places, including County Antrim, where
+  it occurs between basaltic lavas. It is the source of commercial
+  aluminium, and is also used for bricks for high-temperature furnaces, and
+  in alum manufacture. Like laterite (q.v.), it results from tropical
+  conditions of weathering acting on a variety of silicate rocks.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bava´ria</b> (Ger. <i>Bayern</i>; Fr. <i>Bavière</i>), previous to
+  the changes caused by the European War (1914-8), a kingdom in the south
+  of Germany, the second largest State of the <i>Reich</i>, composed of two
+  isolated portions, the larger comprising about eleven-twelfths of the
+  monarchy, having Würtemberg, Baden, &amp;c., on the west, while the
+  smaller portion, the Pfalz or <!-- Page 429 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page429"></a>[429]</span>Palatinate, is separated from the other by
+  Würtemberg and Baden, and lies west of the Rhine; total area, 30,346 sq.
+  miles. The main political divisions are: Upper Bavaria (pop. 1,532,065;
+  chief town, Munich, the capital of the country, pop. 596,467); Lower
+  Bavaria (724,331); Palatinate (937,085); Upper Palatinate and Regensburg
+  (600,284); Upper Franconia (661,862); Middle Franconia (930,868); Lower
+  Franconia and Aschaffenburg (710,943); Sehwaben and Neuburg (789,853);
+  total in (1919), 7,150,146. Next towns after Munich are Nürnberg,
+  Augsburg, Würzburg, and Ratisbon (Regensburg). The main portion of the
+  country is hilly; in the south, where it belongs to the Alps, it is
+  mountainous; but north of the Alps and south of the Danube, which flows
+  east through the country from Ulm to Passau, there is a considerable
+  plateau, averaging about 1600 feet above the sea-level. The south
+  frontier is formed by a branch of the Noric Alps, offsets from which
+  project far into the plateau; principal peaks: the Zugspitze, 10,394
+  feet, and the Watzmann, 9470 feet. The highest summits on the Bohemian
+  (Austrian) frontier, belonging to the Böhmerwald Mountains, are the
+  Rachel, 5102 feet, and the Arber, 5185 feet. Ranges of less elevation
+  bordering on or belonging to the country are the Fichtelgebirge in the
+  north-east, the Frankenwald, Rhöngebirge, and Spessart in the north, and
+  the Steigerwald and Franconian Jura in the middle. The Palatinate is
+  traversed by the north extremity of the Vosges Mountains, the highest
+  peak being the Konigstuhl, 2162 feet. The greater part of the country
+  belongs to the basin of the Danube, which is navigable, its tributaries
+  on the south being the Iller, Lech, Isar, and Inn; on the north, the
+  Wornitz, Altmühl, Nab, and Regen. The northern portion belongs to the
+  basin of the Main, which receives the Regnitz and Saale, and is a
+  tributary of the Rhine. The Palatinate has only small streams that flow
+  into its boundary river the Rhine. The chief lakes of Bavaria are all on
+  the higher part of the south plateau; the smaller within the range of the
+  Alps. The Ammer-See is about 10 miles long by 2½ broad, 1736 feet above
+  the sea; the Würm-See or Starnberger-See, about 12 miles long by 3 broad,
+  1899 feet; and Chiem-See, 9 miles long by 9 to 4 broad, 1651 feet. The
+  climate in general is temperate and healthy, though somewhat colder than
+  the other South German States; yearly average about 47° F.</p>
+
+  <p>As regards soil, Bavaria is one of the most fertile countries in
+  Germany, producing the various cereals in abundance, the best hops in
+  Germany, fruit, wine, tobacco, &amp;c., and having extensive forests.
+  Lower Franconia (the Main valley) and the Palatinate are the great
+  vine-growing districts. The celebrated Steinwein and Leistenwein are the
+  produce of the slopes of the Steinberg and Marienberg at Würzburg (on the
+  Main). The forests of Bavaria, chiefly fir and pine, yield a large
+  revenue, much timber being annually exported, together with potash, tar,
+  turpentine, &amp;c. The principal mineral products are salt, coal, and
+  iron, some of the mining works belonging to the State. The minerals
+  worked include copper, quicksilver, manganese, cobalt, porcelain clay,
+  alabaster, graphite. Large numbers of horses and cattle are reared, as
+  also sheep and swine. The return of cattle in 1917 showed 272,667 horses,
+  3,896,702 cattle, and 616,464 sheep. The manufactures are individually
+  mostly on a small scale. The principal articles manufactured are linens,
+  woollens, cottons, leather, paper, glass, earthen and iron ware,
+  jewellery, &amp;c. The optical and mathematical instruments made are
+  excellent. A most important branch of industry is the brewing of beer,
+  for which there are upwards of 7000 establishments, producing over 300
+  millions of gallons a year. The distilleries produce over 4 millions of
+  gallons of alcohol. A number of the people maintain themselves by the
+  manufacture of articles in wood, and by felling and hewing timber. The
+  trade of Bavaria in home produce exported and goods imported for
+  consumption in the country is not large. Principal exports: corn, timber,
+  wine, cattle, glass, hops, fruit, beer, wooden wares, &amp;c. The chief
+  imports are sugar, coffee, cotton, rice, spices, dye-stuffs, silk and
+  silk goods, lead, &amp;c. From its position Bavaria has a considerable
+  transit trade. The Konig Ludwig Canal connects the Main at Bamberg with
+  the Altmühl a short distance above its embouchure in the Danube, thus
+  establishing water communication between the North Sea and the Black Sea.
+  The railway system has a total mileage of 5290, mostly belonging to the
+  State.</p>
+
+  <p>Education is in a less satisfactory condition than in most German
+  States. There are about 7500 elementary schools, at which attendance is
+  compulsory up to fourteen years of age. There are three universities, two
+  of which (Munich and Würzburg) are Roman Catholic, and one (Erlangen)
+  Protestant. In art Bavaria is best known as the home of the Nürnberg
+  school, founded about the middle of the sixteenth century by Albert
+  Dürer. Hans Holbein is also claimed as a Bavarian; and to these have to
+  be added the eminent sculptors Kraft and Vischer, both born about the
+  middle of the fifteenth century. The restoration of the reputation of
+  Bavaria in art was chiefly the work of Ludwig I, under whom the capital
+  became one of the most prominent seats of the fine arts in Europe. The
+  religion of the State is Roman Catholicism, over <!-- Page 430 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page430"></a>[430]</span>70 per cent of the
+  population being Roman Catholics. All citizens, whatever their creed,
+  possess the same civil and political rights. The dioceses of Bavaria
+  comprise two Roman Catholic archbishopries, Munich and Bamberg; and six
+  bishopries, Augsburg, Ratisbon, Eichstädt, Passau, Würzburg, and
+  Spires.</p>
+
+  <p>For over a century Bavaria was a kingdom, and the crown hereditary in
+  the male line of the descendants of the ancient Counts of Wittelsbach.
+  The executive power was vested in the king, but his ministers were
+  responsible for his acts. The legislature consisted of two
+  chambers&mdash;one of senators, composed of princes of the royal family,
+  the great officers of the State, the two archbishops, the heads of
+  certain noble families, and certain members appointed by the Crown; the
+  other of deputies, 163 in number, elected by direct and secret vote, and
+  calculated at the rate of 1 for every 38,000 inhabitants. The lower
+  chamber was elected for six years. The Budget for each of the years 1916
+  and 1917 balanced at £12,183,411; for 1918 and 1919 at £42,639,595; the
+  public debt on 1st July, 1917, was £128,719,000, £98,179,000 being
+  railway debt. The army (peace footing, 72,000) was raised by
+  conscription&mdash;every man being liable to serve from the 1st of
+  January of the year in which he completes his twentieth year. In time of
+  peace the army was under the command of the King of Bavaria, but in time
+  of war under that of the Emperor of Germany, as commander-in-chief of the
+  whole German army.</p>
+
+  <p>As a result of the revolutionary movement in Nov., 1918, the Bavarian
+  dynasty was deposed and a republican form of government set up. The
+  provisional constitution, made public on 7th Jan., 1919, established a
+  Socialist Republic in Bavaria. The supreme power lies with the people;
+  the Diet consists of one chamber; the suffrage is universal; the
+  privileges of birth and caste are abolished. The supreme executive power
+  is exercised by the ministry as a whole. The Church is separated from the
+  State, and all religious associations have equal rights.</p>
+
+  <p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The Bavarians take their name from the Boii, a
+  Celtic tribe whose territory was occupied by a confederation of Germanic
+  tribes, called after their predecessors Boiarii. These were made
+  tributary first to the Ostrogoths, and then to the Franks; and on the
+  death of Charlemagne his successors governed the country by lieutenants
+  with the title of margrave, afterwards converted (in 921) into that of
+  duke. In 1070 Bavaria passed to the family of the Guelphs, and in 1180 by
+  imperial grant to Otho, Count of Wittelsbach, founder of the dynasty
+  reigning until 1918. In 1623 the reigning duke was made one of the
+  Electors of the empire. Elector Maximilian II joined in the War of the
+  Spanish Succession on the side of France, and this led, after the battle
+  of Blenheim, 1704, to the loss of his dominions for the next ten years.
+  His son, Charles Albert, likewise lost his dominions for a time to
+  Austria, but they were all recovered again by Charles's son, Maximilian
+  III (1745). In the wars following the French revolution Bavaria was in a
+  difficult position between France and Austria, but in the end joined
+  Napoleon, from whom its Elector Maximilian IV received the title of king
+  (1805), a title afterwards confirmed by the treaties of 1814 and 1815.
+  King Maximilian I was succeeded by his son, Ludwig (or Louis) I, under
+  whom various circumstances helped to quicken a desire for political
+  change. Reform being refused, tumults arose in 1848, and Ludwig resigned
+  in favour of his son, Maximilian II, under whom certain modifications of
+  the constitution were carried out. At his death in 1864 he was succeeded
+  by Ludwig II. In the war of 1866 Bavaria sided with Austria, and was
+  compelled to cede a small portion of its territory to Prussia, and to pay
+  a war indemnity of £2,500,000. Soon after Bavaria entered into an
+  alliance with Prussia, and in 1867 joined the Zollverein. In the
+  Franco-German War of 1870-1 the Bavarians took a prominent part, and it
+  was at the request of the King of Bavaria, on behalf of all the other
+  princes and the senates of the free cities of Germany, that the King of
+  Prussia agreed to accept the title of Emperor of Germany. From Jan.,
+  1871, to 1918 Bavaria formed part of the German Empire, and was
+  represented in the Bundesrath by six, and in the Reichstag by forty-eight
+  members. The eccentricity early displayed by Ludwig II developed to such
+  an extent that in June, 1886, he was placed under control, and a regency
+  established under Prince Luitpold (Leopold). The change was almost
+  immediately followed by the suicide of the king, and as Prince Otto, the
+  brother and heir of the late king, was insane, the regency was continued.
+  Prince Luitpold died on 12th Dec., 1912, and his son, Ludwig, became
+  regent. On 5th Nov., 1913, the prince was proclaimed king, under the name
+  of Ludwig III, in succession to his cousin, King Otto, who was declared
+  incapable of ruling. King Otto died on 12th Oct., 1916. Ludwig III
+  abdicated in Nov., 1918, and the Bavarian Government was taken over by a
+  cabinet under the leadership of Kurt Eisner. Eisner was assassinated in
+  Feb., 1919, and a struggle ensued between the moderate Socialists and the
+  extremists of the Left. The moderate party, however, returned to power in
+  May, 1919.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: S. Riezler,
+  <i>Geschichte Bayerns</i> (4 vols.); R. Piloty, <i>Die
+  Verfassungsgeschichte des Königreichs Bayern</i>; Götz,
+  <i>Geographisch-historisches Handbuch von Bayern</i>; <!-- Page 431
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page431"></a>[431]</span>M. Docberl,
+  <i>Entwickelungsgeschichte Bayerns</i>; C.&nbsp;P. Higby, <i>Religious Policy
+  of the Bavarian Government during the Napoleonic Period</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baxter</b>, Richard, the most eminent of the English nonconforming
+  divines of the seventeenth century, born in Rowton, Shropshire, 1615;
+  ordained in 1638; parish minister of Kidderminster in 1640. The
+  imposition of the oath of universal approbation of the doctrine and
+  discipline of the Church of England (the <i>et cætera oath</i>) detached
+  him from the Establishment. After the battle of Naseby he accepted the
+  chaplaincy of Colonel Whalley's regiment. He can scarcely be said,
+  however, to have separated as yet in spirit from the Establishment. He
+  upheld the monarchy, condemned the execution of the king and the election
+  of Cromwell, preached against the Covenant and against separatists and
+  sectaries, but his piety won him the respect of all parties. At the
+  Restoration he became king's chaplain, but declined the bishopric of
+  Hereford, and on the passage of the Act of Uniformity threw in his lot
+  entirely with the nonconformists. In 1685 he was arrested, refused a
+  hearing by Jeffreys, and imprisoned. After his release he lived in
+  retirement till his death in 1691. He left about 150 treatises, of which
+  his <i>Saints' Everlasting Rest</i>, <i>Call to the Unconverted</i>, and
+  <i>Reformed Pastor</i> have been the most popular.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: William Orme, <i>Life and Times of
+  Richard Baxter</i>; J. Stalker, <i>Lecture on Baxter</i> in <i>The
+  Evangelical Succession</i>; M&lsquo;Adam Muir, <i>Religious Writers of
+  England</i>; Currier, <i>Nine Great Preachers</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baxterians</b>, followers of Baxter in respect of his attempted
+  compromise between Calvinism and Arminianism. They reject the doctrine of
+  reprobation, admit a universal potential salvation, becoming actual in
+  the case of the elect, and assert the possibility of falling from grace.
+  The Baxterians never formed a sect or even a school, but were men of
+  independent minds, distinguishing between essentials and non-essentials:
+  in things necessary, unity; in things doubtful, liberty; in all things,
+  charity. The two most eminent Baxterians were Dr. Isaac Watts and Dr.
+  Philip Doddridge.&mdash;Cf. M&lsquo;Adam Muir, <i>Religious Writers of
+  England</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bay</b>, the laurel tree, noble laurel, or sweet-bay (<i>Laurus
+  nob&#x12D;lis</i>); but the term is loosely given to many trees and
+  shrubs resembling this. A fatty or fixed oil (used in veterinary
+  medicine) and also a volatile oil are obtained from the berries, but what
+  is called 'bayberry oil' is also obtained from the genus Myrica or
+  candleberry. In N. America the fragrant-flowered <i>Magnolia glauca</i>
+  is called sweet-bay, the red-bay being <i>Laurus carolinensis</i>, the
+  loblolly-bay <i>Gordonia lasianthus</i>. See <i>Laurel</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bay</b>, in geography, an indentation of some size into the shore
+  of a sea or lake, generally said to be one with a wider entrance than a
+  gulf.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bay</b>, in architecture, a term applied to a recessed division or
+  compartment of a building, as that marked off by buttresses or
+  pillars.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:40%;">
+      <a href="images/image167.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image167.jpg"
+      alt="Nests of Baya" title="Nests of Baya" /></a>
+    Nests of Baya (<i>Ploceus philipp&#x12B;nus</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Ba´ya</b>, the weaver-bird (<i>Ploc&#x115;us
+  philipp&#x12B;nus</i>), an interesting East Indian passerine bird,
+  somewhat like the bullfinch. Its nest resembles a bottle, and is
+  suspended from the branch of a tree. The entrance is from beneath, and
+  there are two chambers, one for the male, the other for the female. The
+  baya is easily tamed, and will fetch and carry at command.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bayaderes</b> (b&#x101;-a-d&#x113;rz´), the general European name
+  for the dancing and singing girls of India, some of whom are attached to
+  the service of the Hindu temples, while others travel about and dance at
+  entertainments for hire. Those in the service of the temples are
+  generally devoted to this profession (including that of prostitution)
+  from their childhood.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bayamo</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-yä´m&#x14D;), or <b>St. Salvador</b>, a
+  town in the east of Cuba, near the Cauto. Pop. 18,180.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bayard</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-yär), Pierre du Terrail, Seigneur de,
+  the <i>Chevalier sans peur et sans reproche</i>, born in 1476 in Castle
+  Bayard, near Grenoble, in Southern France. At the age of eighteen he
+  accompanied Charles VIII to Italy, and in the battle of Fornovo took a
+  standard. At the beginning of the reign of Louis XII, in a battle near
+  Milan, he entered the city at the heels of the fugitives, and was taken
+  prisoner, but released by Ludovico Sforza without ransom. In Apulia he
+  killed his calumniator, Sotomayor, and afterwards defended a bridge over
+  the Garigliano singly against the Spaniards, <!-- Page 432 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page432"></a>[432]</span>receiving for this
+  exploit as a coat of arms a porcupine, with the motto <i>Vires agminis
+  unus habet</i> ('one has the strength of a band'). He distinguished
+  himself equally against the Genoese and the Venetians, and, when Julius
+  II declared himself against France, went to the assistance of the Duke of
+  Ferrara. He was severely wounded at the assault of Brescia, but returned,
+  as soon as cured, to the camp of Gaston de Foix, before Ravenna, and
+  after new exploits was again dangerously wounded in the retreat from
+  Pavia. In the war commenced by Ferdinand the Catholic he displayed the
+  same heroism, and the fatal reverses which embittered the last years of
+  Louis XII only added to the personal glory of Bayard. When Francis I
+  ascended the throne he sent Bayard into Dauphiné to open a passage over
+  the Alps and through Piedmont. Prosper Colonna lay in wait for him, but
+  was made prisoner by Bayard, who immediately after further distinguished
+  himself in the battle of Marignano. After his defence of Mézières against
+  the invading army of Charles V he was saluted in Paris as the saviour of
+  his country, receiving the honour paid to a prince of the blood. His
+  presence reduced the revolted Genoese to obedience, but failed to prevent
+  the expulsion of the French after the capture of Lodi. In the retreat the
+  safety of the army was committed to Bayard, who, however, was mortally
+  wounded by a stone from a blunderbuss in protecting the passage of the
+  Sesia. He kissed the cross of his sword, confessed to his squire, and
+  died, 30th April, 1524. He was buried in a church of the Minorites, at
+  Grenoble.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: "Le Loyal
+  Serviteur" (supposed to be Jacques de Mailles), <i>La très joyeuse ...
+  histoire ... des faiz, gestes, triumphes et prouesses du bon chevalier
+  sans paour et sans reproche, le gentil seigneur de Bayart</i> (printed in
+  1527); modern edition of this work by M.&nbsp;J. Roman; A. de Terrebasse,
+  <i>Histoire de Pierre Terrail, Seigneur de Bayart</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bayazid´</b>, a ruined town in Armenia, 140 miles <span
+  class="scac">S.E.</span> of Erzerum, S.W. of Mount Ararat, at various
+  times the scene of warlike operations, and twice occupied by the Russians
+  in 1877. Total pop. 4000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bayazid.</b> See <i>Bajazet</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bayberry.</b> See <i>Bay</i> (tree) and <i>Candleberry</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bay City</b>, an American city, Michigan, on the east side of
+  Saginaw River, near its mouth in Saginaw Bay, Lake Huron. Chief articles
+  of trade, lumber and salt. Pop. (1920), 47,554.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bayeux</b>, (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-y<i>eu</i>) an ancient town, France,
+  department Calvados, 16 miles <span class="scac">N.W.</span> of Caen,
+  with manufactures of lace, calico, and porcelain. In its cathedral, said
+  to be the oldest in Normandy, the famous Bayeux tapestry was preserved
+  for a long time. Pop. 7638.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:84%;">
+      <a href="images/image168.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image168.jpg"
+      alt="Bayeux Tapestry" title="Bayeux Tapestry" /></a>
+    A section of the Bayeux Tapestry showing the Norman cavalry attacking
+    the English footmen at the Battle of Hastings
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Bayeux Tapestry</b>, so called because it was originally found in
+  the cathedral of Bayeux, in the public library of which town it is still
+  preserved. Formerly known as the 'Toile de St. Jean', it is supposed to
+  have been worked by Matilda, Queen of William the Conqueror, and to have
+  been presented by Odo, Bishop of <!-- Page 433 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page433"></a>[433]</span>Bayeux, the
+  half-brother of William, to the church in which it was found. It is 231
+  feet in length and 20 inches in breadth, and is divided into seventy-two
+  compartments, the subject of each scene being indicated by a Latin
+  inscription. These scenes give a pictorial history of the invasion and
+  conquest of England by the Normans, beginning with Harold's visit to the
+  Norman Court, and ending with his death at Hastings.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Bolton Corney, <i>Researches and
+  Conjectures on the Bayeux Tapestry</i>; Jules Comte, <i>Tapisserie de
+  Bayeux</i>; F.&nbsp;R. Fowke, <i>The Bayeux Tapestry</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bay Islands</b>, an island group, Bay of Honduras, off <span
+  class="scac">N.</span> coast of State of Honduras, incorporated as a
+  British colony in 1852, and ceded to Honduras in 1856. The largest is
+  Ruatan, 30 miles long. Pop. about 5000.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bayle</b> (b&#x101;l), Pierre, French critic and miscellaneous
+  writer, the son of a Calvinist preacher, born at Carlat (Languedoc) in
+  1647, died at Rotterdam 1706. A statue in his honour was erected at
+  Pamiers in 1906. He studied at Toulouse, and was employed for some time
+  as a private tutor at Geneva and Rouen. He went to Paris in 1674, and
+  soon after was appointed professor of philosophy at Sedan. Six years
+  after he removed to Rotterdam, where he filled a similar chair. The
+  appearance of a comet, in 1680, which occasioned an almost universal
+  alarm, induced him to publish, in 1682, his <i>Pensées Diverses sur la
+  Comète</i>, a work full of learning, in which he discussed various
+  subjects of metaphysics, morals, theology, history, and politics. It was
+  followed by his <i>Critique Générale de l'Histoire du Calvinisme de
+  Maimbourg</i>. This work excited the jealousy of his colleague, the
+  theologian Jurieu, and involved Bayle in many disputes. In 1684 he
+  undertook a periodical work, <i>Nouvelles de la République des
+  Lettres</i>, containing notices of new books in theology, philosophy,
+  history, and general literature. This publication, which lasted for three
+  years, added much to his reputation as a philosophical critic. In 1693
+  Jurieu succeeded in inducing the magistrates of Rotterdam to remove Bayle
+  from his office. He now devoted all his attention to the composition of
+  his <i>Dictionnaire Historique et Critique</i>, which he first published
+  in 1696, in 2 vols. fol. It is a vast storehouse of facts, discussions,
+  and opinions, and though it was publicly censured by the Rotterdam
+  consistory for its frequent impurities, its pervading scepticism, and
+  tacit atheism, it long remained a favourite book both with literary men
+  and with men of the world. The articles in his dictionary, in themselves,
+  are generally of little value, and serve only as a pretext for the notes,
+  in which the author displays, at the same time, his learning and the
+  power of his logic. The best editions are that of 1740, in 4 vols. fol.
+  (Amsterdam and Leyden), and that in 16 vols., published in 1820-4 at
+  Paris.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: L.&nbsp;A. Feuerbach,
+  <i>Pierre Bayle</i>; F. Brunetière, <i>Études Critiques</i> (5th series);
+  A. Cazes, <i>Pierre Bayle, sa vie, ses idées, son influence, son
+  &oelig;uvre</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bay-leaf</b>, the leaf of the sweet-bay or laurel tree (<i>Laurus
+  nobilis</i>). These leaves are aromatic, and are used in cookery and
+  confectionery. See <i>Bay</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baylen</b> (b&#x12B;-len´). Same as <i>Bailen</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bayly</b> (b&#x101;´li), Thomas Haynes, English poet, novelist,
+  dramatist, and miscellaneous writer, born 1797, died 1839. He was
+  educated at Oxford, and intended for the Church. He wrote thirty-six
+  pieces for the stage, most of which were successful; several novels:
+  <i>The Aylmers</i>, <i>A Legend of Killarney</i>, &amp;c.; and numerous
+  songs. As a song-writer he was most prolific and most popular. <i>The
+  Soldier's Tear</i>, <i>We met&mdash;'twas in a Crowd</i>, were the best
+  known.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bay Mahogany</b>, that variety of mahogany exported from Honduras.
+  It is softer and less finely marked than the variety known as Spanish
+  mahogany, but is the largest and most abundant kind.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baynes</b> (b&#x101;nz), Thomas Spencer, <span
+  class="scac">LL.D.</span>, born at Wellington, Somerset, in 1823, died
+  suddenly in London, 1887. He studied under Sir William Hamilton at
+  Edinburgh, and acted as his class assistant from 1851 to 1855. From 1857
+  to 1863 he was resident in London, where he acted as examiner in logic
+  and mental philosophy in the University of London, and as assistant
+  editor of the <i>Daily News</i>. In 1864 he was appointed to the chair of
+  logic, rhetoric, and metaphysics in St. Andrews University, a post he
+  held till his death. In 1873, when he became editor of the ninth edition
+  of the <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, his wide acquaintance with men of
+  letters and learning assisted him greatly in the selection of suitable
+  contributors. He translated the <i>Port Royal Logic</i> (see
+  <i>Arnauld</i>), and was a frequent contributor to the principal reviews
+  and literary journals.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bay of Islands</b>, a large, deep, and safe harbour on the <span
+  class="scac">N.E.</span> coast of the N. Island of New Zealand. On it is
+  Kororarika, the first European settlement in New Zealand.&mdash;Also a
+  large bay formed by the Gulf of St. Lawrence, on the west coast of
+  Newfoundland. See <i>New Zealand</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bay´onet</b> (Fr. <i>baïonnette</i>), a straight, sharp-pointed
+  weapon, invented by a Frenchman (probably a native of Bayonne) in the
+  seventeenth century. A bayonet was originally screwed into the muzzle of
+  the firelock, converting it into a short pike. This system, which
+  practically precluded any further use of the firelock as such, was later
+  improved by a Scotchman, who fitted the weapon with a socket and bolt,
+  enabling it to <!-- Page 434 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page434"></a>[434]</span>be placed over the muzzle of the musket
+  instead of being screwed into it. The firelock could then be used for
+  both missile and shock action, according to requirements. The bayonet
+  replaced the pike in the English army after the revolution of 1690. The
+  length, shape, and weight of the bayonet have varied considerably at
+  different periods and in different countries; that at present in use in
+  the British army is a short sword-shaped weapon, 1 foot 6 inches long and
+  weighing about 1 pound. In war it is considered that an attack with the
+  bayonet or the immediate threat of one is a necessary preliminary to a
+  successful assault.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bayonne</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-yon), a well-built fortified town, the
+  largest in the French department Basses-Pyrénées, at the confluence of
+  the Nive and the Adour, about 2 miles from their mouth in the Bay of
+  Biscay; with a citadel commanding the harbour and city, a
+  cathedral&mdash;a beautiful ancient building&mdash;shipbuilding and other
+  industries, and a considerable trade. Among the lower class the Basque
+  language is spoken. Catherine de' Medici had an important interview with
+  the Duke of Alva in Bayonne, June, 1565, at which it is said the massacre
+  of St. Bartholomew was arranged. It was also the scene of the abdication
+  of Charles IV of Spain in favour of Napoleon (1808). In 1814 the British
+  forced the passage of the Nive and invested the town, from which the
+  French made a desperate but unsuccessful sortie. Pop. 27,886.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bayonne City</b>, a suburb of New York, in Hudson County, New
+  Jersey. Pop. 76,754.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bayou</b> (b&#x101;-yö´), in the southern States of North America,
+  a stream which flows from a lake or other stream: frequently used as
+  synonymous with creek or tidal channel.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bayreuth</b> (b&#x12B;´roit). See <i>Baireuth</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bay Rum</b>, a spirit obtained by distilling the leaves of
+  <i>Myrica acris</i>, or other West Indian trees of the same genus. It is
+  used for toilet purposes, and as a liniment in rheumatic affections.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bay-salt</b>, a general term for coarse-grained salt, but properly
+  applied to salt obtained by spontaneous or natural evaporation of
+  sea-water in large shallow tanks or <i>bays</i>.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:42%;">
+      <a href="images/image169.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image169.jpg"
+      alt="Bay-window" title="Bay-window" /></a>
+    Bay-window at Bramhall Hall, Cheshire
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Bay-window</b>, a window forming a recess or bay in a room,
+  projecting outwards, and rising from the ground or basement on a plan
+  rectangular, semi-octagonal, or semi-hexagonal, but always
+  straight-sided. One of the finest examples of bay-windows is that of the
+  banqueting-hall at Hampton Court. The term is, however, also often
+  employed to designate a <i>bow-window</i>, which more properly forms the
+  segment of a circle, and an <i>oriel-window</i>, which is supported on a
+  kind of bracket, and is usually on the first floor.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Baza</b> (bä´tha<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), an old town of Spain, Andalusia,
+  province of Granada, formerly a large and flourishing city. In 1810 the
+  French, under Marshal Soult, here defeated the Spaniards under Generals
+  Blake and Freire. Pop. 15,964.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bazaar.</b> See <i>Bazar</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bazaine</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-z&#x101;n), François Achille, French
+  general, born 1811, died 1888. He entered the army as a private soldier
+  in 1831, and served in Algeria with distinction, gaining the cross of the
+  Legion of Honour, and rising to the rank of lieutenant. He next went to
+  Spain and fought in the Foreign Legion against the Carlists; and in 1839
+  returned to Algeria, where he eventually held the rank of colonel (1850).
+  He was next engaged in the Crimean War, being at first commander of a
+  brigade and then general of division, leading the French troops sent to
+  attack the fortress of Kinburn (1855). He did good service also in the
+  Italian war of 1859, being actively engaged in the battle of Solferino.
+  His military reputation was increased by the part he took in the Mexican
+  expedition (1862-4), in which he led the first division under Forey, and
+  when this general was recalled became commander-in-chief of the French
+  forces in Mexico and marshal of France. His loyalty, however, to the
+  cause of the Emperor Maximilian was very doubtful. In 1870 he took
+  command of the <!-- Page 435 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page435"></a>[435]</span>army of the Rhine, or the third army
+  corps, in the Franco-German War, collected a very large army in the
+  neighbourhood of Metz, and had the intention of joining his forces with
+  those of MacMahon at Châlons. He found this impossible, however,
+  especially after Gravelotte, and was forced into Metz, where he
+  capitulated after a seven weeks' siege, with an army of 175,000 men. For
+  this act he was tried by court-martial in 1871, found guilty of treason,
+  and condemned to death. The sentence was commuted to twenty years'
+  seclusion in the Isle of St. Marguerite, from which he escaped in 1874,
+  and retired to Spain. He published <i>Épisodes de la Guerre de
+  1870</i>.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: La Brugère,
+  <i>L'Affaire Bazaine</i>; Comte d'Herisson, <i>La Légende de
+  Metz</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bazar´</b>, or <b>Bazaar´</b>, in the East an exchange,
+  market-place, or place where goods are exposed for sale, usually
+  consisting of small shops or stalls in a narrow street or series of
+  streets. These bazar-streets are frequently shaded by a light material
+  laid from roof to roof, and sometimes are arched over. Marts for the sale
+  of miscellaneous articles, chiefly fancy goods, are now to be found in
+  most European cities, bearing the name of <i>bazars</i>. The term bazar
+  is popularly applied to a sale of miscellaneous articles, mostly of fancy
+  work, and contributed gratuitously, in furtherance of some charitable or
+  other purpose.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bazar´jik</b>, now officially called Dobritsh (q.v.).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bazigars´</b>, a tribe of Indians dispersed throughout the whole of
+  Hindustan mostly in wandering tribes. They are divided into seven castes;
+  their chief occupation is that of jugglers, acrobats, and tumblers, in
+  which both males and females are equally skilful. They present many
+  features analogous to the gipsies of Europe, and like these each clan has
+  its king.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bazin</b>, René, French novelist, born 1853. For some time he was
+  professor of law in the Catholic University of Angers. His literary
+  reputation was established by <i>Une Tache d'Encre</i>. His other novels
+  include <i>La Terre qui meurt</i>, <i>De Toute son Âme</i>, <i>Les
+  Oberlé</i>, <i>Les Noellet</i>, <i>Davidée Birot</i>, all of which have
+  been translated into English by Dr. A.&nbsp;S. Rappoport. He has also written
+  <i>Questions littéraires et sociales</i>, &amp;c. Bazin was elected a
+  member of the Académie Française in 1903.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bazoche</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-zosh´), or <b>Basoche</b> (a corruption
+  of <i>Basilica</i>), a brotherhood formed by the clerks of the Parliament
+  of Paris at the time it ceased to be the grand council of the French
+  king. They had a king, chancellor, and other dignitaries; and certain
+  privileges were granted them by Philip the Fair early in the fourteenth
+  century, as also by subsequent monarchs. They had an annual festival,
+  having as a principal feature dramatic performances in which satirical
+  allusions were freely made to passing events. These farces or satires
+  were frequently interdicted, but they had a considerable influence on the
+  French drama. The Bazoche took an active part in the French Revolution,
+  but the order was suppressed by the decree of 13th Feb., 1791.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bazzi</b> (ba<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>t´s&#x113;). See <i>Sodoma</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bdellium</b> (del´i-um), an aromatic gum resin brought chiefly from
+  Africa and India, in pieces of different sizes and figures, externally of
+  a dark reddish brown, internally clear, and not unlike glue. To the taste
+  it is slightly bitterish and pungent; its odour is agreeable. It is used
+  as a perfume and a medicine, being a weak deobstruent. Indian bdellium is
+  the produce of <i>Balsamodendron Roxburghii</i>; African of <i>B.
+  africanum</i>; Egyptian bdellium is obtained from the doum palm; and
+  Sicilian is produced by <i>Daucus gummifer</i>, a species of the genus to
+  which the carrot belongs. The bdellium mentioned in <i>Gen.</i> ii, 12,
+  was apparently a precious stone, perhaps a pearl. See <i>Myrrh</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beaches, Raised</b>, a term applied to those long, terraced, level
+  pieces of land, consisting of sand and gravel, and containing marine
+  shells, now, it may be, a considerable distance above and away from the
+  sea, but bearing sufficient evidences of having been at one time
+  sea-beaches. In Scotland such a terrace has been traced extensively along
+  the coasts at about 25 feet above the present sea-level.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beachy Head</b>, a promontory in the south of England, on the coast
+  of Sussex, rising 575 feet above sea-level, with a revolving light,
+  visible in clear weather from a distance of 28 miles. A naval battle took
+  place here, 30th June, 1690, in which a French fleet under Tourville
+  defeated an English and Dutch combined fleet under Lord Torrington.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beacon</b> (b&#x113;´kon), an object visible at some distance, and
+  serving to notify the presence of danger; commonly applied to a
+  fire-signal set on a height to spread the news of hostile invasion or
+  other great event; and also applied to a mark or object of some kind
+  placed conspicuously on a coast or over a rock or shoal at sea for the
+  guidance of vessels, often an iron structure of considerable height.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beaconsfield</b> (b&#x113;´konz-f&#x113;ld), a village of
+  Buckinghamshire, the parish church of which contains the remains of
+  Edmund Burke, whose seat was in the neighbourhood; while a marble
+  monument to the poet Waller, who owned the manor, is in the churchyard.
+  It gave the title of earl to the English statesman and novelist Benjamin
+  Disraeli. Pop. (1921), 3642.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beaconsfield</b>, formerly known as Du Toit's Pan, a town of Cape
+  Province about a mile to the east of Kimberley, of which it forms a
+  suburb. Pop. 20,364. <!-- Page 436 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page436"></a>[436]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Beaconsfield</b>, Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of, an eminent English
+  statesman and novelist, of Jewish extraction; eldest son of Isaac
+  D'Israeli, author of the <i>Curiosities of Literature</i>; born in London
+  in 1804, died there in 1881, buried at Hughenden. He attended for a time
+  a private school, and was first destined for the law, but showing a
+  decided taste for literature he was allowed to follow his inclination. In
+  1826 he published <i>Vivian Grey</i>, his first novel; and subsequently
+  travelled for some time, visiting Italy, Greece, Turkey, and Syria, and
+  gaining experiences which were afterwards reproduced in his books. His
+  travels and impressions are embodied in a volume of letters addressed to
+  his sister and his father. In 1831 another novel, <i>The Young Duke</i>,
+  came from his pen. It was followed at short intervals by <i>Contarini
+  Fleming</i>, <i>Alroy</i>, <i>Henrietta Temple</i>, <i>Venetia</i>,
+  <i>The Revolutionary Epic</i> (a poem), &amp;c. In 1832, and on two
+  subsequent occasions, he appeared as candidate for the representation of
+  High Wycombe, with a programme which included vote by ballot and
+  triennial parliaments, but was unsuccessful. His political opinions
+  gradually changed: in 1835 he unsuccessfully contested Taunton as a Tory.
+  In 1837 he gained an entrance to the House of Commons, being elected for
+  Maidstone. His first speech in the House was treated with ridicule; but
+  he finished with the prophetic declaration that the time would come when
+  they would hear him. During his first years in Parliament he was a
+  supporter of Peel; but when Peel pledged himself to abolish the
+  corn-laws, Disraeli became the leader of the protectionists. About this
+  time he became a leader of what was known as the 'Young England' party,
+  the most prominent characteristic of which was a sort of sentimental
+  advocacy of feudalism. This spirit showed itself in his two novels of
+  <i>Coningsby</i> and <i>Sybil</i>, published respectively in 1844 and
+  1845. Having acquired the manor of Hughenden, in Buckinghamshire, he was
+  in 1847 elected for this county, and he retained his seat till raised to
+  the peerage nearly thirty years later. His first appointment to office
+  was in 1852, when he became Chancellor of the Exchequer under Lord Derby.
+  The following year, however, the ministry was defeated. He remained out
+  of office till 1858, when he again became Chancellor of the Exchequer,
+  and brought in a Reform Bill which wrecked the Government. During the
+  time the Palmerston Government was in office Disraeli led the opposition
+  in the Lower House with conspicuous ability and courage. In 1866 the
+  Liberals resigned, and Derby and Disraeli came into power, the latter
+  being again Chancellor of the Exchequer. They immediately brought in, and
+  carried, after a violent and bitter struggle, a Reform Bill on the basis
+  of household suffrage. In 1868 he became Premier on the resignation of
+  Lord Derby, but his tenure of office was short. In 1874 he again became
+  Prime Minister with a strong Conservative majority, and he remained in
+  power for six years. This period was marked by his elevation to the
+  peerage in 1876 as Earl of Beaconsfield, and by the prominent part he
+  took in regard to the Eastern question and the conclusion of the Treaty
+  of Berlin in 1878. In 1880 Parliament was rather suddenly dissolved, and,
+  the new Parliament showing an overwhelming Liberal majority, he resigned
+  office, though he still retained the leadership of his party. Within a
+  few months of his death the publication of a novel called <i>Endymion</i>
+  (his last, <i>Lothair</i>, had been published ten years before) showed
+  that his intellect was still vigorous. Among others of his writings,
+  besides those already mentioned, are: <i>A Vindication of the English
+  Constitution</i> (1834); <i>Alarcos, a Tragedy</i> (1839); and <i>Lord
+  George Bentinck, a Political Biography</i> (1852).&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: <i>Selected Speeches of the Earl of
+  Beaconsfield</i> (edited by T.&nbsp;E. Kebbel); T. Martin, <i>Memorials of
+  Lord Beaconsfield</i>; the article <i>Disraeli</i>, by T.&nbsp;E. Kebbel, in
+  <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>; Sir William Fraser, <i>Disraeli
+  and his Day</i>; Sichel, <i>Disraeli</i>; the best work, however, is
+  W.&nbsp;F. Monypenny's <i>Life of Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield</i>
+  (continued by G.&nbsp;E. Buckle).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bead</b> (b&#x113;d), originally a prayer; then a small perforated
+  ball of gold, pearl, amber, glass, or the like, to be strung on a thread,
+  and used in a rosary by Roman Catholics in numbering their prayers, one
+  bead being passed at the end of each ejaculation or short prayer; finally
+  any such small ornamental body. The use of beads among pagans is of
+  greater antiquity than their Christian use, but there is no evidence to
+  show that the latter is derived from the former. Glass beads are now the
+  most common sort; they form a considerable item in the African
+  trade.&mdash;In architecture and joinery the bead is a small round
+  moulding. It is of frequent occurrence in architecture, particularly in
+  the classical styles, and is used in picture-frames and other objects
+  carved in wood.&mdash;<i>St. Cuthbert's Beads</i>, the popular name of
+  the detached and perforated joints of encrinites.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beadle</b> (b&#x113;´dl), an officer in a university, whose chief
+  business is to walk with a mace in a public procession: also, a parish
+  officer whose business is to punish petty offenders, and a church officer
+  (chiefly, although not exclusively, in Scotland) with various subordinate
+  duties, as waiting on the clergyman, keeping order in church, attending
+  meetings of vestry or session, &amp;c. The primary meaning of the word
+  (from O.E. <i>beodan</i>, to offer, announce) appears to be 'herald', one
+  who announces or proclaims something. <!-- Page 437 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page437"></a>[437]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Bead-snake</b> (<i>Elaps fulvus</i>), a beautiful snake of North
+  America, inhabiting cultivated grounds, especially plantations of the
+  sweet-potato, and burrowing in the ground. It is finely marked with
+  yellow, carmine, and black. Though it possesses poison-fangs it never
+  seems to use them.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beagle</b> (b&#x113;´gl), a small hound, resembling a foxhound or
+  harrier, and used to hunt rabbits and hares, being often kept in packs.
+  The beagle is smaller than the harrier, compactly built, smooth-haired,
+  and with pendulous ears. The smallest of them are little larger than the
+  lap-dog.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beale</b>, Lionel Smith, English physician and biologist, born in
+  1828, died in 1906. He was educated at King's College School and King's
+  College, London, and was a professor in the medical department of the
+  latter institution for forty-three years, finally holding the chair of
+  the principles and practice of medicine. His numerous published works
+  treat of medical, anatomical, physiological, and biological subjects; the
+  microscope; various questions of morality, &amp;c. They include <i>How to
+  Work with the Microscope</i>, <i>The Structure of the Tissues</i>,
+  <i>Protoplasm</i>, <i>Disease Germs</i>, <i>Life Theories and Religious
+  Thought</i>, <i>The Mystery of Life</i>, <i>Bioplasm</i>, <i>On Slight
+  Ailments</i>, <i>Religio Medici</i>, <i>Religio Scientiæ</i>, <i>Religio
+  Vitæ</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beam</b>, a long, straight, and strong piece of wood, iron, or
+  steel, especially when holding an important place in some structure, and
+  serving for support or consolidation; often equivalent to <i>girder</i>.
+  In a balance it is the part from the ends of which the scales are
+  suspended. In a loom it is a cylindrical piece of wood on which weavers
+  wind the warp before weaving; also, the cylinder on which the cloth is
+  rolled as it is woven. In a ship, one of the strong transverse pieces
+  stretching across from one side to the other to support the decks and
+  retain the sides at their proper distance: hence a ship is said to be 'on
+  her beam ends' when lying over on her side. For calculations relating to
+  beams, see Morley's <i>Strength of Materials</i> and <i>Theory of
+  Structures</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beam Tree</b> (<i>Pyrus aria</i>), a tree of the same genus as the
+  apple, mountain-ash, and service tree found throughout Britain, having
+  berries that are edible when quite mellow, and yielding a hard and
+  fine-grained wood.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bean</b>, a name given to several kinds of leguminous seeds and the
+  plants producing them, probably originally belonging to Asia. They belong
+  to several genera, particularly to Vicia, garden and field bean;
+  Phase&#x14F;lus, French or kidney bean; and Dolichos, tropical bean. The
+  common bean (<i>Vicia Faba</i>) is cultivated both in fields and gardens
+  as food for man and beast. Beans were believed by some of the ancients to
+  contain the souls of their ancestors, and Pythagoras would not eat beans
+  for this reason. One of the bean family still retains the name of the
+  Pythagorean bean. Beans were introduced by the Moors into Spain, whence
+  they came to France and later to England. It is possible, however, that
+  they were brought to Britain by the Romans. They are now largely imported
+  from Egypt, Turkey, Greece, and the Netherlands. There are many
+  varieties, as the Mazagan, the Windsor, the long-pod, &amp;c., in
+  gardens, and the horse or tick bean in fields. The soil that best suits
+  is a good strong clay. The seed of the Windsor is fully an inch in
+  diameter; the horse bean is much less, often not much more than half an
+  inch in length and three-eighths of an inch in diameter. Beans are very
+  nutritious, containing nearly 50 per cent of digestible carbohydrate and
+  25 per cent of nitrogenous matter. The bean is an annual, from 2 to 4
+  feet high. The flowers are beautiful and fragrant. The <i>kidney
+  bean</i>, <i>French bean</i>, or <i>haricot</i> is the <i>Phase&#x14F;lus
+  vulg&#x101;ris</i>, a well-known culinary vegetable. There are two
+  principal varieties, annual dwarfs and runners. The beans cultivated in
+  America and largely used as articles of food belong to the genus
+  Phase&#x14F;lus. The <i>scarlet-runner bean</i> (<i>Phase&#x14F;lus
+  multiflorus</i>), a native of Mexico, is cultivated on account of its
+  long rough pods and its scarlet flowers.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bean-goose</b> (<i>Anser seg&#x115;tum</i>), a species of wild
+  goose, a migratory bird which arrives in Britain in autumn and retires to
+  the north in the end of April, though some few remain to breed. Being
+  rather less in size than the common wild goose, it is sometimes called
+  the <i>small grey goose</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bean-king</b>, the person chosen king in Twelfth Night festivities
+  in virtue of having got the piece of cake containing the bean buried in
+  the cake for this purpose.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:37%;">
+      <a href="images/image170.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image170.jpg"
+      alt="Brown or Black Bear" title="Brown or Black Bear" /></a>
+    Brown or Black Bear (<i>Ursus arctos</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:33%;">
+      <a href="images/image171.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image171.jpg"
+      alt="Polar Bear" title="Polar Bear" /></a>
+    The Polar or White Bear (<i>Ursus mar&#x12D;timus</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Bear</b>, the name of several large plantigrade carnivorous mammals
+  of the genus Ursus. The teeth are forty-two in number, as in the dog, but
+  there is no carnassial or sectorial tooth, <!-- Page 438 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page438"></a>[438]</span>and the molars have a
+  more tubercular character than in other carnivores. The eyes have a
+  nictitating membrane, the nose is prominent and mobile, and the tail very
+  short. The true bears are about ten in number, natives chiefly of Europe,
+  Asia, and N. America. They generally lie dormant in their den during the
+  winter months. The brown or black bear of Europe is the <i>Ursus
+  arctos</i>. It is a native of almost all the northern parts of Europe and
+  Asia, and was at one time common in the British Islands. It feeds on
+  fruits, roots, honey, ants, and, in case of need, on mammals. It
+  sometimes reaches the length of 7 feet, the largest specimens being found
+  farthest to the north. It lives solitarily. The American black bear is
+  the <i>U. americ&#x101;nus</i>, with black shining fur, and rarely above
+  5 feet in length. It is a great climber, is less dangerous than the brown
+  bear, and is hunted for its fur and flesh. It is very amusing in
+  captivity. The grizzly bear (<i>U. ferox</i> or <i>horribilis</i>) is an
+  inhabitant of the Rocky Mountains; it is a ferocious animal, sometimes 9
+  feet in length, and has a bulky and unwieldy form, but is nevertheless
+  capable of great rapidity of motion. The extinct cave-bear (<i>U.
+  spelæus</i>) seems to have been closely akin to the grizzly. The Siberian
+  bear (<i>U. coll&#x101;ris</i>) is perhaps a variety of the brown bear.
+  The polar or white bear (<i>U. marit&#x12D;mus</i>) is an animal
+  possessed of great strength and fierceness. It lives in the polar
+  regions, frequents the sea, feeds on fish, seals, &amp;c., and usually is
+  7 to 8 feet in length. The Malayan or coco-nut palm bear (<i>U.
+  malay&#x101;nus</i>) inhabits Cochin-China, Nepaul, the Sunda Islands,
+  &amp;c., lives exclusively on vegetable food, and is an expert climber.
+  It is called also sun-bear and bruang. The Indian black bear or
+  sloth-bear of India and Ceylon (<i>U. labi&#x101;tus</i>) is reputed to
+  be a fierce and dangerous animal.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bear</b>, or <b>Bere</b>, a species of barley (<i>Hord&#x115;um
+  hexastichum</i>), having six rows in the ear, cultivated in Scotland and
+  the north of England.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:31%;">
+      <a href="images/image172.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image172.jpg"
+      alt="Great Bear" title="Great Bear" /></a>
+    The Constellation of the Great Bear. The two stars on the right are the
+    Pointers
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Bear, Great</b> and <b>Little</b>, the popular names of two
+  constellations in the northern hemisphere. The Great Bear (<i>Ursa
+  Major</i>) is situated near the pole. It is remarkable for its well-known
+  seven stars, by two of which, called the Pointers, the pole-star is
+  always readily found. These seven stars are popularly called the
+  <i>Wagon</i>, <i>Charles's Wain</i>, or the <i>Plough</i>. The Little
+  Bear (<i>Ursa Minor</i>) is the constellation which contains the
+  pole-star. This constellation has seven stars placed together in a manner
+  resembling those in the Great Bear.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bear-baiting</b>, the sport of baiting bears with dogs, formerly
+  one of the established amusements, not only of the common people, but of
+  the nobility and even royalty itself. The places where bears were
+  publicly baited were called bear-gardens. Butler gives a description of
+  bear-baiting in his <i>Hudibras</i>. Bear-baiting was prohibited by Act
+  of Parliament in 1835.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bearberry</b> (<i>Arctostaphylos uva-ursi</i>), an evergreen shrub
+  of the heath family growing on the barren moors of Scotland, Northern
+  Europe, Siberia, and N. America. The leaves, under the name of <i>uva
+  ursi</i>, are used in medicine as an astringent and tonic.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beard</b>, the hair round the chin, on the cheeks, and the upper
+  lip, which is a distinction of the male sex and of manhood. It differs
+  from the hair on the head by its greater hardness and its form. Some
+  nations have hardly any, others a <!-- Page 439 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page439"></a>[439]</span>great profusion. The
+  latter generally consider it as a great ornament; the former pluck it
+  out; as, for instance, the American Indians. The beard has often been
+  considered as a mark of the sage and the priest. Moses forbade the Jews
+  to shave their beards. With the ancient Germans the cutting off another's
+  beard was a high offence. Even now the beard is regarded as a mark of
+  great dignity among many nations in the East, as the Turks. Alexander the
+  Great introduced shaving among the Greeks, by ordering his soldiers to
+  wear no beards; among the Romans it was introduced in 296 <span
+  class="scac">B.C.</span> The custom of shaving came into use in modern
+  times during the reigns of Louis XIII and XIV of France, both of whom
+  ascended the throne without a beard. Till then fashion sanctioned divers
+  forms of moustaches and beards. In the reign of Henry VIII of England,
+  the authorities of Lincoln's Inn prohibited wearers of beards from
+  sitting at the great table unless they paid double commons. Taxation of
+  beards was introduced in the reign of Elizabeth, beards of above a
+  fortnight's growth being subject to a yearly tax of 3<i>s.</i> 4<i>d.</i>
+  This impost was copied by Peter the Great in Russia. It is only in
+  comparatively recent times that beards and moustaches have again become
+  common.&mdash;Cf. Philippe, <i>Histoire philosophique, politique, et
+  religieuse de la barbe</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beard-moss</b> (<i>Usnea barb&#x101;ta</i>), a lichen of grey
+  colour, forming a shaggy coat on many forest trees.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beardsley</b>, Aubrey Vincent, artist in black and white, born
+  1872, died 1898; took up art as a profession at the age of nineteen, and
+  executed a large number of drawings for books and periodicals, showing
+  great technical skill, originality, and disregard of conventionality,
+  with sometimes a tendency towards the repulsive or morbid. Consumption
+  had marked him as its victim from the first. Collections of his drawings
+  were published under the titles <i>A Book of Fifty Drawings</i>, <i>The
+  Early Work of Aubrey Beardsley</i>, <i>The Late Work of Aubrey
+  Beardsley</i>, &amp;c. <i>Under the Hill</i>, with his letters and poems,
+  was published in 1904. Cf. G. Derry, <i>An Aubrey Beardsley
+  Scrap-book</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bearer Securities.</b> See <i>Stock Exchange</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bearing</b>, the direction or point of the compass in which an
+  object is seen, or the situation of one object in regard to another, with
+  reference to the points of the compass. Thus, if from a certain situation
+  an object is seen in the direction of north-east, the <i>bearing</i> of
+  the object is said to be <span class="scac">N.E.</span> from the
+  situation.&mdash;<i>To take bearings</i>, to ascertain on what point of
+  the compass objects lie.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bear Lake, Great</b>, an extensive sheet of fresh water in the
+  North-West Territory of Canada, between about 65° and 67° 32´ <span
+  class="scac">N.</span> lat.; and under the 120th degree of <span
+  class="scac">W.</span> long.; of irregular shape; area about 14,000 sq.
+  miles. The water is very clear and the lake abounds in
+  fish.&mdash;<i>Bear Lake River</i>, the outlet at the <span
+  class="scac">S.W.</span> extremity of Great Bear Lake, runs <span
+  class="scac">S.W.</span> for 70 miles and joins the Mackenzie River.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Béarn</b> (b&#x101;-a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r), one of the provinces into which
+  France was formerly divided, now chiefly included in the department of
+  Lower Pyrénées. Pau is the chief town (pop. 35,000). There is a peculiar
+  and well-marked dialect&mdash;the Béarnese&mdash;spoken in this district,
+  which has much more affinity with Spanish than with French.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bear-pit</b>, a deep, open pit with perpendicular walls, built in a
+  zoological garden for keeping bears, and having in the centre a pole on
+  which they may exercise their climbing powers.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bear River</b>, a river of the United States, 400 miles long; rises
+  in the north of Utah, and flows northward into Idaho; turns abruptly
+  southward, re-enters Utah, and empties into Great Salt Lake.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bears and Bulls.</b> See <i>Stock Exchange</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bear´s-grease</b>, the fat of bears, esteemed as of great efficacy
+  in nourishing and promoting the growth of hair. The unguents sold under
+  this name, however, are in a great measure made of hog's lard or veal
+  fat, or a mixture of both, scented and slightly coloured.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beas</b>, river of India. See <i>Bias</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beat</b>, in acoustics and music, the beating or pulsation
+  resulting from the joint vibrations of two sounds of the same strength,
+  and all but in unison. Also a short shake or transient grace-note struck
+  immediately before the note it is intended to ornament. The word is also
+  used for the movement of the hand or baton, by which the rhythm of a
+  piece of music is indicated, and by which a conductor ensures perfect
+  agreement in tempo and accent on the part of the orchestra or chorus.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beath</b> (b&#x113;th), a populous parish of Fifeshire, Scotland,
+  containing the towns of Cowdenbeath, Kelty, and Hill of Beath. Pop.
+  24,350, (Cowdenbeath having 7908).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beatification</b>, in the Roman Catholic Church, an act by which
+  the Pope declares a person beatified or blessed after his death. It is
+  the first step to canonization, that is, the raising one to the honour
+  and dignity of a saint. No person can be beatified till fifty years after
+  his or her death. All certificates or attestations of virtues and
+  miracles, the necessary qualifications for saintship, are examined by the
+  Congregation of Rites. This examination often continues for several
+  years; after which his Holiness decrees the beatification, and the corpse
+  and relics of the future saint are exposed to the veneration of all good
+  Christians. The present <!-- Page 440 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page440"></a>[440]</span>custom dates from a Bull of Urban VIII in
+  1634, although local veneration may be traced back to the earliest
+  Christian ages.&mdash;In the Orthodox Eastern Church beatification is not
+  distinguished from canonization.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beating the Bounds</b>, the periodical survey or perambulation by
+  which the boundaries of parishes in England are preserved. It was the
+  custom in some places that the clergyman of the parish, with the
+  parochial officers and the boys of the parish school, should march to the
+  boundaries, where the boys were struck with willow rods. A similar
+  ceremony in Scotland was called <i>riding the marches</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bea´ton</b>, David, Archbishop of St. Andrews, and cardinal, born
+  1494. Pope Paul III raised him to the rank of cardinal in Dec., 1538. On
+  the death of his uncle, Archbishop James Beaton, he succeeded him in the
+  see of St. Andrews in 1539. After the accession of Mary he became
+  Chancellor of Scotland, and distinguished himself by his zeal in
+  persecuting members of the Reformed party, among the rest the famous
+  Protestant preacher George Wishart, whose sufferings at the stake he
+  viewed from his window with apparent exultation. At length a conspiracy
+  was formed against him, and he was assassinated at his own castle of St.
+  Andrews, on the 29th May, 1546. His private character was marked by
+  pride, cruelty, and licentiousness.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beatrice Portinari</b> (b&#x101;-a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-tr&#x113;´ch&#x101;
+  por-t&#x113;-nä´r&#x113;), the "glorious lady" of Dante, born about 1266,
+  died 1290; the daughter of a wealthy citizen of Florence, and wife of
+  Simone de Bardi. She was but eight years of age, and Dante nine, when he
+  met her first at the house of her father. He altogether saw her only once
+  or twice, and she probably knew little of him. The story of his love is
+  recounted in the <i>Vita Nuova</i>, which was mostly written after her
+  death.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beattie</b> (b&#x113;´ti), James, a Scottish poet and philosophical
+  writer, born at Laurencekirk, Kincardineshire, in 1735, died at Aberdeen
+  1803. He studied at Marischal College, Aberdeen, for four years, and
+  received the <span class="scac">M.A.</span> degree. In 1753 he was
+  appointed schoolmaster at Fordoun, a few miles from his native place;
+  from whence he obtained a mastership in the Grammar School of Aberdeen,
+  and ultimately was installed professor of moral philosophy and logic in
+  Marischal College. In 1760 he published a volume of poems, which he
+  subsequently endeavoured to buy up, considering them unworthy of him. In
+  1765 he published a poem, <i>The Judgment of Paris</i>, and in 1770 his
+  celebrated <i>Essay on the Nature and Immutability of Truth</i>,
+  attacking Helvetius and Hume and advocating what was afterwards called
+  the doctrine of Common Sense, for which the University of Oxford
+  conferred on him the degree of <span class="scac">D.C.L.</span>, and
+  George III honoured him, when on a visit to London, with a private
+  conference and a pension. He next published in 1771 the first book of his
+  poem <i>The Minstrel</i>, and in 1774 the second; this is the only work
+  by which he is now remembered. In 1776 he published dissertations on
+  <i>Poetry and Music</i>, <i>Laughter and Ludicrous Composition</i>,
+  &amp;c.; in 1783 <i>Dissertations, Moral and Critical</i>; in 1786
+  <i>Evidences of the Christian Religion</i>; and in 1790-3 <i>Elements of
+  Moral Science</i>. His closing years were darkened by the death of his
+  two sons.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Margaret Forbes,
+  <i>Beattie and His Friends</i>; A. Mackie, <i>James Beattie, the
+  Minstrel: Some Unpublished Letters</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beattie</b>, William, <span class="scac">M.D.</span>, Scottish
+  physician, poet, and miscellaneous writer, born in 1793, died at London
+  1875. He was author of the standard <i>Life of Thomas Campbell</i>, whose
+  intimate friend he was; published several poems, including <i>John
+  Huss</i>, <i>The Heliotrope</i>, and <i>Polynesia</i>; wrote a series of
+  descriptive and historical works, beautifully illustrated by his friend
+  and fellow-traveller, W.&nbsp;H. Bartlett, on Switzerland, Scotland, &amp;c.
+  He had a very extensive and lucrative medical practice.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beatty</b>, Admiral of the Fleet, Earl, born in 1871. He entered
+  the navy in 1884, became Commander in 1898, Rear-Admiral in 1910, and
+  Vice-Admiral in 1915. He served in the Sudan from 1896 to 1897, and in
+  China in 1900. In 1912 he was Naval Secretary to the First Lord of the
+  Admiralty, and from 1912 to 1916 commanded the First Battle Cruiser
+  Squadron. He distinguished himself in the battle of Jutland in 1916, and
+  until 1919, when he succeeded Admiral Sir Rosslyn Wemyss (now Lord Wester
+  Wemyss) as First Sea Lord, he was in command of the Grand Fleet. When the
+  entire German High Seas Fleet left port on 31st May, 1916, and steamed up
+  the west coast of Denmark, it was quickly sighted by the British scouts,
+  so that the main British fleet immediately steamed out from its base to
+  engage the enemy. The British Battle Cruiser Squadron, under the command
+  of Earl Beatty (then Sir David) was nearer the scene than the main battle
+  fleet under Sir John Jellicoe (Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa since 1918).
+  The admiral sighted the enemy fleet north-west of the Horn Reef, and
+  about 3.30 in the afternoon the ships engaged. The Jutland battle lasted
+  only a few hours. At the end of Nov., 1916, Admiral Sir John Jellicoe was
+  made First Sea Lord of the Admiralty, and Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty
+  took over the supreme command of the Grand Fleet.</p>
+
+  <p>He is a <span class="scac">D.S.O.</span>, an <span
+  class="scac">O.M.</span>, a <span class="scac">G.C.B.</span>, a <span
+  class="scac">G.C.V.O.</span>, and a Grand Officer of the French Legion of
+  Honour. He was knighted in 1914, and <!-- Page 441 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page441"></a>[441]</span>received a grant of
+  £100,000 in Aug., 1919, when he was created an earl. He was elected Lord
+  Rector of Edinburgh University in 1917.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beaucaire</b> (b&#x14D;-k&#x101;r), a small commercial city of
+  Southern France, department Gard, on the Rhone opposite Tarascon, with
+  which it communicates by a fine suspension-bridge. It is chiefly famous
+  for its great fair (founded in 1217), held yearly from the 21st to the
+  28th July. Pop. 8488.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beauchamp</b> (b&#x14D;-shän), Alphonse de, French historian and
+  publicist, born at Mon&#x103;co 1767, died at Paris 1832. Under the
+  Directory he had the surveillance of the press, a position which supplied
+  him with materials for his <i>History of La Vendée</i>. He contributed to
+  the <i>Moniteur</i> and the <i>Gazette de France</i>. Among his chief
+  works are the <i>History of the Conquest of Peru</i>, the <i>History of
+  Brazil</i>, and the <i>Life of Louis XVIII</i>. The <i>Mémoires de
+  Fouché</i> is also with good reason ascribed to him.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beaufort</b>, (b&#x14D;´fort), Henry, cardinal, natural son of John
+  of Gaunt and half-brother of Henry IV, King of England, born 1377, died
+  1447; was made Bishop of Lincoln, whence he was translated to Winchester.
+  He repeatedly filled the office of Lord Chancellor, and took part in all
+  the most important political movements of his times.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beaufort Scale.</b> See <i>Wind Scale</i>; <i>Navigation</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beaufort West</b>, a town of Cape Province, capital of the division
+  of that name, 339 miles by railway north-east of Cape Town, well built
+  and well supplied with water, though in a district with a small rainfall,
+  and chiefly yielding wool. It is a popular health resort. Pop. 4530.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beaugency</b> (b&#x14D;-zha<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>n<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x3">&#x2D9;</span></span>-s&#x113;), an ancient town, France,
+  department Loiret, on the Loire, of some historical interest. General
+  Chanzy was defeated there by the Grand-Duke of Mecklenburg, 7th-8th Dec.,
+  1870. Pop. 3532.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beauharnais</b> (b&#x14D;-a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>r-n&#x101;), Alexandre, Viscount, was
+  born in 1760 in Martinique. He married Joséphine Tascher de la Pagerie,
+  who was afterwards the wife of Napoleon. At the breaking out of the
+  French Revolution he was chosen a member of the National Assembly, of
+  which he was for some time president. In 1792 he was general of the army
+  of the Rhine. He was falsely accused of having promoted the surrender of
+  Mainz, and was sentenced to death 23rd July, 1794.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beauharnais</b>, Eugène de, Duke of Leuchtenberg, Prince of
+  Eichstädt, and Viceroy of Italy during the reign of Napoleon, was born
+  1781, died at Munich 1824. He was the son of Alexandre Beauharnais and
+  Joséphine, afterwards wife of Napoleon and Empress of France. After his
+  father's death he joined Hoche in La Vendée, and subsequently studied for
+  a time in Paris. He accompanied Napoleon to Egypt in 1798, rose rapidly
+  in the army, was appointed Viceroy of Italy in 1805, and married a
+  daughter of the King of Bavaria in 1806. He administered the government
+  of Italy with great prudence and moderation, and was much beloved by his
+  subjects. In the Russian campaign he commanded the third <i>corps
+  d'armée</i>, and greatly distinguished himself. To him and to Ney France
+  was mainly indebted for the preservation of the remains of her army
+  during the retreat from Moscow. After the battle of Lützen of 2nd May,
+  1813, where, by surrounding the right wing of the enemy, he decided the
+  fate of the day, he went to Italy, which he defended against the
+  Austrians until the deposition of Napoleon. After the fall of Napoleon he
+  concluded an armistice, by which he delivered Lombardy and all Upper
+  Italy to the Austrians. He then went immediately to Paris, and thence to
+  his father-in-law at Munich, where he afterwards resided.&mdash;His
+  sister, Hortense Eugénie, Queen of Holland, was born in 1783, died in
+  1837. She became Queen of Holland by marrying Louis Bonaparte, and after
+  Louis's abdication of the throne she lived apart from him. She wrote
+  several excellent songs, and composed some deservedly popular airs, among
+  others the well-known <i>Partant pour la Syrie</i>. Napoleon III was her
+  third and youngest son.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beauly</b> (b&#x16B;´li), a small seaport of Scotland,
+  Inverness-shire, near the mouth of the River Beauly, which enters the
+  Beauly Firth, a sea loch branching off from Inverness Firth, with
+  interesting ruins of an old priory. Pop. 882.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beaumarchais</b> (b&#x14D;-mär-sh&#x101;), Pierre Augustin Caron
+  de, a French wit and dramatist, was born at Paris in 1732, died 1799. He
+  was the son of a watchmaker named Caron, whose trade he practised for a
+  time. He early gave striking proofs of his mechanical and also of his
+  musical talents; attained proficiency as a player on the guitar and harp,
+  and was appointed harp-master to the daughters of Louis XV. By a rich
+  marriage (after which he added 'de Beaumarchais' to his name) he laid the
+  foundation of the immense wealth which he afterwards accumulated by his
+  speculations, and which was also increased by a second marriage. In the
+  meantime he occupied himself with literature, and published two
+  dramas&mdash;<i>Eugénie</i> in 1767 and <i>Les Deux Amis</i> in 1770. He
+  first really distinguished himself by his <i>Mémoires</i> (Paris, 1774),
+  or statements in connection with a lawsuit, which by their wit, satire,
+  and liveliness entertained all France. The <i>Barber of Seville</i>
+  (1775) and the <i>Marriage of Figaro</i> (1784) have given him a
+  permanent reputation. His last work was <i>Mes Six Époques</i>, in which
+  he <!-- Page 442 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page442"></a>[442]</span>relates the dangers to which he was
+  exposed in the revolution. He lost about a million livres by his edition
+  of the works of Voltaire (1785), and still more at the end of 1792 by his
+  attempt to provide the French army with 60,000 muskets. He was a singular
+  instance of versatility of talent, being at once an artist, politician,
+  projector, merchant, and dramatist.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: L. de Loménie, <i>Beaumarchais et son
+  temps</i> (English translation by H.&nbsp;S. Edwards); Gudin de la
+  Brenellerie, <i>Histoire de Beaumarchais</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beaumaris</b> (b&#x14D;-ma´ris), a seaport town, North Wales, Isle
+  of Anglesey, on the Menai Strait. It is a favourite watering-place, and
+  contains the remains of a castle built by Edward I about 1295. Pop.
+  (1921), 1839.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beaumont</b>, a city of the United States, in Eastern Texas, in a
+  region rich in cotton, timber, and petroleum, and an important railway
+  centre. Pop. 28,851.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beaumont</b> (b&#x14D;´mont), Francis, and <b>Fletcher</b>, John,
+  two eminent English dramatic writers, contemporaries of Shakespeare, and
+  the most famous of literary partners. The former, son of a common-pleas
+  judge, was born at Grace-Dieu, in Leicestershire, in 1584, died in 1616,
+  and was buried in Westminster Abbey. At the age of sixteen he published a
+  translation, in verse, of Ovid's <i>Fable of Salmacis and
+  Hermaphroditus</i>, and before nineteen became the friend of Ben Jonson.
+  With Fletcher also he was early on terms of friendship. He married
+  Ursula, daughter of Henry Isley of Sundridge, in Kent, by whom he left
+  two daughters.&mdash;<i>John Fletcher</i> was born at Rye, Sussex, in
+  1579. His father was successively Dean of Peterborough, Bishop of
+  Bristol, Worcester, and London. <i>The Woman Hater</i>, produced in
+  1606-7, is the earliest work known to exist in which he had a hand. It
+  does not appear that he was ever married. He died in London of the
+  plague, Aug., 1625, and was buried at St. Saviour's, Southwark. The
+  friendship of Beaumont and Fletcher, like their literary partnership, was
+  singularly close; they lived in the same house, and are said to have even
+  had their clothes in common. The works that pass under their names
+  consist of over fifty plays, a masque, and some minor poems. It is
+  believed that all the minor poems except one were written by Beaumont.
+  After the death of Beaumont, Fletcher continued to write plays alone or
+  with other dramatists. It is now difficult, if not indeed impossible, to
+  determine with certainty the respective shares of the two poets in the
+  plays passing under their names. According to the testimony of some of
+  their contemporaries, Beaumont possessed the deeper and more thoughtful
+  genius, Fletcher the gayer and more idyllic. <i>Four Plays in One</i>,
+  <i>Wit at Several Weapons</i>, <i>Thierry and Theodoret</i>, <i>Maid's
+  Tragedy</i>, <i>Philaster</i>, <i>King and no King</i>, <i>Knight of the
+  Burning Pestle</i>, <i>Cupid's Revenge</i>, <i>Little French Lawyer</i>,
+  <i>Scornful Lady</i>, <i>Coxcomb</i>, and <i>Laws of Candy</i> have been
+  assigned to Beaumont and Fletcher conjointly. To Beaumont
+  alone&mdash;<i>The Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn</i>. To
+  Fletcher alone&mdash;<i>The Faithful Shepherdess</i>, <i>Woman Hater</i>,
+  <i>Loyal Subject</i>, <i>Mad Lover</i>, <i>Valentinian</i>, <i>Double
+  Marriage</i>, <i>Humorous Lieutenant</i>, <i>Island Princess</i>,
+  <i>Pilgrim</i>, <i>Wild-goose Chase</i>, <i>Spanish Curate</i>,
+  <i>Beggar's Bush</i>, <i>Rule a Wife and Have a Wife</i>, <i>Fair Maid of
+  the Inn</i>, &amp;c. To Fletcher and Rowley&mdash;<i>Queen of
+  Corinth</i>, <i>Maid of the Mill</i>, and <i>Bloody Brother</i>. To
+  Fletcher and Massinger&mdash;<i>False One</i> and <i>Very Woman</i>. To
+  Fletcher and Shirley&mdash;<i>Noble Gentleman</i>, <i>Night-walker</i>,
+  and <i>Love's Pilgrimage</i>. To Fletcher and Shakespeare&mdash;<i>Two
+  Noble Kinsmen</i>.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: G.&nbsp;C.
+  Macaulay, <i>Francis Beaumont, a Critical Study</i>; Sir A.&nbsp;W. Ward,
+  <i>History of English Dramatic Literature</i> (vol. ii).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beaumont</b>, Sir George, born of an ancient family in
+  Leicestershire in 1753, died 1827. He possessed considerable skill as a
+  landscape-painter, but was noted more especially as a munificent patron
+  of the arts. The establishment of the National Gallery was mainly owing
+  to his exertions. He was a friend of Wordsworth, who dedicated to him the
+  1815 edition of his Poems.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beaumont</b>, Sir John, born 1582, died 1627, brother of Francis
+  Beaumont the dramatist; was author of <i>Bosworth Field</i>, an
+  historical poem, and various sacred and other poems. A poem in eight
+  books, called <i>The Crown of Thorns</i>, has been lost.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beaumont</b>, Joseph, <span class="scac">D.D.</span>, born 1615,
+  died 1699; descended from an old Leicestershire family. In 1663 he became
+  master of Peterhouse, Cambridge. He wrote <i>Psyche, or Love's
+  Mystery</i>, a poem once very popular, and an attack on Henry More's
+  <i>Mystery of Godliness</i>, for which he received the thanks of the
+  university.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beaumont</b>, William, <span class="scac">M.D.</span>, an American
+  surgeon, born 1785, died 1853. His experiments on digestion with the
+  Canadian St. Martin, who lived for years after receiving a gunshot wound
+  in the stomach which left an aperture of about two inches in diameter,
+  were of great importance to physiological science.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beaumont-Hamel</b>, village of France, department Somme, the scene
+  of fierce fighting in 1918. See <i>Somme, Battles of the</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beaune</b> (b&#x14D;n), a town, France, department Côte d'Or, 23
+  miles <span class="scac">S.S.W.</span> of Dijon, well built, with
+  handsome church, public library, museum, &amp;c., and a trade in the fine
+  Burgundy and other wines of the district. Pop. 13,409. <!-- Page 443
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page443"></a>[443]</span></p>
+
+  <p><b>Beaune</b> (b&#x14D;n), Florimond, a distinguished mathematician
+  and friend of Descartes, born at Blois 1601, died at the same place 1652.
+  He may be regarded as the originator of the integral calculus.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beauregard</b> (b&#x14D;´r&#x117;-ga<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>rd), Pierre Gustavus Toutant, a general
+  of the Confederate troops in the American Civil War, born in 1818 near
+  New Orleans. He studied at the military academy, West Point, and left it
+  as artillery lieutenant in 1838. He served in the Mexican War, and on the
+  outbreak of the Civil War joined the Confederates. He commanded at the
+  bombardment of Fort Sumter, gained the battle of Bull Run, lost that of
+  Shiloh, assisted in the defence of Charleston, and aided Lee in that of
+  Richmond. He was the author of <i>Principles and Maxims of the Art of
+  War</i> (1863). He died in 1893.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beausobre</b> (b&#x14D;-s&#x14D;-br), Isaac, born in 1659 at Niort,
+  in France, died at Berlin 1738. In 1683 he became Protestant minister of
+  Chatillon-sur-Indre, but was compelled by persecution to go into exile in
+  1685. In 1694 he became minister to French Protestants at Berlin. He
+  enjoyed much of the favour both of Frederick William I and of the Crown
+  Prince, afterwards Frederick the Great, and died in 1738. His most
+  remarkable work is the <i>Histoire Critique de Manichée et du
+  Manichéisme</i> (1734).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beauvais</b> (b&#x14D;-v&#x101;; ancient, <i>Bellovacum</i>), a
+  town, France, capital of the department of Oise, at the confluence of the
+  Avelon with the Thérain, 43 miles north of Paris, poorly built, but with
+  some fine edifices, the choir of the uncompleted cathedral being one of
+  the finest specimens of Gothic architecture in France. In 1472 Beauvais
+  resisted an army of 80,000 Burgundians under Charles the Bold. On this
+  occasion the women particularly distinguished themselves, and one of
+  them, Jeanne Lainé, called La Hachette, seeing a soldier planting a
+  standard on the wall, seized it and hurled him to the ground. The banner
+  is preserved in the town hall, and an annual procession of young girls
+  commemorates the deed. Manufactures: tapestry and carpets, trimmings,
+  woollen cloth, cottons, &amp;c. Pop. 20,250.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:32%;">
+      <a href="images/image173.jpg"><img style="width:100%" src="images/image173.jpg"
+      alt="Beavers" title="Beavers" /></a>
+    Beavers (<i>Castor fiber</i>)
+  </div>
+
+  <p><b>Beaver</b>, the largest rodent quadruped now existing in the
+  northern hemisphere, about 2 feet in length exclusive of the tail, genus
+  Castor (<i>C. fiber</i>), is now found in considerable numbers only in
+  North America, living in colonies, but occurring solitary in Central
+  Europe and Asia. It has short ears, a blunt nose, small fore-feet, large
+  webbed hind-feet, with a flat ovate tail covered with scales on its upper
+  surface. It is valued for its fur, which used to be largely employed in
+  the manufacture of hats, but for which silk is now for the most part
+  substituted, and for an odoriferous secretion named castor, at one time
+  in high repute, and still largely used in some parts of the world as an
+  antispasmodic medicine. The food of the beaver consists of the bark of
+  trees, leaves, roots, and berries. Their favourite haunts are rivers and
+  lakes which are bordered by forests. In winter they live in houses, which
+  are 3 to 4 feet high, are built on the water's edge, and, being
+  substantial structures with the entrance under water, afford them
+  protection from wolves and other wild animals. These dwellings are called
+  beaver 'lodges', and accommodate a single family. They also live in
+  burrows. They can gnaw through large trees with their strong teeth, this
+  being done partly to obtain food, partly to get materials for houses or
+  dam-building. When they find a stream not sufficiently deep for their
+  purpose, they throw across it a dam constructed with great ingenuity of
+  wood, stones, and mud. Beavers were fairly numerous in Britain in very
+  early times, at least in Scotland and Wales. Their existence has been
+  recorded in Wales till the thirteenth century, and in Scotland to a later
+  date, but they are now extinct in Britain. A colony was some years ago
+  introduced into the Island of Bute, but they died out again.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Harting, <i>British Animals Extinct
+  within Historic Times</i>; E.&nbsp;A. Mills, <i>In Beaver World</i>; A.&nbsp;A.&nbsp;R.
+  Dugmore, <i>The Romance of the Beaver</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beaver</b> (from Fr. <i>baviére</i>, a child's bib, from
+  <i>bave</i>, saliva), the movable face-guard of a helmet, so fitted on as
+  to be raised and lowered at pleasure.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beaver Falls</b>, a town of the United States, Pennsylvania, on
+  Beaver River, 30 miles north-west of Pittsburg, in the coal and
+  natural-gas region. Pop. 12,191.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beaver-rat</b> (<i>Hydromys chrysogaster</i>), a <!-- Page 444
+  --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page444"></a>[444]</span>Tasmanian
+  rodent quadruped, inhabiting the banks both of salt and fresh waters.
+  They are admirable swimmers and divers, and exceedingly shy.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bebee´ru.</b> See <i>Greenheart</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bebel</b> (b&#x101;´bl), Ferdinand August, German Socialist, born
+  in 1840, died in 1913. He became a master turner in Leipzig, was elected
+  to the Reichstag or Diet of the new German Empire in 1871, in which he
+  was prominent until his death. He opposed the leadership of Prussia in
+  Germany and the establishment of the empire, and showed himself
+  favourable to the Paris Commune and the International. Found guilty of
+  treasonable practices, he was condemned to two years' imprisonment in a
+  fortress in 1872, with six months' ordinary imprisonment for insulting
+  the Kaiser. His influence kept on increasing as leader of the Social
+  Democrats in Germany and in the German Parliament, where he spoke
+  strongly against militarism and the emperor's naval policy. His works
+  include <i>Die Frau und der Socialismus</i> (Woman and Socialism), in
+  which he went so far as to attack marriage as an institution; <i>Die
+  Socialdemokratic und das allgemeine wahlrecht</i>; <i>Für Volkswehr gegen
+  Militarismus</i>; <i>Aus meinem Leben</i>; &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bec</b>, a celebrated abbey of France, in Normandy, near Brionne,
+  founded in the eleventh century, now represented only by some ruins.
+  Lanfranc and Anselm were both connected with this abbey.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beccafi´co</b>, a European bird (<i>Sylvia hortensis</i>), the
+  garden-warbler. These birds are much esteemed as dainties in the autumn,
+  when they have fattened on figs and grapes.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beccafu´mi</b>, Domen´ico, Italian painter, born near Sienna in the
+  latter half of the fifteenth century, enriched the churches of Sienna
+  with many noble frescoes and other paintings. He drew and coloured well,
+  and possessed strong inventive powers. He died at Sienna in 1551, and was
+  buried in its cathedral.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beccaria</b> (bek-a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-r&#x113;´a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), Cesare Bonesana, Marchese di, Italian
+  economist and writer on penal laws, born 1738, died 1794. He is
+  principally known from his treatise, <i>On Crimes and Punishments</i>,
+  which was speedily translated into various languages, and to which many
+  of the reforms in the penal codes of the principal European nations are
+  traceable. He became professor of political economy at Milan, where he
+  died.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beccaria</b> (bek-a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>-r&#x113;´a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), Giovanni Battista, an Italian natural
+  philosopher, born 1716, died 1781; was appointed professor of
+  experimental physics at Turin, 1748; author of a treatise on <i>Natural
+  and Artificial Electricity</i>, <i>Letters on Electricity</i>, &amp;c. He
+  contributed several articles to the <i>Transactions of the Royal Society
+  of London</i>, and was commissioned in 1759 to measure an arc of the
+  meridian in the neighbourhood of Turin.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beccles</b> (bek´lz), a municipal borough in Suffolk, England, 33
+  miles <span class="scac">N.N.E.</span> from Ipswich, on the right bank of
+  the Waveney; has a fine church of the fourteenth century, and a good
+  trade coastwise. Pop. (1921), 7077.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Becelære</b>, town of Belgium, province of West Flanders. It was
+  the scene of fighting in the third battle of Ypres (1917), and in the
+  battle of Flanders (1918).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Becerra</b> (be-ther´a<span class="x1"><span
+  class="x2">&#x2D9;</span></span>), Gaspar, Spanish painter and sculptor,
+  born 1520, died 1570. He studied under Michel Angelo at Rome, and is
+  credited with the chief share in the establishment of the fine arts in
+  Spain.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beche</b> (b&#x101;sh), Sir Henry de Ia, an English geologist, born
+  1796, died 1855. He founded the geological survey of Great Britain, which
+  was soon undertaken by the Government, De la Beche being appointed
+  director-general. He also founded the Jermyn Street Museum of Economic or
+  Practical Geology, and the School of Mines. His principal works are:
+  <i>Geology of Jamaica</i>, <i>Classification of European Rocks</i>,
+  <i>Geological Manual</i>, <i>Researches in Theoretical Geology</i>,
+  <i>Geology of Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bêche-de-Mer</b> (b&#x101;sh-d&#x113;-m&#x101;r). See
+  <i>Trepang</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Becher</b> (be<i>h</i>´er), Johann Joachim, German chemist, born in
+  1625 or 1635, died in London 1682. He became a professor at Mainz; was
+  elected a member of the Imperial Council at Vienna, 1660, but fell into
+  disgrace and subsequently resided in various parts of Germany, Holland,
+  Italy, Sweden, and Great Britain. His chief work, <i>Physica
+  Subterranea</i>, containing many of the fanciful theories of the
+  alchemists, was published in 1669, and enlarged in 1681. Among his other
+  works are <i>Laboratorium portabile</i> and <i>Alphabetum
+  minerale</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bechstein</b> (be<i>h</i>´st&#x12B;n), Johann Matthäus, German
+  naturalist, born in 1757, died in 1822. He wrote a popular <i>Natural
+  History of Germany</i>, and various works on forestry, in which subject
+  his labours were highly valuable. In Britain he is best known by a
+  treatise on cage birds.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bechuanas</b>, or <b>Betchuanas</b> (bech-wan´az), a widely-spread
+  race of people inhabiting the central region of South Africa north of
+  Cape Province. They belong to the great Kaffir stem, and are divided into
+  tribal sections. They live chiefly by husbandry and cattle-rearing, and
+  they work with some skill in iron, copper, ivory, and skins. They were
+  led to seek British protection owing to the encroachments of the Boers.
+  The southern portion of their territory was first placed under British
+  protection in 1885, and subsequently the whole Bechuana country up to the
+  Zambezi was annexed. In 1895 the <!-- Page 445 --><span
+  class="pagenum"><a name="page445"></a>[445]</span>southern portion (then
+  a Crown colony) was united to the Cape Colony; the remainder is still a
+  protectorate partly under native chiefs. The head-quarters of the British
+  administration are at Mafeking in the Cape Province. Bechuanaland
+  Protectorate comprises the territory lying between the Molopo River on
+  the south and the Zambezi on the north, and extending from the Transvaal
+  Province and Matabeleland on the east to South-West Africa; area, 275,000
+  sq. miles; pop. 125,350, of whom about 1700 are Europeans. It is
+  generally flat or slightly undulating, and is essentially a grass
+  country, the grasses being nutritious and standing drought well. Surface
+  water is scarce, but there is underground water, besides swampy lakes
+  such as Ngami. Some parts are wooded and well watered. Gold, coal, and
+  copper have been found. There is railway connection both with south and
+  north.&mdash;Cf. G.&nbsp;W. Stow, <i>The Native Races of South Africa</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beck Case, The</b>, a celebrated case of mistaken identity, which
+  involved a grave miscarriage of justice. Adolf Beck, a Swede, had been
+  sentenced in 1890 to seven years' penal servitude for a series of mean
+  frauds committed against some women, and in 1904 he was again convicted
+  and sentenced for a similar offence. Soon after his second trial a Jew
+  named John Smith, who had been convicted of fraudulency in 1877, was
+  arrested for similar frauds committed while Beck was in custody. The
+  resemblance between the two men was remarkable, and it was eventually
+  discovered that Beck was entirely innocent. He received two King's
+  pardons, and the sum of £5000 from the Home Office as compensation. A
+  commission which considered the case drew attention in its report to the
+  carelessness of the police in identifying Beck with Smith, though the
+  latter was a Jew; and stated that further legal training was desirable
+  for the subordinate officials in the Home Office. Beck died in poverty in
+  1909. Cf. J. Kempster, <i>Perversion of Justice as exhibited in the Beck
+  Case</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beckenham</b>, a suburban locality on the south of London, in West
+  Kent, now forming an urban district, lying south of Sydenham. Pop.
+  33,350.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beck´er</b>, Wilhelm Adolf, German archæologist, born at Dresden
+  1796, died at Meissen 1846. In 1828 he became a teacher at Meissen, in
+  1837 was appointed extraordinary professor of classical archæology at
+  Leipzig, and in 1842 ordinary professor. Best-known works: <i>Gallus, or
+  Roman Scenes of the Time of Augustus</i>; and <i>Charicles, or
+  Illustrations of the Life of the Ancient Greeks</i>, which wonderfully
+  reproduce the social life of old Rome and Greece.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beck´et</b>, Thomas (the form À Becket is also common), Archbishop
+  of Canterbury, born in London 1117 or 1119, assassinated in Canterbury
+  Cathedral, 29th Dec., 1170. He was educated at Oxford and Paris, and was
+  sent, by the favour of Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury, to study civil
+  law at Bologna in Italy, and on his return made Archdeacon of Canterbury
+  and Provost of Beverley. In 1158 Henry II appointed him High Chancellor
+  and preceptor to his son, Prince Henry&mdash;the first instance after the
+  Conquest of a high office being filled by a native Englishman. At this
+  period he was a complete courtier, conforming in every respect to the
+  humour of the king. He was, in fact, the king's prime companion, held
+  splendid levees, and courted popular applause. On the death of Theobald,
+  1162, he was consecrated archbishop, when he affected an extraordinary
+  austerity of character, and appeared as a zealous champion of the Church
+  against the aggressions of the king, whose policy was to have the clergy
+  in subordination to the civil power. Becket was forced to assent to the
+  Constitutions of Clarendon, but a series of bitter conflicts with the
+  king followed, ending in Becket's flight to France, when he appealed to
+  the Pope, by whom he was supported. After much negotiation a sort of
+  reconciliation took place in 1170, and Becket returned to England,
+  resumed his office, and renewed his defiance of the royal authority. A
+  rash hint from the king induced four barons, Reginald Fitz-Urse, William
+  de Tracy, Hugh de Morville, and Richard Breto, to go to Canterbury and
+  murder the archbishop while at vespers in the cathedral. He was canonized
+  in 1172 by Pope Alexander III, and the splendid shrine erected at
+  Canterbury for his remains was, for three centuries, a favourite place of
+  pilgrimage.&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: J.&nbsp;C. Robertson
+  and J.&nbsp;B. Sheppard, <i>Materials for the History of Archbishop Becket</i>
+  (Rolls Series); Canon Morris, <i>Life and Martyrdom of St. Thomas
+  Becket</i>; Lhuillier, <i>Saint Thomas de Cantorbéry</i>; Abbott, <i>St.
+  Thomas of Canterbury, His Death and His Miracles</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beckett</b>, Gilbert Abbot À. See <i>À Beckett</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beck´ford</b>, William, an English writer famous in his time for
+  his immense wealth and his eccentricities. He was born at Fonthill, his
+  father's estate in Wiltshire, in 1759. In 1770 the death of his father
+  left him in the possession of £1,000,000 of money, and an income of
+  £100,000 a year. He travelled much, and for some time lived in Portugal.
+  He expended an enormous sum in building and rebuilding Fonthill Abbey,
+  near Salisbury, which he filled with rare and expensive works of art.
+  Here he lived in seclusion for twenty years. In 1822 the abbey and
+  greater part of its contents were sold, and he retired to Bath, where,
+  with a much-diminished fortune, but one amply sufficient, he <!-- Page
+  446 --><span class="pagenum"><a name="page446"></a>[446]</span>lived till
+  1844. His literary fame rests upon his Eastern tale <i>The History of the
+  Caliph Vathek</i>, which he wrote in French, and a translation of which
+  by the Rev. Samuel Henley appeared at London in 1786. The tale is still
+  much read, and was highly commended by Lord Byron. He had two daughters,
+  one of whom became Duchess of Hamilton, and brought his valuable library
+  to this family.&mdash;<i>William Beckford</i>, his father, a London
+  merchant and West Indian proprietor, was famous for a spirited speech
+  made to George III when Lord Mayor of London.&mdash;<span
+  class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Cyrus Redding, <i>Memoir</i>; R. Garnett,
+  <i>Vathek</i> (with a critical essay); Melville, <i>The Life and Letters
+  of William Beckford of Fonthill</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beckmann</b>, Johann, German writer on the industrial arts and
+  agriculture, born 1739, died 1811. He was for a short time professor of
+  physics and natural history at Petrograd, and afterwards for almost
+  forty-five years professor of philosophy and economy in Göttingen. His
+  <i>History of Inventions</i> is well known in the English translation of
+  it. This work entitled the author to be regarded as the founder of
+  scientific technology.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beckx</b> (beks), Pierre Jean, general of the order of Jesuits,
+  born near Louvain, Belgium, 1795, died 1887. The success of the Jesuits,
+  especially in non-Catholic countries, was greatly due to his tact and
+  energy.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Becquerel</b> (bek-rel), Antoine César, French physicist, born
+  1788, died 1878. He served as an officer of engineers, and retired in
+  1815, after which he devoted himself to the study of electricity,
+  especially electro-chemistry. In 1837 he was awarded the Copley medal of
+  the Royal Society of London. He refuted the 'theory of contact' by which
+  Volta explained the action of his pile or battery. Becquerel may be
+  considered one of the creators of electro-chemistry.&mdash;His son,
+  Alexandre Edmond (1820-91), was associated with him in much of his work.
+  He was the author of a work <i>La Lumière, ses causes et ses effets</i>
+  (1867-8).</p>
+
+  <p><b>Becquerel Rays</b> (bek-rel), the rays given out by radium and
+  other 'radioactive' substances, so named from their discoverer, the
+  French physicist, Henri Becquerel (born 1852, died 1908), son of
+  Alexandre Edmond Becquerel. They were first detected in 1896, as
+  proceeding from uranium salts; and it is only by uranium, thorium,
+  radium, and one or two other elements that they are emitted, these bodies
+  giving them out spontaneously and without any apparent loss of
+  radioactive power or change of any kind. The Becquerel rays are
+  invisible, and only known by their effects, which are of various kinds:
+  thus, like the Röntgen rays, they blacken a photographic plate, even
+  after passing through glass or other intervening substances; they cause a
+  number of different substances to give out a fluorescent light, and they
+  render air a conductor of electricity. Like the Röntgen rays, they act
+  strongly on the human skin. They consist of a mixture of <span
+  class="grk">&alpha;</span>-, <span class="grk">&beta;</span>-, and <span
+  class="grk">&gamma;</span>-rays. See <i>Radio-activity</i>;
+  <i>Radium</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Becse</b> (bech´e), <b>Old</b>, a town of Hungary, 48 miles <span
+  class="scac">S.</span> of Szegedin, on the right bank of the Theiss. Pop.
+  19,000.&mdash;<b>New Becse</b>, a market-town on the left bank of the
+  Theiss, 5 miles <span class="scac">E.</span> of Old Becse. Pop. 7725, or,
+  with the immediately adjoining village of Franyova, about 15,000. Both
+  towns carry on an extensive trade in grain.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Becskerek</b> (bech´ke-rek), two towns of South
+  Hungary.&mdash;<i>Great Becskerek</i>, now in Yugo-Slavia, is on the
+  Bega, 45 miles <span class="scac">N.</span> of Belgrade, with which it
+  communicates by the Bega Canal. Trade in cattle and agricultural produce.
+  Pop. 26,407.&mdash;<i>Little Becskerek</i>, now belonging to Roumania, is
+  11 miles by railway from Temesvar. Pop. 3660.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bed, Bedstead</b>, an article of furniture to sleep or rest on. The
+  term <i>bed</i> properly is applied to a large flat bag filled with
+  feathers, down, wool, or other soft material, and also to a mattress
+  supported on spiral springs or form of elastic chains or wirework which
+  is raised from the ground on a bedstead. The term, however, sometimes
+  includes the bedstead or frame for supporting the bed. The forms of beds
+  are necessarily very various&mdash;every period and country having its
+  own form of bed. Air-beds and water-beds are much used by invalids.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bed</b>, in geology, a layer or stratum, usually a stratum of
+  considerable thickness.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beda.</b> See <i>Bede</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bédarieux</b> (b&#x101;-där-i-<i>eu</i>), a thriving town, Southern
+  France, department Hérault, situated on the Orb. Pop. 6186.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bed-bug.</b> See <i>Bug</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bed-chamber, Lords of the</b>, officers of the royal household of
+  Britain under the Groom of the Stole. They are twelve in number, and wait
+  a week each in turn. In the case of a queen regnant these posts are
+  occupied by ladies, called <i>Ladies of the Bed-chamber</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beddoes</b> (bed´&#x14D;z), Thomas, physician and author, born
+  1760; educated at Oxford, London, and Edinburgh. After taking his
+  doctor's degree, and visiting Paris, he was appointed professor of
+  chemistry at Oxford. There he published some excellent chemical
+  treatises, and essays upon such subjects as the calculus, sea-scurvy,
+  consumption, catarrh, and fever. His expressed sympathy with the French
+  revolutionists led to his retirement from his professorship in 1792, soon
+  after which he published his <i>Observations on the Nature of
+  Demonstrative <!-- Page 447 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page447"></a>[447]</span>Evidence</i>, and the exceedingly popular
+  <i>History of Isaac Jenkins</i>. In 1794 he married a sister of Maria
+  Edgeworth; and in 1798, with the pecuniary aid of Wedgwood, opened a
+  pneumatic institution for curing phthisical and other diseases by
+  inhalation of gases. It speedily became an ordinary hospital, but was
+  noteworthy as connected with the discovery of the properties of nitrous
+  oxide, and as having been superintended by the young Humphry Davy.
+  Beddoes' essays <i>On Consumption</i> (1779) and <i>On Fever</i> (1807),
+  and his <i>Hygeia</i> (3 vols., 1807) had a high contemporary repute. He
+  died in 1808.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Beddoes</b>, Thomas Lovell, poet, son of above, born 1803, died
+  1849; published <i>The Bride's Tragedy</i> while a student at Oxford,
+  studied medicine, and lived long abroad. His work was largely
+  fragmentary, but his posthumous <i>Death's Jest-book, or The Fool's
+  Tragedy</i> (1850), received the high praise of such judges as Landor and
+  Browning. His <i>Poems</i>, with memoir, appeared in 1851.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bede</b>, <b>Beda</b>, or <b>Bæda</b>, known as the Venerable,
+  English historian and theologian, born in 672 or 673 in the neighbourhood
+  of Monkwearmouth, County Durham; educated at St. Peter's Monastery,
+  Wearmouth; took deacon's orders in his nineteenth year at St. Paul's
+  Monastery, Jarrow, and was ordained priest at thirty by John of Beverley,
+  Bishop of Hexham. His life was spent in studious seclusion, the chief
+  events in it being the production of homilies, hymns, lives of saints,
+  commentaries, and works in history, chronology, grammar, &amp;c. He was
+  the most learned Englishman of his day, and in some sense the father of
+  English history, his most important work being his <i>Historia
+  Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum</i> (or <i>Ecclesiastical History of
+  England</i>), afterwards translated by King Alfred into Anglo-Saxon.
+  Besides his familiarity with Latin, he knew Greek and had some
+  acquaintance with Hebrew. Most of his writings were on scriptural and
+  ecclesiastical subjects, but he also wrote on chronology, physical
+  science, grammar, &amp;c., and had considerable ability in the writing of
+  Latin verse. He died in 735, an interesting record of his closing days
+  being preserved in a letter by his pupil Cuthbert. His body was after a
+  lapse of time removed from Jarrow church to Durham, but of the shrine
+  which formerly enclosed them only the Latin inscription remains, ending
+  with the verse&mdash;'Hac sunt in fossa Bedæ venerabilis ossa'. On 13th
+  Nov., 1899, Leo XIII decreed that the feast of the Venerable Bede should
+  be celebrated in the Church on 27th May. An edition of the whole works of
+  Bede (12 vols.), with an English translation, was prepared by Dr. Giles
+  (1843-4).&mdash;<span class="sc">Bibliography</span>: Gehle. <i>De Bedæ
+  Venerabilis Vita et Scriptis</i>; Browne, <i>The Venerable Bede</i>; C.
+  Plummer's introduction to his edition of the <i>Historia
+  Ecclesiastica</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bedeguar</b>, or <b>Bedegar</b> (bed´e-gär), a spongy excrescence
+  or gall, sometimes termed sweet-brier sponge, found on various species of
+  roses, and produced by several insects as receptacles for their eggs,
+  especially by the <i>Cynips rosæ</i>, It was once thought to be a
+  diuretic and vermifuge.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bedell´</b>, William, a celebrated Irish bishop, born in Essex in
+  1570. In 1604 he went to Venice as chaplain to Sir Henry Wotton, and
+  remained eight years. After holding the living of Horingsheath from
+  1615-27, he became Provost of Trinity College, Dublin, and in 1629 Bishop
+  of Kilmore and Ardagh, though he resigned the latter of the united sees
+  in 1630. He set himself to reform abuses and promote the spread of
+  Protestantism, procured the translation of the Old Testament into Irish,
+  and by his tact and wisdom conciliated the adherents of both creeds. He
+  underwent a brief imprisonment on the breaking out of the rebellion in
+  1641, and died in the year following. His biography was written by Bishop
+  Burnet.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Be´der Ware.</b> See <i>Bidery</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bed´ford</b>, a municipal and, until 1918, a parliamentary borough,
+  England, county town of Bedfordshire, on the Ouse. The chief buildings
+  are the law courts, a range of public schools, a large infirmary, county
+  jail, &amp;c., and the churches. The town is rich in charities and
+  educational institutions, the most prominent being the Bedford Charity,
+  embracing grammar and other schools, and richly endowed. There is an
+  extensive manufactory of agricultural implements; lace is also made, and
+  there is a good trade. John Bunyan was born at Elstow, a village near the
+  town, and it was at Bedford that he lived, preached, and was imprisoned.
+  Bedford gives its name to a parliamentary division of the county. Pop.
+  40,247.&mdash;<i>Bedfordshire</i> or <i>Beds</i>, the county, is bounded
+  by Northampton, Bucks, Herts, Cambridge, and Huntingdon; area, 302,942
+  acres, of which 260,000 are under tillage or in permanent pasture. Chalk
+  hills, forming a portion of the Chilterns, cross it on the south; north
+  of this is a belt of sand; the soil of the vale of Bedford, consisting
+  mostly of clay and loam, is very fertile; and the meadows on the Ouse,
+  Ivel, and other streams furnish rich pasturage. Two-thirds of the soil is
+  under tillage. Besides the usual cereal and other crops, culinary
+  vegetables are extensively cultivated for the London market. Principal
+  manufactures: agricultural implements, and straw-plait for hats, which is
+  made up principally at Dunstable and Luton. The county returns three
+  members to Parliament <!-- Page 448 --><span class="pagenum"><a
+  name="page448"></a>[448]</span>(divisions: Bedford, Luton, Midlands).
+  Pop. (1921), 206,478.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bedford</b>, John, Duke of, one of the younger sons of Henry IV,
+  King of England; famous as a statesman and a warrior. He defeated the
+  French fleet in 1416, commanded an expedition to Scotland in 1417, and
+  was lieutenant of England during the absence of Henry V in France. On the
+  king's death he became Regent of France, and for several years his policy
+  was as successful as it was able and vigorous, the victory of Verneuil in
+  1424 attesting his generalship. The greatest stain on his memory is his
+  execution of the Maid of Orleans (Joan of Arc) in 1431. He died in 1435
+  at Rouen, and was buried in the cathedral of that city.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bedford Level</b>, a large tract of marshy land in England, of
+  about 400,000 acres total area, comprising 63,000 in Norfolk, 30,000 in
+  Suffolk, 50,000 in Huntingdon, the Peterborough fen in Northampton, the
+  Holland district in Lincolnshire, and most of the Isle of Ely in
+  Cambridge. It derives its name from Francis, Earl of Bedford, who in 1634
+  made an agreement with Charles I for the drainage of the Level, in
+  consideration of receiving 95,000 acres of the reclaimed land. A great
+  part of the Level is under cultivation, and produces grain, flax, and
+  cole-seed; the remainder yields a winter harvest of wild-fowl for the
+  London market. See <i>Fenland</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bedfordshire Regiment, The</b>, raised in 1688 on the approach of
+  the Prince of Orange, suffered severely at Blenheim, and distinguished
+  itself in a marked manner at the siege of Lille. In 1797 it went to
+  Scotland and there recruited 1000 'parish boys' under sixteen years old,
+  who later made excellent soldiers. The regiment shared in the Chitral and
+  South African (1900-2) campaigns; on going to the front in 1914,
+  sustained heavy losses at Givenchy, and distinguished itself at Ypres and
+  the Aisne.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bedivere</b>, the last knight of the Round Table (q.v.). See
+  <i>Morte d'Arthur</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bed´lam</b>, a corruption of Bethlehem (Hospital), the name of a
+  religious house in London, converted, after the general suppression by
+  Henry VIII, into a hospital for lunatics. The original Bedlam stood in
+  Bishopsgate Street; its modern successor in St. George's Fields was
+  opened in 1815, having been built on the site of the notorious tavern
+  called 'The Dog and the Duck'. The lunatics were at one time treated as
+  little better than wild beasts, and hence Bedlam came to be typical of
+  any scene of wild confusion. The average number of patients is about
+  300.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bed´lington</b>, a town and urban district of England, in
+  Northumberland, near the mouth of the Blyth, and not far from the seaport
+  of Blyth, with collieries, ironworks, &amp;c. Pop. 25,440.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bedlington Terrier</b>, an English Dog, deriving its name from
+  Bedlington, in Northumberland, having first become well known as a
+  favourite among the miners of that place. It is a dog of moderate size,
+  head rather long, with a light, silky tuft on top, ears hanging close to
+  the cheeks, legs moderately long and strong, tail tapering to the point,
+  which is almost bare; colour, dark blue, blue and tan, liver, liver and
+  tan, sandy, or sandy and tan; courageous, intelligent, and generally
+  useful.</p>
+
+  <p><b>Bedlis.</b> See <i>Betlis</i>.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Printed and bound in Great Britain</i></p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1
+Part 3, by Various
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+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,12597 @@
+Project Gutenberg's The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1 Part 3
+       Atrebates to Bedlis
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: October 15, 2010 [EBook #34075]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEW GRESHAM ENEYC. VOL 1 PART 3 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jonathan Ingram, Keith Edkins and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they
+are listed at the end of the text.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Transcriber's note: In the pronunciation guides [=e] signifies "e macron";
+[)e] "e breve"; [a:] "a with diaeresis below"; [.a] "a with dot above";
+[n.] "n with dot below"; [:a] "a with diaeresis"; and so forth.
+
+THE
+
+NEW . GRESHAM
+
+ENCYCLOPEDIA
+
+VOLUME . I . PART . 3
+
+[Illustration]
+
+_The_ GRESHAM . PUBLISHING
+COMPANY . _Limited_
+
+66 CHANDOS STREET . STRAND
+LONDON W.C.2.
+1922
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+VOLUME I PART 3
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+PLATES
+
+                                                                  Page
+
+  BACTERIA                                                        348
+
+MAPS IN COLOUR
+
+
+  AUSTRALIA                                                       316
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by marking
+the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system of
+transliteration, to which the following is the Key:--
+
+VOWELS
+
+[=a], as in f_a_te, or in b_a_re.
+
+[:a], as in _a_lms, Fr. _a_me, Ger. B_a_hn = a of Indian names.
+
+[.a], the same sound short or medium, as in Fr. b_a_l, Ger. M_a_nn.
+
+a, as in f_a_t.
+
+[a:], as in f_a_ll.
+
+_a_, obscure, as in rur_a_l, similar to _u_ in b_u_t, [.e] in h_e_r: common
+in Indian names.
+
+[=e], as in m_e_ = _i_ in mach_i_ne.
+
+e, as in m_e_t.
+
+[.e], as in h_e_r.
+
+[=i], as in p_i_ne, or as _ei_ in Ger. m_ei_n.
+
+i, as in p_i_n, also used for the short sound corresponding to [=e], as in
+French and Italian words.
+
+_eu_, a long sound as in Fr. j_eu_ne = Ger. long _oe_, as in S_oe_hne,
+G_oe_the (Goethe).
+
+eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. p_eu_ = Ger. _oe_ short.
+
+[=o], as in n_o_te, m_oa_n.
+
+o, as in n_o_t, s_o_ft--that is, short or medium.
+
+[:o], as in m_o_ve, tw_o_.
+
+[=u] as in t_u_be.
+
+u, as in t_u_b: similar to [.e] and also to a.
+
+[u:], as in b_u_ll.
+
+[:u], as in Sc. ab_u_ne = Fr. _u_ as in d_u_, Ger. _[:u]_ long as in
+gr_ue_n, B_ue_hne.
+
+[.u], the corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. b_u_t, Ger.
+M_ue_ller.
+
+oi, as in _oi_l.
+
+ou, as in p_ou_nd; or as _au_ in Ger. H_au_s.
+
+CONSONANTS
+
+Of the _consonants_, B, D, F, H, J, K, L, M, N, NG, P, SH, T, V, Z, always
+have their common English sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words.
+The letter C is not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, S or K
+being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require
+explanation are the following:--
+
+ch is always as in ri_ch_.
+
+_d_, nearly as _th_ in _th_is = Sp. _d_ in Ma_d_ri_d_, &c.
+
+g is always hard, as in _g_o.
+
+_h_ represents the guttural in Scotch lo_ch_, Ger. na_ch_, also other
+similar gutturals.
+
+[n.], Fr. nasal _n_ as in bo_n_.
+
+r represents both English _r_, and _r_ in foreign words, which is generally
+much more strongly trilled.
+
+s, always as in _s_o.
+
+th, as _th_ in _th_in.
+
+_th_, as _th_ in _th_is.
+
+w always consonantal, as in _w_e.
+
+x = ks, which are used instead.
+
+y always consonantal, as in _y_ea (Fr. _ligne_ would be re-written
+l[=e]ny).
+
+zh, as _s_ in plea_s_ure = Fr. _j_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+ATREB'ATES, ancient inhabitants of that part of Gallia Belgica, afterwards
+called _Artois_. A colony of them settled in Britain, in a part of
+Berkshire and Oxfordshire.
+
+AT'REK, a river of Asia, forming the boundary between Persia and the
+Russian Transcaspian territory, and flowing into the Caspian; length 250
+miles.
+
+ATREUS (at'r[=u]s), in Greek mythology, a son of Pelops and Hippodam[=i]a,
+and grandson of Tant[)a]lus. Atreus was the father of Agamemnon, according
+to Homer; other writers call him Agamemnon's grandfather. He succeeded
+Eurystheus, his father-in-law, as King of Myc[=e]nae, and in revenge for
+the seduction of his wife by his brother Thyestes gave a banquet at which
+the latter partook of the flesh of his own sons. Atreus was killed by
+Aegisthus, a son of Thyestes. The tragic events connected with this family
+furnished materials to some of the great Greek dramatists.
+
+ATRI (ancient, HADRIA), an episcopal city in the province of Teramo, Italy,
+8 miles from the Adriatic. It has an old (thirteenth century) Gothic
+cathedral, ruins of ancient Roman walls and buildings, and a palace of the
+Agraviva family, who were Dukes of Atri from 1398 to 1775. Pop. 14,043.
+
+AT'RIPLEX. See _Orache_.
+
+A'TRIUM, the entrance-hall and most important apartment of a Roman house,
+generally ornamented with statues, pictures, and _imagines_ or ancestral
+likenesses, which were portrait masks in wax kept in cases. The _atrium_
+formed the reception-room for visitors and clients. It was lighted by the
+_compluvium_, an opening in the roof, towards which the roof sloped so as
+to throw the rainwater into a cistern in the floor called the _impluvium_.
+
+In zoology the term is applied to the large chamber or 'cloaca' into which
+the intestine opens in the Tunicata.
+
+AT'ROPA, the nightshade genus of plants. See _Belladonna_.
+
+AT'ROPHY, a wasting of the flesh due to some interference with the
+nutritive processes. It may arise from a variety of causes, such as
+permanent, oppressive, and exhausting passions, organic disease, a want of
+proper food or of pure air, suppurations in important organs, copious
+evacuations of blood, saliva, semen, &c., and it is also sometimes produced
+by poisons, for example arsenic, mercury, lead, in miners, painters,
+gilders, &c. In old age the whole frame except the heart undergoes atrophic
+change, and it is of frequent occurrence in infancy as a consequence of
+improper, unwholesome food, exposure to cold, damp, or impure air, &c.
+Single organs or parts of the body may be affected irrespective of the
+general state of nutrition; thus local atrophy may be superinduced by
+palsies, the pressure of tumours upon the nerves of the limbs, or by
+artificial pressure, as in the feet of Chinese ladies.
+
+AT'ROPIN, or AT'ROPINE, a crystalline alkaloid obtained from the deadly
+nightshade (_Atr[)o]pa Belladonna_). It is very poisonous, and produces
+persistent dilation of the pupil.
+
+AT'ROPOS, the eldest of the three Fates (the others being Clotho and
+Lach[)e]sis), who cuts the thread of life with her shears.
+
+ATTACHE (at'a-sh[=a]), a junior member of the diplomatic services attached
+to an embassy or legation.
+
+ATTACH'MENT, in English law, a taking of the person, goods, or estate by
+virtue of a writ or precept. It is distinguished from an _arrest_ by
+proceeding out of a higher court by precept or writ, whereas the latter
+proceeds out of an inferior court by precept only. An arrest lies only
+against the body of a man, whereas an attachment lies often against the
+goods only, and sometimes against the body and goods. It differs from a
+_distress_ in that an attachment does not extend to lands, while a distress
+cannot touch the body.--_Foreign attachment_ answers to what in Scotland is
+termed arrestment, by means of which a creditor may obtain the security of
+the goods or other personal property of his debtor in the hands of a third
+person for the purpose of enforcing the appearance of the debtor to answer
+to an action, and afterwards, upon his continued default, of obtaining the
+property absolutely in satisfaction of the demand.
+
+ATTACK', the opening act of hostility by a force seeking to dislodge an
+enemy from its position. It is considered more advantageous to offer than
+to await attack, even in a defensive war. The historic forms of attack are:
+(1) the parallel; (2) the form in which both wings attack and the centre is
+kept back; (3) the form in which the centre is pushed forward and the wings
+kept back; (4) the famous oblique mode, dating at least from Epaminondas,
+and employed by Frederick the Great, where one wing advances to engage,
+whilst the other is kept back, and occupies the attention of the enemy by
+pretending an attack. Napoleon preferred to mass heavy columns against an
+enemy's centre. The forms of attack have changed with the weapons used. In
+the days of the pike heavy masses were the rule, but the use of the musket
+led to an extended battle-front to give effect to the fire. The advance in
+long and slender lines which grew out of this has been not less famous in
+the annals of British attack than the square formation in those of defence.
+In the European War (1914-18) the Germans often attacked in mass-formation;
+but British attacks were usually carried out by successive _waves_; one
+wave secured its objective and consolidated it while another wave passed
+through to attack a more advanced objective. Artillery preparation became
+of increasingly great importance; it broke down the enemy's wire,
+counteracted his artillery-fire, and made his infantry keep under cover. In
+trench-to-trench attacks machine-guns and trench-mortars were of great
+value, and many casualties were avoided by the skilful use of tanks in the
+attack. But it is still a fundamental principle of tactics that the
+infantry is the chief factor in the attack, and that no attack can be
+considered overwhelmingly successful without the use of the bayonet.
+
+ATTAIN'DER, the legal consequences of a sentence of death or outlawry
+pronounced against a person for treason or felony, the person being said to
+be _attainted_. It resulted in forfeiture of estate and 'corruption of
+blood', rendering the party incapable of inheriting property or
+transmitting it to heirs; but these results now no longer follow. Formerly
+persons were often subjected to attainder by a special Bill or Act passed
+in Parliament called _Bills of Attainder_, the last being passed in 1798,
+in the case of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, one of the Irish rebel leaders.
+
+ATTAINT', a writ at common law against a jury for a false verdict, finally
+abolished in England in 1825.
+
+ATTALE'A, a genus of American palms, comprising the piassava palm, which
+produces coquilla-nuts.
+
+ATT'ALUS, the names of three kings of ancient Pergamus (241-133 B.C.), the
+last of whom bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans. They were all patrons of
+art and literature.
+
+AT'TAR, in the East Indies, a general term for a perfume from flowers; in
+Europe generally used only of the _attar_ or _otto of roses_, an essential
+oil made from _Rosa centifolia_, the hundred-leaved or cabbage-rose, _R.
+damasc[=e]na_, or damask-rose, _R. mosch[=a]ta_, or musk-rose, &c., 100,000
+roses yielding only 180 grains of attar. Cashmere, Shiraz, and Damascus are
+celebrated for its manufacture, and there are extensive rose farms in the
+valley of Kezanlik in Roumelia and at Ghazipur in Benares. The oil is at
+first greenish, but afterwards it presents various tints of green, yellow,
+and red. It is concrete at all ordinary temperatures, but becomes liquid
+about 84deg F. It consists of two substances, a hydrocarbon and an
+oxygenated oil, and is frequently adulterated with the oils of rhodium,
+sandal-wood, and geranium, with the addition of camphor or spermaceti.
+
+AT'TERBURY, Francis, an English prelate, born in 1662, and educated at
+Westminster and Oxford. In 1687 he took his degree of M.A., and appeared as
+a controversialist in a defence of the character of Luther, entitled,
+_Considerations on the Spirit of Martin Luther_, &c. He also assisted his
+pupil, the Hon. Charles Boyle, in his famous controversy with Bentley on
+the _Epistles of Phalaris_. Having taken orders in 1691 he settled in
+London, became chaplain to William and Mary, preacher of Bridewell, and
+lecturer of St. Bride's. Controversy was congenial to him, and in 1706 he
+commenced one with Dr. Wake, which lasted four years, on the rights,
+privileges, and powers of convocations. For this service he received the
+thanks of the lower house of convocation and the degree of Doctor of
+Divinity from Oxford. Soon after the accession of Queen Anne he was made
+Dean of Carlisle, aided in the defence of the famous Sacheverell, and wrote
+_A Representation of the Present State of Religion_. In 1712 he was made
+Dean of Christ Church, and in 1713 Bishop of Rochester and Dean of
+Westminster. After the death of the queen in 1714 he distinguished himself
+by his opposition to George I; and, having entered into a correspondence
+with the Pretender's party, was apprehended in Aug., 1722, and committed to
+the Tower. Being banished the kingdom, he settled in Paris, where he
+chiefly occupied himself in study and in correspondence with men of
+letters. But even here, in 1725, he was actively engaged in fomenting
+discontent in the Scottish Highlands. He died in 1731, and his body was
+privately interred in Westminster Abbey. His sermons and letters are marked
+by ease and grace; but as a critic and a controversialist he is rather
+dexterous and popular than accurate and profound.
+
+ATTERCLIFFE, a parliamentary division of the borough of Sheffield.
+
+ATTIC, an architectural term variously used. An _Attic base_ is a peculiar
+kind of base, used by the ancient architects in the Ionic order and by
+Palladio and some others in the Doric. An _Attic story_ is a low story in
+the upper part of a house rising above the main portion of the building. In
+ordinary language an attic is an apartment lighted by a window in the roof.
+
+AT'TICA, a State of ancient Greece, the capital of which is Athens. The
+territory was triangular in shape, with Cape Sunium (Colonna) as its apex
+and the ranges of Mounts Cithaeron and Parnes as its base. On the north
+these ranges separated it from Boeotia; on the west it was bounded by
+Megaris and the Saronic Gulf; on the east by the Aegean. Its most marked
+physical divisions consisted of the highlands, midland district, and coast
+district, with the two famous plains of Eleusis and of Athens. The
+Cephissus and Ilissus, though small, were its chief streams; its principal
+hills, Cithaeron, Parnes, Hymettus, Pentelicus, and Laurium. Its soil has
+probably undergone considerable deterioration, but produced good fruit,
+especially olives and figs. These are still cultivated, as well as the vine
+and cereals, but Attica is better suited for pasture than tillage.
+According to tradition the earliest inhabitants of Attica lived in a savage
+manner until the time of Cecrops, who came, 1550 B.C., with a colony from
+Egypt, taught them all the essentials of civilization, and founded Athens.
+One of Cecrops' descendants founded eleven other cities in the regions
+round, and there followed a period of mutual hostility. To Theseus is
+assigned the honour of uniting these cities in a confederacy, with Athens
+as the capital, thus forming the Attic State. After the death of Codrus,
+1068 B.C., the monarchy was abolished, and the government vested in archons
+elected by the nobility, at first for life, in 752 B.C. for ten years, and
+in 683 B.C. for one year only. The severe constitution of Draco was
+succeeded in 594 by the milder code of Solon, the democratic elements of
+which, after the brief tyranny of the Pisistratids, were emphasized and
+developed by Clisthenes. He divided the people into ten classes, and made
+the Senate consist of 500 persons, establishing as the Government an
+oligarchy modified by popular control. Then came the splendid era of the
+Persian War, which elevated Athens to the summit of fame. Miltiades at
+Marathon, and Themistocles at Salamis, conquered the Persians by land and
+by sea. The chief external danger being removed, the rights of the people
+were enlarged; the archons and other magistrates were chosen from all
+classes without distinction. The period from the Persian War to the time of
+Alexander (500 to 336 B.C.) was most remarkable for the development of the
+Athenian constitution. Attica appears to have contained a territory of
+nearly 850 sq. miles, with some 500,000 inhabitants, 360,000 of whom were
+slaves, while the inhabitants of the city numbered 180,000. Cimon and
+Pericles (444 B.C.) raised Athens to its point of greatest splendour,
+though under the latter began the Peloponnesian War, which ended with the
+conquest of Athens by the Lacedaemonians. The succeeding tyranny of the
+Thirty, under the protection of a Spartan garrison, was overthrown by
+Thrasybulus, with a temporary partial restoration of the power of Athens;
+but the battle of Cheronaea (338 B.C.) made Attica, in common with the rest
+of Greece, a dependency of Macedon. The attempts at revolt after the death
+of Alexander were crushed, and in 260 B.C. Attica was still under the sway
+of Antigonus Gonatas, the Macedonian king. A period of freedom under the
+shelter of the Achaean League then ensued, but their support of Mithridates
+led, in 146 B.C., to the subjugation of the Grecian States by Rome. After
+the division of the Roman Empire, Attica belonged to the Empire of the East
+until, in A.D. 396, it was conquered by Alaric the Goth and the country
+devastated. Attica and Boeotia now form a nome or province of the kingdom
+of Greece, with a population of 407,063.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. G. Frazer,
+_Pausanias's Description of Greece_, vols. ii and v; C. Wordsworth, _Athens
+and Attica_.
+
+AT'TICUS, Titus Pomponius, a Roman of great wealth and culture, born 109
+B.C., and died 32 B.C. On the death of his father he removed to Athens to
+avoid participation in the civil war, to which his brother Sulpicius had
+fallen a victim. There he so identified himself with Greek life and
+literature as to receive the surname Atticus. It was his principle never to
+mix in politics, and he lived undisturbed amid the strife of factions.
+Sulla and the Marian party, Caesar and Pompey, Brutus and Antony, were
+alike friendly to him, and he was in favour with Augustus. Of his close
+friendship with Cicero proof is given in the series of letters addressed to
+him by Cicero. He married at the age of fifty-three, and had one daughter,
+Pomponia, named by Cicero Atticula and Attica. He reached the age of
+seventy-seven years without sickness, but, being then attacked by an
+incurable disease, ended his life by voluntary starvation. He was a type of
+the refined Epicurean, and an author of some contemporary repute, though
+none of his works have reached us.--The name Atticus was given to Addison
+by Pope, in a well-known passage (Prologue to the _Satires_, addressed to
+Dr. Arbuthnot).
+
+AT'TILA (in Ger. _Etzel_), the famous leader of the Huns, was the son of
+Mundzuk, and the successor, in conjunction with his brother Bleda, of his
+uncle Roua. The rule of the two leaders extended over a great part of
+Northern Asia and Europe, and they threatened the Eastern Empire, and twice
+compelled the weak Theodosius II to purchase an inglorious peace. Attila
+caused his brother Bleda to be murdered (444), and in a short time extended
+his dominion over all the peoples of Germany and exacted tribute from the
+Eastern and Western emperors. The Vandals, the Ostrogoths, the Gepidae, and
+a part of the Franks united under his banners, and he speedily formed a
+pretext for leading them against the Empire of the East. He laid waste all
+the countries from the Black to the Adriatic Sea, and in three encounters
+defeated the Emperor Theodosius, but could not take Constantinople. Thrace,
+Macedonia, and Greece all submitted to the invader, who destroyed seventy
+flourishing cities; and Theodosius was obliged to purchase a peace. Turning
+to the west, the 'scourge of God', as his defeated enemies termed him,
+crossed with an immense army the Rhine, the Moselle, and the Seine, came to
+the Loire, and laid siege to Orleans. The inhabitants of this city repelled
+the first attack, and the united forces of the Romans under Aetius, and of
+the Visigoths under their king, Theodoric, compelled Attila to raise the
+siege. He retreated to Champagne, and waited for the enemy in the plains of
+Chalons. In apparent opposition to the prophecies of the soothsayers the
+ranks of the Romans and Goths were broken; but when the victory of Attila
+seemed assured, the Gothic prince Thorismond, the son of Theodoric, poured
+down from the neighbouring height upon the Huns, who were defeated with
+great slaughter. Rather irritated than discouraged, he sought in the
+following year a new opportunity to seize upon Italy, and demanded Honoria,
+the sister of Valentinian III, in marriage, with half the kingdom as a
+dowry. When this demand was refused he conquered and destroyed Aquileia,
+Padua, Vicenza, Verona, and Bergamo, laid waste the plains of Lombardy, and
+was marching on Rome when Pope Leo I went with the Roman ambassadors to his
+camp and succeeded in obtaining a peace. Attila went back to Hungary, and
+died on the night of his marriage with Hilda or Ildico (453), either from
+the bursting of a blood-vessel or by her hand. The description that
+Jordanes (or Jornandes) has left us of him is in keeping with his
+Kalmuck-Tartar origin. He had a large head, a flat nose, broad shoulders,
+and a short and ill-formed body; but his eyes were brilliant, his walk
+stately, and his voice strong and well-toned.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Thierry,
+_Koenig Attila und seine Zeit_; E. Hutton, _Attila and the Huns_.
+
+ATTILLY, a village in France. See _Scarpe, Battle of the_.
+
+ATTLEBOROUGH, a manufacturing town of the United States, in Massachusetts.
+Pop. 19,731.
+
+AT'TOCK, a town and fort in Rawal Pindi district, Punjab, overhanging the
+Indus at the point where it is joined by the Kabul River. It is at the head
+of the steam navigation of the Indus, and is connected with Lahore by
+railway. It is an important post on the military road to the frontier. Pop.
+2822.
+
+ATTOR'NEY, a person appointed to do something for and in the stead and name
+of another. An attorney may have _general_ powers to act for another; or
+his power may be _special_, and limited to a particular act or acts. A
+special attorney is appointed by a deed called a _power_ or _letter of
+attorney_, specifying the acts which he is authorized to do. An _attorney
+at law_ is a person qualified to appear for another before a court of law
+to prosecute or defend any action on behalf of his client. The term in
+England was formerly applied especially to those practising before the
+supreme courts of common law at Westminster, and corresponded to the term
+_solicitor_ used in courts of Chancery; but this distinction was abolished
+in 1873, and _solicitor_ is now the regular term for all such legal agents.
+In the United States the term is in common use, and is wide enough to
+include what in England would be called barristers (or counsel), in
+Scotland advocates, having indeed the general sense of lawyer. In America
+women are admitted as attorneys.
+
+ATTORNEY-GENERAL, in England and Ireland, the first law-officer and legal
+adviser of the Crown, acting on its behalf in its revenue and criminal
+proceedings, carrying on prosecutions in crimes that have a public
+character, guarding the interests of charitable endowments, and granting
+patents. He is _ex officio_ the leader of the bar, and, as a member of
+Parliament, has charge of all Government measures on legal questions. The
+Solicitor-General holds a similar position, and may act in his place. In
+Scotland the Attorney-General is called Lord-Advocate. There are also
+Attorneys-General in the colonies. In the United States he is head of the
+Department of Justice. The individual States have also an Attorney-General.
+
+ATTRAC'TION, the tendency of all material bodies, whether masses or
+particles, to approach each other, to unite, and to remain united. Newton
+was the first to adopt the theory of a universal attractive force, and to
+determine its laws. When bodies tend to come together from sensible
+distances the tendency is termed either the attraction of _gravitation_,
+_magnetism_, or _electricity_, according to circumstances; when the
+attraction operates at insensible distances it is known as _adhesion_ with
+respect to surfaces, as _cohesion_ with respect to the particles of a body,
+and as _affinity_ when the particles of different bodies tend together. It
+is by the attraction of gravitation that all bodies fall to the earth when
+unsupported.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Newton, _Principia_; Thomson and Tait, _Natural
+Philosophy_; Laplace, _Mecanique Celeste_; Poynting, _The Mean Density of
+the Earth_.
+
+ATTREK. See _Atrek_.
+
+AT'TRIBUTE, in philosophy, a quality or property of a substance, as
+whiteness or hardness. A substance is known to us only as a congeries of
+attributes.
+
+In the fine arts an attribute is a symbol regularly accompanying and
+marking out some personage. Thus the caduceus, purse, winged hat, and
+sandals are attributes of Mercury, the trampled dragon that of St. George.
+
+ATTWOOD, George, F.R.S., an English mathematician, born 1746, died 1807,
+best known by his invention, called after him _Attwood's Machine_, for
+verifying the laws of falling bodies. It consists essentially of a
+freely-moving pulley over which runs a fine cord with two equal weights
+suspended from the ends. A small additional weight is laid upon one of
+them, causing it to descend with uniform acceleration. Means are provided
+by which the added weight can be removed at any point of the descent, thus
+allowing the motion to continue from this point onward with uniform
+velocity. See _Gravitation_.
+
+ATYS, or ATTIS (at'is), in classical mythology, the shepherd lover of
+Cyb[)e]le, who, having broken the vow of chastity which he made her,
+castrated himself. In Asia Minor Atys seems to have been a deity, with
+somewhat of the same character as Adonis. Catullus has written a celebrated
+poem (Carmen 63) on the subject of Attis.
+
+AUBAGNE ([=o]-b[.a]n-y[.e]), a town in France, department of
+Bouches-du-Rhone, with manufactures of cottons, pottery, cloth. Pop. 8800.
+
+AUBAINE, DROIT D' (drwae d[=o]-b[=a]n). See _Droit d'Aubaine_.
+
+AUBE ([=o]b), a north-eastern French department; area 2326 sq. miles; pop.
+227,745. The surface is undulating, and watered by the Aube, &c. The N. and
+N.W. districts are bleak and infertile, the southern districts remarkably
+fertile. A large extent of ground is under forests and vineyards, and the
+soil is admirable for grain, pulse, and hemp. The chief manufactures are
+worsted and hosiery. Troyes is the capital.--The River Aube, which gives
+name to the department, rises in Haute-Marne, flows N.W., and after a
+course of 113 miles joins the Seine.
+
+AUBENAS ([=o]b-nae), a town of France, department Ardeche, with a trade in
+coal, silk, &c. Pop. 7206.
+
+AUBER ([=o]-b[=a]r), Daniel Francois Esprit, a French operatic composer,
+born 1782, at Caen, in Normandy, died at Paris 1871. He was originally
+intended for a mercantile career, but devoted himself to music, studying
+under Cherubini. His first great success was his opera _La Bergere
+Chatelaine_, produced in 1820. In 1822 he had associated himself with
+Scribe as librettist, and other operas now followed in quick succession.
+Chief among them were _Masaniello_ or _La Muette de Portici_ (1828), _Fra
+Diavolo_ (1830), _Lestocq_ (1834), _L'Ambassadrice_ (1836), _Le Domino
+Noir_ (1837), _Les Diamants de la Couronne_ (1841), _Marco Spada_ (1853),
+_La Fiancee du Roi de Garbe_ (1864). Despite his success in _Masaniello_,
+his peculiar field was comic opera, in which his charming melodies, bearing
+strongly the stamp of the French national character, his uniform grace and
+piquancy, won him a high place.
+
+AUBERGINE ([=o]'b[.e]r-zh[=e]n), the fruit of the eggplant (q.v.).
+
+AUBERVILLIERS ([=o]-b[=a]r-v[=e]l-y[=a]), a suburban locality of Paris,
+with a fort belonging to the defensive works of the city. Pop. 37,558.
+
+AUBIGNE, Merle d'. See _Merle d'Aubigne_.
+
+AUBIN ([=o]-ba[n.]), a town of Southern France, department of Aveyron, 20
+miles N.E. of Villefranche; mining district: coal, sulphur, alum, and iron.
+Pop. 9574.
+
+AU'BREY, John, F.R.S., an English antiquary, born in Wiltshire in 1625 or
+1626, died about 1700. He was educated at Oxford; collected materials for
+the _Monasticon Anglicanum_, and afforded important assistance to Wood, the
+antiquary. He left large collections of manuscripts, which have been used
+by subsequent writers. His _Miscellanies_ (London, 1696) contain much
+curious information, but display credulity and superstition. His _Survey of
+Surrey_ was incorporated in Rawlinson's _Natural History and Antiquities of
+the County of Surrey_, which was published in 1719.
+
+AU'BURN, the name of many places in America, the chief being a handsome
+city of New York State, at the north end of Owasco Lake. It is chiefly
+famous for its State prison, large enough to receive 1000 prisoners. In the
+town or vicinity various manufactures are carried on. Pop. 36,142.--Another
+Auburn is in Maine, on the Androscoggin River, a manufacturing town. Pop.
+(1920), 16,985.
+
+AUBUSSON ([=o]-b[.u]-s[=o]n), a town of the interior of France, department
+Creuse, celebrated for its carpets. Pop. 7211.
+
+AUBUSSON ([=o]-b[.u]-s[=o]n), Pierre d', grand-master of the knights of St.
+John of Jerusalem, born in 1423 of a noble French family, served in early
+life against the Turks, then entered the order of St. John, obtained a
+commandery, was made grand-prior, and in 1476 succeeded the Grand-master
+Orsini. In 1480 the Island of Rhodes, the head-quarters of the order, was
+invaded by a Turkish army of 100,000 men. The town was besieged for two
+months and then assaulted, but the Turks were obliged to retire with great
+loss. He died at Rhodes in 1503.
+
+AUCH ([=o]sh), a town in S.W. France, capital of department Gers; the seat
+of an archbishop, with one of the finest Gothic cathedrals in France;
+manufactures linens, leather, &c. Pop. 13,638.
+
+AUCHENIA ([a:]-k[=e]'ni-a). See _Llama_.
+
+AUCHTERAR'DER, a town, Perthshire, Scotland, with manufactures of tweeds,
+tartans, &c. The opposition to the presentee to the church of Auchterarder
+(1839) originated the struggle which ended in the formation of the Free
+Church of Scotland. Pop. (1921), 3151.
+
+AUCK'LAND, a town of New Zealand, in the North Island, founded in 1840, and
+situated on Waitemata Harbour, one of the finest harbours of New Zealand,
+where the island is only 6 miles across, there being another harbour
+(Manukau) on the opposite side of the isthmus. At dead low water there is
+sufficient depth in the harbour for the largest steamers. The working ship
+channel has an average depth of 36 feet, and varies in width from 1 to 2
+miles. The harbour has two good entrances, with a lighthouse; and is
+defended by batteries. There are numerous wharves and jetties, and two
+graving-docks, one of which--the Calliope Dock, opened in 1887--is one of
+the largest in the whole of the Southern Seas. Its site is picturesque, the
+streets are spacious, and the public buildings--churches, educational
+establishments, including a university college--are numerous and handsome.
+It has a large and increasing trade, there being connection with the chief
+places on the island by rail, and regular communication with the other
+ports of the colony, Australia, and Fiji by steam. It was formerly the
+capital of the colony. Pop. (including suburbs) 157,750.--The provincial
+district of Auckland forms the northern part of North Island, with an area
+of 25,364 sq. miles. Pop. 308,766. The surface is very diversified;
+volcanic phenomena are common, including geysers, hot lakes, &c.; rivers
+are numerous; wool, timber, kauri-gum, &c., are exported. Much gold has
+been obtained in the Thames Valley and elsewhere.
+
+AUCKLAND, William Eden, Lord, an English statesman, born 1744; educated at
+Eton and Oxford, called to the bar 1768, Under-Secretary of State 1772, and
+in 1776 a lord of the Board of Trade. In 1778 he was nominated in
+conjunction with Lord Howe and others to act as mediator between Britain
+and the insurgent American colonies. He was afterwards Secretary of State
+for Ireland, Ambassador Extraordinary to France, Ambassador Extraordinary
+to the Netherlands, &c. He was raised to the peerage in 1788, and died in
+1814.
+
+AUCKLAND ISLANDS, a group of islands about 180 miles S. of New Zealand,
+discovered in 1806, and belonging to Britain. They are of volcanic origin
+and fertile; and the largest, which is 30 miles by 15, has two good
+harbours. There are no settled inhabitants.
+
+AUCTION is a public sale to the party offering the best price where the
+buyers bid against each other, or to the bidder who first accepts the terms
+offered by the vendor where he sells by reducing his terms until someone
+accepts them. The latter form is known as a _Dutch Auction_. A sale by
+auction must be conducted in the most open and public manner possible; and
+there must be no collusion on the part of the buyers. Puffing, or mock
+bidding, to raise the value by apparent competition, is illegal.
+
+AUCTIONEER', a person who conducts sales by auction. It is his duty to
+state the conditions of sale, to declare the respective biddings, and to
+terminate the sale by _knocking down_ the thing sold to the highest bidder.
+In Britain an auctioneer must have a licence (for which he pays L10),
+renewable annually. Verbal declarations by an auctioneer are not suffered
+to control the printed conditions of sale. The Auctioneers' Institute of
+the United Kingdom was founded in 1886.
+
+AU'CUBA, a genus of plants, ord. Cornaceae, one species of which, _A.
+japonica_, a laurel-like shrub with spotted leaves, a native of Japan and
+China, is now common in ornamental grounds in Europe. The flowers are
+dioecious and inconspicuous. For a long time only the female plant,
+introduced into Britain from Japan in 1783, was cultivated, but in 1850 the
+male was introduced, and the fruit, which consists of beautiful coral-red
+berries, is now frequently developed, and adds greatly to the
+attractiveness of the plant. _A. himalaica_, also brought to Europe, is
+less hardy.
+
+AUDE ([=o]d), a maritime department in the S. of France; area 2448 sq.
+miles, mainly covered by hills belonging to the Pyrenees or the Cevennes,
+and traversed W. to E. by a valley drained by the Aude. The loftier
+districts are bleak and unproductive; the others tolerably fertile,
+yielding good crops of grain. The wines, especially the white wines, are
+famous; olives and other fruits are also cultivated. The manufactures are
+varied; the trade is facilitated by the Canal du Midi. Carcassonne is the
+capital; other towns are Narbonne and Castelnaudary. Pop. 286,552. The
+River Aude rises in the Eastern Pyrenees, and, flowing nearly parallel to
+the Canal du Midi, falls into the Mediterranean after a course of 130
+miles.
+
+AUDEBERT ([=o]d-b[=a]r), Jean Baptiste, French engraver and naturalist,
+born in 1759, died in 1800; published _Histoire Naturelle des Singes, des
+Makis, et des Galeopitheques_; _Histoire des Colibris_, &c.; and began
+_Histoire des Grimpereaux et des Oiseaux de Paradis_, finished by
+Desray--all finely-illustrated works.
+
+AU'DENSHAW, a town of England, in Lancashire, 4 miles E. of Manchester,
+with cotton-mills, engineering-works, &c. Pop. (1921), 7878.
+
+AUDIOMETER, an instrument for the measurement of hearing, invented by
+Professor D. E. Hughes, of London, in 1879.
+
+AU'DIPHONE, an acoustic instrument by means of which deaf persons are
+enabled to hear. It consists essentially of a fan-shaped plate of hardened
+caoutchouc, which is bent to a greater or less degree by strings, and is
+very sensitive to sound-waves. When used, the up edge is pressed against
+the upper front teeth, with the convexity outward, and the sounds being
+collected are conveyed from the teeth to the auditory nerve without passing
+through the external ear.
+
+AU'DIT, an examination into accounts or dealings with money or property,
+along with vouchers or other documents connected therewith, especially by
+proper officers, or persons appointed for the purpose. Also the occasion of
+receiving the rents from the tenants on an estate.
+
+AU'DITOR, a person appointed to examine accounts, public or private, to see
+whether they are correct and in accordance with vouchers. In Britain the
+public accounts are audited by the Exchequer and Audit Department, Somerset
+House, at the head of it being a comptroller and auditor-general, and an
+assistant-comptroller and auditor, with a large staff of clerks. In
+Scotland there is an auditor attached to the Court of Session appointed to
+tax costs in litigation.
+
+AUDITORY NERVES. See _Ear_.
+
+AUDLEY, a town (urban district) of England, in Staffordshire, to the
+north-west of the district of The Potteries, with coal and iron mines. Pop.
+(1921), 14,751.
+
+AUDRAN ([=o]-draen), Gerard, a celebrated French engraver, born 1640;
+studied at Rome; was appointed engraver to Louis XIV; died at Paris 1703.
+He engraved Le Brun's _Battles of Alexander_, two of Raphael's cartoons,
+Poussin's _Coriolanus_, &c., and takes a first place among historical
+engravers. Other members of the family were successful in the same
+profession: Benoit, 1661-1721; Claude _pere_, 1592-1677; Claude _fils_,
+1640-84; Germain, 1631-1710; Jean, 1667-1756.
+
+AU'DUBON, John James, an American naturalist of French extraction, born
+near New Orleans in 1775, was educated in France, and studied painting
+under David. In 1798 he settled in Pennsylvania, but having a great love
+for ornithology he set out in 1810 with his wife and child, descended the
+Ohio, and for many years roamed the forests in every direction, drawing the
+birds which he shot. In 1826 he came to England, exhibited his drawings in
+Liverpool, Manchester, and Edinburgh, and finally published them in an
+unrivalled work of double-folio size, with 435 coloured plates of birds the
+size of life (_The Birds of America_, 4 vols., 1827-39), with an
+accompanying text (_Ornithological Biography_, 5 vols., 8vo, partly written
+by Professor Macgillivray). On his final return to America he laboured with
+Dr. Bachman on a finely-illustrated work entitled _The Quadrupeds of
+America_ (1843-50, 3 vols.). He died at New York in 1851.
+
+AUERBACH, a manufacturing town of Germany, in Saxony. Pop. 2200.
+
+AUERBACH (ou'[.e]r-bae_h_), Berthold, a distinguished German author of
+Jewish extraction, born 1812, died 1882. He abandoned the study of Jewish
+theology in favour of philosophy, publishing in 1836 his _Judaism and
+Modern Literature_, and a translation of the works of Spinoza with critical
+biography (5 vols., 1841). His later works were tales or novels, and his
+_Village Tales of the Black Forest_ (_Schwarzwaelder Dorfgeschichten_), as
+well as others of his writings, have been translated into several
+languages. Other works: _Barfuessele_, _Joseph im Schnee_, _Edelweiss_,
+_Auf der Hoehe_, _Das Landhaus am Rhein_, _Waldfried_, _Brigitta_.
+
+AUERSTAEDT (ou'[.e]r-stet), battle at, 14th Oct., 1806. See _Jena_.
+
+AUGEAS ([a:]-j[=e]'as), a fabulous king of Elis, in Greece, whose stable
+contained 3000 oxen, and had not been cleaned for thirty years. Hercules
+undertook to clear away the filth in one day in return for a tenth part of
+the cattle, and executed the task by turning the River Alph[=e]us through
+it. Augeas, having broken the bargain, was deposed and slain by Hercules.
+
+AUGER ([a:]'g[.e]r), an instrument for boring holes considerably larger
+than those bored by a gimlet, used by carpenters and joiners, ship-wrights,
+&c.
+
+AUGEREAU ([=o]zh-r[=o]), Pierre Francois Charles, Duke of Castiglione,
+Marshal of France, son of a mason, born at Paris 1757. He adopted the life
+of a soldier, and by 1796 had reached the rank of general of division in
+the army of Italy. At Casale, Lodi, Castiglione, and Arcole he highly
+distinguished himself. In 1797 he was at Paris, and was the instrument of
+the _coup d'etat_ of the 18th of Fructidor (4th Sept.). In 1799 he was
+chosen a member of the Council of Five Hundred. He then obtained the
+command of the army in Holland, and fought till the end of the campaign. In
+1803 he was appointed to lead the army collected at Bayonne against
+Portugal. In 1804 he was named marshal of the empire, and grand officer of
+the Legion of Honour. He subsequently took part in the battles of Jena and
+Eylau, held a command in Spain, and in July, 1813, led the army in Bavaria
+against Saxony, taking part in the battle of Leipzig. On Napoleon's
+abdication he submitted to Louis XVIII, who named him a peer. He died 1816.
+
+AUGHRIM, a village in Co. Galway, Ireland, memorable for the decisive
+victory gained in the neighbourhood, 12th July, 1691, by the forces of
+William of Orange, under Ginkel, over the Irish and French troops, under
+St. Ruth. The total English casualties were about 1700, while the Irish
+lost at least 7000 men as well as all their war material. This battle
+caused the complete submission of the country.
+
+AUGIER ([=o]-zhi-[=a]), Emile, noted French dramatist, born 1820, came
+young to Paris, entered a lawyer's office, but relinquished law for
+literature; elected an academician in 1857, in 1868 a commander of the
+Legion of Honour. His first and one of his best dramas was the comedy _La
+Cigue_ (1844); among his other works are _L'Aventuriere_, _Gabrielle_,
+_Paul Forestier_, _Le Mariage d'Olympe_, _Le Gendre de M. Poirier_, _Les
+Effrontes_, _Le Fils de Giboyer_, _Les Lions et les Renards_, _Maitre
+Guerin_, _Les Fourchambault_, &c. He died in 1889.
+
+AUGITE ([a:]'j[=i]t) is the commonest member of the pyroxene group of
+minerals; a constituent of many igneous rocks, such as basalt, gabbro, &c.
+It crystallizes in short almost rectangular prisms of the monoclinic
+system, modifying planes causing cross-sections to be eight-sided. Its
+specific gravity is about 3.2; lustre vitreous; hardness sufficient to
+scratch glass; colour usually dark. It is a silicate of calcium, magnesium,
+iron, and aluminium, and alters in geological time by slow
+recrystallization into hornblende, possibly with some loss of calcium. It
+may be imitated by the artificial fusion of its constituents. A
+transparent, green, non-aluminous variety found at Zillertal, in Tyrol, is
+used in jewellery.
+
+AUGSBURG (ougz'b[u:]r_h_; Lat. _Augusta Vindelicorum_), a city of Bavaria,
+at the junction of the Wertach and Lech, antique in appearance, but with
+some fine streets, squares, and handsome or interesting buildings,
+including a splendid town hall, a lofty belfry (Perlach Tower), cathedral,
+with paintings by Domenichino, Holbein, &c.; St. Ulrich's Church; the
+bishop's palace, where the Augsburg Confession was presented to the Diet,
+afterwards a royal residence; the Fugger Palace, or mansion of the
+celebrated Fugger family; the public library; the theatre; the Academy of
+Arts; and the Fuggerei, a separate quarter of the city, consisting of
+fifty-three small houses, tenanted at a merely nominal rent by indigent
+Roman Catholics. Augsburg was a renowned commercial centre in the Middle
+Ages, and is still an important emporium of South German and Italian trade;
+industries: cotton spinning and weaving, dyeing, woollen manufacture,
+machinery and metal goods, books and printing, chemicals, &c. The Emperor
+Augustus established a colony here about 12 B.C. In 1276 it became a free
+city, and, besides being a great mart for the commerce between the north
+and south of Europe, it was a great centre of German art in the Middle
+Ages. It early took a conspicuous part in the Reformation. (See next
+article.) In 1806 it was incorporated in Bavaria. Pop. (1919), 154,555.
+
+AUGSBURG CONFESSION, a document which was presented by the Protestants at
+the Diet of Augsburg, 1530, to the Emperor Charles V and the Diet, and
+being signed by the Protestant States was adopted as their creed. Luther
+made the original draft; but as its style appeared too violent it was given
+to Melanchthon for amendment. The original is to be found in the imperial
+Austrian archives. Afterwards Melanchthon arbitrarily altered some of the
+articles, and there arose a division between those who held the original
+and those who held the altered Augsburg Confession. The former is received
+by the Lutherans, the latter by the German Reformed.
+
+AU'GURS, a board or college of diviners who, amongst the Romans, predicted
+future events and announced the will of the gods from the occurrence of
+certain signs. These consisted of signs in the sky, especially thunder and
+lightning; signs from the flight and cries of birds; from the feeding of
+the sacred chickens; from the course taken or sounds uttered by various
+quadrupeds or by serpents; from accidents or occurrences, such as spilling
+the salt, sneezing, &c. The answers of the augurs as well as the signs by
+which they were governed were called _auguries_, but bird-predictions were
+properly termed _auspices_. Nothing of consequence could be undertaken
+without consulting the augurs, and by the mere utterance of the words _alio
+die_ ('meet on another day') they could dissolve the assembly of the people
+and annul all decrees passed at the meeting.
+
+AU'GUST, the eighth month from January. It was the sixth of the Roman year,
+and hence was called _Sext[=i]lis_ till the Emperor Augustus affixed to it
+his own name.
+
+AUGUS'TA, the name of many ancient places, as Augusta Trevirorum, now
+_Treves_; Augusta Taurinorum, now _Turin_; Augusta Vindelicorum, now
+_Augsburg_; &c.
+
+AUGUSTA (ou-g[u:]s't[.a]), or AGOS'TA, a seaport in the south-east of
+Sicily, 12 miles north of Syracuse. It exports salt, oil, honey, &c. Pop.
+17,250.
+
+AUGUS'TA, capital of Maine, United States, on the River Kennebec, which is
+crossed by a bridge and is navigable for small vessels 43 miles from its
+mouth, while a dam enables steamboats to ply for 20 miles farther up and
+furnishes immense water-power. Pop. (1920), 14,144.
+
+AUGUSTA, the capital of Richmond county, Georgia, United States, on the
+left bank of the Savannah River, 231 miles from its mouth; well built, and
+connected with the river by high-level canals; an important manufacturing
+centre, having cotton-mills, machine-shops, and railroad works, &c. Pop.
+(1920), 52,548.
+
+AU'GUSTINE (Aurelius Augustinus), ST., a renowned father of the Christian
+Church, was born at Tagaste, in Africa, in 354, his mother Monica being a
+Christian, his father Patricius a pagan. His parents sent him to Carthage
+to complete his education, but he disappointed their expectations by his
+neglect of serious study and his devotion to pleasure. A lost book of
+Cicero's, called _Hortensius_, led him to the study of philosophy; but
+dissatisfied with this he went over to the Manichaeans. He was one of their
+disciples for nine years, but left them, went to Rome, and thence to Milan,
+where he announced himself as a teacher of rhetoric. St. Ambrose, the
+bishop of this city, converted him to the faith of his boyhood, and the
+reading of Paul's _Epistles_ wrought an entire change in his life and
+character. He retired into solitude, and prepared himself for baptism,
+which he received in his thirty-third year from the hands of Ambrose.
+Returning to Africa, he sold his estate and gave the proceeds to the poor,
+retaining only enough to support him. At the desire of the people of Hippo,
+Augustine became the assistant of the bishop of that town, preached with
+extraordinary success, and in 395 succeeded to the see. He entered into a
+warm controversy with Pelagius concerning the doctrines of free-will,
+grace, and predestination, and wrote treatises concerning them, but of his
+various works his _Confessions_ is most secure of immortality. He died 28th
+Aug., 430, while Hippo was besieged by the Vandals. He was a man of great
+enthusiasm, self-devotion, zeal for truth, and powerful intellect, and
+though there have been fathers of the Church more learned, none have
+wielded a more powerful influence. His doctrine of grace, which was an
+important contribution to Christian thought, triumphed at last in the
+Reformation and evangelical religion. His writings are partly
+autobiographical, as the _Confessions_, partly polemical, homiletic, or
+exegetical. The greatest is the _City of God_ (_De Civitate Dei_), a
+vindication of Christianity.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Joseph McCabe, _St. Augustine
+and his Age_; Nourrisson, _La Philosophie de St. Augustin_.
+
+AU'GUSTINE, or AUSTIN, ST., the _Apostle of the English_, first Archbishop
+of Canterbury, flourished at the close of the sixth century, was sent, in
+596, with forty monks by Pope Gregory I to introduce Christianity into
+Saxon England, and was kindly received by Ethelbert, King of Kent, whom he
+converted, baptising 10,000 of his subjects in one day. In acknowledgment
+of his tact and success Augustine received the archiepiscopal pall from the
+Pope, with instructions to establish twelve sees in his province, but he
+could not persuade the British bishops in Wales to unite with the new
+English Church. He died in 604 or 605. Cf. Sir H. H. Howorth, _St.
+Augustine of Canterbury_.
+
+AU'GUSTINS, or AUGUSTINES, members of several monastic fraternities who
+follow rules framed by the great St. Augustine, or deduced from his
+writings, of which the chief are the Canons Regular of St. Augustine, or
+Austin Canons, and the Begging Hermits or Austin Friars. The Austin Canons
+were introduced into Britain about 1100, and had about 170 houses in
+England and about twenty-five in Scotland. They took the vows of chastity
+and poverty, and their habit was a long black cassock with a white rochet
+over it, having over that a black cloak and hood. The Austin Friars,
+originally hermits, were a much more austere body, went barefooted, and
+formed one of the four orders of mendicants. An order of nuns had also the
+name of Augustines. Their garments, at first black, were afterwards violet.
+
+AUGUSTO'VO, a town of Poland, formerly in Russia, in the government of
+Suwalki, founded in 1557 by Sigismund II. Pop. 11,797. The battle of
+Augustovo was fought between the Russians and the Germans between 14th Sept
+and 3rd Oct., 1914.
+
+AUGUS'TULUS, Romulus, the last of the Western Roman emperors; reigned for
+one year (475-6), when he was overthrown by Odoacer and banished.
+
+AUGUS'TUS, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (originally called Gaius
+Octavius), Roman emperor, was the son of Gaius Octavius and Atia, a
+daughter of Julia, the sister of Julius Caesar. He was born 63 B.C., and
+died A.D. 14. Octavius was at Apollonia, in Epirus, when he received news
+of the death of his uncle (44 B.C.), who had previously adopted him as his
+son. He returned to Rome to claim Caesar's property and avenge his death,
+and now took, according to usage, his uncle's name with the surname
+Octavianus. He was aiming secretly at the chief power, but at first he
+joined the republican party, and assisted at the defeat of Antony at
+Mutina. He got himself chosen consul in 43. Soon after the second
+triumvirate was formed between him and Antony and Lepidus, and this was
+followed by the conscription and assassination of three hundred Senators
+and two thousand knights of the party opposed to the triumvirate. Next year
+Octavianus and Antony defeated the republican army under Brutus and Cassius
+at Philippi. The victors now divided the Roman world between them,
+Octavianus getting the West, Antony the East, and Lepidus Africa. Sextus
+Pompeius, who had made himself formidable at sea, had now to be put down;
+and Lepidus, who had hitherto retained an appearance of power, was deprived
+of all authority (36 B.C.) and retired into private life. Antony and
+Octavianus now shared the Empire between them; but while the former, in the
+East, gave himself up to a life of luxury, and alienated the Romans by his
+alliance with Cleopatra and his adoption of Oriental manners, Octavianus
+skilfully cultivated popularity, and soon declared war ostensibly against
+the Queen of Egypt. The naval victory of Actium, in which the fleet of
+Antony and Cleopatra was defeated, made Octavianus master of the world, 31
+B.C. He returned to Rome, 29 B.C., celebrated a splendid triumph, and
+caused the temple of Janus to be closed in token of peace being restored.
+Gradually all the highest offices of State, civil and religious, were
+united in his hands, and the new title of Augustus was also assumed by him,
+being formally conferred by the Senate in 27 B.C. Great as was the power
+given to him, he exercised it with wise moderation, and kept up the show of
+a republican form of government. Under him successful wars were carried on
+in Africa and Asia (against the Parthians), in Gaul and Spain, in Pannonia,
+Dalmatia, &c.; but the defeat of Varus by the Germans under Arminius with
+the loss of three legions, A.D. 9, was a great blow to him in his old age.
+Many useful decrees proceeded from him, and various abuses were abolished.
+He gave a new form to the Senate, employed himself in improving the morals
+of the people, enacted laws for the suppression of luxury, introduced
+discipline into the armies, and order into the games of the circus. He
+adorned Rome in such a manner that it was said: "He found it of brick, and
+left it of marble". The people erected altars to him, and, by a decree of
+the Senate, the month Sextilis was called _Augustus_ (our August). He was a
+patron of literature; Virgil and Horace were befriended by him, and their
+works and those of their contemporaries are the glory of the _Augustan
+Age_. His death, which took place at Nola, plunged the Empire into the
+greatest grief. He was thrice married, but had no son, and was succeeded by
+his stepson Tiberius, whose mother Livia he had married after prevailing on
+her husband to divorce her.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. B. Firth, _Augustus Caesar_
+(in Heroes of the Nations series); E. S. Shuckburgh, _Augustus_.
+
+AUGUSTUS II (or FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I), Elector of Saxony and King of
+Poland, second son of John George III, Elector of Saxony, was born at
+Dresden in 1670, died at Warsaw 1733. He succeeded his brother in the
+Electorate in 1694, and the Polish throne having become vacant, in 1696, by
+the death of John Sobieski, Augustus presented himself as a candidate for
+it and was successful. He joined with Peter the Great in the war against
+Charles XII of Sweden, invaded Livonia, but was defeated by Charles near
+Riga, and at Clissow, between Warsaw and Cracow. In 1704 he was deposed,
+and two years later formally resigned the crown to Stanislaus I, now
+devoting himself to his Saxon dominions. In 1709, after the defeat of
+Charles at Poltava, the Poles recalled Augustus, who united himself anew
+with Peter. The two monarchs, in alliance with Denmark, sent troops into
+Pomerania, but the Swedish general Steinbock defeated the allies at
+Gadebusch, 20th Dec., 1712. The death of Charles XII put an end to the war,
+and Augustus concluded a peace with Sweden. A confederation was now formed
+in Poland against the Saxon troops, but through the mediation of Peter an
+arrangement was concluded by which the Saxon troops were removed from the
+kingdom. Augustus now gave himself up to voluptuousness and a life of
+pleasure. His Court was one of the most splendid and polished in Europe.
+The Poles yielded but too readily to the example of their king, and the
+last years of his reign were characterized by boundless luxury and
+corruption of manners. His wife left him one son. The Countess of
+Koenigsmark bore him the celebrated commander Marshal Saxe (Maurice of
+Saxony).
+
+AUGUSTUS III (or FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II), Elector of Saxony and King of
+Poland, son of Augustus II, born at Dresden 1696, succeeded his father as
+Elector in 1733, and was chosen King of Poland through the influence of
+Austria and Russia. He closely followed the example of his father,
+distinguishing himself by the splendour of his feasts and the extravagance
+of his Court. He preferred Dresden to Warsaw, and through his long absence
+from Poland the government sank into entire inactivity. During the first
+Silesian war he formed a secret alliance with Austria. The consequence was
+that during the second Silesian war Frederick the Great of Prussia pushed
+on into Saxony, and occupied the capital, from which Augustus fled. By the
+peace of Dresden, 25th Dec., 1745, he was reinstated in the possession of
+Saxony. In 1756 he was involved anew in a war against Prussia. When
+Frederick declined his proposal of neutrality he left Dresden, and entered
+the camp at Pirna, where 17,000 Saxon troops were assembled. Frederick
+surrounded the Saxons, who were obliged to surrender, and Augustus fled to
+Poland. On the threat of invasion by Russia he returned to Dresden, where
+he died in 1763. His son, Frederick Christian, succeeded him as Elector of
+Saxony, and Stanislaus Poniatowski as King of Poland.
+
+[Illustration: Razor-bill (_Alca torda_)]
+
+AUK, a name of certain swimming birds, family Alcidae, including the great
+auk, the little auk, the puffin, &c. The genus Alca, or auks proper,
+contains only two species, the great auk (_Alca impennis_), and the
+razor-bill (_Alca torda_). The great auk or gair-fowl, a bird about 3 feet
+in length, used to be plentiful in northerly regions, and also visited the
+British shores, but has become extinct. Some seventy skins, about as many
+eggs, with bones representing perhaps a hundred individuals, are preserved
+in various museums. Though the largest species of the family, the wings
+were only 6 inches from the carpal joint to the tip, totally useless for
+flight, but employed as fins in swimming, especially under water. The tail
+was about 3 inches long; the beak was high, short, and compressed; the
+head, neck, and upper parts were blackish; a large spot under each eye, and
+most of the under parts white. Its legs were placed so far back as to cause
+it to sit nearly upright. The razor-bill is about 15 inches in length, and
+its wings are sufficiently developed to be used for flight. It is found in
+numbers on some parts of the British shores, as the Isle of Man.
+
+AULAP'OLAY, or ALLEPPI, a seaport on the south-west coast of Hindustan,
+Travancore, between the sea and a lagoon, with a safe roadstead all the
+year round; exports timber, coir, coconuts, &c. Pop. 24,918.
+
+AULD LICHTS. See _Presbyterianism_.
+
+AULIC (Lat. _aula_, a court or hall), an epithet given to a council (the
+_Reichshofrath_) in the old German Empire, one of the two supreme courts of
+the German Empire, the other being the court of the imperial chamber
+(_Reichskammergericht_). It had not only concurrent jurisdiction with the
+latter court, but in many cases exclusive jurisdiction, in all feudal
+processes, and in criminal affairs, over the immediate feudatories of the
+Emperor and in affairs which concerned the imperial Government.
+
+AU'LIS, in ancient Greece, a seaport in Boeotia, on the strait called
+Euripus, between Boeotia and Euboea. See _Iphigenia_.
+
+AULLAGAS (ou-lyae'gaes), a salt lake of Bolivia, which receives the surplus
+waters of Lake Titicaca through the Rio Desaguadero, and has only one
+perceptible insignificant outlet, so that what becomes of its superfluous
+water is still a matter of uncertainty.
+
+AULNOY ([=o]-nwae), Countess d', French writer, born 1650, died 1705, was
+the author of _Contes des Fees_ (_Fairy Tales_), many of which, such as
+_The White Cat_, _The Yellow Dwarf_, &c., have been translated into
+English. She also wrote a number of novels, historical memoirs, &c.
+
+AUMALE ([=o]-mael), a small French town, department of Seine Inferieure, 35
+miles N.E. of Rouen, which has given titles to several notables in French
+history.--Jean d'Arcourt, Eighth Count d'Aumale, fought at Agincourt, and
+defeated the English at Gravelle (1423).--Claude II, Duc d'Aumale, one of
+the chief instigators of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, was killed
+1573.--Charles de Lorraine, Duc d'Aumale, was an ardent partisan of the
+League in the politico-religious French wars of the sixteenth
+century.--Henri-Eugene-Philippe Louis d'Orleans, Duc d'Aumale, son of Louis
+Philippe, king of the French, was born in 1822. In 1847 he succeeded
+Marshal Bugeaud as Governor-General of Algeria, where he had distinguished
+himself in the war against Abd-el-Kader. After the revolution of 1848 he
+retired to England; but he returned to France in 1871, and was elected a
+member of the Assembly; became Inspector-General of the army in 1879, and
+was expelled along with the other royal princes in 1886, but was allowed to
+return. Author of a _History of the House of Conde_, &c. He died in 1897.
+
+AUN'GERVILLE, Richard, known as Richard de Bury (from his birthplace Bury
+St. Edmund's), English statesman, bibliographer, and correspondent of
+Petrarch, born 1281, died 1345. He entered the order of Benedictine monks,
+and became tutor to the Prince of Wales, afterwards Edward III. Promoted to
+several offices of dignity, he ultimately became Bishop of Durham, and Lord
+Chancellor of England. During his frequent embassies to the Continent he
+made the acquaintance of many of the eminent men of the day. He was a
+diligent collector of books, and formed a library at Oxford. Author of
+_Philobiblon_, printed at Cologne in 1473; _Epistoloe Familiarium_,
+including letters to Petrarch, &c.
+
+AURANGABAD', a town of India, in the territory of the Nizam of Hyderabad,
+175 miles from Bombay. It contains a ruined palace of Aurangzib and a
+mausoleum erected to the memory of his favourite wife. It was formerly a
+considerable trading centre, but its commercial importance decreased when
+Hyderabad became the capital of the Nizam. Pop. 34,000.
+
+AURANGZIB ('ornament of the throne'), one of the greatest of the Mogul
+emperors of Hindustan, born in Oct. 1618 or 1619. When he was nine years
+old his weak and unfortunate father, Shah Jehan, succeeded to the throne.
+Aurangzib was distinguished, when a youth, for his serious look, his
+frequent prayers, his love of solitude, his profound hypocrisy, and his
+deep plans. In his twentieth year he raised a body of troops by his address
+and good fortune, and obtained the government of the Deccan. He stirred up
+dissensions between his brothers, made use of the assistance of one against
+the other, and finally shut his father up in his harem, where he kept him
+prisoner. He then murdered his relatives one after the other, and in 1659
+ascended the throne. Notwithstanding the means by which he had got
+possession of power, he governed with much wisdom. Two of his sons, who
+endeavoured to form a party in their own favour, he caused to be arrested
+and put to death by slow poison. He carried on many wars, conquered
+Golconda and Bijapur, and drove out, by degrees, the Mahrattas from their
+country. After his death, on 4th March, 1707, the Mogul Empire declined.
+
+AURANTIA'CEAE, the orange tribe, a nat. ord. of plants, polypetalous
+dicotyledons, with leaves containing a fragrant essential oil in
+transparent dots, and a superior pulpy fruit, originally natives of India;
+examples comprise the orange, lemon, lime, citron, and shaddock.
+
+AURAY ([=o]-r[=a]), a seaport of North-West France, department Morbihan,
+with a deaf and dumb institute, and within 2 miles of St. Anne of Auray, a
+famous place of pilgrimage. Pop. 6653.
+
+AURE'LIAN, Lucius Domitius Aurelianus, Emperor of Rome, of humble origin,
+was born about A.D. 212, rose to the highest rank in the army, and on the
+death of Claudius II (270) was chosen emperor. He delivered Italy from the
+barbarians (Alemanni and Marcomanni), and conquered the famous Zenobia,
+Queen of Palmyra. He followed up his victories by the reformation of
+abuses, and the restoration throughout the Empire of order and regularity.
+He lost his life, A.D. 275, by assassination, when heading an expedition
+against the Persians.
+
+AURE'LIUS ANTONI'NUS, Marcus, often called simply MARCUS AURELIUS, Roman
+emperor and philosopher, son-in-law, adopted son, and successor of
+Antoninus Pius, born A.D. 121, succeeded to the throne 161, died 180. His
+name originally was Marcus Annius Verus. He voluntarily shared the
+government with Lucius Verus, whom Antoninus Pius had also adopted. Brought
+up and instructed by Plutarch's nephew, Sextus, the orator Herodes Atticus,
+and L. Volusius Mecianus, the jurist, he had become acquainted with learned
+men, and formed a particular love for the Stoic philosophy. A war with
+Parthia broke out in the year of his accession, and did not terminate till
+166. A confederacy of the northern tribes now threatened Italy, while a
+frightful pestilence, brought from the East with the army, raged in Rome
+itself. Both emperors set out in person against the rebellious tribes. In
+169 Verus died, and the sole command of the war devolved on Marcus
+Aurelius, who prosecuted it with the utmost rigour, and nearly exterminated
+the Marcomanni. His victory over the Quadi (174) is connected with a famous
+legend. Dion Cassius tells us that the twelfth legion of the Roman army was
+shut up in a defile, and reduced to great straits for want of water, when a
+body of Christians enrolled in the legion prayed for relief. Not only was
+rain sent, which enabled the Romans to quench their thirst, but a fierce
+storm of hail beat upon the enemy, accompanied by thunder and lightning,
+which so terrified them that a complete victory was obtained, and the
+legion was ever after called _The Thundering Legion_ (_Legio Fulminatrix_).
+After this victory the Marcomanni, the Quadi, as well as the rest of the
+barbarians, sued for peace. The sedition of the Syrian governor Avidius
+Cassius, with whom Faustina, the empress, was in treasonable communication,
+called off the emperor from his conquests, but before he reached Asia the
+rebel was assassinated. Aurelius returned to Rome, after visiting Egypt and
+Greece, but soon new incursions of the Marcomanni compelled him once more
+to take the field. He defeated the enemy several times, but was taken sick
+at Sirmium, and died at Vindobona (Vienna) in 180. His only extant work is
+the _Meditations_, written in Greek. It has been translated into most
+modern languages (into English first by George Long in 1862, and by J.
+Jackson in 1906). This may be regarded as a manual of practical morality,
+in which wisdom, gentleness, and benevolence are combined in the most
+fascinating manner. Many believe it to have been intended for the
+instruction of his son Commodus. Aurelius was one of the best emperors Rome
+ever saw, although his philosophy and the magnanimity of his character did
+not restrain him from the persecution of the Christians, whose religious
+doctrines he was led to believe were subversive of good government, and
+whom he charged, therefore, with obstinacy, the greatest social crime in
+the eyes of Roman authority. Marcus Aurelius was not so much a philosopher
+as a seeker after righteousness.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. B. Watson, _M. Aurelius
+Antoninus_; Sir Samuel Dill, _Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius_;
+Translations of the _Meditations_ by G. H. Kendall, and J. Jackson.
+
+AURENGZEBE. See _Aurangzib_.
+
+AURE'OLA, or AU'REOLE, in paintings, an illumination surrounding the whole
+figure of a holy person, as Christ, a saint, or a martyr, intended to
+represent a luminous cloud or haze emanating from him. It is generally of
+an oval shape, or may be nearly or quite circular, and is of similar
+character with the nimbus surrounding the heads of sacred personages.
+
+AU'R[)E]US, the first gold coin which was coined at Rome, 207 B.C. Its
+value varied at different times, from about 12s. to L1, 4_s_. See
+_Numismatics_.
+
+AURICH (ou'r[=e]_h_), a German town, province of Hanover. Pop. 6070.
+
+AU'RICLE. See _Heart_.
+
+AURIC'ULA, a garden flower derived from the yellow _Prim[)u]la
+Auric[)u]la_, found native in the Swiss Alps, and sometimes called
+bear's-ear from the shape of its leaves. It has for over three centuries
+been an object of cultivation by florists, who have succeeded in raising
+from seed a great number of beautiful varieties. Its leaves are obovate,
+entire or serrated, and fleshy, varying, however, in form in the numerous
+varieties. The flowers are borne on an erect umbel and central scape with
+involucre. The original colours of the corolla are yellow, purple, and
+variegated, and there is a mealy covering on the surface. There are
+auricula clubs and societies in the north of England.
+
+AURICULAR CONFESSION. See _Confession_.
+
+AU'RIFABER, the Latinized name of Johann Goldschmidt, one of Luther's
+companions, born 1519, became pastor at Erfurt in 1566, died there in 1579.
+He collected the unpublished MSS. of Luther, and edited the _Epistolae_ and
+the _Table-talk_.
+
+AURIFLAMME. See _Oriflamme_.
+
+AURI'GA, in astronomy, the _Waggoner_, a constellation of the northern
+hemisphere, containing Capella, a star of the first magnitude. _Nova
+Aurigae,_ a temporary star, appeared in the constellation in 1892.
+
+AURILLAC ([=o]-r[=e]-y[.a]k), a town of France, capital of the department
+Cantal, in a valley watered by the Jordanne, about 270 miles S. of Paris;
+well built, with wide streets; copper-works, paper-works, manufactures of
+lace, tapestry, leather, &c. Pop. 18,036.
+
+AUROCHS ([a:]'roks), a species of wild bull or buffalo, the _urus_ of
+Caesar, _bison_ of Pliny, the European bison, _Bos_ or _Bonassus Bison_ of
+modern naturalists. The animal was once abundant in Europe, but were it not
+for the protection afforded by the late Emperor of Russia to a few herds
+which inhabit the forests of Lithuania it would before this have been
+extinct.
+
+AURO'RA, an American city, of Kane county, Illinois, on Fox River, 40 miles
+W. by S. of Chicago; it has flourishing manufactures, railway-works, and a
+considerable trade. Pop. (1920), 36,265.
+
+AURO'RA (Gr. _E[=o]s_), in classical mythology, the goddess of the dawn,
+daughter of Hyperion and Theia, and sister of Helios and Sel[=e]n[=e] (Sun
+and Moon). She was represented as a charming figure, 'rosy-fingered', clad
+in a yellow robe, rising at dawn from the ocean and driving her chariot
+through the heavens. Among the mortals whose beauty captivated the goddess,
+poets mentioned Orion, Tith[=o]nus, and Ceph[)a]lus.
+
+AURO'RA, one of the New Hebrides Islands, S. Pacific Ocean, about 30 miles
+long by 5 wide. It rises to a considerable elevation, and is covered with a
+luxuriant vegetation.
+
+[Illustration: Aurora Borealis]
+
+AURO'RA BOREA'LIS, a luminous meteoric phenomenon appearing in the north,
+most frequently in high latitudes, the corresponding phenomenon in the
+southern hemisphere being called _Aurora Australis_, and both being also
+called _Polar Light_, _Streamers_, &c. The northern aurora has been far the
+most observed and studied. It usually manifests itself by streams of light
+ascending towards the zenith from a dusky line of cloud or haze a few
+degrees above the horizon, and stretching from the north towards the west
+and east, so as to form an arc with its ends on the horizon, and its
+different parts and rays are constantly in motion. Sometimes it appears in
+detached places; at other times it almost covers the whole sky. It assumes
+many shapes and a variety of colours, from a pale red or yellow to a deep
+red or blood colour; and in far northern latitudes serves to illuminate the
+earth and cheer the gloom of the long winter nights. The appearance of the
+aurora borealis so exactly resembles the effects of experimental electrical
+phenomena that there is every reason to believe that their causes are
+similar. When electricity passes through rarefied air it exhibits a
+diffused luminous stream which has all the characteristic appearances of
+the aurora, and hence it is highly probable that this natural phenomenon is
+occasioned by the passage of electricity through the upper regions of the
+atmosphere. The synchronism of auroral display with disturbances of the
+magnetic needle is an ascertained fact, and the connection between aurorae
+and magnetism is further evident from the fact that the beams or
+coruscations issuing from a point in the horizon west of north are
+frequently observed to run in the magnetic meridian. What are known as
+magnetic storms are invariably connected with exhibitions of the aurora,
+and with spontaneous galvanic currents in the ordinary telegraph wires; and
+this connection is found to be so certain that, upon remarking the display
+of one of the three classes of phenomena, we can at once assert that the
+other two are also present. In recent years it has been established that
+aurorae wax and wane in frequency _pari passu_ with sun-spots in an 11-year
+cycle, and that they often manifest themselves about the time of transit of
+a conspicuous spot across the sun's central meridian. Also they frequently
+recur at successive intervals of about 27 days, which is the period of a
+solar rotation relative to the earth. It is therefore inferred that aurorae
+are largely excited by influences proceeding from the sun, and it is
+suggested that they are the result of the impinging upon our upper
+atmosphere of streams of electric corpuscles expelled from the solar orb,
+these streams when approaching our planet being mainly directed to its
+higher latitudes as a consequence of its magnetic polarity. The aurora
+borealis is said to be frequently accompanied by sound, which is variously
+described as resembling the rustling of pieces of silk against each other,
+or the sound of wind against the flame of a candle. The aurora of the
+southern hemisphere is quite a similar phenomenon to that of the
+north.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: A. Angot, _Les Aurores Polaires_; Captain H. P.
+Dawson, _Observations of the International Polar Expeditions, 1882-3, Fort
+Rae_.
+
+AURUNGABAD. See _Aurangabad_.
+
+AURUNGZEBE. See _Aurangzib_.
+
+AUSCULTA'TION, a method of distinguishing the state of the internal parts
+of the body, particularly of the thorax and abdomen, by observing the
+sounds arising in the part either through the immediate application of the
+ear to its surface (immediate auscultation), or by applying the stethoscope
+to the part, and listening through it (mediate auscultation). Auscultation
+may be used with more or less advantage in all cases where morbid sounds
+are produced, but its general applications are: the _auscultation_ of
+respiration, the _auscultation_ of the voice; _auscultation_ of coughs;
+_auscultation_ of sounds foreign to all these, but sometimes accompanying
+them; _auscultation_ of the actions of the heart; obstetric _auscultation_.
+The parts when struck also give different sounds in health and disease.
+
+AUSO'NIA, an ancient poetical name of Italy.
+
+AUSO'NIUS, Decimus Magnus (_c._ A.D. 310-395), Roman poet, born at
+Burdigala (Bordeaux). Valentinian entrusted to him the education of his son
+Gratian, and appointed him afterwards quaestor and pretorian prefect.
+Gratian appointed him consul in Gaul, and after this emperor's death he
+lived upon an estate at Bordeaux, devoted to literary pursuits. He wrote
+epigrams, idyls, eclogues, letters in verse, &c., still extant, and was
+probably a Christian. He was rather a man of letters than a poet, and his
+poems are devoid of inspiration.
+
+AUS'PICES, among the ancient Romans strictly omens or auguries derived from
+birds, though the term was also used in a wider sense. Nothing of
+importance was done without taking the auspices, which, however, simply
+showed whether the enterprise was likely to result successfully or not,
+without supplying any further information. Magistrates possessed the right
+of taking the auspices, in which they were usually assisted by an augur.
+Before a war or campaign a Roman general always took the auspices, and
+hence the operations were said to be carried out 'under his auspices'. See
+_Augur_.
+
+AUS'SIG, a town in Bohemia, in the republic of Czecho-Slovakia, formerly in
+Austria, near the junction of the Bila with the Elbe, 42 miles N.N.W. of
+Prague; has large manufactures of woollens, chemicals, &c. The town is now
+known as Ousti nad Labem. Pop. 40,000.
+
+AUS'TEN, Jane, English novelist, born 1775, at Steventon, in Hants, of
+which parish her father was rector. Her principal novels are, _Sense and
+Sensibility; Pride and Prejudice_, which Disraeli is said to have read
+seventeen times; _Mansfield Park_; and _Emma_. Two more were published
+after her death, entitled _Northanger Abbey_ and _Persuasion_, which were,
+however, her most early attempts. Her novels are marked by ease, humour,
+and a complete knowledge of the domestic life of the English middle classes
+of her time. She died in 1817.
+
+AUSTENITE, a constituent of high-carbon steel (q.v.).
+
+AUS'TERLITZ, a town with 3703 inhabitants, in Moravia, 10 miles E. of
+Bruenn, famous for the battle of 2nd Dec., 1805, fought between the French
+(70,000 in number) and the allied Austrian and Russian armies (95,000). The
+decisive victory of the French led to the Peace of Pressburg between France
+and Austria.
+
+AUS'TIN, capital of the State of Texas, on the Colorado, about 200 miles
+from its mouth, and accessible to steamboats during certain seasons. There
+is a State university and other institutions, and a splendid capitol built
+of red granite. Pop. (1920), 34,876.
+
+AUSTIN, Alfred, English poet, born at Hedingley, near Leeds, in 1835,
+educated at Stonyhurst and St. Mary's College, Oscott; took the degree of
+B.A. at London in 1853, was called to the bar and practised, but gave up
+law for literature in 1861. He published, in 1861, a satire called _The
+Season_, followed by many poems, including _The Human Tragedy_, _The Golden
+Age_, _Savonarola_ (a tragedy), _English Lyrics_, _Fortunatus the
+Pessimist_, _Lyrical Poems_, _Narrative Poems_, _Prince Lucifer_, _Alfred
+the Great_, _A Tale of True Love_, _Flodden Field_ (a tragedy), &c. His
+works in prose include _The Garden that I love_, _In Veronica's Garden_,
+_Spring and Autumn in Ireland_, _Haunts of Ancient Peace_, _The Bridling of
+Pegasus_, &c. He was made Poet Laureate in 1896, about four years after the
+death of Tennyson. He died in 1913.
+
+AUS'TIN, John, an English writer on jurisprudence, born 1790, died 1859.
+From 1826 to 1835 he filled the chair of jurisprudence at London
+University. He served on several royal commissions, one of which took him
+to Malta; lived for some years on the Continent, and finally settled at
+Weybridge, in Surrey. His fame rests solely on his great works: _The
+Province of Jurisprudence Determined_, published in 1832; and his _Lectures
+on Jurisprudence_, published by his widow between 1861 and 1863.--His wife,
+Sarah, one of the Taylors of Norwich, produced translations of German
+works, and other books bearing on Germany or its literature; also,
+_Considerations on National Education_, &c. Born 1793, died 1867. Her
+daughter, Lady Duff Gordon, translated Meinhold's _Mary Schweidler, the
+Amber Witch_, and other German works.
+
+AUSTIN, ST. See _Augustine_.
+
+AUSTIN FRIARS. See _Augustins_.
+
+AUSTRALASIA, a division of the globe usually regarded as comprehending the
+Islands of Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, New Caledonia, the New
+Hebrides, the Solomon Islands, New Ireland, New Britain, the Admiralty
+Islands, New Guinea, and the Arru Islands, besides numerous other islands
+and island groups; estimated area, 3,400,000 sq. miles; pop. 6,000,000. It
+forms one of the three portions into which some geographers have divided
+Oceania, the other two being Malaysia and Polynesia. The British
+territories in Australasia comprise the Commonwealth of Australia, the
+Australian dependencies of Papua and Northern Territory, New Zealand and
+adjacent islands, and the crown colony of Fiji.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+AUSTRALIA (older name, NEW HOLLAND), the largest island in the world, a
+sea-girt continent, lying between the Indian and Pacific Oceans, S.E. of
+Asia; between lat. 10deg 39' and 39deg 11' S.; long. 113deg 5' and 153deg
+16' E.; greatest length, from W. to E., 2400 miles; greatest breadth, from
+N. to S., 1700 to 1900 miles. It is separated from New Guinea on the north
+by Torres Strait, from Tasmania on the south by Bass Strait. It is divided
+into two unequal parts by the Tropic of Capricorn, and consequently belongs
+partly to the South Temperate, partly to the Torrid Zone. It is occupied by
+five British colonies, namely, New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland in
+the east; South Australia in the middle, stretching from sea to sea; and
+Western Australia in the west, which, with the Island of Tasmania, form the
+Commonwealth of Australia. Their area and population are as follows:--
+
+                      Area in         Pop.
+                       sq. m.        in 1920
+  New South Wales     309,432      2,091,115
+  Victoria             87,884      1,528,151
+  Queensland          670,500        752,245
+  South Australia     380,070        491,177
+  Western Australia   975,920        330,819
+  Tasmania             26,215        212,847
+  Northern Territory  523,620          3,992
+  Federal Territory       940          1,972
+
+Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Brisbane, and Perth are the chief towns. The
+population of the Commonwealth of Australia was 4,895,894 in 1917 and
+5,412,318 in 1920.
+
+Although there are numerous spacious harbours on the coasts, there are few
+remarkable indentations, the principal being the Gulf of Carpentaria, on
+the N., the Great Australian Bight, and Spencer's Gulf, on the S. The chief
+projections are Cape York Peninsula and Arnhem Land in the north. Parallel
+to the N.E. coast runs the Great Barrier Reef for 1000 miles. In great part
+the E. coast is bold and rocky, and is fringed with many small islands.
+Part of the S. coast is low and sandy, and part presents cliffs of several
+hundred feet high. The N. and W. coasts are generally low, with some
+elevations at intervals.
+
+The interior, so far as explored, is largely composed of rocky tracts and
+barren plains with little or no water. The whole continent forms an immense
+plateau, highest in the east, low in the centre, and with a narrow tract of
+land usually intervening between the elevated area and the sea. The base of
+the table-land is granite, which forms the surface-rock in a great part of
+the south-west, and is common in the higher grounds along the east side.
+Secondary (cretaceous) and tertiary rocks are largely developed in the
+interior. Silurian rocks occupy a large area in South Australia, on both
+sides of Spencer Gulf. The mountainous region in the south-east and east is
+mainly composed of volcanic, Silurian, carbonaceous, and carboniferous
+rocks yielding good coal. No active volcano is known to exist, but in the
+south-east there are some craters only recently extinct. The highest and
+most extensive mountain-system is a belt about 150 miles wide skirting the
+whole eastern and south-eastern border of the continent, and often called,
+in whole or in part, the Great Dividing Range, from forming the great
+water-shed of Australia. A part of it, called the Australian Alps, in the
+south-east, contains the highest summits in Australia, Mount Kosciusko
+(7175 feet), Mount Clarke (7256 feet), and Mount Townshend (7353 feet).
+West of the Dividing Range are extensive plains or downs admirably adapted
+for pastoral purposes. The deserts and scrubs, which occupy large areas of
+the interior, are a characteristic feature of Australia. The former are
+destitute of vegetation, or are covered only with a coarse, spiny grass
+that affords no sustenance to cattle or horses; the latter are composed of
+a dense growth of shrubs and low trees, often impenetrable till the
+traveller has cleared a track with his axe.
+
+[Illustration: COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Geological]
+
+The rivers of Australia are nearly all subject to great irregularities in
+volume, many of them at one time showing a channel in which there is merely
+a series of pools, while at another they inundate the whole adjacent
+country. The chief is the Murray, which, with its affluents the
+Murrumbidgee, Lachlan, and Darling, drains a great part of the interior
+west of the Dividing Range, and falls into the sea on the south coast
+(after entering Lake Alexandrina). Its greatest tributary is the Darling,
+which may even be regarded as the main stream. On the east coast are the
+Hunter, Clarence, Brisbane, Fitzroy, and Burdekin; on the west, the Swan,
+Murchison, Gascoyne, Ashburton, and De Grey; on the north, the Fitzroy,
+Victoria, Flinders, and Mitchell. The Australian rivers are of little
+service in facilitating internal communication. Many of them lose
+themselves in swamps or sandy wastes of the interior. A considerable river
+of the interior is Cooper's Creek, or the Barcoo, which falls into Lake
+Eyre, one of a group of lakes on the south side of the continent having no
+outlet, and accordingly salt. The principal of these are Lakes Eyre,
+Torrens, and Gairdner, all of which vary in size and saltness according to
+the season. Another large salt lake of little depth, Lake Amadeus, lies a
+little west of the centre of Australia. Various others of less magnitude
+are scattered over the interior.
+
+The climate of Australia is generally hot and dry, but very healthy. In the
+tropical portions there are heavy rains, and in most of the coast districts
+there is a sufficiency of moisture, but in the interior the heat and
+drought are extreme. Considerable portions now devoted to pasturage are
+liable at times to suffer from drought. At Melbourne the mean temperature
+is about 56deg, at Sydney about 63deg. The south-eastern settled districts
+are at times subject to excessively hot winds from the interior, which
+cause great discomfort, and are often followed by a violent cold wind from
+the south ('southerly bursters'). In the mountainous and more temperate
+parts snow-storms are common in winter (June, July, and August).
+
+Australia is a region containing a vast quantity of mineral wealth.
+Foremost come its rich and extensive deposits of gold, which, since the
+precious metal was first discovered in 1851, have produced a total of
+nearly L600,000,000. The greatest quantity has been obtained in Victoria,
+but New South Wales and Queensland have also yielded a considerable amount,
+and now Western Australia stands first in respect of annual output.
+Australia also possesses silver, copper, tin, lead, zinc, antimony,
+mercury, plumbago, &c., besides coal (now worked to a considerable extent
+in New South Wales) and iron. Various precious stones are found, as the
+garnet, ruby, topaz, sapphire, and even the diamond. Of building-stone
+there are granite, limestone, marble, and sandstone.
+
+[Illustration: COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Mean Annual Rainfall and
+Temperature]
+
+The Australian flora presents peculiarities which mark it off by itself in
+a very decided manner. Many of its most striking features have an
+unmistakable relation to the general dryness of the climate. The trees and
+bushes have for the most part a scanty foliage, presenting little surface
+for evaporation, or thick leathery leaves well fitted to retain moisture.
+The most widely-spread types of Australian vegetation are the various kinds
+of gum tree (_Eucalyptus_), the shea-oak (_Casuar[=i]na_), the acacia or
+wattle, the grass tree (_Xanthorrhoea_), many varieties of Proteaceae, and
+a great number of ferns and tree-ferns. Of the gum tree there are found
+upwards of 150 species, many of which are of great value. Individual
+specimens of the 'peppermint' (_E. amygdal[)i]na_) have been found to
+measure from 480 to 500 feet in height. As timber trees the most valuable
+members of this genus are the _E. rostr[=a]ta_ (or red gum), _E.
+leucox[)y]lon_, and _E. margin[=a]ta_ (jarrah), the timber of which is
+hard, and almost indestructible. A number of the gum trees have deciduous
+bark. The wattle or acacia includes about 300 species, some of them of
+considerable economic value, yielding good timber or bark for tanning. The
+most beautiful and most useful is that known as the golden wattle (_A.
+dealb[=a]ta_) which in spring is adorned with rich masses of fragrant
+yellow blossom. Palms--of which there are twenty-four species, all except
+the coco-palm peculiar to Australia--are confined to the north and east
+coasts. In the 'scrubs' already mentioned hosts of densely-intertwisted
+bushes occupy extensive areas. The _mallee_ scrub is formed by a species of
+dwarf eucalyptus, the _mulga_ scrub by a species of thorny acacia. A plant
+which covers large areas in the arid regions is the _spinifex_ or porcupine
+grass, a hard, coarse, and excessively spiny plant, which renders
+travelling difficult, wounds the feet of horses, and is utterly uneatable
+by any animal. Other large tracts are occupied by herbs or bushes of a more
+valuable kind, from their affording fodder. Foremost among those stands the
+salt-bush (_Atriplex nummularia_, ord. Chenopodiaceae). Beautiful flowering
+plants are numerous. Australia also possesses great numbers of turf-forming
+grasses, such as the kangaroo-grass (_Anthistiria austr[=a]lis_), which
+survives even a tolerably-protracted drought. The native fruit trees are
+few and unimportant, and the same may be said of the plants yielding roots
+used as food; but exotic fruits and vegetables may now be had in the
+different colonies in great abundance and of excellent quality. The vine,
+the olive, and mulberry thrive well, and quantities of wine are now
+produced. The cereals of Europe and maize are extensively cultivated, and
+large tracts of country, particularly in Queensland, are under the
+sugar-cane.
+
+The Australian fauna is almost unique in its character. Its great feature
+is the nearly total absence of all the forms of mammalia which abound in
+the rest of the world, their place being supplied by a great variety of
+marsupials--these animals being nowhere else found, except in the opossums
+of America. There are about 110 kinds of marsupials (of which the kangaroo,
+wombat, bandicoot, and phalangers or opossums, are the best-known
+varieties), over twenty kinds of bats, a wild dog (the dingo), and a number
+of rats and mice. Two extraordinary animals, the platypus, or water-mole of
+the colonist (Ornithorhynchus), and the porcupine ant-eater (Echidna)
+constitute the lowest order of mammals (Monotremata), and are confined to
+Australia. Their young are produced from eggs. Australia now possesses a
+large stock of the domestic animals of Britain, which thrive there
+remarkably well. The breed of horses is excellent. Horned cattle and sheep
+are largely bred, the first attaining a great size, while the sheep improve
+in fleece and their flesh in flavour. There are upwards of 650 different
+species of birds, the largest being the emu, or Australian ostrich, and a
+species of cassowary. Peculiar to the country are the black swan, the
+honey-sucker, the lyre-bird, the brush-turkey, and other mound-building
+birds, the bower-birds, &c. The parrot tribe preponderates over most other
+groups of birds in the continent. There are many reptiles, the largest
+being the alligator, found in some of the northern rivers. There are
+upwards of sixty different species of snakes, some of which are very
+venomous. Lizards, frogs, and insects are also numerous in various parts.
+The seas, rivers, and lagoons abound in fish of numerous varieties, and
+other aquatic animals, many of them peculiar. Whales and seals frequent the
+coasts. On the northern coasts are extensive fisheries of trepang, much
+visited by native traders from the Indian Archipelago. Some animals of
+European origin, such as the rabbit and the sparrow, have developed into
+real pests in several of the colonies.
+
+[Illustration: COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Surface Features]
+
+The natives belong to the Australian negro stock, and are sometimes
+considered the lowest as regards intelligence in the whole human family,
+though this is doubtful. At the census of 1891 they were believed to number
+about 60,000, exclusive of those in the unexplored parts. They are of a
+dark-brown or black colour, with jet-black curly but not woolly hair, of
+medium size, but inferior muscular development. In the settled parts of the
+continent they are inoffensive, and rapidly dying out. They have no fixed
+habitations; in the summer they live almost entirely in the open air, and
+in the more inclement weather they shelter themselves with bark erections
+of the rudest construction. They have no cultivation and no domestic
+animals. Their food consists of such animals as they can kill, and no kind
+of living creature seems to be rejected, snakes, lizards, frogs, and even
+insects being eaten, often half raw. They are ignorant of the potter's art.
+In their natural condition they wear little or no clothing. They speak a
+number of different languages or dialects. The women are regarded merely as
+slaves, and are frequently maltreated. They have no religion; they practise
+polygamy, and are said sometimes to resort to cannibalism, but only in
+exceptional circumstances. They are occasionally employed by the settlers
+in light kinds of work, and as horse-breakers; but they dislike continuous
+occupation, and soon give it up. The weapons of all the tribes are
+generally similar, consisting of spears, shields, boomerangs, wooden axes,
+clubs, and stone hatchets. Of these the boomerang is the most singular,
+being an invention confined to the Australians.
+
+The five colonies, independently of each other, having declared their
+desire for a federal union, the Commonwealth of Australia was proclaimed. A
+Convention, which sat at Adelaide in 1897-8, drafted a Constitution Bill,
+and on 9th July, 1900, the British Parliament passed the Act to constitute
+the Commonwealth. There is now a Governor-General and Central or Federal
+Parliament, consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives, while
+each State has also (as before) a Governor, an administration, and a
+Parliament of its own. Each Parliament consists of two Houses corresponding
+to the British House of Lords and House of Commons, but both Houses are
+elected by popular vote. Altogether the machinery of government very much
+resembles that of the home country. The aggregate annual revenue of the
+colonies is over L30,000,000. The public debt on 30th June, 1917, was
+L372,517,623. The former militia and volunteer units have been gradually
+merged into the new Citizen Army started by the Australian Government in
+1911. The Government also agreed in the same year to furnish an Australian
+fleet unit, upon which King George conferred the title of 'Royal Australian
+Navy'. There is no established Church in the colonies. The denomination
+which numbers most adherents is the English or Anglican Church, next to
+which come the Roman Catholics, Presbyterians, and Methodists. Education is
+well provided for, instruction in the primary schools being in some cases
+free and compulsory, and the higher education being more and more attended
+to. There are flourishing universities in Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide.
+Newspapers are exceedingly numerous, and periodicals of all kinds are
+abundant. There is as yet no native literature of any distinctive type, but
+names of Australian writers of ability both in prose and poetry are
+beginning to be known beyond their own country.
+
+Pastoral and agricultural pursuits and mining are the chief occupations of
+the people, though manufactures and handicrafts also employ large numbers.
+The total land area under cultivation was calculated at 13,298,576 acres in
+1919-20. For sheep-rearing and the growth of wool the Australian colonies
+are unrivalled, and while the production of gold has considerably
+decreased, that of wool is constantly on the increase. The great bulk of
+the wool exported goes to Britain, which receives over 300,000,000 pounds
+from the Australian colonies annually (L37,256,915 in 1919-20). The
+commerce is rapidly extending, and becoming every year more important to
+Britain, whence the colonists derive their chief supplies of manufactured
+goods in return for wool, gold, and other produce. Next to wool come gold,
+tin, copper, wheat, preserved meat, and tallow, hides and skins, cotton,
+tobacco, sugar, and wine as the most important items of export. The chief
+imports consist of textile fabrics, haberdashery, and clothing, machinery
+and metal goods. The aggregate imports in 1920 amounted to about
+L97,456,899 in value, the exports to L148,564,523. There are upwards of
+23,000 miles of railway in actual use or in course of construction, and
+about 133,000 miles of telegraph. In 1912 the building of the
+Trans-Australian railway from Port Augusta to Kalgoorlie was commenced. The
+longest telegraph line is that running northwards across the continent from
+Adelaide. The two chief routes for mails between Britain and the Australian
+colonies are by way of the Suez Canal, and by San Francisco across the
+American continent. The coinage is the same as in the mother country. Banks
+and banking offices are numerous, including post office or other savings
+banks for the reception of small sums.
+
+It is doubtful when Australia was first discovered by Europeans. Between
+1531 and 1542 the Portuguese published the existence of a land which they
+called Great Java, and which corresponded to Australia, and probably the
+first discovery of the country was made by them early in the sixteenth
+century. The first authenticated discovery is said to have been made in
+1601 by a Portuguese named Manoel Godinho de Eredia. In 1606 Torres, a
+Spaniard, passed through the strait that now bears his name, between New
+Guinea and Australia. Between this period and 1628 a large portion of the
+coastline of Australia had been surveyed by various Dutch navigators. In
+1664 the continent was named New Holland by the Dutch Government. In 1688
+Dampier coasted along part of Australia, and about 1700 explored a part of
+the W. and N.W. coasts. In 1770 Cook carefully surveyed the E. coast, named
+a number of localities, and took possession of the country for Britain. He
+was followed by Bligh in 1789, who carried on a series of observations on
+the N.E. coast, adding largely to the knowledge already obtained of this
+new world. Colonists had now arrived on the soil, and a penal settlement
+was formed (1788) at Port Jackson. In this way was laid the foundation of
+the future colony of New South Wales. The Moreton Bay district (Queensland)
+was settled in 1825; in 1835 the Port Phillip district. In 1851 the latter
+district was erected into a separate colony under the name of Victoria.
+Previous to this time the colonies both of Western Australia and of South
+Australia had been founded--the former in 1829, the latter in 1836. The
+latest of the colonies is Queensland, which dates from 1859. The discovery
+of gold in abundance took place in 1851 and caused an immense excitement
+and great influx of immigrants. The population was then only about 350,000,
+and was slowly increasing; but the discovery of the precious metal started
+the country on that career of prosperity which has since been almost
+uninterrupted. Convicts were long sent to Australia from the mother
+country, but transportation to New South Wales practically ceased in 1840,
+and the last convict vessel to W. Australia arrived in 1868. Altogether
+about 70,000 convicts were landed in Australia (besides almost as many in
+Tasmania).
+
+The record of interior exploration forms an interesting part of Australian
+history. This has been going on since early last century, and is as yet far
+from complete. There is still a large area of the continent of which little
+or nothing is known, comprising especially a vast territory belonging to
+Western Australia, and a portion of South Australia. Among the men who have
+won fame in the field of Australian exploration are Oxley (1817-23), who
+partly explored the Lachlan and Macquarie, discovered the Brisbane, &c.;
+Hume and Hovell (1824), who crossed what is now the colony of Victoria from
+north to south; Cunningham (1827), who discovered the Darling Downs; Sturt
+(1828-9), who examined the Macquarie, part of the Darling, and the
+Murrumbidgee, which he traced to the Murray, sailing down the latter to
+Lake Alexandrina; in 1844 he penetrated to near the middle of the continent
+from the south; Mitchell (1831-6) made extensive explorations in New South
+Wales and Victoria; McMillan (1839) explored and traversed Gippsland; Eyre
+(1840) travelled by the coast from Adelaide to King George's Sound;
+Leichhardt in 1844-5 travelled from Brisbane to Port Essington, discovering
+fine tracts of territory and the numerous rivers flowing into the Gulf of
+Carpentaria; in 1848 he was lost in the northern interior, in attempting to
+cross Australia from east to west, and nothing further regarding his fate
+has been discovered; Kennedy (1848) was killed in exploring Cape York
+Peninsula; A. C. Gregory (1855-6) explored part of North-Western Australia,
+and crossed from that to the Brisbane district, an important exploring
+journey; McDouall Stuart (1859-60-2) crossed the continent from south to
+north and back again nearly in the line of the present overland telegraph;
+Burke, Wills, Gray, and King (1860-1) crossed from Melbourne to the Gulf of
+Carpentaria, but Burke, Wills, and Gray perished on the return journey;
+F. T. Gregory (1861) explored the region of the Ashburton, Fortescue, and
+other rivers of North-West Australia; Warburton (1873) travelled with
+camels from the centre of the continent to the north-west coast; J. Forrest
+(1874) made an important journey in Western Australia; Giles (1874-6)
+explored Central Western Australia; Favenc (1878-9) travelled from Brisbane
+to Port Darwin; A. Forrest (1879) explored part of Northern Australia;
+Mills (1883) traversed with camels a considerable stretch of new ground in
+Western Australia; Winnicke (1883-4), also with camels, explored and mapped
+about 40,000 sq. miles of the unknown interior; Lindsay (1885-6) travelled
+north-west from Lake Eyre, and then north-east to the Gulf of Carpentaria.
+Among subsequent explorations mention may be made of Carnegie's eight
+months' journeyings in W. Australia (1896-7). (See articles on the separate
+colonies.)--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Wall, _Physical Geography of Australia_; Aflalo,
+_Natural History of Australia_; T. A. Coghlan, _A Statistical Account of
+the Seven Colonies of Australasia_ (Sydney); G. W. Rusden, _History of
+Australia_.
+
+AUSTRA'LIOIDS, one of the five groups into which Professor Huxley
+classifies man, comprising the indigenous non-Aryan inhabitants of Central
+and Southern India, the ancient Egyptians and their descendants, and the
+modern Fellahs.
+
+AUSTRIA, or GERMAN AUSTRIA, a republic formed out of the fragments of the
+old Austro-Hungarian Empire. The republic was proclaimed on 12th Nov.,
+1918, and the government was taken in hand by the National Constitutional
+Assembly. The new republic, the frontiers of which were provisionally
+defined by the treaty of St. Germain (q.v.), includes Upper Austria, Lower
+Austria, Salzburg, and parts of Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol, and Vorarlberg,
+some districts having been assigned to Yugo-Slavia and Italy. German
+Austria now has an area of 30,716 sq. miles, and a pop. of 6,130,197.
+
+AUSTRIA-HUNGARY (in Ger. _Oesterreich_, that is, Eastern Empire), previous
+to the changes resulting from the European War (1914-18), a Central
+European monarchy, inhabited by several nationalities, and consisting of
+the Austrian Empire, the Hungarian monarchy, and the territory of Bosnia
+and Herzegovina annexed by Austria on 5th Oct., 1908. The States had
+together a total area of about 261,242 sq. miles, and were bounded S. by
+Turkey, the Adriatic, and Italy; W. by Switzerland, Bavaria, and Saxony; N.
+by Prussia and Russian Poland; and E. by Russia and Roumania. On 12th Nov.,
+1918, the German-Austrian Republic was proclaimed, and the government was
+taken in hand by the National Constitutional Assembly. The account given in
+the following pages applies to the countries only as they existed before
+the end of the European War.
+
+The population of Austria proper in 1913 was estimated at 29,193,293.
+
+The prevailing character of the Austrian dominions is mountainous or hilly,
+the plains not occupying more than a fifth part of the whole surface. The
+loftiest ranges belong to the Alps, and are found in Styria, Salzburg, and
+Carinthia, the highest summits being the Ortlerspitzen (12,814 feet) on the
+western boundary of Tyrol, and the Grossglockner (12,300 feet) on the
+borders of Salzburg, Tyrol, and Carinthia. Another great range is that of
+the Carpathians. The chief rivers are the Danube, with its tributaries, and
+the Dniester. The Danube is navigable for pretty large vessels; the
+tributaries also are largely navigable. The lakes are numerous and often
+picturesque, the chief being Lake Balaton or the Plattensee. The climate is
+exceedingly varied, but generally good. The principal products of the north
+are wheat, barley, oats, and rye; in the centre vines and maize are added;
+and in the south olives and various fruits. The cereals grow to perfection,
+other crops being hops, tobacco, flax, and hemp. Sheep and cattle are
+largely reared.--Wild deer, wild swine, chamois, foxes, lynxes, and a
+species of small black bear are found in many districts, the fox and lynx
+being particularly abundant.--In mineral productions Austria is very rich,
+possessing, with the exception of platinum, all the useful metals, the
+total annual value of the mineral products of Austria being estimated at
+upwards of L15,000,000, the principal being coal, salt, and iron.
+
+Before the European War, manufactures were in the most flourishing
+condition in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Lower Austria; less so in the
+eastern provinces, and insignificant in Dalmatia, Bukowina, Herzegovina,
+&c. Among the most important manufactures were those of machinery and metal
+goods, Austria holding a high place for the manufacture of musical and
+scientific instruments, gold and silver plate and jewellery; of stone and
+china-ware and of glass, which is one of the oldest and most
+highly-developed industries in Austria; of chemicals; of sugar from beet;
+of beer, spirits, &c.; and especially the manufactures of wool, cotton,
+hemp, and flax.
+
+In addition to the general import and export trade, Austria carried on a
+very considerable amount of business in the transit of goods through her
+territory. In 1914 the total value of imports into Austria-Hungary was
+L114,716,000, of exports L83,996,000; the value of imports in 1913 was
+L141,433,000, the exports L115,129,000. Among imports were cotton and other
+fibres, textile goods and yarn, metals, machinery, drugs, chemicals, oils,
+fats, hides, skins, &c. The chief exports were cereals, animals, metallic
+goods, woven fabrics, pottery and glass manufactures. Nearly two-thirds of
+the commerce are with Germany, next in importance being the trade with
+Roumania, Italy, and Russia. The exports direct to the United Kingdom in
+1913 were L7,705,949; the imports of British produce direct, L4,480,760;
+but these amounts do not include indirect exports and imports through other
+countries. The staple exports to the United Kingdom were corn and flour.
+The chief imports from it were cotton manufactures, machinery and metals,
+woollen goods, fish, &c. In 1913 the mercantile navy of Austria had a total
+burden of about 471,252 tons. The principal ports were Trieste, in Austria,
+and Fiume, in Hungary.
+
+None of the European States, except Russia, exhibited such a diversity of
+race and language as the former dual monarchy. The Slavs--who differ
+greatly, however, amongst themselves in language and civilization--amounted
+to above 20,000,000, or 46 per cent of the total population, and formed the
+great mass of the population of Bohemia, Moravia, Carniola, Galicia,
+Dalmatia, Croatia, and Slavonia, and Northern Hungary, and half the
+population of Silesia and Bukowina. The Germans, about 9,950,266, formed
+almost the sole population of the archduchy of Austria, Salzburg, the
+greatest portion of Styria and Carinthia, almost the whole of Tyrol and
+Vorarlberg, large portions of Bohemia and Moravia, the whole of West
+Silesia, &c.; and they were also numerous in Hungary and Transylvania. The
+Magyars or Hungarians (10,061,549) formed nearly half of the inhabitants of
+the former Kingdom of Hungary and the connected provinces.
+
+The State religion of the former dual monarchy was the Roman Catholic. In
+1910 there were in the Austrian portion of the monarchy 22,530,000 Roman
+Catholics, 3,417,000 Greek Catholics united to the Roman Church, 689,000
+non-united, 589,000 Protestants, and 1,314,000 Jews.
+
+The intellectual culture of the people was highest in the German provinces,
+but in some of the other provinces the percentage of uneducated was very
+high. Attendance at the elementary schools was compulsory on all children
+from their sixth to the end of their fourteenth year in most of the
+Austrian provinces; to at least the twelfth year in the whole empire. There
+were numerous gymnasia and 'real schools', the gymnasia being intended
+chiefly to prepare pupils for the universities, while in the real schools a
+more practical end was kept in view, and modern languages and physical
+science formed the groundwork of the educational course. The technical high
+schools in Austria were very important institutions, and there are many
+other special schools where the students received training in mining,
+agriculture, industries of all kinds, art, music, commerce, &c. In 1917
+there were eight universities maintained by the State, viz. in Vienna,
+Prague (2), Gratz, Cracow, Lemberg, Innsbruck, and Czernowitz. Most of
+these have four faculties--Catholic theology, law and politics, medicine,
+and philosophy.
+
+Before the revolution of 1918 the ruler of the dual monarchy had the title
+of emperor in his Austrian dominions, but he was only king of Hungary. The
+Parliament of the Austrian division of the empire was known as the
+Reichsrath, or council of the realm, consisting of an Upper House
+(Herrenhaus), composed of princes of the imperial family, nobles with the
+hereditary right to sit, archbishops, and life-members nominated by the
+Emperor; and a Lower House (Abgeordnetenhaus) of 516 deputies elected on
+the basis of universal suffrage. There were seventeen provincial Diets or
+Assemblies, each provincial division having one. In the Hungarian division
+of the Empire the legislature was a Parliament consisting of an Upper House
+or House of Magnates and of a Lower House or House of Representatives, the
+latter elected by all citizens of full age paying a small amount in taxes,
+or otherwise qualified. Its powers corresponded to those of the Austrian
+Parliament or Reichsrath. All matters affecting the joint interests of the
+two divisions of the monarchy, such as foreign affairs, war, and finance,
+were dealt with by the Parliaments of the two States. There were three
+Budgets, viz. one for common affairs, one for Austria, and one for Hungary.
+The Budget estimates for the former Austrian kingdom in 1913 were
+L130,716,773 (the revenue balancing the expenditure). In 1918 the estimates
+were: expenditure 24,321,140,000 crowns, revenue 4,854,789 crowns.
+Austria's special debt in Feb., 1918, was placed at 54,081,765,681 crowns,
+of which 29,274,603,300 crowns were war debt. On 20th Nov., 1918, the
+Provisional Government of the Austrian Republic passed a law adopting the
+Budget of 1918-9, and empowering the Minister of Finance to make good the
+difference between revenue and expenditure.
+
+Military service was compulsory and universal throughout the dual monarchy.
+The old Austro-Hungarian army numbered about 820,000 men on a peace
+footing.
+
+_History._--In 791 Charlemagne drove the Avars from the territory between
+the Ens and the Raab, and united it to his empire under the name of _the
+Eastern Mark_ (that is, March or boundary land); and from the establishment
+by him of a margraviate in this new province the former Austrian Empire
+took its rise. On the invasion of Germany by the Hungarians it became
+subject to them from 900 till 955, when Otho I, by the victory of Augsburg,
+reunited a great part of this province to the German Empire, which by 1043
+had extended its limits to the Leitha. The margraviate of Austria was
+hereditary in the family of the Counts of Babenberg (Bamberg) from 982 till
+1156, in which year the boundaries of Austria were extended so as to
+include the territory above the Ens, and the whole was created a duchy. The
+territory was still further increased in 1192 by the gift of the duchy of
+Styria as a fief from the Emperor Henry VI, Vienna being by this time the
+capital. The male line of the House of Bamberg became extinct in 1246, and
+the Emperor Frederick II declared Austria and Styria a vacant fief, the
+hereditary property of the German emperors. In 1282 the Emperor Rudolph
+granted Austria, Styria, and Carinthia to his two sons, Albert and Rudolph.
+The former became sole ruler (duke), and since then, until 12th Nov., 1918,
+Austria remained under the House of Habsburg. Albert, who was an energetic
+ruler, was elected emperor in 1298, but was assassinated in 1308. The first
+of his successors whom we need specially mention was Albert V, son-in-law
+of the Emperor Sigismund. He assisted Sigismund in the Hussite wars, and
+was elected, after his death, King of Hungary and of Bohemia, and German
+emperor (1438). Ladislaus, his posthumous son, was the last of the Austrian
+line proper, and its possessions devolved upon the collateral Styrian line
+in 1457; since which time the House of Austria furnished an unbroken
+succession of German emperors.
+
+In 1453 the Emperor Frederick III, a member of this House, had conferred
+upon the country the rank of an archduchy before he himself became ruler of
+all Austria. His son Maximilian I, by his marriage with Mary, the surviving
+daughter of Charles the Bold, united the Netherlands to the Austrian
+dominions. After the death of his father, in 1493, Maximilian was made
+Emperor of Germany, and transferred to his son Philip the government of the
+Netherlands. He also added to his paternal inheritance Tyrol, with several
+other territories, particularly some belonging to Bavaria, and acquired for
+his family new claims to Hungary and Bohemia. The marriage of his son
+Philip to Joanna of Spain raised the House of Habsburg to the throne of
+Spain. Philip, however, died in 1506, and the death of Maximilian, in 1519,
+was followed by the union of Spain and Austria, his grandson (the eldest
+son of Philip), Charles I, King of Spain, being elected Emperor of Germany
+as Charles V. Charles thus became the greatest monarch in Europe, but in
+1521 he ceded to his brother Ferdinand all his dominions in Germany.
+Ferdinand I, by his marriage with Anna, the sister of Louis II, King of
+Hungary, acquired the kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia, with Moravia,
+Silesia, and Lusatia, the appendages of Bohemia. To oppose him the woywode
+of Transylvania, John Zapolya, sought the help of the Sultan, Soliman II,
+who appeared in 1529 at the gates of Vienna, but was compelled to retreat.
+In 1535 a treaty was made by which John Zapolya was allowed to retain the
+royal title and half of Hungary, but after his death new disputes arose,
+and Ferdinand maintained the possession of Lower Hungary only by paying
+Soliman the sum of 30,000 ducats annually (1562). In 1556 Ferdinand
+obtained the imperial crown, when his brother Charles laid by the sceptre
+for a cowl. He died in 1564, leaving his territories to be divided amongst
+his three sons.
+
+Maximilian II, the eldest, succeeded his father as emperor, obtaining
+Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia; Ferdinand, the second son, received Tyrol
+and Lower Austria; and Charles, the youngest, obtained Styria, Carinthia,
+Carniola, and Goerz. Maximilian died in 1576, and was succeeded on the
+imperial throne by his eldest son Rudolph II, who had already been crowned
+King of Hungary in 1572, and King of Bohemia in 1575. Rudolph's reign was
+distinguished by the war against Turkey and Transylvania; the persecutions
+of the Protestants, who were driven from his dominions; the cession of
+Hungary in 1608; and in 1611 of Bohemia and his hereditary estates in
+Austria to his brother Matthias. Matthias, who succeeded Maximilian on the
+imperial throne, concluded a peace with the Turks, but was disturbed by the
+Protestant Bohemians, who took up arms in defence of their religious
+rights, thus commencing the Thirty Years' War. After his death in 1619 the
+Bohemians refused to acknowledge his successor, Ferdinand II, until after
+the battle of Prague in 1620, when Bohemia had to submit, and was deprived
+of the right of choosing her king. Lutheranism was strictly forbidden in
+all the Austrian dominions. Hungary, which revolted under Bethlem Gabor,
+Prince of Transylvania, was, after a long struggle, subdued. During the
+reign of Ferdinand III (1637-57), successor of Ferdinand II, Austria was
+continually the theatre of war; Lusatia was ceded to Saxony in 1635; and
+Alsace to France in 1648, when peace was restored in Germany by the Treaty
+of Westphalia.
+
+The Emperor Leopold I, son and successor of Ferdinand III, was victorious
+through the talents of Prince Eugene in two wars with Turkey; and Vienna
+was delivered by Sobieski and the Germans from the attacks of Kara Mustapha
+in 1683. In 1687 he united Hungary to Transylvania, and in 1699 restored to
+Hungary the country lying between the Danube and the Theiss. It was the
+chief aim of Leopold to secure to Charles, his second son, the inheritance
+of the Spanish monarchy, and in 1701, upon the victory of French diplomacy
+in the appointment of the grandson of Louis XIV, the War of the Spanish
+Succession commenced. Leopold died in 1705, but Joseph I, his eldest son,
+continued the war. As he died without children in 1711, his brother Charles
+was elected emperor, but was obliged to accede in 1714 to the Peace of
+Utrecht, by which Austria received the Netherlands, Milan, Mantua, Naples,
+and Sardinia. In 1720 Sicily was given to Austria in exchange for Sardinia.
+This monarchy now embraced over 190,000 sq. miles; but its power was
+weakened by new wars with Spain and France. In the peace concluded at
+Vienna (1735 and 1738) Charles VI was forced to cede Naples and Sicily to
+Spain and part of Milan to the King of Sardinia; and in 1739, by the Peace
+of Belgrade, he was obliged to transfer to the Porte Belgrade, Serbia, &c.,
+partly in order to secure the succession to his daughter, Maria Theresa, by
+the Pragmatic Sanction. He died in 1740.
+
+On Maria Theresa's marriage to Francis Stephen, Duke of Lorraine (the
+dynasty henceforth being that of Habsburg-Lorraine), and her accession to
+the Austrian throne, the Empire was threatened with dismemberment.
+Frederick II of Prussia subdued Silesia; the Elector of Bavaria was crowned
+in Lintz and Prague, and in 1742 chosen emperor under the name of Charles
+VII; Hungary alone supported the heroic and beautiful queen. Charles,
+however, died in 1745, and the husband of Theresa was crowned Emperor of
+Germany as Francis I; but a treaty concluded in 1745 confirmed to Frederick
+the possession of Silesia, and by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748,
+Austria was obliged to cede the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla
+to Philip, Infant of Spain, and several districts of Milan and Sardinia. To
+recover Silesia, Maria Theresa formed an alliance with France, Russia,
+Saxony, and Sweden, and entered upon the Seven Years' War; but by the Peace
+of Hubertsberg, 1763, Silesia was recognized as Prussian territory. On the
+death of Francis I, in 1765, Joseph II, his eldest son, was appointed to
+assist his mother in the government and elected Emperor of Germany. The
+partition of Poland (1772) gave Galicia and Lodomeria to Austria, which
+also obtained Bukowina from the Porte in 1777. At the death of the Empress
+in 1780 Austria contained 235,000 sq. miles, with a pop. estimated at
+24,000,000.
+
+The liberal home administration of the Empress was continued and extended
+by her successor, Joseph II, who did much to further the spread of
+religious tolerance, education, and the industrial arts. The Low Countries,
+however, revolted, and he was unsuccessful in the war of 1788 against the
+Porte. His death took place in 1790. He was succeeded by his eldest
+brother, Leopold II, under whom peace was restored in the Netherlands, and
+in Hungary, and also with the Porte. On the death of his sister and her
+husband Louis XVI of France he formed an alliance with Prussia, but died in
+1792, before the French revolutionary war broke out.
+
+His son, Francis II, succeeded, and was elected German Emperor, by which
+time France had declared war against him as King of Hungary and Bohemia. In
+1795, in the third partition of Poland, West Galicia fell to Austria, and
+by the Peace of Campo-Formio (1797) she received the largest part of the
+Venetian territory as compensation for her loss of Lombardy and the
+Netherlands. In 1799 Francis, in alliance with Russia, renewed the war with
+France until 1801, when the Peace of Luneville was concluded. In 1804
+Francis declared himself hereditary Emperor of Austria as Francis I, and
+united all his States under the name of the Empire of Austria, immediately
+taking up arms once more with his allies Russia and Great Britain against
+France. The war of 1805 was terminated by the Peace of Pressburg (26th
+Dec.), by which Francis had to cede to France the remaining provinces of
+Italy, as well as to give up portions of territory to Bavaria, Wuertemberg,
+and Baden, receiving in return Salzburg and Berchtesgaden. After the
+formation of the Confederation of the Rhine (12th July, 1806) Francis was
+forced to resign his dignity as Emperor of Germany, which had been in his
+family more than 500 years. A new war with France in 1809 cost the monarchy
+42,380 sq. miles of territory and 3,500,000 subjects. Napoleon married
+Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor, and in 1812 concluded an alliance
+with him against Russia. But in 1813 Francis again declared war against
+France, and formed an alliance with Britain, Prussia, and Sweden against
+his son-in-law. By the Congress of Vienna (1815) Austria gained Lombardy
+and Venetia, and recovered, together with Dalmatia, the hereditary
+territories which it had been obliged to cede.
+
+In the troubled period following the French revolution of 1830
+insurrections took place in Modena, Parma, and the Papal States (1831-2),
+but were suppressed without much difficulty; and though professedly neutral
+during the Polish insurrections Austria clearly showed herself on the side
+of Russia, with whom her relations became more intimate as those between
+Great Britain and France grew more cordial. The death of Francis I (1835)
+and accession of his son, Ferdinand I, made little change in the Austrian
+system of government, and much discontent was the consequence. In 1846 the
+failure of the Polish insurrection led to the incorporation of Cracow with
+Austria. In Italy the declarations of Pio Nono in favour of reform
+increased the difficulties of Austria, and in Hungary the opposition under
+Kossuth and others assumed the form of a great constitutional movement. In
+1848, when the expulsion of Louis Philippe shook all Europe, Metternich
+found it impossible any longer to guide the helm of the State, and the
+Government was compelled to admit a free press and the right of citizens to
+arms. Apart from the popular attitude in Italy and in Hungary, where the
+Diet declared itself permanent under the presidency of Kossuth, the
+insurrection made equal progress in Vienna itself, and the royal family, no
+longer in safety, removed to Innsbruck. After various ministerial changes
+the Emperor abdicated in favour of his nephew, Francis Joseph; more
+vigorous measures were adopted; and Austria, aided by Russia, reduced
+Hungary to submission.
+
+The year 1855 is memorable for the Concordat with the Pope, which put the
+educational and ecclesiastical affairs of the Empire entirely into the
+hands of the Papal see. In 1859 the hostile intentions of France and
+Sardinia against the possessions of Austria in Italy became so evident that
+she declared war by sending an army across the Ticino; but after disastrous
+defeats at Magenta and Solferino she was compelled to cede Milan and the
+north-west portion of Lombardy to Sardinia. In 1864 she joined with the
+German States in the war against Denmark, but a dispute about
+Schleswig-Holstein involved her in a war with her allies (1866), while at
+the same time Italy renewed her attempts for the recovery of Venice. The
+Italians were defeated at Custozza and driven back across the Mincio; but
+the Prussians, victorious at Koeniggraetz (or Sadowa), threatened Vienna.
+Peace was concluded with Prussia on 23rd Aug. and with Italy on 3rd Oct.,
+the result of the war being the cession of Venetia through France to Italy
+and the withdrawal of Austria from all interference in the affairs of
+Germany.
+
+For nearly half a century (from 1866 to 1914) the internal affairs of
+Austria-Hungary gave much occupation to statesmen of the dual monarchy.
+Hungarian demands for self-government were finally agreed to, and the
+Empire was divided into the two parts already mentioned--Austria and
+Hungary. This settlement was consummated by the coronation of the Emperor
+Francis Joseph I, at Budapest, as King of Hungary, on 8th June, 1867. In
+the same year the Concordat of 1855 came up for discussion, and measures
+were passed for the re-establishment of civil marriage, the emancipation of
+schools from the domination of the Church, and the placing of different
+creeds on a footing of equality. The fact of the Austro-Hungarian dominions
+comprising so many different nationalities gave the central Government much
+trouble, both in regard to internal and to external affairs. In regard to
+the 'Eastern Question', for instance, the action of Austria was hampered by
+the sympathies shown by the Magyars for their blood relations, the Turks,
+while the Slavs were naturally more favourable to Russia. During the war
+between Russia and Turkey in 1877-8 Austria remained neutral; but at its
+close it was decided at the Congress of Berlin that Bosnia and Herzegovina
+should in future be administered by Austria instead of Turkey. In 1908,
+taking advantage of the condition of Turkey, Austria formally annexed these
+provinces. By the middle of Oct., 1918, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy began
+to break up into independent national States. Four States of some size laid
+claim to independence, viz. German-Austria, Czecho-Slovakia (recognized by
+the Allies), Hungary, and Yugo-Slavia. On 13th Oct., 1921, German Austria
+signed with Hungary the Burgenland pact, agreeing to a plebiscite in
+several districts. For recent history of Austria, see _Francis Joseph;
+European War._--Cf. S. Whitman, _Austria_ (in Story of the Nations Series);
+H. W. Steed, _The Hapsburg Monarchy._
+
+AUTEUIL ([=o]-t[.e]-y[.e]), formerly a suburban village of Paris, but now
+enclosed within the fortifications.
+
+AUTOBIOG'RAPHY, a department of literature of which, as a definite branch
+or form at least, we have no very ancient examples, though many
+autobiographical details are contained, for instance, in Cicero's and
+Pliny's letters, while St. Augustine has left a fragmentary autobiography
+in his _Confessions_. Various writers of note, without claiming or perhaps
+intending to write a formal autobiography, have left similar materials in
+the form of their own memoirs or reminiscences, or, for a portion of their
+lives, in diaries. The chief English diarists are Pepys and Evelyn, while
+Crabb Robinson is an admirable modern example. Brief autobiographies were
+written by Gibbon, Hume, and Sir Walter Scott (of his early life only), and
+among other writers who have given us autobiographies or kindred works are
+Fanny Burney, Cobbett, Haydon, Miss Mitford, Harriet Martineau, Leigh Hunt,
+Hugh Miller (in _My Schools and Schoolmasters_), John Stuart Mill, Anthony
+Trollope, Sir Henry Taylor, Miss F. P. Cobbe, Carlyle, Ruskin, Herbert
+Spencer, Alexander Bain, and Alfred Russel Wallace. Lord Roberts's
+_Forty-one Years in India_ and General Grant's _Personal Memoirs_ are most
+interesting autobiographical works by men of action. One of the most famous
+of autobiographies is that of the Italian Benvenuto Cellini. See
+_Biography_.
+
+AUTOCHROME. See _Photography_.
+
+AUTOCHTHONES ([a:]-tok'tho-n[=e]z), the Greek name for the aboriginal
+inhabitants of a country. See _Aborigines_.
+
+AU'TOCLAVE (derived from the Gr. _autos_, self, and Lat. _clavis_, key) is
+a strong steam-tight vessel in which hydrolysis of liquids can be carried
+out, under pressure, at temperatures considerably higher than their normal
+boiling-points. The vessels may be of copper, iron, or other suitable
+material, are sometimes enamelled within, or may have renewable refractory
+linings when used for corrosive liquids. Some types have mechanical
+agitators. Used in the manufacture of candles, coal-tar colours, &c. May be
+heated by high-pressure steam or in baths of oil or molten lead. See
+_Papin_.
+
+AU'TOCRAT (Gr. _autos_, self, _kratos_, rule), an absolute or uncontrolled
+ruler; the head of a State who is not controlled by any constitutional
+limitations, such as the Tsars of Russia till 1917.
+
+AUTO-DE-FE (Sp.); AUTO-DA-FE (Pg.), literally, 'act of faith'. See
+_Inquisition_.
+
+AU'TOGRAPH, a person's own handwriting; an original manuscript or
+signature, as opposed to a copy. The practice of collecting autographs or
+signatures originated in Germany and the Low Countries, chiefly among
+members of the universities, and dates at least from the sixteenth century.
+Among the earliest collections known are those of John Cotton and Hans
+Sloane in the British Museum, and of Philippe de Bethune, brother of Sully,
+and Lomenie de Brienne at the Bibliotheque Nationale. The most celebrated
+collection formed in England in recent years is that of Alfred Morrison.
+
+AUTOMATIC WRITING. See _Psychical Research_; _Spiritualism_.
+
+AUTOM'ATISM, the confinement of activity in men or animals within a purely
+mechanical limit, resulting from injury to or partial removal of the brain.
+
+AUTOM'ATON (Gr. _automatos_, spontaneous), a self-moving machine performing
+actions like those of a living being, and often shaped like one. The
+walking statues of Daedalus, the flying dove of Archytas, the brazen head
+of Friar Bacon, the iron fly of Regiomontanus, the door-opening figure of
+Albertus Magnus, the parading knights of the clock presented to Charlemagne
+by Harun al Rashid, the toy carriage and attendants constructed by Camus
+for Louis XIV, the flute-player, tambour-player, and duck of Vaucanson, and
+the writing child of the brothers Droz are among the more noteworthy of
+traditional automata. See _Conjuring_.
+
+AUTOMOBILE. See _Motor Vehicles_.
+
+AUTON'OMY, the power of a State, institution, &c., to legislate for itself.
+
+AUTOPH'AGI (-j[=i]), birds which feed themselves as soon as hatched.
+
+AU'TOPLASTY, the operation by which wounds and diseased parts are repaired
+with healthy tissues taken from other parts of the same person's body.
+
+AUTOPLATE. See _Printing_.
+
+AUTOP'SY, literally, personal observation or inspection, commonly
+restricted to post-mortem examination. See _Coroner_.
+
+AU'TOTYPE, a species of photographic print. A thin sheet of gelatine on
+paper is rendered sensitive to light by treatment with bichromate of
+potash, and then exposed under an ordinary photographic negative. The
+portions of gelatine affected by the light become insoluble, the remainder
+of the gelatine is then washed away, and the picture remains reproduced in
+the gelatine, there being slight elevations and depressions corresponding
+with the distribution of light and shade. This may be printed from, but it
+is more often made use of to obtain electrotypes or other reverses, from
+which impressions can more easily be taken.
+
+AUTUMN, the season between summer and winter, in the northern hemisphere
+often regarded as embracing August, September, and October, or three months
+about that time. The beginning of the astronomical autumn is 22nd Sept.,
+the autumnal equinox; and the end is 21st Dec., the shortest day. The
+autumn of the southern hemisphere takes place at the time of the northern
+spring.
+
+AUTUN ([=o]-t[.u]n; ancient, BIBRACTE, later, AUGUSTODUNUM), a town,
+South-Eastern France, department of Saone-et-Loire. It has two Roman gates
+of exquisite workmanship, the ruins of an amphitheatre and of several
+temples, the cathedral of St. Lazare, a fine Gothic structure of the
+twelfth century with chapels added in the fifteenth; manufactures of
+carpets, woollens, cotton, velvet, hosiery, &c. Pop. 15,498.
+
+AUTUNITE, a hydrous phosphate of uranium and calcium, crystallizing in the
+rhombic system in yellow plates. Like other minerals of the uranium series
+it shows radio-activity.
+
+AUVERGNE ([=o]-v[=a]r-ny[.e]), a province, Central France, now merged into
+departments Cantal and Puy-de-Dome, and an arrondissement of Haute-Loire.
+The Auvergne Mountains, separating the basins of the Allier, Cher, and
+Creuse from those of the Lot and Dordogne, contain the highest points of
+Central France: Mount Dor, 6188 feet; Cantal, 6093 feet, and Puy-de-Dome,
+4806 feet. The number of extinct volcanoes and general geologic formation
+make the district one of great scientific interest. The minerals include
+iron, copper, and lead, and there are warm and cold mineral springs.
+Auvergne contributes a large supply to the labour markets of Paris and
+Belgium, there being in Paris alone some 50,000 Auvergnats.
+
+AUXERRE ([=o]-s[=a]r), a town, France, department of Yonne, 110 miles S.E.
+of Paris. Principal edifices: a fine Gothic cathedral, unfinished; the
+abbey of St. Germain, with curious crypts; and an old episcopal palace, now
+the Hotel de Prefecture; it manufactures woollens, hats, casks, leather,
+earthenware, violin strings, &c.; trade, chiefly in wood and wines, of
+which the best known is white Chablis. Pop. 21,930.
+
+AUXOM'ETER, an instrument to measure the magnifying powers of an optical
+apparatus.
+
+AUXONNE ([=o]-son; ancient, AUSSONA), a town, France, department of
+Cote-d'Or (Burgundy), on the Saone; a fortified place, with some
+manufactures. Pop. 6300.
+
+A'VA, a town in Asia, formerly the capital of Burma, on the Irawadi, now
+almost wholly in ruins.
+
+AVA-AVA, ARVA, KAVA, or YAVA (_Macropiper methysticum_), a plant of the
+nat. ord. Piperaceae (pepper family), so called by the inhabitants of
+Polynesia, who make an intoxicating drink out of it. Its leaves are chewed
+with betel, in South-Eastern Asia.
+
+AVAD'AVAT. See _Amadavat_.
+
+AV'ALANCHES, large masses of snow or ice precipitated from the mountains,
+and distinguished as _wind_ or _dust avalanches_ when they consist of
+fresh-fallen snow whirled like a dust-storm into the valleys; as _sliding
+avalanches_ when they consist of great masses of snow sliding down a slope
+by their own weight; and as _glacier_ or _summer avalanches_ when
+ice-masses are detached by heat from the high glaciers.
+
+AVAL ISLANDS. Same as _Bahrein Islands_.
+
+AVALLON ([.a]-v[.a]-l[=o]n), a town of Central France, department Yonne.
+Pop. 5900.
+
+AV'ALON, a sort of fairyland or elysium mentioned in connection with the
+legends of King Arthur, being his abode after disappearing from the haunts
+of men: called also _Avilion_. The name is also identified with
+Glastonbury; and has been given to a peninsula of Newfoundland.
+
+AVAN'TURINE, or AVEN'TURINE, a variety of quartz containing glittering
+spangles of mica through it; also a sort of artificial gem of similar
+appearance.
+
+AV'ARS, a nation, probably of Turanian origin, who at an early period may
+have migrated from the region east of the Tobol in Siberia to that about
+the Don, the Caspian Sea, and the Volga. A part advanced to the Danube in
+A.D. 555, and settled in Dacia. They served in Justinian's army, aided the
+Lombards in destroying the kingdom of the Gepidae, and in the sixth century
+conquered under their Khan Bajan the region of Pannonia. They then won
+Dalmatia, pressed into Thuringia and Italy against the Franks and Lombards,
+and subdued the Slavs dwelling on the Danube, as well as the Bulgarians on
+the Black Sea. But they were ultimately limited to Pannonia, where they
+were overcome by Charlemagne, and nearly extirpated by the Slavs of
+Moravia. After 827 they disappear from history. Traces of their fortified
+settlements are found, and known as Avarian rings. See _Lesghians_.
+
+AVATAR', more properly AVATARA, in Hindu mythology, an incarnation of the
+Deity. Of the innumerable avatars the chief are the ten incarnations of
+Vishnu, who appeared successively as a fish, a tortoise, a boar, a
+man-lion, a dwarf, &c.
+
+AVATCH'A, a volcano and bay in Kamchatka. The volcano, which is 9000 feet
+high, was last active in 1855. The town of Petropavlovsk lies in the bay.
+
+AVEBURY ([=a]v'be-ri), a village of England, in Wiltshire, occupying the
+site of a so-called Druidical temple, which originally consisted of a large
+outer circle of 100 stones, from 15 to 17 feet in height, and about 40 feet
+in circumference, surrounded by a broad ditch and lofty rampart, and
+enclosing two smaller circles. Few traces now remain of the structure. On
+the neighbouring downs are numerous barrows or tumuli, one of which, called
+Silbury Hill, rises to the height of 130 feet, with a circumference of 2027
+feet at the base, covering fully 5 acres.
+
+AVEBURY, John Lubbock, first Baron. See _Lubbock_.
+
+AVEIRO ([.a]-v[=a]'i-r[u:]), a coast town in Portugal, province of Douro,
+with a cathedral, an active fishery, and a thriving trade. Pop. 11,523.
+
+AVELLINO ([.a]-vel-l[=e]'n[=o]), a town in Southern Italy, capital of the
+province of Avellino, 29 miles east of Naples, the seat of a bishop.
+Avellino nuts were celebrated under the Romans. Pop. 24,620. Area of the
+province, 1165 sq. miles; pop. 411,813.
+
+A'VE MARI'A ('Hail, Mary'), the first two words of the angel Gabriel's
+salutation (_Luke_, i, 28), and the beginning of the very common Latin
+prayer to the Virgin in the Roman Catholic Church. Its lay use was
+sanctioned at the end of the twelfth century, and a papal edict of 1326
+ordains the repetition of the prayer thrice each morning, noon, and
+evening, the hour being indicated by sound of bells called the Ave Maria or
+Angelus Domini. The prayers are counted upon the small beads of the rosary,
+as the pater-nosters are upon the large ones.
+
+AVE'NA. See _Oat_.
+
+AV'ENS, the English name of two rosaceous plants of the genus Geum. Common
+avens, or herb-bennet, _G. urb[=a]num_, possesses astringent properties,
+and was formerly used in medicine. The mountain avens, _Dryas octopetala_,
+belongs to the same nat. ord.
+
+AV'ENTAILE, the movable face-guard of the helmet, through which the wearer
+breathed.
+
+AV'ENTINE, one of the seven hills of Rome, east of the Tiber. It was
+included in the city by Servius Tullius.
+
+AVEN'TURINE. See _Avanturine_.
+
+AV'ERAGE, in maritime law, any charge or expense over and above the freight
+of goods, and payable by their owner.--_General average_ is the sum falling
+to be paid by the owners of ship, cargo, and freight, in proportion to
+their several interests, to make good any loss or expense intentionally
+incurred for the general safety of ship and cargo, e.g. throwing goods
+overboard, cutting away masts, port dues in cases of distress,
+&c.--_Particular average_ is the sum falling to be paid for unavoidable
+loss when the general safety is not in question, and therefore chargeable
+on the individual owner of the property lost. A policy of insurance
+generally covers both general and particular average, unless specially
+excepted.--_Averaging_, in Stock Exchange language, denotes the operation
+of a speculator in increasing transactions at a higher or lower price when
+the price is moving against him, so that the average price of the whole
+will be higher or lower than his original purchase or sale.
+
+AVER'NUS, a lake, now called LAGO D'AVERNO, in Campania, Italy, between the
+ancient Cumae and Puteoli, about 8 miles from Naples. It is the crater of
+an old volcano, and is in some places 180 feet deep. Formerly the gloom of
+its forest surroundings and its mephitic exhalations caused it to be
+regarded as the entrance to the infernal regions. It was the fabled abode
+of the Cimmerians, and especially dedicated to Proserpine.
+
+AVERROES (a-ver'o-es; corrupted from IBN ROSHD), the most renowned Arabian
+philosopher, born at Cordova, in Spain, 1126, died at Morocco 1198. His
+ability procured him the succession to his father's office of chief
+magistrate, and the King of Morocco appointed him at the same time cadi in
+the province of Mauretania. Accused of being an infidel, he was, however,
+deprived of his offices, and banished to Spain; but, being persecuted there
+also, he fled to Fez, where he was condemned to recant and undergo public
+penance. Upon this he went back to his own country, where the Caliph
+Almansur finally restored him to his dignities. Averroes regarded Aristotle
+as the greatest of all philosophers, and devoted himself so largely to the
+exposition of his works as to be called among the Arabians _The
+Interpreter_. He wrote a compendium of medicine, and treatises on theology,
+philosophy, jurisprudence, &c. His commentaries upon Aristotle appeared
+before 1250 in a Latin translation attributed to Michael Scott, the reputed
+wizard (1194-1250), and others. Averroes was at once a philosopher, a
+theologian, and a theosophist.
+
+AVERRUNCA'TOR, a garden implement for pruning trees without a ladder,
+consisting of two blades similar to stout shears, one fixed rigidly to a
+long handle, and the other moved by a lever to which a cord passing over a
+pulley is attached.
+
+AVER'SA, a well-built town of Southern Italy, 7 miles N. of Naples, in a
+beautiful vine and orange district, the seat of a bishop, with a cathedral
+and various religious institutions, and a large lunatic asylum. Andreas of
+Hungary, husband of Queen Joanna I, was strangled in a convent here, 18th
+Sept., 1345. Pop. 23,203.
+
+AVESNES ([.a]-v[=a]n), a town of France, department Nord. Pop. 5829.
+
+AVESTA. See _Zendavesta_.
+
+AVEYRON ([.a]-v[=a]-r[=o][n.]), a department occupying the southern
+extremity of the central plateau of France, traversed by mountains
+belonging to the Cevennes and the Cantal ranges; principal rivers: Aveyron,
+Lot, and Tarn, the Lot alone being navigable. The climate is cold, and
+agriculture is in a backward state, but considerable attention is paid to
+sheep-breeding. It is noted for its 'Roquefort cheese'. It has coal, iron,
+and copper mines, besides other minerals. Area, 3385 sq. miles; capital,
+Rhodez. Pop. (1921), 332,940.
+
+AVEZZANO ([.a]-vet-zae'n[=o]), a town of S. Italy, province Aquila. Pop.
+11,279.
+
+AV'IARY, a building or enclosure for keeping, breeding, and rearing birds.
+Aviaries appear to have been used by the Persians, Greeks, and Romans, and
+are highly prized in China. In England they were in use at least as early
+as 1577, when William Harrison refers to "our costlie and curious
+aviaries". An aviary may be simply a kind of very large cage, or a series
+of enclosures.
+
+AVIATIK, a German type of biplane. It was originally built at Mulhausen in
+Alsace.
+
+AVIATION. See _Aeronautics_.
+
+AVICEN'NA, or EBN-SINA, an Arabian philosopher and physician, born at
+Kharmaithen, in the province of Bokhara, A.D. 980. After practising as a
+physician he quitted Bokhara at the age of twenty-two, and for a number of
+years led a wandering life, settling at last at Hamadan, subsequently as
+vizier of the Emir. On the death of his patron he lived in retirement at
+Hamadan, but having secretly offered his services to the Sultan of Ispahan
+he was imprisoned by the new Emir. Escaping, he fled to Ispahan, was
+received with great honour by the Sultan, and passed there in quietness the
+last fourteen years of his life, writing upon medicine, logic, metaphysics,
+astronomy, and geometry. His philosophy was Aristotelianism mingled with
+neo-Platonism, and his influence is most marked in Dante and the Mystics.
+He died at Hamadan, in Northern Persia, 1037, leaving many writings, mostly
+commentaries on Aristotle. Of his 100 treatises the best known is the
+_Canon Medicinae_, which was still in use as a textbook at Louvain and
+Montpellier in the middle of the seventeenth century. His _Philosophia
+Orientalis_, mentioned by Roger Bacon, is lost.
+
+AVIE'NUS, Rufus Festus, a Latin descriptive poet, who flourished about the
+end of the fourth century A.D., and wrote _Descriptio Orbis Terrae_, a
+general description of the earth; _Ora Maritima_, an account of the
+Mediterranean coasts, &c.
+
+AVIFAU'NA, a collective term for the birds of any region.
+
+AVIGLIANO ([.a]-v[=e]l-yae'n[=o]), a town of S. Italy, province Potenza.
+Pop. 17,413.
+
+AVIGNON ([.a]-v[=e]-ny[=o]n; ancient, AVENIO), an old town of S.E. France,
+capital of department Vaucluse, on the left bank of the Rhone; enclosed by
+lofty battlemented and turreted walls, well built, but with rather narrow
+streets. It is an archbishop's see since 1475, and has a large and ancient
+cathedral on a rock overlooking the town, the immense palace in which the
+Popes resided (used as a barracks and prison for a long time), and other
+old buildings. The industries of the city are numerous and varied, the
+principal being connected with silk. The silk manufacture and the breeding
+of silk-worms are the principal employments in the district. Here Petrarch
+lived several years, and made the acquaintance of Laura, whose tomb is in
+the Franciscan church. From 1309 to 1377 seven Popes in succession, from
+Clement V to Gregory XI, resided in this city. After its purchase by Pope
+Clement VI, in 1348, Avignon and its district continued, with a few
+interruptions, under the rule of a vice-legate of the Pope's till 1791,
+when it was formally united to the French Republic. Pop. 49,304.
+
+AVIGNON BERRIES. See _French Berries_.
+
+AVILA (ae'v[=e]-l[.a]), a town of Spain, capital of province of Avila, a
+modern division of Old Castile. It is the see of the Bishop suffragan of
+Santiago, with fine cathedral. Once one of the richest towns of Spain.
+Principal employment in the town, spinning; in the province, breeding sheep
+and cattle. Pop., town, 12,060; province, 214,008.
+
+AVILA, Gil Gonzalez d', a Spanish antiquary and biographer, 1577-1658; made
+historiographer of Castile in 1612, and of the Indies in 1641. Most
+valuable works: _Teatro de las Grandezas de Madrid_, 1623, and _Teatro
+Ecclesiastico_, 1645-53.
+
+AVILA Y ZUNIGA (ae'v[=e]-l[.a] [=e] thoe-ny[=e]'g[.a]), Don Luis d',
+Spanish general, diplomatist, and historian; a favourite of Charles V; born
+about 1490, died about 1560. His chief work, printed in 1548 and translated
+into five languages, was on the war of Charles V in Germany.
+
+AVILES ([.a]-v[=e]'les), a town of Northern Spain, province Oviedo, with a
+good harbour. Pop. 13,660.
+
+AVIZ, an order of knighthood in Portugal, instituted by Sancho, its first
+king, and having as its original object the subjection of the Moors.
+
+AVIZAN'DUM, in Scots law, private consideration. To make _avizandum_ is to
+remove a cause from the public court to the private consideration of the
+judge.
+
+AVLO'NA (Ital. _Valona_), a seaport of Albania on the Adriatic, with a
+considerable trade. It was occupied and made a naval and military base by
+the Italians during the European War. Pop. 6500.
+
+AVO'CA, or OVOCA, a river and valley in Ireland, County Wicklow, celebrated
+as the scene and subject of one of Moore's _Irish Melodies_. The river is
+formed by the union of the Avonbeg and Avonmore, and below the junction
+receives the Aughrim, the name in Celtic signifying 'the meeting of the
+waters'. After a course of about 9 miles it falls into the sea about a mile
+below Arklow. The scenery here is singularly beautiful, and attracts many
+visitors.
+
+AVOCA'DO-PEAR. See _Alligator-pear_.
+
+AVOGAD'RO'S LAW, in physics, asserts that equal volumes of different gases
+at the same pressure and temperature contain an equal number of molecules.
+
+AVOIRDUPOIS (a-v[.e]r'd[u:]-pois; from old French, literally, 'goods of
+weight'), a system of weights used for all goods except precious metals,
+gems, and medicines, and in which a pound contains 16 ounces, or 7000
+grains, while a pound troy contains 12 ounces, or 5760 grains. A
+hundredweight contains 112 pounds avoirdupois; a _cental_ of 100 pounds is
+common in America, and is a legal British weight. See _Weights and
+Measures_.
+
+AV'OLA, a seaport on the east of Sicily, with a trade in almonds, sugar,
+&c. Pop. 17,711.
+
+A'VON, the name of several rivers in England, of which the principal are:
+1. The Upper Avon, rising in Leicestershire, and flowing S.W. into the
+Severn at Tewkesbury. Stratford-on-Avon lies on this river. 2. The Lower
+Avon, rising in Gloucestershire, and falling into the Severn N.W. of
+Bristol; navigable as far as Bath. 3. In Monmouthshire. 4. In Wiltshire and
+Hampshire, entering the English Channel at Christchurch Bay. There are also
+streams of this name in Wales and Scotland.
+
+AVONMOUTH, a place at the mouth of the River Avon, 6 miles from Bristol,
+and connected with it by rail and river, with large docks belonging to the
+Bristol corporation, and forming part of the shipping accommodation of that
+city.
+
+[Illustration: Avoset (_Recurvirostra avosetta_)]
+
+AV'OSET, a bird about the size of a lapwing, of the genus Recurvirostra
+(_R. avosetta_), family Scolopacidae (snipes), ord. Grallatores. The bill
+is long, slender, elastic, and bent upward toward the tip, the legs long,
+the feet webbed, and the plumage variegated with black and white. The bird
+feeds on worms and other small animals, which it scoops up from the mud of
+the marshes and fens that it frequents. It is found in Europe, Asia,
+Africa, and America; but the American species is slightly different from
+the others.
+
+AVRANCHES ([.a]-vrae[n.]sh; ancient, ABRINCAE), a town, France, department
+La Manche, about 3 miles from the Atlantic. It formerly had a fine
+cathedral, destroyed during the first French revolution. Manufactures:
+lace, thread, and candles. Pop. 7174.
+
+AWE ([a:]), a Scottish loch in Argyllshire, about 28 miles long and 2
+broad, and communicating by the Awe with Loch Etive. Ben Cruachan stands at
+its northern extremity. It has many islands and beautiful scenery, and
+abounds in trout, salmon, &c.
+
+AXE, or AX, a well-known tool for cutting or chipping wood, consisting of
+an iron head with an arched cutting edge of steel, which is in line with
+the wooden handle of the tool, and not at right angles to it as in the
+adze.
+
+AXEL. See _Absalon_.
+
+AXE-STONE. See _Jade_.
+
+AXHOLME ISLE (aks'[=o]m), a sort of island in England formed by the Rivers
+Trent, Idle, and Don, in the north-west angle of Lincolnshire, 17 miles
+long, 4-1/2 broad.
+
+[Illustration: Leaf and stem of Horse-chestnut, showing axil]
+
+AXIL, or AXILLA, in botany, the angle between the upper side of a leaf and
+the stem or branch from which it springs. Buds usually appear in the axils,
+and flowers or flower-stalks growing in this way are called _axillary_.
+
+AX'IM, a town of W. Africa, on the Gold Coast.
+
+AX'INITE, a mineral, silicate of alumina, lime, &c., with boracic acid,
+deriving its name from the form of the crystals, the edges of which bear
+some resemblance to the edge of an axe.
+
+AXIN'OMANCY, an ancient method of divination by the movements of an axe
+(Gr. _axin[=e]_) balanced on a stake, or of an agate placed on a red-hot
+axe. The names of suspected persons being uttered, the movements at a
+particular name indicated the criminal.
+
+AX'IOM, a universal proposition, which the understanding must perceive to
+be true as soon as it perceives the meaning of the words, and therefore
+called a _self-evident truth_: e.g. _A_ is _A_. In mathematics, axioms are
+those propositions which are assumed without proof, as being in themselves
+independent of proof, and which are made the basis of all the subsequent
+reasoning; as, 'The whole is greater than its part'; 'Things that are equal
+to the same thing are equal to one another'. See _Geometry_.
+
+AXIS, the straight line, real or imaginary, passing through a body or
+magnitude, on which it revolves, or may be supposed to revolve; especially
+a straight line with regard to which the different parts of a magnitude, or
+several magnitudes, are symmetrically arranged; e.g. the _axis of the
+world_, the imaginary line drawn through its two poles.
+
+In _botany_ the word is also used, the stem being termed the _ascending
+axis_, the root the _descending axis_.
+
+In _anatomy_ the name is given to the second vertebra from the head, that
+on which the _atlas_ moves. See _Atlas_.
+
+AXIS (_Cervus axis_), a species of Indian deer, also known as the Spotted
+Hog-deer, of a rich fawn colour, nearly black along the back, with white
+spots, and under parts white. Breeds freely in many parks in Europe.
+
+AX'MINSTER, a market town, England, county Devon, on the Axe, at one time
+celebrated for its woollen cloth and carpet manufactures, and giving name
+to an expensive variety of carpet having a thick soft pile, and also to a
+cheaper variety. Pop. (1921), 2049.
+
+AX'OLOTL (_Amblyst[)o]ma macul[=a]tum_), a curious Mexican amphibian, not
+unlike a newt, from 8 to 10 inches in length, with gills formed of three
+long ramified or branch-like processes floating on each side of the neck.
+It reproduces by laying eggs, and was for some time regarded as a perfect
+animal with permanent gills. It is said, however, that they frequently lose
+their gills like the other members of the genus, though some authorities
+maintain that the true axolotl never loses its gills, and that merely
+confusion with _A. tigr[=i]num_ has led to the belief, as this species
+sometimes retains its branchiae, though usually it loses them. The axolotl
+is esteemed a luxury by the Mexicans. There are a number of species of
+Amblystoma in North America.
+
+AX'UM, or AKSUM, a town in Tigre, a division of Abyssinia, once the capital
+of an important kingdom, and at one time the great depot of the ivory trade
+in the Red Sea. It is the seat of an _abuna_ or Patriarch, and has a pop.
+of 5000. The site of the town still exhibits many remains of its former
+greatness.
+
+AYACUCHO (ae-y[.a]-koe'ch[=o]), the name of a department of Peru, and of
+its capital. The department has an area of 18,185 sq. miles; a pop. of
+302,469. The town (formerly Guamanga or Huamanga) has a cathedral and a
+university, and a pop. of 20,000.
+
+AYALA ([.a]-yae'l[.a]), Pedro Lopez de, Spanish historian and poet,
+Chancellor of Castile in the second half of the fourteenth century, and the
+author of a history of Castile from 1350 to 1396. He took an active part in
+the struggle between Henry II and Pedro the Cruel, and was taken prisoner
+by the English in 1367. During his English captivity he wrote part of his
+chief poetical work, _A Book in Rhyme concerning Court Life_. Died 1407.
+
+AYAMONTE ([.a]-y[.a]-mon't[=a]), a seaport town, Spain, province of Huelva,
+2 miles from the mouth of the Guadiana. Pop. 6000.
+
+AYASS'OLUK. See _Ephesus_.
+
+[Illustration: Aye-aye (_Cheir[)o]mys madagascariensis_)]
+
+AYE-AYE ([=i]-[=i]; _Cheir[)o]mys madagascariensis_), an animal of
+Madagascar, so called from its cry; now referred to the lemur family. It is
+about the size of a hare, has large flat ears and a bushy tail; large eyes;
+long sprawling fingers, the third so slender as to appear shrivelled;
+colour, musk-brown, mixed with black and grey ash; feeds on grubs, fruits,
+&c.; habits, nocturnal. See _Primates_, _Lemurs_.
+
+AYESHA (a-yesh'a), daughter of Abu-Bekr and favourite wife of Mahomet,
+though she bore him no child, born in 610 or 611. After his death she
+opposed the succession of Ali, but was defeated and taken prisoner. She
+died at Medina in 677 or 678 (A.H. 58).
+
+AYLESBURY ([=a]lz'be-ri), county town of Buckinghamshire, England, with a
+fine old parish church; chief industries, silk-throwing, printing, making
+condensed milk, and poultry-rearing for the London market. The Aylesbury
+duck, also called 'white English', is famous. Previous to 1885 it and its
+hundred sent two members to Parliament, and it still gives its name to a
+parliamentary division. Pop. (1921), 12,114.
+
+AY'LOFFE, Sir Joseph, an English antiquary, born about 1708, died 1781;
+member of the first council of the Society of Antiquaries, a commissioner
+for the preservation of State papers, the author and editor of several
+works, of which the best known is his _Calendars of the Auntient Charters_,
+&c.
+
+AYMARAS ([=i]'m[.a]-r[.a]z), an Indian race of Bolivia and Peru, speaking a
+language akin to the Quichua.
+
+AY'MON, the surname of four brothers, Alard, Richard, Guiscard, and Renaud,
+who hold a first place among the heroes of the Charlemagne cycle of
+romance. Their exploits were the subject of a romance, _Les Quatre Fils
+d'Aymon_, by Huon de Villeneuve, a trouvere of the thirteenth century, and
+Renaud is a leading figure in Ariosto's _Orlando_.
+
+AYR ([=a]r), a town of Scotland, a royal and parliamentary burgh, and
+capital of Ayrshire, at the mouth of the River Ayr, on the Firth of Clyde.
+It was the site of a Roman station. William the Lion built a castle there
+in 1197 and constituted it a royal burgh in 1202; and the Parliament which
+confirmed Robert Bruce's title to the crown sat in Ayr. It is picturesquely
+situated, and has excellent public and other buildings. Two bridges connect
+Ayr proper with the suburbs of Newton and Wallacetown, a third stands
+farther up the river. The 'New Brig' of Burns's 'Brigs of Ayr' (built in
+1788) had to be replaced by a new structure in 1879, while the 'Auld Brig'
+(built in 1252) still stands, after being repaired. Carpets, lace goods,
+leather, iron goods, &c., are manufactured. The harbour accommodation is
+good, and in particular coals are largely exported. The house in which
+Burns was born stands within 1-1/2 miles of the town, and near 'Alloway's
+auld haunted kirk', and a monument to him is near. Ayr unites with
+Ardrossan, Irvine, Prestwick, Saltcoats, and Troon in sending a member to
+Parliament. Pop. 32,986.--The county has an area of 724,523 acres. It is
+divided into the districts of Carrick in the south, Kyle in the middle, and
+Cunningham in the north. The surface is irregular, and a large portion of
+it hilly, but much of it is fertile. The principal streams are the Ayr,
+Stinchar, Girvan, Doon, Irvine, and Garnock. Coal and iron are abundant;
+and there are numerous collieries and ironworks. Limestone and freestone
+are also abundant. Agriculture is in a flourishing state, the principal
+crops being oats, turnips, and early potatoes, while dairy husbandry is
+extensively practised; the Ayrshire cows, referred to in the eighteenth
+century as the Cunningham, are celebrated as milkers, and Ayrshire cheese
+('Dunlop' and 'Cheddar') has a high reputation. Woollen manufactures are
+extensive, particularly carpets and bonnets; lace goods are largely made;
+Kilmarnock is a centre of engineering and of dairying education. Goods made
+include explosives, boots and shoes, chemicals, and leather. Chief towns,
+Ayr, Kilmarnock, Irvine, Ardrossan, Saltcoats, Stevenston, Maybole. Ayr and
+Buteshire send three members to Parliament. Pop. 267,600 (1918).
+
+AYRER ([=i]'rer), Jacob, a German dramatist of the sixteenth century, who
+almost rivalled Hans Sachs in copiousness and importance. He was a citizen
+and legal official of Nuremberg, and died in 1605. His works, published at
+Nuremberg in 1618, under the title _Opus Theatricum_, include thirty
+comedies and tragedies and thirty-six humorous pieces.
+
+AYRTON, William Edward, English physicist and electrical engineer, born in
+1847. From 1873 to 1879 he was professor of natural philosophy and
+telegraphy in the Imperial College of Engineering at Tokio. In 1879 he was
+appointed professor of applied physics in the City and Guilds of London
+Institute. He invented an ammeter, voltmeter, &c., in conjunction with
+Professor Perry. He died in 1908. He published _Practical Electricity_, and
+many papers on scientific subjects.
+
+AYTOUN ([=a]'tun), Sir Robert, poet, born in Fifeshire, Scotland, 1570,
+died 1638. After studying at St. Andrews he lived for some time in France,
+whence, in 1603, he addressed a panegyric in Latin verse to King James on
+his accession to the crown of England. By the grateful monarch he was
+appointed one of the gentlemen of the bedchamber, and private secretary to
+the queen, receiving also the honour of knighthood. At a later period of
+his life he was secretary to Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I. His poems
+are few in number, but are distinguished by elegance of diction. Several of
+his Latin poems are preserved in the work called _Delitiae Poetarum
+Scotorum_, published at Amsterdam in 1637 at the expense of Sir John Scot
+of Scotstarvet.
+
+AYTOUN, William Edmonstoune, poet and prose writer, born at Edinburgh in
+1813, died at Blackhills, Elgin, 1865. He studied at the University of
+Edinburgh, became a writer to the signet in 1835, and passed as advocate in
+1840. He issued a volume of poems in 1832, by 1836 was a contributor to
+_Blackwood's Magazine_, and in 1840 he published the _Life and Times of
+Richard 1_. In 1848 he published a collection of ballads entitled _Lays of
+the Scottish Cavaliers_, which has proved the most popular of all his
+works. It was followed in 1854 by _Firmilian, a Spasmodic Tragedy_
+(intended to ridicule certain popular writers); the _Bon Gaultier Ballads_
+(parodies and other humorous pieces, in conjunction with Theodore Martin),
+1855; in 1856 the poem _Bothwell_; and in subsequent years by _Norman
+Sinclair_, _The Glenmutchkin Railway_, and other stories. In 1858 he edited
+a critical and annotated collection of the _Ballads of Scotland_. A
+translation of the poems and ballads of Goethe was executed by him in
+conjunction with Theodore Martin. In 1845 he became professor of rhetoric
+and English literature in the University of Edinburgh--a position which he
+held till his death. In 1852 he was appointed Sheriff of Orkney and
+Shetland.
+
+AYUNTAMIENTO ([.a]-y[u:]n-t[.a]-m[=e]-en't[=o]), the name given to the town
+and village councils in Spain and Spanish America.
+
+AYU'THIA, the ancient capital of Siam, on the Menam, now a scene of
+splendid ruin.
+
+AZA'LEA, a genus of plants, nat. ord. Ericaceae, or heaths, remarkable for
+the beauty and fragrance of their flowers, and distinguished from the
+rhododendrons chiefly by the flowers having five stamens instead of ten.
+Many beautiful rhododendrons with deciduous leaves are known under the name
+of _azalea_ in gardens. The azaleas are common in North America, and two
+species of these--_A. visc[=o]sa_ and _A. nudifl[=o]ra_--are well known in
+Britain. An Asiatic species, _A. pontica_, famous for the stupefying effect
+which its honey is said to have produced on Xenophon's army (cf.
+_Anabasis_, book iv, chap. 8), is also common in British gardens and
+shrubberies; and another, _A. indica_, is a brilliant greenhouse plant.
+
+AZAMGARH, or AZIMGARH, a town of India, United Provinces, capital of
+district of same name. Pop. 18,835.--The district has an area of 2418 sq.
+miles; a pop. of 1,530,000.
+
+AZEGLIO ([.a]d-zel'y[=o]), Massimo Taparelli, Marquis d', an Italian
+'admirable Crichton', artist, novelist, publicist, statesman, and soldier,
+born at Turin in 1798, died 1866. After gaining some reputation in Rome as
+a painter, he married the daughter of Manzoni, and achieved success in
+literature by his novels _Ettore Fieramosca_ (1833) and _Niccolo dei Lapi_
+(1841). These embodied much of the patriotic spirit, and in a short time he
+devoted himself exclusively to fostering the national sentiment by personal
+action and by his writings. Many of the reforms of Pius IX were due to him.
+He commanded a legion in the Italian struggle of 1848, and was severely
+wounded at Vincenza. Chosen a member of the Sardinian Chamber of Deputies,
+he was, after the battle of Novara, made president of the cabinet, and in
+1859 appointed to the military post of general and
+commissioner-extraordinary for the Roman States.
+
+AZERBAIJAN ([.a]-zer-b[=i]-jaen'), a province of North-Western Persia;
+area, 40,000 sq. miles; pop. estimated at 2,000,000. It consists generally
+of lofty mountain ranges, some of which rise to a height of between 12,000
+and 13,000 feet. Principal rivers: the Aras or Araxes, and the Kizil-Uzen,
+which enter the Caspian; smaller streams discharge themselves within the
+province into the great salt lake of Urumiyah. Agricultural products:
+wheat, barley, maize, fruit, cotton, tobacco, and grapes. Horses, cattle,
+sheep, and camels are reared in considerable numbers. Chief minerals: iron,
+lead, copper, salt, saltpetre, and marble. Tabriz is the capital; pop.
+200,000.
+
+AZERBAIJAN, a new republic proclaimed in 1918, after the Russian
+revolution. It consists of the former Russian province of Baku on the coast
+of the Caspian Sea. In 1920 the Bolshevist party overthrew the Government
+and broke off relations with the Entente. See _Russia_.
+
+AZ'IMUTH of a heavenly body, the arc of the horizon comprehended between
+the meridian of the observer and a vertical circle passing through the
+centre of the body. The azimuth and altitude give the exact position of the
+body with reference to the horizon.
+
+AZINCOURT. See _Agincourt_.
+
+AZO COMPOUNDS, a class of substances which belong to the benzene series and
+contain carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. All azo compounds are highly
+coloured, and in some cases they are direct cotton dyes. The simplest azo
+compound is _azobenzene_, the chemical formula of which is
+C_6H_5--N = N--C_6H_5. It is prepared from nitrobenzene by reducing it with
+stannous chloride and sodium hydroxide. Azobenzene is a highly-coloured
+crystalline substance, but it is not a dye; it forms, however, the basis of
+the dyes known as _azodyes_. The azodyes form one of the largest groups of
+dyes, and derive their name from the presence of the characteristic
+chemical group --N = N--, known as the _azo_ group. Azo compounds may
+become exceedingly complicated in structure. They are divided into mon-azo,
+di-azo, tri-azo compounds according to the number of azo groups present.
+The well-known dyes Congo Red and Bismarck Brown are azo compounds of
+complicated structure. Azo dyes were discovered by Griess in 1856, but as a
+class did not come on the market until about 1876.
+
+AZOF. See _Azov_.
+
+AZO'IC. See _Pre-Cambrian_.
+
+AZOIMIDE, or HYDRAZOIC ACID, N_3H, is an acid liquid of disagreeable odour,
+producing headache if inhaled. The acid itself and its salts, with the
+exception of the alkali salts, are exceedingly explosive and dangerous to
+handle. Lead hydrazoate, PbN_6, is one of the most stable of these salts.
+It is a more powerful explosive than mercury fulminate, and has been used
+instead, in the manufacture of detonators.
+
+AZORES (a-z[=o]rz' or a-z[=o]'res), or WESTERN ISLANDS, a group belonging
+to and 900 miles west of Portugal, in the North Atlantic Ocean. They are
+nine in number, and form three distinct groups--a N.W., consisting of
+Flores and Corvo; a central, consisting of Terceira, Sao Jorge, Pico,
+Fayal, and Graciosa; and a S.E., consisting of Sao Miguel (or St. Michael)
+and Santa Maria. The total area is 922 sq. miles; Sao Miguel (containing
+the capital Ponta Delgada), Pico, and Terceira are the largest. The
+islands, which are volcanic and subject to earthquakes, are of
+comparatively recent origin, and are conical, lofty, precipitous, and
+picturesque. The most remarkable summit is the peak of Pico, about 7600
+feet high. There are numerous hot springs. They are covered with luxuriant
+vegetation, and diversified with woods, corn-fields, vineyards, lemon and
+orange groves, and rich, open pastures. The mild and somewhat humid
+climate, combined with the natural fertility of the soil, brings all kinds
+of vegetable products rapidly to perfection, among the most important being
+grain, oranges, pine-apples, bananas, potatoes, yams, beans, coffee, and
+tobacco. The inhabitants are mainly of Portuguese descent, indolent and
+devoid of enterprise. Principal exports: wine and brandy, oranges, maize,
+beans, pineapples, cattle. The climate is recommended as suitable for
+consumptive patients. The Azores were discovered by Cabral about 1431,
+shortly after which date they were taken possession of and colonized by the
+Portuguese. When first visited they were uninhabited, and had scarcely any
+other animals except birds, particularly hawks, to which, called in
+Portuguese _acores_, the islands owe their name. Pop. 242,613 (1911).
+
+AZ'OTE, a name formerly given to nitrogen; hence substances containing
+nitrogen and forming part of the structure of plants and animals are known
+as _azotized_ bodies. Such are albumen, fibrine, caseine, gelatine, urea,
+kreatine, &c. See _Nitrogen_.
+
+A'ZOV, or ASOV, a town in the Russian government of Ekaterinoslav, upon an
+island at the mouth of the Don, where it flows into the Sea of Azov;
+formerly a place of extensive trade, but its harbour has become almost
+sanded up. Pop. 31,111.
+
+AZOV, SEA OF (ancient, PALUS MOE[=O]TIS), an arm of the Black Sea, with
+which it is united by the Straits of Kertch or Kaffa; length about 170
+miles, breadth about 80 miles; greatest depth not more than 8 fathoms. The
+W. part, called the Putrid Sea, is separated from the main expanse by a
+long sandy belt called Arabat, along which runs a military road. The sea
+teems with fish. The Don and other rivers enter it, and its waters are very
+fresh.
+
+AZPEITIA ([.a]th-p[=a]'i-ti-[.a]), a town of N.E. Spain, province
+Guipuzcoa. Near it is the convent of Loyola, a large edifice, now a museum.
+Pop. 6692.
+
+AZ'RAEL. See _As'rael_.
+
+AZ'TECS (from _Aztatl_ (heron), and _Flacatl_ (man), 'people of the
+heron'), a race of people who settled in Mexico early in the fourteenth
+century, ultimately extended their dominion over a large territory, and
+were still extending their supremacy at the time of the arrival of the
+Spaniards, by whom they were speedily subjugated. Their political
+organization, termed by the Spanish writers an absolute monarchy, consisted
+of a military chief exercising important, but not unlimited, power in civil
+affairs, in which the council of chiefs and periodic assemblies of the
+judges had also a voice. Their most celebrated ruler was Montezuma, who was
+reigning when the Spaniards arrived, about the middle of the fifteenth
+century. It is inferred that considerable numbers of them lived in large
+communal residences, and that land was held and cultivated upon the
+communal principle. Slavery and polygamy were both legitimate, but the
+children of slaves were regarded as free. Although ignorant of the horse,
+ox, &c., they had a considerable knowledge of agriculture, maize and the
+agave being the chief produce. Silver, lead, tin, and copper were obtained
+from mines, and gold from the surface and river beds, but iron was unknown
+to them, their tools being of bronze and obsidian. Metal coins were not in
+use. In metal-work, feather-work, weaving, and pottery they possessed a
+high degree of skill. To record events they used picture-writing, and their
+lunar calendars were of unusual accuracy. Two special deities claimed their
+reverence: Huitzilo-pochtli, the god of war, propitiated with human
+sacrifices; and Quetzalcoatl, the beneficent god of light and air, with
+whom at first the Aztecs were disposed to identify Cortez. Their temples,
+with large terraced pyramidal bases, were in the charge of an exceedingly
+large priesthood, to whom the education of the young was entrusted. As a
+civilization of apparently independent origin, yet closely resembling in
+many features the archaic Oriental civilizations, the Aztec civilization is
+of the first interest, but in most accounts of it a large speculative
+element has to be discounted.
+
+AZ'ULINE, or AZ'URINE, blue dyes belonging to the coal-tar class.
+
+A'ZURE, the heraldic term for the colour blue, represented in engraving by
+horizontal lines.
+
+AZ'URINE (_Leuciscus caerul[)e]us_), a fresh-water fish of the same genus
+as the roach, chub, and minnow, found in some parts of Europe, but rare in
+Britain; called also _Blue Roach_.
+
+AZ'URITE, a blue mineral, a carbonate of copper, often occurring in
+crystals. Its formula is 2CuCO_3.Cu(OH)_2, and it is also called _Blue
+Malachite_. Also a name of lazulite.
+
+AZYMITE. See _Eucharist_.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+B
+
+B is the second letter and the first consonant in the English and most
+other alphabets. It is a mute and labial, pronounced solely by the lips,
+and is distinguished from _p_ by being sonant, that is, produced by the
+utterance of voice as distinguished from breath.
+
+B, in _music_, the seventh note of the model diatonic scale or scale of C.
+It is called the leading note, as there is always a feeling of suspense
+when it is sounded until the keynote is heard.
+
+BAADER, Franz Xaver von (fr[.a]nts-zae'fer fon bae'der), German philosopher
+and theologian, born in Munich, 1765, died 1841. He studied engineering,
+became superintendent of mines, and was ennobled for services. He was
+deeply interested in the religious speculations of Eckhart, St. Martin, and
+Boehme, and in 1826 was appointed professor of philosophy and speculative
+theology in the University of Munich. During the last three years of his
+life he was interdicted from lecturing for opposing the interference in
+civil matters of the Roman Catholic Church.
+
+BA'AL, or BEL, a Semitic word, which primarily signified lord or
+proprietor, and was afterwards applied to many different divinities, or,
+with qualifying epithets, to the same divinity regarded in different
+aspects, describing him as an occupier of some physical object or locality,
+or as a possessor of some attribute. Thus in _Hos._ ii, 16 it is applied to
+Jehovah himself, while _Baal-berith_ (the Covenant-lord) was the god of the
+Shechemites, and _Baal-zebub_ (the Fly-god) the idol of the Philistines at
+Ekron. Baal was the sacred title applied to the Sun as the principal male
+deity of the Phoenicians and their descendants, the Carthaginians, as well
+as of the ancient Canaanitish nations, and was worshipped as the supreme
+ruler and vivifier of nature. The word enters into the composition of many
+Hebrew, Phoenician, and Carthaginian names of persons and places; thus,
+_Jerubaal_, _Hasdrubal_ (help of Baal), _Hannibal_ (grace of Baal), and
+_Baal-Hammon_, _Baal-Thamar_, &c.
+
+BAALBEK' (ancient, HELIOP[)O]LIS, 'city of the sun'), a place in Syria, in
+a fertile valley at the foot of Antilibanus, 40 miles from Damascus, famous
+for its magnificent ruins. Of these the chief is the Temple of the Sun,
+built either by Antoninus Pius or by Septimius Severus. Some of the blocks
+used in its construction are 60 feet long by 12 thick; and its fifty-four
+columns, of which six are still standing, were 72 feet high and 22 in
+circumference. Near it is a temple of Jupiter, of smaller size though
+larger than the Parthenon at Athens, and there are other structures of an
+elaborately ornate type. Originally a centre of Sun-worship, it became a
+Roman colony under Julius Caesar, was garrisoned by Augustus, and acquired
+increasing renown under Trajan as the seat of an oracle. Under Constantine
+its temples became churches, but after being sacked by the Arabs in 748,
+and more completely pillaged by Tamerlane in 1401, it sank into hopeless
+decay. The work of destruction was completed by an earthquake in 1759.
+
+BAAL-ZEBUB. See _Beelzebub_.
+
+BABA, a cape near the north-west point of Asia Minor.
+
+BABADAGH (b[.a]-b[.a]-daeg'), a town of Roumania, capital of the Dobrudsha,
+carrying on a considerable Black Sea trade; it was bombarded by the
+Russians in 1854. Pop. 10,000.
+
+BAB'BAGE, Charles, English mathematician and inventor of the
+calculating-machine, born 1792, died 1871. He graduated at Cambridge in
+1814, and occupied the Lucasian chair of mathematics at Cambridge for
+eleven years, but delivered no lectures. As early as 1812 he conceived the
+idea of calculating numerical tables by machinery, and in 1823 he received
+a grant from Government for the construction of such a machine. After a
+series of experiments lasting eight years, and an expenditure of L17,000
+(L6000 of which was sunk by himself, the balance voted by Government),
+Babbage abandoned the undertaking in favour of a much more enlarged work,
+an analytical engine, worked with cards like the jacquard-loom; but the
+project was never completed. The incompleted machine is now in the South
+Kensington Museum. Among the many treatises he published on subjects
+connected with mathematics and mechanics few can be regarded as finished
+performances. Babbage was instrumental in founding the Astronomical and
+Statistical Societies (1820 and 1834).
+
+BABBIT-METAL, a soft metal resulting from alloying together certain
+proportions of copper, tin, and zinc or antimony, used with the view of as
+far as possible obviating friction in the bearings of journals, cranks,
+axles, &c., invented by Isaac Babbit (1799-1862), a goldsmith of Taunton,
+Massachusetts.
+
+BA'BEL. See _Babylon_.
+
+BA'BEL, TOWER OF, according to the 11th chapter of _Genesis_, a structure
+in the Plain of Shinar, Mesopotamia, commenced by the descendants of Noah
+subsequent to the deluge, but which was not allowed to proceed to
+completion. It has commonly been identified with the great temple of Belus,
+or Bel, that was one of the chief edifices in Babylon, and the huge mound
+called Birs Nimrud is generally regarded as its site, though another mound,
+which to this day bears the name of Babil, has been assigned by some as its
+site. Babel means literally 'gate of God'. The meaning 'confusion' assigned
+to it in the Bible really belongs to a word of similar form. See _Babylon_.
+
+BAB-EL-MANDEB ('gate of tears', from being dangerous to small craft), a
+strait, 15 miles wide, between the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea, formed by
+projecting points of Arabia in Asia, and Abyssinia in Africa. The Island of
+Perim is here.
+
+BA'BER, first Grand Mogul, the founder of the Mogul dynasty in Hindustan,
+born in 1483, died 1530. He was a grandson of the great Tartar prince,
+Timur or Tamerlane, and was sovereign of Cabul. He invaded Hindustan, and
+in 1525 overthrew and killed Sultan Ibrahim, the last Hindu emperor of the
+Pathan or Afghan race. He made many improvements, social and political, in
+his empire, and left a valuable autobiography (English translation, 1826).
+
+BABEUF (b[.a]-beuf), Francois Noel, a French political agitator, born in
+1764; started a democratic journal in Paris, called _Le Tribun du Peuple,
+par 'Gracchus' Babeuf_, and wrote with great severity against the Jacobins.
+After the fall of Robespierre, to which he powerfully contributed, he
+openly attacked the terrorists, and advocated the most democratic
+principles. He was accused of a conspiracy against the directorial
+Government, condemned to death, and guillotined in 1797. He was one of the
+pioneers of Socialism in France.
+
+BAB'INGTON, Anthony, a Catholic gentleman of Derbyshire, born 1561. He
+associated with others of his own persuasion to assassinate Queen
+Elizabeth, and deliver Mary, Queen of Scots. The plot being discovered, the
+conspirators were executed in 1586.
+
+BABIROUSSA. See _Babyroussa_.
+
+BAB'ISM, the doctrines of a Mohammedan sect whose head-quarters is Persia,
+founded by Seyd Ali Mohammed in 1844. He took the name of Bab-ed-din, 'the
+gate of the faith', and afterwards that of Nokteh, 'the point', as not
+merely the recipient of a new divine revelation, but the focus in which all
+preceding dispensations would converge. One of his most successful
+disciples was a highly-gifted woman, Gurred-ul-Ayn, 'consolation of the
+eyes', who perished with many others during a persecution in 1852. The Bab
+himself had been executed about two years before this, and was succeeded by
+a noble youth, Mirza Yahya. The sect holds that all individual existence is
+an emanation from the supreme deity, by whom it will be ultimately
+reabsorbed. The morality of the sect is pure and cheerful, and it shows
+great advancement in the treatment of woman. Moses, Christ, and Mohammed
+are acknowledged as prophets, though only mere precursors of the Bab. A
+schism divided the followers of Babism into two sects, Bahais and Ezelis.
+The former have carried on an active propaganda in America.
+
+BA'BOO, or BABU, a Hindu title of respect equivalent to _sir_ or _master_,
+usually given to wealthy and educated native gentlemen, especially when of
+the mercantile class.
+
+[Illustration: Family of Common Baboons (_Cynoceph[)a]lus babouin_)]
+
+BABOON', a common name applied to a division of old-world quadrumana (apes
+and monkeys), comprehending the genera Cynoceph[)a]lus and Papio. They have
+elongated abrupt muzzles like a dog, strong tusks or canine teeth, usually
+short tails, cheek-pouches, small deep eyes with large eyebrows, and naked
+callosities on the buttocks. Their hind and fore feet are well
+proportioned, so that they run easily on all fours, but they do not
+maintain themselves in an upright posture with facility. They are generally
+of the size of a moderately large dog, but the largest, the mandrill, is,
+when erect, nearly of the height of a man. They are almost all African,
+ugly, sullen, fierce, lascivious, and gregarious, defending themselves by
+throwing stones, dirt, &c. They live on fruits and roots, eggs and insects.
+They include the chacma, drill, common baboon, and mandrill. The chacma or
+pig-tailed baboon (_Cynoceph[)a]lus porcarius_) is found in considerable
+numbers in parts of the S. African colonies, where the inhabitants wage war
+against them on account of the ravages they commit in the fields and
+gardens. The common baboon (_C. babouin_) inhabits a large part of Africa
+farther to the north. It is of a brownish-yellow colour, while the chacma
+is greyish-black, or in parts black. The hamadryas (_C. hamadryas_) of
+Abyssinia is characterized by long hair, forming a sort of shoulder-cape.
+The black baboon (_C. niger_) is found in Celebes.
+
+BABOUR (bae'b[u:]r). See _Baber_.
+
+BAB'RIUS, a Greek poet who flourished during the second or third century of
+the Christian era, and wrote a number of Aesopian fables. Several versions
+of these made during the Middle Ages have come down to us as _Aesop's
+Fables_. In 1840 a manuscript containing 120 fables by Babrius, previously
+unknown, was discovered on Mount Athos.
+
+BABUYA'NES ISLANDS, a group in the Pacific Ocean, between Luzon and
+Formosa, belonging to United States. Pop. 12,000.
+
+BABY-FARMING. The law relating to the protection of children and young
+persons has been subjected to amendment and consolidation by the Children
+Act of 1908, which wholly repealed the Infant Life Protection Act of 1897
+dealing with baby-farming and infant life protection.
+
+The Act of 1908 (Part I) deals with baby-farming, and requires that notice
+shall be given to the Local Authority (in Scotland the Parish Council) by
+the person undertaking for reward the nursing and maintenance of any infant
+or infants under seven years of age apart from their parents, within
+forty-eight hours after reception, unless the period for which it is
+received be only forty-eight hours or less. The notice requires the name,
+sex, date and place of birth of the child to be stated, where it is to be
+kept, and from whom it is received. The Act also provides that such a
+person shall notify any change in his residence or the removal or death of
+the infant to the Local Authority within forty-eight hours. In regard to
+all these matters the Act is retrospective, and necessitates persons who
+had undertaken nursing and maintenance of such infants before its coming
+into operation to comply with its provisions within a month after the
+commencement thereof. But it exempts any person who may have given the
+similar notice required by the Infant Life Protection Act of 1897, although
+it does not exempt any person whose duty it was to have given notice
+thereunder from any liability which such a person may have incurred
+thereunder.
+
+A duty is imposed upon Local Authorities to inquire regarding persons
+willing to undertake the nursing and maintenance of infants, to appoint
+infant-protection visitors of either sex in so far as it provides for
+infant life protection and gives powers to such Local Authorities and
+visitors for fulfilling the requirements of the Act. It is an offence for
+the person undertaking the nursing to refuse to allow such visitors access
+to the infant or the premises in which it is kept; and, if need be,
+application may be made to the court for a warrant to enter the house in
+which an infant is farmed out, and where there is reason to believe that
+the Act is being contravened. It is an offence for any infant to be kept
+(1) by any person from whose care an infant has been removed under the Act
+or the Infant Life Protection Act, or (2) by any person convicted of any
+offence under Part II of the Children Act of 1908 or the Prevention of
+Cruelty to Children Act, 1904.
+
+The Local Authority may fix the number of infants under the age of seven
+years which may be kept in any dwelling, and it is an offence to keep more.
+Provision is also made for the removal of an infant from overcrowded,
+dangerous, or insanitary premises, or from the custody of a person unfit to
+take charge of the child; and an application may be made by a visitor to a
+magistrate for a removal order enforceable by the visitor or a constable.
+Should the infant die, notice of the fact must be given by the person with
+whom it is farmed out to the Procurator-fiscal of the district, if in
+Scotland, and, if in England, to the Coroner of the district, within
+twenty-four hours. He shall hold an inquest unless a certificate by a
+medical practitioner specifying the cause of death shall be forwarded.
+Failure to give such notice is punishable under the Act.
+
+A person nursing an infant for reward shall have no interest in the life of
+the child for the purposes of life assurance. It is not permissible for
+such a person or insurance company to insure the life of such a child. To
+do so renders both the person and the insurance company liable to
+prosecution.
+
+Any person knowingly or wilfully making any false statement in any notice
+required to be given under the Act commits an offence under the Act.
+
+Imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months, or a fine not exceeding
+L25, may be imposed upon any person found guilty upon summary conviction of
+an offence against Part I of the Children Act, 1908; in addition the court
+may order the removal of the infant to a place of safety. All fines are
+payable to the Local Authority for the purposes of the Act.
+
+Legal guardians of an infant, as well as institutions established for the
+protection and care of infants, are exempted from the provisions of Part I
+of the Children Act, 1908.
+
+BAB'YLON, the capital of Babylonia, on the left of the Euphrates, one of
+the largest and most splendid cities of the ancient world, now a scene of
+ruins, and earth-mounds containing them. Babylon was a royal city sixteen
+hundred years before the Christian era; but the old city was almost
+entirely destroyed in 683 B.C. A new city was built by Nebuchadnezzar
+nearly a century later. This was in the form of a square, each side 15
+miles long, with walls of such immense height and thickness as to
+constitute one of the wonders of the world. It contained splendid edifices,
+large gardens and pleasure-grounds, especially the 'hanging-gardens', a
+sort of lofty terraced structure supporting earth enough for trees to grow,
+and the celebrated Tower of Babel or Temple of Belus, rising by stages to
+the height of 625 feet. (See _Babel, Tower of_.) After the city was taken
+by Cyrus in 538 B.C., and Babylonia made a Persian province, it began to
+decline, and had suffered severely by the time of Alexander the Great. He
+intended to restore it, but was prevented by his death, which took place
+here in 323 B.C., from which time its decay was rapid. Interesting
+discoveries have been made on its site, more especially of numerous and
+valuable inscriptions in the cuneiform or arrow-head character. The modern
+town of Hillah is believed to represent the ancient city, and the plain
+here for miles round is studded with vast mounds of earth and brick and
+imposing ruins. The greatest mound is Birs Nimrud, about 6 miles from
+Hillah. It rises nearly 200 feet, is crowned by a ruined tower, and is
+commonly believed to be the remains of the ancient Temple of Belus. Another
+great ruin-mound, called Mujellibeh, has also been assigned as its site.
+
+BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. These ancient seats of Mesopotamian civilization lay
+across the western Asian trade-routes, Babylonia being in the south and
+Assyria in the north. The area, in which they flourished is embraced by the
+Rivers Tigris and Euphrates, and extends from the head of the Persian Gulf
+to the frontiers of Armenia and Northern Syria, is bordered on the east by
+Persia and on the west by the Syro-Arabian desert. 'Mesopotamia' is a term
+borrowed by the ancient Greeks from the Semites, and was first applied to
+the north-western region. There was a Roman province of that name. The
+northern area of the Tigro-Euphrates valley is partly mountainous and
+partly steppe land, with wide stretches of elevated grazing-lands and
+fertile districts on the banks of rivers. Assyria, derived from A-usar
+('the river-bank region'), had origin in north-eastern Mesopotamia. Its
+most ancient capital, Asshur (modern Kal'at Sherkat), was situated on the
+western bank of the River Tigris, between the tributaries the Upper Zab and
+the Lower Zab. Nineveh, the last capital of all, lay farther north on the
+eastern bank of the Tigris, and right opposite modern Mosul. The Assyrians
+called themselves Asshurai, and their national god was Ashur (earlier
+Ashir), written A-Shur, but confused in time with Ash-Shur, the name of the
+capital. The southern area of Mesopotamia, below Bagdad, where the Tigris
+and Euphrates come within 35 miles of one another, is a flat alluvial
+plain. Babylonia proper is that fish-shaped region between the rivers,
+which broadens out to about 100 miles and gradually narrows to the point at
+Kurnah where the rivers meet and form the Shatt-el-Arab. From Kurnah to the
+head of the Persian Gulf is the ancient area of Chaldea, which means
+'Sea-land'. The inhabitants called themselves Kaldu (Sea-landers) and were
+known to the Hebrews as the Kasdim, and to the Greeks as the Chaldaioi.
+Babylonia, and the rest of the alluvial plain, is the 'gift' of the rivers
+which rise in flood each year when the snow melts on the Armenian
+mountains. Both the Tigris and the Euphrates bring down enormous quantities
+of sediment--indeed five times as much as does the Egyptian Nile--and they
+have withal more destructive tendencies. The accumulating silt tends to
+divert the flow of the rivers in the south, and a process of land-making
+which began at the close of the Ice Age is still in progress, thrusting
+back the head of the Persian Gulf. At one time the Tigris and Euphrates
+entered the gulf by separate mouths, and Chaldea was then a narrow fringe
+of steppe land, plain, and marshes. The River Tigris is about 1146 miles
+long, and begins to rise early in March, reaching its height in May, and
+subsiding before the end of June. The Euphrates is a slower river, about
+1780 miles in length. It begins to rise a fortnight later than the Tigris,
+is longer in flood, and does not reach its lowest level until September. As
+there is a drop of only 120 feet between Bagdad and the sea, a distance, as
+the crow flies, of about 300 miles, the ancient Babylonians did their
+utmost to conserve the water which came down in such abundance and was
+rapidly drained away, after doing much damage. Near Bagdad the Tigris is on
+a higher level than the Euphrates, and could be run into it through a
+canal; farther south the Euphrates, being on the higher level, could be run
+by canal into the Tigris. The ancient engineers cut these and other canals;
+indeed, they covered the whole valley with a network of them. To store the
+Euphrates water for the season of drought and great heat, they formed
+canals which carried the roaring flood into two depressions in the western
+desert between the modern towns of Kerbela and Ram[.a]di. These depressions
+are utilized for the British irrigation scheme. The Babylonians did their
+utmost to control the Tigris by erecting earthen dams so as to hold up as
+much of the water as possible. Earthen dykes were also erected to raise its
+banks. The right bank protected the farms from disastrous flooding. These
+ancient irrigation works made Babylonia the greatest grain-yielding area in
+the ancient world. Its vast surplus of food stimulated trade and brought
+Babylonia immense wealth, while its strategic situation made it very
+powerful. Its cultural influence flowed along the trade routes, eastward
+across Persia and the Iranian plateau, northward through Assyria to Armenia
+(ancient Urartu) and beyond, and north-westward along the Euphrates banks
+into Syria and Palestine, and into Asia Minor, the land of the Hittites,
+and then along the highway to Europe, called later by the Persians 'the
+royal road'. The road to Egypt ran southward from North Syria through
+Palestine, skirting the maritime valley by 'the way of the Philistines'.
+The merchants of many nations met in the city of Babylon, the London of the
+ancient western Asian world, and in the trading centres of North Syria,
+including Carchemish.
+
+[Illustration: Assyrian Soldiers]
+
+The earliest agriculturists and traders of Babylonia were the Sumerians, a
+non-Semitic people, who built a number of cities in the irrigated valley
+and founded colonies in Assyria. No trace has been found of a Neolithic Age
+in Babylonia. Its civilization, so far as our knowledge goes, began after
+copper was introduced. At an early period Semites filtered into the valley.
+They absorbed Sumerian civilization, and ultimately became politically
+predominant in the northern part of the valley, which was called Akkad (the
+biblical Accad). The southern part was then known as Sumer or Sumeria (the
+biblical 'Plain of Shinar'). Akkad embraced the city States of Agade,
+Babylon, Borsippa, Sippar, Kish, Opis, and Kutha. The Sumerian city States
+included Eridu, Ur (later 'of the Chaldees' and the birthplace of Abraham),
+Lagash, Shuruppak, Erech, Umma, and Adab. Inter-state wars resulted time
+and again in the formation of confederacies which were more of political
+than racial character, and the predominance of one city or another.
+Religious ideas were fused, and local pantheons appear to have reflected
+local politics. The chief seat of early Sumerian civilization was the city
+of Eridu, a name signifying 'on the seashore'. Its site is marked by modern
+Abu-Shahrein on the eastern bank of the Euphrates, and south-east of Ur,
+modern Mukayyar. Eridu was originally a seaport on the Persian Gulf, from
+which it is now separated by about 125 miles of land formed by river silt.
+The chief god of Eridu was Ea, a name also rendered Ae and Aa, and
+apparently meaning 'waters' or 'house (region) of waters'. That the term
+'waters' had a special significance for the inhabitants of a water-formed
+land is evident by the fact that the Semitic equivalent of Ea is Enki,
+which means 'lord of earth'. Other titles of the god were 'lord of Heaven
+and Earth', 'ruler of the land', 'the deep', 'god of the abyss', and 'king
+of the river'. He was withal the 'Creator', water having created Sumeria,
+and Nadimmud, 'lord of everything', as the Egyptian Osiris in his character
+of god of the Nile was 'Neb-er-Zer', also 'lord of everything'. Ea had a
+ship with a crew including his son Marduk (Merodach or Marad, the Ni-marad
+or Nimrod of legend) and In-ab, 'the pilot of Eridu'. The ship was hailed,
+in religious literature, as the bringer of fertility and joy. Evidently the
+beginning of Sumerian civilization had some connection with ancient
+seafarers. Of special interest in this connection are the references made
+by the Greek writer Berosus to Oannes, a sea-dweller who came daily from
+the Persian Gulf to instruct the early Babylonians how to irrigate the
+land, grow crops, erect houses, make laws, write, calculate and measure,
+and engage in trade. Texts have been discovered which tend to identify
+Oannes with the god Ea. As the early Sumerians bore a strong physical
+resemblance to the ancient Egyptians, and there were links between the
+early religious beliefs and customs of the two peoples, it is suspected
+that they represented two branches of the same ancient stock. Some think
+Sumerian civilization was founded by colonists from Egypt, while others
+believe that Egyptian civilization was stimulated by settlers from Sumeria.
+The question as to who first invented ships has an important bearing in
+this connection. When we turn to Sumero-Babylonian religious myths we find
+that some reflect local natural phenomena. In one the Euphrates is hailed
+as the River (god) "who didst create all things". Another, referring to the
+creation of man, says that Marduk (earlier the god Gilimma) "tied reeds on
+the face of the waters, he formed dust and poured it out beside the reeds
+... he formed mankind". Another version is that man was created from the
+god's blood and bone, or, as Berosus has it, from the god's blood and
+earth. The oldest Sumerian creation myth states that all things came from
+primeval water. Then many deities were created by the pre-existing triad of
+gods, Anu (the sky-god), Enlil ('the elder Bel', the earth-god, and 'lord
+of grain'), and Ea, who was associated with the goddess Ninkharsagga. Ea
+had several other wives, including Ninshar or Ninkurra, Ninella, Nintu, and
+Damkina. These goddesses were ultimately all absorbed by Ishtar, the
+Semitic name of the love and mother goddess. In the later Babylonian 'Seven
+Tablets' version of the creation myth a conflict is introduced. The female
+chaos-dragon Tiamat is slain by Marduk, the chief god of Babylon, 'the
+later Bel', who cuts up her body and uses part to form the sky and part to
+keep the waters in their place. After a time a deluge took place. In the
+Sumerian myth a priest-king called Ziusudu (earlier named Tatug or Uttu)
+corresponds both to Adam and to Noah, and builds a large vessel, having
+been warned by Ea of the approaching disaster. The Gilgamesh Epic refers to
+the hero as Ut-na-pishtim (or Pir-na-pishtim). He and his wife afterwards
+become immortal, and they are visited on their island by Gilgamesh (the
+Babylonian Hercules), when, smitten by disease, he searches for the Plant
+of Life, which he finds and afterwards loses. Ishtar, the goddess who plays
+a part in this epic, is also the heroine of the poetic legend which tells
+of her descent to Hades in quest of Tammuz, whose story resembles somewhat
+that of Adonis and has Osirian characteristics. The Babylonian Persephone
+was Eresh-ki-gal with whom Tammuz dwelt in her underworld for part of the
+year. Associated with her was Nergal, chief god of Kutha, whose planet was
+Mars. He conquered Hades. He and other city gods appear to have been
+developed from attributes vaguely shared by the earlier triad Anu,
+Bel-Enlil, and Ea. The moon-god of Ur was Sin (Sumerian Nannara), whose
+name clings to the desert of Sinai. Shamash was the Semitic name of the
+sun-god of Sippar, the Sumerian being Utu; Gishnu, the Light, and
+Ma-banda-anna, 'the boat of heaven' (like the Egyptian Ra), and Mitra were
+among his other non-Semitic names. Dagan, the god of the Euphrates, is
+regarded as a form of Ea, and as probably the same deity as Dagon of the
+Philistines. In later times the astrologers coloured with their doctrines
+the religious beliefs of Babylonia.
+
+Among the early empire-builders of Babylonia were Lugal-zaggisi of Sumerian
+Erech, who claimed to have subdued all lands from the Lower Sea (Persian
+Gulf) to the Upper Sea (the Mediterranean). He flourished about 2800 B.C.
+Another was Sargon of Akkad, who lived about a century and a half later. He
+must not be confused with the much later biblical Sargon of Assyria. His
+son or grandson, Naram-Sin, recorded his great trading activities and
+victories over his enemies, including the Elamites, whose chief stronghold
+was Susa in south-western Persia. Elam was a rival power of considerable
+strength. About 2200 B.C. it had overrun a great part of Sumeria, and Akkad
+fell to the invading bands of Amorites. These Amorites founded the
+Hammurabi Dynasty, of which the king of that name was sixth in succession;
+Hammurabi extinguished the last sparks of Elamite power in Sumeria, which,
+with Akkad, was united to form the kingdom of Babylonia, named after
+Babylon, the capital. It was during this period that Abraham migrated from
+Ur to Palestine. Hammurabi (_c._ 2123-2081 B.C.) codified the ancient
+Sumerian laws and did much to develop trade. The chief god of his kingdom
+was Marduk, 'the later Bel', whose temple was called Esagilla. Babylon
+became the greatest trading centre in Western Asia and a rival of the
+Egyptian Memphis. Sumerian gradually ceased to be a spoken language, being
+supplanted by Semitic, but remained, like Latin, in mediaeval Europe, the
+language of law, culture, and religion, while the Babylonian language
+became the language of trade and diplomacy, and was used in international
+correspondence by all the great Powers. The Hammurabi dynasty came to an
+end about 1926 B.C., when the Hittites raided Babylonia and carried off the
+statues of Marduk and his consort. Kassites, assisted by Elamites, had been
+attacking Babylonia from the east, and the Sea-landers, who were Arabians
+mixed with Sumerians, established their independence. In the end the
+Kassites, who were probably Aryan by race, conquered Babylonia and
+established a new dynasty. Like the Trojans they were 'tamers of horses'.
+Their military successes are believed to have been due to the use of the
+horse, which was a rarity in Babylonia before their time, but became common
+as a beast of burden as soon as the Kassite dynasty was established.
+Kassite supremacy lasted for over 570 years, and during that period
+Babylonia was known as Karduniash. One of its early kings brought back from
+Khani (Mitanni) the statues of Marduk and his consort which had been
+carried off by the Hittites. Babylonian civilization was not changed by
+Kassite conquest, and its trade went on as of yore. The Kassites formed an
+aristocracy like the Normans in England. During the Kassite period Assyria
+was a growing power. It had origin as a Sumerian colony, but above the
+relics of the Sumerians at Asshur have been found those of a people whose
+kings had such non-Semitic and probably Aryan names as Ushpia, Kikia, and
+Adasi. The Amorites afterwards swept into Assyria, which they Semitized.
+During the Hammurabi dynasty it was subject to Babylonian overlordship. It
+grew independent during the latter period of the Kassite dynasty, and its
+kings formed compacts with the Kassites. Their western neighbours were by
+this time the Mitannians. An Aryan military aristocracy had formed a
+powerful State in north-western Mesopotamia, where they worshipped Indra,
+Varuna, and Mitra, gods which figure in the mythology of the Aryan invaders
+of India. Egypt, under Thothmes III, extended her Syrian empire to the
+borders of Mitannia and a friendship sprang up between the two Powers.
+Assyria was during the period subject to Mitanni. The Tell-el-Amarna
+letters reveal the fact that Egyptian monarchs had married princesses from
+Mitanni, and the famous Akhenaton had Mitannian blood in his veins.
+
+[Illustration: Ashur-natsir-pal in Chariot, hunting Lions about 884 B.C.
+From a relief in the Palace of Nimrod]
+
+[Illustration: Tablet recording the Wars of Sennacherib]
+
+The Hittites conquered Northern Syria and overran Mitannia when the
+Egyptian Asian empire went to pieces. Assyria then became powerful and
+independent again, the first great king of its new age being Ashur-uballit,
+who was strong enough to interfere with Babylonia's domestic politics.
+Shalmaneser I of Assyria (_c._ 1300 B.C.) conquered the whole of the
+Mitanni kingdom and extended the Assyrian empire westward across the
+Babylonian caravan road to North Syria. He built a new capital at Kalah
+(Nimrud). His son, Tulkulti--Nineb I--(_c._ 1275 B.C.), conquered Babylonia
+and reigned over it for seven years. In the end he was murdered by
+political conspirators, with whom his son was associated. Civil war ensued,
+and Assyria's history is found to be obscure for a century afterwards. In
+Babylon the Kassite dynasty, under which trade flourished, came to an end
+as a result of an Elamite invasion about 1185 B.C. A new Babylonian dynasty
+then arose, and the third king, Nebuchadnezzar I, revived the old empire
+and waged war against Assyria. But the future lay with Assyria, which was
+organized as a military State. It did not have Babylonia's natural
+resources, and could only exist as a great Power by imposing tribute on
+weaker States. A standing army was the basis of its strength. The national
+god was Ashur, who was symbolized by a winged disk, an adaptation of the
+Egyptian winged disk of Horus. It was carried to battle with the king, so
+that wherever the king was, there was the national god of war. The
+heavily-bearded Assyrians were a fiercer and more war-like people than the
+mild shaven Babylonians, who were ever influenced by Sumerian modes of
+thought. The Assyrian temperament is reflected in its art, which at its
+best is characterized by vigorous realism and brilliant ferocity. Much of
+it is harsh, exaggerated, and pompous. A sharp contrast is presented by the
+calmer and more idealistic art of the Sumero-Babylonians. The records of
+Assyrian monarchs deal mainly with extensive conquests. They did their
+utmost to set up a reign of terror in Western Asia, and when subject States
+revolted the chief men in them were flayed alive or impaled on stakes. The
+wholesale destruction of trading city States and the massacres of thousands
+of innocents were fit subjects for an Assyrian conqueror to boast of in his
+inscriptions. Hittites, North Syrians, Babylonians, and Urartians
+(Armenians), were time and again plundered and subjected. A great conqueror
+of the Middle Period was Tiglath-Pileser I (_c._ 1100 B.C.), and other
+monarchs of the same name repeated his conquests and atrocities during the
+last century of Assyria's existence. The military glory of such a monarch
+as Ashur-natsir-pal III (885-860 B.C.), whose armies swept through western
+Asia like cyclones, has a lurid background of savage cruelty and
+oppression. He fought for no greater cause than plunder and the maintenance
+of Assyria's ability to wring tribute from the oppressed. His son,
+Shalmaneser III, extended the empire but died under a cloud of internal
+revolt. Subsequent rulers dominated Babylonia, and one, Adad-nirari IV
+(810-782 B.C.), married the Babylonian princess, Sammurammat, the Semiramis
+of tradition. Tiglath-Pileser IV (745-727 B.C.) was overlord of Babylon,
+and, indeed, Babylonia was more or less under Assyrian sway for the next
+century. Sargon II ('Sargon the later') did his utmost to break the
+national spirit in subject States by transporting whole communities from
+one to another. He removed a portion of the 'ten lost tribes' to the Median
+hills, and dispatched Babylonians from Kutha to Samaria, where they made
+Nergal their chief god. His campaigns extended to Phoenicia, Cilicia, and
+Armenia. Sennacherib, his son, defeated Egypt and her allies in Palestine
+and besieged Hezekiah in Jerusalem. A revolution in Babylonia broke out,
+and he swept into it and devastated Babylon, so that Nineveh might become
+the chief city in Mesopotamia. But Babylon had to be rebuilt by his son
+Esarhaddon, so that its dislocated trade might be restored. Esarhaddon,
+recognizing that the great commercial rival of Babylonia was Egypt, and
+that Egypt instigated the Palestinian and Syrian revolts against Assyria,
+invaded the Nile valley and captured and sacked Memphis. Ashur-bani-pal
+(668-626 B.C.), the next Assyrian emperor, punished the Egyptian rebels by
+sweeping southwards and capturing and sacking Thebes, which is referred to
+as No (Nu-Amon) in the Bible (_Nahum_, iii, 8-10): "Populous No ... Yet was
+she carried away ... her young children also were dashed in pieces at the
+top of all the streets: and they (the Assyrians) cast lots for her
+honourable men, and all her great men were bound in chains". Egypt became
+for a time an Assyrian province. Elam was similarly dealt with, the great
+capital Susa being treated like Thebes. On the north and east Assyrian
+power was established with characteristic Assyrian ferocity and
+thoroughness. The result was that the predatory nomadic tribes of Scythians
+and Medes were able to sweep through the devastated territories and strike
+at the very heart of the empire. Ashur-bani-pal was the last great monarch
+of Assyria. In private life he was cultured and scholarly, and his library,
+which contained copies of many ancient records and literary works, is one
+of the sources of Mesopotamian history. Although the Sardanapulus of Greek
+tradition, he was not the actual monarch who perished when Nineveh was
+captured and sacked about 606 B.C. by the fiery hillmen from the east. The
+Assyrian military organization collapsed and Assyria ceased to be. The
+factors that led to the downfall of Assyria can only be guessed at. It may
+be that its many wars of conquest had left it in a state of exhaustion. It
+is also possible that the new generation of the aristocratic class that
+grew up in wealth and luxury was disorganized by intrigues and corruption.
+After Ashur-bani-pal died, no great leader arose, and the vast unwieldy
+empire suffered from internal decay. Babylonia was the first to foster
+organized revolt. It was overrun by the Chaldeans from the south, who, two
+years after Ashur-bani-pal's death, set on the throne at Babylon their
+leader, King Nabopolassar. With him began the Neo-Babylonian dynasty which
+lasted for 86 years. He had an ambitious and capable son named
+Nebuchadnezzar, who set out, as soon as Nineveh fell, to seize the western
+portion of the Assyrian Empire--the Medes, with whom the Chaldeans had an
+agreement, being content to retain north-eastern Mesopotamia. The
+Egyptians, having overcome the Assyrian garrisons in the Nile valley, were
+by this time moving northward through Palestine with the idea of
+re-establishing their ancient empire in Asia. Memphis and Babylon were
+rival trading centres, and the struggle that ensued was one which was to
+decide which should have preeminence on the western Asian trade-routes, and
+especially the 'clearing-houses' of North Syria. In 604 B.C. Nebuchadnezzar
+met and defeated Pharaoh Necho's Egyptian army at Carchemish. The Egyptians
+retreated in confusion and were pursued to their frontier. Nabopolassar's
+death in Babylon caused Nebuchadnezzar to return home and ascend the
+throne. Eight years later, [Illustration] however, he was back in Palestine
+again. Judah had been plotting with Egypt, its ally, and the Babylonian
+monarch besieged and captured Jerusalem. Thousands of Jews were carried off
+as captives to Babylonia. In 587 B.C. Egypt involved Judah in a second
+revolt. Nebuchadnezzar II again captured Jerusalem. This time he destroyed
+the city and carried away the greater part of the remnant of the Jewish
+people to serve his artisans and agriculturists "by Babel's streams".
+Babylon was triumphant as a political and trading centre, and, during
+Nebuchadnezzar's long reign of 42 years, prospered greatly. Its products
+and its culture were carried far and wide, and Chaldean astrologers as well
+as merchants became known in Egypt and Greece. Babylonia was the birthplace
+of the science of astronomy, which developed from astrology. Nebuchadnezzar
+was a great builder. It is the ruins of his Babylon that have been
+excavated in our own day. Although Greek descriptions of the city have been
+found to be somewhat exaggerated, it was yet made very strong and
+impressive. The royal palace was rebuilt, and the Hanging Garden on its
+terraced platform became one of the seven wonders of the world. Trade
+flourished in the capital, and a harbour was built at the head of the
+Persian Gulf to promote sea traffic. In 539 B.C. Cyrus, the Persian
+conqueror, having defeated the Babylonian army, entered Babylon in state
+and was welcomed by the priests, Nabo-nidus, the last king of the
+Neo-Babylonian empire, having made them his enemies. The independence of
+Babylonia then came to an end, but the importance of its capital as a
+trading centre did not suffer sudden decline. When it was captured by
+Alexander the Great in 331 B.C. it had been much damaged in consequence of
+revolts against Persia. The Macedonian conqueror resolved to make it his
+capital, but his early death, and subsequent political developments,
+hastened its decay. The Greeks had removed the rocks that blocked the
+Tigris, which then could be navigated by vessels from the Persian Gulf.
+Seleucus built the new capital of Seleucia on the right bank of the Tigris,
+and the traders followed the officials to the new Babylon. In time
+Ctesiphon arose on the left bank, and after the fall of the Parthian empire
+it was the principal city of the province. The Moslem conquest of
+Mesopotamia in the seventh century of our era brought about the rise of
+Bagdad, a few miles to the north of Ctesiphon. It will be noted that all
+these cities are strategically situated in the neck of land, between the
+rivers, which is crossed by the caravan roads leading east and west. During
+the reign of the famous Harun al Rashid (786-809) Bagdad was at the height
+of its splendour. A portion of this ruler's great palace still remains, and
+the tomb of Zobiede, his queen, is a prominent feature on the outskirts of
+the city. Bagdad declined as a trading centre after Vasco da Gama
+discovered the sea-route to India, and diverted the merchandise previously
+carried to Europe across the overland routes across Persia and through
+Mesopotamia and Asia Minor. Bagdad afterwards depended chiefly on the
+traffic caused by pilgrim caravans to and from Mecca. The disastrous
+neglect of Babylonia's irrigation system occurred under Turkish rule.
+Towards the close of the nineteenth century Germany obtained concessions
+from the Turks and planned the Bagdad railway, so as to reopen the ancient
+overland trade-route for Indo-Persian trade. British interests in the
+Persian Gulf were seriously threatened by this scheme. When war broke out
+in 1914, a British force landed in ancient Chaldea and pushed northward.
+Bagdad, the modern Babylon, was captured in 1917, and Mosul (Nineveh) was
+occupied in 1918. The Peace Treaty between the Allied Powers and Turkey
+placed Mesopotamia under the protection of Great Britain, which thus
+secured control of the Bagdad railway. An extensive irrigation scheme in
+the southern alluvial valley promises to restore ancient Babylonia to its
+importance as one of the great grain-yielding areas of the
+world.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: R. W. Rogers, _History of Babylonia and Assyria_; H.
+Winckler, _History of Babylonia and Assyria_; L. W. King and H. R. H. Hall,
+_Egypt and Western Asia in the Light of recent Discoveries_; P. S. P.
+Handcock, _The Latest Light on Bible Lands_; L. W. King, _History of
+Babylon_; D. A. Mackenzie, _Myths of Babylonia and Assyria_; T. G. Pinches,
+_The Religion of Babylon and Assyria_; _The Old Testament in the Light of
+the Records of Assyria and Babylonia_; A. H. Sayce, _Religions of Ancient
+Egypt and Babylonia_; M. Jastrow, _Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice
+in Babylonia and Assyria_; R. Koldeweg, _The Excavations of Babylon_.
+
+BABYROUSSA (bab-i-r[u:]s'a; a Malay word signifying stag-hog), a species of
+wild hog (_Sus_ or _Porcus Babyrussa_), a native of the Indian Archipelago.
+From the outside of the upper jaw spring two teeth 12 inches long, curving
+upwards and backwards like horns, and almost touching the forehead. The
+tusks of the lower jaw also appear externally, though they are not so long
+as those of the upper jaw. Along the back are some weak bristles, and on
+the rest of the body only a sort of wool. These animals live in herds, feed
+on herbage, are sometimes tamed, and their flesh is well flavoured.
+
+BAC'CARAT, a gambling card game of French origin, played by any number of
+players, or rather betters, and a banker. The latter deals two cards to
+each player and two to himself, and covers the stakes of each with an equal
+sum. The cards are then examined, and according to the scores made the
+players take their own stake and the banker's, or the latter takes all or a
+certain number of the stakes.
+
+BACCARAT (b[.a]k-[.a]-rae), a town of France, about 15 miles south-east of
+Luneville, department Meurthe-et-Moselle, on the River Meurthe, with a
+handsome new church, and one of the largest works for plate-glass and
+crystal in France. Pop. 7277.
+
+BACCHANA'LIA, or DIONYSIA, feasts in honour of Bacchus or Dionysus,
+characterized by licentiousness and revelry, and celebrated in ancient
+Athens. In the processions were bands of Bacchantes of both sexes, who,
+inspired by real or feigned intoxication, wandered about rioting and
+dancing. They were clothed in fawn-skins, crowned with ivy, and bore in
+their hands _thyrsi_, that is spears entwined with ivy, or having a
+pine-cone stuck on the point. These feasts passed from the Greeks to the
+Romans, who celebrated them with still greater dissoluteness till the
+Senate abolished them, 187 B.C.
+
+BACCHANTE (bak-an'te), a person taking part in revels in honour of Bacchus.
+See _Bacchanalia_.
+
+BACCHIGLIONE (b[.a]k-kil'y[=o]-n[=a]), a river of Northern Italy, rises in
+the Alps, passes through the towns of Vicenza and Padua, and enters the
+Adriatic near Chioggia, after a course of about 90 miles.
+
+BACCHUS (bak'us; in Greek, generally _Dion[)y]sus_), the god of wine, son
+of Zeus (Jupiter) and S[)e]m[)e]l[=e]. He first taught the cultivation of
+the vine and the preparation of wine. To spread the knowledge of his
+invention he travelled over various countries and received in every quarter
+divine honours. Drawn by lions (some say panthers, tigers, or lynxes), he
+began his march, which resembled a triumphal procession. Those who opposed
+him were severely punished, but on those who received him hospitably he
+bestowed rewards. His love was shared by several; but Ariadne, whom he
+found deserted upon Naxos, alone was elevated to the dignity of a wife, and
+became a sharer of his immortality. In art he is represented with the
+round, soft, and graceful form of a maiden rather than with that of a young
+man. His long waving hair is knitted behind in a knot, and wreathed with
+sprigs of ivy and vine leaves. He is usually naked; sometimes he has a
+loose mantle hung negligently round his shoulders; sometimes a fawn-skin
+hangs across his breast. He is often accompanied by Silenus, Bacchantes,
+Satyrs, &c. See _Bacchanalia_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Farnell, _Cults of the Greek
+States_; J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion_; Sir
+J. G. Frazer, _The Golden Bough_.
+
+BACCHYLIDES (bak-kil'i-d[=e]z), born in the Island of Cos, about the middle
+of the fifth century B.C., the last of the great lyric poets of Greece, a
+nephew of Simonides and a contemporary of Pindar. The extant remains of his
+odes, hymns, paeans, &c., were augmented in 1897 by papyrus discoveries.
+
+BACCIOCCHI (b[.a]t-chok'[=e]), Maria Anne Eliza Bonaparte, sister of
+Napoleon, born at Ajaccio, 1777, died near Trieste, 1820; a great patroness
+of literature and art. She married Captain Bacciocchi, who in 1805 was
+created Prince of Lucca and Piombino. She virtually ruled these
+principalities herself, and as Grand-Duchess of Tuscany she enacted the
+part of a queen. She fell with the Empire.
+
+BACCIO DELIA PORTA (b[.a]ch'[=o]). See _Bartolommeo_.
+
+BACH (ba_h_), Johann Sebastian, one of the greatest of German musicians,
+born in 1685 at Eisenach, died in 1750 at Leipzig. Being the son of a
+musician he was early trained in the art, and soon distinguished himself.
+In 1703 he was engaged as a player at the Court of Weimar, and subsequently
+he was musical director to the Duke of Anhalt-Koethen, and afterwards held
+an appointment at Leipzig. He paid a visit to Potsdam on the invitation of
+Frederick the Great. As a player on the harpsichord and organ he had no
+equal among his contemporaries; but it was not till a century after his
+death that his greatness as a composer was fully recognized. His
+compositions, many of which are pieces of sacred music, show great
+originality. They include pieces, vocal and instrumental, for the organ,
+piano, stringed and keyed instruments; church cantatas, oratorios, masses,
+passion music, &c. More than fifty musical performers have proceeded from
+this family. Sebastian himself had eleven sons, all distinguished as
+musicians. The most renowned were the following:--Wilhelm Friedemann, born
+in 1710 at Weimar, died at Berlin in 1784. He was one of the most
+scientific harmonists and most skilful organists.--Karl Philipp Emmanuel,
+born in 1714 at Weimar, died in 1788 at Hamburg. He composed mostly for the
+piano, and published melodies for Gellert's hymns; he also wrote _The True
+Manner of Playing the Harpsichord_.--Johann Christoph Friedrich, born at
+Weimar, 1732, died in 1795, a great organist, is known also by the music he
+published.--Johann Christian, born in 1735 at Leipzig, died in London,
+1782, was a favourite composer and conductor with the English
+public.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: P. Spitta, _Johann Sebastian Bach_; A. Pirro,
+_L'Esthetique de Jean Sebastian Bach_.
+
+BACHARACH (b[.a]_h_'[.a]-r[.a]_h_), a small place of 2000 inhabitants on
+the Rhine, 12 miles S. of Coblenz. The vicinity produces excellent wine,
+which was once highly esteemed. The view from the ruins of the castle is
+one of the sublimest on the Rhine.
+
+BACH'ELOR, a term applied anciently to a person in the first or
+probationary stage of knighthood who had not yet raised his standard in the
+field. It also denotes a person who has taken the first degree in the
+liberal arts and sciences, or in divinity, law, or medicine, at a college
+or university; or a man of any age who has not been married.--A _knight
+bachelor_ is one who has been raised to the dignity of a knight without
+being made a member of any of the orders of chivalry such as the Garter,
+the Thistle, or the Bath.
+
+BACHELOR'S BUTTONS, the double-flowering buttercup (_Ranunculus acris_),
+with white or yellow blossoms, common in gardens.
+
+BACHIAN (b[.a]ch'[.a]n), one of the Molucca Islands, immediately S. of the
+equator, S.W. of Gilolo; area, 800 sq. miles. It is ruled by a native
+sultan under the Dutch.
+
+BACHMUT (b[.a]_h_-moet'), a town in the Ukraine, government of
+Ekaterinoslav, with a trade in cattle, tallow, &c., and coal and rock-salt
+mines. Pop. 20,000.
+
+BACILLA'RIA, a genus of microscopic algae, belonging to the class
+Diatomaceae, the siliceous remains of which abound in cretaceous, tertiary,
+and more recent geological deposits.
+
+BACIL'LUS. See _Bacteria_.
+
+BACK, Admiral Sir George, eminent English Arctic discoverer, born 1796,
+died 1878. He accompanied Franklin and Richardson in their northern
+expeditions, and in 1833-4 headed an expedition to the Arctic Ocean through
+the Hudson Bay Company's territory, on which occasion he wintered at the
+Great Slave Lake, and discovered the Back or Great Fish River.
+
+BACKERGUNGE. See _Bakarganj_.
+
+BACKGAM'MON, a game played by two persons upon a table or board made for
+the purpose, with pieces or men, dice-boxes, and dice. The table is in two
+parts, on which are twenty-four black and white spaces called points. Each
+player has fifteen men of different colours for the purpose of distinction.
+The movements of the men are made in accordance with the numbers turned up
+by the dice.
+
+BACKHAUS, Wilhelm, one of the greatest living pianists, born at Leipzig in
+1884. At the age of twenty-one he was appointed a professor at the Royal
+College of Music, Manchester. This position, however, he soon gave up, and
+since 1905 has devoted his time to concert tours.
+
+BACKHUYSEN (b[.a]k'hoi-zn), Ludolf, a painter of the Dutch school,
+particularly celebrated for sea pieces, born in 1631, died 1709. His most
+famous picture is a sea piece which the burgomasters of Amsterdam
+commissioned him to paint as a present to Louis XVI. It is still at Paris.
+
+BACKWARDA'TION, a stock exchange term signifying the rate paid by a
+speculative seller of stock for the privilege of carrying over or
+continuing a bargain from one fortnightly account to another, instead of
+closing it on the appointed day.
+
+BACNINH, a town of Tongking, on the Red River, fortified and containing a
+French garrison, being in an important strategic position. Pop. 7000.
+
+BA'CON, Anthony, elder brother of the celebrated Lord Chancellor, was born
+in 1558 and died in 1601. He was a skilful politician, and much devoted to
+learned pursuits. He became personally acquainted with most of the foreign
+literati of the day, and gained the friendship of Henri IV of France.
+Francis Bacon dedicated to him the first edition of the _Essays_.
+
+BACON, Francis, Baron Verulam, Viscount St. Albans, and Lord High
+Chancellor of England, was born at London in 1561, died at Highgate in
+1626. His father, Nicholas Bacon, was Keeper of the Great Seal under Queen
+Elizabeth. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1575 was
+admitted to Gray's Inn. From 1576 to 1579 he was at Paris with Sir Amyas
+Paulet, the English ambassador. The death of his father called him back to
+England, and being left in straitened circumstances he zealously pursued
+the study of law, and was admitted a barrister in 1582. In 1584 he became
+member of Parliament for Melcombe Regis, and soon after drew up a _Letter
+of Advice_ to Queen Elizabeth, an able political memoir. In 1586 he was
+member for Taunton, in 1589 for Liverpool. A year or two after he gained
+the Earl of Essex as a friend and patron. Bacon's talents and his
+connection with the Lord-Treasurer Burleigh, who had married his mother's
+sister, and his son, Sir Robert Cecil, First Secretary of State, seemed to
+promise him the highest promotion; but he had displeased the queen, and
+when he applied for the attorney-generalship, and next for the
+solicitor-generalship (1595), he was unsuccessful. Essex endeavoured to
+indemnify him by the donation of an estate in land. Bacon, however, forgot
+his obligations to his benefactor, and not only abandoned him as soon as he
+had fallen into disgrace, but without being obliged took part against him
+on his trial, in 1601, and was active in obtaining his conviction. He had
+been chosen member for the county of Middlesex in 1593, and for Southampton
+in 1597, and had long been a Queen's Counsel. The reign of James I was more
+favourable to his interest. He was assiduous in courting the king's favour,
+and James, who was ambitious of being considered a patron of letters,
+conferred upon him in 1603 the honour of knighthood. In 1604 he was
+appointed King's Counsel, with a pension of L60; in 1606 he married; in
+1607 he became Solicitor-General, and six years after Attorney-General.
+Between James and his Parliament he was anxious to produce harmony, but his
+efforts were without avail, and his obsequiousness and servility gained him
+enmity and discredit. In 1617 he was made Lord-Keeper of the Seal; in 1618
+Lord High Chancellor of England and Baron Verulam. In this year he lent his
+influence to bring a verdict of guilty against Raleigh. In 1621 he was made
+Viscount St. Albans. Soon after this his reputation received a fatal blow.
+A new Parliament was formed in 1621, and the Lord Chancellor was accused
+before the House of bribery, corruption, and other malpractices. It is
+difficult to ascertain the full extent of his guilt; but he seems to have
+been unable to justify himself, and handed in a 'confession and humble
+submission', throwing himself on the mercy of the Peers. He was condemned
+to pay a fine of L40,000, to be committed to the Tower during the pleasure
+of the king, declared incompetent to hold any office of State, and banished
+from Court for ever. The sentence, however, was never carried out. The fine
+was remitted almost as soon as imposed, and he was imprisoned for only a
+few days. He survived his fall a few years, during this time occupying
+himself with his literary and scientific works, and vainly hoping for
+political employment. In 1597 he published his celebrated _Essays_, which
+immediately became very popular, were successively enlarged and extended,
+and translated into Latin, French, and Italian. The treatise on the
+_Advancement of Learning_ appeared in 1605; _The Wisdom of the Ancients_ in
+1609 (in Latin); his great philosophical work, the _Novum Organum_ (in
+Latin), in 1620; and the _De Augmentis Scientiarum_, a much enlarged
+edition (in Latin) of the _Advancement_, in 1623. His _New Atlantis_ was
+written about 1614-7; _Life of Henry VII_ about 1621. Various minor
+productions also proceeded from his pen. Numerous editions of his works
+have been published, by far the best being that of Messrs. Spedding, Ellis,
+and Heath, 1857-9 (reprinted, 1879-90). Bacon was great as a moralist, a
+historian, a writer on politics, and a rhetorician; but it is as the father
+of the inductive method in science, as the powerful exponent of the
+principle that facts must be observed and collected before theorizing, that
+he occupies the grand position he holds among the world's great ones. His
+moral character, however, was not on a level with his intellectual,
+self-aggrandizement being the main aim of his life. We need do no more than
+allude to the preposterous attempt that has been made to prove that Bacon
+was the real author of the plays attributed to Shakespeare, an attempt that
+only ignorance of Bacon and Shakespeare could uphold and
+tolerate.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Spedding, _Life and Letters of Francis Bacon_;
+R. W. Church, _Bacon_ (in English Men of Letters Series); Sir Sidney Lee,
+_Great Englishmen of the Sixteenth Century_; J. M. Robertson, _Short
+History of Free-thought_.
+
+BACON, John, English sculptor, born 1740, died 1799. Among his chief works
+are two groups for the interior of the Royal Academy; the statue of Judge
+Blackstone for All Souls College, Oxford; another of Henry VI for Eton
+College; the monument of Lord Chatham in Westminster Abbey; and the statues
+of Dr. Johnson and Mr. Howard in St. Paul's Cathedral.
+
+BACON, Sir Nicholas, father of Francis Bacon, Lord-Keeper of the Great
+Seal, born 1510, died 1579. Henry VIII gave him several lucrative offices,
+which he retained under Edward VI. He lived in retirement during the reign
+of Mary, but Queen Elizabeth appointed him Lord-Keeper for life. He was the
+intimate friend of Lord Burleigh, a sister of whose wife he married, and by
+her became the father of the great Chancellor.
+
+BACON, Roger, an English monk, and one of the most profound and original
+thinkers of his day, was born about 1214, near Ilchester, Somersetshire,
+died at Oxford in 1294. He first entered the University of Oxford, and went
+afterwards to that of Paris, where he is said to have distinguished himself
+and received the degree of Doctor of Theology. About 1250 he returned to
+England, entered the order of Franciscans and fixed his abode at Oxford;
+but having incurred the suspicion of his ecclesiastical superiors, he was
+sent to Paris and kept in confinement for ten years, without
+writing-materials, books, or instruments. The cause seems to have been
+simple enough. He had been a diligent student of the chemical, physical,
+and mathematical sciences, and had made discoveries, and deduced results,
+which appeared so extraordinary to the ignorant that they were believed to
+be works of magic. This opinion was countenanced by the jealousy and hatred
+of the monks of his fraternity. In subsequent times he was popularly
+classed among those who had been in league with Satan. Having been set at
+liberty, he enjoyed a brief space of quiet while Clement IV was Pope; but
+in 1278 he was again thrown into prison, where he remained for at least ten
+years. Of the close of his life little is known. His most important work is
+his _Opus Majus_, where he discusses the relation of philosophy to
+religion, and then treats of language, metaphysics, optics, and
+experimental science. He was undoubtedly the earliest philosophical
+experimentalist in Britain; he made signal advances in optics; was an
+excellent chemist; and in all probability discovered gunpowder. He was
+intimately acquainted with geography and astronomy, as appears by his
+discovery of the errors of the calendar, and their causes, and by his
+proposals for correcting them, in which he approached very nearly to
+truth.--Cf. E. Charles, _Roger Bacon, sa vie, ses ouvrages, ses doctrines_.
+
+[Illustration: Bacteria--Forms of cells
+
+1. Coccus. 2. Bacillus. 3. Spirillum (vibrio). 4. Spirillum (spirochaete).]
+
+BACTE'RIA (Gr. _bakt[=e]rion_, a rod), a general term applied to the lowest
+visible forms of life; other names given are _germs_ or _microbes_. They
+are divided into three classes: (1) _cocci_--these are minute spheres about
+one twenty-five thousandth of an inch in diameter, arranged in chains or
+clusters; (2) _bacilli_--these are straight rods about the breadth of a
+coccus and two to four times as long; (3) _spirilla_--here there are two
+forms; one is like a bacillus, but curved (spirillum proper or vibrio); the
+other is a very fine spiral thread (spirochaete) often only half the
+thickness of a vibrio and two to six times as long. Bacteria consist of
+protoplasm surrounded by a membrane, and many show active movements; they
+all multiply asexually by splitting, and so rapidly may the process occur
+that 17,000,000 organisms or more may be formed from one bacterium in
+twenty-four hours. The chief part played by bacteria in nature is to cause
+putrefaction. They are found on all organic matter, and are therefore
+omnipresent. When grown artificially (see _Bacteriology_) they usually
+require organic matter for their food, and this they split up into simpler
+chemical compounds, some of which are very poisonous to animals (toxins);
+they can also split up sugars to produce various alcohols, acids, and
+gases. When certain of the bacilli are starved, the living matter gathers
+itself up into a spore surrounded by a very resisting membrane, and it can
+survive for a long time in this condition. All ordinary bacteria, including
+most of those which produce disease, can be killed by a few minutes'
+boiling, but the sporing varieties (e.g. many putrefactive forms) withstand
+much longer boiling--up to one and a half hours; they can also be killed by
+chemical means (see _Disinfection_). Many bacteria are useful to man, and a
+few give rise to disease (see _Germ Theory_).
+
+[Illustration: BACTERIA
+
+All the above are magnified 560 times.]
+
+BACTERIOLOGY, the branch of science which deals with the structure and
+properties of bacteria. Though the existence of bacteria had been known
+from the time when Leeuwenhock arranged lenses so as to form a microscope,
+it was through the work of Pasteur that modern knowledge regarding the
+group originated. Pasteur's discovery that yeasts are the cause of the
+formation of alcohol from sugar was followed by his showing that bacteria
+are responsible for other processes of a similar character, e.g. the
+formation of vinegar from alcohol, the occurrence of the rancid change in
+butter, &c. When he went on to prove that a bacterium was the cause of a
+disease of silkworms, a stimulus was given to the germ theory of infection,
+and bacteriology was thus early brought intimately into contact with
+medical science. Another stimulus to bacteriological inquiry came from the
+controversy on spontaneous generation, and Pasteur was one of those who
+helped to establish the principle that the new development of living
+things, as represented by bacteria, out of non-living matter does not take
+place. This led to the inevitable deduction that all putrefactive processes
+are due to bacteria. On this Lister founded his antiseptic treatment of
+wounds, the practical effects of which focused attention on the important
+part played by bacteria in human affairs. The modern science of
+bacteriology really dates from 1877, when Koch proved that _Bacillus
+anthracis_ is the cause of anthrax in cattle. The outstanding feature of
+Koch's research was that in it, for the first time, methods were employed
+whereby all extraneous organisms were excluded from the inquiry, and the
+way was thus opened up for the study of the properties and effects of one
+species of bacterium acting by itself. The chief aspects of his work were
+as follows: (1) the determination of the temperatures at which bacteria are
+killed; the knowledge of this enables investigators to render free from
+living organisms their apparatus and the food materials (usually called
+_media_) necessary to support bacterial life (this is called
+_sterilization_); (2) the discovery that the insertion of a plug of
+cotton-wool in the neck of a vessel (e.g. a flask or test-tube) before its
+sterilization constitutes a sufficient filter, which prevents bacteria in
+the outside air gaining access to its interior or to any food medium placed
+in it for sterilization; (3) the elaboration of a series of media capable
+of acting as food for all the commonly occurring bacteria; (4) the
+introduction of a simple method of separating from one another bacterial
+species which in nature are often growing side by side. This is effected by
+making media containing a jelly (e.g. gelatine) which melts at a relatively
+low temperature. The bacterial mixture is well diluted in the melted
+medium, and this is poured out in a thin layer on a sterile glass plate and
+allowed to set. Each individual bacterial cell can thus multiply apart from
+neighbouring cells, and, it may be, in a few hours the resulting growth (a
+'colony') is visible to the naked eye. A minute part of the colony is
+picked off with a heated needle and placed on a mass of sterile medium. In
+this way a 'pure culture' of each species present in the original mixture
+can be obtained. Koch's work was chiefly concerned with disease bacteria,
+and between 1880 and 1895 many such organisms were isolated in pure culture
+and their properties investigated (see _Germ Theory of Disease_).
+
+While in the evolution of knowledge the progress of bacteriology has been
+most associated with that of medicine and surgery, the science has
+fundamental relations with many other human interests, and the same methods
+are used in investigating such relationships. The adaptation of these
+methods on a commercial scale underlies all industrial processes concerned
+in the preserving of milk and in the canning and bottling of meat and fruit
+(apart from the addition of chemical preservatives). Since bacteriology
+came into existence, many of the most primitive domestic procedures have
+been improved and placed on a scientific basis. Thus, butter-making
+involves a previous souring of the milk; this is due to bacterial action,
+and standard mixtures of milk-souring bacteria are now regularly supplied
+by the laboratory as 'starters' of the process. It is recognized that the
+disorders of milk, e.g. 'ropiness', 'blue milk', &c., are due to certain
+'wild' bacteria gaining access to the dairy. The ripening of such cheeses
+as Gorgonzola and Stilton is due to bacteria and allied organisms, and here
+again light has been shed on the 'diseases' of cheese by bacteriological
+investigation. The pickling of foods by salt, or vinegar, or nitre, is due
+to the action of these substances as antiseptics, and a similar principle,
+aided by boiling, underlies the making of jams. Again, certain kinds of
+bacteria which only flourish at high temperatures are responsible for the
+heating of hay and corn stacks, and for the production of ensilage.
+Bacteriology is also throwing important light on factors concerned in the
+fertility of soils. For example, it has been shown that the little nodules
+on the roots of plants of the pea tribe are caused by bacteria; these, in
+growing, take up nitrogen from the air, and form compounds which promote
+the growth of the plant on which they are parasites and remain to enrich
+the soil when the plant dies. In short, there is no industry, which depends
+on natural putrefaction being prevented or modified so as to stop at a
+particular stage, which bacteriology cannot guide towards securing the most
+perfect results.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Fischer, _The Structure and Functions of
+Bacteria_; Abbot, _Principles of Bacteriology_; Muir and Ritchie, _Manual
+of Bacteriology_; E. R. Stitt, _Practical Bacteriology_; P. H. Hiss and H.
+Zinsser, _A Textbook of Bacteriology_.
+
+BACTRIA'NA, or BACTRIA, a country of ancient Asia, south of the Oxus and
+reaching to the west of the Hindu Kush. It is often regarded as the
+original home of the Indo-European races. A Graeco-Bactrian kingdom
+flourished about the third century B.C., but its history is obscure.
+
+BACULI'TES, a fossil genus allied to the ammonites, characteristic of
+cretaceous strata, having a straight tapering shell. See _Cephalopoda_.
+
+BA'CUP, a municipal borough of England, in Lancashire, 18 miles N. of
+Manchester. The chief manufacturing establishments are connected with
+cotton-spinning and power-loom weaving; there are also ironworks,
+Turkey-red dyeing-works, and in the neighbourhood numerous coal-pits and
+immense stone-quarries. Pop. (1921), 21,256.
+
+BADAGRY, seaport in the British province of Southern Nigeria, West Africa,
+50 miles E.N.E. of Whydah. Pop. about 10,000.
+
+BADAJOZ (b[.a]-_d_[.a]-_h_[=o]th'; ancient, PAX AUGUSTA), the fortified
+capital of the Spanish province of Badajoz, on the left bank of the
+Guadiana, which is crossed by a stone bridge of twenty-eight arches. It is
+a bishop's see, and has an interesting cathedral. During the Peninsular War
+Badajoz was besieged by Marshal Soult, and taken in March, 1811. It was
+twice attacked by the English, on 5th and 29th May, 1811, and was besieged
+by Wellington on 16th March, and taken 6th April, 1812. Pop. 37,600.--The
+province of Badajoz has an area of 8451 sq. miles. Pop. 644,220.
+
+BADAKSHAN', a territory of Central Asia, tributary to the Ameer of
+Afghanistan. It has the Oxus on the north, and the Hindu Kush on the south,
+and has lofty mountains and fertile valleys; the chief town is Faizabad.
+The inhabitants profess Mahommedanism. Pop. 20,957.
+
+BADALONA (bae-_d_[.a]-l[=o]'na), a Mediterranean seaport of Spain, 5 miles
+from Barcelona. Pop. 19,240.
+
+BADEN (bae'd[.e]n), formerly a Grand-Duchy and one of the more important
+States of the German Empire, situated in the S.W. of Germany, to the west
+of Wuerttemberg. It is divided into four districts, Constance, Freiburg,
+Karlsruhe, and Mannheim. It has an area of 5819 sq. miles, and a pop. of
+2,142,833. It is mountainous, being traversed to a considerable extent by
+the lofty plateau of the Schwarzwald or Black Forest, which attains its
+highest point in the Feldberg (4904 feet). The nucleus of this plateau
+consists of gneiss and granite. In the north it sinks down towards the
+Odenwald, which is, however, of different geological structure, being
+composed for the most part of red sandstone. The whole of Baden, except a
+small portion in the S.E., in which the Danube takes its rise, belongs to
+the basin of the Rhine, which bounds it on the south and west. Numerous
+tributaries of the Rhine intersect it, the chief being the Neckar. Lakes
+are numerous, and include a considerable part of the Lake of Constance. The
+climate varies much. The hilly parts, especially in the east, are cold and
+have a long winter, while the valley of the Rhine enjoys the finest climate
+of Germany. The principal minerals worked are coal, salt, iron, zinc, and
+nickel. The number of mineral springs is remarkably great, and of these not
+a few are of great celebrity. The vegetation is peculiarly rich, and there
+are magnificent forests. The cereals comprise wheat, oats, barley, and rye.
+Potatoes, hemp, tobacco, wine, and sugar-beet are largely produced. Several
+of the wines, both white and red, rank in the first class. Baden has long
+been famous for its fruits also. Of the total area 55.4 per cent is under
+cultivation, 39.4 per cent under forest, and 5.2 per cent uncultivated
+(houses, roads, water, &c.). The farms are mostly quite small. The
+manufactures are important. Among them are textiles, tobacco and cigars,
+chemicals, machinery, pottery ware, jewellery (especially at Pforzheim),
+wooden clocks, confined chiefly to the districts of the Black Forest,
+musical boxes and other musical toys. The capital is Karlsruhe, about 5
+miles from the Rhine; the other chief towns are Mannheim,
+Freiburg-im-Breisgau (with a Roman Catholic university), Baden, and
+Heidelberg. Baden has warm mineral springs, which were known and used in
+the time of the Romans. Heidelberg has a university (Protestant), founded
+in 1386, the oldest in Germany. The railways have a length of 1200 miles,
+and are all State property. In the time of the Roman Empire southern Baden
+belonged to the Roman province of Rhaetia. Under the old German Empire it
+was a margraviate, which in 1533 was divided into Baden-Baden and
+Baden-Durlach, but reunited in 1771. The title of grand-duke was conferred
+by Napoleon in 1806, and in the same year Baden was extended to its present
+limits. Until 1918 the executive power was vested in the grand-duke, the
+legislative in a house of legislature, consisting of an upper and a lower
+chamber. The former consisted partly of hereditary members; the latter of
+elected representatives of the people. In the break-up of the German Empire
+in Nov., 1918, Baden was among the first States to feel the shock of
+revolution. The Grand-Duke Frederick I abdicated, and the Provisional
+Government, under the Socialist Herr Jeiss, proclaimed Baden a Republic.
+Two-thirds of the population are Roman Catholics, the rest Protestants.
+
+BADEN (or BADEN-BADEN, to distinguish it from other towns of the same name;
+German _Bad_, a bath), a town and watering-place, in the former Grand-Duchy
+of Baden, 18 miles S.S.W. of Karlsruhe, built in the form of an
+amphitheatre on a spur of the Black Forest, overhanging a valley, through
+which runs a little stream Oosbach. Baden has been celebrated from the
+remotest antiquity for its thermal baths; and it used also to be celebrated
+for its gaming-saloons. It has many good buildings, and a castle, the
+summer residence of the former grand-dukes. Pop. 22,066.
+
+BADEN, a town of Austria, 15 miles S.W. of Vienna. It has numerous hot
+sulphurous springs, used both for bathing and drinking, and much
+frequented. Pop. 19,000.
+
+BADEN, a small town of Switzerland, canton Aargau, celebrated for its hot
+sulphurous baths, which attract many visitors. Pop. 8318.
+
+BADEN-POWELL. See _Powell_.
+
+BADGE (baj), a distinctive device, emblem, mark, honorary decoration, or
+special cognizance, used originally to identify a knight or distinguish his
+followers, now worn as a sign of office or licensed employment, as a token
+of membership in some society, or generally as a mark showing the relation
+of the wearer to any person, occupation, or order. See _Cockade_,
+_Heraldry_, _Totems_.
+
+[Illustration: Common Badger (_Meles vulg[=a]ris_)]
+
+BADGER (baj'[.e]r), a plantigrade, carnivorous mammal, allied both to the
+bears and to the weasels, of a clumsy make, with short thick legs, and long
+claws on the fore-feet. The common badger (_Meles vulg[=a]ris_) is as large
+as a middling-sized dog, but much lower on the legs, with a flatter and
+broader body, very thick tough hide, and long coarse hair. It inhabits the
+north of Europe and Asia, burrows, is indolent and sleepy, feeds by night
+on vegetables, small quadrupeds, &c. Its flesh may be eaten, and its hair
+is used for artists' brushes in painting. The American badger belongs to a
+separate genus. _Badger baiting_, or _drawing the badger_, is a barbarous
+sport, long a favourite amusement in England, but declared illegal in the
+middle of last century, and yet to some extent practised, generally as an
+attraction to public-houses of the lowest sort. A badger is put in a
+barrel, and one or more dogs are put in to drag him out. When this is
+effected he is returned to his barrel, to be similarly assailed by a fresh
+set. The badger usually makes a most determined and savage resistance.
+
+BADGER DOG, a long-bodied, short-legged dog, with rather large pendulous
+ears, usually short haired, black, and with yellow extremities; often
+called by its German name _Dachshund_.
+
+BAD'MINTON, a game closely resembling lawn-tennis, but played with
+battledore and shuttle-cock instead of ball and racket: named after a seat
+of the Duke of Beaufort, in Gloucestershire.
+
+BADRINATH (-aet'), a peak of the main Himalayan range, in Garhwal District,
+in the United Provinces, 23,210 feet above the sea. On one of its
+shoulders, at an elevation of 10,400 feet, stands a celebrated temple of
+Vishnu, which some years attracts as many as 50,000 pilgrims.
+
+BAEDEKER (b[=a]'de-k[.e]r), Karl, a German publisher, born 1801, died 1859;
+originator of a celebrated series of guide-books for travellers.
+
+BAELZ'S DISEASE, an affection of the mouth characterized by swelling of the
+mucous glands of the mouth and lips, leading to the formation of small
+abscesses and ulcers.
+
+BAENA (b[.a]-[=a]'n[.a]), a town of Spain, in Andalusia, province of
+Cordova, and 24 miles S.S.E. of the city of that name. Pop. 14,730.
+
+BAEZA (b[.a]-[=a]'th[.a]; anciently, BEATIA), a town of Spain, in
+Andalusia, 22 miles E.N.E. of Jaen, with 15,843 inhabitants. The principal
+edifices are the cathedral, the university (now suppressed), and the old
+monastery of St. Philip de Neri.
+
+BAFFA (ancient, PAPHOS), a seaport on the S.W. coast of Cyprus. Pop. 1000.
+It occupies the site of New Paphos, which, under the Romans, was full of
+beautiful temples and other public buildings. Old Paphos stood a little to
+the south-east.
+
+BAFFIN, William, an English navigator, born 1584, famous for his
+discoveries in the Arctic regions; in 1616 he ascertained the limits of
+Baffin Bay. He was killed at the siege of Ormuz, in the East Indies, 1622.
+
+BAFFIN BAY, on the N.E. of North America, between Greenland and Baffin Land
+and other islands that lie on the N. of the continent; discovered by Baffin
+in 1616.
+
+BAFULABE (b[.a]-f[u:]-lae-b[=a]), a trading-place in French West Africa, on
+the Upper Senegal, and on the railway that runs from Kayes on the Senegal
+to Bammako on the Niger.
+
+BAGAMO'YO, a seaport of former German East Africa, a short distance
+north-west of Dar-el-Salaam. There is no proper harbour, only a shallow and
+rather exposed roadstead where ships have to anchor some distance from the
+shore, yet it is the chief trading-centre of the colony, and as the
+terminus of the caravan route to Tanganyika is a place of some importance.
+Pop. about 25,000. See _European War_.
+
+BAGASSE', the sugar-cane in its dry crushed state as delivered from the
+mill, and after the main portion of its juice has been expressed; used as
+fuel in the sugar factory, and called also _cane-trash_.
+
+BAGATELLE', a game played on a long flat board covered with cloth like a
+billiard-table, with spherical balls and a cue or mace. At the end of the
+board are nine cups or sockets of just sufficient size to receive the
+balls. These sockets are arranged in the form of a regular octagon, with
+the ninth in the middle, and are numbered consecutively from one upwards.
+Nine balls are used, generally one black, four white, and four red, the
+distinction between white and red being made only for the sake of variety.
+In the ordinary game, at starting, the black ball is placed on a point in
+the longitudinal middle line of the board, a few inches in front of the
+nearest of the sockets, and the player places one of his eight balls on a
+corresponding point at the other end of the board, and tries to strike the
+black ball into one of the sockets with his own. After this his object is
+to place as many of his balls as possible in the sockets. Each ball so
+placed counts as many as the socket is numbered for, and the black ball
+always counts double. He who first makes the number of points agreed on
+wins.
+
+BAGDAD', or BAGHDAD, a city of a vilayet of same name (54,540 sq. miles;
+pop. 900,000) in what was anciently Mesopotamia. The greater part of it
+lies on the eastern bank of the Tigris, which is crossed by a bridge of
+boats; old Bagdad, the residence of the caliphs (now in ruins), was on the
+western bank of the river. The city occupies a large area. The houses are
+mostly built of brick, the streets unpaved and very narrow, and there are
+few buildings of any note. The palace of the governor is spacious. Of the
+mosques only a few attract notice, many are in ruins; the bazaars are large
+and well stocked; that of Dawd Pasha still ranks as one of the most
+splendid in the world. Manufactures: leather, silks, cottons, woollens,
+carpets, &c. Steamers ply on the river between Bagdad and Bassorah, and the
+town exports wheat, dates, galls, gums, mohair, carpets, &c., to Europe,
+the chief import being cotton goods. The estimated population is over
+200,000; of these about 86,000 are Mahommedans, 52,000 Jews, and 7000
+Christians. The city has been frequently visited by the plague. Bagdad was
+founded in 762 by the Caliph Almansur, and raised to a high degree of
+splendour in the ninth century by Harun Al Rashid. It is the scene of a
+number of the tales of the _Arabian Nights_. It was long the chief city of
+the Mahommedan world, and at one time is said to have had two millions of
+inhabitants. In the thirteenth century it was stormed by Hulaku, grandson
+of Genghis-Khan, who caused the reigning caliph to be slain, and destroyed
+the caliphate. It was again laid waste by Timur in 1401. For a considerable
+period it was the object of contention between the Persians and the Turks,
+until it was besieged and captured by Sultan Murad IV in 1638. Since that
+date it remained a part of the Turkish Empire. It was captured by the
+British on 11th March, 1917.
+
+BAGDAD RAILWAY, a railway which, under arrangement with the Turkish
+Government, was intended to run from Konia, which is the terminus of the
+Anatolian railway system, to Bagdad, Basra (Bassorah), and the Persian
+Gulf. It was built chiefly by means of funds provided by German and French
+financiers, in association with the Anatolian Railway Company, a German
+company. The line has been constructed continuously as far as Kara Bunar in
+Cilicia. Farther on, the following sections have been completed: Dorak to
+Bagtche, on the Ordana side of the Taurus Mountains; Radjun, via Muslimie,
+to Jerablus, on the Euphrates, with a branch from Muslimie to Aleppo;
+Jerablus to El-Abiad, and Bagdad to Samara. A branch line has also been
+completed from Alexandretta to Toprak Kale. Of the distance from Konia to
+Bagdad (1509 miles), 1117 miles (with gaps) are already working. In 1919
+the railway system passed to the Allies, and in 1920 it was announced that
+the line between Basra and Bagdad had been completed.
+
+BAGEHOT (bag'ot), Walter, English economist and journalist, born at
+Langport, Somerset, 1826, died at the same place 1877. He studied at
+Bristol, and at University College, London, and graduated as B.A. and M.A.
+at the London University (1848). He was for some time associated with his
+father in the banking business at Langport, and for a number of years he
+acted as London agent for the bank. He was one of the editors of the
+_National Review_ (1855-64), and from 1860 till his death he was editor and
+part proprietor of the _Economist_. His chief works are: _Physics and
+Politics_; _The English Constitution_; _Lombard Street_; and _Studies,
+Literary, Biographic, and Economic_. He was a high authority on economics,
+banking, and finance, and was often consulted by public men.
+
+[Illustration: Baggala]
+
+BAG'GALA, a two-masted Arab boat, generally 200-250 tons burden, used for
+trading in the Indian Ocean, Red Sea, &c.
+
+BAGGESEN (bag'e-sen), Jens, a Danish poet, who also wrote much in German,
+born 1764, at Korsoer, died at Hamburg, 1826. He led a rather wandering and
+unsettled life, spending some time in England as well as in France and
+Germany. He tried lyric, epic, and dramatic poetry, but was most successful
+as a humorist and satirist. One of his best poems is his famous song _There
+was a Time when I was very Little_.
+
+BAGGING is the name of the textile material which is used in the making of
+bags. Baltic hemp was the first material used for the purpose, but now all
+kinds of fibres are used, though the majority of bags are made of jute
+fibre. The style of the bagging used depends, naturally, upon the
+requirements of the bag; for the export of raw cotton from the United
+States of America we find the coarsest of all cotton-bagging used. When
+intended to carry grain, spices, sugar, &c., the bag must be made of
+closely-woven material. In many cases bags to carry sugar are lined with
+paper.
+
+BAGHELKAND, a tract of country in Central India, occupied by a collection
+of native States (Rewah being the chief), under the Governor-General's
+agent for Central India; area, 11,323 sq. miles. Pop. 1,772,574.
+
+BAGHERIA (b[.a]-g[=a]'r[=e]-[.a]), a town of Sicily, province of Palermo, 9
+miles by railway from the city of Palermo. Pop. 21,212.
+
+BAGIMONT'S ROLL, a rent-roll of Scotland, made up in 1275 by _Baiamund_ or
+_Boiamond_ de Vicci, vulgarly called _Bagimont_, who was sent from Rome by
+the Pope, in the reign of Alexander III, to collect the tithe of all the
+church livings in Scotland for an expedition to the Holy Land. It remained
+the statutory valuation, according to which the benefices were taxed, till
+the Reformation. A copy of it as it existed in the reign of James V is in
+the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh.
+
+BAGIRMI (b[.a]-gir'm[=e]), or BAGHERMI, a Mohammedan Negro State in Central
+Africa, situated to the south-east of Lake Tchad. It is mostly a plain; has
+an area of about 20,000 sq. miles, and about 100,000 inhabitants. The
+people are industrious, and fairly civilized. The country is in the French
+sphere of influence, but the people are still under a native ruler.
+
+BAGNARA (b[.a]-nyae'r[.a]), a seaport near the S.W. extremity of Italy.
+Pop. 11,000.
+
+BAGNERES DE BIGORRE (b[.a]n-y[=a]r d[.e] b[=e]-gorr), a watering-place,
+France, department Hautes-Pyrenees, on the left bank of the Adour. It owes
+its chief celebrity to its sulphurous and saline baths. The springs were
+known to and used by the Romans. The site is one of the most romantic in
+the Pyrenees, and the town is well built and well provided with
+accommodation for visitors. Pop. 8455.
+
+BAGNERES DE LUCHON (b[.a]n-y[=a]r d[.e] lu-sh[=o]n), a town, France,
+department Haute-Garonne, in a picturesque valley surrounded by wooded
+hills, one of the principal watering-places of the Pyrenees, having
+sulphurous thermal waters, beneficial in rheumatic complaints. There is a
+large bathing establishment, and a large and splendid casino building,
+comprising a theatre, concert and ball rooms, &c. Resident pop. 4000.
+
+BAGNI (baen'y[=e]), Italian for 'baths', a name in Italy for various places
+which possess natural baths or thermal springs, with some designation added
+to mark the particular locality. _Bagni di Lucca_, in the province of
+Lucca, and about 13 miles north-east of the city of Lucca, is one of the
+most frequented of these bathing-places, its waters being recommended
+against gout, rheumatism, affections of the skin, &c.
+
+BAGPIPE, a musical wind-instrument of very great antiquity, having been
+used among the ancient Greeks, and being a favourite instrument over Europe
+generally in the fifteenth century. It still continues in use among the
+country people of Poland, Italy, the south of France, and in Scotland and
+Ireland. Though now often regarded as the national instrument of Scotland,
+especially Celtic Scotland, it is only Scottish by adoption, being
+introduced into that country from England. It consists of a leathern bag,
+which receives the air from the mouth, or from bellows; and of pipes, into
+which the air is pressed from the bag by the performer's elbow. In the
+common or Highland form, one pipe (called the _chanter_) plays the melody;
+of the three others (called _drones_) two are in unison with the lowest _A_
+of the chanter, and the third and longest an octave lower, the sound being
+produced by means of reeds. The chanter has eight holes, which the
+performer stops and opens at pleasure, but the scale is imperfect and the
+tone harsh. The Highland bagpipe is a powerful instrument, and calls for
+great exertion of the lungs in order that the air may be supplied in
+sufficient quantity. There are several other species of bagpipes, as the
+soft and melodious Irish bagpipe, supplied with wind by a bellows, and
+having several keyed drones and a keyed chanter; the old English bagpipe
+(now no longer used); the Italian bagpipe, a very rude instrument, &c. The
+Irish bagpipe is, musically speaking, the most perfect of
+all.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Sir J. G. Dalyell, _Musical Memoirs of Scotland_; E. de
+Bricqueville, _Les Musettes_.
+
+BAGRATION (b[.a]g-rae'ty[=o]n), Peter, Prince, distinguished Russian
+general, descended from a noble Georgian family. He was born in 1765,
+entered the Russian army in 1782, and henceforth was constantly engaged in
+active service, distinguishing himself in many actions and gradually rising
+in military rank. He fought in Poland, in Italy, and against the Turks, was
+engaged in the battles of Austerlitz, Eylau, and Friedland, and at last was
+mortally wounded at the battle of Borodino, Sept., 1812.
+
+BAGSHOT-SAND, in geology, the collective name for a series of sands of the
+Eocene age, occupying extensive tracts round Bagshot, in Surrey, and in the
+New Forest, Hampshire, the whole reposing on the London-clay; generally
+devoid of fossils.
+
+BAGSTER, Samuel, publisher, founder of the firm of Bagster & Sons,
+celebrated for their bibles, was born in 1772, and died in 1851. He began
+business as a London bookseller in 1794, and soon turned his attention to
+the publication of bibles, bringing out a Hebrew bible, the _Septuagint_
+(Greek) version, and the English version, with 60,000 parallel references,
+followed by his great polyglot bible, which in its final form showed eight
+languages at the opening of the volume. Separate versions in different
+languages were also brought out, with various other aids to the study of
+Scripture; a polyglot _Book of Common Prayer_, in eight languages; &c.
+
+BAHA'DUR SHAH, the last of the Grand Moguls of India, a descendant of
+Tamerlane. In 1857, during the Indian Mutiny, the Mahommedans, who wished
+to restore the Empire of the Moguls, placed him, then a very old man, at
+the head of the movement in Delhi; but the city was soon retaken by the
+British, and the Emperor was banished to Rangoon, where he died in 1862.
+
+BAHA'MA ISLANDS, or LUCAYOS, a group of islands in the West Indies, forming
+a colony belonging to Britain, lying N.E. of Cuba and S.E. of the coast of
+Florida, the Gulf Stream passing between them and the mainland. They extend
+a distance of upwards of 600 miles, and are said to be twenty-nine in
+number, besides keys and rocks innumerable. The principal islands are Grand
+Bahama, Great and Little Abaco, Andros Islands, New Providence, Eleuthera,
+San Salvador, Great Exuma, Watling Island, Long Island, Crooked Island,
+Acklin Island, Mariguana Island, Grand Inagua. Of the whole group about
+twenty are inhabited, the most populous being New Providence, which
+contains the capital, Nassau; the largest being Andros, 100 miles long, 20
+to 40 broad. They are low and flat, and have in many parts extensive
+forests. Total area, 4400 sq. miles. The soil is a thin but rich vegetable
+mould, and an important product is pineapples, which form a large export
+(both canned and green). Other fruits are also grown, with sisal hemp (a
+valuable export), cotton, sugar, maize, yams, ground nuts, coco-nuts, &c.
+Sponges are obtained in large quantity, and are at present the chief
+export. Total exports about L382,140 (1919). The Bahama Islands are a very
+favourite winter resort for persons suffering from lung trouble. San
+Salvador, or Cat Island, is generally believed to be the same as Guanahani,
+the land first touched on by Columbus (12th Oct., 1492) on his first great
+voyage. The first British settlement was made on New Providence towards the
+close of the seventeenth century. A number of loyal Americans settled in
+the islands after the War of Independence. Pop. 55,944, including 14,000
+whites.
+
+BAHA'WALPUR, a town of India, capital of State of same name in the Punjab,
+2 miles from the Sutlej; surrounded by a mud wall and containing the
+extensive palace of the Nawab. Pop. 18,700. The State has an area of 15,000
+sq. miles, of which 10,000 is desert, the only cultivated lands lying along
+the Indus and Sutlej. Pop. 780,641.
+
+BAHIA (b[.a]-[=e]'[.a]; formerly ST. SALVADOR), a town of Brazil, on the
+Bay of All Saints, State of Bahia. It consists of a lower town, which is
+little more than an irregular, narrow, and dirty street, stretching about 4
+miles along the shore; and an upper town, larger and much better built,
+with various outlying suburbs. The harbour is one of the best in South
+America; and the export trade, chiefly in sugar, cotton, coffee, tobacco,
+hides, piassava, and tapioca, is very extensive. Pop. 348,000. The State,
+area 164,600 sq. miles, pop. 3,013,007, has much fertile land, both along
+the coast and in the interior.
+
+BAHIA BLANCA, a seaport of the Argentine Republic, on a bay of same name
+opening into the Atlantic, about 350 miles south-west of Buenos Ayres; it
+is a rising place connected by railway with the capital, and a terminus of
+other railways from the interior. It carries on a considerable trade
+directly with Europe, exporting mutton, wheat, &c. Pop. 75,000.
+
+BAHR (baer), an Arabic word signifying sea or large river; as in
+Bahr-el-Huleh, the Lake Merom in Palestine; Bahr-el-Abiad, the White Nile,
+Bahr-el-Azrek, the Blue Nile, which together unite at Khartoum.
+
+BAHRAICH (bae-r[=a]ch'), a flourishing town of India, in Oudh, Faizabad
+division. It carries on a good local trade, and has a shrine that attracts
+many Hindu and Mohammedan pilgrims. It is the seat of an American Methodist
+mission. Pop. 27,304.
+
+BAHREIN (bae'r[=i]n) ISLANDS, a group of islands in the Persian Gulf, in an
+indentation on the Arabian coast, since 1867 under British protection. The
+principal island, usually called Bahrein, is about 27 miles in length and
+10 in breadth. It is in general very flat and low, and the soil is not very
+fertile except in a few places; but irrigation is employed and excellent
+dates are grown. The principal town is Menamah or Manama; pop. 30,000. The
+smaller island of Moharrek, separated by a shallow strait 2 miles wide,
+contains the town of Moharrek, the present seat of government; pop. 25,000.
+The Bahrein Islands are chiefly noted for their pearl-fisheries, which were
+known to the ancients, and which employ in the season from 2000 to 3000
+boats manned by from 8 to 20 men each. Total pop. estimated at 110,000.
+
+BAHR-EL-GHAZAL, a large river of Central Africa, a western tributary of the
+White Nile (or Bahr-el-Abiad). It flows through a very swampy region, and
+is liable to inundations. The head of steam navigation is Meshra-er-Rek.
+The river gives its name to a province of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,
+yielding ivory, rubber, timber, &c., and suited for cotton growing.
+
+BAIADEER. See _Bayadere_.
+
+BAIAE (b[=i]'[=e]), an ancient Roman watering-place on the coast of
+Campania, 10 miles west of Naples. Many of the wealthy Romans had country
+houses at Baiae, which was a favourite resort of Horace. Ruins of temples,
+baths, and villas still attract the attention of archaeologists.
+
+BAIKAL (b[=i]'k[.a]l), a large freshwater lake in Eastern Siberia, 360
+miles long, and about 50 in extreme breadth, interspersed with islands; in
+the line of the great Siberian Railway. It is surrounded by rugged and
+lofty mountains; contains seals, and many fish, particularly salmon,
+sturgeon, and pike. Its greatest depth is over 4000 feet. It receives the
+waters of the Upper Angara, Selenga, Barguzin, &c., and discharges its
+waters by the Lower Angara. It is frozen over in winter.
+
+BAIKIE, William Balfour, born in the Orkney Islands 1824, died at Sierra
+Leone 1863. He joined the British navy, and was made surgeon and naturalist
+of the Niger Expedition, 1854. He took the command on the death of the
+senior officer, and explored the Niger for 250 miles. Another expedition,
+which started in 1857, passed two years in exploring, when the vessel was
+wrecked, and all the members, with the exception of Baikie, returned to
+England. With none but native assistants he formed a settlement at the
+confluence of the Benue and the Quorra, in which he was ruler, teacher, and
+physician, and within a few years he opened the Niger to navigation, made
+roads, and established a market.
+
+BAIL, the person or persons who procure the release of a prisoner from
+custody by becoming surety for his appearance in court at the proper time;
+also, the security given for the release of a prisoner from custody. In the
+United States bail is a matter of right in all cases where a sentence of
+death cannot be pronounced, and even in such a case it may be allowed by
+one of the judges.
+
+BAILDON, an urban district in the W. Riding of Yorkshire, about 5 miles
+north of Bradford, with worsted manufactures, chemical works, and quarries.
+Pop. (1921), 6527.
+
+BAILEN (b[=i]-len'), a town of Southern Spain, province Jaen, with
+lead-mines. Pop. 8334.
+
+BAILEY (b[=a]'li), the name given to the courts of a castle formed by the
+spaces between the circuits of walls or defences which surrounded the keep.
+
+BAILEY, or BAILY, Nathaniel, an English lexicographer, school teacher at
+Stepney, and author of several educational works. His _Dictionary_,
+published in 1721, passed through a great many editions.
+
+BAILEY, Philip James, English poet, born near Nottingham, 1816, called to
+the bar 1840, died 1902. He published _Festus_, his best work, in 1839;
+_The Mystic_, 1855; _The Age_, 1858; and _The Universal Hymn_, 1867.
+
+BAILIE, or BAILLIE, a municipal officer or magistrate in Scotland,
+corresponding to an _alderman_ in England. The criminal jurisdiction of the
+provost and bailies of royal burghs extends to breaches of the peace,
+drunkenness, adulteration of articles of diet, thefts not of an aggravated
+character, and other offences of a less serious nature.
+
+BAILIFF, a civil officer or functionary, subordinate to someone else. There
+are several kinds of bailiffs, whose offices widely differ, but all agree
+in this, that the keeping or protection of something belongs to them. In
+England the sheriff is the monarch's bailiff, and his county is a
+bailiwick. The name is also applied to the chief magistrates of some towns,
+to keepers of royal castles, as of Dover, to persons having the
+conservation of the peace in hundreds and in some special jurisdictions, as
+Westminster, and to the returning officers in the same. But the officials
+commonly designated by this name are the _bailiffs_ of sheriffs, or
+sheriffs' officers, who execute processes, &c.
+
+BAILLEUL (b[.a]-yeul), an ancient French town, department of Nord, near the
+Belgian frontier, about 19 miles west of Lille. Much fighting took place in
+its vicinity during the European War, but it was not destroyed until the
+campaign of 1918. Pop. 12,828.--A village of the same name in department
+Orne gave its name to the Baliol family.
+
+BAILLIE, Joanna, a Scottish authoress, born at Bothwell, Lanarkshire, in
+1762, died at Hampstead, 1851. She removed in early life to London, where
+her brother, Matthew Baillie, was settled as a physician. Here in 1798 she
+published her first work, entitled _A Series of Plays_, in which she
+attempted to delineate the stronger passions by making each passion the
+subject of a tragedy and a comedy. The series was followed up by a second
+volume in 1802, and a third in 1812. A second series appeared in 1836, and
+a complete edition of her whole dramatic works in 1850. She also published
+a volume of miscellaneous poetry, including songs, in 1841. Her only plays
+performed on the stage were a tragedy entitled the _Family Legend_, brought
+out at Edinburgh under the patronage of Sir Walter Scott; and _De
+Montfort_, brought out by John Kemble, who acted in it with Mrs. Siddons.
+
+BAILLIE, Matthew, M.D., physician and anatomist, brother of the preceding,
+was born 1761 at Shotts, Lanarkshire, died at Cirencester, Gloucestershire,
+in 1823. In 1773 he was sent to the University of Glasgow. He afterwards
+studied anatomy under his maternal uncles, John and William Hunter, and
+entered Oxford, where he graduated as M.D. In 1783 he succeeded his uncle
+as lecturer on anatomy in London, where he acquired a high reputation as a
+teacher and demonstrator, having also a large practice. In 1810 he was
+appointed physician to George III. His work on _The Morbid Anatomy of Some
+of the Most Important Parts of the Human Body_ gave him a European
+reputation.
+
+BAILLIE, Robert, an eminent Scottish Presbyterian clergyman, was born at
+Glasgow in 1599, died 1662. Though educated and ordained as an
+Episcopalian, he resisted the attempt of Archbishop Laud to introduce his
+_Book of Common Prayer_ into Scotland, and joined the Presbyterian party.
+In 1638 he represented the presbytery of Irvine in the General Assembly at
+Glasgow, which dissolved Episcopacy in Scotland. In 1640 he was selected to
+go to London, with other commissioners, to draw up the accusation against
+Archbishop Laud. Of this, and almost all the other proceedings of his
+public life, he has left a minute account in his letters and journals,
+which form a most valuable collection for the history of his time. In 1642
+he was appointed professor of divinity at Glasgow. He was a member of the
+Westminster Assembly of Divines, and attended its sittings from 1643-6.
+After the Restoration, though made principal of his college through Court
+patronage, he did not hesitate to express his dissatisfaction with the
+reintroduction of Episcopacy.
+
+BAILLIE, Robert, of Jerviswood, in Lanarkshire, a Scottish patriot of the
+reign of Charles II. He brought himself into notice by opposing the
+tyrannical measures of Archbishop Sharpe against the Nonconformists, for
+which he was fined 6000 merks (or L500) and imprisoned for four months. In
+1683 he went to London in furtherance of a scheme of emigration to South
+Carolina taken up by a number of Scottish gentlemen, as being the only way
+of escaping the tyranny of the Government. He became associated with
+Monmouth, Sydney, Russell, and the rest of that party, and was charged with
+complicity in the Rye-house plot. After a long imprisonment, during which
+vain attempts were made to obtain evidence against him, he was brought
+before the Court of Justiciary (23rd Dec., 1684), was found guilty, and
+condemned to be executed that afternoon.
+
+BAILLIESTON, a town of Scotland, in Lanarkshire, a few miles east of
+Glasgow, with extensive collieries, in which many of the inhabitants are
+employed. Pop. 5500.
+
+BAILLY (b[.a]-y[=e]), Jean Sylvain, French astronomer and statesman, born
+at Paris 1736. After some youthful essays in verse, he was induced by
+Lacaille to devote himself to astronomy, and on the death of the latter in
+1753, being admitted to the Academy of Sciences, he published a reduction
+of Lacaille's observations on the zodiacal stars. In 1764 he competed ably
+but unsuccessfully for the Academy prize offered for an essay upon
+Jupiter's satellites, Lagrange being his opponent; and in 1771 he published
+a treatise on the light reflected by these satellites. In the meantime he
+had won distinction as a man of letters by his _Eloges_ on Pierre
+Corneille, Leibnitz, Moliere, and others; and the same qualities of style
+shown by these were maintained in his _History of Astronomy_ (1775-87), his
+most extensive work. In 1784 the French Academy elected him a member. The
+revolution drew him into public life. Paris chose him, 12th May, 1789,
+first deputy of the _tiers-etat_, and in the Assembly itself he was made
+first president, a post occupied by him on 20th June, 1789, in the session
+of the Tennis Court, when the deputies swore never to separate till they
+had given France a new constitution. As Mayor of Paris his moderation and
+impartial enforcement of the law failed to commend themselves to the
+people, and his forcible suppression of mob violence, 17th July, 1791,
+aroused a storm which led to his resignation and retreat to Nantes. In 1793
+he attempted to join Laplace at Melun, but was recognized and sent to
+Paris, where he was condemned by the revolutionary tribunal, and executed
+on 12th Nov.
+
+BAILMENT, in law, is the delivery of a chattel or thing to a person in
+trust, either for the use of the bailer or person delivering, or for that
+of the bailee or person to whom it is delivered. A bailment always supposes
+the subject to be delivered only for a limited time, at the expiration of
+which it must be re-delivered to the bailer, the responsibility of the
+bailee being dependent, in some degree, upon the contract on which the
+bailment is made. Pledging and letting for hire are species of bailment.
+_Agistment_, or the taking in of cattle or live stock to feed at a rate of
+so much per head, is a contract of bailment.
+
+BAILY, Edward Hodges, an English sculptor, born at Bristol 1788, died at
+London 1867. He became a pupil of Flaxman in 1807, gained the Academy Gold
+Medal in 1811, and was elected R.A. in 1821. Principal works: _Eve at the
+Fountain_, _Eve Listening to the Voice_, _Maternal Affection_, _Girl
+Preparing for the Bath_, _The Graces_, &c. The bas-reliefs on the south
+side of the Marble Arch, Hyde Park, the statue of Nelson on the Trafalgar
+Square monument, and other public works, were by him.
+
+BAILY, Francis, astronomer, born in Berkshire 1774; settled in London as a
+stockbroker in 1802. While thus actively engaged he published _Tables for
+the Purchasing and Renewing of Leases_, _The Doctrine of Interest and
+Annuities_, _The Doctrine of Life Annuities and Assurances_, and an epitome
+of universal history. On retiring from business with an ample fortune in
+1825 he turned his attention to astronomy, became one of the founders of
+the Astronomical Society, contributed to its _Transactions_, and in 1835
+published a life of Flamsteed. He died in 1844.
+
+BAILY'S BEADS, a phenomenon attending eclipses of the sun, the unobscured
+edge of which appears discontinuous and broken immediately before and after
+the moment of complete obscuration. It is classed as an effect of
+irradiation, and is caused by the sun shining through the depressions
+between the lunar mountains.
+
+BAIN, Alexander, Scottish philosopher and educationalist, was born at
+Aberdeen in 1818. He was educated at Marischal College (then a separate
+university), Aberdeen; was for some years a deputy professor in the
+university; subsequently held official posts in London; and in 1860 was
+appointed professor of logic and English in Aberdeen University, a post
+which he held till his resignation in 1881. His most important works are:
+_The Senses and the Intellect_ (1855); _The Emotions and the Will_ (1859),
+together forming a complete exposition of the human mind; _Mental and Moral
+Science_ (1868); _Logic, Deductive and Inductive_ (1870); _Mind and Body_
+(1873); _Education as a Science_ (1879); _James Mill, a Biography_ (1881);
+_John Stuart Mill, a Criticism with Personal Recollections_ (1882); besides
+an _English Grammar_; _English Composition and Rhetoric_; an
+_Autobiography_, &c. Bain was at once grammarian, rhetorician,
+educationalist, and logician, but his fame rests on his contributions to
+psychology. He died in 1903.
+
+BAINSIZZA PLATEAU. See _European War_.
+
+BAIRAM (b[=i]'ram), the Easter of the Mohammedans, which follows
+immediately after the Ramadan or Lent (a month of fasting), and lasts three
+days. This feast during the course of thirty-three years makes a complete
+circuit of all the months and seasons, as the Turks reckon by lunar years.
+Sixty days after this first great Bairam begins the lesser Bairam. They are
+the only two feasts prescribed by the Mohammedan religion.
+
+BAIRD, Sir David, a distinguished British soldier, was born in
+Aberdeenshire in 1757, and entered the army 1772. Having been promoted to a
+lieutenancy in 1778 he sailed for India, distinguished himself as a captain
+in the war against Hyder Ali, was wounded and taken prisoner, and confined
+in the fortress of Seringapatam for nearly four years. He and his
+fellow-prisoners were treated with great barbarity, and many of them died
+or were put to death, but at last (in 1784) all that survived were set at
+liberty. In 1787 he became major, and in 1791 joined the army under
+Cornwallis as lieutenant-colonel, and was appointed to the command of a
+brigade in the war against Tippoo. After much hard service he was made a
+colonel in 1795, went in 1797 to the Cape of Good Hope as
+brigadier-general, and in 1798, on his appointment as major-general,
+returned to India. In 1799 he commanded the storming party at the assault
+of Seringapatam, and, in requital, was presented with the State sword of
+Tippoo Saib. Being appointed in 1800 to command an expedition to Egypt, he
+landed at Kosseir in June, 1801, crossed the desert, and, embarking on the
+Nile, descended to Cairo, and thence to Alexandria, which he reached a few
+days before it surrendered to General Hutchinson. Next year he returned to
+India, but being soon after superseded by Sir Arthur Wellesley
+(Wellington), he sailed for Britain, where he was knighted and made K.B.
+With the rank of lieutenant-general he commanded an expedition in 1805 to
+the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1806, after defeating the Dutch, he received
+the surrender of the colony. He commanded a division at the siege of
+Copenhagen, and after a short period of service in Ireland sailed with
+10,000 men for Corunna, where he formed a junction with Sir John Moore. He
+commanded the first division of Moore's army, and in the battle of Corunna
+lost his left arm. By the death of Sir John Moore, Sir David succeeded to
+the chief command, receiving for the fourth time the thanks of Parliament,
+and a baronetcy. In 1814 he was made a general. He died in 1829.
+
+BAIRD, Spencer Fullerton, American naturalist, born 1823, died 1887. From
+1850 to 1878 he was assistant secretary, and then became secretary, of the
+Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and was also chief Government
+commissioner of fish and fisheries. He wrote much on natural history, his
+chief works being _The Birds of North America_ (in conjunction with John
+Cassin), _The Mammals of North America_, _Review of American Birds in the
+Smithsonian Institution_, and (with Messrs. Brewer and Ridgeway) _History
+of North American Birds_.
+
+BAIREUTH (b[=i]'roit), a well-built and pleasantly-situated town of
+Bavaria, on the Red Main, 41 miles north-east of Nuernberg. The principal
+edifices, besides churches, are the old and the new palace, the
+opera-house, the gymnasium, and the national theatre, constructed after the
+design of the composer Wagner, and opened in 1876 with a grand performance
+of his tetralogy of the _Nibelungen Ring_. Industries: cotton-spinning,
+sugar-refining, musical instruments, sewing-machines, leather, brewing, &c.
+There is a monument to Jean Paul F. Richter, who died here. Pop. 34,547.
+
+BAIUS, or DE BAY, Michael, Catholic theologian, was born 1513, in Hainaut,
+educated at Louvain, made professor of theology there in 1552, and chosen a
+member of the Council of Trent in 1563. Leaving the scholastic method, he
+founded systematic theology directly upon the Bible and the Christian
+fathers, of whom he particularly followed St. Augustine. His doctrines of
+original sin and of salvation by grace led to his persecution as a heretic
+by the old Scotists, and the Jesuits, who succeeded in obtaining a Papal
+bull in 1567, condemning the doctrines imputed to him. Baius, however,
+remained in the possession of his dignities, was appointed in 1575
+Chancellor of Louvain University; and the King of Spain even conferred upon
+him the office of Inquisitor-General in the Netherlands. He died in 1589.
+His Augustinian views descended to the Jansenists, while his doctrine of
+pure undivided love to God formed the staple of Quietism. His system is
+called _Baianism_.
+
+BAIZE, a sort of coarse woollen fabric with a rough nap, now generally used
+for linings, and mostly green or red in colour.
+
+BAJA (bae'y[.a]), a market town of Hungary, district of Bacs, on the
+Danube, with a trade in grain and wine, and a large annual hog fair. Pop.
+20,361.
+
+BAJADERES. See _Bayaderes_.
+
+BAJAZET (b[.a]-y[.a]-zet'), or BAYEZID, I, Turkish emperor, who, in 1389,
+having strangled his brother Jacob, succeeded his father Murad or Amurath,
+who fell in the battle of Kossovo while fighting against the Serbians. From
+the rapidity of his conquests he received the name of _Ilderim_, the
+Lightning. In three years he overcame Bulgaria, part of Serbia, Macedonia,
+Thessaly, and the States of Asia Minor, and besieged Constantinople for ten
+years, defeating Sigismund and the allied Hungarians, Poles, and French in
+1395. The attack of Timur (Tamerlane) on Natolia, in 1400, saved the Greek
+Empire, Bajazet being defeated and taken prisoner by him near Ancyra,
+Galatia, 1402. The story of his being carried about in a cage by Timur is
+improbable; but Bajazet died, in 1409, in Timur's camp, in Caramania. His
+successor was Soliman I.
+
+BAJAZET II succeeded his father, Mohammed II, Sultan of the Turks, in 1481.
+He increased the Turkish Empire by conquests on the N.W. and in the E.,
+took Lepanto, Modon, and Durazzo in a war against the Venetians, and
+ravaged the coasts of the Christian States on the Mediterranean, to revenge
+the expulsion of the Moors from Spain. Having abdicated in favour of his
+younger son Selim, he died on his way to a residence near Adrianople in
+1513. He did much for the improvement of his empire and the promotion of
+the sciences.
+
+BAJIMONT'S ROLL. See _Bagimonts Roll_.
+
+BAJOCCO, or BAIOCCO (b[.a]-yok'o), was a copper coin in the Papal States,
+the hundredth part of a scudo, or rather more than a halfpenny. The name
+was also given in Sicily to the Neapolitan _grano_, the hundredth part of
+the ducato (3s. 4d.).
+
+BAJUS. See _Baius_.
+
+BAJZA (boi'za), Anton, Hungarian lyric poet, historian, and critic, born
+1804, died 1858. As contributor to and editor of various periodicals he
+played an important part in the development of modern Hungarian literature
+and drama. A volume of his poems, of high merit, was published in 1835. He
+also translated a collection of foreign dramas, and edited a series of
+historical works.
+
+BAKALAHA'RI, a Bechuana tribe inhabiting the Kalahari Desert, S. Africa.
+
+BAK'ARGANJ, a maritime district and town in Eastern Bengal; chief rivers:
+Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna. Area, 3649 sq. miles. Pop. 2,292,000. The
+town now lies in ruins. Pop. 7000.
+
+BAKAU (bae'kou), a town of Roumania, on the Bistritza. Pop. 16,187.
+
+BAKCHISARAI (b[.a]k-chi-s[.a]-r[=i]'), or BAGTCHESERAI (Bakh-chi-Sarai)
+(baeg-che-se-r[=i]; Turk., 'Garden Palace'), an ancient town of Russia, in
+the Crimea, picturesquely situated at the bottom of a narrow valley, hemmed
+in by precipices. It contains the palace of the ancient Crimean khans,
+restored by the Russian Government. Pop. 15,000.
+
+BAKER, Sir Richard, an English historian, born in Kent in 1568, educated at
+Oxford, knighted in 1603 by James I, and in 1620 appointed High Sheriff of
+Oxfordshire, where he had estates. Having given security for a debt
+incurred by his wife's family, he was thrown into Fleet Prison, where,
+after remaining some years, he died in 1645. During his imprisonment he
+wrote some devotional books and his _Chronicle of the Kings of England_,
+first published in 1641, and afterwards continued by Edward Phillips, the
+nephew of Milton, and others--a work of great popularity in its day, though
+of no permanent value.
+
+BAKER, Sir Samuel White, a distinguished English traveller, born in 1821.
+He resided some years in Ceylon; in 1861 began his African travels, which
+lasted several years, in the Upper Nile regions, and resulted, among other
+discoveries, in that of Albert Nyanza Lake in 1864, and of the exit of the
+White Nile from it. In Africa he encountered Speke and Grant after their
+discovery of the Victoria Nyanza. On his return home he was received with
+great honour and was knighted. In 1869 he returned to Africa as head of an
+expedition sent by the Khedive of Egypt to annex and open up to trade a
+large part of the newly-explored country, being raised to the dignity of
+pasha. He returned in 1873, having finished his work, and was succeeded by
+the celebrated Gordon. His writings include: _The Rifle and the Hound in
+Ceylon_; _Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon_; _The Albert Nyanza_; _The
+Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia_; _Ismailia: a Narrative of the Expedition to
+Central Africa_; _Cyprus as I saw it in 1879_; also, _Cast up by the Sea_,
+a story published in 1868. He died 30th Dec., 1893.
+
+BAKER, Thomas, antiquary, born 1656, educated at Cambridge. As a non-juror
+he lost his living at Long-Newton in 1690, and was compelled to resign his
+fellowship on the accession of George I, but continued to reside at St.
+John's College till his death in 1740. His _Reflections on Learning_
+(1709-10) went through seven editions. He left in MS. forty-two folio
+volumes of an _Athenae Cantabrigienses_, from which a _History of St.
+John's College_ was edited by Professor Mayor in 1869.
+
+BAKEWELL, an ancient market town, England, county of Derby, between Buxton
+and Matlock, possessing a fine Gothic church, a chalybeate spring, a
+cotton-mill erected by Arkwright, and a large marble-cutting industry. Pop.
+3062.
+
+BAKEWELL, Robert, an English agriculturist, celebrated for his improvements
+in the breeding of sheep, cattle, and horses, was born in Leicestershire in
+1725, and died in 1795. He commenced experiments in breeding sheep, about
+1755, upon his father's farm at Dishley, and for fifty years devoted
+himself to the acquisition and diffusion of information upon the subject.
+He was the originator of the new Leicestershire breed of sheep, which has
+since been so well known, and also of a breed of cattle very famous in
+their day. The demand for his rams increased so considerably, that whereas
+he let them for the season at L16 per head in 1755, by 1789 they were hired
+at 6000 guineas. Various improvements in farm management were also
+introduced by him.
+
+BAKHMUT. See _Bachmut_.
+
+BAKHUISEN. See _Backhuysen_.
+
+BAKING, a term meaning 'to cook by dry heat', and primarily applied to the
+baking of bread. A common application of the term is to a mode of cooking
+food in a close oven, baking in this case being opposed to roasting or
+broiling, in which an open fire is used. The oven should not be too close,
+but ought to be properly ventilated. Baking is also applied to the
+hardening of earthenware or porcelain by fire. See _Bread_.
+
+BAKING POWDER, a mixture of bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid, usually
+with some flour added. The water of the dough causes the liberation of
+carbonic acid, which makes the bread 'rise'.
+
+BAKONY (b[.a]-kon'y[.e]) WALD, a thickly wooded mountain range dividing the
+Hungarian plains, famous for the herds of swine fed on its mast.
+
+BAKSHEESH', an Eastern term for a present or gratuity. A demand for
+baksheesh meets travellers in the East everywhere from Turkey and Egypt to
+Hindustan.
+
+BAKU (bae-koe'), a Russian port on the western shore of the Caspian,
+occupying part of the Peninsula of Apsheron. The naphtha or petroleum
+springs of Baku have long been known; and the Field of Fire, so called from
+emitting inflammable gases, has long been a place of pilgrimage with the
+Guebres or Fire-worshippers. From the development of the petroleum
+industry, Baku has greatly increased, and is now a large and flourishing
+town. About 1500 oil-wells are in operation, producing immense quantities
+of petroleum (6,448,000 tons in 1917), much of which is led direct in pipes
+from the wells to the refineries in Baku, and it is intended to lay a pipe
+for its conveyance all the way to the Black Sea at Batoum, which is already
+connected with Baku by railway. Some of the wells have had such an outflow
+of oil as to be unmanageable, and the Baku petroleum now competes
+successfully with any other in the markets of the world. Baku, formerly the
+station of the Caspian fleet, is strongly fortified, and has a large
+shipping trade. The district of Baku lies within the limits of the new
+Republic of Azerbaijan. Pop. 237,000; pop. of the province, 1,119,600.
+
+BAKU'NIN, Michael, Russian anarchist, the founder of Nihilism, born 1814 of
+a rich and noble family, entered the army, but threw up his commission
+after two years' service, and studied philosophy at Moscow, with his
+friends Hertzen, Turgeniev, Granovski (historian), and Byelinski (critic).
+Having adopted Hegel's system as the basis of a new revolution, he went in
+1841 to Berlin, and thence to Dresden, Geneva, and Paris, as the
+propagandist of anarchism. Wherever he went he caused disturbance, and
+after undergoing imprisonment in various States, was handed over to Russia
+in 1851 by Austria, imprisoned for five years, and finally sent to Siberia.
+Escaping thence through Japan, he joined Hertzen in London on the staff of
+the _Kolokol_. His extreme views, however, ruined the paper and led to a
+quarrel with Marx and the Internationale; and having fallen into disrepute
+with his own party in Russia, he died suddenly and almost alone at Berne in
+1878. He demanded the entire abolition of the State as a State, the
+absolute equalization of individuals, and the extirpation of hereditary
+rights and of religion, his conception of the next stage of social progress
+being purely negative and annihilatory.
+
+BALA, a lake 4 miles long, and an urban district of N. Wales, in
+Merionethshire. Pop. 1408.
+
+BALAAM (b[=a]'lam), a prophet, invited by Balak, King of Moab, to curse the
+Israelites, but compelled by miracle to bless them instead (_Num._
+xxii-xxiv). In another account he is represented as aiding in the
+perversion of the Israelites to the worship of Baal, and as being,
+therefore, slain in the Midianitish war (_Num._ xxxi; _Josh._ xiii). He is
+the subject of many rabbinical fables, the Targumists and Talmudists
+regarding him, as most of the fathers did, in the light of an impious and
+godless man.
+
+BALA BEDS, or BALA SERIES, a deposit of Upper Ordovician Age, named from
+the Bala district, North Wales, consisting of slates, grits, sandstones,
+and limestones, there being two limestones separated by sandy and slaty
+rocks about 1400 feet thick. They contain trilobites of many species, and
+other marine fossils. The lower Bala limestone (25 feet thick) may be
+traced over a large area in North Wales. See _Caradoc Series_, _Ordovician
+System_.
+
+BALACHONG', an Oriental condiment, composed of small fishes, or shrimps,
+pounded up with salt and spices and then dried.
+
+BALAE'NA, the genus which includes the Greenland or right whale, type of
+the family Balaenidae, or whale-bone whales.
+
+BALAE'NICEPS ('whale-head'), a genus of wading birds belonging to the
+Sudan, intermediate between the herons and storks, and characterized by an
+enormous bill, broad and swollen, giving the only known species (_B. rex_),
+also called shoe-bird, a peculiar appearance. It feeds on fishes,
+water-snakes, carrion, &c., and makes its nest in reeds or grass adjoining
+water. The bill is yellow, blotched with dark-brown, the general colour of
+the plumage dusky-grey, the head, neck, and breast slaty, the legs
+blackish.
+
+BALAENOP'TERA. See _Rorqual_.
+
+BALAGARH (bae-lae-g_a_r'), town of Hindustan, in the Punjab. Pop. 11,233.
+
+BALAGHAT', a district of India, in the Central Provinces, Nagpur division;
+area, 3146 sq. miles; capital, Burha, a small place. The surface is
+diversified, comprising extensive uplands as well as lowlands; forests are
+extensive, and a comparatively small part of the area is under cultivation,
+rice being the chief crop. Iron exists in considerable quantities, and it
+is worked in a small way; gold is also worked. Pop. 330,000, almost
+entirely rural.
+
+BALAGUER (b[.a]-l[.a]-g[=a]r'), Victor, Spanish author and politician,
+important writer in the Catalonian dialect, born 1824, died 1901. Born at
+Barcelona, he studied law there, and, becoming learned in Catalonian
+history, was appointed archivist and soon after professor of history. In
+1869 he entered the Cortes as a Liberal; in 1872 was Minister of Public
+Works; from 1886 to 1888 Colonial Minister. He wrote much both in prose and
+verse, his prose comprising historical works, novels, &c., his verse
+lyrics, ballads, tragedies, odes, &c. His tragedies were partly on subjects
+taken from Catalonian history, partly on subjects connected with Greek and
+Roman history or literature. Among his lyrical and other poems are: _El
+Trovador de Montserrat_; _Primavera de Ultimo Trovador Catalan_; _Poesias
+Completas_ (1874); _Obras Poeticas_ (1880). _Don Juan de Serrallonga_ is
+the most popular of his novels. Among other works of his are: _Historia
+Politica y Literaria de los Trovadores_; _Historia de Cataluna_; _Los
+Pirineos_; _Cristobal Colon_; _Estudios Historicos y Politicos_; _Historias
+y Tradiciones_; _Instituciones y Reyes de Aragon_. As a poet he was
+imitative, reminding us of Quintana, Zorilla, and Byron.
+
+BALAKLAVA (b[.a]-l[.a]-klae'va), a small seaport in the Crimea, 8 miles
+S.S.E. Sevastopol. In the Crimean war it was captured by the British, who
+used the harbour as a base of supplies. The famous battle of Balaklava was
+fought some distance to the north of the seaport, on 25th Oct., 1854. The
+Russians brought a force of 25,000 men against the allies, a much larger
+force than they had to encounter, and the chief incidents in the battle
+were as follows: The Russians captured a series of positions occupied by
+the Turks in front of the British position; a Russian cavalry charge was
+repulsed by the 93rd Highlanders; a great mass of Russian cavalry was
+defeated by a charge of British heavy cavalry; the British light cavalry
+brigade charged and took a Russian battery, and put to flight the cavalry
+behind it, but were compelled by overpowering force to retreat with heavy
+loss, their retreat being covered by a brilliant charge of the French. The
+celebrated charge of the light brigade, or of the 'six hundred', though a
+brilliant feat of arms, was made under an erroneous interpretation of
+orders; that of the heavy brigade was equally glorious, and contributed far
+more to the final repulse of the enemy.
+
+BALAKO'VO, a river-port of South-Eastern Russia, on the left bank of the
+Volga, government of Samara, with a very important trade in grain. Pop.
+16,000.
+
+BALALAI'KA, a musical instrument of very ancient Slavonic origin, common
+among the Russians and Tartars. It is a narrow, shallow guitar with only
+two strings.
+
+BAL'ANCE, an instrument for determining the relative weights of bodies.
+Balances are of various forms; in that most commonly used a horizontal beam
+rests so as to turn easily upon a fulcrum in the middle. From the
+extremities of the beam, called the centres of suspension, hang the scales;
+and a slender metal pointer between them, and in front of the fulcrum,
+indicates when the beam is level. The characteristics of a good balance
+are: (1) that the beam should rest in a horizontal position when the scales
+are either empty or loaded with equal weights; (2) that a very small
+addition of weight put into either scale should cause the beam to deviate
+from the level, which property is denominated the sensibility of the
+balance; (3) that when the beam is deflected from the horizontal position
+by inequality of the weights on the scales, it should have a tendency
+speedily to restore itself and come to rest in the level, which property is
+called the stability of the balance. To secure these qualities the arms of
+the beam should be exactly similar, equal in weight and length, and as long
+as possible; the centres of gravity and suspension should be in one
+straight line, and the fulcrum immediately above the centre of gravity; and
+the fulcrum and the centres of suspension should cause as little friction
+as possible. The fulcrum ought to be a knife-edge; and if the balance
+requires to be very delicate, the centres of suspension ought to be
+knife-edges also. If the balance has no tendency to one position more than
+another, when the scales are either loaded, empty, or off altogether, it is
+proof that the centre of gravity and the fulcrum coincide, and the remedy
+is to lower the centre of gravity. If the beam is disturbed by a small
+addition of weight to either scale, and exhibits no tendency to resume the
+horizontal position, we may infer that the centre of gravity is above the
+fulcrum. If it requires a considerable excess of weight to deflect the beam
+from the level, we may infer either that there is too much friction at the
+fulcrum, or that the centre of gravity is too low. If two weights are found
+to be in equipoise, one being in each scale, and if, when that which is in
+one scale is put into the other, there is no longer equilibrium, then we
+may infer that the arms of the beam are of unequal lengths. For purposes of
+accuracy, balances have occasionally means of raising or depressing the
+centre of gravity, of regulating the length of the arms, &c., and the whole
+apparatus is usually enclosed in a glass case, to prevent the heat from
+expanding the arms unequally, or currents of air from disturbing the
+equilibrium. A refinement in weighing is obtained by the use of the
+milligram rider, a short bent wire which can be moved along a scale
+engraved on the beam.
+
+Of the other forms of balance, the Roman balance, or steel-yard, consists
+of a lever moving freely upon a suspended fulcrum, the shorter arm of the
+lever having a scale or pan attached to it, and the longer arm, along which
+slides a weight, being graduated to indicate quantities. It is commonly
+used for weighing loaded carts, for luggage at railway stations, &c. A
+variety of this, the Danish balance, has the weight fixed at the end of the
+lever, the fulcrum being movable along the graduated index. The
+spring-balance registers the weight of an article by the extent to which it
+draws out or compresses a spiral spring. It is of service where a high
+degree of exactness is not required, as in its domestic use, and it also
+finds application in the dynamometer for measuring horse-power of
+machinery. An extremely ingenious balance, used in the Mint and the Bank of
+England, for weighing 'blanks' and sovereigns, distributes them
+automatically into three compartments according as they are light, heavy,
+or the exact weight. The Roberval balance is a form in common use for
+weighing letters and parcels.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. A. Brauer, _The
+Construction of the Balance_; E. Nicholson, _Men and Measures: a history of
+weights and measures, ancient and modern_.
+
+BALANCE OF POWER, a political principle which first came to be recognized
+in modern Europe in the sixteenth century, though it appears to have been
+also acted on by the Greeks in ancient times, in preserving the relations
+between their different States. The object in maintaining the balance of
+power is to secure the general independence of nations as a whole, by
+preventing the aggressive attempts of individual States to extend their
+territory and sway at the expense of weaker countries. The first European
+monarch whose ambitious designs induced a combination of other States to
+counteract them was the Emperor Charles V, similar coalitions being formed
+in the end of the seventeenth century, when the ambition of Louis XIV
+excited the fears of Europe, and a century later against the exorbitant
+power and aggressive schemes of the first Napoleon. Since that time we have
+the instance of the Crimean War, entered into to check the ambition of
+Russia. Of late years there has been a marked tendency among British
+politicians to decry and impugn the principle of the balance of power, as
+calculated only to propagate a system of mutual hostility, and retard the
+cause of progress, by the expenditure both of money and life thus
+occasioned. An equilibrium between the various Powers is, of course,
+essential to the very existence of international law. The war of 1914-8 has
+proved to the world that in the absence of any central authority neither
+treaties nor signatures could prevent a State sufficiently powerful from
+ignoring the law and acting solely according to its interests and ambitious
+designs. See _Society of Nations_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Hume, _Essay on the
+Balance of Power_; Von Gentz, _Fragments on the Balance of Power_;
+Professor L. Oppenheim, _International Law_, vol. i; Vattel, _Le droit des
+gens_.
+
+BALANCE OF TRADE, the difference between the stated money values of the
+exports and imports of a country. The balance is erroneously said to be 'in
+favour' of a country when the value of the exports is in excess of that of
+the imports, and 'against it' when the imports are in excess of the
+exports. The phrases date from the days of the mercantile system, the
+characteristic doctrine of which alleged the desirability of regulating
+commerce with a view to amassing treasure by exporting produce largely,
+importing little merchandise in return, and receiving the balance in
+bullion. In certain conceivable political and industrial conditions this
+may have had beneficial results; but its importance was greatly
+overestimated, and the state of this balance came to be regarded as an
+invariable criterion of the industrial condition of a country. The false
+analogy of the successful merchant who gains more than he spends became the
+basis of popular reasoning, the products of a country being mistakenly
+identified with its exports, its consumption with its importation. It is
+now generally recognized that if bullion be exported from a country it is
+because it is at the time the cheapest commodity available for export; and
+further, that there are certain natural limits to its undue exportation, in
+that the increased scarcity of money is attended with a fall in the
+money-value of other commodities, which thus in turn become preferable
+objects of exportation, while bullion flows back. The excess of the value
+of imports over that of exports, which is regarded by some as an adverse
+and alarming symptom in British trade, is in large part readily accounted
+for on the ground of shipping receipts, insurance returns, interest on
+capital employed in foreign trade, merchants' profits, and the income
+derived from foreign investments.
+
+[Illustration: Group of _Bal[)a]nus tintinnab[)u]lum_]
+
+BAL'ANUS ('acorn-shells'), a genus of sessile cirripeds, family Balanidae,
+of which colonies are to be found on rocks at low water, on timbers,
+crustaceans, shells of mollusca, &c. They differ from the barnacles in
+having a symmetrical shell, and being destitute of a flexible stalk. The
+shell consists of six plates, with an operculum of four valves. They pass
+through a larval state, in which they are not fixed, moving by means of
+swimming feet which disappear in the final state. All the Balanidae are
+hermaphrodite. A South American species (_Bal[)a]nus psitt[)a]cus_) is
+eaten on the coast of Chile, the _Bal[)a]nus tintinnab[)u]lum_ by the
+Chinese. The old Roman epicures esteemed the larger species.
+
+BALAPUR', town of India, in Akola district, Berar, with strong fort and
+fine pavilion of black stone. Pop. 10,500.
+
+BAL'AS, a name used to distinguish the rose-coloured species of ruby from
+the ruby proper.
+
+BALASOR', a seaport town, Hindustan, presidency of Bengal, province of
+Orissa, head-quarters of a district and subdivision bearing the same name.
+It carries on a considerable traffic with Calcutta. Pop. 21,362.
+
+BALA'TA, a gum yielded by _Mim[=u]sops Balata_, a tree growing abundantly
+in British, French, and Dutch Guiana, Honduras and Brazil, obtained in a
+milky state by 'tapping' the tree, and hardening to a substance like
+leather. Used for similar purposes to india-rubber, and in the United
+States chewed as a masticatory.
+
+BAL'ATON, or PLATTENSEE, a lake of Hungary, 55 miles S.W. of Pesth; length,
+50 miles; breadth, 3 to 10 miles; area, about 390 sq. miles. Of its
+thirty-two feeders the Szala is the largest, and the lake communicates with
+the Danube by the Rivers Sio and Sarviz. It abounds with a species of
+perch.
+
+BALBEC. See _Baalbek_.
+
+BALBI, Adrien, geographer and statistician, born at Venice in 1782. In 1808
+his first work on geography, _Prospetto Politico-Geografico_, procured his
+appointment as professor of geography in the College of San Michele at
+Murano, and he became in 1811 professor of natural philosophy in the Lyceum
+at Fermo. In 1820 he proceeded to Portugal, and collected there materials
+for his _Essai Statistique sur le Royaume de Portugal et d'Algarve_ and
+_Varietes Politiques et Statistiques de la Monarchie Portugaise_, both
+published in 1822 at Paris, where he resided till 1832. He then settled in
+Padua, where he died in 1848. Balbi's admirable _Abrege de Geographie_ was
+written at Paris, and translated into the principal European languages.
+
+BALBI, Gasp[=a]ro, a Venetian dealer in precious stones, born about the
+middle of the sixteenth century, who travelled first to Aleppo and thence
+down the Euphrates and Tigris to the Malabar coast, sailing finally for
+Pegu, where he remained for two years. His _Viaggio all' Indie Orientale_,
+published on his return to Venice in 1590, contains the earliest account of
+India beyond the Ganges.
+
+BALBO, Ces[=a]re, Italian author and statesman, born in 1789 at Turin.
+After holding one or two posts under the patronage of Napoleon, he devoted
+himself to history, publishing a history of Italy prior to the period of
+Charlemagne, a compendium of Italian history, &c. His _Speranze d'Italia_
+(1843), a statement of the political condition of Italy, and of the
+practicable ideals to be kept in view, gave him a wide reputation. He died
+in 1853.
+
+BALBO'A, Vasco Nunez de, one of the early Spanish adventurers in the New
+World, born 1475. Having dissipated his fortune, he went to America, and
+was at Darien with the expedition of Francisco de Enciso in 1510. An
+insurrection placed him at the head of the colony, but rumours of a western
+ocean and of the wealth of Peru led him to cross the isthmus. On 25th
+Sept., 1513, he saw for the first time the Pacific, and after annexing it
+to Spain, and acquiring information about Peru, returned to Darien. Here he
+found himself supplanted by a new governor, Pedrarias Davila, with much
+consequent grievance on the one side, and much jealousy on the other.
+Balboa submitted, however, and in the following year was appointed Viceroy
+of the South Sea. Davila was apparently reconciled to him, and gave him his
+daughter in marriage, but shortly after, in 1517, had him beheaded on a
+charge of intent to rebel. Pizarro, who afterwards completed the discovery
+of Peru, served under Balboa.
+
+BALBRIGGAN, a seaport and favourite watering-place, Ireland, county of
+Dublin; celebrated for its hosiery. Pop. 2273.
+
+BAL'CONY, in architecture, is a gallery projecting from the outer wall of a
+building, supported by columns or brackets, and surrounded by a balustrade.
+Balconies were not used in Greek and Roman buildings, and in the East the
+roof of the house has for centuries served similar purposes on a larger
+scale. Balconies properly so styled came into fashion in Italy in the
+Middle Ages, and were introduced into Britain in the sixteenth century.
+
+[Illustration: Baldachin: Church of St. Ambrogio, Milan]
+
+BAL'DACHIN (-kin; It. _baldachino_), a canopy or tent-like covering of any
+material, either suspended from the roof, fastened to the wall, or
+supported on pillars over altars, thrones, pulpits, beds, portals, &c.
+Portable baldachins of rich materials were formerly used to shield the
+heads of dignitaries in processions, and are still so used in the
+processions of the Roman Catholic Church, and in the East. The enormous
+bronze baldachin designed by Bernini for Pope Urban VIII, and placed over
+the tomb of the apostles in St. Peter's at Rome, is one of the most famous,
+though surpassed in beauty by many in other European cathedrals and
+churches.
+
+BALDER, or BALDUR, a Scandinavian divinity, represented as the son of Odin
+and Frigga, beautiful, wise, amiable, and beloved by all the gods. His
+mother took an oath from every creature, and even from every inanimate
+object, that they would not harm Balder, but omitted the mistletoe. Balder
+was therefore deemed invulnerable, and the other gods in sport flung stones
+and shot arrows at him without harming him. But the evil god Loki fashioned
+an arrow from the mistletoe and got Balder's blind brother H[=o]der to
+shoot it, himself guiding his aim. Balder fell dead, pierced to the heart,
+to the deep grief of all the gods. He is believed to be a personification
+of the brightness and beneficence of the sun.
+
+BALDI, Bernardino, mathematician, theologian, geographer, historian, poet,
+&c., born at Urbino 1533; studied at Padua; became abbot of Guastalla. He
+knew upwards of twelve languages, and is said to have written over a
+hundred works, most of which remain in MS. His works include a poem on
+_Navigation_, various translations and commentaries, _Lives of Celebrated
+Mathematicians_, &c. He died in 1617.
+
+BALDNESS, loss of the hair, complete or partial, usually the latter, and
+due to various causes. Most commonly it results as one of the changes
+belonging to old age, due to wasting of the skin, hair-sacs, &c. It may
+occur as a result of some acute disease, or at an unusually early age,
+without any such cause. In both the latter cases it is due to defective
+nourishment of the hair, owing to lessened circulation of the blood in the
+scalp. The best treatment for preventing loss of hair seems to consist in
+such measures as bathing the head with cold water and drying it by vigorous
+rubbing with a rough towel and brushing it well with a hard brush. Various
+stimulating lotions are also recommended, especially those containing
+cantharides. But probably in most cases senile baldness is unpreventable.
+When extreme scurfiness of the scalp accompanies loss of the hair, an
+ointment that will clear away the scurf will prove beneficial.
+
+BALDOVINET'TI, Alessio, Florentine artist, born 1427. Few of his works
+remain except a _Nativity_ in the church of the Annunziato, and two
+altarpieces in the gallery of the Uffizi and the Academy of Arts, Florence.
+Died 1499. His portrait by himself is in the gallery at Bergamo.
+
+BALDRIC (b[a:]ld'rik), a broad belt formerly worn over the right or left
+shoulder diagonally across the body, often highly decorated and enriched
+with gems, and used not only to sustain the sword, dagger, or horn, but
+also for purposes of ornament, and as a military or heraldic symbol.
+
+BAL'DUNG, Hans, or HANS GRUEN (gruen), German painter and wood engraver,
+born in Swabia 1470, died in Strasburg 1552. His work, though inferior to
+Duerer's, possessed many of the same characteristics, and on this account
+he has been sometimes considered a pupil of the Nuremberg master. His
+principal paintings are the series of panels (of the date 1516) over the
+altar in Freiburg Cathedral; others of his works are to be found at Berlin,
+Colmar, and Basel. His numerous and often fantastic engravings have the
+monogram H and B, with a small G in the centre of the H.
+
+BALDWIN I, Emperor of Constantinople, founder of the short-lived dynasty of
+Latin sovereigns of the Eastern Empire, was born in 1172, and was
+hereditary Count of Flanders and Hainault. His courage and conduct in the
+fourth crusade led to his unanimous election as Emperor of the East after
+the capture of Constantinople by the French and Venetians in 1204. In the
+absence of Baldwin's brother with a large part of the army, the Greeks rose
+in revolt under the instigation of Joannices, King of Bulgaria. Baldwin
+marched on Adrianople, but was taken prisoner and died in captivity, 1205.
+Baldwin was succeeded by his brother Henry.--BALDWIN II, fifth and last
+Latin Emperor of Constantinople, was born 1217. During his minority John de
+Brienne was regent, but on his assuming the power himself the Empire fell
+to pieces. In 1261 Constantinople was taken by the forces of Michael
+Palaeologus, and Baldwin retired to Italy, dying in 1270.
+
+BALDWIN I, King of Jerusalem, reigned 1100-18, having assumed the title
+which his elder brother, Godfrey de Bouillon, had refused. He subdued
+Caesarea, Ashdod, Tripolis, and Acre.--BALDWIN II, his cousin and
+successor, reigned from 1118-31. During his reign the reduction of Tyre and
+institution of the order of Templars took place.--BALDWIN III, King of
+Jerusalem from 1143 to 1162, was son and successor of Foulques of Anjou,
+and the embodiment of the best aspects of chivalry. After defeating
+Noureddin in 1152, and again in 1157, he was enabled to devote himself to
+the hopeless task of improving the kingdom and establishing the Christian
+chivalry in the East. His death in 1162 was almost immediately followed by
+the total collapse of the kingdom.
+
+BALDWIN, James Mark, American philosopher, born in Columbia, 12th Jan.,
+1861. He was educated at Princeton College, Leipzig and Berlin
+Universities; was instructor of German and French at Princeton College,
+1885-7; professor of philosophy in Lake Forest University, 1887-9;
+professor of psychology at Princeton University, 1893-1903. From 1903-9 he
+was professor of philosophy and psychology at the Johns Hopkins University,
+Baltimore. Professor Baldwin is best known by his experimental psychology
+and his theories of genetic logic. He distinguishes between genetic logic,
+as theory of thought, and genetic philosophy, as theory of reality. Genetic
+sciences, according to Baldwin, are psychology, sociology, ethics, &c., and
+his point of view he terms 'Aesthonomical Idealism'. Among his numerous
+works are: _Handbook of Psychology_ (2 vols., 1891-2); _Mental Development
+in the Child and the Race_ (3rd edition, 1906); _Social and Ethical
+Interpretations in Mental Development_ (1904); _Thought and Things, or
+Genetic Logic_ (1906-8). He also edited the _Dictionary of Philosophy and
+Psychology_ (1901-9) and _The Psychological Review_ (1894-1909).
+
+BALE (bael). See _Basel_.
+
+BALE, John, an English ecclesiastic, born in Suffolk in 1495, died in 1563.
+Although educated a Roman Catholic, he became a Protestant, and the
+intolerance of the Catholic party drove him to the Netherlands. On the
+accession of Edward VI he returned to England, was presented to the living
+of Bishop's Stoke, Southampton, and soon after nominated Bishop of Ossory,
+in Ireland. Here, on his preaching the reformed religion, the popular fury
+against him reached such a pitch that in one tumult five of his domestics
+were murdered in his presence. On the accession of Mary he lay some time
+concealed in Dublin, and after many hardships found refuge in Switzerland.
+At her death he was appointed by Elizabeth a prebend of Canterbury, where
+he died. His fame as an author rests upon his _Scriptorum Illustrium
+Majoris Britanniae Catalogus_, or _An Account of the Lives of Eminent
+Writers of Britain_, commencing with Japhet the son of Noah, and ending
+with the year 1557. It is compiled from various writers, chiefly from the
+antiquary Leland. He was also the author of nineteen miracle plays, printed
+in 1558. One of his plays, _Kynge Johan_, is a link between the old
+morality plays and the historical drama.
+
+BALEAR'IC CRANE (_Balear[)i]ca pavon[=i]na_), a handsome species of crested
+crane inhabiting North-West Africa.
+
+BALEAR'IC ISLANDS, an archipelago of four large and eleven small islands,
+south-east of Spain, including Majorca, Minorca, Iviza, and Formentera. The
+popular derivation of the ancient name Baleares (Gr. _ballein_, to throw)
+has reference to the repute of the inhabitants for their skill in slinging,
+in which they distinguished themselves both in the army of Hannibal and
+under the Romans, by whom the islands were annexed in 123 B.C. After being
+taken by the Vandals, under Genseric, and in the eighth century by the
+Moors, they were taken by James I, King of Aragon, 1220-34, and constituted
+a kingdom, which in 1343 was united to Spain. The islands now form a
+Spanish province, with an area of 1935 sq. miles, and 330,167 inhabitants.
+See separate articles.
+
+BALEEN'. See _Whale-bone_.
+
+BALE-FIRE, any great fire kindled in the open air, especially the fire of a
+funeral pile, or a beacon-fire.
+
+BALEN (bae'len), Hendrik van, painter, born at Antwerp 1560, died 1632. His
+works, chiefly classical, religious, and allegorical--some of them executed
+in partnership with Breughel--are to be found in most of the European
+galleries. He was the first master of Van Dyck and Snyders. Three of his
+sons also followed the art.
+
+BALFE (balf), Michael William, composer, was born in Dublin, 15th May,
+1808. In his seventh year he performed in public on the violin, and at
+sixteen took the part of the Wicked Huntsman in _Der Freischuetz_ at Drury
+Lane. In 1825 he went to Italy, wrote the music for a ballet, _La Perouse_,
+for the Scala at Milan, and in the following year sang at the
+Theatre-Italien, Paris, with moderate success. He returned to Italy, and at
+Palermo was given his first opera, _I Rivali_ (1829). For five years he
+continued singing and composing operas for the Italian stage. In 1835 he
+came to England, and composed a number of operas, amongst others _The
+Bohemian Girl_ (1843), _The Rose of Castile_ (1857), _Satanella_ (1858),
+and _The Talisman_ (first performed in 1874). He died 20th Oct., 1870. His
+operas are melodious, and many of the airs are excellent.
+
+BALFOUR (bal-foer'), Sir Andrew, Bart., a Scottish botanist and physician,
+born in Fifeshire in 1630. After completing his studies at St. Andrews and
+London, and travelling on the Continent, he settled at Edinburgh, where he
+planned, with Sir Robert Sibbald, the Royal College of Physicians, and was
+elected its first president. He also laid the foundation of a hospital in
+Edinburgh, which expanded into the Royal Infirmary. He died in 1694. His
+familiar letters were published in 1700.
+
+BAL'FOUR, Right Hon. Arthur James, First Earl of (created 1922), son of
+J. M. Balfour of Whittingehame, Haddingtonshire, and of Lady Blanche Cecil,
+sister of the third Marquess of Salisbury, was born 25th July, 1848, and
+educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge. He represented Hertford
+from 1874-5, East Manchester from 1885 to 1906, and has been representative
+for the City of London since 1906. For a time he was private secretary to
+his uncle, Lord Salisbury, under whom he was President of the Local
+Government Board, and afterwards Secretary for Scotland (1886-7), with a
+seat in the cabinet. He showed much firmness and ability as Chief Secretary
+for Ireland during Lord Salisbury's administration from 1887-91. He
+succeeded Rt. Hon. W. H. Smith as leader of the House of Commons and First
+Lord of the Treasury in 1891-2, and held the position again from 1895 till
+1900, and from that year till 1902. On the retirement of Lord Salisbury in
+1902 he became Prime Minister, a position which he retained till Dec.,
+1905. Under him as Premier was passed the new English Education Act (which
+owed much to his personal influence and exertions), that for London, and
+the new Licensing Act, and he advocated a change of our fiscal policy, at
+least as far as having recourse to retaliation, denying that he in any way
+favoured protection. He became First Lord of the Admiralty in the Coalition
+Government of 1915, and Foreign Secretary in 1916. He was one of the
+British delegates to the Peace Conference in 1919. He is given to studies
+bearing on philosophy and religion, and has published a _Defence of
+Philosophic Doubt_ (1879), _Essays and Addresses_ (1893), _The Foundations
+of Belief_ (1895), _Economic Notes on Insular Free-Trade_ (1903),
+_Criticism and Beauty_ (1909), _Theism and Humanism_ (1915), &c. He was
+President of the British Association in 1904, and Gifford Lecturer, Glasgow
+University, 1913-4. In 1919 he was elected to succeed Lord Rayleigh, O.M.,
+as Chancellor of Cambridge University.
+
+BALFOUR, Francis Maitland, writer on embryology, brother of the foregoing,
+born in 1851, early distinguished himself in his special study, and in
+1874, in conjunction with Dr. M. Foster, published _The Elements of
+Embryology_; but the promise of his chief work, _Comparative Embryology_
+(1880-1) was unfulfilled, as in 1882 he was killed by a fall on Mont Blanc.
+
+BALFOUR, Sir James, Scottish lawyer and politician, born about 1522, took
+part in the conspiracy against Cardinal Beaton, and was condemned with Knox
+to the galleys; but after his release found it to his interest to change
+his opinions, and was appointed, through the favour of Queen Mary, Lord of
+Session and member of the Privy Council. In 1567 he was appointed Governor
+of Edinburgh Castle, but had no scruple in surrendering it to Murray, who
+made him President of the Court of Session. He was charged with a share in
+the murder of Darnley, and helped to bring Regent Morton to his death. He
+died in 1583. _The Practicks of Scots Law_, attributed to him, was long a
+textbook.
+
+BALFOUR, John Hutton, a distinguished botanist, born 1808, died 1884. He
+graduated at Edinburgh University in arts and in medicine; from 1841 to
+1845 was professor of botany in Glasgow University; and in the latter year
+removed to Edinburgh to occupy a similar post, resigning his chair in 1879.
+He wrote valuable botanical textbooks, including _Elements_, _Outlines_,
+_Manual_, and _Class-book_, besides various other works.
+
+BALFROOSH', or BARFURUSH', a town, Persia, province of Mazanderan, about
+twelve miles from the Caspian, a great emporium of the trade between Persia
+and Russia. Pop. estimated at 50,000.
+
+BA'LI, an island of the Indian Archipelago east of Java, belonging to
+Holland; greatest length, 85 miles, greatest breadth, 55 miles; area, about
+2160 sq. miles. It consists chiefly of a series of volcanic mountains, of
+which the loftiest, Agoong (11,326 feet), became active in 1843 after a
+long period of quiescence. Principal products: rice, cocoa, coffee, indigo,
+cotton, &c. The people are akin to those of Java and are mostly Brahmans in
+religion. It is divided into eight provinces under native rajahs, and since
+1882 has formed one colony with Lombok, the united pop. being 1,363,000, of
+whom about 900,000 belong to Bali.
+
+BAL'IOL, or BALLIOL, John de, of Barnard Castle, Northumberland, father of
+King John Baliol, a great English (or Norman) baron in the reign of Henry
+III, to whose cause he strongly attached himself in his struggles with the
+barons. In 1263 he laid the foundation of Balliol College, Oxford, which
+was completed by his widow Devorguila or Devorgilla. She was daughter and
+co-heiress of Allan of Galloway, a great baron of Scotland, by Margaret,
+eldest daughter of David, Earl of Huntingdon, brother of William the Lion.
+It was on the strength of this genealogy that his son John Baliol became
+temporary King of Scotland. He died 1269.
+
+BAL'IOL, or BALLIOL, John, King of Scotland, born about 1249, died 1315. On
+the death of Margaret, the Maid of Norway and grandchild of Alexander III,
+Baliol claimed the vacant throne by virtue of his descent from David, Earl
+of Huntingdon, brother to William the Lion, King of Scotland (see above
+article). Robert Bruce (grandfather of the king) opposed Baliol; but Edward
+I's decision was in favour of Baliol, who did homage to him for the
+kingdom, 20th Nov., 1292. Irritated by Edward's harsh exercise of
+authority, Baliol concluded a treaty with France, then at war with England;
+but after the defeat at Dunbar he surrendered his crown into the hands of
+the English monarch. He was sent with his son to the Tower, but, by the
+intercession of the Pope in 1297, obtained liberty to retire to his Norman
+estates, where he died.--His son, Edward, in 1332 landed in Fife with an
+armed force, and, having defeated a large army under the Regent Mar (who
+was killed), got himself crowned king, but was driven out in three months.
+
+BALIS'TIDAE. See _Trigger-fishes_.
+
+BALIZE (ba-l[=e]z'). See _Belize_.
+
+BAL'KAN (ancient, HAEMUS), a rugged chain of mountains extending from Cape
+Emineh, on the Black Sea, in Eastern Roumelia, westwards to the borders of
+Serbia, though the name is sometimes used to include the whole mountain
+system from the Black Sea to the Adriatic, the region south of Austria and
+Russia, or south of the Danube and Save, forming the Balkan Peninsula. The
+range, which is over 200 miles in length, forms the water-shed between the
+streams flowing northward into the Danube and those flowing southward to
+the Aegean, the chief of the latter being the Maritza. The average height
+is not more than 5000 feet, but the highest point, Tchat-al-dagh, is 8340
+feet. In the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-8 the Russian troops managed to
+cross it without great difficulty, though they had to encounter a stubborn
+resistance at the Shipka Pass, where a Turkish army of 32,000 men
+ultimately surrendered to them.
+
+BALKAN LEAGUE, THE. After the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by
+Austria, in 1908, the Balkan League of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and
+Greece was formed, apparently at the instigation of the Powers of the
+Triple Entente, primarily to constitute a bulwark against Austrian
+aggression towards the southeast. The League, however, directed its
+activities against Turkey, taking advantage of Turkish embarrassments in
+Libya and of the success of an insurrection in Albania to attempt in 1912
+the overthrow of the Turkish regime in Europe. The declaration of
+hostilities by the League in Oct., 1912, began the First Balkan War (q.v.).
+The League was maintained during the two campaigns of the war, but jealousy
+of Bulgarian pre-eminence led to its disruption in June, 1913, when Serbia,
+Montenegro, and Greece went to war with their former ally.
+
+BALKAN STATES. See _Bulgaria_, _Greece_, _Roumania_, _Serbia_, _Turkey_,
+and _Yugo-Slavs_.
+
+BALKAN WAR, THE. The First Balkan War (Oct., 1912-May, 1913) was the effort
+of the Balkan League (q.v.) to dismember Turkey in Europe. Each member of
+the League was allotted a definite strategic object, and each gained a
+considerable measure of success. Bulgaria defeated the Turks at Kirk
+Kilisseh and Lule Burgas, and drove them behind the lines of Tchataldja.
+The Greeks captured Salonica; the Serbians forced their way to the sea at
+Durazzo. The Montenegrins invested Scutari. An armistice in December was
+followed by indecisive negotiations, in which the Great Powers took part.
+Renewed hostilities in the spring of 1913 (during which the Turks lost
+Adrianople) came to an end with the Treaty of London in May. Before its
+promises could be carried out, Serbia, Greece, and Roumania joined to crush
+Bulgaria in the Second Balkan War, alleging that her claims to conquered
+territory in Macedonia were excessive. The Treaty of Bucharest (Aug., 1913)
+finally concluded the war. The net results were: (1) to confine Turkey to
+Constantinople and the vilayet of Adrianople; (2) to extend Bulgarian
+territory to the Aegean and to increase greatly both Serbia and Montenegro;
+(3) to grant Salonica to Greece; (4) to create an autonomous
+Albania.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Ashmead-Bartlett, _With the Turks in Thrace_;
+_The Balkan War Drama_, by a Special Correspondent; D. J. Cassvetti,
+_Hellas and the Balkan Wars_; Sir J. R. L. Rankin, _The Inner History of
+the Balkan War_.
+
+BALKASH', or BALKHASH (b[.a]l-_h_[.a]sh'), a salt lake in Russian Central
+Asia, surrounded by steppes and plains; length about 330 miles, area 8500
+sq. miles, depth nowhere more than 80 feet; formerly of much greater area
+and gradually growing smaller; receives the Ili and other smaller streams.
+
+BALKH (baelk or bael_h_), a city in the north of Afghanistan, in Afghan
+Turkestan, at one time the emporium of the trade between India, China, and
+Western Asia. It was long the centre of Zoroastrianism, and was also an
+important Buddhist centre. In 1220 it was sacked by Genghis Khan, and again
+by Timur in the fourteenth century. The remains of the ancient city extend
+for miles. The town is now merely a village, but a new town has been built
+an hour's journey north of the old, the residence of the Afghan governor,
+with a pop. of about 20,000. The district, which formed a portion of
+ancient Bactria, lies between the Oxus and the Hindu-Kush, with Badakshan
+to the east and the desert to the west. In the vicinity of the Oxus, where
+there are facilities for irrigation, the soil is rich and productive, and
+there are many populous villages.
+
+BAL'KIS, the Arabian name of the Queen of Sheba who visited Solomon. She is
+the central figure of innumerable Eastern legends and tales.
+
+BALL, GAME OF. Ball-playing was practised by the ancients, and old and
+young amused themselves with it. The Phaeacian damsels are represented in
+the _Odyssey_ as playing it to the sound of music; and Horace represents
+Maecenas as amusing himself thus during a journey. In the Greek gymnasia,
+the Roman baths, and in many Roman villas, a _sphaeristerium_ (a place
+appropriated for playing ball) was to be found; the games played being
+similar to those of the present day. In the Middle Ages the sport continued
+to be very popular both as an indoor and outdoor exercise, and was a
+favourite Court pastime until about the end of the eighteenth century. In
+England football and tennis are mentioned at an early date, and a favourite
+game prior to the English revolution was one in which a _mall_ or mallet
+was used, hence the name _pall-mall_ (It. _palla_, Lat. _pila_, a ball) for
+the game and the place where it was played. The most popular modern forms
+are cricket, base-ball, football, golf, lawn-tennis, fives, and polo.
+
+BALL, John, an itinerant preacher of the fourteenth century, excommunicated
+about 1367 for promulgating "errors, schisms, and scandals against the
+Pope, archbishops, bishops, and clergy". He was one of the most active
+promoters of the popular insurgent spirit which found vent under Wat Tyler
+in 1381, and the couplet
+
+ "When Adam delved and Eve span
+  Who was then the gentleman?"
+
+is attributed to him. He was hanged, drawn, and quartered on 15th July,
+1381.
+
+BALL, Sir Robert Stawell, astronomer, born at Dublin 1840, educated at
+Chester and Trinity College, Dublin. In 1865 he was appointed Lord Rosse's
+astronomer at Parsonstown, and subsequently held various official posts,
+including those of Andrews professor of astronomy in the University of
+Dublin and Astronomer Royal for Ireland (1874), Lowndean professor of
+astronomy and geometry in the University of Cambridge and director of the
+observatory (1892). He became F.R.S. in 1873, and was knighted in 1886.
+Besides many memoirs and articles, he published _The Story of the Heavens_,
+_Starland_, _In Starry Realms_, _Time and Tide_, _The Story of the Sun_,
+_Great Astronomers_, _The Earth's Beginning_, _Popular Guide to the
+Heavens_ (numerous plates with accompanying text), _Natural Sources of
+Power_, &c. He died in 1913.
+
+BAL'LAD, a term loosely applied to various poetic forms of the song type,
+but in its most definite sense a poem in which a short narrative is
+subjected to simple lyrical treatment. It was, as indicated by its name,
+which is related to the Low Latin _ballare_ and O. French _baller_, to
+dance, originally a song accompanied by a dance. The ballad, like the
+nursery tales and the _Maerchen_, is probably one of the earliest forms of
+rhythmic poetic expression, constituting a species of epic in miniature,
+out of which by fusion and remoulding larger epics were sometimes shaped.
+Their present form is, of course, relatively recent. As in the folk-tales,
+so in the ballads of different nations, the resemblances are sufficiently
+numerous and close to point to the conclusion that they have often had
+their first origin in the same primitive folk-lore or popular tales. But in
+any case, excepting a few modern literary ballads of a subtler kind, they
+have been the popular expression of the broad human emotions clustering
+about some strongly-outlined incidents of war, love, crime, superstition,
+or death. It is probable that in the Homeric poems fragments of older
+ballads are embedded; but the earliest ballads, properly so called, of
+which we have record were the _ballistea_ or dancing-songs of the Romans,
+of the kind sung in honour of the deeds of Aurelian in the Sarmatic war by
+a chorus of dancing boys. In their less specialized sense of lyric
+narratives, their early popularity among the Teutonic race is evidenced by
+the testimony of Tacitus, of the Gothic historian Jornandes, and the
+Lombard historian Paulus Diaconus; and many appear to have been written
+down by order of Charlemagne and used as a means of education. Of the
+ballads of this period, however, only a general conception can be formed
+from their traces in conglomerates like the _Niebelungenlied_; the more
+artificial productions of the Minnesingers and Meistersingers overlying the
+more popular ballad until the fifteenth century, when it sprang once more
+into vigorous life. A third German ballad period was initiated by Buerger,
+under the inspiration of the revived interest in the subject shown in Great
+Britain and the publication of the Percy _Reliques_; and the movement was
+sustained by Herder, Schiller, Goethe, Heine, Uhland, and others. The
+earlier German work is, however, of inferior value to that of Scandinavia,
+where, though comparatively few manuscripts have survived, and those not
+more than three or four centuries old, a more perfect oral tradition has
+rendered it possible to trace the original stock of the twelfth century.
+
+Of the English and Scottish ballads anterior to the thirteenth century
+there are few traces beyond the indication that they were abundant, if
+indeed anything can be definitely asserted of them earlier than the
+fourteenth century. Among the oldest may be placed _The Little Gest of
+Robin Hood_, _Hugh of Lincoln_, _Sir Patrick Spens_, and the _Battle of
+Otterbourn_. In the fifteenth century specimens multiply rapidly:
+ballad-making became in the reign of Henry VIII a fashionable amusement,
+the king himself setting the example; and though in the reign of Elizabeth
+ballads came into literary disrepute and ballad singers were brought under
+the law, yet there was no apparent check upon the rate of their production.
+Except perhaps in the north of England and south of Scotland, there was,
+however, a marked and increasing tendency to vulgarization as distinct from
+the preservation of popular qualities. The value of the better ballads was
+lost sight of in the flood of dull, rhythmless, and frequently scurrilous
+verse. The modern revival in Britain dates from the publication of Allan
+Ramsay's _Evergreen_ and _Tea-table Miscellany_ (1724-7) and of the
+selection _Reliques_ made by Bishop Percy from his seventeenth-century MSS.
+(1765), a revival not more important for its historic interest than for the
+influence which it has exercised upon all subsequent poetry.
+
+The threefold wave discernible in German, if not in British, ballad
+history, is equally to be traced in Spain, which alone among the Latinized
+countries of Europe has songs of equal age and merit with the British
+historic ballads. The principal difference between them is, that for the
+most part the Spanish romance is in trochaic, the British ballad in iambic
+metre. The ballads of the Cid date from about the end of the twelfth and
+beginning of the thirteenth century; and then followed an interval of more
+elaborate production, a revival of ballad interest in the sixteenth
+century, a new declension, and finally a modern and still-persisting
+enthusiasm.
+
+The French poetry of this kind never reached any high degree of perfection,
+the romance, farce, and lyric flourishing at the expense of the ballad
+proper. Of Italy much the same may be said, though Sicily has supplied a
+great store of ballads; and nearly all the Portuguese poetry of this kind
+is to be traced to a Spanish origin. The Russians have lyrico-epic poems,
+of which some, in old Russian, are excellent, and the Serbians are still in
+the ballad-producing stage of civilization. Modern Greece has also its
+store of ballads, published in several collections. In Greece, Russia, and
+elsewhere the old habit of improvising song as an accompaniment to dance
+still exists.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Professor Child, _English and Scottish Popular
+Ballads_; Professor Gummere, _The Beginnings of Poetry_; Sir W. Scott,
+_Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border_ (edited by T. F. Henderson); T. F.
+Henderson, _The Ballad in Literature_.
+
+BALLADE (bal-[.a]d'), the earlier and modern French spelling of _ballad_,
+but now limited in its use to a distinct verse-form introduced into English
+literature of late years from the French, and chiefly used by writers of
+_vers-de-societe_. It consists of three stanzas of eight lines each, with
+an _envoy_ or closing stanza of four lines. The rhymes, which are not more
+than three, follow each other in the stanzas thus: a, b, a, b; b, c, b, c,
+and in the envoy, b, c, b, c; and the same line serves as a refrain to each
+of the stanzas and to the envoy. There are other varieties, but this may be
+regarded as the strictest, according to the precedent of Villon and Marot.
+
+BAL'LANTYNE, James, the printer of Sir Walter Scott's works, born at Kelso
+1772, died at Edinburgh 1833. Successively a solicitor and a printer in his
+native town, at Scott's suggestion he removed to Edinburgh, where the high
+perfection to which he had brought the art of printing, and his connection
+with Scott, secured him a large trade. The printing firm of James
+Ballantyne & Co. included Scott, James Ballantyne, and his brother John
+(who died in 1821). For many years he conducted the _Edinburgh Weekly
+Journal_. His firm was involved in the bankruptcy of Constable & Co., by
+which Scott's fortunes were wrecked, but Ballantyne was continued by the
+creditors' trustee in the literary management of the printing-house. He
+survived Scott only about four months.
+
+BALLANTYNE, Robert Michael, writer of books for boys, born at Edinburgh
+1825, died in Rome 1894, was a nephew of James Ballantyne, the printer of
+Sir Walter Scott's works. He was for some years in North America in the
+service of the Hudson's Bay Company, and his experiences there supplied him
+with materials for some of his earlier books, especially _Hudson's Bay, or
+Life in the Wilds of North America_ (1848); _The Young Fur Traders_; and
+_Ungava, a Tale of Eskimo Land_. For many years he continued to produce
+popular and instructive boys' books, dealing with scenes and subjects of
+the most varied kind; and he also published a volume entitled _Personal
+Reminiscences of Book-Making_ (1893).
+
+BALLARAT', or BALLAARAT, an Australian town in Victoria, chief centre of
+the gold-mining industry of the colony, and next in importance to
+Melbourne, from which it is distant W.N.W. about 60 miles direct. It
+consists of two distinct municipalities, Ballarat West and Ballarat East,
+separated by the Yarrowee Creek, and has many handsome buildings, and all
+the institutions of a progressive and flourishing city, including hospital,
+mechanics' institute and library, free public library, Anglican and Roman
+Catholic cathedrals, &c. Gold was first discovered in 1851, and the
+extraordinary richness of the field soon attracted hosts of miners. The
+surface diggings having been exhausted, the precious metal is now got from
+greater depths, and there are mines as deep as some coal-pits, the gold
+being obtained by crushing the auriferous quartz. There are also foundries,
+woollen mills, flour-mills, breweries and distilleries, &c. Pop. 42,252.
+
+BAL'LAST, a term applied (1) to heavy matter, as stone, sand, iron, or
+water placed in the bottom of a ship or other vessel to sink it in the
+water to such a depth as to enable it to carry sufficient sail without
+oversetting. (2) The sand placed in bags in the car of a balloon to steady
+it and to enable the aeronaut to lighten the balloon by throwing part of it
+out. (3) The material used to fill up the space between the rails on a
+railway in order to make it firm and solid.
+
+BALL'ATER, a village and favourite summer resort in Aberdeenshire, on the
+Dee, at the terminus of the Deeside Railway, about 43 miles from Aberdeen,
+a centre from which Balmoral, Lochnagar, Braemar, &c., are easily reached.
+The Pananich chalybeate springs are adjacent. Pop. (1921), 1542.
+
+[Illustration: Ball-cock
+
+1. Cistern with ball-cock attached: _a_, rising main; _b_, supply to house.
+2. Outside view of valve (cistern full). 3. Piston with rubber disk. 4.
+Section of valve (cistern full). 5. Section of valve with piston pulled
+down.]
+
+BALL-COCK, a kind of self-acting stopcock opened and shut by means of a
+hollow sphere or ball of metal attached to the end of a lever connected
+with the cock. Such cocks are often employed to regulate the supply of
+water to cisterns. The ball floats on the water in the cistern by its
+buoyancy, and rises and sinks as the water rises and sinks, shutting off
+the water in the one case and letting it on in the other.
+
+BAL'LENTYNE, or BELLENDEN, John, a Scottish poet; was a native of Lothian,
+and appears to have been born towards the close of the fifteenth century.
+He was in the service of James V from the king's earliest years, and at his
+request he translated Boece's _Latin History_, which had been published at
+Paris in 1526, the translation being printed in 1536. As a reward he was
+made Archdeacon of Moray and a canon of Ross. He was a bitter opponent of
+the Reformation, and is said to have died at Rome in 1550.
+
+BALLET (bal'[=a]), a species of dance, usually forming an interlude in
+theatrical performances, but principally confined to opera. Its object is
+to represent, by mimic movements and dances, actions, characters,
+sentiments, passions, and feelings, in which several dancers perform
+together. The ballet is an invention of modern times, though pantomimic
+dances were not unknown to the ancients. The dances frequently introduced
+into operas seldom deserve the name ballet, as they usually do not
+represent any action, but are destined only to give the dancers an
+opportunity of showing their skill. The modern ballet was developed and
+perfected in France, and introduced into England in the eighteenth century.
+From an artistic point of view, the modern ballet is often a very low-class
+entertainment.
+
+[Illustration: Ball-flower]
+
+BALL-FLOWER, an architectural ornament resembling a ball placed in a
+circular flower, the three petals of which form a cup round it; usually
+inserted in a hollow moulding, and generally characteristic of the
+Decorated Gothic style of the fourteenth century.
+
+BALLIA, a town of India, in the United Provinces, on the Ganges, the
+administrative head-quarters of a district of the same name. Pop. 16,680.
+
+BALLINA', a town and river-port, Ireland, County Mayo, on both banks of the
+Moy, about 5 miles above its mouth in Killala Bay, with a considerable
+local and also a little coasting and foreign trade. Pop. 4662.
+
+BALLINASLOE' (-sl[=o]), a town, Ireland, in Galway and Roscommon counties,
+15 miles south-west of Athlone, on both sides of the Suck, noted for its
+cattle fair, from 5th till 9th Oct., the most important in Ireland. The
+town contains remains of a castle of Elizabethan date. Pop. 5170.
+
+[Illustration: Ballista as used by the Romans]
+
+BALLIS'TA, a machine used in military operations by the ancients for
+hurling heavy missiles, thus serving in some degree the purpose of the
+modern cannon. The motive power appears to have been obtained by the
+torsion of ropes, fibres, catgut, or hair. They are said to have sometimes
+had an effective range of a quarter of a mile, and to have thrown stones
+weighing as much as 300 lb. The ballistae differed from the _catapultae_,
+in that the latter were used for throwing darts.
+
+BALLIS'TIC PENDULUM, an apparatus for ascertaining the velocity of military
+projectiles, and consequently the force of fired gunpowder. A piece of
+ordnance is fired against bags of sand supported in a strong case or frame
+suspended so as to swing like a pendulum. The arc through which it vibrates
+is shown by an index, and the amount of vibration forms a measure of the
+force or velocity of the ball.
+
+BALLISTICS, the science of the motion of projectiles. _Interior ballistics_
+deals with the motion of the shot while inside the gun, and with the
+results of the explosion of the charge. _Exterior ballistics_ comprises a
+study of the trajectory or path of the projectile in the air, and the
+causes which affect the shape of this path, such as the density of the air,
+shape and weight of the shot, rifling of the barrel, angle of fire and
+speed of the projectile. If the air-resistance be neglected, it can be
+shown that the trajectory is a _parabola_. This result, given by Galileo,
+is of little use in gunnery except when taken along with a knowledge of
+air-resistance. Robins, in 1742, first measured the muzzle-speed of the
+shot by firing into a ballistic pendulum and noting the swing of the
+pendulum. Wheatstone, in 1840, suggested measuring the speed by causing the
+shot to cut successive wire screens, each of which formed part of an
+electric circuit. The Boulange chronograph is a modern development of this
+idea. Rev. F. Bashforth's experiments, carried out between 1865 and 1880,
+form the basis of our knowledge of air-resistance. He found that the latter
+was proportional to the square of the diameter of the shot, and that,
+although the resistance is expressible in terms of a power of the speed,
+this power changes with the speed. The air-resistance is a maximum at about
+the speed at which sound travels, viz. 1100 feet per second. Artillerists
+employ ballistic tables based on the results obtained by Bashforth and
+others, by means of which, given the kind of projectile, its initial
+velocity, and angle of fire, they can calculate the range and time of
+flight of the projectile. See _Gunnery_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F. Bashforth, _The
+Motion of Projectiles_; J. M. Ingalls, _Interior Ballistics_; P.
+Charbonnier, _Balistique Exterieure_.
+
+BALLOON-FISH (_Tetra[)o]don line[=a]tus_), ord. Plectognathi, a curious
+tropical fish that can inflate itself so as to resemble a balloon.
+
+BALLOONS, the most elementary form of lighter-than-air air-craft,
+unprovided with any means of propulsion or steering. Deriving its power of
+sustentation from the gas contained in the gas-bag, the free balloon is
+spherical in form. It is usually filled with coal-gas, which has a
+lifting-force of 35 lb. per 1000 cu. feet. Varying in size from 5000 to
+20,000 cu. foot capacity, the gas-bag is covered with a 'net', from which
+is hung the 'basket' for the accommodation of the aeronaut, or pilot, and
+passengers. The spherical gas-bag has at the bottom an elongation, known as
+the 'neck', which is open to the air in order that the gas may escape as it
+expands during the rise into the rarefied atmosphere of the upper air. A
+'valve' is fitted at the top, which may be opened by a cord from the basket
+when it is desired to allow gas to escape in order to descend. Bags
+containing sand are carried in order that ballast may be dropped when it is
+desired to rise. A free balloon is completely at the mercy of the wind, and
+simply drifts where the wind takes it. Balloons are usually constructed of
+cotton fabric, though occasionally of gold-beater's skin, in which case
+they are commonly filled with hydrogen in place of coal-gas. A 'trail-rope'
+is usually carried, with which the practice of 'trailing' may be effected
+over open country or the sea. This consists in allowing the end of the
+trail-rope to drag on the ground. As the balloon rises it raises more of
+the rope off the ground, the additional weight bringing it down again. _Per
+contra_, as it falls the weight of the trail-rope is taken by the ground
+and so lightens the balloon. This tends to maintain the balloon at a
+uniform height. The greatest height ever attained by a balloon is 37,000
+feet, reached by Glaisher and Coxwell in Sept., 1862. Both aeronauts nearly
+perished from the effects of the cold and rarefaction of the atmosphere. In
+1895 Parseval and Siegsfield, two officers of the Prussian army, invented
+the 'Drachen-ballon' or 'Kite-balloon' (Fr. _Saucisse_). This consists of a
+captive balloon comprising an elongated gas-bag fitted with an automatic
+air-chamber, or 'ballonet', for maintaining the pressure, and automatic
+stabilizers to prevent yawing off the wind, rolling from side to side, and
+pitching horizontally. This was improved upon by Captain Caquot of the
+French army, who in 1916 produced an improved type, offering many
+advantages, which was used in large numbers by the British, French, and
+American armies and navies during the Great European War of 1914-8. See
+also _Aeronautics_, _Air-ships_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _British Military Manual of
+Ballooning_; Rev. J. M. Bacon, _The Dominion of the Air_; H. Coxwell, _My
+Life and Balloon Experiences_; J. Glaisher, _Travels in the Air_; G.
+Tissandier, _Histoire de mes Ascensions_.
+
+BAL'LOT, VOTING BY, signifies literally voting by means of little balls
+(called by the French _ballottes_), usually of different colours, which are
+put into a box in such a manner as to enable the voter, if he chooses, to
+conceal for whom or for what he gives his suffrage. The method is adopted
+by most clubs in the election of their members--a white ball indicating
+assent, a black ball dissent. Hence, when an applicant is rejected, he is
+said to be _blackballed_. The term voting by ballot is also applied in a
+general way to any method of secret voting, as, for instance, when a person
+gives his vote by means of a ticket bearing the name of the candidate whom
+he wishes to support. In this sense vote by ballot is the mode adopted in
+electing the members of legislative assemblies in most countries, as well
+as the members of various other bodies. In ancient Greece and Rome the
+ballot was in common use. In Britain it had long been advocated in the
+election of members of Parliament and of municipal corporations, but it was
+only introduced by an Act passed in 1872.
+
+BALLYME'NA, a town of Ireland, County Antrim, 22 miles from Belfast, with a
+considerable trade in linens and linen yarns, the manufacture of which is
+carried on to a great extent. Pop. 11,380.
+
+BALLYMO'NEY, a town of Ireland, County Antrim, 38 miles N.W. of Belfast;
+linen, chemicals, tanning, and brewing. Pop. 3100.
+
+BALLYSHAN'NON, a small seaport of Ireland, County Donegal, on the Erne,
+about 1 mile from the S.E. shore of Donegal Bay. Pop. 2471.
+
+BALM (baem; _Melissa officin[=a]lis_), a plant, belonging to the Labiatae;,
+formerly in great repute for its medicinal virtues. A native of the south
+of Europe, it is cultivated in English gardens. It is a herbaceous
+perennial, with an erect branching stem about 2 feet high. The leaves arise
+with the flower-stems from a thick joint at the extremity of the stalk. The
+flowers are whitish; they are produced in a round terminal umbel, and
+appear in June. The stems and leaves are slightly stimulating and tonic.
+They contain an essential oil of a yellowish colour and with a fragrant
+smell, called oil of balm.
+
+BALM OF GILEAD, the exudation of a tree, _Balsamodendron gileadense_, nat.
+ord. Amyridaceae, a native of Arabia Felix, and also obtained from the
+closely-allied species _Balsamodendron Opobals[)a]mum_. The leaves of the
+former tree yield when bruised a strong aromatic scent; and the balm of
+Gilead of the shops, or balsam of Mecca or of Syria, is obtained from it by
+making an incision in its trunk. It has a yellowish or greenish colour, a
+warm, bitterish, aromatic taste, and an acidulous fragrant smell. It is
+valued as an odoriferous unguent and cosmetic by the Turks. It is
+frequently adulterated for market.--The _balm of Gilead fir_, which
+produces a turpentine called Canada balsam, is the _Abies balsamif[)e]ra_,
+a North American species, whose range is from Virginia to Canada. The name
+is derived from _Jeremiah_, viii, 22.
+
+BALMAIN', a populous western suburb of Sydney, N.S.W., with extensive docks
+and various industrial works. Pop. 33,000.
+
+BALMER'INO, Arthur Elphinstone, Lord, a Scottish Jacobite, born 1688,
+executed 1746. He took part in the Jacobite rebellion of 1715, and fought
+at Sheriffmuir. Having joined the young Pretender in 1745, he was taken
+prisoner at Culloden, tried at Westminster, found guilty, and beheaded. His
+title was from Balmerino in Fife.
+
+BALMOR'AL CASTLE, a private residence of the British sovereign, beautifully
+situated on the S. bank of the Dee, in Aberdeenshire, 45 miles W. by S. of
+Aberdeen. It stands in the midst of fine and varied mountain scenery, is
+built of granite in the Scottish baronial style, mainly in two connected
+blocks, and has an imposing appearance. The estate, purchased by the Prince
+Consort in 1852 and bequeathed to Queen Victoria, extends to about 40,000
+acres, mostly deer forest.
+
+BALNAVES', Henry, of Halhill, a Scottish reformer, was born at Kirkcaldy,
+educated at St. Andrews, and became a lord of session and a member of the
+Scottish Parliament in 1538. He was one of the commissioners appointed in
+1543 to treat of the proposed marriage between Edward VI and Mary. In 1547
+he was one of the prisoners taken in the castle of St. Andrews and exiled
+to France. Recalled in 1554, he busily engaged in the establishment of the
+reformed faith, assisted in revising the _Book of Discipline_, and
+accompanied Murray to England in connection with Darnley's murder. He died
+in 1579.
+
+BALRAMPUR. See _Bulrampur_.
+
+BALSA, a kind of raft or float used on the coasts and rivers of Peru and
+other parts of South America for fishing, for landing goods and passengers
+through a heavy surf, and for other purposes where buoyancy is chiefly
+wanted. It is formed generally of two inflated seal-skins, connected by a
+sort of platform on which the fisherman, passengers, or goods are placed.
+
+BAL'SAM, the common name of succulent plants of the genus Impatiens, family
+Balsaminaceae, having beautiful irregular flowers, cultivated in gardens
+and green-houses. _Impatiens balsam[=i]na_, native of the East Indies, is a
+common cultivated species. _I. noli-me-tangere_ grows wild in Britain, but
+is not native. See _Impatiens_.
+
+BALSAM, an aromatic, resinous substance, flowing spontaneously or by
+incision from certain plants. A great variety of substances pass under this
+name. But in chemistry the term is confined to such vegetable juices as
+consist of resins mixed with volatile oils, and yield the volatile oil on
+distillation. The resins are produced from the oils by oxidation. A balsam
+is thus intermediate between a volatile oil and a resin. It is soluble in
+alcohol and ether, and capable of yielding benzoic acid. The balsams are
+either liquid or more or less solid; as, for example, the balm of Gilead,
+and the balsams of copaiba, Peru, and Tolu. Benzoin, dragon's-blood, and
+storax are not true balsams, though sometimes called so. The balsams are
+used in perfumery, medicine, and the arts. See _Copaiba_, &c.--_Balsam of
+Gilead_ or _of Mecca_, balm of Gilead (q.v.).--_Canada balsam_. See _Canada
+balsam_.
+
+BALSAM FIR. See _Balm of Gilead_.
+
+BALSA'MO, Joseph. See _Cagliostro, Count_.
+
+BALSAMODEN'DRON, a genus of trees or bushes, ord. Amyridaceae, species of
+which yield such balsamic or resinous substances as balm of Gilead,
+bdellium, myrrh, &c.
+
+BALTA, a town in the Ukraine, government of Podolia, on the Kodema, an
+affluent of the Bug, 115 miles N.N.W. of Odessa. Pop. 18,450.
+
+BALTIC, BATTLE OF THE. See _Copenhagen_; _Parker, Sir Hyde_.
+
+BALTIC PROVINCES, a term commonly given to the former Russian governments
+of Courland, Livonia, and Esthonia (q.v.).
+
+BALTIC SEA, an inland sea or large gulf connected with the North Sea,
+washing the coasts of Denmark, Germany, Russia, and Sweden; nearly 900
+miles long, extending to 200 broad; superficial extent, together with the
+Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, 171,743 sq. miles. Its greatest depth is 126
+fathoms; mean, 44 fathoms. A chain of islands separates the southern part
+from the northern, or Gulf of Bothnia. The water of the Baltic is colder
+and clearer than that of the ocean: it contains a smaller proportion of
+salt, and the ice obstructs the navigation three or four months in the
+year. Among the rivers that enter it are the Neva, Dwina, Oder, Vistula,
+and Niemen. Islands: Samsoe, Moen, Bornholm, Langeland, Laaland, which
+belong to Denmark (besides Zealand and Funen); Gottland and Oeland,
+belonging to Sweden; Ruegen, belonging to Prussia; Dagoe and Oesel,
+belonging to Russia; and the Aland Islands. The Sound, the Great and the
+Little Belt lead from the Kattegat into the Baltic. The Baltic and North
+Sea were long connected by the Eider and a canal from it to the
+neighbourhood of Kiel, but this has been superseded by the great ship
+canal, starting from the Elbe near its mouth and ending in Kiel Bay.
+
+BAL'TIMORE, a city and port in Maryland, United States, finely situated on
+the N. side of the Patapsco, 14 miles above Chesapeake Bay. Baltimore takes
+its name from Lord Baltimore, the founder of Maryland; it was first laid
+out as a town in 1729; and was erected into a city in 1797. It is well
+built, chiefly of brick, and is known as the 'monumental city', from the
+public monuments which adorn it, the principal being the Washington
+monument. Among its buildings are the city hall, built in Renaissance
+style, of white marble, with a tower and dome rising 240 feet; the Peabody
+Institute, containing a library, art gallery, &c.; the Maryland Institute;
+the custom-house; the post office; the United States court-house and jail,
+the Johns Hopkins hospital, the Roman Catholic cathedral, &c. The chief
+educational institution, now one of the most important in the States, is
+the Johns Hopkins University, endowed with 3,500,000 dollars by its founder
+(whose name it bears). There is a Roman Catholic archbishop with the rank
+of primate, and a Protestant episcopal bishop. Industries: shipbuilding;
+manufactures of iron, wool, cotton, pottery, &c.; sugar-refining,
+distilling, tanning, the making of agricultural implements, canning oysters
+and fruits, &c. As a flour market Baltimore is an important centre; and it
+does an immense trade in exporting tobacco and other products. The harbour
+is very extensive. Pop. (1920), 733,826.
+
+BALTIMORE, George Calvert, Lord, born in Yorkshire about 1580, died in
+London 1632. He was for some time Secretary of State to James I, but this
+post he resigned in 1624 in consequence of having become a Roman Catholic.
+Notwithstanding this he retained the confidence of the king, who in 1625
+raised him to the Irish peerage, his title being from Baltimore, a
+fishing-village of Cork. He had previously obtained a grant of land in
+Newfoundland, but as this colony was much exposed to the attacks of the
+French he left it, and obtained another patent for Maryland. He died before
+the charter was completed, and it was granted to his son Cecil, who deputed
+the governorship to his brother Leonard (1606-47).
+
+BALTIMORE BIRD, an American bird, the _Ict[)e]rus Baltimorii_, family
+Icteridae, nearly allied to the Sturnidae, or starlings. It is a migratory
+bird, and is known also by the names of 'golden robin', 'hang-bird', and
+'fire-bird'. It is about 7 inches long; the head and upper parts are black,
+the under parts of a brilliant orange hue. It builds a pouch-like nest,
+very skilfully constructed of threads deftly interwoven, suspended from a
+forked branch and shaded by overhanging leaves. It feeds on insects,
+caterpillars, beetles, &c. Its song is a clear, mellow whistle.
+
+BALUCHISTAN (ba-loe'chi-staen), a country in Asia, the coast of which is
+continuous with the north-western seaboard of India, bounded on the north
+by Afghanistan, on the west by Persia, on the south by the Arabian Sea, and
+on the east by Sindh. It has an area of about 135,000 sq. miles, and a
+population estimated at 834,703. The general surface of the country is
+rugged and mountainous, with some extensive intervals of barren sandy
+deserts, and there is a general deficiency of water. Various kinds of grain
+are cultivated, and there is abundance of excellent fruits. The main body
+of the inhabitants are divided into two great branches, the Baluchis and
+Brahuis, differing in language, figure, and manners. The Baluchi language
+resembles the modern Persian, the Brahui presents points of agreement with
+the Dravidian languages of India. The Baluchis in general have tall
+figures, long visages, and prominent features; the Brahuis have shorter,
+thicker bodies, with round faces and rather flat features. Both races are
+Mahommedans, hospitable and brave. There are also many Afghans and others
+in the country. The Khan of Khelat, the nominal ruler of the whole land, in
+1877 concluded a treaty with Britain, in virtue of which he became a
+feudatory of India. Since then Quetta, in the north-east, occupying an
+important position, and certain portions of territory, have been absolutely
+annexed, and in 1887 a separate administration was constituted, and British
+authority established, under the Governor-General's agent. The area of
+British Baluchistan, including tribal areas, is 54,228 sq. miles; pop.
+414,412. The country nominally under the Khan of Khelat has an area of
+72,280 sq. miles; pop. 359,086. Under British administration roads and
+railways have been made, with telegraphs and a postal service. Wool,
+fruits, &c., are exported, cottons and other goods imported, and there is a
+fair transit trade.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Floyer, _Unexplored Baluchistan_; T.
+Thornton, _Life of Sandeman_.
+
+BAL'USTER, a small column or pilaster, of various forms and dimensions,
+often adorned with mouldings, used for balustrades.
+
+BALUSTRADE', a range of balusters, together with the cornice or coping
+which they support, used as a parapet for bridges or the roofs of
+buildings, or as a mere ornament; also serving as a fence or enclosure for
+balconies, terraces, staircases, &c.
+
+BALUZE (b[.a]-luez), Etienne, French historian and miscellaneous writer,
+born 1630, died 1718. For more than thirty years he was librarian to M. de
+Colbert, and was appointed professor of canon law in the Royal College, but
+displeasing Louis XIV with his _Histoire Generale de la Maison d'Auvergne_,
+he was thrown into prison and his property confiscated. He recovered his
+liberty in 1713, but did not regain his position. He left some 1500 MSS. in
+the national library of Paris, besides forty-five printed works, including
+_Regum Francorum Capitularia_ (2 vols.) and _Miscellanea_ (7 vols.).
+
+BALZAC (b[.a]l-z[.a]k), Honore de, a celebrated French novelist, was born
+at Tours in 1799, died 1850. Before completing his twenty-fourth year he
+had published a number of novels under various assumed names, but the
+success attending all was very indifferent; and it was not till 1829, by
+the publication of _Le Dernier Chouan_, a tale of La Vendee, and the first
+novel to which Balzac appended his name, that the attention of the public
+was diverted to the extraordinary genius of the author. A still greater
+popularity attended his _Physiologie de Mariage_, a work full of piquant
+and caustic observations on human nature. He wrote a large number of
+novels, all marked by a singular knowledge of human nature and distinct
+delineation of character, but apt to be marred by exaggeration. Among his
+best-known works are: _Scenes de la Vie de Province_, _Scenes de la Vie
+Parisienne_, _Le Pere Goriot_, _Eugenie Grandet_, and _Le Medecin de
+Campagne_. The publication of this last, in 1835, led to a correspondence
+between Balzac and the Countess Eveline de Hanska, a Polish lady whom,
+after about fifteen years, he visited and married. A collected edition of
+his works, under the title _La Comedie Humaine_, was published in 45 vols.,
+Paris, 1856-9, and another in 1869. In 1899 appeared the first volume of
+Balzac's _Oeuvres Posthumes_, and in 1906 the second.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: F.
+Wedmore, _Balzac_; M. F. Sandars, _Balzac_; W. H. Helm, _Aspects of
+Balzac_; Taine, _Essay on Balzac_.
+
+BALZAC (b[.a]l-z[.a]k), Jean Louis Guez de, French writer, born 1594, died
+1654. His writings, which had a great reputation in their day owing to the
+elegance of his style, are now neglected. The most esteemed are his
+_Familiar Letters_, _Le Prince_, _Le Socrate Chretien_, and _Aristippe_.
+
+BAMAKO, capital of the French colony of Upper Senegal and Niger since 1904.
+It is an important trade-centre and the terminus of the Niger-Senegal
+railway. Pop. 8000.
+
+BAMBA, a district of the Congo, W. coast of Africa, lying to the south of
+the River Ambriz. It is thickly populated, and is rich in gold, silver,
+copper, salt, &c.
+
+BAMBAR'RA, a territory of Western Africa, on the Upper Niger, first visited
+by Mungo Park, now in the French portion of the Sudan. The country is
+generally very fertile, producing wheat, rice, maize, yams, &c. The
+inhabitants are of negro or mixed race, and some are Mohammedans. Excellent
+cotton cloth is made. The chief town is Segou. Pop. estimated at 2,000,000.
+See _Senegal_.
+
+BAM'BERG, a town of Germany, Bavaria, charmingly situated on several hills,
+on the navigable River Regnitz, some 3 miles from its mouth in the Main. It
+is the seat of a Catholic archbishop; the cathedral, founded in 1004 (the
+present structure dates from 1111), is one of the finest churches in
+Germany. The royal library contains 100,000 volumes and valuable MSS.
+Bamberg carries on a large trade; its industries are cotton-spinning,
+tobacco-manufacture, brewing, &c. Pop. 48,063.
+
+BAMBINO (b[.a]m-b[=e]'n[=o]; It., an infant), the figure of our Saviour
+represented as an infant in swaddling-clothes. The _Santissimo Bambino_ in
+the church of Ara Coeli at Rome, a richly-decorated figure carved in wood,
+is believed to be able to perform miracles and heal the sick. According to
+popular belief, the painting was miraculously done by St. Luke or by an
+angel. Bambinos are set up for the adoration of the faithful in many places
+in Catholic countries.
+
+BAMBOCCIADES (bam-boch-[=a]dz'), pictures, generally grotesque, of common,
+rustic, or low life, such as those of Peter Van Laar, a Dutch painter of
+the seventeenth century, who on account of his deformity was called
+_Bamboccio_ (cripple). Teniers is the great master of this style.
+
+[Illustration: Bamboo (_Bambusa arundinac[)e]a_)]
+
+BAMBOO', the common name of the arborescent grasses belonging to the genus
+Bamb[=u]sa. There are many species, belonging to the warmer parts of Asia,
+Africa, and America, and growing from a few feet to as much as 100 feet,
+requiring much moisture to thrive properly. A peculiarity of the bamboo
+family is that they flower on reaching a certain age, generally about 130
+years. The best-known species is _B. arundinac[)e]a_, common in tropical
+and sub-tropical regions. From the creeping underground rhizome, which is
+long, thick, and jointed, spring several round jointed stalks, which send
+out from their joints several shoots, the stalks also being armed at their
+joints with one or two sharp rigid spines. The oval leaves, 8 or 9 inches
+long, are placed on short footstalks. The flowers grow in large panicles
+from the joints of the stalk. Some stems grow to 8 or 10 inches in
+diameter, and are so hard and durable as to be used for building purposes.
+The smaller stalks are used for walking-sticks, flutes, &c.; and indeed the
+plant is used for innumerable purposes in the East Indies, China, and other
+Eastern countries. Cottages are almost wholly made of it; also, bridges,
+boxes, water-pipes, ladders, fences, bows and arrows, spears, baskets,
+mats, paper, masts for boats, &c. The young shoots may be either pickled or
+salted and eaten with rice, or candied and preserved in sugar; the seeds of
+some species are also eaten. The substance called _tabasheer_ is a
+siliceous deposit that gathers at the internodes of the stems. The bamboo
+is imported into Europe for various purposes, and is grown in British
+gardens.
+
+BAMBOOK', a country in Western Africa between the Faleme and Senegal
+Rivers, about 140 miles in length, by 80 to 100 in breadth. It is on the
+whole hilly and somewhat rugged. The valleys and plains are remarkably
+fertile. The natives are Mandingoes, mostly professed Mahommedans ruled by
+independent chieftains, most of whom acknowledge the supremacy of France.
+Gold and ivory are exchanged for European goods.
+
+BAMBOOK-BUTTER, shea-butter (q.v.).
+
+BAM'BOROUGH CASTLE, an ancient English castle on the coast of
+Northumberland, formerly with connected estate the property of the
+Forsters, and forfeited to the Crown in 1715, both being purchased by Lord
+Crewe, Bishop of Durham, and bequeathed by him for charitable purposes.
+
+BAMBU'SA. See _Bamboo_.
+
+BAM'IAN, a valley and pass of Afghanistan, the latter at an elevation of
+8496 feet, the only known pass over the Hindu Kush for artillery and heavy
+transport. The valley is one of the chief centres of Buddhist worship, and
+contains two remarkable colossal statues and other ancient monuments.
+
+BAMO. See _Bhamo_.
+
+BAMPTON LECTURES, a course of lectures established in 1751 by John Bampton,
+Canon of Salisbury, who bequeathed certain property to the University of
+Oxford for the endowment of eight divinity lectures to be annually
+delivered. The subjects prescribed are mainly connected with the evidences
+of Christianity, and the lecturer must have taken the degree of M.A. at
+Oxford or Cambridge. The first course of lectures was delivered in 1780,
+and they have been delivered every year since, with the exceptions of 1834,
+1835, and 1841. Among the more remarkable lectures were those by Dr. White
+in 1784, by Dr. Mant in 1812, by Reginald Heber in 1815, Whately in 1822,
+Milman in 1827, Dr. Hampden in 1832, H.L. Mansel in 1858, Canon Liddon in
+1866, Canon Gore in 1891, J. R. Illingworth in 1894, and W. R. Inge in
+1899. A similar course of lectures, the Hulsean, is annually delivered at
+Cambridge.
+
+BAN, in political law, is equivalent to excommunication in ecclesiastical.
+In Teutonic history the _ban_ was an edict of interdiction or proscription:
+thus, to put a prince under the ban of the empire was to divest him of his
+dignities, and to interdict all intercourse and all offices of humanity
+with the offender. Sometimes whole cities have been put under the _ban_,
+that is, deprived of their rights and privileges.
+
+BAN, anciently, a title given to the military chiefs who guarded the
+eastern marches of Hungary; till 1919 the title of the Governor of Croatia
+and Slavonia. A province over which a ban is placed is called _banat_, and
+is equivalent to the German term _mark_. During the European War, Serbia
+occupied the banat to the south of Hungary, and her claims to that region
+were disputed both by Hungary and Roumania. The territory is bounded almost
+entirely by the Danube, Theiss, and Maros Rivers, except on the east, where
+it is shut in by the Transylvanian Carpathians. The banat was ultimately
+divided between Yugo-Slavia and Roumania. See _Temesvar_.
+
+[Illustration: Banana (_Musa sapientum_)]
+
+BANA'NA, a plant of the genus Musa, nat. ord. Musaceae, being _M.
+sapientum_, while the plantain is _M. paradisi[)a]ca_. It is originally
+indigenous to the East Indies, and an herbaceous plant with an underground
+stem. The apparent stem, which is sometimes as high as 30 feet, is formed
+of the closely-compacted sheaths of the leaves. The leaves are 6 to 10 feet
+long and 1 or more broad, with a strong midrib, from which the veins are
+given off at right angles; they are used for thatch, basket-making, &c.,
+besides yielding a useful fibre. The spikes of the flowers grow nearly 4
+feet long, in bunches, covered with purple-coloured bracts. The fruit is 4
+to 10 or 12 inches long, and 1 inch or more in diameter; it grows in large
+bunches, weighing often from 40 to 80 lb. The pulp is soft and of a
+luscious taste; when ripe it is eaten raw or cooked. The banana is
+cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical countries, and is the food of
+millions. It is estimated that in Jamaica alone 40,000 acres are devoted to
+its culture. Excellent biscuits may be made from banana meal, but it is not
+suitable for bread. Vast quantities are imported by Britain and the United
+States. Manila hemp is the product of a species of banana.
+
+BANA'NA, an African port, in Belgian Congo, at the mouth of the Congo.
+
+BANANA-BIRD, a pretty insessorial bird (_Ict[)e]rus leucopt[)e]ryx_), a
+native of the West Indies and the warmer parts of America. It is a lively
+bird, easily domesticated, tawny and black in colour, with white bars upon
+the wings.
+
+BANAT. See _Ban_.
+
+BAN'BRIDGE, a town of Ireland, County Down, 22 miles S.W. of Belfast, on
+the Bann. The manufacture of linen is carried on to a great extent in town
+and neighbourhood. Pop. 5101.
+
+BANBURY (ban'be-ri), a town of England, in Oxfordshire, long celebrated for
+its cheese, its cakes, and its ale; a parliamentary borough till 1885, and
+now giving name to a parliamentary division of the county. Pop. (municipal
+borough) (1921), 13,347.
+
+BANCA, an island belonging to the Dutch East Indies, between Sumatra and
+Borneo; area, 4446 sq. miles; pop. 113,658, of which a considerable
+proportion are Chinese. It is celebrated for its excellent tin, of which
+the annual yield is above 6000 tons; but it produces nothing else of any
+importance.
+
+BANCO, in commerce, a term employed to designate the money in which the
+banks of some countries keep or kept their accounts, in contradistinction
+to the current money of the place, which might vary in value or consist of
+light and foreign coins. The term was applied to the Hamburg bank accounts
+before the adoption (in 1873) of the new German coinage. The mark _banco_
+had a value of 1s. 5-1/2d.; but there was no corresponding coin. See
+_Bank_.
+
+BAN'CROFT, George, American historian, born near Worcester, Mass., 1800,
+died 1891. He was educated at Harvard and in Germany, where he made the
+acquaintance of many literary men of note. In 1823 he published a
+translation of Heeren's _Politics of Ancient Greece_, and a small volume of
+poems, and was also meditating and collecting materials for a history of
+the United States. Between 1834 and 1840 three volumes of his history were
+published. In 1845 he was appointed Secretary of the Navy, and effected
+many reforms and improvements in that department. He was American
+ambassador to Britain from 1846 to 1849, when the University of Oxford
+conferred on him the honorary degree of D.C.L. He took the opportunity
+while in Europe to perfect his collections on American history. He returned
+to New York in 1849, and began to prepare for the press the fourth and
+fifth volumes of his history, which appeared in 1852. The sixth appeared in
+1854, the seventh in 1858, the eighth soon after, but the ninth did not
+appear till 1866. From 1867 to 1874 he was Minister Plenipotentiary at the
+Court of Berlin. The tenth and last volume of his great work appeared in
+1874. An additional section appeared first as a separate work in 1882:
+_History of the Formation of the Constitution of the United States_, and
+the whole came out in 6 vols. in 1884-5. He has also published many essays
+in the _North American Review_ and other periodicals, a selection from
+which was published in 1855 under the title of _Miscellanies_.
+
+BAN'CROFT, Richard, born in Lancashire 1544, died 1610, studied at
+Cambridge, entered the Church, and rose rapidly during the reign of
+Elizabeth till he obtained the see of London in 1597. James I made him
+Archbishop of Canterbury on the death of Whitgift. He suppressed the
+Puritans mercilessly, and they in return never ceased to abuse him.
+
+BAN'CROFT, Sir Squire, English actor, born in London in 1841. After playing
+in Dublin and elsewhere he made his first appearance in London, at the
+Prince of Wales's Theatre, in 1865. He married Miss Marie Effie Wilton in
+1867, and was knighted in 1897. In collaboration with his wife he has
+written _The Bancrofts: Recollections of Sixty Years_ (1909).
+
+BANDA, a town and district of India, in the United Provinces. The town
+stands on a plain on the right bank of the Ken River, 95 miles S.W. from
+Allahabad, and is a considerable cotton mart. Pop. 22,000.--Area of
+district 2965 sq. miles. Pop. 660,000.
+
+BANDA ISLANDS, a group belonging to Holland, Indian Archipelago, south of
+Ceram, Great Banda, the largest, being 12 miles long by 2 broad. They are
+beautiful islands, of volcanic origin, yielding quantities of nutmeg.
+Goenong Api, or Fire Mountain, is a cone-shaped volcano which rises 2320
+feet above the sea. Pop. 10,000.
+
+BANDAJAN', a pass over a range of the Himalaya, Kashmir State, 14,854 feet
+above sea-level.
+
+BANDAN'NA, a variety of silk handkerchief having a uniformly-dyed ground,
+usually of bright red or blue, ornamented with white or yellow circular,
+lozenge-shaped, or other simple figures produced by discharging the
+groundcolour.
+
+BANDA ORIENTAL. See _Uruguay_.
+
+BANDEL'LO, Matteo, an Italian writer of _novelle_ or tales, born about
+1480, died about 1562. He was, in his youth, a Dominican monk, and having
+been banished from Italy as a partisan of the French, Henry II of France
+gave him in 1550 the bishopric of Agen. He left the administration of his
+diocese to the Bishop of Grasse, and employed himself, at the advanced age
+of seventy, in the completion of his _novelle_. He also wrote poetry, but
+his fame rests on his _novelle_, which are in the style of Boccaccio's
+_Decameron_ and the Queen of Navarre's _Heptameron_, and have been made use
+of by Shakespeare, Massinger, and Beaumont and Fletcher.
+
+BANDE NOIRE. See _French Revolution_.
+
+BAND-FISH, the popular name of fishes of the genus Cep[)o]la, from their
+long, flat, thin bodies. _C. rubescens_, a very fragile creature, is
+sometimes cast up on British shores. Also called _Snake-fish_,
+_Ribbon-fish_.
+
+[Illustration: Pig-footed Bandicoot (_Chaeropus castanotis_)]
+
+BAN'DICOOT (Perameles), a genus of small Australian marsupials. The most
+common species (_P. nasuta_), the long-nosed bandicoot, measures about
+1-1/2 feet from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail. It is not
+unlike an overgrown rat, and is most destructive to farm-produce.
+
+BAN'DICOOT RAT, the _Mus gigant[=e]us_, the largest known species of rat,
+attaining the weight of 2 or 3 lb., and the length, including the tail, of
+24 to 30 inches. It is a native of India, and is very abundant in Ceylon.
+Its flesh is said to be delicate and to resemble young pork, and is a
+favourite article of diet with the coolies. It is destructive upon
+rice-fields and gardens.
+
+BANDINELLI, Baccio, Italian sculptor, born at Florence 1493, died there
+1560. He was jealous of and strove to rival Michael Angelo. Among his works
+are a _Hercules and Cacus_, _The Dead Body of Christ held up by an Angel_,
+_Adam and Eve_, &c.
+
+BAN'DIT, It. _bandito_, originally an _exile_, banished man, or outlaw, and
+hence, as persons outlawed frequently adopted the profession of brigand or
+highwayman, the word came to be synonymous with brigand, and is now applied
+to members of the organized gangs which infest some districts of Italy,
+Sicily, Spain, Greece, and Turkey.
+
+BAND OF HOPE. See _Temperance_.
+
+BAN'DOLIER, a large leathern belt or baldrick, to which were attached a bag
+for balls and a number of pipes or cases of wood or metal covered with
+leather, each containing a charge of gunpowder. It was worn by ancient
+musketeers, and hung from the left shoulder under the right arm with the
+ball bag at the lower extremity, and the pipes suspended on either side.
+The name is now given to a similar belt, worn by mounted troops, for
+carrying cartridges. Another form of the word is _bandoleer_.
+
+BAN'DOLINE, a gummy perfumed substance used to impart gloss and stiffness
+to the hair.
+
+BAN'DON, a town, Ireland, County Cork, on both sides of the Bandon. Pop.
+3122.
+
+BANDS, a small article of clerical dress, made of linen, going round the
+neck and hanging down in front for a short distance in two pieces with
+square ends, supposed to be a relic of the amice.
+
+BANEBERRY, or HERB CHRISTOPHER (_Actaea spic[=a]ta_), a European plant,
+ord. Ranunculaceae, local in England, with a spike of white flowers and
+black, poisonous berries. Two American species are considered remedies for
+rattlesnake bite.
+
+BANER (b[.a]-n[=a]r'), Johan Gustafsson, a Swedish general in the Thirty
+Years' War, born 1596, died 1641. He made his first campaigns in Poland and
+Russia, and accompanied Gustavus Adolphus, who held him in high esteem, to
+Germany. After the death of Gustavus in 1632 he had the chief command of
+the Swedish army, and in 1634 invaded Bohemia, defeated the Saxons at
+Wittstock, 24th Sept., 1636, and took Torgau. He ravaged Saxony again in
+1639, gained another victory at Chemnitz, and in 1640 defeated Piccolomini.
+In Jan., 1641, he very nearly took Ratisbon by surprise.
+
+BANFF (bamf), county town of Banffshire, Scotland, a seaport on the Moray
+Firth at the mouth of the Deveron. It is well built, carries on some
+boat-building, and has ropeworks, a brewery, &c., fishing and shipping.
+Near the town are the county lunatic asylum, and Duff House, a seat of the
+Duke of Fife, now public property; on the east side of the Deveron is the
+town of Macduff, where an extensive fishing trade is carried on. Banff is
+one of the Elgin burghs, which together return a member to Parliament. Pop.
+3517.--The county has an area of 403,053 acres. In the south it is
+mountainous; but the northern part is comparatively low and fertile;
+principal rivers, the Spey and Deveron; principal mountains, Cairngorm
+(4095 feet) and Ben Macdhui (4296 feet), on its southern boundary. Little
+wheat is raised, the principal crops being barley, oats, turnips, and
+potatoes. Fishing is an important industry; as is also the distilling of
+whisky. Serpentine abounds in several places, especially at Portsoy, where
+it is known as 'Portsoy marble', and Scotch topazes or cairngorm stones are
+found on the mountains in the south. Banffshire returns one member to
+Parliament. Pop. (1921), 57,293.
+
+BANFF, a town of N. W. Canada, at the foot of the Rocky Mountains, on the
+Canadian Pacific Railway, with National Park, hot springs, coal-mines, &c.
+
+BANG. See _Bhang_.
+
+BANGALORE', a town of Hindustan, capital of Mysore, and giving its name to
+a considerable district in the east of Mysore State. The town stands on a
+healthy plateau 3000 feet above sea-level, has a total area of nearly 14
+sq. miles, and is one of the pleasantest British stations in India. In the
+old town stands the fort, reconstructed by Hyder Ali in 1761, and taken by
+Lord Cornwallis in 1791. Under English administration the town has greatly
+prospered in recent times. There are manufactures of silks, cotton cloth,
+carpets, gold and silver lace, &c. Pop. 189,485.--The Bangalore district
+has an area of 3070 sq. miles, of which more than half represent cultivable
+land. Pop. about 760,000.
+
+BANGKOK', or BANKOK, the capital of the kingdom of Siam, extending for
+several miles on both sides of the Menam, which falls into the Gulf of Siam
+about 15 miles below. The inner city occupies an island surrounded with
+walls and bastions, and contains the palace of the king and other important
+buildings. The dwellings of the common people are of wood or bamboo, often
+raised on piles; a large portion of the population, however, dwell in boats
+or wooden houses erected on bamboo rafts moored in the river, and forming a
+floating town. Temples are numerous and lavishly decorated. Houses in the
+European style have been erected in modern times, and the telegraph,
+telephone, gas, fire-engines, and omnibuses introduced. A university with
+eight faculties has recently been established. The trade, both inland and
+foreign, is very extensive, the exports consisting chiefly of rice, sugar,
+silk, cotton, tobacco, pepper, sesame, ivory, aromatic wood, cabinet woods,
+tin, hides, &c.; and the imports consisting chiefly of British cotton,
+woollen, and other goods. Pop. 628,675, of whom about a half are Chinese.
+See _Siam_.
+
+BAN'GOR, a city of North Wales, in Carnarvonshire, picturesquely situated
+near the northern entrance of the Menai Strait. It appears to have
+possessed a cathedral in the sixth century, which was destroyed by the
+Normans in 1071. The present cathedral--the third--only dates from the
+reign of Henry VII. It has a college of the University of Wales (founded in
+1903), and a Normal College. Bangor has risen into importance as a popular
+resort; its principal trade is in the export of slates from the
+neighbouring quarries. Pop. (1921), 11,032.
+
+BAN'GOR, a seaport town, Ireland, County Down, on the south side of Belfast
+Lough. Principal trade: cotton, linen, and embroideries. Pop. 7776.
+
+BAN'GOR, a port of the United States, in Maine, on the W. side of Penobscot
+River, a flourishing and pleasantly-situated town, and one of the largest
+lumber depots in the world. The river is navigable to the town for vessels
+of the largest size. Pop. (1920), 25,948.
+
+BANGO'RIAN CONTROVERSY, a controversy stirred up by a sermon preached
+before George I in 1717 by Dr. Hoadly, Bishop of Bangor, from the text "My
+kingdom is not of this world" (_John_, xviii, 36), in which the bishop
+contended in the most pronounced manner for the spiritual nature of
+Christ's kingdom. The controversy was carried on with great heat for many
+years, and resulted in an enormous collection of pamphlets.
+
+BANGS'RING. See _Banxring_.
+
+BANGWEO'LO, or BANGWEULU, LAKE, in South Africa, the southernmost of the
+great lake reservoirs of the Congo, heard of in 1798, was reached by
+Livingstone in 1868, an oval-shaped shallow sheet of water, said to be 150
+miles in length along its greater axis, from east to west, and about 75
+miles in width, but its exact limits are uncertain. It was first
+circumnavigated by Poulett Weatherley in 1896. See _Congo_.
+
+BAN'IAN, or BAN'YAN, an Indian trader or merchant, one engaged in commerce
+generally, but more particularly one of the great traders of Western India,
+as in the seaports of Bombay, Kurrachee, &c., who carry on a large trade by
+means of caravans with the interior of Asia, and with Africa by vessels.
+They form a class of the Vaisya caste, wear a peculiar dress, and are
+strict in the observance of fasts and in abstaining from the use of flesh.
+Hence, _Banian days_, days in which sailors in the navy had no flesh meat
+served out to them. Banian days are now abolished, but the term is still
+applied to days of poor fare.
+
+BANIAN TREE. See _Banyan_.
+
+BA'NIM, John, an Irish novelist, dramatist, and poet, born in 1798, died
+1842. His chief early work was a poem, _The Celt's Paradise_ (1821). Having
+settled in London, he made various contributions to magazines and to the
+stage; but his fame rests on his novels, particularly the _O'Hara Tales_,
+in which Irish life is admirably portrayed. In these, as in some of his
+other publications, his brother, Michael Banim (born 1796, died 1874), had
+an important share, if not an equal claim to praise. The two brothers have
+been justly called 'the first national novelists of Ireland'.
+
+BANISHMENT. See _Exile_.
+
+BAN'JARMASSIN, a district and town in the south-east of Borneo, under the
+government of the Dutch. The town is situated on an arm of the Banjar,
+about 14 miles above its mouth, in a marshy locality, the houses being
+built on piles, and many of them on rafts. Exports: pepper, benzoin,
+bezoar, ratans, dragon's-blood, birds'-nests, &c.; imports: rice, salt,
+sugar, opium, &c. Pop. 52,000, mostly Dyaks.
+
+BAN'JO (a negro corruption of _bandore_; It. _pandora_, from Lat.
+_pandura_, a three-stringed instrument), the favourite musical instrument
+of the negroes of the Southern States of America. It is six-stringed, has a
+body like a tambourine and a neck like a guitar, and is played by stopping
+the strings with the fingers of the left hand and twitching or striking
+them with the fingers of the right. The upper or octave string, however, is
+never stopped. The banjo was introduced into England in 1846.
+
+BANJOEMAS (b[.a]n'yoe-m[.a]s), a town in Java, near the centre of the
+island, well built and of commercial importance; it is 22 miles from the
+coast, and is the residence of a Dutch governor. Pop. 6500.
+
+BANKING AND BANKS. Banks are establishments for the deposit, custody, and
+repayment on demand of money, and obtain the bulk of their profits from the
+investment of sums thus derived and not in immediate demand. The term is a
+derivative of the _banco_ or bench of the early Italian money-dealers,
+being analogous in its origin to the terms _trapez[=i]tai_ (_trapeza_, a
+bench or table) applied to the ancient Greek money-changers, and _mensarii_
+(_mensa_, a table) applied to the public bankers of Rome.
+
+In respect of constitution there is a broad division of banks into public
+and private; public banks including such establishments as are under any
+special state or municipal control or patronage, or whose capital is in the
+form of stock or shares which are bought and sold in the open market;
+private banks embracing those which are carried on by one or more
+individuals without special authority or charter and under the laws
+regulating ordinary trading companies. In respect of function three kinds
+of banks may be discriminated: (1) banks of deposit merely, receiving and
+returning money at the convenience of depositors; (2) banks of discount or
+loan, borrowing money on deposit and lending it in the discount of
+promissory notes, bills of exchange, and negotiable securities; (3) banks
+of circulation or issue, which give currency to promissory notes of their
+own, payable to bearer and serving as a medium of exchange within the
+sphere of their banking operations. The more highly-organized banks
+discharge all three functions, but all modern banks unite the two first.
+For the successful working of a banking establishment certain resources
+other than the deposits are of course necessary, and the capital paid up by
+shareholders on their shares and forming the substantial portion of their
+claim to public credit is held upon a different footing from the sums
+received from depositors. It is usually considered that for sound banking
+this capital should not be traded with for the purpose of making gain in
+the same way as the moneys deposited in the bank; and it is for the most
+part invested in Government or other securities subject to little
+fluctuation in value and readily convertible into money. But in any case
+prudence demands that a _reserve_ be kept sufficient to meet all probable
+requirements of customers in event of commercial crises or minor panics.
+The reserve of the banking department of the Bank of England is always in
+coin, or in notes against which an equivalent value of coin and bullion is
+lying in the issue department. In other English banks the reserve is
+usually kept partly in gold and partly in Government stocks and Bank of
+England notes; but it sometimes lies as a deposit in the Bank of England.
+The working capital proper of a bank is constituted by moneys on deposit,
+for which the bank may or may not pay interest; the advantages of security,
+of ease in the transmission of payments, &c., being regarded in the cases
+of banks little affected by competition as a sufficient return to the
+depositor. Thus the Bank of England pays no interest on deposits, while the
+contrary practice has prevailed in Scotland since 1729, where interest is
+paid on deposits although not on current accounts.
+
+Of the methods of making profit upon the money of depositors, one of the
+most common is to advance it in the discounting of bills of exchange not
+having long periods (seldom more than three months with the Bank of
+England) to run; the banker receiving the amounts of the bills from the
+acceptors when the bills arrive at maturity. Loans or advances are also
+often made by bankers upon exchequer bills or other Government securities,
+on railway debentures or the stock of public companies of various kinds, as
+well as upon goods lying in public warehouses, the dock-warrant or
+certificate of ownership being transferred to the banker in security. In
+the case of a well-established credit they may be advanced upon notes of
+hand without other security. Money is less commonly advanced by bankers
+upon mortgages on land, in which the money loaned is almost invariably
+locked up for a number of years. To banks of issue a further source of
+profit is open in their note circulation, inasmuch as the bank is enabled
+to lend these notes, or promises to pay, as if they were so much money and
+to receive interest on the loan accordingly, as well as to make a
+profitable use of the money or property that may be received in exchange
+for its notes, so long as the latter remain in circulation. It is obvious,
+however, that this interest on its loaned notes may not run over a very
+extended period, in that the person to whom they are issued may at once
+return them to the bank to lie there as a deposit and so may actually draw
+interest on them from the bank of issue; or he may present them to be
+exchanged for coin, or by putting them at once into circulation may ensure
+a certain number speedily finding their way back through other hands or
+other banks to the establishment from which he received them. A
+considerable number of the notes issued will, however, be retained in
+circulation at the convenience of the public as a medium of exchange; and
+on this circulating portion a clear profit accrues. This rapid return of
+notes through other banks, &c., in exchange for portions of the reserve of
+the issuing bank, is one of the restraints upon an issue of notes in excess
+of the ability of the bank to meet them. In the United Kingdom a more
+obvious restraint upon an unlimited note issue, originating partly in a
+desire for greater security, partly in the belief that the note
+augmentation of the currency might lead to harmful economic results in its
+influence upon prices, is to be found in the Bank Acts of 1844 and 1845,
+which impose upon banks of issue the necessity of keeping an equivalent in
+gold for all notes issued beyond a certain fixed amount. The wisdom of
+these legal restrictions, which are not uniform throughout the kingdom, and
+the desirability of the acquisition and control by the State of the whole
+business of issue, are still matters of debate.
+
+In specific relation to his customer the banker occupies the position of
+debtor to creditor, holding money which the customer may demand at any time
+in whole or in part by means of a cheque payable at sight on presentation
+during banking hours. For the refusal to cash a cheque from the erroneous
+supposition that he has no funds of his customer's in his hands, or for
+misleading statements respecting the position in which the bank stands, the
+banker is legally responsible. Moreover, the law regards him as bound to
+know his customer's signature, and the loss falls upon him in event of his
+cashing a forged cheque. In their relations to the community, the chief
+services rendered by banks are the following: By receiving deposits of
+money they are the means by which the surplus capital of one part of a
+country is transferred to another where it may be advantageously employed
+in stimulating industry; they enable vast and numerous money transactions
+to be carried on without the intervention of coin or notes at all, thus
+obviating trouble, risk, and expense. The mechanism by which the last of
+these benefits is secured is to be found in perfection in the London
+Clearing House.
+
+The modern tendency of banks is towards amalgamation. The large English
+banking institutions have absorbed many of the smaller banks. They have
+also made working arrangements with Scotch and Irish banks and with similar
+institutions abroad.
+
+The result of these amalgamations is to give control of immense financial
+resources to a smaller number of banks. In 1918 the Government appointed a
+Committee to inquire into the effect of such amalgamations and absorptions.
+The terms of reference were: "To consider and report to what extent, if at
+all, amalgamations between banks may affect prejudicially the interests of
+the industrial and mercantile community, and whether it is desirable that
+legislation should be introduced to prohibit such amalgamations or to
+provide safeguards under which they might continue to be permitted"; and
+the Committee reported: "That legislation be passed requiring that the
+prior approval of the Government must be obtained before any amalgamations
+are announced or carried into effect".
+
+In order, however, that such legislation may not have the effect of
+producing secret amalgamations, the Committee decided that "all proposals
+for agreements which would alter the status of a bank as regards its
+separate entity and control, or for purchase by one bank of the shares of
+another bank, be also submitted for the prior approval of the Government
+before they are carried out".
+
+Another development is the registration of the British Overseas Bank,
+Limited, with a nominal capital of L5,000,000. The principal object of this
+institution is to carry on general banking business in all parts of the
+world. Four banks--two English, one Scotch, and one having connections with
+South America--are financially interested in the Overseas Bank.
+
+Banking operations on a considerable scale appear to have been conducted by
+the ancients, and recent excavations have proved that in the seventh
+century B.C. banking was practised at Bagdad by a firm of Egibi & Sons.
+Modern banking, however, must be regarded as having had an independent
+origin in the reviving civilization of the Middle Ages. In the twelfth
+century almost the whole trade of Europe was in the hands of the Italian
+cities, and it was in these that the need of bankers was first felt. The
+earliest public bank, that of Venice, established in 1171 and existing down
+to the dissolution of the Republic in 1797, was for some time a bank of
+deposit only, the Government being responsible for the deposits, and the
+whole capital being in effect a public loan. In the early periods of the
+operations of this bank deposits could not be withdrawn, but the depositor
+had a credit at the bank to the amount deposited, this credit being
+transferable to another person in place of money payment. Subsequently
+deposits were allowed to be withdrawn, the original system proving
+inconvenient outside the Venetian boundaries. It is, however, less from the
+Bank of Venice than from the Florentine bankers of the thirteenth and
+fourteenth centuries that modern banking specially dates, the magnitude of
+their operations being indicated by the fact that between 1430 and 1433, 76
+bankers of Florence issued on loan nearly 5,000,000 gold florins. The Bank
+of St. George at Genoa also furnished a striking chapter in financial
+history. The important Bank of Amsterdam, taken by Adam Smith as a type of
+the older banks, was established in 1509, and owed its origin to the
+fluctuation and uncertainty induced by the clipped and worn currency. The
+object of the institution (established under guarantee of the city) was to
+give a certain and unquestionable value to a bill on Amsterdam; and for
+this purpose the various coins were received in deposit at the bank at
+their real value in standard coin, less a small charge for recoinage and
+expense of management. For the amount deposited a credit was opened on the
+books of the bank, by the transfer of which payments could be made, this
+so-called _bank money_ being of uniform value as representing money at the
+mint standard. It bore, therefore, an _agio_ or premium above the worn-coin
+currency, and it was legally compulsory to make all payments of 600
+guilders and upwards in bank money. The deposits were supposed to remain in
+the coffers of the bank, but they were secretly traded with in the
+eighteenth century till the collapse of the bank in 1790. Banks of a
+similar character were established at Nuremberg and other towns, the most
+important being the Bank of Hamburg, founded in 1619. In England there was
+no corresponding institution, the London merchants being in the habit of
+lodging their money at the Mint in the Tower, until Charles I appropriated
+the whole of it (L200,000) in 1640. Thenceforth they lodged it with the
+goldsmiths, who began to do banking business in a small way, encouraging
+deposits by allowing interest for their use, lending money for short
+periods, discounting bills, &c. The bank-note was first invented and issued
+in 1690 by the Bank of Stockholm, founded by Palmstruck in 1688, and one of
+the most successful of banking establishments. About the same time the
+banks of England and Scotland began to take shape, opening up a new era in
+the financing of commerce and industry.
+
+_Bank of England._--The Bank of England, the most important banking
+establishment in the world, was projected by William Paterson, who was
+afterwards the promoter of the disastrous Darien scheme. It was the first
+public bank in the United Kingdom, and was chartered in 1694 by an Act
+which, among other things, secured certain recompenses to such persons as
+should advance the sum of L1,500,000 towards carrying on the war against
+France. Subscribers to the loan became, under the Act, stockholders, to the
+amount of their respective subscriptions, in the capital stock of a
+corporation, denominated the _Governor and Company of the Bank of England_.
+The company thus formed advanced to the Government L1,200,000 at an
+interest of 8 per cent--the Government making an additional bonus or
+allowance to the bank of L4000 annually for the management of this loan
+(which, in fact, constituted the capital of the bank), and for settling the
+interest and making transfers, &c., among the various stockholders. This
+bank, like that of Venice, was thus originally an engine of the Government,
+and not a mere commercial establishment. Its capital has been added to from
+time to time, the original capital of L1,200,000 having increased to
+L14,553,000 in 1816, since which no further augmentation has taken place.
+There exists besides, however, a variable 'rest' of over L3,000,000. The
+charter of the bank was originally granted for eleven years certain, or
+till a year's notice after 1st Aug., 1705. It was subsequently renewed for
+various periods in 1697, 1708, 1713, 1742, 1764, 1781, 1800, 1833, and
+1844, certain conditions which the bank had to fulfil being specified at
+each renewal. On this last occasion it was continued till twelve months'
+notice from 1855. At the same time the issue department of the bank was
+established as distinct from the general banking department, the sole
+business entrusted to the former being the issue of notes. By this
+arrangement the bank was authorized to issue notes to the value of
+L14,000,000 upon securities specially set apart, the most important of the
+securities being the sum of L11,015,100 due to the bank by the Government,
+together with so much of the coin and bullion then held by the bank as was
+not required by the banking department. The bank has since been permitted
+to increase its issue on securities to L18,450,000, but for every note that
+the issue department may issue beyond the total sum of L18,450,000 an
+equivalent amount of coin or bullion must be paid into the coffers of the
+bank. For its special privileges the bank has to pay to the Government an
+annual sum of L180,000, and the profit derived from the issue of notes
+beyond L14,000,000. The Bank of England notes are practically equivalent to
+gold. They are (like all English bank-notes) of the value of L5 and
+upwards, and are legal tender throughout England. Notes once issued by the
+bank and returned to it are not reissued but are destroyed--a system
+adopted in order to facilitate the keeping of an account of the numbers of
+the notes in circulation, and so prevent forgery. On 7th Aug., 1914,
+Government notes for L1, and ten shillings, were issued convertible into
+gold at the Bank of England.
+
+In compliance also with the Bank Charter Act of 1844 the bank is compelled
+to publish a weekly account, of which the following is a specimen:--
+
+   _Dr_.        ISSUE DEPARTMENT. Week ending 11th August, 1920     _Cr_.
+
+  Notes issued           L139,980,460 | Government debt        L11,015,100
+                                      | Other securities         7,434,900
+                                      | Gold coin and bullion  121,530,460
+                                      | Silver bullion              ---
+                         ------------ |                       ------------
+                         L139,980,460 |                       L139,980,460
+
+   _Dr_.                      BANKING DEPARTMENT                    _Cr_.
+
+  Capital                 L14,553,000 | Government securities   L68,250,449
+  Rest                      3,458,795 | Other securities         73,805,565
+  Public deposits          15,999,059 | Notes                    14,452,665
+  Other deposits          124,018,988 | Gold and silver coin      1,537,092
+  Seven-day and other          15,929 |
+   bills                 ------------ |                        ------------
+                         L158,045,771 |                        L158,045,771
+
+The total of the notes given out by the issue department is called the
+'issue circulation', the portion of it in the hands of the public being the
+'active circulation', and that still in the banking department being the
+'note reserve'. This 'note reserve' represents really the amount of bullion
+in the issue department available for the use of the banking department. Of
+the other items in the account it may be noted that the proprietors' 'rest'
+is a varying surplus increased always by accumulated profits up to 5th
+April and 10th Oct., when the bank dividends are paid to the shareholders;
+and that the public deposits, which include sums lodged on account of the
+customs, inland revenue, &c., increase through revenue receipts until the
+dividend terms in January, April, July, and October. The other or private
+deposits comprise those of bankers, merchants, and other persons. An
+increase in these private deposits indicates an increase of monetary ease,
+while a decrease informs us that bankers, merchants, and traders have calls
+upon them for money. A better indication of the demand for money is
+furnished, however, by the advances on commercial securities, and it is by
+this and the condition of the reserve that the bank rate of discount is
+regulated. When the reserve is high and the advances moderate the discount
+rate is low, and it is raised according as the reserve falls and advances
+are more in request, especially during an adverse foreign exchange and
+drain of gold. Gold is thus restrained from going abroad, and its influx
+into the country is encouraged. In addition to the profit which the bank
+may make by ordinary banking business, by the Bank Act of 1892 and the
+Revenue Act of 1906, it receives an allowance for the management of the
+national debt, at the rate of L325 per million on 500 millions, and L100
+per million on all debt above that sum. The annual sum is not to be less
+than L160,000. It also derives a profit from foreign gold coin and bullion
+brought to it, for which it pays L3, 17s. 9d., or 1-1/2d. per ounce less
+than the real value.
+
+The management of the bank is in the hands of a governor, deputy-governor,
+and twenty-four directors, elected by stock-holders who have held L500 of
+stock for six months previous to the election. A director is required to
+hold L2000, a deputy-governor L3000, and a governor L4000 of the stock. The
+court or board of directors meets every Thursday, when the weekly account
+is presented. The Bank of England has branches in Liverpool, Manchester,
+Newcastle, Birmingham, Leeds, Hull, Bristol, Plymouth, and Portsmouth.
+
+The other English banks consist of numerous joint-stock and private banks
+in London and the provinces, many of the provincial establishments of both
+kinds having the right to issue notes. Private banks in London with not
+more than six partners have never been prevented from issuing notes, but
+they could not profitably compete with the Bank of England. The maximum
+issues of the provincial banks are limited to a certain amount, against
+which they are not compelled to hold gold in reserve, and they have no
+power to issue against specie in excess of the fixed circulation. Their
+actual issues are considerably below this amount. No union can take place
+between a joint-stock bank and a private bank, or between two joint-stock
+banks of issue, without one of them losing its issue. Their total
+authorized circulation is about L2,958,900, but the actual circulation of
+these banks is now only about L1,200,000, being distributed among about
+eighteen private and about twenty joint-stock banks. The notes of these
+banks are payable in Bank of England paper. The greater number of
+joint-stock banks are of limited liability, though their liability in
+respect of their notes is unlimited. Some of them have a large number of
+branches. All the joint-stock banks allow interest on money deposited with
+them. The total paid-up capital and reserves of the English joint-stock
+banks is about L100,000,000.
+
+_Scotland_.--In Scotland there are no private banks, the only banks in that
+portion of the United Kingdom being eight joint-stock banks of issue, and
+their branches (the Mercantile and Savings not being banks of issue). By
+the Act of 1845 new banks of issue were prohibited, a monopoly being given
+to such establishments (nineteen in number) as existed in the year previous
+to 1st May, 1845. At the same time the issue of each was limited to the
+amount of its average circulation during that year, together with the
+specie held at the head office. Any bank issuing notes in excess of this
+limit is supposed to hold an equivalent amount of gold. The aggregate
+authorized circulation is now L2,676,350; the average actual circulation is
+fully L7,000,000. The Bank of Scotland, established by Act of Parliament in
+1695, had for its original capital only L100,000, increased to L200,000 in
+1744; but it now has a capital of L1,325,000 paid up. It remained the only
+bank in Scotland till the Royal Bank of Scotland was established in 1727,
+with an original capital of L151,000, which has grown to L2,000,000 paid
+up. The British Linen Company was incorporated in 1746, for the purpose of
+promoting the linen manufacture, but soon became a general banking company;
+capital, L1,250,000 paid up. These three banks claim to be by their
+charters banks of limited liability. All the other Scottish banks have been
+established within the nineteenth century. They are all incorporated by
+royal charter or Act of Parliament, which enables them to sue and be sued
+as a corporation, and latterly they have all become banks of limited
+liability, except that their liability is not to be limited in respect to
+their note issue. The total paid-up capital of the Scotch banks is
+L9,300,000. A large number of one-pound notes circulate in Scotland, thus
+tending to keep the requirements for gold low. From allowing a moderate
+rate of interest on deposit accounts (although not on current accounts) it
+is not uncommon for depositors in Scottish banks to lodge their money
+permanently as an investment; and the habit of keeping an account with a
+banker is much more general in Scotland than in England, branch offices of
+the banks being very numerous. Several of the Scotch banks have branch
+offices in London, but of course they cannot issue their own notes from
+these offices. The Scotch banks have enjoyed a high reputation for
+stability, and though public confidence was somewhat shaken by the failure
+of the Western Bank in 1857, and even more rudely by that of the City of
+Glasgow Bank in 1878, their shares are generally looked upon as a safe and
+remunerative investment. Their total deposits amount to fully L107,000,000.
+
+_Ireland._--The banks in Ireland consist of one public or national bank,
+the Bank of Ireland, and of sundry joint-stock and private banks. The
+authorized note circulation is arranged on the same footing as that of the
+Scotch banks. If any bank discontinues its issue and issues notes of the
+Bank of Ireland, the circulation of the latter may be to an equal amount
+increased. The authorized circulation is L6,354,494; the actual circulation
+is sometimes a little above, sometimes a little below. The Bank of Ireland,
+which was established by charter in 1783 with similar privileges to those
+granted to the Bank of England, has lent the greater portion of its capital
+to Government. Its capital is L2,769,230 (or L3,000,000 Irish); it has also
+a rest or reserve of over L1,000,000. The bank allows interest on deposits
+when lodged for a stated period.
+
+_Banque de France._--The Bank of France is second in importance only to the
+Bank of England. It was established in the beginning of the nineteenth
+century, at first with a capital of 45,000,000 francs, and with the
+exclusive privilege in Paris of issuing notes payable to bearer, a
+privilege which was extended in 1848 to cover the whole of France. It has
+numerous branches in the larger towns, a number of these having been
+acquired in 1848, when certain joint-stock banks of issue were by
+Government decree incorporated with the Bank of France, the capital of
+which was then increased to 91,250,000 francs (L3,650,000), in 91,250
+shares of 1000 francs each. In 1857 the capital was doubled, and besides
+this it has a large surplus capital or rest. Like the Bank of England, it
+is a bank of deposit, discount, and circulation, and is a large creditor of
+the State. The Government appoints the governor and the two
+deputy-governors, who are all required to be stockholders. There is also a
+body of fifteen directors and three censors, nominated by the shareholders.
+The value of its note circulation in March, 1922, was 36,225,852,000
+francs.
+
+_British Colonies._--With regard to the banks in British colonies little
+need be said. All the more important are joint-stock concerns, and they are
+carried on subject to Acts passed by the respective colonial legislatures.
+Some of them have their head-quarters in London, and have been established
+by English capital. In Canada the banks are not allowed to issue notes of
+lower denominations than five dollars, notes for one and two dollars and
+higher amounts being issued by the Dominion Government; and the banking
+laws are such that there is no possibility of holders of bank-notes being
+losers by them. The total paid-up capital of the Canadian banks is about
+L20,000,000; their total deposits about L135,000,000.
+
+_United States._--The more important of the banks of the United States are
+what are called national banks, established in accordance with an Act
+passed in 1863. Associations of this kind at starting must invest at least
+a third of their paid-up capital in Government bonds, which pay them an
+interest of 4 per cent more or less. They then obtain from the Government
+bureau, established for the purpose, 90 per cent of paper-money sheets,
+which they sign and pay out, this constituting their note circulation.
+These banks pay no interest to depositors. Besides the notes of these banks
+a large portion of the currency of the United States consists of Government
+notes issued from the national treasury. There are also banks chartered by
+the different States and private banks.
+
+_Savings-banks_ are banks established for the receiving of small sums, so
+as to be taken advantage of by the poorer classes, and they are carried on
+entirely for the benefit of the depositors. They are of comparatively
+recent origin, one of the earliest having been an institution in which
+small sums were received, and interest allowed on them, established by Mrs.
+Priscilla Wakefield, at Tottenham, near London, in 1803. The first
+savings-bank in Scotland was formed in 1810 by the Rev. Henry Duncan, of
+Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire. In 1814 the Edinburgh savings-bank was established
+on the same principles, and the system soon spread over the kingdom. The
+first Act relating to savings-banks was passed in 1817. By it all deposits
+in savings-banks, as soon as they reached L50, were placed in the hands of
+the National Debt Commissioners, who allowed interest on them. In 1824 it
+was enacted that the deposits for the first year should not exceed L50, nor
+those in subsequent years L30, the total deposits being limited to L150,
+and interest ceasing to be paid when accrued interest made the total L200.
+By the Act of 1893 the limit of annual deposit was raised to L50, and the
+interest is now rather less than 3 per cent. An Act of 1833 had provided
+for the purchase of Government annuities by depositors either for life or
+for a term of years; and an annuity of any amount up to L100 may now be
+obtained. Depositors in savings-banks (by an Act of 1880) can also have
+their money invested for them in Government stock, the banks collecting and
+paying the dividends; and when accrued interest raises an account above
+L200 the excess is now so invested for the depositor. The total amount
+invested by one person in Government stock is not to exceed L500, nor L200
+in one year. These banks are managed by local trustees having no personal
+interest in the business, and by certain paid officers. A new class of
+savings-banks, namely, _Post Office Savings-banks_, was established in
+Britain in connection with the money-order department of the Post Office in
+1861. Any sum not less than a shilling is received, provided that the total
+amount banked does not exceed L50 in one year, or more than L200 in all;
+the excess of accrued interest above this being invested in Government
+stock. Interest is paid on every complete pound at the rate of 2-1/2 per
+cent. For the deposits the Government is responsible, and they may be drawn
+from any Post Office Savings-bank in the kingdom. These savings-banks have
+become very numerous, and much of the funds formerly in the trustees'
+savings-banks has been transferred to them. The total amount deposited in
+the old banks is now about L52,000,000, in the new about L157,600,000. The
+regulations regarding the purchase of Government stock and annuities
+correspond with those given above. Savings-banks are now well known in all
+civilized countries, and the good they have done is incalculable. In the
+United States there is an enormous amount of money deposited in them. Post
+Office Savings-banks have been proposed to be established in the States,
+but have not yet been so. In Canada, Australia, and other British colonies
+they are established, as well as savings-banks of several other kinds.
+School savings-banks are the most recent institutions of this kind, and
+have had a marked effect for good.
+
+_Bank Holidays_, in England and Ireland, Good Friday, Easter Monday, Whit
+Monday, first Monday in August, Christmas and following day, or 27th (if
+next day is a Sunday); in Scotland, New-Year's Day, first Monday of May and
+August and Christmas.
+
+BANKRUPT (from It. _banca rotta_ 'bank broken' or 'bench broken'. Dr.
+Johnson said that the word originated from the Italian custom of breaking
+the bench of an insolvent money-changer; but _rotta_ also means
+'interrupted' or 'stopped', and is here used more in the sense of our
+colloquial word _broken_, and means 'insolvent'), a person whom the law
+does or may take cognizance of as unable to pay his debts. Properly it is
+of narrower signification than _insolvent_, an insolvent person simply
+being unable to pay all his debts. In England up till 1861 the term
+_bankrupt_ was limited to an insolvent trader, and such traders were on a
+different footing from other insolvent persons, the latter not getting the
+same legal relief from their debts. In all civilized communities laws have
+been passed regarding bankruptcy. At present bankruptcy in England is
+regulated by the Bankruptcy Acts of 1883 and 1890, which have as one chief
+feature the intervention of the Board of Trade in the proceedings, with the
+object of obtaining full official supervision and control. A bankruptcy
+petition may be presented either by a creditor or a debtor. A creditor's
+petition must be founded on a debt of not less than fifty pounds, due to
+one or more creditors, and on an 'act of bankruptcy' committed by the
+debtor within three months before the presentation of the petition. A
+debtor commits an act of bankruptcy if he makes a conveyance of his
+property to a trustee for the benefit of his creditors; if he makes a
+fraudulent transfer of any part of his property; if, to defeat or delay his
+creditors, he conceal himself either at home or abroad; if execution issued
+against him has been enforced by seizure and sale of his goods under
+process in an action in any court; if he files in court a declaration of
+inability to pay his debts, or presents a bankruptcy petition against
+himself; if a creditor has obtained a final judgment against him for any
+amount and he fail to pay the judgment debt without satisfactory reason; or
+if the debtor gives notice to any of his creditors that he has suspended,
+or is about to suspend, payment of his debts. In London jurisdiction in
+bankruptcy now rests with the High Court of Justice, while the county
+courts continue to have jurisdiction in bankruptcy outside the London
+district. When the court is satisfied as to the petition, a 'receiving
+order' is issued to protect the debtor's estate by constituting the
+official appointed by the Board of Trade receiver of the debtor's property,
+and to stay the remedies of all creditors until the meeting of creditors.
+The debtor must make out a full statement of his affairs, accounting as
+best he can for his insolvency. The official receiver summons the meeting
+of creditors, a summary of the debtor's affairs being sent to each creditor
+with the notice of the meeting, which is also advertised in the _London
+Gazette_. The creditors must send to the official receiver, one day before
+the meeting, sworn proofs of their claims to enable them to vote. At the
+meeting the creditors (unless the debtor's proposal for a composition or
+scheme be entertained) pass a resolution adjudging the debtor bankrupt, and
+appoint a trustee of the bankrupt's property, with a committee of
+inspection selected from their own body to superintend the administration
+of the bankrupt's property by the trustee, who divides the available
+realized assets amongst all creditors who have sent sworn proofs of claims.
+Rates, assessments, and taxes, and all wages or salary of a clerk, servant,
+labourer, or workman during four months before the date of the receiving
+order not exceeding L50 are paid in priority to all other debts. The
+trustee is required to give satisfactory security to the Board of Trade, by
+which his accounts are audited not less than twice in each year. All moneys
+received by the trustee under the bankruptcy must be paid forthwith to an
+account kept at the Bank of England by the Board of Trade, called the
+'Bankruptcy Estates Account'. The debtor is bound to be publicly examined
+upon oath in court, and any creditor who has tendered a proof, or his
+representative, may take part in the examination. Until the debtor has
+passed his public examination he cannot apply for an order of discharge,
+and upon proof of misdemeanour the court refuses or suspends the discharge.
+A discharged bankrupt is disqualified for five years from acting as member
+of Parliament, justice of peace, alderman, overseer of the poor, county
+councillor, or as a member of any school, highway, or burial board. An
+undischarged bankrupt obtaining credit to the extent of L20 or upwards from
+any person, without informing such person of his status, is guilty of a
+misdemeanour. By the Act of 1883 the creditors may at the first meeting
+resolve to entertain a proposal for a composition or scheme of arrangement
+of the debtor's affairs, but the composition or scheme shall not be binding
+on the creditors, unless confirmed at a second meeting by a majority in
+number representing three-fourths in value of all the creditors who have
+proved. The composition or scheme has then to be formally brought before
+the court for approval, which may be refused. A composition or scheme may
+be sanctioned by the court after the debtor's adjudication as a bankrupt,
+and in this case the bankruptcy is annulled. Though imprisonment for debt
+has been abolished, fraudulent bankrupts may be punished, and the conduct
+of prosecutions for offences arising out of any bankruptcy proceeding falls
+to the public prosecutor. The estates of persons dying insolvent may be
+administered according to the law of bankruptcy. The Act of 1913 embodies
+suggestions of the Bankruptcy Law Amendment Committee of 1906. Thus, the
+Summary Jurisdiction Act can now be applied to offenders under the Debtors'
+Act. Whereas previously conviction for such offences as failure to keep
+proper accounts and concealment of debt could only be by trial before a
+jury, they are punishable after summary trial before a stipendiary
+magistrate or justice of the peace, the onus of proving innocence falling
+on the debtor. A married woman, too, may be made bankrupt even if not
+trading separately from her husband.
+
+According to Scots law bankruptcy is notorious insolvency, that is, a
+public acknowledgment of inability to discharge obligations. By a judicial
+proceeding, called _sequestration_, authorized by the Court of Session or
+sheriff court, on the petition of the debtor himself with the concurrence
+of one creditor swearing to a debt of L50, two whose debts together amount
+to L70, or of any number of creditors whose debts together amount to L100;
+or on the petition of a creditor or creditors to the foregoing extent
+without the concurrence of the debtor, if he has clearly shown himself to
+be insolvent (or a _notour bankrupt_), the whole estates and effects of the
+debtor, real and personal, are legally taken for behoof of the creditors.
+The debtor's estate is then made over to a trustee chosen by the creditors,
+the trustee being charged to bring the whole estate into the form of money,
+with certain precautions, and to receive, investigate, and reject or admit
+the claims of the creditors, subject to review of the Court of Session or
+sheriff court by summary petition. The debtor, and all who can give
+information as to the estate, must submit to public examination on oath
+before the sheriff of the county, and the debtor may thereafter, or by
+petition after six, twelve, or eighteen months from sequestration, be
+discharged of all debts by the court with consent of the creditors or a
+number of them, or at the expiry of two years without consent. These
+proceedings may be partly superseded by 'composition' if such be assented
+to by a majority in number and nine-tenths in value of creditors, or by a
+majority in number and four-fifths in value of the creditors, according to
+the period at which such arrangement may be proposed. They may also be
+terminated by a deed of arrangement entered into between the bankrupt and a
+majority in number and four-fifths in value of his creditors, approved of
+by the court. Before a discharge is given there must be a report from the
+trustee as to the conduct of the bankrupt, whether he has complied with the
+provisions of the Act, whether his bankruptcy is culpable or not, &c.
+Before the abolition of imprisonment for ordinary civil debts by Act passed
+in 1880, an insolvent debtor often took advantage of a form of process by
+which, on making a complete _cessio bonorum_, or surrender to his creditors
+of all his property, he might obtain protection from imprisonment. Though
+no person can now be imprisoned for ordinary debts, a creditor of a
+_notour_ bankrupt may present a petition to the sheriff, praying him to
+decern that the debtor assign over all his goods for behoof of his
+creditors and that a trustee be appointed; and this proceeding is still
+designated a process of _cessio bonorum_. The Act of 1880 also provides for
+the better punishment of fraudulent debtors in Scotland. If the debtor's
+liabilities exceed L200, the sheriff may award _sequestration_ of the
+debtor's estate instead of _cessio bonorum_. There is no appeal from the
+sheriff's decision with respect to discharge.
+
+In Ireland there is a special code of bankruptcy contained in special Acts,
+differing to some extent from the regulations prevailing both in England
+and Scotland. Thus in Ireland it is not an offence for an undischarged
+bankrupt to obtain credit to any amount without disclosing the fact of his
+bankruptcy. All bankruptcy business comes before the court at Dublin,
+Belfast, or Cork. Imprisonment for debt was abolished in 1872.
+
+Official returns in Great Britain show a tendency towards a smaller number
+of failures, but a larger amount of money is involved.
+
+In the different British colonies the laws regulating bankruptcy naturally
+differ, and the same is the case with the individual States of the American
+Union, though Congress has the power of legislating for the whole country
+in regard to this, and has oftener than once done so.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H.
+Goudy, _Treatise of the Law of Bankruptcy in Scotland_; Sir R. H. J.
+Palgrave, _Dictionary of Political Economy_; E. T. Baldwin, _The Law of
+Bankruptcy and Bills of Sale_; Sir R. L. V. Williams, _The Law and Practice
+of Bankruptcy_; R. Ringwood, _The Principles of Bankruptcy_.
+
+BANKS, Sir Joseph, Baronet, a distinguished naturalist, born in London
+1743. After studying at Harrow and Eton he went to Oxford in 1760, and
+formed there amongst his fellow-undergraduates a voluntary class in botany,
+&c. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1766, and soon after went
+to Newfoundland and Hudson's Bay to collect plants. In 1768, with Dr.
+Solander, a Swedish gentleman, pupil of Linnaeus, and then assistant
+librarian at the British Museum, he accompanied Cook's expedition as
+naturalist. In 1772 he visited Iceland along with Dr. Solander, and during
+this voyage the Hebrides were examined, and the columnar formation of the
+rocks of Staffa first made known to geologists. In 1777 Banks was chosen
+President of the Royal Society, and in 1781 was made a baronet, and in 1795
+received the Order of the Bath. He wrote only essays, papers for learned
+societies, and short treatises. He died in 1820, and bequeathed his
+collections to the British Museum.
+
+BANKS, Thomas, an English sculptor, born in 1735, died in 1805. He studied
+sculpture in the Royal Academy, where he obtained the gold medal for a
+bas-relief of the _Rape of Proserpine_. In 1772 he went to Italy, where he
+executed several excellent pieces, particularly _Cupid tormenting a
+Butterfly_, which was afterwards purchased by the Empress Catherine. On
+leaving Italy he spent two unsatisfactory years in Russia, and then
+returned to England, where he was soon after made an Academician. One of
+his best-known works is _Shakespeare attended by Painting and Poetry_.
+Among his other works was a colossal statue--_Achilles mourning the loss of
+Briseis_--in the hall of the British Institution, and the monument of Sir
+Eyre Coote in Westminster Abbey. His bust of Warren Hastings is in the
+National Gallery.
+
+BANK'SIA (named after Sir Joseph Banks), a genus of Australian shrubs and
+trees, order Proteaceae, with leathery leaves generally dark-green on the
+upper surface and pale below, often cultivated in conservatories for their
+peculiar foliage and flowers. They are named "honeysuckles" by the
+colonists, from the honey the flowers contain.
+
+BANKS'RING. See _Banxring_.
+
+BANKURA', a town of Bengal, on the Dhalkisor River, healthy and with a
+considerable trade Pop. 21,000.
+
+BANN, Upper and Lower, two rivers in the N. of Ireland, the former rising
+in the mountains of Mourne, County Down, and, after flowing 38 miles in a
+northerly direction, falling into Lough Neagh, the latter being the outlet
+of Lough Neagh, and falling into the Atlantic Ocean 4 miles below
+Coleraine, after a course of nearly 40 miles.
+
+BAN'NATYNE CLUB, a literary society instituted in Edinburgh (1823) by Sir
+Walter Scott (its first president), David Laing (secretary till its
+dissolution in 1861), Archibald Constable, and Thomas Thomson. It started
+with thirty-one members, subsequently extended to 100, having as its object
+the printing of rare works on Scottish history, literature, geography, &c.
+It derived its name from George Bannatyne (1545-1609), the collector of the
+famous MS. of early Scottish poetry.
+
+BAN'NERET, formerly, in England, a knight made on the field of battle as a
+reward for bravery, with the ceremony of cutting off the point of his
+pennon and making it a banner. The first banneret in England was made by
+King Edward I, and the last (John Smith) by Charles I after the battle of
+Edgehill in 1642.
+
+BAN'NOCK, a cake made of oatmeal, barley-meal, or peasemeal baked on an
+iron plate or griddle over the fire. From a supposed resemblance the turbot
+is sometimes called in Scotland the _Bannock-fluke_.
+
+BANNOCKBURN, a village of Scotland, in Stirlingshire, 2 miles S.E.
+Stirling, famous for the decisive battle in which King Robert Bruce of
+Scotland defeated Edward II of England, on the 24th June, 1314. It has
+manufactures of woollens, such as tartans, carpets, &c.; pop. 4103.
+
+BANNS OF MARRIAGE, public notice of the intended celebration of a marriage
+given either by proclamation, viva voce, by a clergyman, session-clerk, or
+precentor in some religious assembly, or by posting up written notice in
+some public place. Dissent of parents or guardians renders null and void
+the publication of the banns of minors. In France the banns must be
+published on two distinct Sundays, and the marriage cannot take place until
+three days after the second publication. In America the practice is
+confined to the Roman Catholics, although it is still recognized in the
+statutes of some of the States.
+
+BANNU, a district in the north-west of Hindustan, traversed by the Indus;
+area, 3847 sq. miles; pop. 390,000, nearly half being Afghans.
+
+BANQUETTE (bang-ket') in fortification, the elevation of earth behind a
+parapet, on which the garrison or defenders may stand. The height of the
+parapet above the banquette is usually about 4 feet 6 inches; the breadth
+of the banquette from 2-1/2 or 3 feet to 4 or 6 feet, according to the
+number of ranks to occupy it. It is frequently made double, that is, a
+second is made still lower.
+
+BANSHEE', or BENSHI', a fairy woman believed in Ireland and some parts of
+Scotland to attach herself to a particular house, and to appear or make her
+presence known by wailing before the death of one of the family.
+
+BAN'TAM, a residency occupying the whole of the W. end of the Island of
+Java. It formed an independent kingdom, governed by its own sultan, till
+1683, and the Dutch exercised suzerainty with brief intermission until its
+formal incorporation by them at the beginning of last century. It produces
+rice, coffee, sugar, cinnamon, &c. Serang is its capital. The town Bantam
+was the first Dutch settlement in Java (1595), and for some time their
+principal mart, though now not so prosperous.
+
+BAN'TAM FOWL, a small but spirited breed of domestic fowl, first brought
+from the East Indies, supposed to derive its name from Bantam in Java. Most
+of the sub-varieties have feathered legs; but these are not to be
+preferred. In point of colour the black and nankeen varieties are the best.
+A well-bred bantam does not weigh more than a pound.
+
+BANTENG' (_Bos Banteng_ or _Sondaicus_), a wild species of ox, native of
+Java and Borneo, having a black body, slender white legs, short sleek hair,
+sharp muzzle, and the back humped behind the neck.
+
+BANTING SYSTEM, a course of diet for reducing superfluous fat, adopted and
+recommended in 1863 by W. Banting of London. The dietary recommended was
+the use of butcher-meat principally, and abstinence from beer, farinaceous
+food, and vegetables. See _Corpulence_.
+
+BAN'TRY, a seaport near the head of Bantry Bay, County Cork, Ireland. Pop.
+3159.--The _bay_, one of three large inlets at the S.W. extremity of
+Ireland, affords an unsurpassed anchorage, and is about 25 miles long by 4
+to 6 broad, and from 10 to 40 fathoms deep, with no dangerous rocks or
+shoals.
+
+BANTU (baen-toe'), the ethnological name of a group of African races below
+about 6deg N. latitude, and including the Kaffirs, Zulus, Bechuanas, the
+tribes of the Loango, Congo, &c., but not the Hottentots.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+Deniker, _Races of Man_; J. Roscoe, _The Northern Bantu_.
+
+BANU. See _Bannu_.
+
+BANX'RING (genus Tapaia), a quadruped belonging to the Insectivora,
+inhabiting the Indian Archipelago, bearing some resemblance externally to a
+squirrel, but having a long pointed snout.
+
+[Illustration: Banyan (_Ficus benghalensis_)]
+
+BAN'YAN (_Ficus benghalensis_), a tree of India, of the fig genus. The most
+peculiar feature of this tree is its method of throwing out from the
+horizontal branches supports which take root as soon as they reach the
+ground, enlarge into trunks, and, extending branches in their turn, soon
+cover a prodigious extent of ground. A celebrated banyan tree has been
+known to shelter 7000 men beneath its shade. The wood is soft and porous,
+and from its white glutinous juice bird-lime is sometimes prepared. Both
+juice and bark are regarded by the Hindus as valuable medicines, and the
+tree itself is sacred. The banyan tree is described by Southey in his poem
+_The Curse of Kehama_.
+
+[Illustration: Baobab or Monkey-bread Tree (_Adansonia digitata_)]
+
+BA'OBAB (_Adansonia digit[=a]ta_) or MONKEY-BREAD TREE, a tree belonging to
+the nat. ord. (or sub-ord.) Bombaceae, and the best-known species of its
+genus, which was named after the naturalist Adanson. Though not tall, it is
+one of the bulkiest of trees, its trunk sometimes measuring 30 feet in
+diameter, and as the profusion of leaves and drooping boughs sometimes
+almost hides the stem, the whole forms a hemispherical mass of verdure 140
+to 150 feet in diameter and 60 to 70 feet high. It is a native of the
+African savannahs, and is cultivated in many of the warmer parts of the
+world. The roots are of extraordinary length, a tree 77 feet in girth
+having a tap-root 110 feet in length. The leaves are deep green, divided
+into five unequal parts lanceolate in shape, and radiating from a common
+centre. The flowers resemble the white poppy, having snowy petals and
+violet-coloured stamens; and the fruit, which is large and of an oblong
+shape, is said to taste like gingerbread, with a pleasant acid flavour. The
+wood is pale-coloured, light, and contains a large store of water, which
+enables the tree to withstand prolonged drought. The tree is liable to be
+attacked by a fungus which, growing in the woody part, renders it soft and
+pithlike. By the negroes of the west coast these trunks are hollowed into
+chambers, and dead bodies are suspended in them. There they become
+perfectly dry and well preserved, without further preparation or embalming.
+The baobab is emollient and mucilaginous; the pulverized leaves constitute
+_lalo_, which the natives mix with their daily food.
+
+BAPAUME, a French town in the department of Pas-de-Calais. It has been the
+scene of several battles. In 1793 the French were compelled by the allied
+troops to abandon the place, and in the Franco-German war one of the most
+closely-contested battles was fought there on 3rd Jan., 1871. Bapaume,
+occupied by the Germans in the European War, was recaptured by British
+troops on 29th Aug., 1918, the great battle of Bapaume having begun on 21st
+Aug. Pop. (1911) 2917.
+
+BAPH'OMET, the imaginary idol or symbol which the Templars were accused of
+employing in their mysterious rites, and of which little is known. The word
+is supposed to be a corruption of Mahomet, to whose faith the Templars were
+accused of having a leaning. See _Gnosticism_.
+
+BAPTISM (from the Gr. _baptiz[=o]_, from _bapt[=o]_, to immerse or dip), a
+rite which is generally thought to have been usual with the Jews even
+before Christ, being administered to proselytes. All that can be said,
+however, with some certainty is that the Jewish baptism was not of later
+origin than the Christian baptism. Anyhow, from this baptism that of St.
+John the Baptist differed, because he baptized Jews also as a symbol of the
+necessity of perfect purification from sin. Christ himself never baptized,
+but directed his disciples to administer this rite to converts (_Mat._
+xxviii, 19); and baptism, therefore, became a religious ceremony among
+Christians, taking rank as a sacrament with all sects which acknowledge
+sacraments. It should, however, be borne in mind that among many peoples a
+rite is found which has considerable likeness to Christian baptism. In the
+primitive Church the person to be baptized was dipped in a river or in a
+vessel, with the words which Christ had ordered, generally adopting a new
+name further to express the change. Sprinkling, or, as it was termed,
+_clinic_ baptism, was used only in the case of the sick who could not leave
+their beds. The Greek Church and Eastern schismatics retained the custom of
+immersion; but the Western Church adopted or allowed the mode of baptism by
+pouring or sprinkling, since continued by most Protestants. This practice
+can be traced back certainly to the third century, before which its
+existence is disputed. Since the Reformation there have been various
+Protestant sects called Baptists, holding that baptism should be
+administered only by immersion, and to those who can make a personal
+profession of faith. The Montanists in Africa baptized even the dead, and
+in Roman Catholic countries the practice of baptizing church bells--a
+custom of tenth-century origin--continues to this day. Being an initiatory
+rite, baptism is only administered once to the same person. The Roman and
+Greek Catholics consecrate the water of baptism, but Protestants do not.
+The act of baptism is accompanied only with the formula that the person is
+baptized in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost; but, among most
+Christians, it is preceded by a confession of faith made by the person to
+be baptized if an adult, and by his parents or sponsors if he be a child.
+The Roman Catholic form of baptism is far more elaborate than the
+Protestant. This Church teaches that all persons not baptized are damned,
+and that even unbaptized infants are not admitted into Heaven; but for
+those whose chief fault was that they had not been baptized, even St.
+Augustine himself believed in a species of mitigated damnation. Protestants
+hold that though the neglect of the sacrament is a sin, yet the saving new
+birth may be found without the performance of the rite which symbolizes it.
+Naming the person baptized forms no essential part of the ceremony, but has
+become almost universal, probably from the ancient custom of renaming the
+catechumen.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_ (vol. ii); S.
+Baring-Gould, _Origin and Development of Religious Belief_; J. E. Hanaver,
+_Baptism, Jewish and Christian_; Harnack, _History of Dogma_; article
+_Baptism_ in _Encyclopedia of Ethics and Religion_; Corblet, _Histoire du
+Sacrement du Bapteme_; P. Mauro, _Baptism: its place and importance in
+Christianity_.
+
+[Illustration: Baptistery of S. Giovanni in Laterano, Rome]
+
+BAP'TISTERY, a building or a portion of a building in which is administered
+the rite of baptism. In the early Christian Church the baptistery was
+distinct from the basilica or church, but was situated near its west end,
+and was generally circular or octagonal in form, and dome-roofed. About the
+end of the sixth century the baptistery began to be absorbed into the
+church, the font being placed within and not far from the western door.
+Some detached baptisteries still remain in use, as those of the Lateran,
+Rome (the earliest in existence), at Pisa, Parma, Ravenna, Aquileia, Siena,
+Florence, &c., that of Florence being 108 feet in diameter externally, and
+richly decorated. Baptisteries were dedicated to St. John the Baptist.
+
+BAP'TISTS, a Protestant sect, distinguished by their opinions respecting
+the mode and subjects of baptism. With regard to the mode, they maintain
+the necessity of immersion, and with regard to the subjects, they consider
+that baptism ought not to be administered to children at all, nor to adults
+in general, but to those only who profess repentance and faith. They are
+sometimes called _Anti-paedobaptists_, to express their variance from those
+who defend infant baptism, and who are called _Paedobaptists_. Apart from
+the special sect of that name, Baptists are to be found equally among
+Calvinists and Arminians, Trinitarians and Unitarians. The Baptists as a
+whole adopt the Independent or Congregational form of church government,
+and their ecclesiastical assemblies are held for the purpose of mutual
+stimulus and intercourse, and not for the general government of the body,
+or for interference with individual churches. The Particular Baptists of
+England (so called from believing that Christ died only for the elect), the
+Baptists of Scotland and Ireland, the Associated Baptists of America, and
+some of the Seventh-day Baptists, are Calvinistic. The other classes, such
+as the General Baptists (who believe that Christ died for all), are
+Arminian, or at least not Calvinistic. Most Baptists profess to be
+Trinitarians. The Free-will Baptists, the Christian Society, and most of
+the General Baptists of England admit of open communion; the other bodies
+decline communion with any Christians but Baptists. The Associated or
+Calvinistic Baptists long ranked in the United States as the most numerous
+denomination of Christians. The Seventh-day Baptists, or Sabbatarians,
+observe the seventh day of the week. The Free-will Baptists profess the
+doctrine of free salvation. The Anabaptists of the Reformation period are
+not to be confounded with the Baptists, by whom their principles were
+expressly disclaimed. The first regular Baptist Church appears to have been
+formed in the reign of Elizabeth, but we may date their first public
+acknowledgment as distinct from the Anabaptists from their petition to
+Parliament in 1620. The year 1633 provides the earliest record of the
+formation of a Particular Baptist Church in London. In 1689 a Baptist
+General Assembly, held in London, formulated a confession of thirty-two
+articles and a catechism. The Baptist Union, formed in 1832, comprehends
+the greater number of members of the sect in Great Britain and Ireland. In
+July, 1905, a world-congress of Baptists was held in London, and the
+Baptist World Alliance was constituted. The total number of members of
+Baptist Churches in the United Kingdom was 405,104 in 1922, and 408,029 in
+1920. There are nine colleges for training ministers, of which the chief
+are: Bristol Baptist College; Regent's Park; Rawdon, Bradford; and the
+Metropolitan Pastors' College. The Regular Baptists in the United States
+numbered 7,504,447 members in 1922, and nearly 6,000,000 in 1920, in
+addition to which there are Anti-mission Baptists, Free-will Baptists, and
+Seventh-day Baptists. In Canada there are in all about 128,730
+Baptists.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: H. C. Vedder, _A Short History of the Baptists_;
+A. H. Newman, _History of the Baptist Churches in the United States_; _The
+Baptist Handbook_ (annually); _The American Baptist Year-book_ (annually);
+W. E. MacIntyre, _Baptist Churches, 1500-1914_.
+
+BAR, in law, the railing that encloses the place which counsel occupy in
+courts of justice; hence the phrase, _at the bar of the court_, that is, in
+open court. Hence also persons duly admitted as pleaders or advocates
+before the courts of England are denominated _barristers_ (see
+_Barrister_), and the whole body of such barristers or advocates are called
+the _bar_. The enclosed place or dock in which persons accused of crimes
+stand in court is also called the bar. Near the door of both Houses of
+Parliament there is also a bar, beyond which none but the members and
+clerks are admitted, and at which counsel, witnesses, offenders against
+privilege, &c., are heard.
+
+BAR, in music, is a line drawn through the stave to mark the rhythm of
+small portions; the notes composing these are also called a bar.
+
+BAR, in heraldry, an ordinary resembling the fesse, stretching like it
+horizontally across the shield but narrower.
+
+BAR, CONFEDERATION OF. See _Poland_.
+
+BAR'ABA, the name of a great steppe in the West Siberian governments of
+Tomsk, Akmolinsk, and Tobolsk.
+
+BARABIN'ZIANS, a rude, uncultivated tribe of Tartars, living on the banks
+of the River Irtish, and subsisting chiefly on the produce of their herds
+and on fish supplied by the lakes of the Baraba steppe.
+
+BARAGUEY-D'HILLIERS (b[.a]-r[.a]-g[=a]-d[=e]l-y[=a]),Louis, a distinguished
+French general under the first Empire, born in Paris, 1764. After serving
+under Custine and other generals he joined the army of Italy, and took
+Bergamo and Venice, of which he became Governor. He took part in the
+expedition to Egypt, served in the campaigns in Germany and Spain, and
+commanded a division of the "Great Army" in the Russian campaign of 1812.
+He was entrusted with the direction of the vanguard in the retreat, but was
+compelled to capitulate. Napoleon ordered him to return to France as under
+arrest, but, overcome with grief and fatigue, he died at Berlin on the way,
+Dec., 1812.
+
+BARANOVITCHI, a town in Russia, government of Minsk. A battle was fought
+here between the Russians and the Germans in July, 1916. See _European
+War_.
+
+BARB, a horse of the Barbary breed, introduced by the Moors into Spain, and
+of great speed, endurance, and docility.
+
+[Illustration: Barbacan. Walmgate Bar, York]
+
+BAR'BACAN, or BARBICAN, generally an advanced work defending the entrance
+to a castle or fortified town, as before the gate or drawbridge, and often
+of formidable size and strength.
+
+BARBA'DOES, or BARBADOS, the most eastern of the West India Islands, first
+mentioned in 1518, and occupied by the British in 1625. Length, 21 miles;
+breadth, 13; area, 106,470 acres or 166 sq, miles, about 74,000 being under
+cultivation. It is divided into eleven Church of England parishes; capital,
+Bridgetown. It is one of the most densely-populated areas in the world, the
+population in 1917 being estimated at 186,656, or nearly 1100 to the square
+mile. The climate is very hot, though moderated by the constant
+trade-winds; and the island is subject to dreadful hurricanes. The surface
+is broken, now without forests, and with few streams; the highest point is
+1145 feet above the sea-level. There are few indigenous mammals or birds.
+The black lowland soil gives great returns of sugar in favourable seasons.
+The chief exports, besides sugar, are molasses and rum; imports: rice, salt
+meat, corn, butter, flour, &c. Both exports and imports were over
+L2,000,000 in 1918. Barbadoes has a considerable transit trade, being in
+some measure the central mart for all the Windward Islands. It is the see
+of a bishop and the head-quarters of the British forces in the West Indies.
+There is a railway across the island, also tramways, telephones, &c. The
+island forms a distinct government under a Governor, an Executive and a
+Legislative Council of 9 members, and a House of Assembly of 24 members.
+Liberal provision is made for education both by old foundations and by
+annual vote.
+
+BARBADOES LEG, a form of elephantiasis.
+
+BAR'BARA, ST., according to the legend, belonged to Nicomedia, in Asia
+Minor, and was beheaded by her father for having turned Christian, he being
+immediately thereafter struck dead by lightning. The latter part of this
+legend caused her, probably, to be invoked in storms, and to be considered
+the patron saint of artillerists.
+
+BARBARELLI. See _Giorgione_.
+
+BARBARIAN (Gk. _barbaros_), a name given by the Greeks, and afterwards by
+the Romans, to everyone who spoke an unintelligible language; and hence
+coming to connote the idea of _rude_, _illiterate_, _uncivilized_. This
+word, therefore, did not always convey the idea of something odious or
+savage; thus a Greek character in Plautus calls Naevius a barbarous poet,
+because he had not written in Greek; and Cicero terms illiterate persons
+without taste 'barbarians'.
+
+BARBAROSSA ('red-beard'), the name of two famous Turkish corsairs of the
+sixteenth century, who ravaged the shores of the Mediterranean, and
+established themselves in Algiers. The elder of the brothers, Aruch or
+Horuk, was killed in 1518; the younger and more notorious, Hayraddin, who
+captured Tunis, died in 1546. See _Frederick Barbarossa_.
+
+BAR'BARY, a general name for the most northerly portion of Africa,
+extending about 2600 miles from Egypt to the Atlantic, with a breadth
+varying from about 140 to 550 miles, comprising Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia,
+and Libya (Tripolitania, Barqa, and Fezzan). The principal races are: the
+Berbers, the original inhabitants, from whom the country takes its name;
+the Arabs, who conquered an extensive portion of it during the times of the
+caliphs; the Bedouins, Jews, Turks, and the French colonists of Algeria,
+&c. The country, which was prosperous under the Carthaginians, was, next to
+Egypt, the richest of the Roman provinces, and the Italian States enriched
+themselves by their intercourse with it. In the fifteenth century, however,
+it became infested with adventurers who made the name of Barbary corsair a
+terror to commerce, a condition of things finally removed by the French
+occupation of Algeria.
+
+BARBARY APE (_In[)u]us ecaud[=a]tus_), a species of ape, or tailless
+monkey, with greenish-brown hair, of the size of a large cat, remarkable
+for docility, also called the _magot_. It is common in Barbary and other
+parts of Africa, and some used to live formerly on Gibraltar Rock, being
+the only European monkey, though probably not indigenous. It has been the
+'showman's ape' from time immemorial.
+
+BAR'BASTEL, or BARBASTELLE, a bat with hairy lips (_Barbastellus
+comm[=u]nis_), a native of England.
+
+BARBAS'TRO, a city, Spain, Arragon, province of Huesca, with an interesting
+cathedral, and some trade and manufactures. Pop. 7202.
+
+BAR'BAULD, Anna Letitia, English poet and general writer, was born in
+Leicestershire, 1743, daughter of a Presbyterian minister named Aikin. She
+published a small volume of miscellaneous poems in 1772, and in 1773, in
+conjunction with her brother, Dr. John Aikin, a collection of pieces in
+prose. In 1774 she married the Rev. Rochemont Barbauld. Her _Early Lessons
+and Hymns for Children_, and various essays and poems, won considerable
+popularity. She edited a collection of English novels, with critical and
+biographical notices; a selection from the British essayists of the reign
+of Anne, and another from Richardson's correspondence. Her last long poem,
+_Eighteen Hundred and Eleven_, appeared in 1812. She died at
+Stoke-Newington, 1825.
+
+BAR'BECUE, a word of West Indian origin, meaning a hog, or other large
+animal, roasted whole. In the United States the word means a large
+gathering of people in the open air, for a social or political feast, where
+whole animals are roasted and eaten.
+
+BARBED WIRE, wire-rope for fencing or other purposes, having fixed in it
+short bent pieces of wire with sharp projecting points, which serve to keep
+animals from pressing against it. There is an Act of Parliament (1893) to
+prevent the use of barbed-wire fences that form a nuisance on a public road
+or path; and a person employing barbed wire for fencing may render himself
+liable for damages caused by it to another person who is legitimately using
+the adjoining ground. Barbed wire plays an important part in the
+construction of obstacles in modern warfare. During the European War, all
+systems of trenches were protected by thick belts of wire. This wire was
+laid out in various different ways, two of the best being known as the
+Concertina Fence and the Double-apron Fence.
+
+BARBEL (Barbus), a genus of freshwater fishes of the carp family,
+distinguished by the four fleshy filaments growing from the lips, two at
+the nose and one at each corner of the mouth, forming the kind of beard to
+which the genus owes its name. Of the several species the European _Barbus
+vulg[=a]ris_, common in most rivers, has an average length of from 12 to 18
+inches, and in form and habits strongly resembles the pike. Its body is
+elongated and rounded, olive-coloured above and bluish on the sides, and
+covered with small scales. The upper jaw, which is much longer than the
+lower, forms a snout, with which it bores into the mud for worms, insects,
+aquatic plants, &c. It is common in the Thames, where it gives good sport
+to the angler; but its flesh is very coarse, and at the time of spawning
+the roe is dangerous to eat.
+
+BARBER, one whose occupation is to shave or trim the beard, or to cut and
+dress hair. The practice of surgery was formerly a part of the craft, and
+by an Act of Henry VIII the Company of Barbers was incorporated with the
+Company of Surgeons--the company being then known as the
+Barber-surgeons--with the limitation, however, that the surgeons were not
+to shave or practise 'barbery', and the barbers were to perform no higher
+surgical operation than blood-letting and tooth-drawing. This continued
+till the time of George II. The signs of the old profession--the pole which
+the patient grasped, its spiral decoration in imitation of the bandage, and
+the basin to catch the blood--are still sometimes retained. The barbers'
+shops, always notorious for gossip, were in some measure the news centres
+of classic and mediaeval times. The ancient hall in London, formerly used
+by the Barber-surgeons, is still standing in Markwell Street, Cripplegate.
+
+BARBERINI (b[.a]r-be-r[=e]'n[=e]), a celebrated Florentine family, which,
+since the pontificate of Maffeo Barberini (Urban VIII, 1623-44), has
+occupied a distinguished place among the nobility of Rome. During his reign
+Urban was chiefly intent on the aggrandizement of his three nephews, of
+whom two were appointed cardinals, and the third Prince of Palestrina.
+
+[Illustration: Barberry _(Berb[)e]ris aristata)_]
+
+BAR'BERRY, a genus of shrubs, nat. ord. Berberidaceae. The common barberry
+(_Berb[)e]ris vulg[=a]ris_) has serrate, pointed leaves (the primary ones
+reduced to tripartite spines), hanging clusters of yellow flowers, and
+small, orange-red berries, which are sometimes made into preserves. The
+inner bark and roots yield a fine yellow dye (berberine). The shrub is a
+native of temperate Asia, but is now generally diffused through Europe and
+N. America. In Britain it has been almost universally banished from
+hedgerows, owing to its connection with the black rust of wheat. Numerous
+other species inhabit Asia and America; those of the section Mahonia have
+pinnate leaves. _B. aristata_ is an erect bush, with furrowed red-brown
+branches, and pendulous clusters of yellow flowers; it thrives best in the
+south. See _Irritability_ and _Rust_.
+
+BAR'BERTON, the chief mining-centre of De Kaap gold-fields, Transvaal,
+about 80 miles from Lydenburg, and 150 to 160 from Delagoa Bay. British
+prisoners were confined here in the Boer War (1899-1902). Pop. about 2000
+(whites).
+
+BAR'BETS (Bucconidae), a family of climbing birds with a thick conical
+beak, having tufts of bristles at its base. Their wings are short and their
+flight somewhat heavy. They have been divided into three sub-genera: The
+_barbicans_ (Pogonias), inhabiting India and Africa, and feeding chiefly on
+fruit; the _barbets_ proper (Bucco), found in Africa and America, and
+nearly related to the woodpeckers; and the _puff-birds_ (Tamatia),
+inhabiting America, and feeding on insects.
+
+BARBETTE (b[.a]r-bet'), an elevation of earth behind the breastwork of a
+fortification, from which the artillery may be fired over the parapet
+instead of through an embrasure. In ships of war the name is given to a
+strong breastwork of armour over which heavy guns are fired. See
+_Fortification_.
+
+BARBEYRAC (b[.a]r-b[=a]-r[.a]k), Jean, an able writer on jurisprudence and
+natural law, translator of Grotius and Cumberland, and translator and
+annotator of Pufendorf. Born 1674; professor of law at Lausanne and
+Groningen; died 1744.
+
+BARBICAN. See _Barbacan_.
+
+BARBIE DU BOCAGE (b[.a]rb-y[=a] due b[=o]-kaezh), Jean Denis, a
+distinguished geographer, born in Paris in 1760, who laid the foundation of
+his fame in 1788 by his _Atlas_ to Barthelemy's _Voyage du Jeune
+Anacharsis_. His maps and plans to the works of Thucydides, Xenophon, &c.,
+exhibit much erudition, and materially advanced the science of ancient
+geography. He also prepared many modern maps, and published various
+excellent dissertations. He held many honourable posts, and died in 1825.
+
+BARBIER (b[.a]rb-y[=a]), Antoine Alexandre, bibliographer (1765-1825). He
+was appointed keeper of the library of the Conseil d'Etat in 1798; Napoleon
+made him his librarian in 1807; and he was afterwards librarian to Louis
+XVIII. His _Catalogue de la Bibliotheque du Conseil d'Etat_ (1801-3), and
+_Dictionnaire des Ouvrages Anonymes et Pseudonymes_ (1806-9), are both
+valuable works.
+
+BARBIERI (b[.a]r-b[=e]-[=a]'r[=e]), Giovanni Francesco (otherwise known as
+_Guercino_ (the squinter) _da Cento_), an eminent and prolific historical
+painter, born near Bologna 1590, died in 1666. His style showed the
+influence of Caravaggio and of the Caracci, his best work being of the
+latter school. Chief work, a _St. Petronilla_ in the Capitol at Rome; but
+most of the large galleries have pictures by him.
+
+BARBIERI, Paolo Antonio, a celebrated still-life and animal painter, was a
+brother of Guercino; born 1596, died 1640.
+
+BARBITONE. See _Veronal_.
+
+BARBIZON (b[.a]r-b[=e]-z[=o]n), a French village about 25 miles south by
+east of Paris, on the borders of the Forest of Fontainebleau, and 6 miles
+north-west of the town of that name. It has given its name to a French
+school of painters, including Corot, Millet, Rousseau, Jules Dupre, and
+Daubigny.
+
+BAR'BOUR, John, an ancient Scottish poet, contemporary with Chaucer, born
+about 1316. By 1357 he was Archdeacon of Aberdeen, and in the following
+year was appointed a commissioner to treat for the ransom of David II. He
+appears as Auditor of the Exchequer more than once; he travelled through
+England on several occasions, and was pensioned by Robert II. His chief
+poem, _The Bruce_ (Brus), written about 1375, was first published in 1571,
+and the chief manuscripts of the poem are those in the Advocates' Library,
+Edinburgh, dated 1489, and in St. John's College, Cambridge. Of another
+long poem, setting forth the Trojan origin of the Scottish kings, no MS.
+remains, unless a portion of two Troy books in the Cambridge and Bodleian
+libraries may be ascribed to Barbour. He has also been credited with having
+compiled a _Book of Legends of Saints_, existing in a single MS. at
+Cambridge, and published in 1881-2 by Horstman in his _Legenden Sammlung_.
+He died in 1395. He was the father of Scottish poetry and history, and his
+_Bruce_ is linguistically of high value. Though wanting in the higher
+qualities of poetry, it is truthful and natural, and often exhibits a high
+moral dignity.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Andrew Lang, _History of Scotland_; Irving,
+_History of Scottish Poetry_.
+
+BARBUDA (b[.a]r-boe'da), one of the West Indies, annexed by Britain in
+1628; about 15 miles long and 8 miles wide; lying north of Antigua; pop.
+580. It is flat, fertile, and healthy. Corn, cotton, pepper, and tobacco
+are the principal produce, but the island is only partially cleared for
+cultivation. There is no harbour, but a well-sheltered roadstead on the
+west side. It is a dependency of Antigua.
+
+BARBUSSE, Henri, a French author born at Asnieres in 1874. He served in the
+French army during the European War, and his descriptions of the realities
+of modern warfare have made him famous. His works include _Le Feu_ and
+_Clarte_.
+
+BARBY (baer'b[=e]), a German town on the Elbe, in the government of
+Magdeburg, with an old castle. Pop. 5202.
+
+BAR'CA, a division of N. Africa, between the Gulf of Sidra and Egypt,
+annexed by Italy in 1911-2; capital, Bengazi. It formed a portion of the
+ancient Cyrenaica, and from the time of the Ptolemies was known as
+Pentapolis from its five Greek cities. It became part of Tripoli, and later
+a separate province under Turkish dominion. On 18th Oct., 1912, it was
+formally recognized as a dependency of Italy, and forms with Tripoli the
+Italian colony of Libya. The country consists of a rocky plateau. A large
+portion of it is desert, but some parts, especially near the coast, are
+fertile, and yield abundant crops and excellent pasture, the chief being
+wheat, barley, dates, figs, and olives. Flowering shrubs, roses,
+honeysuckles, &c., occur in great variety. There are hardly any permanent
+streams, but the eastern portion is tolerably well watered by rains and
+springs. The exports are grain and cattle, with ostrich feathers and ivory
+from the interior. Next to Bengazi (pop. 35,000), the seaport of Derna is
+the chief town (pop. 8000). The population probably does not exceed
+300,000. See _Cyrenaica_ and _Tripoli_.
+
+BARCAROLLE (-rol'), a species of song sung by the _barcaruoli_, or
+gondoliers, of Venice, and hence applied to a song or melody composed in
+imitation. A very well-known example is to be found in Offenbach's _Tales
+of Hoffmann_.
+
+BARCELLONA (b[.a]r-chel-[=o]'n[.a]), seaport, Sicily, province of Messina,
+immediately contiguous to Pozzo di Gotto, and practically forming one town
+with it. Joint pop. 26,172.
+
+BARCELONA (b[.a]r-thel-[=o]'n[.a]), next to Madrid the chief city of Spain,
+capital of the province of Barcelona, and formerly capital of the kingdom
+of Catalonia; finely situated on the northern portion of the Spanish
+Mediterranean coast. It is divided into the upper and lower town; the
+former modern, regular, stone-built, and often of an English architectural
+type, the latter old, irregular, brick-built, and with traces of Eastern
+influence in the architecture. The harbour is suited to accommodate large
+vessels. The principal manufactures are cottons, silks, woollens,
+machinery, paper, glass, chemicals, stoneware, soap; exports manufactured
+goods, wine and brandy, fruit, oil, &c.; imports coals, textile fabrics,
+machinery, cotton, fish, hides, silks, timber, &c. The city contains a
+university, several public libraries, a museum, a large arsenal,
+cannon-foundry, &c. Barcelona was, until the twelfth century, governed by
+its own counts, but was afterwards united with Arragon. In 1640, with the
+rest of Catalonia, it placed itself under the French Crown; in 1652 it
+submitted again to the Spanish Government; in 1697 it was taken by the
+French, but was restored to Spain at the Peace of Ryswick. It has had
+several severe visitations of cholera and yellow fever, and has been the
+scene of many serious and sanguinary revolts, as in 1836, 1840, and 1909.
+Pop. 618,766.--The province has an area of 2968 sq. miles; pop. 1,191,386
+(1918). It is generally mountainous, but well cultivated, and among the
+most thickly peopled in Spain.
+
+BARCELONA, a town of Venezuela, near the mouth of the Neveri, which is
+navigable for vessels of small size, but larger vessels anchor off the
+mouth of the river. Pop. 13,000.
+
+BARCELONA NUTS, hazel-nuts exported from the Barcelona district of Spain.
+
+BAR'CLAY, Alexander, a poet of the sixteenth century, most probably a
+native of Scotland, born about 1475; for some years a priest and chaplain
+of St. Mary Ottery, in Devonshire; afterwards a Benedictine monk of Ely;
+subsequently a Franciscan, and also the holder of one or two livings; died
+1552. His principal work was a satire, entitled _The Shyp of Folys of this
+Worlde_, part translation and part imitation of Brandt's _Narrenschiff_
+(Ship of Fools), and printed by Pynson in 1509. He also wrote _The Myrrour
+of Good Maners_, and some _Egloges_ (Eclogues), both printed by Pynson, as
+well as translations, &c.
+
+BARCLAY, John, poet and satirist, son of a Scottish father, born at
+Pont-a-Mousson (Lorraine) in 1582, and probably educated in the Jesuits'
+College there. Having settled in England, he published a Latin
+politico-satirical romance, entitled _Euphormionis Satyricon_, having as
+its object the exposure of the Jesuits. In 1616 he left England for Rome,
+received a pension from Pope Paul V, and died in 1621. His chief work is a
+singular romance in Latin, entitled _Argenis_ (Paris, 1621), thought by
+some to be an allegory bearing on the political state of Europe at the
+period. Several seventeenth-century romances were indebted to this work,
+among others Fenelon's _Telemaque_ and Calderon's _Argenis y Poliarco_. It
+has been translated into several modern languages. His shorter poems
+appeared in the _Delitiae Poetarum Scotorum_,
+
+BARCLAY, Robert, the celebrated apologist of the Quakers, born in 1648 at
+Gordonstown, Moray, and educated at Paris, where he became a Roman
+Catholic. He was recalled home by his father, whose example he followed in
+becoming a Quaker. His first treatise in support of his adopted principles,
+published at Aberdeen in the year 1670, under the title of _Truth Cleared
+of Calumnies_, together with his subsequent writings, did much to rectify
+public sentiment in regard to the Quakers. His chief work, in Latin, _An
+Apology for the True Christian Divinity_, was soon reprinted at Amsterdam,
+and quickly translated into German, Dutch, French, and Spanish, and, by the
+author himself, into English. His fame was now widely diffused; and, in his
+travels with William Penn and George Fox through England, Holland, and
+Germany, to spread the opinions of the Quakers, he was received everywhere
+with the highest respect. The last of his productions, _On the Possibility
+and Necessity of an Inward and Immediate Revelation_, was not published in
+England until 1686; from which time Barclay lived quietly with his family.
+He died, after a short illness, at his own house of Ury, Kincardineshire,
+in 1690. He was a friend of and had influence with James II.
+
+BARCLAY, Sir Thomas, British barrister, born in 1853. Educated at the
+Universities of London, Paris, Bonn, and Jena, he was sent to Paris in 1876
+as correspondent of _The Times_. He has been greatly instrumental in
+bringing about a better understanding between England and France. He was
+knighted in 1904, and entered Parliament in 1910. His works include:
+_Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy_; _The Turco-Italian War
+and its Problems_; _Law and Usage of War_.
+
+BARCLAY DE TOLLY, Michael, Prince, a distinguished general and
+field-marshal of Russia, born in 1755. His family, of Scottish origin, had
+been established in Livonia since 1689. He entered the army at an early
+age, served in various campaigns against the Turks, Swedes, and Poles, and
+in 1811 was named Minister of War. On the invasion of Napoleon he was
+transferred to the chief command of the army, and adopted a plan of
+retreat; his forces did not greatly exceed 100,000 men, but the Court
+became impatient, and after the capture of Smolensk by the French he was
+superseded by Kutusov. Sinking all personal feeling, he asked leave to
+serve under his successor, commanded the right wing at the battle of the
+Moskwa, maintained his position, and covered the retreat of the rest of the
+army. After the battle of Bautzen, in 1813, he was reappointed to the chief
+command, which he had soon after to resign to Prince Schwarzenberg. He
+forced the surrender of General Vandamme after the battle of Dresden, took
+part in the decisive battle of Leipzig, and was made a field-marshal in
+Paris. In 1815 he received from the emperor the title of prince, and from
+Louis XVIII the badge of the Order of Military Merit. He died in 1818.
+
+BAR-COCHBA (b[.a]r-ko_h_'b[.a]), or BAR-COCHEBAS, Simon, a Jewish impostor,
+who pretended to be the Messiah, raised a revolt, and made himself master
+of Jerusalem about A.D. 132, and of about fifty fortified places. Hadrian
+sent to Britain for Julius Severus, one of his ablest generals, who
+gradually regained the different forts and then took and destroyed
+Jerusalem. Bar-cochba retired to a mountain fortress, and perished in the
+assault of it by the Romans three years after, about 135.
+
+BAR'COO. See _Cooper's Creek_.
+
+BARD, one of an order among the ancient Celtic tribes, whose occupation was
+to compose and sing verses in honour of the heroic achievements of princes
+and brave men, generally to the accompaniment of the harp. Their verses
+also frequently embodied religious or ethical precepts, genealogies, laws,
+&c. Their existence and function was known to the Romans two centuries
+B.C.; but of the Gallic bards only the tradition of their popularity
+survives. The first Welsh bards of whom anything is extant are Taliesin,
+Aneurin, and Llywarch, of the sixth century. A considerable lacuna then
+occurs in their history until the order was reconstituted in the tenth
+century by King Howel Dha, and again in the eleventh by Gryffith ap Conan.
+Edward I is said to have hanged all the Welsh bards as promoters of
+sedition. Some modern attempts have been made in Wales to revive bardism,
+and the Cambrian Society was formed in 1818, for this purpose and for the
+preservation of the remains of the ancient literature. The revived
+Eisteddfodau, or bardic festivals, have been so far exceedingly popular. In
+Ireland there were three classes of bards: those who sang of war, religion,
+&c., those who chanted the laws, and those who gave genealogies and family
+histories in verse. They were famous harpists. In the Highlands of Scotland
+there are considerable remains of compositions supposed to be those of
+their old bards still preserved.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: E. Jones, _Relics of the
+Welsh Bards_; Walker, _Memoirs of the Irish Bards_; Dottin, _Manuel de
+l'Antiquite Celtique_; John Rhys and D. Brynmor-Jones, _The Welsh People_;
+D. D. Evans, _Ancient Bards of Britain_.
+
+BARDESA'NES, a Syrian Gnostic, poet, astrologer, and philosopher, born 154
+or 164 at Edessa, died 222. His system started with the statement that from
+the union of God with matter sprang Christ and a female Holy Ghost, from
+whom in turn sprang various existences. He propagated his doctrines in
+Syrian hymns (_Hymn on the Soul_), the first in the language. His son,
+Harmonius, was also an able hymn-writer. The Bardesanists maintained
+themselves till the twelfth century, the later adherents having practically
+adopted Manichaeism.
+
+BARDWAN', or BURDWAN', a division of Bengal, upon the Hugli, comprising the
+six districts of Bardwan, Hugli, Howrah, Midnapur, Bankura, and Birbhum.
+Area, 13,850 sq. miles; pop. 8,245,000.--The district _Bardwan_ has an area
+of 2697 sq. miles, and a pop. of 1,532,500. Apart from its products, rice,
+grain, hemp, cotton, indigo, &c., it has a noted coal-field of about 500
+sq. miles in area, with an annual output of about half a million tons.--The
+town of _Bardwan_ has a fine palace of the Maharajah and a pop. of 35,022.
+
+BAREBONE, or BARBONE, Praise-God, the name of a leather-seller in Fleet
+Street, London, who obtained a kind of lead in the convention which
+Cromwell substituted for the Long Parliament, and which was thence
+nicknamed the Barebone Parliament. After its dissolution he disappeared
+till 1660, when he presented a petition to Parliament against the
+restoration of the monarchy. In 1661 he was committed to the Tower for some
+time, but his subsequent history is unknown.
+
+BAREFOOTED FRIARS. See _Monasticism_.
+
+BAREGE (ba-r[=a]zh'), a light, open tissue of silk and worsted, or cotton
+and worsted, for women's dresses, originally manufactured near Bareges. It
+is now made chiefly at Bagneres-de-Bigorre.
+
+BAREGES (b[.a]-r[=a]zh), a watering-place, south of France, department
+Hautes-Pyrenees, about 4000 feet above the sea, celebrated for its thermal
+springs, which are frequented for rheumatism, scrofula, &c. The place is
+hardly inhabited except in the bathing season, June till September.
+
+BAREGINE (ba-r[=a]zh'in; from _Bareges_), a gelatinous product of certain
+algae growing in sulphuric mineral springs, and imparting to them the
+colour and odour of flesh-broth.
+
+BAREILLY (ba-r[=a]'li), a town of Hindustan, in the United Provinces,
+capital of a district of same name, on a pleasant and elevated site. It has
+a fort and cantonments, a Government college, and manufactures
+sword-cutlery, gold and silver lace, perfumery, furniture and upholstery.
+On the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny the native garrison took possession of
+the place, but it was retaken by Lord Clyde in May, 1858. Pop.
+129,462.--The district has an area of 1595 sq. miles; pop. 1,089,550.
+
+BAR'ENTS, William, a Dutch navigator of the end of the sixteenth century,
+who, on an expedition intended to reach China by the North-East Passage,
+discovered Novaya Zemlya. He wintered there in 1596-7, and died before
+reaching home.
+
+BARET'TI, Joseph, an Italian writer, born at Turin, 1719. In 1748 he came
+to England, and in 1753 published in English a _Defence of the Poetry of
+Italy against the Censures of M. Voltaire_. In 1760 he brought out a useful
+_Italian and English Dictionary_. After an absence of six years, during
+part of which he edited the _Frusta Letteraria_ (Literary Scourge) at
+Venice, he returned to England, and in 1768 published an _Account of the
+Manners and Customs of Italy_. Not long after, in defending himself in a
+street brawl, he stabbed his assailant and was tried for murder at the Old
+Bailey but acquitted, Johnson, Burke, Goldsmith, Garrick, Reynolds, and
+Beauclerk giving testimony to his good character. An _English and Spanish
+Dictionary_, and various other works, followed before his death in 1789.
+
+BARFLEUR (b[.a]r-fl_eu_r), at one time the best port on the coast of
+Normandy, and the reputed port from which William the Conqueror sailed. It
+was destroyed in the year 1346 by Edward III. Present pop. 1304.
+
+BARFRUSH', or BARFURUSH', Same as _Balfroosh_.
+
+BARGAIN AND SALE, a legal term denoting the contract by which lands,
+tenements, &c., are transferred from one person to another. See
+_Conveyancing_.
+
+BARGE, a term similar in origin to _barque_, but generally used of a
+flat-bottomed boat of some kind, whether used for loading and unloading
+vessels, or as a canal-boat, or as an ornamental boat of state or pleasure.
+
+[Illustration: Barge-board or gable-end of Manor House, Bramley, Hants.]
+
+BARGE-BOARD (perhaps a corruption of _verge-board_), in architecture, a
+board generally pendent from the eaves of gables, so as to conceal the
+rafters, keep out rain, &c. They are sometimes elaborately ornamented. The
+portion of the roof projecting from the wall at the gable-end, and beneath
+which the barge-board runs, is termed the _barge-course_.
+
+BARHAM (bar'am), Rev. Richard Harris, a humorous writer, born in 1788 at
+Canterbury; educated at St. Paul's School, London, and at Brasenose,
+Oxford; appointed in succession curate of Ashford, curate of Westwell,
+rector of Snargate in Romney Marsh, and one of the minor canons of St.
+Paul's Cathedral. He published two novels, _Baldwin_ and _My Cousin
+Nicholas_, wrote nearly a third of the articles in Gorton's _Biographical
+Dictionary_, and contributed to _Blackwood's Magazine_. In 1824 he was
+appointed priest in ordinary of the Chapel Royal, and afterwards rector of
+St. Mary Magdalene and St. Gregory-by-St.-Paul, London. In 1837, on the
+starting of _Bentley's Miscellany_, he laid the main foundation of his
+literary fame by the publication in that periodical of the _Ingoldsby
+Legends_. He died in 1845.
+
+BARHEBRAE'US. See _Abulfaragius_.
+
+BARI (bae'r[=e]; ancient, BARIUM), a seaport, S. Italy, on a small
+promontory of the Adriatic, capital of the province Terra di Bari. It was a
+place of importance as early as the third century B.C., and has been thrice
+destroyed and rebuilt. The present town, though poorly built for the most
+part, has a large Norman castle, a fine cathedral and priory, &c. It
+manufactures cotton and linen goods, hats, soap, glass, and liqueurs; has a
+trade in wine, grain, almonds, oil, &c., and is now an important seaport.
+In 1915 the town suffered considerably from floods. Pop. 109,218.--The
+province has an area of 2048 sq. miles, and is fertile in fruit, wine, oil,
+&c.; pop. 935,982.
+
+BARI, a negro people of Africa, dwelling on both sides of the White Nile,
+between lat. 3deg 30' and 6deg N. They practise agriculture,
+cattle-rearing, smithwork, &c. Their country was conquered by Baker for
+Egypt.
+
+BARIL'LA, is the commercial name for impure sodium carbonate imported from
+Spain and the Levant. At one time all sodium carbonate required for
+industrial purposes was prepared from barilla obtained by burning various
+marine plants (Salsola, Salicornia, and others). Only 25 per cent of the
+weight of the ash contained soda, and consequently its import was expensive
+and considerably added to the price of the manufacture of glass and soap.
+During the Napoleonic wars the price of barilla rose to such a height that
+Napoleon offered a reward for the discovery of a process for the
+manufacture of sodium carbonate. A chemist, Leblanc, in 1791 invented a new
+process by which sodium carbonate could be obtained from common salt, and
+this entirely superseded barilla. Plants are still grown in Southern France
+and Spain to obtain soda and other substances from the ash; but almost all
+the sodium carbonate of the present day is manufactured chemically.
+
+BARING, the name of a famous English family of bankers and financiers,
+statesmen and diplomats, from which has arisen the financial house of
+Baring Brothers & Co., and of which members now hold four peerages, namely,
+two earldoms--Northbrook and Cromer--and two baronies--Ashburton and
+Revelstoke. The founder of the house was Francis Baring (1740-1810), whose
+father was a cloth manufacturer near Exeter, and grandfather pastor of the
+Lutheran Church at Bremen, the family being thus of German origin. Francis
+Baring settled in London, attained a high position in the mercantile and
+financial world, was long a member of Parliament and a director of the East
+India Company, and was made a baronet in 1793. Of his sons, one, Alexander,
+was created Baron Ashburton (in 1835), and rendered important political
+services in connection with the boundary treaty concluded between Britain
+and the United States, and known by his title (see _Ashburton_, _Ashburton
+Treaty_). His son, the second Lord Ashburton (1799-1864), held a position
+of some note in politics, and his first wife, a daughter of the sixth Earl
+of Sandwich, was fond of the society of both politicians and literary men,
+among those who were on friendly terms with her being Carlyle and
+Thackeray. Sir Francis Baring's eldest son, Thomas, was father of Francis
+Thornhill Baring, first Lord Northbrook (1796-1866), whose eldest son,
+Thomas, was created Earl of Northbrook in 1876, and held successively a
+number of high positions, among them that of Viceroy of India (1872-6) and
+First Lord of the Admiralty (1880-5). (See _Northbrook_.) Another son of
+Sir Francis, Henry Baring, was father of Edward Baring, the first Baron
+Revelstoke (born in 1828, died in 1897), who was long one of the most
+conspicuous members of the financial world of London, and was raised to the
+peerage as baron in 1885. He had full management of the great house of
+Baring Brothers, which under him was long most prosperous, but in 1890 fell
+into temporary difficulties. Henry Baring was father also of Evelyn Baring,
+Earl Cromer (q.v.).
+
+BARING-GOULD (b[=a]-ring-g[=o]ld'), Sabine, English clergyman and author,
+born at Exeter, 1834. Educated at Cambridge, he held several livings in the
+English Church, and in 1881 became rector of Lew Trenchard, Devon. After
+publishing several books on theological and miscellaneous subjects, he
+distinguished himself as a novelist. Among his works are: _Iceland, its
+Scenes and Sagas_; _Curious Myths of the Middle Ages_; _The Origin and
+Development of Religious Belief_; _Lives of the Saints_ (in 15 vols.);
+_Village Sermons_; _The Vicar of Morwenstowe_ (an account of the Rev. R. S.
+Hawker); _The Mystery of Suffering_; _History of the Church in Germany_;
+_The Tragedy of the Caesars_; _Cliff Castles and Cave Dwellings_; _The
+Church Revival_; &c.; besides the novels _Mehalah_, _John Herring_,
+_Richard Cable_, _The Gaverocks_, _Court Royal_, _The Pennycomequicks_,
+&c.; and short stories or novelettes.
+
+BARINGO, a lake in Africa, N.E. of the Victoria Nyanza, about 20 miles
+long.
+
+BAR'ITONE, or BAR'YTONE, a male voice, the compass of which partakes of
+those of the common bass and the tenor, but does not extend so far
+downwards as the one, nor to an equal height with the other. Its best tones
+are from the lower A of the bass clef to the lower F in the treble.
+
+BA'RIUM (from the Gr. _barys_, heavy), the metal of which _baryta_ is the
+oxide; specific gravity 4; symbol Ba. It is only found in compounds, such
+as the common sulphate (or _barytes_) and carbonate, and was isolated by
+Davy in 1808. It is a yellow malleable metal, which readily oxidizes,
+decomposes water, and fuses at a low temperature. Its nitrate and chlorate
+are used in pyrotechny. Barium salts, when brought into a non-luminous
+flame, burn with a yellowish-green colour. See _Baryta_.
+
+[Illustration: Magnified Section of Oak-bark.
+
+A, Epidermis. B, Cells containing chlorophyll or colouring matter. C, Liber
+or Bast. D, Cambium. E, Sapwood.]
+
+BARK, properly the _periderm_, or outer covering, of woody stems and roots,
+composed of dead tissues cut off from the living parts of the organ by one
+or more layers of impervious cork. It serves to prevent loss of water, and
+also affords protection against animals and fungi. The outermost bark is
+continually sloughed in the form of scales (Scots Pine) or sheets (Common
+Birch), being regenerated from within by the activity of the cork-cambium
+(_phellogen_). Bark is usually rich in waste-products, many of which are of
+economic value, such as tannin, gums, &c. Bottle-cork is the bark of the
+cork-oak. Bark for tanning is obtained from oak, hemlock-spruce, species of
+acacia, &c. Peruvian and Angostura barks, cinnamon, &c., are other useful
+barks. As commonly used, bark denotes all the tissues external to the
+_cambium_.
+
+BARK. See _Barque_.
+
+BARK, PERUVIAN. See _Cinchona_.
+
+BARKER, Granville, playwright, was born in London in 1877. His principal
+plays are: _The Voysey Inheritance_ (1905), _Waste_ (1907), _The Madras
+House_ (1910). He has published a book (in which William Archer
+collaborated) called _A National Theatre_, and another entitled _The Red
+Cross in France_. His revivals of Shakespeare have introduced some new
+ideas of mounting and stage-effects.
+
+BARKER'S MILL, also called Scottish turbine, a hydraulic machine on the
+principle of what is known as the hydraulic tourniquet. This consists of an
+upright vessel free to rotate about a vertical axis, and having at its
+lower end two discharging pipes projecting horizontally on either side and
+bent in opposite directions at the ends, through which the water is
+discharged horizontally, the direction of discharge being mainly at right
+angles to a line joining the discharging orifice to the axis. The backward
+pressures at the bends of the tubes, arising from the two issuing jets of
+water, cause the apparatus to revolve in an opposite direction to the
+issuing fluid. The machine was invented by a Dr. Barker towards the end of
+the seventeenth century.
+
+BARKING, a town, England, county of Essex, on the Roding, 7 miles N.E. of
+London, with some important manufacturing works. Near it is the outfall of
+the sewage of a large part of London. Pop. (1921), 35,543.
+
+BARKSTON ASH, a parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire.
+
+BARK-STOVE, or BARK-BED, a sort of hothouse for forcing or for growing
+plants that require a great heat combined with moisture, both of which are
+supplied by the fermentation that sets up in a bed of spent tanner's bark
+contained in a brick pit under glass.
+
+BAR'LAAM AND JOS'APHAT, a famous mediaeval spiritual romance, which is in
+its main details a Christianized version of the Hindu legends of Buddha.
+The story first appeared in Greek in the works of Joannes Damascenus in the
+eighth century. It is, however, more probably the work of a monk of the
+Sabbas monastery, near Jerusalem, and written at the beginning of the
+seventh century. The compilers of the _Gesta Romanorum_, Boccaccio, Gower,
+and Shakespeare have all drawn materials from it.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Max
+Mueller, _Chips from a German Workshop_; J. Jacobs, _Barlaam and Josaphat_,
+(There is a translation by Rev. G. R. Woodward and H. Mattingly in the Loeb
+Library).
+
+BAR-LE-DUC (b[.a]r-l-d[.u]k), a town of North-East France, capital of
+department Meuse, with manufactures of cotton and woollen stuffs, leather,
+confectionery, &c. Pop. 17,068.
+
+BARLET'TA, a seaport in South Italy, province of Bari, on the Adriatic,
+with a fine Gothic cathedral; it has a considerable export trade in grain,
+wine, almonds, &c. Pop. 44,233.
+
+BAR'LEY, the name of several cereal plants of the genus Hordeum, ord.
+Gramineae: (grasses), yielding a grain used as food and also for making
+malt, from which are prepared beer, porter, and whisky. Barley has been
+known and cultivated from remote antiquity, and beer was made from it among
+the Egyptians. It is mentioned in _Exodus_, in connection with the ten
+plagues; and it is referred to in ancient Chinese records. Excellent barley
+is produced in Britain. The species principally cultivated are _Hord[)e]um
+dist[)i]chum_, two-rowed barley; _H. vulg[=a]re_, four-rowed barley; and
+_H. hexastichum_, six-rowed, of which the small variety is the sacred
+barley of the ancients. The varieties of the four- and six-rowed species
+are generally coarser than those of the two-rowed, and adapted for a poorer
+soil and more exposed situation. Some of these are called _bere_ or _bigg_.
+In Britain barley occupies more than 22-1/2 per cent of the land under
+corn, but in N. America the extent of it as a crop is comparatively small,
+being in Canada, however, relatively greater than in the States, and the
+Canadian barley is of very high quality. Barley is better adapted for cold
+climates than any other grain, and some of the coarser varieties are
+cultivated where no other cereal can be grown. Russia devotes a surface of
+over 20,000,000 acres to barley, i.e. a little under 11 per cent of the
+cereal area of the country. Germany has 4,000,000 and France 1,800,000
+acres of barley. Some species of the genus, three of which are natives of
+Britain, are mere grasses. _Pot_ or _Scotch barley_ is the grain deprived
+of the husk in a mill. _Pearl barley_ is the grain polished and rounded and
+deprived of husk and pellicle. _Patent barley_ is the farina obtained by
+grinding pearl barley. _Barley-water_, a decoction of pearl barley, is used
+in medicine as possessing emollient, diluent, and expectorant qualities.
+
+BARLEY-SUGAR. See _Confectionery_; _Sugar_.
+
+BAR'LOW, Joel, an American poet and diplomatist, born 1755. After an active
+and changeful life as chaplain, lawyer, editor, land-agent, lecturer, and
+consul, he went to Paris and acquired a fortune. On his return to America
+he was appointed Minister Plenipotentiary to France (1811), but died near
+Cracow in 1812 on his way to meet Napoleon. His principal poem, _The
+Columbiad_ (_The Vision of Columbus_), dealing with American history from
+the time of Columbus, was published in 1807.
+
+BARM. See _Yeast_.
+
+BAR'MECIDES (-s[=i]dz), a distinguished Persian family, whose virtues and
+splendour form a favourite subject with Mahommedan poets and historians.
+Two eminent members of this family were Khaled-ben-Barmek, tutor of Haroun
+al Rashid, and his son Yahya, grand vizier of Haroun. The expression
+_Barmecide Feast_, meaning a visionary banquet or make-believe
+entertainment, originates from the Barber's story of his Sixth Brother in
+the _Arabian Nights' Entertainments_.
+
+BAR'MEN, a German city on the Wupper, in the Prussian Rhine Province,
+government of Duesseldorf, and forming a continuation of the town of
+Elberfeld, in the valley of Barmen. It has extensive ribbon and other
+textile manufactures; also dyeworks, manufactures of chemicals, metal
+wares, buttons, yarns, iron, machines, pianos, organs, soap, &c. In 1919
+Barmen was the scene of Spartacist disorders. Pop. 169,214.
+
+BARMOUTH, Welsh name ABERMAW, a small seaport and watering-place of Wales,
+in Merionethshire, at the entrance of Barmouth Bay, a fine estuary. It is
+picturesquely situated, and has become a favourite resort of tourists and
+others. Pop. (1921), 3559.
+
+BAR'NABAS, the surname, according to _Acts_, iv, 36-7, given by the
+apostles to Joseph, a fellow-labourer of St. Paul, and, like him, ranked as
+an apostle. He is said to have founded at Antioch the first Christian
+community, to have been first Bishop of Milan, and to have suffered
+martyrdom at Cyprus. His festival is held on the 11th June.
+
+BARNABAS, SAINT, EPISTLE OF, an epistle in twenty-one chapters unanimously
+ascribed to Barnabas by early Christian writers, but without any support of
+internal evidence. It was probably written about A.D. 130 (or, according to
+others, between A.D. 70 and 79) by one who was not a Jew, and under the
+influence of Alexandrian Judaistic thought. See _Codex_ (_Sinaiticus_).
+
+BARNABITES, an order of monks founded in Milan in 1530 and named after the
+Milan church of St. Barnabas which was allotted them to preach in. On their
+expulsion from France in 1905, the majority of the Barnabites sought refuge
+in England. A few monasteries of the order still exist in Italy, Belgium,
+Austria, and Spain.
+
+[Illustration: Barnacles hanging from timber]
+
+BAR'NACLE, the name of a family (Lepadidae) of marine crustaceous animals,
+ord. Cirripedia. They are enveloped by a mantle and shell, composed of five
+principal valves and several smaller pieces, joined together by a membrane
+attached to their circumference; and they are furnished with a long,
+flexible, fleshy stalk or peduncle, provided with muscles, by which they
+attach themselves to ships' bottoms, submerged timber, &c. They feed on
+small marine animals, brought within their reach by the water and secured
+by their tentacula. Some of the larger species are edible. According to an
+old fable, these animals produced barnacle geese.
+
+BARNACLE GOOSE (_Anser Bernicla_ or _leucopsis_), a summer visitant of the
+northern seas, in size rather smaller than the common wild goose, and
+having the forehead and cheeks white, the upper body and neck black. A
+fable asserts that the crustaceans called barnacles changed into geese, and
+various theories have been framed to account for its origin. Max Mueller
+supposes the geese were originally called _Hiberniculae_ or Irish geese,
+and that barnacle is a corruption of this; but the resemblance of a
+barnacle to a goose hanging by the head may account for it. The Brent Goose
+is also sometimes called the Barnacle Goose, but the two should not be
+confused.
+
+BARNARD-CASTLE, a town, England, County Durham, giving name to a
+parliamentary division of the county. There are a large thread-mill and
+carpet manufactories; the Bowes Museum and Art Gallery, endowed by private
+munificence, and costing over L80,000; and the Northern Counties School,
+richly endowed. The castle was originally built about 1178 by Bernard
+Baliol, grandfather of John Baliol. Pop. 4737.
+
+BARNAR'DO, Thomas John, philanthropist, born in Ireland in 1845, qualified
+as a medical practitioner, studying in London, Edinburgh, and Paris,
+established his first home for neglected London children in 1867, and for
+the rest of his life was engaged in the same class of work. Up to his death
+in 1905 he had nearly 60,000 destitute waifs cared for and trained in the
+institutions with which his name is connected, many of the children having
+been sent to Canada or other colonies. The Barnardo homes and institutions
+have become very numerous, being established in various English counties as
+well as in London, a few being in Canada. A naval training-school for boys
+is included among them. It was a rule of the founder that no destitute
+child should be refused admission. The homes have since 1899 been under a
+council or body incorporated under the title of the National Incorporated
+Waifs Association, but continue to be managed on the same lines as before.
+Dr. Barnardo published _Something Attempted, Something Done_; _The Rescue
+of Waifs_; &c.--Cf. J. H. Batt, _Dr. Barnardo, the Foster-father of
+Nobody's Children_.
+
+BARNAUL', a town of Siberia, government of Tomsk, on the Barnaulski, near
+its influx into the Obi. The town is of wood but well built, with museum,
+observatory, &c. It is an important mining centre for lead, copper, and
+silver, has a copper-mint, kilns, and factories. Pop. 61,330.
+
+BARNAVE (b[.a]r-naev), Antoine-Pierre-Joseph-Marie, a distinguished French
+revolutionist, born 1761, died 1793. He successfully maintained against
+Mirabeau the right of the National Assembly, as against that of the king,
+to declare for peace or war, but afterwards asserted the inviolability of
+the king's person. He was impeached, condemned, and guillotined.
+
+BARNES, an urban district of England, in Surrey, on the right bank of the
+Thames, a short distance above London, connected with Middlesex by
+Hammersmith Suspension Bridge. There is here a common of 120 acres, one of
+the preserved open spaces of the metropolitan area. Pop. (1921), 34,281.
+
+BARNES (baernz), Albert, theologian, born in the State of New York, 1798.
+In 1825 he was ordained pastor of the Presbyterian Church of Morristown,
+New Jersey, and from 1830 till his death in 1870 had charge of the first
+Presbyterian Church in Philadelphia. He is chiefly known by his _Notes on
+the New Testament_ and _Notes on the Old Testament_.
+
+BARNES, Rt. Hon. George Nicoll, British Labour leader, born at Dundee, in
+Scotland, in 1859. After working as an engineer he became assistant
+secretary of the Amalgamated Society of Engineers in 1892, and was general
+secretary from 1896 to 1906. He entered Parliament in 1906, became Minister
+for Pensions in 1916, member of War Cabinet in 1917, and was Minister
+without portfolio from 1919 to Jan., 1920. He was a British representative
+at the Peace Conference in Paris.
+
+BARNES, William, English dialect poet and philologist, born in Dorsetshire
+in 1800, died 1886. Of humble birth, he first entered a solicitor's office,
+then taught at a school in Dorchester, and having taken orders became
+rector of Winterbourne Came in his native county and died there. He
+acquired a knowledge of many languages, and published works on Anglo-Saxon
+and English, as _An Anglo-Saxon Delectus_, _A Philological Grammar_
+(grounded upon English), _Grammar and Glossary of the Dorset Dialect_, &c.,
+but is best known by his _Poems of Rural Life in the Dorset Dialect_ and
+_Poems of Rural Life in Common English_.
+
+BAR'NET, a town of England, in Herts, 11 miles from London, where was
+fought in 1471 a battle between the Yorkists and Lancastrians, resulting in
+the defeat of the latter and the death of Warwick, Edward IV being thus
+established king. Pop. (1921), 11,772.
+
+BARNETT, John, musical composer, son of Bernhard Beer, a German, born at
+Bedford 1802, died 1890. He composed music as a lad, and his songs and
+ballads soon had great vogue. In 1834 his opera _The Mountain Sylph_ was
+produced with success, and three years after was followed by the less
+successful _Fair Rosamond_. For many years before his death he was little
+heard of.
+
+BARNETT, John Francis, nephew of the former, born in 1837, died in 1916,
+was also a distinguished musician and teacher, author of cantatas: _The
+Ancient Mariner_, _Paradise and the Peri_, _The Raising of Lazarus_, _The
+Building of the Ship_, and of various other works.
+
+BARNEVELDT (baer'ne-velt), Johan van Olden, grand pensionary of Holland
+during the struggle with Philip II of Spain, born in 1547. After the
+assassination of William of Orange, and the conquest of the south provinces
+by the Spaniards under Parma, he headed the embassy to secure English aid.
+Finding, however, that the Earl of Leicester proved a worse than useless
+ally, he secured the elevation of the young Maurice of Nassau to the post
+of Stadtholder, at the same time by his own wise administration doing much
+to restore the prosperity of the State. After serving as ambassador to
+France and England, he succeeded in 1607 in obtaining from Spain a
+recognition of the independence of the States, and two years later in
+concluding with her the twelve years' truce. Maurice, ambitious of absolute
+rule and jealous of the influence of Barneveldt, was interested in the
+continuance of the war, and lost no opportunity of hostile action against
+the great statesman. In this he was aided by the strongly-marked theologic
+division in the State between the Gomarites (the Calvinistic and popular
+party) and the Arminians, of whom Barneveldt was a supporter. Maurice, who
+had thrown in his lot with the Gomarites, encouraged the idea that the
+Arminians were the friends of Spain, and procured the assembly of a synod
+at Dort (1618), which violently condemned them. Barneveldt and his friends
+Grotius and Hoogerbeets were arrested, and subjected to a so-called trial;
+and Barneveldt, to whom the country owed its political existence and the
+Commons their retention of legislative power, was beheaded on 13th May,
+1619. His sons, four years later, attempted to avenge his death; one was
+beheaded, the other escaped to Spain.
+
+BARNOLDSWICK, an urban district of England, West Riding of Yorkshire, 9
+miles south-west of Skipton, with cotton manufactures and other industries.
+Pop. (1921), 11,951.
+
+BARNS'LEY, a municipal borough of England, West Riding of Yorkshire. Its
+staple industries are the manufacture of linens, iron, and steel, and there
+are numerous collieries in the neighbourhood. Created a parliamentary
+borough in 1918, Barnsley returns one member to Parliament. Pop. (1921),
+53,670.
+
+BARN'STAPLE, a county and municipal borough in England, county of Devon,
+giving its name to a parliamentary division of the county on the right bank
+of the Taw, where it receives the Yeo; manufactures of lace, paper,
+pottery, furniture, toys and turnery, and leather. Pop. 14,409.
+
+BAROACH. See _Broach_.
+
+BARO'DA, a non-tributary State, but subordinate to the Indian Government,
+situated in the north of the Bombay presidency. It consists of a number of
+detached territories in the province of Guzerat, and is generally level,
+fertile, and well cultivated, producing luxuriant crops of grain, cotton,
+tobacco, opium, sugar-cane, and oil-seeds. There is a famous breed of large
+white oxen used as draught cattle. Area, 8182 sq. miles; pop. (1911)
+2,032,798. The ruler is called the _Gaekwar_. The dissensions of the Baroda
+family have more than once called for British intervention, and in 1875 the
+ruling Gaekwar was tried and deposed in connection with the charge of
+attempting to poison the British Resident. Since 1908 there is a
+Legislative Council of 17 members.--_Baroda_, the capital, is the third
+city in the Bombay presidency. It consists of the city proper within the
+walls and the suburbs without, and is largely composed of poor and crowded
+houses, but has also some fine buildings, and is noted for its Hindu
+temples kept up by the State. Pop. 99,345.--Cf. E. St. C. Weeden, _A Year
+with the Gaekwar of Baroda_.
+
+BAROGRAPH, a kind of aneroid barometer, which, by means of special
+mechanism and appliances, is made to furnish automatically a continuous
+record of the successive changes in atmospheric pressure. The paper that
+receives the record is made to move by clockwork while in contact with the
+index pencil, which rises and falls according to alterations of atmospheric
+pressure.
+
+BAROM'ETER, an instrument for measuring the weight or pressure of the
+atmosphere and thus determining changes in the weather, the height of
+mountains, and other phenomena. It had its origin about the middle of the
+seventeenth century in an experiment of Torricelli, an Italian, who found
+that if a glass tube about 3 feet in length, open at one end only, and
+filled with mercury, were placed vertically with the open end in a cup of
+the same fluid metal, a portion of the mercury descended into the cup,
+leaving a column only about 30 inches in height in the tube. He inferred,
+therefore, that the atmospheric pressure on the surface of the mercury in
+the cup forced it up the tube to the height of 30 inches, and that this was
+so because the weight of a column of air from the cup to the top of the
+atmosphere was only equal to that of a column of mercury of the same base
+and 30 inches high. Pascal confirmed the conclusion in 1645; six years
+afterwards it was found by Perrier that the height of the mercury in the
+Torricellian tube varied with the weather; and in 1655 Boyle proposed to
+use the instrument to measure the height of mountains.
+
+[Illustration: Common Upright Barometer; Marine Barometer]
+
+The common or _cistern_ barometer, which is a modification of the
+Torricellian tube, consists of a glass tube 33 inches in length and about
+one-third of an inch in diameter, hermetically sealed at the top, and
+having the lower end resting in a small vessel containing mercury, or bent
+upwards and terminating in a glass bulb partly occupied by the mercury and
+open to the atmosphere. The tube is first filled with purified mercury, and
+then inverted, and there is affixed to it a scale to mark the height of the
+mercurial column, which comparatively seldom rises above 31 inches or sinks
+below 28 inches. In general the rising of the mercury presages fair
+weather, and its falling the contrary, a great and sudden fall being the
+usual presage of a storm. The weather-points on the ordinary barometric
+scale are as follows: At 28 inches, stormy weather; 28-1/2, much rain or
+snow; 29, rain or snow; 29-1/2, changeable; 30, fair or frost; 30-1/2,
+settled fair or frost; 31, very dry weather or hard frost. Certain
+attendant signs, however, have also to be noted: thus, when fair or foul
+weather follows almost immediately upon the rise or fall of the mercury,
+the change is usually of short duration; while if the change of weather be
+delayed for some days after the variation in the mercury, it is usually of
+long continuance. The direction of the wind has also to be taken into
+account.
+
+[Illustration: Siphon Barometer; Wheel Barometer]
+
+The _siphon_ barometer consists of a bent tube, generally of uniform bore,
+having two unequal legs, the longer closed, the shorter open. A sufficient
+quantity of mercury having been introduced to fill the longer leg, the
+instrument is set upright, and the mercury takes such a position that the
+difference of the levels in the two legs represents the pressure of the
+atmosphere. In the best siphon barometers there are two scales, one for
+each leg, the divisions on one being reckoned upwards, and on the other
+downwards from an intermediate zero point, so that the sum of the two
+readings is the difference of levels of the mercury in the two branches.
+
+The _wheel_ barometer is the one that is most commonly used for domestic
+purposes. It is far from being accurate, but it is often preferred for
+ordinary use on account of the greater range of its scale, by which small
+differences in the height of the column of mercury are more easily
+observed. It usually consists of a siphon barometer having a float resting
+on the surface of the mercury in the open branch, a thread attached to the
+float passing over a pulley, and having a weight as a counterpoise to the
+float at its extremity. As the mercury rises and falls the thread and
+weight turn the pulley, which again moves the index of the dial.
+
+The _mountain_ barometer is a portable mercurial barometer with a tripod
+support and a long scale for measuring the altitude of mountains. To
+prevent breakage, through the oscillations of such a heavy liquid as
+mercury, it is usually carried inverted, or it is furnished with a movable
+basin and a screw, by means of which the mercury may be forced up to the
+top of the tube. For delicate operations, such as the measurement of
+altitudes, the scale of the barometer is furnished with a nonius or
+vernier, which greatly increases the minuteness and accuracy of the scale.
+For the rough estimate of altitudes the following rule is sufficient: As
+the sum of the heights of the mercury at the bottom and top of the mountain
+is to their difference, so is 52,000 to the height to be measured, in feet.
+(See also _Heights, Measurement of_.) In exact barometric observations two
+corrections require to be made, one for the depression of the mercury in
+the tube by capillary attraction, the other for temperature, which
+increases or diminishes the bulk of the mercury. In regard to the
+measurement of heights, the general rule is to subtract the ten-thousandth
+part of the observed altitude for every degree of Fahrenheit above 32deg.
+
+[Illustration: Aneroid Barometer]
+
+In the _aneroid_ barometer, as its name implies (Gr. _a_, not, _n[=e]ros_,
+liquid), no fluid is employed, the action being dependent upon the
+susceptibility to atmospheric pressure shown by a flat circular metallic
+chamber from which the air has been partially exhausted, and which has a
+flexible top and bottom of corrugated metal plate. By an ingenious
+arrangement of springs and levers the depression or elevation of the
+surface of the box is registered by an index on the dial, by which means it
+is also greatly magnified, being given in inches to correspond with the
+mercurial barometer. Aneroids are, however, generally less reliable than
+mercurial barometers, with which they should be frequently compared. The
+illustration shows an aneroid without its case. At the centre of the
+partially exhausted metal chamber is a small pillar [M], connected with a
+steel spring [R]. The rise and fall of the top of the chamber, due to
+changing atmospheric pressure, is transmitted by means of the levers [L],
+and [_m_] to a metallic axis [_r_], and this axis carries a lever [_t_],
+whose end is attached to a chain [_s_], which turns a drum on whose axis
+the index needle is fixed.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: C. Abbe, _Meteorological
+Apparatus_; Marvin, _Barometers and the Measurement of Atmospheric
+Pressure_.
+
+BAR'ON, originally, in the feudal system, the vassal or immediate tenant of
+any superior; but the term was afterwards restricted to the king's barons,
+and again to the greater of these only, who attended the Great Council, or
+who, at a later date, were summoned by writ to Parliament. It was the
+second rank of nobility, until dukes and marquesses were introduced and
+placed above the earls, and viscounts also set above the barons, who
+therefore now hold the lowest rank in the British peerage. The present
+barons are of three classes: (1) barons by writ, whose ancestors have long
+sat in the Upper House; (2) by patent; (3) by tenure, i.e. holding the
+title as annexed to land. The coronet is a plain gold circle with six balls
+or 'pearls' on its edge, the cap being of crimson velvet.
+
+BARON AND FEME, a term used for husband and wife in English law.
+
+BAR'ONET, a hereditary dignity in Great Britain and Ireland, next in rank
+to the peerage, originally instituted by James I in 1611, nominally to
+promote the colonization and defence of Ulster, each baronet, on his
+creation, being then obliged to pay into the treasury a sum of L1095,
+exclusive of fees. Baronets of Ireland were instituted in 1620, and of
+Scotland in 1625, the latter being called baronets of Nova Scotia, because
+their creation was originally intended to further the colonization of Nova
+Scotia. But the baronets of Scotland and of England have been baronets of
+Great Britain if created since 1707; since 1801 all creations have been
+known as baronetcies of the United Kingdom. A baronet has the title of
+'Sir' prefixed to his Christian and surname, and his wife is 'Lady'
+so-and-so. Baronets rank before all knights except Knights of the Garter,
+the Thistle, and St. Patrick. They have as their badge a 'bloody hand' (the
+arms of Ulster), that is, a left hand, erect and open, cut off at the
+wrist, and red in colour.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Pixley, _History of the
+Baronetage_; G. E. Cokayne, _Complete Baronetage_; _The Baronetage under 27
+Sovereigns, 1309-1910_.
+
+BARO'NIUS, or BARONIO, Caesar, Italian ecclesiastical historian, born 1538;
+educated at Naples; in 1557 went to Rome; was one of the first pupils of
+St. Philip of Neri, and member of the oratory founded by him; afterwards
+cardinal and librarian of the Vatican Library. He owed these dignities to
+the services which he rendered the Church by his _Ecclesiastical Annals_,
+comprising valuable documents from the papal archives, on which he laboured
+from the year 1580 until his death, 30th June, 1607. They were continued,
+though with less power, by other writers, of whom Raynaldus takes the first
+rank; others are Laderchi and Theiner.
+
+BARON OF BEEF, two sirloins not cut asunder.
+
+BARONS' WAR, the war carried on for several years by Simon de Montfort and
+other barons of Henry III against the king, beginning in 1263.
+
+BARONY, a manor or landed estate under a baron, who formerly had certain
+rights of jurisdiction in his barony and could hold special courts. In
+Ireland baronies are still the chief subdivisions of the counties.
+
+BAROSMA. See _Bucku_.
+
+BAROT'SELAND, a former kingdom of South Africa, now a part of Rhodesia.
+
+BAROUCHE (ba-roesh'), a four-wheeled carriage with a falling top and two
+inside seats in which four persons can sit, two facing two.
+
+BARQUE (baerk), a three-masted vessel of which the fore-mast and main-mast
+are square-rigged, but the mizzen-mast has fore-and-aft sails only.
+
+BARQUISIMETO (b[.a]r-k[=e]-s[=e]-m[=a]'t[=o]), a city in the north of the
+Republic of Venezuela, capital of the State of Lara. Pop. about 32,000.
+
+BAR'RA, or BAR, a small kingdom in Africa, near the mouth of the Gambia.
+The Mandingoes, who form a considerable part of the inhabitants, are
+Mahommedans and the most civilized people on the Gambia. Pop. 200,000. The
+coast here belongs to Britain. The chief town is Barrinding, where the
+so-called king resides. See _Gambia_.
+
+BARRA, an island of the Outer Hebrides, west coast of Scotland, belonging
+to Inverness-shire; 8 miles long and from 2 to 5 miles broad, of irregular
+outline, with rocky coasts, surface hilly but furnishing excellent pasture.
+On the west coast the Atlantic, beating with all its force, has hollowed
+out vast caves and fissures. Large herds of cattle and flocks of sheep are
+reared on the island. The coasts of this and adjacent islands abound with
+fish, and fishing is an important industry. The inhabitants, about 2500,
+are Roman Catholics, and speak Gaelic.
+
+BARRA, a town about 3 miles east of Naples. Pop. 12,080.
+
+BARRACAN', or BARRAGAN, strictly, a thick strong stuff made in Persia and
+Armenia of camel's hair, but the name has been applied, by Byron and
+others, to various wool, flax, and cotton fabrics.
+
+BAR'RACK (Sp. _barraca_), originally a small cabin or hut for troops, but
+now applied to the permanent buildings in which troops are lodged. Despite
+the obvious evils of the quartering system, the introduction of barracks by
+George III met with considerable opposition in the British Parliament as
+dangerous to liberty, by estranging the soldier from the citizen, and
+fitting him to become a tool of despotism.
+
+BARRACKPUR (-poer'), a town and military cantonment, Hindustan, on the left
+bank of the Hughli, 10 miles N.N.E. of Calcutta. The suburban residence of
+the Viceroy is in Barrackpur Park. Pop. 31,907.
+
+BARRACOON', a negro barrack or slave depot, formerly plentiful on the west
+coast of Africa, in Cuba, Brazil, &c.
+
+BARRACU'DA, a name for certain large and ferocious fishes of the genus
+Sphyraena, and allied to the mullets, inhabiting southern seas, and caught
+in abundance for food.
+
+BARRAFRAN'CA, a town of Sicily, province Caltanissetta. Pop. 11,170.
+
+BARRAMUN'DA. See _Ceratodus_.
+
+BARRANQUILLA (b[.a]r-r[.a]n-k[=e]l'y[.a]), a port of S. America, in
+Colombia, on a branch of the River Magdalena, near its entrance into the
+Caribbean Sea, connected by rail with the seaport Puerto Colombia. Pop.
+64,543.
+
+BARRAS (b[.a]-rae), Paul Francois Jean Nicholas, Comte de, member of the
+French National Convention and of the Executive Directory, born in Provence
+1755, died 1829. After serving in the army in India and Africa, he joined
+the revolutionary party and was a deputy in the _tiers etat_. He took part
+in the attack upon the Bastille and upon the Tuileries, and voted for the
+death of Louis XVI. In the subsequent events he displeased Robespierre, and
+on this account joined the members of the committee, who foresaw danger
+awaiting them, and being entrusted with the chief command of the forces of
+his party he made himself master of Robespierre. On 4th Feb., 1795, he was
+elected president of the Convention, and on 5th Oct., when the troops of
+the sections which favoured the royal cause approached, Barras for a second
+time received the chief command of the forces of the Convention. On this
+occasion he employed General Bonaparte, for whom he procured the chief
+command of the army of the interior, and afterwards the command of the army
+in Italy. From the events of the 18th Fructidor (4th Sept., 1797) he
+governed absolutely until the 13th June, 1799, when Sieyes entered the
+Directory, and in alliance with Bonaparte procured his downfall in the
+revolution of the 18th Brumaire (9th Nov., 1799). He afterwards resided at
+Brussels, Marseilles, Rome, and Montpellier under surveillance. His
+_Memoirs_ (in four volumes) were published in French and in English in
+1895-6.
+
+BAR'RATRY, in commerce, any fraud committed by the master or mariners of a
+ship, whereby the owners, freighters, or insurers are injured; as by
+deviation from the proper course of the voyage, by the captain, for his own
+private purposes; fraudulent negligence; embezzlement of any part of the
+cargo, &c.
+
+BARRATRY, COMMON, in law, the stirring up of lawsuits and quarrels between
+other persons, the party guilty of this offence being indictable as a
+_common barrator_ or _barretor_. The commencing of suits in the name of a
+fictitious plaintiff is common barratry. In old Scots law it denotes the
+taking of bribes by a judge.
+
+BARREL, a well-known variety of wooden vessel; but the term is also used as
+a definite measure and weight. A barrel of beer is 36 gallons, of flour 196
+lb., of beef or pork 200 lb. The Italian _barile_ varies from 7 to 31
+English gallons; the French _barrique_ of Bordeaux contains 50 English
+gallons = 228 French litres.
+
+BARREL-ORGAN, a musical instrument usually carried by street musicians, in
+which a barrel, studded with pegs or staples, when turned round, opens a
+series of valves to admit air to a set of pipes, or acts upon wire strings
+like those of the piano, thus producing a fixed series of tunes.
+
+BARREN GROUNDS, a large tract in the North-West Territories of Canada,
+extending northwards from Churchill River to the Arctic Ocean between Great
+Bear and Great Slave Lake and Hudson's Bay. It largely consists of swamps,
+lakes, and bare rock.
+
+BARRHEAD', a town, Scotland, Renfrewshire, on the Levern, 7 miles S.W. of
+Glasgow; chief industries: printing of cottons, the spinning of cotton
+yarn, dyeing, bleaching, iron and brass founding, and sanitary ware. Pop.
+11,387.
+
+BARRIE, a town of Canada, province Ontario, 55 miles N.W. Toronto,
+picturesquely situated on Lake Simcoe, a favourite summer resort. Pop.
+6420.
+
+BARRIE, Sir James Matthew, a novelist and playwright, born in 1860 at
+Kirriemuir, Forfarshire; studied at Edinburgh University, graduating as
+M.A. in 1882. After working on a Nottingham journal he was a journalist in
+London. His first book, _Better Dead_ (1887), a satire on London life, was
+followed by the highly successful _Auld Licht Idylls_ (1888), with its
+sequel _A Window in Thrums_ (that is, Kirriemuir) (1889). Among his novels
+and tales are _When a Man's Single_, _My Lady Nicotine_, _The Little
+Minister_, _Sentimental Tommy_, _Tommy and Grizel_, _The Little White
+Bird_. Successful plays are _Peter and Wendy_, _The Professor's Love
+Story_, _The Little Minister_ (based on the novel), _The Admirable
+Crichton_, _Quality Street_, _Little Mary_, _Peter Pan_, _What Every Woman
+Knows_, _Dear Brutus_, _A Kiss for Cinderella_, _Mary Rose_. His plays on
+the whole have been even more successful than his other works. He was
+created a baronet in 1913, and elected Rector of the University of St.
+Andrews in 1919.--Cf. J. A. Hammerton, _J. M. Barrie and his Books_.
+
+BARRIER REEF, a coral reef, or rather series of reefs, extending for 1260
+miles off the N. E. coast of Australia, at a distance from land ranging
+from 10 to 100 miles. In sailing along this coast, steamers generally take
+the route inside the reef, where there is a channel about 12 fathoms deep
+throughout, protected by the reefs themselves; the outer channel is safer
+for sailing vessels.
+
+BARRIER TREATY, the treaty (1718) by which, when the Spanish Netherlands
+were ceded to Austria, the Dutch secured the right to garrison several
+border fortresses of the country at the expense of Austria, to serve as a
+barrier against France. It was declared void in 1781 by Joseph II.
+
+BAR'RINGTON, Daines, son of Viscount Barrington, lawyer, antiquarian, and
+naturalist, born 1727, died 1800. He wrote many papers for the Royal
+Society and the Society of Antiquaries; published some separate works, and
+was a correspondent of White of Selborne, who addressed to him a number of
+the letters in _The Natural History of Selborne_.
+
+BAR'RISTER, in England or Ireland, an advocate or pleader, who has been
+admitted by one of the Inns of Court, viz. the Inner Temple, Middle Temple,
+Lincoln's Inn, or Gray's Inn, to plead at the bar. It is they who speak
+before all the higher courts, being instructed in regard to the case they
+have in hand by means of the _brief_ which they receive from the solicitor
+who may happen to engage their services, and which has a certain fee
+endorsed upon it as the sum to be paid for the barrister's services in the
+case. Before a student can be admitted to the bar he must have been a
+member of one of those societies, and have kept twelve terms there. The
+examinations, which had dwindled into mere forms, have been revived and
+made more stringent. Barristers are sometimes called _utter_ or _outer
+barristers_, to distinguish them from the king's counsel, who sit within
+the bar in the courts and are distinguished by a silk gown. Barristers are
+also spoken of as _counsel_, as in the phrase _opinion of counsel_, that
+is, a written opinion on a case obtained from a barrister before whom the
+facts have been laid. All judges are selected from the barristers. A
+barrister cannot maintain an action for his fees, which are considered
+purely honorary. A _revising barrister_ is a barrister appointed to revise
+the list of persons in any locality who have a vote for a member of
+Parliament. The term corresponding to barrister is in Scotland _advocate_,
+in the United States _counsellor-at-law_; but the position of the latter is
+not quite the same.--Cf. J. R. V. Marchant, _Barrister-at-law_.
+
+BAR'ROS, Joao de, Portuguese historian, born 1496. He was attached to the
+Court of King Emmanuel, who, after the publication in 1520 of Barros'
+romance, _The Emperor Clarimond_, urged him to undertake a history of the
+Portuguese in India, which appeared thirty-two years later. King John III
+appointed Barros Governor of the Portuguese settlements in Guinea, and
+General Agent for these colonies, further presenting him in 1530 with the
+province of Maranham, in Brazil, for the purpose of colonization. For his
+losses by the last enterprise the king indemnified him, and he died in
+retirement in 1570. Besides his standard work, the _Decadas_, a history of
+the Portuguese in India (a complete edition of which appeared at Lisbon
+between 1778 and 1788), he wrote a moral dialogue on compromise, and the
+first _Portuguese Grammar_.
+
+BARRO'SA, a village, Spain, near the S. W. coast of Andalusia, near which
+General Graham, when abandoned by the Spaniards, defeated a superior French
+force in 1811.
+
+BAR'ROW, a river in the south-east of Ireland, province Leinster, rising on
+the borders of the King's and Queen's Counties, and after a southerly
+course joining the Suir in forming Waterford harbour. It is next in
+importance to the Shannon, and is navigable for vessels of 200 tons for 25
+miles above the sea. Its principal tributary is the Nore.
+
+BAR'ROW, Isaac, an eminent English mathematician and divine, born in London
+in 1630; studied at the Charterhouse and at Trinity College, Cambridge, of
+which he became a fellow in 1649. After a course of medical studies he
+turned to divinity, mathematics, and astronomy, and took his M. A. degree
+in 1652, and, failing to obtain the Cambridge Greek professorship, went
+abroad. In 1659 he was ordained; in 1660 elected Greek professor at
+Cambridge; in 1662 professor of geometry in Gresham College; and in 1663
+Lucasian professor of mathematics at Cambridge, a post which he resigned to
+Newton in 1669. In 1670 he was created D. D., in 1672 master of Trinity
+College, and in 1675 vice-chancellor of Cambridge University. He died in
+1677. His principal mathematical works (written in Latin) were: _Euclidis
+Elementa_ (1655); _Euclidis Data_ (1657); _Mathematicae Lectiones_
+(1664-6); _Lectiones Opticae_ (1669); _Lectiones Geometricae_ (1670);
+_Archimedis Opera_; _Apollonii Conicorum lib. iv_; _Theodosii Spherica_,
+(1675). All his English works, which are theological, were left in MS., and
+published by Dr. Tillotson in 1685, the best edition being that prepared by
+the Rev. A. Napier in 1859. As a mathematician Barrow was deemed inferior
+only to Newton. The Latin edition of his mathematical works was prepared by
+Whewell in 1860.
+
+BARROW, Sir John, Bart., geographer and man of letters, born in 1764 in
+Lancashire. At the age of sixteen he went in a whaler to Greenland; and
+later on was teacher of mathematics in a school at Greenwich. In 1792 he
+was sent with Lord Macartney, in his embassy to China, to take charge of
+philosophical instruments for presentation to the Chinese emperor. His
+account of this journey was of great value, and not less so was the account
+of his travels in South Africa, whither he went in 1797 as secretary to
+Macartney. In 1804 he was appointed second secretary to the Admiralty, a
+post occupied by him for forty years. In 1835 he was made a baronet; and he
+died in 1848, three years after his retirement. Besides the accounts of his
+own travels, he published lives of Earl Macartney, Lord Anson, and Lord
+Howe; _Voyages of Discovery and Research within the Arctic Regions_; an
+_Autobiography_ written at the age of eighty-three, &c.
+
+BAR'ROW-IN-FUR'NESS, a seaport, county and parliamentary borough of
+Lancashire, in the district of Furness, opposite the Island of Walney, a
+town that has increased from a fishing-hamlet with 100 inhabitants in 1848
+to a town of 74,254 inhabitants in 1921. Its prosperity is due to the mines
+of red hematite iron-ore which abound in the district, and to the railway
+rendering its excellent natural harbour available. It has several large
+docks, besides graving-docks, a floating dock capable of receiving vessels
+of 3000 tons, a large timber pond, &c. There is an extensive trade in
+timber, cattle, grain, and flour; and iron-ore and pig-iron are largely
+shipped. It has numerous blast-furnaces, and one of the largest
+Bessemer-steel works in the world. Besides ironworks, a large business is
+done in shipbuilding, the making of railway wagons and rolling-stock,
+ropes, sails, bricks, &c. A town hall, erected at a cost of L60,000, was
+opened in 1887. Barrow-in-Furness returns one member to Parliament.
+
+[Illustration: Barrows]
+
+BAR'ROWS, mounds of earth or stones raised to mark the resting-place of the
+dead, and distinguished, according to their shape, as _long_, _bowl_,
+_bell_, _cone_, and _broad_ barrows. The practice of barrow-burial is of
+unknown antiquity and almost universal, barrows being found all over
+Europe, in Northern Africa, Asia Minor, Afghanistan, Western India, and in
+America. In the earliest barrows the enclosed bodies were simply laid upon
+the ground, with stone or bone implements and weapons beside them. In
+barrows of later date the remains are generally enclosed in a stone cist.
+Frequently cremation preceded the erection of the barrow, the ashes being
+enclosed in an urn or cist. A detailed description of an ancient
+barrow-burial is given in the Anglo-Saxon poem _Beowulf_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+Canon W. Greenwell, _British Barrows_; J. Anderson, _Scotland in Pagan
+Times_; W. C. Borlase, _The Dolmens of Ireland_.
+
+BARROW STRAIT, the connecting channel between Lancaster Sound and Baffin's
+Bay on the east and the Polar Ocean on the west. Named after Sir John
+Barrow.
+
+BARRY, a seaport of S. Wales, Glamorganshire, 7 miles south-west of
+Cardiff, with large docks, exporting much coal. Pop. (1921), 38,927.
+
+BAR'RY, Sir Charles, an English architect, born in London, 1795. After
+executing numerous important buildings, such as the Reform Clubhouse,
+London, St. Edward's School, Birmingham, &c., he was appointed architect of
+the new Houses of Parliament at Westminster, with the execution of which he
+was occupied for more than twenty-four years. He was elected a Royal
+Academician in 1844, was knighted in 1852, and died suddenly in 1860.
+
+BARRY, Comtesse Du. See _Du Barry_.
+
+BARRY, Edward Middleton, R.A. (1830-80), son of Sir Charles Barry, was also
+a distinguished architect, and designed many important buildings, though he
+was disappointed in regard to his plans for the Albert Memorial, National
+Gallery, and New Law Courts.
+
+BARRY, James, a painter and writer on art, born at Cork, 1741; studied
+abroad with the aid of Burke; was elected Royal Academician on his return;
+and worked seven years on the paintings for the hall of the Society for the
+Encouragement of the Arts. His first picture which attracted attention was
+_St. Patrick baptizing the King of Cashel_. In 1773 he published his
+_Inquiry into the Real and Imaginary Obstructions to the Increase of the
+Arts in England_, and in 1782 was elected professor of painting to the
+Academy. He was expelled in 1797 on the ground of his authorship of the
+_Letter to the Society of Dilettanti_. His chief painting was his _Victors
+at Olympia_. He died in 1806.
+
+BARRY CORNWALL. See _Procter, Bryan Waller_.
+
+BAR'SABBAS, surnamed Justus, son of Alpheus, brother of James the Less and
+of Judas, and one of the candidates for the apostolical office left vacant
+by Judas Iscariot. According to tradition, he was afterwards Bishop of
+Eleutheropolis, near Jerusalem, and suffered martyrdom. Another Barsabbas,
+surnamed Judas, supposed to be the brother of the above, is mentioned in
+the _Acts_ as a companion of St. Paul and Barnabas at Antioch. He is
+supposed to have died in Jerusalem at a very advanced age.
+
+BAR-SHOT, a double-headed shot consisting of two pieces connected by a bar.
+
+BARSI, a town of India, in Sholapur district, Bombay, 43 miles north of
+Sholapur and 128 miles east of Poona, with a trade in cotton, oil, &c. Pop.
+21,000.
+
+BAR-SUR-AUBE (b[.a]r-s[.u]r-[=o]b), an ancient town, France, department
+Aube, where, in 1814, a hotly-contested action was fought between Napoleon
+and the Allies. Pop. 4533.
+
+BART, BARTH, or BAERT (baert), Jean, a famous French sailor, born at
+Dunkirk, 1650, the son of a poor fisherman. He became captain of a
+privateer, and after some brilliant exploits was appointed captain in the
+royal navy. In recognition of his further services he was made commodore,
+subsequently receiving letters of nobility. Brusque, if not vulgar, in
+manner, and ridiculed by the Court for his indifference to ceremony, he
+made the navy of the nation everywhere respected, and furnished some of the
+most striking chapters in the romance of naval warfare. After the Peace of
+Ryswick he lived quietly at Dunkirk, and died there while equipping a fleet
+to take part in the War of the Spanish Succession, 1702.
+
+BARTAS (b[.a]r-tae), Guillaume de Salluste du, a French poet, termed 'the
+divine' by contemporary English writers, born 1544. Principal work, _La
+Semaine ou la Creation du Monde_, a poem on the creation, translated into
+English by Joshua Sylvester. It is said to have had a considerable
+influence on Milton's _Paradise Lost_. He died of wounds received at Ivry,
+1590.
+
+BARTFELD (b[.a]rt'felt), an old town in Czecho-Slovakia, formerly Hungary,
+county of Saros, on the Tepl, with mineral springs in the neighbourhood.
+Pop. 6160, mostly Slovaks.
+
+BARTH (baert), Heinrich, African traveller, born at Hamburg, 1821, died in
+1865. He graduated at the University of Berlin as Ph.D. in 1844, and set
+out in 1845 to explore all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean.
+The first volume of his _Wanderungen durch die Kuestenlaender des
+Mittelmeeres_ was published in 1849, in which year he was invited by the
+British Government to join Dr. Overweg in accompanying Richardson's
+expedition to Central Africa. The expedition set out from Tripoli in Feb.,
+1850, and, in spite of the death both of Richardson and Overweg, Barth did
+not return to Tripoli till the autumn of 1855. His explorations, which
+extended over an area of about 2,000,000 sq. miles, determined the course
+of the Niger and the true nature of the Sahara. The English account of it
+was entitled _Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa_ (5
+vols., 1857-8). An important work on the African languages was left
+unfinished.
+
+BARTH, Jean. See _Bart_.
+
+BARTHELEMY (b[.a]r-t[=a]l-m[=e]), Jean Jacques, French author, born 1716.
+He was educated under the Jesuits, for holy orders, but declined all offers
+of clerical promotion above the rank of Abbe He gained considerable repute
+as a worker in philology and archaeology; and after his appointment as
+Director of the Royal Cabinet of Medals, in 1753, spent some time
+travelling in Italy collecting medals and antiquities. His best-known work,
+not inaptly characterized by himself as an unwieldy compilation, was his
+_Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Grece_ (1787). It was very popular and was
+translated into various tongues. Though taking no part in the revolution,
+he was arrested on a charge of being an aristocrat in 1793, but was set at
+liberty, and subsequently offered the post of librarian of the National
+Library. He died in 1795.
+
+BARTHELMY-SAINT-HILAIRE (b[.a]r-t[=a]l-m[=e]-san-t[=e]-l[=a]r), Jules,
+French scholar and statesman, born 1805, died in 1895. He was professor of
+Greek and Latin philosophy in the College de France, but resigned the chair
+after the _coup d'etat_ of 1852 and refused to take the oath. He was
+reappointed in 1862; and in 1869 was returned to the Corps Legislatif.
+After the revolution he was a member of the National Assembly; and was
+elected Senator for life in 1876. He published a translation of Aristotle,
+and works on Buddhism, Mohammed and Mohammedanism, the Vedas, &c.
+
+BARTHEZ (b[.a]r-t[=a]), Paul Joseph, an eminent French physician, born at
+Montpellier 1734, died 1806. At Montpellier he founded a medical school,
+which acquired a reputation throughout all Europe. Having settled in Paris,
+he was appointed by the king consulting physician, and by the Duke of
+Orleans his first physician. The Revolution deprived him of the greatest
+part of his fortune, and drove him from Paris, but Napoleon brought him
+forth again, and loaded him in his advanced age with dignities. Among his
+numerous writings may be mentioned _Nouvelle Mecanique des Mouvements de
+l'Homme et des Animaux_; _Traitement des Maladies Goutteuses_;
+_Consultation de Medecine_, &c. His _Traite du Beau_ was published
+posthumously (1807).
+
+BARTHOLDI (b[.a]r-tol'd[=e]), Auguste, French sculptor, born 1834, died
+1904; best known for his colossal statue of Liberty, now overlooking the
+harbour of New York.
+
+BARTHOLIN (baer'to-lin), Kaspar, Swedish writer, born 1585, died 1630. He
+studied medicine, philosophy, and theology; was made doctor of medicine at
+Basel in 1610, rector of the University of Copenhagen 1618, and professor
+of theology 1624. His _Institutiones Anatomicae_ was for long a standard
+textbook in the universities.--His son, Thomas, born at Copenhagen 1616,
+died 1680, was equally celebrated as a philologist, naturalist, and
+physician. He was professor of anatomy at Copenhagen, 1648; physician to
+the king, Christian V, in 1670; and Councillor of State, 1675.--His sons,
+Kaspar (born 1654, died 1704) and Thomas (born 1659, died 1690) were also
+highly distinguished--the former as an anatomist, the latter as an
+archaeologist.
+
+BARTHOLOMEW, MASSACRE OF ST., the brutal slaughter of the French
+Protestants, which began on 24th Aug., 1572, by secret orders from Charles
+IX, at the instigation of his mother, Catherine de' Medici, and in which,
+according to Sully, 70,000 Huguenots, including women and children, were
+murdered throughout the country. During the minority of Charles and the
+regency of his mother, a long war raged in France between the Catholics and
+Huguenots, the leaders of the latter being the Prince of Conde and Admiral
+Coligny. In 1570 overtures were made by the Court to the Huguenots, which
+resulted in a treaty of peace. This treaty blinded the chiefs of the
+Huguenots, particularly Admiral Coligny, who was tired of the civil war.
+The king appeared to have entirely disengaged himself from the influence of
+the Guises and his mother; he invited Coligny to his Court, and honoured
+him as a father. The most artful means were employed to increase this
+delusion. The sister of the king was married to the Prince de Bearn (18th
+Aug., 1572) in order to allure the most distinguished Huguenots to Paris.
+On 22nd Aug. a shot from a window wounded the admiral. The king hastened to
+visit him, and swore to punish the author of the villainy; but on the same
+day he was induced by his mother to believe that the admiral had designs on
+his life. "God's death!" he exclaimed; "kill the admiral; and not only him,
+but all the Huguenots; let none remain to disturb us." The following night
+Catherine held the council, which fixed the execution for the night of St.
+Bartholomew, 24th Aug., 1572. After the assassination of Coligny, a bell
+from the tower of the royal palace at midnight gave to the assembled
+companies of burghers the signal for the general massacre of the Huguenots.
+The Prince of Conde and the King of Navarre saved their lives by going to
+mass and pretending to embrace the Catholic religion. By the king's orders
+the massacre was extended throughout the whole kingdom; and the horrible
+slaughter continued for thirty days in almost all the
+provinces.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Henry White, _Massacre of St. Bartholomew and
+History of the Religious Wars_; Lavisse, _Histoire de France_ (vol. vi).
+
+BARTHOL'OMEW, ST., the apostle, is probably the same person as _Nathanael_,
+mentioned in the _Gospel of St. John_ as an upright Israelite and one of
+the first disciples of Jesus. He is said to have taught Christianity in the
+south of Arabia, into which, according to Eusebius, he carried the _Gospel
+of St. Matthew_ in the Hebrew language, and to have suffered martyrdom. The
+ancient Church had an apocryphal gospel bearing his name, of which nothing
+has been preserved. A festival is held in his memory on 24th Aug.
+
+BARTHOLOMEW, ST., or ST. BARTHELEMY, an island, one of the West Indies, in
+the Leeward group, belonging to France, about 24 miles in circumference. It
+produces some tobacco, sugar, cotton, indigo, &c. Pop. 3000. The only town
+is Gustavia. The island, occupied by France in 1648, was ceded to Sweden in
+1784, but was again acquired by France in 1877 at the cost of 275,000
+francs.
+
+BARTHOLOMEW FAIR, a celebrated fair, established in the reign of Henry I
+(1133), formerly held in West Smithfield, London, on St. Bartholomew's Day
+(24th Aug., O. S.), but abolished since 1855.
+
+BARTHOLOMEW'S HOSPITAL, ST., one of the great hospitals of London, formerly
+the priory of St. Bartholomew, and made a hospital by Henry VIII in 1547.
+On an average over 6000 patients are annually admitted to the hospital,
+while about 150,000 out-patients are treated at its out-door dispensaries.
+A medical school is attached to it, attended by more than four hundred
+students.
+
+BARTHOU, Louis, French statesman, born at Orloron-Sainte-Marie in 1862. He
+practised as an advocate until he entered the Chamber of Deputies in 1889.
+He was a member of several Cabinets, and was appointed Premier in March,
+1913, but resigned in December of the same year. He was Minister of Foreign
+Affairs in Painleve's Cabinet during the European War. In April, 1922, he
+headed the French delegation to the Genoa Conference. His works include
+_Mirabeau_; _Lamartine, Orateur_; _Les Amours d'un Poete_, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Bartizan, Micklegate Bar, York.
+
+_a_, _a_, Balistraria]
+
+BAR'TIZAN, a small overhanging turret pierced with one or more apertures
+for archers, projecting generally from the angles on the top of a tower, or
+from the parapet, or elsewhere, as in a mediaeval castle. The word,
+probably a corruption of _bratticing_, was apparently first used by Sir
+Walter Scott.
+
+BART'LETT, William Henry, an English artist, born 1809, died, on a voyage
+from Malta to Marseilles, 1854. He travelled extensively abroad, and the
+illustrated works descriptive of the countries visited by him (Switzerland,
+the Bosporus and the Danube, Syria and Palestine, Egypt, Canada, United
+States, &c.) obtained great success with the public, the engravings being
+from sketches by his own pencil.
+
+BARTOLINI (b[.a]r-to-l[=e]'n[=e]), Lorenzo, a celebrated Italian sculptor,
+born at Florence about 1778, died 1850. He studied and worked in Paris, and
+was patronized by Napoleon. On the fall of the Empire he returned to
+Florence, where he continued to exercise his profession. Among his greater
+works may be mentioned his groups of _Charity_, and _Hercules and Lichas_,
+a colossal bust of Napoleon, and the beautiful monument in the cathedral of
+Lausanne, erected in memory of Lady Stratford Canning. Bartolini ranks next
+to Canova among modern Italian sculptors.
+
+BARTOLOMMEO (-m[=a]'o), Fra, or BACCIO DELLA PORTA (b[.a]ch[=o]'), Italian
+painter, born at Florence 1475, died there 1517. He studied painting in
+Florence, and acquired a more perfect knowledge of art from the works of
+Leonardo da Vinci. He was an admirer and follower of Savonarola, on whose
+death he took the Dominican habit, and assumed the name of Fra Bartolommeo.
+He was the friend of Michael Angelo and Raphael; painted many religious
+pictures, among them a _Saint Mark_ and a _Saint Sebastian_, which are
+greatly admired. His colouring, in vigour and brilliancy, comes near to
+that of Titian and Giorgione. His _Holy Family_ is in the National Gallery,
+London.
+
+BARTOLOZZI (-lot's[=e]), Francesco, a distinguished engraver, born at
+Florence in 1725, or, according to others, in 1730, died at Lisbon 1815. In
+Venice, in Florence, and Milan he etched several pieces on sacred subjects,
+and then went to London, where he received great encouragement. After forty
+years' residence in London, he went to Lisbon on the invitation of the
+Prince Regent of Portugal. He became director of the National Academy at
+Lisbon, where he remained till his death.
+
+BAR'TON, Andrew, one of Scotland's first great naval commanders; flourished
+during the reign of James IV, and belonged to a family which for two
+generations had produced able and successful seamen. In 1497 he commanded
+the escort which accompanied Perkin Warbeck from Scotland. After doing
+considerable damage to English shipping, he was killed in an engagement
+with two ships which had been specially fitted out against him (1512).
+
+BARTON, Bernard, known as the Quaker poet, born at Carlisle 1784, died
+1849. In 1806 he removed to Woodbridge, in Suffolk, where he was long clerk
+in a bank. He published _Metrical Effusions_ (1812); _Poems by an Amateur_
+(1818); _Poems_ (1820); _Napoleon, and other Poems_ (1822); _Poetic Vigils_
+(1824); _Devotional Verses_ (1826); _A New-year's Eve, and other Poems_
+(1828); besides many contributions to the annuals and magazines. His
+poetry, though deficient in force, is pleasing, fluent, and graceful.
+Barton is chiefly remembered as the friend of Charles Lamb, with whom he
+began to correspond in 1822.
+
+BARTON, Elizabeth, a country girl born in 1506 at Aldington, in Kent
+(commonly called the Holy Maid or the Nun of Kent), who gained some
+notoriety in the reign of Henry VIII. She was subject to epileptic fits,
+and was persuaded by certain priests that she was a prophetess inspired by
+God. Among other things she prophesied that Henry, if he persisted in his
+purpose of divorce and second marriage, would not be king for seven months
+longer, and would die a shameful death, and be succeeded by Catherine's
+daughter. On arrest the imposture was confessed, and Barton and six others
+were executed 5th May, 1534.
+
+BARTON-UPON-HUMBER, a town of England, in Lincolnshire, on the Humber. It
+contains two old churches, one of which is an undoubted specimen of
+Anglo-Saxon architecture. Pop. (1921), 6454.
+
+BARTSCH (b[.a]rch), Karl Friedrich, a German scholar, born in 1832, died in
+1888, whose labours have been of immense service in elucidating the older
+literature and language of his native country as well as in the field of
+the Romance tongues. Among his publications were editions of the
+_Nibelungenlied_, _Walther von der Vogelweide_, _Kudrun_, &c.;
+_Chrestomathie de l'ancien Francais_; _Provencalisches Lesebuch_;
+translations of Burns, of Dante, &c.
+
+BARTSIA, a genus of Scrophulariaceae, green half-parasites upon roots of
+grasses. Three species are British; _B. alpina_ has underground shoots, not
+unlike those of the allied Toothwort, with fleshy scale-leaves bearing
+water-secreting glands.
+
+BARU (ba-roe'), a woolly substance used for caulking ships, stuffing
+cushions, &c., found at the base of the leaves of an East India sago palm.
+
+BARUCH (b[=a]'ruk; literally, 'blessed'), a Hebrew scribe, friend and
+assistant to the prophet Jeremiah. At the captivity, after the destruction
+of Jerusalem, Jeremiah and Baruch were permitted to remain in Palestine,
+but were afterwards carried into Egypt, 588 B.C. His subsequent life is
+unknown. One of the apocryphal books bears the name of Baruch. The Council
+of Trent gave it a place in the canon, but its authenticity was not
+admitted either by the ancient Jews or the early Christian fathers.
+
+BARWOOD, a dyewood obtained from _Pterocarpus angolensis_, a tall tree of
+West Africa. It is chiefly used for giving orange-red dyes on cotton yarns.
+See _Camwood_; _Sandalwood_.
+
+BARY'TA, oxide of barium (BaO) is found in nature associated with sulphuric
+acid as barium sulphate, heavy-spar or Barytes (BaSO_4), and with carbon
+dioxide as barium carbonate or witherite (BaCO_3). Baryta is a heavy
+greyish powder of specific gravity 4.7, obtained by burning barium in
+oxygen or from barium nitrate or barium carbonate. It has a strong affinity
+for water, and combines with it in the evolution of lead and the formation
+of barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)_2). Barium oxide is manufactured in quantity
+for the preparation of barium dioxide (BaO_2), from which oxygen was at one
+time obtained. (See _Oxygen_.) Baryta forms white crystalline salts with
+acids, which are all poisonous with the exception of barium sulphate.
+Barium hydroxide is soluble in water, forming a strongly-alkaline solution,
+Baryta water, which is much used in chemical analysis. Barium sulphate is a
+white substance insoluble in water and in acids, and is the source of most
+of the barium compounds. Artificially-prepared barium sulphate is used as a
+pigment, _Permanent White_, also in the paper industry and in vulcanizing
+rubber. Other salts of barium of importance are barium chloride, barium
+nitrate, and barium carbonate, used in pyrotechny and in glass manufacture.
+
+BARYTES (AMERICAN BARITE), a rhombic mineral consisting of barium sulphate
+(specific gravity 4.5) occurring in veins and extensive masses as a
+subsequent deposit in various rocks. Colourless to brownish, the colourless
+massive examples being in great demand as a substitute for white lead in
+paint and for other purposes. Barytes is mined in the north of England and
+in County Cork.
+
+BARYTONE. See _Baritone_.
+
+[Illustration: Basaltic Columns, Fingal's Cave, Island of Staffa]
+
+BASALT (ba-s[a:]lt'), a well-known igneous rock occurring in the ancient
+trap and the recent volcanic series of rocks, but more abundantly in the
+former. It is a fine-grained, heavy, crystalline rock, consisting of
+felspar, augite, and magnetic iron, and sometimes contains a little
+olivine. Basalt is amorphous, columnar, tabular, or globular. The columnar
+form is straight or curved, perpendicular or inclined, sometimes nearly
+horizontal; the diameter of the columns from 3 to 18 inches, sometimes with
+transverse hemispherical joints, in which the convex part of one is
+inserted in the concavity of another; and the height from 5 to 150 feet.
+The forms of the columns generally are pentagonal, hexagonal, or octagonal.
+When decomposed it is found also in round masses, either spherical or
+compressed and lenticular. These rounded masses are sometimes composed of
+concentric layers, with a nucleus, and sometimes of prisms radiating from a
+centre. Fingal's Cave, in the Island of Staffa, furnishes a remarkable
+instance of basaltic columns. The pillars of the Giant's Causeway, Ireland,
+composed of this stone, and exposed to the roughest sea for ages, have
+their angles as perfect as those at a distance from the waves. Basalt often
+assumes curious and fantastic forms, as, for example, those masses
+popularly known as 'Samson's Ribs' at Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh, and 'Lot'
+and 'Lot's Wife' near the south coast of St. Helena.
+
+BASCHI (b[.a]s'k[=e]), Matteo, an Italian Minorite friar of the convent of
+Montefalcone, founder and first general of the Capuchin branch of the
+Franciscans. He died at Venice, 1552.
+
+BAS'CINET, or BAS'NET, a light helmet, sometimes with, but more frequently
+without, a visor, in general use for English infantry in the reigns of
+Edward II and III and Richard II.
+
+BASE, in architecture, that part of a column which is between the top of
+the pedestal and the bottom of the shaft; where there is no pedestal, the
+part between the bottom of the column and the pavement. The term is also
+applied to the lower projecting part of the wall of a room, consisting of a
+plinth and its mouldings.
+
+BASE, in chemistry, a term applied to those compound substances which unite
+with acids to form salts. The most important bases are oxides of metals,
+and when brought in contact with acids their oxygen combines with the
+hydrogen of the acid to form water. They are divided into several sections,
+of which the most important are the alkalies. These substances are the
+hydrates of the so-called alkaline metals, and may be compared to water in
+which part of the hydrogen is replaced by a metallic radicle. Potash, for
+instance, is the hydrate of the metal potassium. The alkalies are readily
+soluble in water, restore the blue colour to reddened litmus, and give a
+green with red cabbage, dahlia, and other vegetable blues, and convert the
+yellow of turmeric into a brownish red. Most of the bases, however, are
+insoluble in water, and without any effect on vegetable colours. See
+_Alkali_; _Acids_.
+
+BASE, a term in tactics, signifying the original line on which an offensive
+army forms; or any safe position from which an army takes the field to
+invade an enemy's country; upon which it depends for its supplies,
+reinforcements, &c.; to which it sends back its sick and wounded; and upon
+which it would generally fall back in case of reverse and retreat.
+
+BASE-BALL, the national game of the United States of America. It holds the
+position there that is held by cricket in England. It is a scientific
+development of the old English game of 'rounders', and is played by nine
+players a side. A diamond-shaped space of ground, 90 feet on the side, is
+marked out, the corners being the 'bases'. One side takes the field and the
+other sends a man to bat. When the field side takes its place, the
+'pitcher', standing inside the ground near the centre and in front of the
+batsman, delivers a ball to the batsman, who stands at the 'home base'
+within a certain marked space, and who tries to drive it out of the reach
+of the fielders, and far enough out of the field to enable him to run round
+the bases, which scores a run. If he cannot run round all, he may stop at
+any one, and may be followed by another batsman. If the ball is caught by
+an opponent before touching the ground when the batsman is running, or if
+he is touched by the ball, he is out (also in several other cases), and
+when three on his side are put out, the field side take the bat. Nine of
+these innings make a game, which the highest score wins. The bat is of a
+cylindrical shape, not more than 2-1/2 inches in diameter nor more than 42
+inches long. The ball is about 9 inches in circumference and weighs 5 -
+5-1/4 oz. Base-ball is not a very old game, having attained its present
+position only since about 1845. Many professional players now engage in it.
+Attempts have been made to introduce it into Britain and Australia, but
+with little success.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Official Base-ball Guide_, in the
+Spalding Athletic Library (annually); R. H. Barbour, _The Book of School
+and College Sports_; A. G. Spalding, _America's National Game_; W. J.
+Clarke and F. T. Dawson, _Base-ball_.
+
+BASEDOW (bae'ze-d[=o]), John Bernhard, German educationalist, born in
+Hamburg 1723, died in 1790. After having gained considerable experience as
+a teacher, especially at the gymnasium of Altona, he published a number of
+works dealing with mental and moral philosophy, the teaching of religion
+and morality, &c., some of which roused a great amount of discussion. His
+watchword was "Everything according to nature". In 1771 he was called to
+Dessau by Prince Leopold, and in 1774 took charge of an educational
+institution in which his views were to receive practical exemplification.
+This institution, which he called the _Philanthropinum_, was a school free
+from sectarian bias, and in which the pupils were to be disciplined in all
+studies--physical, intellectual, and moral. This school led to the
+establishment of some similar ones, though Basedow retired from it in 1776,
+not having been very successful in the practical working out of his
+theories. His place was taken by Joachim Heinrich Campe (1746-1818). He
+henceforth devoted himself to authorship, writing especially on religious
+subjects. The chief feature of Basedow's system is the full development of
+the faculties of the young, in pursuance of the notions of Locke and
+Rousseau. His name still lives in the history of education, and his efforts
+were not without result.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. C. Meyer, _Leben, Charakter und
+Schriften Basedows_ (2 vols., 1791-2); A. Pinloche, _La Reforme de
+l'Education en Allemagne au dix-huitieme Siecle_; O. H. Lang, _Basedow, His
+Life and Work_.
+
+BASEL (bae'zl; Fr. _Bale_), a canton and city of Switzerland. The canton
+borders on Alsace and Baden, has an area of 177 sq. miles, and a pop. of
+222,000 (1916), nearly all speaking German. It is divided into two
+half-cantons, Basel city (Basel-Stadt) and Basel country (Basel-Land). The
+former consists of the city and its precincts, the remainder of the canton
+forming Basel-Land, the capital of which is Liestal. The whole canton
+belongs to the valley of the Rhine. The soil is generally well cultivated;
+and the climate in the low grounds allows of the cultivation of the vine
+and other fruits.--The city of _Basel_ is 43 miles N. of Bern, and consists
+of two parts on opposite sides of the Rhine, and communicating by three
+bridges, one of them an ancient wooden structure, besides a railway bridge.
+The older portions are irregularly built with narrow streets, and are now
+surrounded with pleasant promenades where the old fortifications existed.
+Basel has an ancient cathedral, founded 1010, containing the tombs of
+Erasmus and other eminent persons; the fine modern church of St. Elizabeth;
+town hall (1508); a university, founded by Pius II in 1460; a seminary for
+missionaries; a bible society; a museum containing the valuable public
+library, pictures, &c. The industries include silk ribbons (8000 hands),
+metal articles, tanning, paper, aniline dyes and other chemicals, brewing,
+&c.; and the position of Basel, a little below where the Rhine becomes
+navigable and at the terminus of the French and German railways, has made
+it the emporium of a most important trade. At Basel was signed the treaty
+of peace between France and Prussia, 5th April, and that between France and
+Spain, 22nd July, 1795. Pop. (with suburbs), 137,000 (latest estimate).
+
+BASEL, COUNCIL OF, a celebrated oecumenical council of the Church, convoked
+by Pope Martin V and his successor Eugenius IV. It was opened 14th Dec.,
+1431, under the presidency of the Cardinal Legate Juliano Cesarini of St.
+Angelo. The objects of its deliberations were to extirpate heresies (that
+of the Hussites in particular), to unite all Christian nations under the
+Catholic Church, to put a stop to wars between Christian princes, and to
+reform the Church. But its first steps towards a peaceable reconciliation
+with the Hussites were displeasing to the Pope, who authorized the Cardinal
+Legate to dissolve the Council. That body opposed the pretensions of the
+Pope, and, notwithstanding his repeated orders to remove to Italy,
+continued its deliberations under the protection of the Emperor Sigismund,
+of the German princes, and of France. On the Pope continuing to issue bulls
+for its dissolution, the Council commenced a formal process against him,
+and cited him to appear at its bar. On his refusal to comply with this
+demand the Council declared him guilty of contumacy, and, after Eugenius
+had opened a counter-synod at Ferrara, decreed his suspension from the
+papal chair (24th Jan., 1438). The removal of Eugenius, however, seemed so
+impracticable that some prelates, who till then had been the boldest and
+most influential speakers in the Council, including the Cardinal Legate
+Juliano, left Basel, and went over to the party of Eugenius. The Archbishop
+of Arles, Cardinal Louis Allemand, was now made first President of the
+Council, and directed its proceedings with much vigour. In May, 1439, it
+declared Eugenius, on account of his disobedience of its decrees, a
+heretic, and formally deposed him. Excommunicated by Eugenius, they
+proceeded, in a regular conclave, to elect the Duke Amadeus of Savoy to the
+papal chair. Felix V--the name he adopted--was acknowledged by only a few
+princes, cities, and universities. After this the moral power of the
+Council declined; its last formal session was held 16th May, 1443, though
+it was not technically dissolved till 7th May, 1449, when it gave in its
+adhesion to Nicholas V, the successor of Eugenius. The decrees of the
+Council of Basel are admitted into none of the Roman collections, and are
+considered of no authority by the Roman lawyers. They are regarded,
+however, as of authority in points of canon law in France and Germany, as
+their regulations for the Reformation of the Church have been adopted in
+the pragmatic sanctions of both countries, and, as far as they regard
+clerical discipline, have been actually enforced.
+
+BASE-LINE, in surveying, a straight line measured with the utmost precision
+to form the starting-point of the triangulation of a country or district.
+See _Geodesy_.
+
+BASH. See _Mining_.
+
+BA'SHAN, the name in Scripture for a singularly rich tract of country lying
+beyond the Jordan between Mount Hermon and the land of Gilead. At the time
+of the Exodus it was inhabited by the Amorites, who were overpowered by the
+Israelites, and the land assigned to the half-tribe of Manasseh. The
+district was, and yet is, famous for its oak forests and its cattle.
+Remains of ancient cities are common.
+
+BASHAW, or BASHA. See _Pasha_.
+
+BASHEE' ISLANDS, a group of islands in the Chinese Sea between Luzon and
+Formosa, long. 122deg E.; lat. 20deg 28' to 20deg 55' N. They were
+discovered by Dampier in 1687, and belong to the United States. The largest
+island is Batan, with a population of 8000.
+
+BASHI-BAZOOKS', irregular troops in the Turkish army. They are mostly
+Asiatics, and have had to be disarmed several times by the regular troops
+on account of the barbarities by which they have rendered themselves
+infamous.
+
+BASH'KIRS, a tribe of Finno-Tartar origin, inhabiting the Russian
+governments of Ufa, Orenburg, Perm, and Samara. They formerly roamed about
+under their own princes in Southern Siberia, but in 1556 they voluntarily
+placed themselves under the Russian sceptre. They are nominally
+Mahommedans, and live by hunting, cattle-rearing, breeding of cattle and
+horses, and keeping of bees. They are rude and warlike and partially
+nomadic. They number about 1,000,000.--Cf. Ujfalvy, _Les Bashkirs_.
+
+BASHKIRTSEV, Marie, Russian painter and authoress, born 1860, died 1884;
+educated mostly outside of Russia, in France, Germany, and Italy; became an
+accomplished linguist and musician, and studied art in Paris, attaining
+high success, but overtaxing her system, with fatal results. She is best
+known from her journal, an intimate personal record, interesting not only
+as revealing her own peculiar character and intellectual gifts, but also
+for notices of the notable personages with whom she came in contact. It has
+been translated into various languages--into English by Mathilde Blind
+(1890), who has also published _A Study of Marie Bashkirtsev_ (1892). A
+number of her letters were also published in 1891.--Cf. _The Journal of
+Marie Bashkirtsev, an Exposure and a Defence_.
+
+BASIC SLAG, the slag or refuse-matter which is got in making basic steel,
+and which, from the phosphate of lime it contains, is a valuable
+fertilizer. See _Manures (Phosphatic)_.
+
+BASIC STEEL. See _Steel_.
+
+BASI'DIOMYCETES, one of the two sub-classes of the Eumycetes or septate
+Fungi, including the bulk of the larger and more familiar saprophytic
+types, such as the Mushroom, Toad-stools, Shelf-fungi, Puff-balls, and
+Earth-stars, and also the important parasites known as the Rusts. They are
+characterized by their principal spores being produced externally, usually
+in fours, upon an organ called a _basidium_. The basidia are arranged in a
+continuous layer (hymenium), and are usually massed together upon a
+specialized fruit-body, of which an ordinary mushroom is a good example.
+The principal subdivisions of the group, with representative genera, are as
+follows:--
+
+A. Basidia septate (Proto-Basidiomycetes).
+
+1. Family Uredineae (Rusts). Basidia transversely septate; teleutospores
+present; parasites. Puccinia, Phragmidium, Melampsora.
+
+2. Family Auricularineae. Basidia transversely septate; no teleutospores;
+saprophytes. Auricularia.
+
+3. Family Tremellineae. Basidia longitudinally septate; saprophytes.
+Tremella.
+
+B. Basidia not septate (Auto-Basidiomycetes).
+
+4. Family Exobasidiineae. Parasites without fruit-body; basidia exposed on
+surface of host. Exobasidium.
+
+5. Family Dacryomycetineae. Fruit-body soft; hymenium on its surface;
+saprophytes. Dacryomyces, Calocera.
+
+6. Group Hymenomycetes (several families). Hymenium generally on gills, in
+tubes, &c.; saprophytes or, less often, parasites. Agaricus Polyporus,
+Hydnum.
+
+7. Group Gastromycetes (several families). Hymenium within a closed
+fruit-body, which does not open until the spores are ripe; saprophytes.
+Ithyphallus, Lycoperdon.
+
+The Ustilagineae (Smuts) are often regarded as Basidiomycetes of a low
+type, but it is more probable that they are allied to the Unicellular
+Chytridineae. The Basidiomycetes are the highest members of the Fungoid
+alliance; their relations to the lower groups are obscure.
+
+BASI'DIUM, the characteristic spore-producing organ of the Basidiomycetes.
+Typically, e.g. in the Toad-stools, it is a club-shaped structure, produced
+at its free end into four slender processes, the _sterigmata_, each of
+which bears a _basidiospore_ at its tip. The young basidium contains two
+nuclei, which later fuse; the fusion-nucleus then undergoes two successive
+divisions, involving a reduction of chromosomes, and each of the four
+resultant nuclei passes through a sterigma into a basidiospore. These
+latter are thus seen to be carpospores, comparable to those of Red Algae,
+and to the ascospores of Ascomycetes. The basidia of Uredineae (Rusts) and
+of some other primitive Basidiomycetes are septate, but otherwise agree
+with the type described above. See _Basidiomycetes_; _Carpospore_; _Rusts_.
+
+BASIL. See _Basilius_.
+
+BAS'IL, a labiate plant, _Oc[)i]mum basil[)i]cum_, a native of India, much
+used in cookery, especially in France, and known more particularly as sweet
+or common basil. Bush or lesser basil is _O. minimum_; wild basil belongs
+to a different genus, being the _Calamintha Clinopodium_.
+
+BASIL, ST., called the _Great_, one of the Greek fathers, was born in 329,
+and made in 370 Bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, where he died in 379. He
+was distinguished by his efforts for the regulation of clerical discipline,
+and, above all, his endeavours for the promotion of monastic life. The
+Greek Church honours him as one of its most illustrious saints, and
+celebrates his festival on 1st Jan. The vows of obedience, chastity, and
+poverty framed by St. Basil are essentially the rules of all the orders of
+Christendom, although he is particularly the father of the Eastern, as St.
+Benedict is the patriarch of the Western orders.
+
+BASILAN', the principal island of the Sulu Archipelago, now belonging to
+the Philippines, off the S.W. extremity of Mindanao, from which it is
+separated by the Strait of Basilan. It is about 30 miles in length by 20
+miles in breadth. Pop. about 8000.
+
+BASILE'AN MANUSCRIPTS, two manuscripts of the Greek New Testament now in
+the library of Basel. (1) A nearly complete uncial copy of the Gospels of
+the eighth century; (2) a cursive copy of the whole New Testament except
+the Apocalypse, tenth century.
+
+BASIL'IAN LITURGY, that form for celebrating the Eucharist drawn up towards
+the close of the fourth century by Basil the Great, still used in the Greek
+Church.
+
+BASILIAN MONKS, monks who strictly follow the rules of St. Basil, chiefly
+belonging to the Greek Church.
+
+[Illustration: Basilica di S'Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna]
+
+BASIL'ICA, originally the name applied by the Romans to their public halls,
+either of justice, of exchange, or other business. The plan of the basilica
+was usually a rectangle divided into aisles by rows of columns, the middle
+aisle being the widest, with a semicircular apse at the end, in which the
+tribunal was placed. The ground-plan of these buildings was generally
+followed in the early Christian churches, which, therefore, long retained
+the name of basilica, and it is still applied to some of the churches in
+Rome by way of distinction, and sometimes to other churches built in
+imitation of the Roman basilicas.
+
+BASILICA'TA, also called POTENZA, an Italian province, extending north from
+the Gulf of Taranto, and corresponding pretty closely with the ancient
+Lucania. Area, 3855 sq. miles; pop. 489,574 (1915).
+
+BASIL'ICON, a name of several ointments, the chief ingredients of which are
+wax, pitch, resin, and olive-oil.
+
+BASIL'ICON DO'RON (the royal gift), the title of a book written by King
+James I in 1599, containing a collection of precepts of the art of
+government. It maintains the claim of the king to be sole head of the
+Church. Printed at Edinburgh, 1603.
+
+BASIL'IDES (d[=e]z), one of the most famous Gnostic teachers, a native of
+Alexandria, who lived under the reigns of Adrian and Antoninus Pius about
+A.D. 120-40. He was well acquainted with Christianity, but mixed it up with
+the wildest dreams of the Gnostics, peopling the earth and the air with
+multitudes of _aeons_. He was also greatly influenced by Platonism and
+Zoroastrianism. His disciples (Basilidians) were numerous in Syria, Egypt,
+Italy, and Gaul, but they are scarcely heard of after the fourth century.
+
+BAS'ILISK, a fabulous creature formerly believed to exist, and variously
+regarded as a kind of serpent, lizard, or dragon, and sometimes identified
+with the cockatrice. It inhabited the deserts of Africa, and its breath and
+even its look was fatal. The name is now applied to a genus of saurian
+reptiles (Basiliscus), belonging to the family Iguanidae;, distinguished by
+an elevated crest or row of scales, erectable at pleasure, which, like the
+dorsal fins of some fishes, runs along the whole length of the back and
+tail. The mitred or hooded basilisk (_B. mitr[=a]tus_) is especially
+remarkable for a membranous bag at the back of the head, of the size of a
+small hen's egg, which can be inflated with air at pleasure. The other
+species have such hoods also, but of a less size. To this organ they owe
+their name, which recalls the basilisk of fable, though in reality they are
+exceedingly harmless and lively creatures. The _B. amboinensis_ is a native
+of the Indian Archipelago, where it is much used for food. It frequents
+trees overhanging water, into which it drops when alarmed.
+
+BASIL'IUS I, a Macedonian, Emperor of the East, born A.D. 820, died 886. He
+was of obscure origin, but having succeeded in gaining the favour of the
+Emperor Michael III, he became his colleague in the Empire, 866. After the
+assassination of Michael, 867, Basilius became emperor. Though he had
+worked his way to the throne by a series of crimes, he proved an able and
+equitable sovereign. The versatility, if not the depth, of his intellect is
+strikingly displayed in his _Exhortations to his Son Leo_, which are still
+extant.
+
+BASILIUS II, Emperor of the East, born 958, died 1025. On the death of his
+father, the Emperor Romanus the Younger, in 963, he was kept out of the
+succession for twelve years by two usurpers. He began to reign in
+conjunction with his brother Constantine, 975. His reign was spent in
+almost perpetual warfare, his most important struggle being that which
+resulted in the conquest of Bulgaria, 1018.
+
+BA'SIN, in physical geography, the whole tract of country drained by a
+river and its tributaries. The line dividing one river basin from another
+is the water-shed, and by tracing the various water-sheds we divide each
+country into its constituent basins. The basin of a loch or sea consists of
+the basins of all the rivers which run into it.--In geology a basin is any
+dipping or disposition of strata towards a common axis or centre, due to
+upheaval and subsidence. It is sometimes used almost synonymously with
+'formation' to express the deposits lying in a certain cavity or depression
+in older rocks. The 'Paris basin' and 'London basin' are familiar
+instances.
+
+BA'SINGSTOKE, a town of England, county of Hants, 18 miles N.N.E. of
+Winchester. It has a good trade in corn, malt, &c., and now gives its name
+to one of the parliamentary divisions of the county. Pop. (1921), 12,718.
+
+BAS'KERVILLE, John, celebrated English printer and type-founder, born in
+1706, died 1775. He settled at Birmingham as a writing-master, subsequently
+engaged in the manufacture of japanned works, and in 1750 commenced
+printing. From his press came highly-prized editions of ancient and modern
+classics, Bibles, prayer-books, &c., all beautifully-printed works. His
+first work was a _Virgil_, published in 1757, followed by his famous
+edition of Milton in 1758.
+
+BASKET, a vessel or utensil of wicker-work, made of interwoven osiers or
+willows, rushes, twigs, grasses, &c. The process of basket-making is very
+simple, and appears to be well known among the very rudest peoples. The
+ancient Britons excelled in the art, and their baskets were highly prized
+in Rome.--Cf. T. Okey, _Introduction to the Art of Basket-making_.
+
+BASKING-SHARK (_Sel[)a]ch[=e] maxima_ or _Cetorh[=i]nus maximus_), a
+species of shark, so named from its habit of basking in the sun at the
+surface of the water. It reaches the length of 40 feet, and its liver
+yields a large quantity of oil. It frequents the northern seas, and is
+known also as the sail-fish or sun-fish.
+
+BASLE. See _Basel_.
+
+BASOCHE. See _Bazoche_.
+
+BASQUES (b[.a]sks), or BISCAYANS (in their own language, _Euscaldunac_), a
+remarkable race of people dwelling partly in the south-west corner of
+France (Basses-Pyrenees), but mostly in the north of Spain adjacent to the
+Pyrenees. They are probably descendants of the ancient Iberi, who occupied
+Spain before the Celts. They preserve their ancient language, former
+manners, and national dances, and make admirable soldiers, especially in
+guerrilla warfare. Their language is highly polysynthetic, and stands
+isolated from other tongues of Europe. There are eight principal dialects,
+which are not only distinguished by their pronunciation and grammatical
+structure, but differ even in their vocabularies. The Basques, who number
+about 600,000 (450,000 in Spain, and 150,000 in France), occupy in Spain
+the provinces of Biscay, Guipuzcoa, and Al[)a]va; in France parts of the
+departments of the Upper and Lower Pyrenees, Ariege, and Upper Garonne. The
+Basques are very religious and conservative in their religious practices.
+Ignatius Loyola and Francis Xavier de Navarre were Basques.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+Julien Vinson, _Les Basques et le pays Basque_; _Le Folk-lore du pays
+Basque_; Michel, _Le pays Basque, sa population, sa langue, ses moeurs, sa
+litterature, et sa musique_; Van Eys, _Outlines of a Basque Grammar_.
+
+BASRA, BASSORA, or BASRAH, a city in Lower Mesopotamia, on the west bank of
+the Shat-el-Arab (the united stream of the Tigris and Euphrates), about 50
+miles from its mouth, and nearly 300 miles south-east of Bagdad. It is
+surrounded by a wall about 10 miles in circuit, from 20 to 25 feet thick;
+but much of the area enclosed is occupied by gardens, &c. The houses are
+generally mean. A considerable transit trade is carried on here between the
+Turkish and Persian dominions and India, and since communication by steamer
+has been established with Bagdad and Bombay the prosperity of the town has
+greatly increased. The chief exports are: dates, camels and horses, wool
+and wheat; imports: coffee, indigo, rice, tissues, &c. The inhabitants are
+estimated at 80,000; but in the eighteenth century they were said to number
+150,000. The substitution of date and wheat cultivation for that of rice
+has rendered the place much more healthy. The ruins of the ancient and more
+famous Bassora--founded by Caliph Omar in 636, at one time a centre of
+Arabic literature and learning and regarded as 'the Athens of the
+East'--lie about 9 miles south-west of the modern town. The town was
+occupied by the British on 22nd Nov., 1914. The first through-train from
+Basra to Bagdad was run in Jan., 1920.
+
+[Illustration: Bas-relief--Northern frieze of Parthenon]
+
+BAS-RELIEF (bae'r[=e]-l[=e]f or bas'r[=e]-l[=e]f) or BASSO-RILIEVO,
+low-relief, a mode of sculpturing figures on a flat surface, the figures
+having a very slight relief or projection from the surface. It is
+distinguished from _haut-relief_ (_alto-rilievo_), or high-relief, in which
+the figures stand sometimes almost entirely free from the ground.
+Bas-relief work has been described as 'sculptured painting', from the
+capability of disposing of groups of figures and exhibiting minor adjuncts,
+as in a painting. The finest specimen of bas-relief is the frieze around
+the cella of the Parthenon; large portions of it are to be seen in the
+British Museum.
+
+BASS (b[=a]s; from the It. _basso_, deep, low), in music, the lowest part
+in the harmony of a musical composition, whether vocal or instrumental.
+According to some it is the fundamental or most important part, while
+others regard the melody or highest part in that light. Next to the melody,
+the bass part is the most striking, the freest and boldest in its
+movements, and richest in effect.--_Figured bass_, a bass part having the
+accompanying chords suggested by certain figures written above or below the
+notes--the most successful system of shorthand scoring at present in use
+among organists and pianists.--_Fundamental bass_, the lowest note or root
+of a chord; a bass consisting of a succession of fundamental
+notes.--_Thorough bass_, the mode or art of expressing chords by means of
+figures placed over or under a given bass. Figures written over each other
+indicate that the notes they represent are to be sounded simultaneously,
+those standing close after each other that they are to be sounded
+successively. The common chord in its fundamental form is generally left
+unfigured, and accidentals are indicated by using sharps, naturals, or
+flats along with the figures.
+
+BASS (b[.a]s), the name of a number of fishes of several genera, but
+originally belonging to a genus of sea-fishes (Labrax) of the perch family,
+distinguished from the true perches by having the tongue covered by small
+teeth and the preoperculum smooth. _L. lupus_, the only British species,
+called also sea-dace, and from its voracity sea-wolf, resembles somewhat
+the salmon in shape, and is much esteemed for the table, weighing about 15
+lb. _L. line[=a]tus_ (_Roccus line[=a]tus_), or striped bass, an American
+species, weighing from 25 to 30 lb., is much used for food, and is also
+known as rock-fish. Both species occasionally ascend rivers, and attempts
+have been made to cultivate British bass in freshwater ponds with success.
+Two species of black bass (_Micropt[)e]rus salmoides_ and _M. dolomieu_),
+American freshwater fishes, are excellent as food and give fine sport to
+the angler. The former is often called the large-mouthed black bass, from
+the size of its mouth. Both make nests and take great care of their eggs
+and young. The _Centropristis nigricans_, an American sea-fish of the perch
+family, and weighing 2 to 3 lb., is known as the sea-bass.
+
+BASS (b[.a]s), THE, a remarkable insular trap-rock, at the mouth of the
+Firth of Forth, 3 miles from North Berwick, of a circular form, about 1
+mile in circumference, rising majestically out of the sea to a height of
+313 feet. It pastures a few sheep, and is a great breeding-place of solan
+geese. During the persecution of the Covenanters its castle, long since
+demolished, was used as a State prison, in which several eminent
+Covenanters were confined. It was held from 1691 to 1694 with great courage
+and pertinacity by twenty Jacobites, who in the end capitulated on highly
+honourable terms.
+
+BASS. See _Basswood_.
+
+BASSA'NO, a commercial city of North Italy, province of Vicenza, on the
+Brenta, over which is a covered wooden bridge. It has lofty old walls and
+an old castle, and has various industries and an active trade. Near
+Bassano, 8th Sept., 1796, Bonaparte defeated the Austrian general Wurmser.
+Pop. (commune) 17,130.
+
+BASSA'NO (from his birth-place; real name GIACOMO DA PONTE), an Italian
+painter, born 1510, died 1592. He painted historical pieces, landscapes,
+flowers, &c., and also portraits. He left four sons, who all became
+painters, Francesco being the most distinguished.
+
+BASSANO DAM. See _Dams_.
+
+BAS'SARIS. See _Cacomistle_.
+
+BASSEIN (bas-s[=a]n'), a town in Lower Burma, province of Pegu, on both
+banks of the Bassein River, one of the mouths of the Irawadi, and navigable
+for the largest ships. It has considerable trade, exporting large
+quantities of rice, and importing coal, salt, cottons, &c. Pop.
+37,081.--Bassein District has an area of 4127 sq. miles and a pop. of 9598
+(1911).
+
+BASSEIN (bas-s[=a]n'), a town in Hindustan, 28 miles north of Bombay. At
+the beginning of the eighteenth century it was a fine and wealthy city,
+with over 60,000 inhabitants; it has now only about 9598 (1911).
+
+BASSELIN (b[.a]s-lan), Olivier, an old French poet or song-writer, born in
+the Val-de-Vire, Normandy, about the end of the fourteenth century, died
+about 1450. His sprightly songs, famous under the name _Vaux-de-Vire_, have
+given origin and name to the modern Vaudevilles.
+
+BASSELISSE TAPESTRY. See _Hautelisse_.
+
+BASSES-ALPES (baes-[.a]lp; 'Lower Alps'). See _Alpes_.
+
+BASSES-PYRENEES (baes-p[=e]-r[=a]-n[=a]; 'LOWER PYRENEES'). See _Pyrenees_.
+
+BASS'ET, the name of a game at cards, formerly much played, especially in
+France. It is very similar to the modern _faro_. See _Lansquenet_.
+
+BASSET, or BASSET-HOUND, a smooth-haired dog with short crooked legs,
+rather large head, and large pendulous ears, thus somewhat resembling a
+bloodhound and a dachshund. It is sometimes used in packs for hunting
+hares, or in beating and covert work generally.
+
+BASSETERRE (baes-t[=a]r), two towns in the West Indies.--1. Capital of the
+Island of St. Christopher's, at the mouth of a small river, on the south
+side of the island. Trade considerable. Pop. about 9000.--2. The capital of
+the Island of Guadeloupe. It has no harbour, and the anchorage is
+unsheltered and exposed to a constant swell. Pop. 8650.
+
+BASSET-HORN, a musical instrument, now practically obsolete, a sort of
+clarinet of enlarged dimensions, with a curved and bell-shaped metal end.
+The compass extends from F below the bass staff to C on the second
+ledger-line above the treble. Mozart wrote several pieces for the
+basset-horn, and Beethoven employed it in his _Prometheus_ overture.
+
+BASSETLAW, a parliamentary division of the county of Nottingham.
+
+BASSIA, a genus of tropical trees found in the East Indies and Australia,
+nat. ord., Sapotaceae. The seeds of _B. butyracea_, the Indian butter tree,
+yield a butter-like substance, which makes good soap. _B. latifolia_, the
+Mahwa of Bengal, furnishes a valuable hard timber, and has edible flowers,
+from which a potent spirit is distilled; a gutta-percha is obtained from
+_B. pallida_.
+
+BASSOMPIERRE (bae-son-py[=a]r), Francois de, Marshal of France,
+distinguished both as a soldier and a statesman, born 1579, died 1646. In
+1602 he made his first campaign against the Duke of Savoy, and he fought
+with equal distinction in the following year in the imperial army against
+the Turks. In 1622 Louis XIII appointed him Marshal of France, and became
+so much attached to him that Luynes, the declared favourite, sent him on
+embassies to Spain, Switzerland, and England. After his return he became an
+object of suspicion to Cardinal Richelieu, and was sent to the Bastille in
+1631, from which he was not released till 1643, after the death of the
+cardinal. During his detention he occupied himself with writing his
+memoirs, which shed much light on the events of that time.
+
+BASSO'ON, a musical wind-instrument of the reed order, blown with a bent
+metal mouthpiece, and holed and keyed like the clarinet. Its compass
+comprehends three octaves rising from B flat below the bass staff. Its
+diameter at bottom is 3 inches, and for convenience of carriage it is
+divided into two or more parts, whence its Italian name, _fagotto_, a
+bundle. It serves for the bass among wood wind-instruments, as hautboys,
+flutes, &c.
+
+BASSORA GUM, an inferior kind of gum resembling gum-arabic.
+
+BASS ROCK. See _Bass_.
+
+BASS STRAIT, a channel beset with islands, which separates Australia from
+Tasmania, 120 miles broad, discovered by George Bass, a surgeon in the
+Royal Navy, in 1798.
+
+BASSWOOD, or BASS, the American lime tree or linden (_Tilia americ[=a]na_),
+a tree common in N. America, yielding a light, soft timber.
+
+BAST, a term originally applied to fibrous tissue external to the cambium;
+now used in two senses: (1) for Phloem (q.v.); (2) commercially, for the
+fibre of the lime or linden. The manufacture of lime-bast into mats, ropes,
+&c., is in Russia a considerable industry, bast-mats for packing furniture,
+covering plants, &c., being largely exported.
+
+BASTAR', a feudatory State in Upper Godavari district, Central Provinces of
+India; area, 13,062 sq. miles; pop. 433,310. Chief town, Jagdalpur; pop.
+4294.
+
+BAS'TARD, a child begotten and born out of wedlock; an illegitimate child.
+By the civil and canon laws, and by the law of Scotland, a bastard becomes
+legitimate by the intermarriage of the parents at any future time. In some
+of the United States, bastards can be legitimized by subsequent marriage,
+in addition to which, however, the father must also recognize the child as
+his. By the laws of England a child, to be legitimate, must at least be
+_born_ after the lawful marriage; it does not require that the child shall
+be begotten in wedlock, but it is indispensable that it should be born
+after marriage, no matter how short the time, the law presuming it to be
+the child of the husband. The only incapacity of a bastard is that he
+cannot be heir or next of kin to any one save his own issue. In England the
+maintenance of a bastard in the first instance devolves on the mother,
+while in Scotland it is a joint burden upon both parents. The mother is
+entitled to the custody of the child in preference to the father. See
+_Legitimation_; _Illegitimacy_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bacquet, _Traite de la
+Batardise_; Nicholls and Mackay, _History of the English Poor Law_.
+
+[Illustration: Bastard Bar]
+
+BASTARD BAR, more correctly _baton sinister_, the heraldic mark used to
+indicate illegitimate descent. It is a diminutive of the bend sinister, of
+which it is one-fourth in width, couped or cut short at the ends, so as not
+to touch the corners of the shield.
+
+BASTARD FALLOW. See _Fallow Land_.
+
+BASTARD SAFFRON. See _Safflower_.
+
+BASTIA (b[.a]s-t[=e]'[.a]), the former capital of the Island of Corsica,
+upon the N.E. coast, 75 miles N.E. of Ajaccio, on a hill slope; badly
+built, with narrow streets, a strong citadel, and an indifferent harbour;
+with some manufactures, a considerable trade in hides, soap, wine, oil,
+pulse, &c. Pop. 29,412.
+
+BAS'TIAN, Adolf, German traveller and ethnologist, born in 1826, died in
+1905. His travels embraced various parts of Europe, the United States,
+Mexico, Peru, Australia and New Zealand, Southern and Western Africa,
+Egypt, Arabia, India, South-Eastern Asia, the Asiatic Archipelago, Japan,
+China, Mongolia, Siberia, &c. His numerous writings throw light on almost
+every subject connected with ethnology or anthropology, as well as
+psychology, linguistics, non-Christian religions, geography, &c. Some of
+his chief works are: _Die Voelker des oestlichen Asien_ (Peoples of Eastern
+Asia); _Ethnographische Forschungen_; _Ideale Welten_; _Die Voelkerkunde u.
+der Voelkerverkehr_; &c.
+
+BAS'TIAN, Henry Charlton, English physician and biologist, born at Truro in
+1837, died on 17th Nov., 1915. He was educated at Falmouth and at
+University College, London, where he was assistant curator in the museum
+from 1860 to 1863. He obtained the degree of M.A. in 1861 from the
+University of London, graduating subsequently in medicine at the same
+university (M.B. 1863, M.D. 1866). From 1864 to 1866 he was a medical
+officer in Broadmoor Criminal Lunatic Asylum, and in 1866 was appointed
+lecturer on pathology and assistant physician in St. Mary's Hospital. In
+1867 he became professor of pathological anatomy in University College,
+subsequently he was also professor of clinical medicine, and in the period
+1887-95 he occupied the chair of medicine and clinical medicine. Apart from
+numerous contributions to medical and other periodicals, and to Quain's
+_Dictionary of Medicine_, he published _The Modes of Origin of Lowest
+Organisms_ (1871); _The Beginnings of Life_ (1872); _Evolution and the
+Origin of Life_ (1874); _Lectures on Paralysis from Brain Disease_ (1875);
+_The Brain as an Organ of Mind_ (1880); which has been translated into
+French and German; _The Nature and Origin of Living Matter_; _Evolution of
+Life_; _Origin of Life_; &c.
+
+BASTIAT (b[.a]s-t[=e]-[.a]), Frederic, French economist, advocate of
+free-trade, and opponent of protection, born at Bayonne 1801, died at Rome
+1850. He became acquainted with Cobden and the English free-traders, whose
+speeches he translated into French. Whilst combating protectionism, Bastiat
+was also an opponent of socialism. His chief works are: _Sophismes
+Economiques_ (1846); _Propriete et Loi_; _Justice et Fraternite_ (1848);
+_Protectionisme et Communisme_ (1849); _Harmonies Economiques_ (1849).
+
+BASTIEN-LEPAGE (b[.a]s-tya[n.]-l[.e]-paezh), Jules, French painter, born
+1848, died 1884. He studied at Paris under Cabanel, and about 1874 began to
+attract some notice as a realistic painter of subjects connected with the
+country and everyday life, among his first pictures of note being _Song of
+Spring_, _Portrait of My Grandfather_, and _The First Communion_. Among his
+most important works are _The Hayfield_, _The Potato Harvest_, _Portrait of
+Mme Sarah Bernhardt_, _The Beggar_, and _The Forge_.--Cf. Marie
+Bashkirtsev, _Journal Intime_; Arnic, J. _Bastien-Lepage, lettres et
+souvenirs_.
+
+BASTILLE (b[.a]s-t[=e]l'), a French name for any strong castle provided
+with towers, but as a proper name the State prison and citadel of Paris,
+which was built about 1370 by Charles V. It was ultimately used chiefly for
+the confinement of persons of rank who had fallen victims to the intrigues
+of the Court or the caprice of the Government. (See _Cachet, Lettres de_.)
+The capture of the Bastille by the Parisian mob, 14th July, 1789, was the
+opening act of the Revolution. On that date the Bastille was surrounded by
+a tumultuous mob, who first attempted to negotiate with the Governor,
+Delaunay, but when these negotiations failed, began to attack the fortress.
+For several hours the mob continued their siege without being able to
+effect anything more than an entrance into the outer court of the Bastille;
+but at last the arrival of some of the Royal Guard with a few pieces of
+artillery forced the Governor to let down the second drawbridge and admit
+the populace. The Governor was seized, but on the way to the Hotel de Ville
+he was torn from his captors and put to death. The next day the destruction
+of the Bastille commenced. Not a vestige of it exists, but its site is
+marked by a column in the Place de la Bastille.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Francois
+Ravaisson, _Les Archives de la Bastille_; Arnold, _Histoire de la
+Bastille_; Bingham, _The Bastille_; Funck-Brentano, _The Bastille_; M.J. de
+Staal, _La Bastille sous la Regence_ (edited by Funck-Brentano).
+
+BASTINA'DO, an Eastern method of corporal punishment, consisting of blows
+upon the soles of the feet, applied with a bamboo cane.
+
+BAS'TION, in fortification, a large mass of earth, faced with sods, brick,
+or stones, standing out from a rampart, of which it is a principal part. A
+bastion consists of two _flanks_, each commanding and defending the
+adjacent _curtain_, or that portion of the wall extending from one bastion
+to another, and two _faces_ making with each other an acute angle called
+the _salient angle_, and commanding the outworks and ground before the
+fortification. The distance between the two flanks is the _gorge_, or
+entrance into the bastion. The use of the bastion is to bring every point
+at the foot of the rampart as much as possible under the guns of the place.
+
+BAST'WICK, John, English physician and ecclesiastical controversialist,
+born in 1593, died 1654. He settled at Colchester, but, instead of
+confining himself to his profession, entered keenly into theological
+controversy, and was condemned by the Star Chamber for his books against
+Prelacy: _Elenchus Religionis Papisticae_, _Flagellum Pontificis_, and _The
+Letanie of Dr. J. Bastwick_. With Prynne and Burton he was sentenced to
+lose his ears in the pillory, to pay a fine of L5000, and to be imprisoned
+for life. He was released by the Long Parliament, and entered London in
+triumph along with Prynne and Burton. He appears to have continued his
+controversies with the Independents and others to the very last.
+
+BASU'TOLAND, a native province and British South African possession,
+situated between the Orange Free State, Natal, Griqualand East, and the
+Cape Province. The Basutos belong chiefly to the great stem of the
+Bechuanas, and have made greater advances in civilization than perhaps any
+other South African race. In 1866 the Basutos, who had lived under a
+semi-protectorate of the British since 1848, were proclaimed British
+subjects, their country placed under the government of an agent, and in
+1871 it was joined to Cape Colony. In 1879 the attempted enforcement of an
+Act passed for the disarmament of the native tribes caused a revolt under
+the chief Moirosi, which the Cape forces were unable to put down. When
+peace was restored Basutoland was separated from Cape Colony (1884), and is
+now governed by a Resident Commissioner under the High Commissioner for
+South Africa. Basutoland has an area of about 11,716 sq. miles, much of it
+covered with grass, and there is but little wood. The climate is pleasant.
+The natives keep cattle, sheep, and horses, cultivate the ground, and
+export grain. The Basuto ponies, which originally were brought from Batavia
+by the Dutch in the eighteenth century, are famous. It is divided into
+eight districts, each under a magistrate. Capital, Maseru. Pop. (European),
+1396; (native), 404,507.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. Widdicombe, _Fourteen Years in
+Basutoland_; M. Martin, _Basutoland: Its Legends and Customs_; Sir G.
+Lagden, _The Basutos_; Rev. D. F. Ellenberger, _History of the Basuto_.
+
+[Illustration: Bats Asleep
+
+Left--Serotine (_Vespertilio serotinus_). Right--Long-eared bat (_Plecotus
+auritus_).]
+
+BAT, one of the group of wing-handed, flying mammals, having the fore-limb
+peculiarly modified so as to serve for flight, and constituting the order
+Cheiroptera. Bats are animals of the twilight and darkness, and are common
+in temperate and warm regions, but are most numerous and largest in the
+tropics. All European bats are small, and have a mouse-like skin. The body
+of the largest British species, _Vespertilio noct[)u]la_, is less than that
+of a mouse, but its wings stretch about 15 inches. During the day it
+remains in caverns, in the crevices of ruins, hollow trees, and similar
+lurking places, and flits out at evening in search of food, which consists
+of insects. Several species of the same genus are common in North America.
+Many bats are remarkable for having a singular nasal cutaneous appendage,
+bearing in some cases a fancied resemblance to a horse-shoe. Bats may be
+conveniently divided into two sections--the insectivorous or carnivorous,
+comprising all European and most African and American species; and the
+fruit-eating, belonging to tropical Asia and Australia, with several
+African forms. An Australian fruit-eating bat (_Pter[)o]pus ed[=u]lis_),
+commonly known as the kalong or flying-fox, is the largest of all the bats;
+it does much mischief in orchards. At least two species of South American
+bats are known to suck the blood of other mammals, and thence are called
+'vampire-bats'. All the British bats belong to the insectivorous group, the
+fruit-eating and blood-sucking bats being confined to warmer regions. There
+are fifteen species on the British list, but of these three are very rare.
+Among the most noteworthy forms are the greater and the lesser horse-shoe
+bats, in which the ears are nearly as long as the whole body. As winter
+approaches, in cold climates bats seek shelter in caverns, vaults, ruinous
+and deserted buildings, and similar retreats, where they cling together in
+large clusters, hanging head downwards by the feet, and remain in a torpid
+condition until the returning spring recalls them to active exertions. Bats
+generally bring forth two young. The parent shows a strong degree of
+attachment to her offspring, and, when they are captured, will follow them,
+and even submit to captivity herself rather than forsake her charge.
+
+[Illustration: Vampire-bat (_Phyllostroma spectrum_)]
+
+BATAILLE, Henry, French poet and dramatist, born at Nimes in 1872. His
+first volume of poems, _La Chambre Blanche_, appeared in 1895. His other
+works include _Le Beau Rivage_, _Maman Colibri_, _La Marche Nuptiale_, _La
+Femme Nue_, _La Divine Tragedie_, &c.
+
+BATALHA (b[.a]-t[.a]l'y[.a]), a village in Portugal, 69 miles north of
+Lisbon, with a renowned convent of Dominicans, a splendid building.
+
+BATAN'GAS, a town of the Philippines, in the Island of Luzon, capital of a
+province of same name, 58 miles south of Manila. Pop. 33,131.
+
+BATA'TAS. See _Sweet-potato_.
+
+BAT'AVI. See _Batavians_.
+
+BATA'VIA, a city and seaport of Java, on the north coast of the island, the
+capital of the Dutch East Indies. It is situated on a wide, deep bay, the
+principal warehouses and offices of the Europeans, the Java Bank, the
+exchange, &c., being in the old town, which is built on a low, marshy plain
+near the sea, intersected with canals and very unhealthy; while the
+Europeans reside in a new and much healthier quarter. Batavia has a large
+trade, sugar being the chief export. It was founded by the Dutch in 1619,
+and attained its greatest prosperity in the beginning of the eighteenth
+century. Its inhabitants are chiefly Malay, with a considerable admixture
+of Chinese and a small number of Europeans. Pop. 234,697 (1918).
+
+BATAVIAN REPUBLIC. See _Belgium_; _Netherlands._
+
+BATAVIANS, an old German nation which inhabited a part of the present
+Holland, especially the island called _Batavia_, formed by that branch of
+the Rhine which empties itself into the sea near Leyden, together with the
+Waal and the Meuse. Tacitus asserts that they were a branch of the Catti.
+They were subdued by Germanicus, and were granted special privileges for
+their faithful services to the Romans, but revolted under Vespasian. They
+were, however, again subdued by Trajan and Adrian, and at the end of the
+third century the Salian Franks obtained possession of the Island of
+Batavia.
+
+BATCHIAN. See _Bachian_.
+
+BATES, Henry Walter, traveller and naturalist, born at Leicester 1825,
+learned the hosiery trade, but in 1847 went to the Amazon with Russel
+Wallace, and remained there for eleven years studying the natural history
+of the region. Returning to England, he published in 1862 his _Naturalist
+on the River Amazons_, a work regarded as a classic. He was assistant
+secretary to the Royal Geographical Society from 1864 till his death in
+1892. A large part of his collections is in the British Museum.
+
+BATH (b[.a]th), a city of England, in Somersetshire, on the Avon, which is
+navigable for barges from Bristol; is beautifully placed among the hills,
+and the houses are built of freestone, obtained from the neighbourhood. The
+Abbey Church, dating from the fifteenth century, ranks as one of the finest
+specimens of Perpendicular Gothic architecture. Bath is remarkable for its
+medicinal waters, the four principal springs yielding no less than 184,000
+gallons of water a day; and the baths are both handsome and roomy. The
+temperature of the springs varies from 109deg to 117deg F. They contain
+carbonic acid, chloride of sodium and of magnesium, sulphate of soda,
+carbonate and sulphate of lime, &c. Bath was founded by the Romans, and
+called by them _Aquae Solis_ (Waters of the Sun). Amongst the Roman remains
+discovered there have been some fine baths. The height of its prosperity
+was reached, however, in the eighteenth century, when Beau Nash was leader
+of the fashion and master of its ceremonies. Since then, though it still
+attracts large numbers of visitors, it has become the resort of
+valetudinarians chiefly. Jointly with Wells it is the head of a diocese,
+and since 1918 returns one member to the House of Commons. Pop. (1921),
+68,648.
+
+BATH, a town, United States, Maine, on the west side and at the head of the
+winter navigation of the Kennebec, 12 miles from the sea. Chief industries:
+shipbuilding and allied crafts. Pop. 9396.
+
+BATH, the immersion of the body in water, or an apparatus for this purpose.
+
+_Ancient Baths._--The use of the bath as an institution, apart from
+occasional immersion in rivers or the sea, is, as might be anticipated, an
+exceedingly old custom. Homer mentions the bath as one of the first
+refreshments offered to a guest; thus, when Ulysses enters the palace of
+Circe, a bath is prepared for him, and he is anointed after it with costly
+perfumes. No representation, however, of a bath as we understand it is
+given upon the Greek vases, bathers being represented either simply washing
+at an elevated basin, or having water poured over them from above. In later
+times, rooms, both public and private, were built expressly for bathing,
+the public baths of the Greeks being mostly connected with the gymnasia.
+Apparently, by an inversion of the later practice, it was customary in the
+Homeric epoch to take first a cold and then a hot bath; but the
+Lacedaemonians substituted the hot-air sudorific bath, as less enervating
+than warm water, and in Athens at the time of Demosthenes and Socrates the
+warm bath was considered by the more rigorous to be an effeminate custom.
+The fullest details we have with respect to the bathing of the ancients
+apply to its luxurious development under the Romans. Their bathing
+establishments consisted of four main sections: the undressing room, with
+an adjoining chamber in which the bathers were anointed; a cold room with
+provision for a cold bath; a room heated moderately to serve as a
+preparation for the highest and lowest temperatures; and the sweating-room,
+at one extremity of which was a vapour-bath and at the other an ordinary
+hot bath. After going through the entire course both the Greeks and Romans
+made use of strigils or scrapers, either of horn or metal, to remove
+perspiration, oil, and impurities from the skin. Connected with the baths
+were walks, covered race-grounds, tennis-courts, and gardens, the whole,
+both in the external and internal decorations, being frequently on a
+palatial scale. The group of the _Laocoon_ and the _Farnese Hercules_ were
+both found in the ruins of Roman baths.
+
+_Modern Baths._--With respect to modern baths, that commonly in use in
+Russia consists of a single hall, built of wood, in the midst of which is a
+powerful metal oven, covered with heated stones, and surrounded with broad
+benches, on which the bathers take their places. Cold water is then poured
+upon the heated stones, and a thick, hot steam rises, which causes the
+sweat to issue from the whole body. The bather is then gently whipped with
+wet birch rods, rubbed with soap, and washed with luke-warm and cold water;
+of the latter, some pailfuls are poured over his head; or else he leaps,
+immediately after this sweating-bath, into a river or pond, or rolls in the
+snow. The Turks, by their religion, are obliged to make repeated ablutions
+daily, and for this purpose there is, in every city, a public bath
+connected with a mosque. A favourite bath among them, however, is a
+modification of the hot-air sudorific bath of the ancients introduced under
+the name of 'Turkish' into other than Mahommedan countries. A regular
+accompaniment of this bath, when properly given, is the operation known as
+'kneading', generally performed at the close of the sweating process, after
+the final rubbing of the bather with soap, and consisting in a systematic
+pressing and squeezing of the whole body, stretching the limbs, and
+manipulating all the joints as well as the fleshy and muscular parts.
+Public baths are now common in Europe, but the first English public baths
+and wash-houses of the kind now common in all cities were established in
+Liverpool and near the London docks in 1844. In 1846 an Act was passed for
+their encouragement, and a series of statutes, known as 'The Baths and
+Wash-houses Acts 1846 to 1896', followed. The establishment of cheap
+swimming-baths was authorized in 1878.
+
+The principal natural warm baths in England are at Bath, in Somersetshire
+(the hottest), and Buxton and Matlock, in Derbyshire. The temperature of
+the Bath springs ranges from 109deg to 117deg F., while that of the Buxton
+and Matlock waters scarcely exceeds 82deg. The baths of Harrogate, which
+are strongly impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, are also of great
+repute for the cure of obstinate cutaneous diseases, indurations of the
+glands, &c. The most celebrated natural hot baths in Europe are those of
+Aix-la-Chapelle, and the various Baden, in Germany; Toeplitz, in Bohemia;
+Bagnieres, Bareges, and Dax, in the south of France; and Spa, in Belgium.
+Besides the various kinds of water-bath with or without medication or
+natural mineral ingredients, there are also milk, oil, wine, earth, sand,
+mud, and electric baths, smoke-baths and gas-baths; but these are as a rule
+only indulged in after specific prescription.
+
+The practice of bathing as a method of cure in cases of disease falls under
+the head of hydropathy; but even when it is employed simply for pleasure or
+purification due regard should be paid to the physiological condition of
+the bather. In many cases cold bathing should be avoided altogether,
+especially by those who have any tendency to spitting of blood or
+consumption, by gouty people, or by those who have any latent visceral
+disease or apoplectic tendency. Wherever the bath is followed by shivering
+instead of by a healthy reactionary glow, it is undesirable; and a cold
+bath in the morning after any debauchery or excess in eating or drinking on
+the previous evening is exceedingly imprudent. Delicate persons and
+children ought not to bathe in the sea before ten or eleven o'clock in the
+morning, and in no case should bathing be indulged in after a long fast. In
+cold streams and rivers additional precautions should be taken, the cold
+plunge, when heated or fatigued, being frequently attended with fatal
+results. Even warm baths are not wholly free from danger; apoplexy and
+death having been known to follow a hot bath when entered with a full
+stomach. As a rule the temperature should not exceed 105deg, and they
+should not be too long continued. Frequent indulgence in them has an
+enervating effect, though the majority of people need as yet no renewal of
+Hadrian's prohibitive legislation in this matter. See also _Douches_;
+_Thermae_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: W. A. Becker, _Gallus_; J. Farrar, _Baths and
+Bathing_; W. P. Gerhard, _Modern Baths and Bath Houses_; R. F. Fox,
+_Principles and Practice of Medical Hydrology_.
+
+BATH, KNIGHTS OF THE, an order of England, supposed to have been instituted
+by Henry IV on the day of his coronation, but allowed to lapse after the
+reign of Charles II till 1725, when George I revived it as a military
+order. By the book of statutes then prepared the number of knights was
+limited to the sovereign and thirty-seven knights companions; but the
+limits of the order were greatly extended in 1815, and again in 1847, when
+it was opened to civilians. It now consists of three classes, each
+subdivided into (1) military members, (2) civil members, and (3) honorary
+members, consisting of foreign princes and officers. The first class
+consists of Knights of the Grand Cross (G.C.B.); the second of Knights
+Commanders (K.C.B.); and the third of Companions (C.B.). The Dean of
+Westminster is dean of the order. In 1917 the Companions of the order were
+given the privileges and precedence of Commanders, the badge being now worn
+round the neck. In 1918 the statutes were amended in order to admit
+officers of the Royal Air Force to the military division. The ribbon of the
+order is crimson; the military badge a gold cross of eight points, with the
+lion of England between the four principal angles, and having in a circle
+in the centre the rose, thistle, and shamrock between three imperial
+crowns; motto: _Tria juncta in uno_. Stars are worn by the two first
+classes, with additional motto, _Ich dien_, for the military members only.
+See _Knighthood_.
+
+BATH-BRICK, a preparation of siliceous earth found in the River Parret, in
+Somersetshire, in the form of a solid brick, used for cleaning knives, &c.
+See _Sand_.
+
+BATH'GATE, a town, Scotland, Linlithgowshire, pleasantly situated, and
+having in the vicinity the paraffin-works known as Young's, a paper-mill
+and other works, and coal and iron-stone mines. Pop. (1921), 8504.
+
+BATHOLITE, a mass of igneous rock having no visible floor, and presumed to
+pass down into some region of the earth's crust where molten rocks at one
+time prevailed over all others. Granite blocks, like those of the Cairngorm
+Mountains in Scotland, or the long ridge of the Leinster Chain, which have
+intruded into their surroundings, are regarded as batholites the crests of
+which have become exposed by denudation. A batholite in its original molten
+condition may exist under any large area of volcanic activity, and the
+similarity of the igneous rocks sent to the surface over broad regions of
+the earth, constituting what are called 'petrographical provinces', points
+to the existence of very considerable continuous rock-cauldrons in the
+crust.
+
+BATHOM'ETER, an instrument, invented by C. Williams Siemens, for measuring
+the depth of sea beneath a vessel without casting a line. It is based upon
+the fact that the attraction exerted upon any given mass of matter on the
+ship is less when she is afloat than ashore, because of the less density of
+sea-water as compared with that of earth or rock.
+
+BATHONIAN STAGE, a division of the middle Jurassic series of rocks,
+including the beds between the Inferior Oolite and the Oxford Clay. The
+name is derived from its excellent development near Bath, in Somersetshire,
+and the most important member is the Oolitic limestone known as Bath-stone
+(q.v.). The Bathonian stage includes the following beds in ascending
+order:--
+
+1. _Stonesfield Slate_, named from a village near Woodstock; a flaggy
+limestone used for roofing, with remains of ferns and cycads washed in from
+the Jurassic land, and of some of the earliest-known mammals, allies of the
+monotremes or the marsupials. 2. The _Great_ or _Bath Oolite_, with marine
+fossils, and also remains of the large reptiles known as dinosaurs. 3.
+_Bradford Clay._ 4. _Forest Marble._ 5. _Cornbrash_, so called from its
+'brashy' or rubbly nature, an earthy oolite yielding fair land for corn.
+
+BATHORI (bae'to-r[=e]), or BATHORY, a Hungarian family, which gave
+Transylvania five princes, and Poland one of its greatest kings. The more
+important members were:--1. Stephen, born in 1532, elected Prince of
+Transylvania in 1571, on the death of Zapolya, and in 1575 King of Poland.
+He accomplished many internal reforms, recovered the Polish territories in
+possession of the Czar of Moscovy, and reigned prosperously till his death
+in 1586.--2. Sigismund, nephew of Stephen, educated by the Jesuits, became
+Prince of Transylvania in 1581, shook off the Ottoman yoke, and had begun
+to give hopes of reigning gloriously when he resigned his dominions to the
+Emperor Rudolph II, in return for two principalities in Silesia, a
+cardinal's hat, and a pension. Availing himself, however, of an invitation
+by the Transylvanians, he returned, and placed himself under the protection
+of the Porte, but was defeated by the Imperialists in every battle, and
+finally sent to Prague, where he died almost forgotten in 1613.--3.
+Elizabeth, niece of Stephen, King of Poland, and wife of Count Nadasdy, of
+Hungary. She is said to have bathed in the blood of 600 young girls in the
+hope of renewing her youth, and to have committed other enormities. She was
+afterwards seized and confined till her death in 1614.
+
+BAT-HORSE. See _Batman_.
+
+BA'THOS, a Greek word meaning depth, now used to signify a ludicrous
+sinking from the elevated to the mean in writing or speech. First used in
+this sense by Pope in _The Art of Sinking in Poetry_ (_Scriblerus Papers_,
+1729).
+
+BATH-STONE (also called BATH-OOLITE and ROE-STONE, from the small rounded
+grains of which it is composed), a species of English limestone. It is
+extensively worked near Bath for building purposes. When just quarried it
+is soft; but though it soon becomes hard on exposure to the atmosphere, and
+is of handsome appearance, it is not very durable.
+
+BATH'URST, a British settlement on the west coast of Africa, on the Island
+of St. Mary's, near the mouth of the Gambia, with a trade in gum, bees-wax,
+hides, ivory, gold, rice, cotton, and palm-oil. Pop. 8000.
+
+BATHURST, a town in the western district of New South Wales, on the
+Macquarie River, with wide, well-laid-out streets at right angles, and a
+central square, tanneries, railway workshops, breweries, flour-mills, and
+other industries. Pop. 9200.
+
+BATHURST, Allen Bathurst, First Earl, a distinguished statesman in Queen
+Anne's reign; born 1684. He took part with Harley and St. John in opposing
+the influence of Marlborough, was raised to the peerage in 1711, impeached
+the promoters of the South Sea scheme, opposed the Bill against Atterbury,
+and was a leading antagonist of Walpole. He was created earl in 1772. His
+name is also associated with those of the leading writers and wits of the
+day. Died 1775.
+
+BATHURST, Henry Bathurst, Third Earl, son of the second earl, a prominent
+Tory statesman, after whom various capes, islands, and districts were
+named. Born 1762; in 1807, President of Board of Trade; in 1809, Secretary
+for Foreign Affairs; and in 1812, Secretary for the Colonies, a post held
+by him for sixteen years. He was also President of the Council under
+Wellington, 1828-30. Died 1834.
+
+BATHURST ISLAND, on the North Australian coast, belonging to S. Australia,
+separated from Melville Island by a narrow strait; triangular in shape,
+with a wooded area of about 1000 sq. miles.--Also an island in the Arctic
+Ocean discovered by Parry, E. of Cornwallis and W. of Melville Island,
+76deg N., 100deg W.
+
+BATHYB'IUS (Gr. _bathys_, deep, _bios_, life), the name given by Huxley to
+what was regarded as granular slimy masses of animal matter found covering
+the sea-bottom at great depths.
+
+BATISTE (ba-t[=e]st'), a fine linen cloth made in Flanders and Picardy,
+named after its inventor, Jean Baptiste of Cambrai.
+
+BAT'LEY, a municipal and parliamentary borough of England, West Riding of
+York, about a mile from Dewsbury; principal manufactures: heavy woollen
+cloths, such as pilot, beaver, police, army, and frieze cloths, flushings,
+and blankets. Batley and Morley unite in returning one member to
+Parliament. Pop. 36,151.
+
+BATMAN (bat'man or bae'man; from Fr. _bat_, a pack-saddle), in the British
+army, a person allowed by the Government to every company of a regiment on
+foreign service. His duty is to take charge of the cooking utensils, &c.,
+of the company, and he has a bat-horse to convey these utensils from place
+to place.
+
+BA'TON, a short staff or truncheon, in some cases used as an official
+badge, as that of a field-marshal. The conductor of an orchestra has a
+baton for the purpose of directing the performers as to time, &c. In
+heraldry, what is usually called the 'bastard bar', or 'bar sinister', is
+properly a baton sinister. See _Bastard Bar_.
+
+BAT'ON ROUGE (roezh), the capital of Louisiana, United States, on the left
+bank of the Mississippi, with an arsenal, barracks, military hospital,
+State house, State university, &c. On 5th Aug., 1862, the Confederates
+under General Breckenridge suffered a severe defeat before it. Pop. (1920),
+21,782.
+
+BATOUM, or BATUM (b[.a]-toem'), a port on the east coast of the Black Sea,
+acquired by Russia by the Treaty of Berlin, on condition that its
+fortifications were dismantled and it was thrown open as a free port. It
+rapidly grew to be the main outlet for Transcaucasia; its harbour was
+enlarged for commercial reasons; an arsenal was built outside it; it was
+connected by a military road with Kars; and finally, in July, 1886, the
+Russian Government declared it to be a free port no longer. Its importance
+as a naval and military station to Russia was unquestionably great; it is
+of most importance commercially as an outlet for the mineral oil of Baku.
+The water is of great depth close inshore, and the shipping lies under
+protection of the overhanging cliffs of the Gouriel Mountains. Batoum was
+abandoned by the Bolshevik Government in March, 1918, and occupied by the
+Turks on 15th April of the same year. By the terms of the armistice
+concluded with Turkey in Nov., 1918, the Allies occupied the port, and in
+Nov., 1919, a military governor was appointed by the British Government. On
+9th July, 1920, Batoum was evacuated by the British, and occupied by
+Georgian troops. Pop. 46,000.--The province of _Batoum_ has an area of 2693
+sq. miles. Pop. 186,000.
+
+BATRACHIANS (ba-tr[=a]'ki-anz; Gr. _batrach[)o]s_, a frog), the fourth
+order in Cuvier's arrangement of the class Reptilia, comprising frogs,
+toads, newts, salamanders, and sirens. The term is now sometimes employed
+as synonymous with amphibia, but is more usually restricted to the order
+Anura or tailless amphibia. See _Amphibia_.
+
+BATSHIAN. See _Bachian_.
+
+BAT'TA, an allowance which military officers in India receive in addition
+to their pay. It was originally given only when the officers were on the
+march or in the field, but now half batta is paid when troops are in
+cantonments.
+
+BATTAL'ION, the tactical unit of command in infantry, supposed to be of the
+maximum strength to be efficiently handled by one officer in chief command,
+with others under him. In most armies it is about 1000 to 1100 men. The
+former is about the strength of a battalion in the British army, in which
+battalions now correspond to what were formerly regiments, the chief
+commanding officer (in actual command) being the lieutenant-colonel. See
+_Army_.
+
+BATTALION OF DEATH, the legion of Russian women and girls, belonging to all
+classes, organized in 1917 and commanded by the famous revolutionary Madame
+Botshkalova. The battalion took part in several engagements.
+
+BAT'TAS, or BATTAKS, a people belonging to the Malayan race inhabiting the
+valleys and plateaus of the mountains that extend longitudinally through
+the Island of Sumatra. They practise agriculture and cattle-rearing, and
+are skillful in various handicrafts; they have also a written literature
+and an alphabet of their own, their books treating of astrology,
+witchcraft, medicine, war, &c. They are under the rule of hereditary
+chieftains. In 1908 a Battak Institute was established at Leyden for the
+study of the Battak country, people, &c.
+
+BAT'TENBERG, a village in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, from which
+the sons (by morganatic marriage) of Prince Alexander of Hesse, uncle of
+Louis, Grand-Duke of Hesse, the husband of Princess Alice of Britain,
+derived their titles of princes of Battenberg. One of them, Alexander, was
+Prince of Bulgaria from 1879 to 1886, and died in 1893. Another, Prince
+Henry, was married to Princess Beatrice of Great Britain in 1885, and died
+in 1896.
+
+BATTENBERG, Prince Louis Alexander of, born 24th May, 1854, in Graz, son of
+Prince Alexander of Hesse. He became a naturalized British subject, entered
+the navy in 1868, and in 1884 married Princess Victoria, eldest daughter of
+Princess Alice Maud, Grand-Duchess of Hesse-Darmstadt, and second daughter
+of Queen Victoria. He became rear-admiral in 1904, was second admiral of
+the Mediterranean fleet from 1906 to 1908, commanded the Atlantic fleet
+from 1908 to 1910, the 3rd and 4th divisions of the Home fleet in 1911, and
+was appointed Second Sea Lord in Nov., 1911, and First Sea Lord in Dec.,
+1912, in succession to Sir Francis Bridgeman. In October, 1914, however, in
+consequence of a campaign against alien enemies which culminated in an
+attack in the _Globe_ on the First Sea Lord, he tendered his resignation to
+Mr. Winston Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty, on the ground that
+his birth and parentage in some respects impaired his usefulness. In 1917
+the king determined that those princes of his family who were his subjects
+and bore German names and titles should relinquish those titles and adopt
+British surnames, and Prince Louis adopted the title of Marquess of Milford
+Haven, and the surname of Mountbatten. He was the author of _Men-of-war
+Names, their Meaning and Origin_ (1908). He was made a Privy Councillor in
+1914, and was both a Civil and a Military Knight Grand Cross of the Bath.
+He died 11th Sept., 1921.
+
+[Illustration: Roman Battering-ram]
+
+BATTERING-RAM, an engine for battering down the walls of besieged places.
+The ancients employed two different engines of this kind--one suspended in
+a frame, the other movable on wheels or rollers. They consisted of a beam
+or spar with a massive metal head, and were set in motion either by a
+direct application of manual force or by means of cords passing over
+pulleys. Some are said to have been 120 feet or more in length, and to have
+been worked by 100 men. One is described as being 180 feet long, and having
+a head weighing 1-1/2 tons. Smaller ones, manned by three or four soldiers,
+were also frequently employed. They were generally covered with a roof or
+screen for the protection of the workers. The battering-ram is mentioned by
+Ezekiel (iv, 2; xxi, 22), and the Romans learnt the use of it from the
+Greeks.
+
+BAT'TERSEA, a municipal and parliamentary borough of London, in Surrey, in
+a low situation on the south bank of the Thames, nearly opposite Chelsea,
+with a fine public park extending over 185 acres. The district is
+associated with the names of Pope and Bolingbroke, and with the
+Wellington-Winchilsea duel. Battersea returns two members to Parliament.
+Pop. (municipal borough), (1921), 167,693.
+
+BAT'TERY, (1) any number of guns grouped for action in one place and under
+one control; (2) the tactical and administrative unit of the Royal Regiment
+of Artillery; (3) an entrenched work constructed as a position for guns in
+siege warfare.
+
+The Royal Regiment of Artillery is organized in batteries of horse, field,
+heavy, siege, and mountain artillery. These differ in the weight and type
+of gun with which they have to do, but the general principles of
+organization are the same. (See _Army_.) Nominally a battery consists of
+six guns with their attendant ammunition wagons (12) and certain other
+transport. A major commands the battery, and has a captain and three
+subalterns to assist him. For all purposes a battery is permanently
+organized in three sections, each of two guns and four wagons, under
+subaltern officers; while in action it is divided into two parts, (_a_) the
+fighting battery of six guns and six wagons; (_b_) the wagon line of the
+remaining wagons, under command of the captain. The change from march
+formation to that necessary for firing is termed 'coming into action'.
+
+Horse, field, and some heavy batteries are horse-drawn (six or eight horses
+to a gun), while other heavy batteries and siege-guns are drawn by
+mechanical transport or mounted on railway platforms. Mountain batteries
+are organized for pack transport only--either mules or carriers--all the
+material being specially constructed to this end. Among combinations with
+the word battery come the following: _battery commander_, the officer
+commanding a battery; _battery leader_, the senior subaltern, who receives
+and carries out the commander's orders in action; _battery-fire_, each gun
+of a battery firing in turn: as opposed to gun-fire, where each gun fires
+independently. See _Artillery_.
+
+BATTERY, in criminal law, an assault by beating or wounding another. The
+least touching or meddling with the person of another against his will may
+be held to constitute a battery.
+
+BATTERY, in electricity and galvanism, a combination of several jars or
+metallic plates. See _Daniell's Cell_; _Electric Battery_; _Secondary
+Cell_.
+
+BATTHYANYI (b[.a]t-y[.a]n'y[=e]), one of the oldest and most celebrated
+Hungarian families, traceable as far back as the Magyar invasion of
+Pannonia in the ninth century. Among later bearers of the name have
+been--Count Casmir Batthyanyi, who was associated with Kossuth, was
+Minister of Foreign Affairs in Hungary during the insurrection of 1849, and
+died in Paris 1854; Count Louis Batthyanyi, born 1809, of another branch of
+the family, was leader of the opposition in the Hungarian Diet until the
+breaking out of the commotions of 1848, when he took an active part in
+promoting the national cause; but on the entry of Windischgraetz into Pesth
+he was arrested and shot, 1849.
+
+BATTLE, a combat between two armies. In ancient times and the Middle Ages
+the battleground was often chosen by agreement, and the battle was a mere
+trial of strength, a duel _en gros_; and as the armies of the ancients were
+imperfectly organized, and the combatants fought very little at a distance,
+after the battle had begun manuoevres were much more difficult, and troops
+almost entirely beyond the control of the general. Under these
+circumstances the battle depended almost wholly upon the previous
+arrangements and the valour of the troops. In modern times, however, the
+finest combinations, the most ingenious manoeuvres, are rendered possible
+by the better organization of the armies, and it is the skill of the
+general rather than the courage of the soldier that now determines the
+event of a battle. Battles are distinguished as _offensive_ or _defensive_
+on either side, but there is a natural and ready transition from one method
+to the other. The purely defensive attitude is condemned by tacticians
+except in cases where the only object desirable is to maintain a position
+of vital consequence, the weight of precedent being in favour of the dash
+and momentum of an attacking force even where opposed to superior forces.
+Where the greatest generals have acted upon the defensive, it has almost
+always been with the desire to develop an opportunity to pass to the
+offensive, and, having discovered their opponent's hand, to marshal against
+the enemy, exhausted with attack, the whole strength of their resources.
+Napoleon won more than one great victory by this method, and Wellington's
+reputation was largely based upon his skill in defensive-offensive
+operations. Tacticians have divided a battle into three periods, which are
+disposition, combat, and the decisive moment. In some measure they require
+distinct qualities in a commander, the intellect which can plot a
+disposition being by no means always of the prompt judgment passing to
+instant action which avails itself of the crucial moment to crush an enemy.
+Cooperation and mutual support of all arms and services is essential to
+success in a modern battle, which may occupy many days or even weeks and
+embrace a large area of country, e.g. the battle of the Marne, the battle
+of the Somme. This co-operation is ensured by the most careful and detailed
+arrangements being made beforehand, such arrangements even including the
+rehearsal of more important phases over ground prepared to represent the
+country over which the operations will eventually take place. The modern
+battle may be, and probably will be, a continuation of many
+operations--_offensive_ and _defensive_--carried out by distinct and
+separate formations. The general scope of the operations as a whole will be
+planned by the supreme commander, while the choice of the methods to be
+used is left to the commander of the formations affected. See _Strategy_;
+_Tactics_.
+
+BATTLE, a town in Sussex, so named from the battle of Hastings having been
+fought there. An abbey built by William the Norman has disappeared, but
+important remains of a later building exist on the same site; and there is
+an old church of great interest. Pop. (1921), 2891.
+
+BATTLE (or BATTEL), WAGER OF, an obsolete method, according to English law,
+of deciding civil or criminal cases by personal combat between the parties
+or their champions in presence of the court. A woman, a priest, a peer, or
+a person physically incapable of fighting could refuse such a trial. It was
+not abolished till 1819 (by the Statute of 59 George III, c. 46), but had
+long previously been in abeyance. See _Ordeal_.
+
+BATTLE-AXE, a weapon much used in war in the early part of the Middle Ages
+among knights. It is a weapon which affords hardly any guard, and the
+heavier the blow given with it the more the fighter is exposed; but its use
+was to some extent necessitated by the resistance of iron armour to all but
+heavy blows. In England and Scotland the battle-axe was much employed, the
+Lochaber-axe remaining a formidable implement of destruction in the hands
+of the Highlanders to a recent period.
+
+BATTLE CREEK, a town of the United States, in Michigan, at the junction of
+the Kalamazoo and Battle Creek, with a college, and manufactures of
+agricultural implements, &c. Pop. 25,267.
+
+BATTLEFORD, a trading town of Canada, province of Saskatchewan, at the
+junction of the Battle and Saskatchewan (North Fork). Pop. 1335.
+
+BAT'TLEMENT, a notched or indented parapet of a fortification, formed by a
+series of raised parts called _cops_ or _merlons_, separated by openings
+called _crenelles_ or _embrasures_, the soldier sheltering himself behind
+the merlon, while he fires through the embrasure. Battlements were
+originally military, but were afterwards used freely in ecclesiastical and
+civil buildings by way of ornament, on parapets, cornices, tabernacle work,
+&c.
+
+BATTLE-PIECE, a painting representing a battle. Some of the greatest pieces
+of this kind are the _Battle of Constantine_, of which the cartoons were
+drawn by Raphael, and which was executed by Giulio Romano; Lebrun's
+_Battles of Alexander_; and the _Battles of the Amazons_, by Rubens.
+
+BATTUE (ba-tue'), a method of killing game by having persons to beat a
+wood, copse, or other cover, and so drive the animals (pheasants, hares,
+&c.) towards the spot where sportsmen are stationed to shoot them.
+
+BATTUS, legendary founder of the Greek colony of Cyrene, in Libya, about
+650 B.C. There were eight rulers of the family founded by him, bearing
+alternately the names Battus and Arcesilaus.
+
+BATU KHAN, Mongol ruler of the Western conquests of his grandfather,
+Genghis Khan, from 1224 to 1255. He overran Russia, Poland, Hungary, and
+Dalmatia, holding Russia for ten years.
+
+BATUM. See _Batoum_.
+
+BAUDELAIRE (b[=o]d-l[=a]r), Charles Pierre, French poet, born 1821. His
+first work of importance was a series of translations from Poe, ranking
+among the most perfect translations in any literature. A volume of poems,
+_Les Fleurs du Mal_ (1857), established his reputation as a leader of the
+Romanticists, though the police thought it necessary to deodorize them. Of
+a higher tone were his _Petits Poemes en Prose_; followed in 1859 by a
+monograph on Theophile Gautier, in 1860 by _Les Paradis Artificiels_ (opium
+and hashish studies), and in 1861 by _Wagner et Tannhaeuser a Paris_. He
+died in 1867. The best English rendering of the _Fleurs du Mal_ is by A.
+Symons (1905).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Henry James, _French Poets and Novelists_;
+Asselineau, _Charles Baudelaire, sa vie et son oeuvre_; F. Gautier,
+_Charles Baudelaire_.
+
+BAUDRY (b[=o]-dr[=e]), Paul Jacques Aime, a prominent modern French
+painter, born in 1828, died Jan., 1886. He took the grand prix de Rome in
+1850, and exhibited many important works, of which the better known are his
+_Charlotte Corday_ and _La Perle et la Vague_. The decoration of the
+_foyer_ of the New Opera House at Paris was entrusted to him--an enormous
+work, occupying a total surface of 500 sq. metres, but admirably
+accomplished by him in eight years.
+
+BAUER (bou'er), Bruno, German philosopher, historian, and Biblical critic
+of the rational school, born 1809, died 1882. Wrote _Critique of the Gospel
+of John_ (1840); _Critique of the Synoptic Gospels_ (1840); _History of the
+French Revolution to the Founding of the Republic_ (1847); _History of
+Germany during the French Revolution and the Rule of Napoleon_ (1846);
+_Critique of the Gospels_ (1850-1); _Critique of the Pauline Epistles_
+(1850); _Philo, Strauss, Renan, and Primitive Christianity_ (1874); _Christ
+and the Caesars_ (1877), &c.
+
+BAUHIN (b[=o]-an), Gaspard, born at Basel in 1560; in 1580 elected to the
+Greek chair at Basel, and in 1589 to that of anatomy and botany. He died in
+1624. His fame rests chiefly on his _Pinax Theatri Botanici_ and _Theatrum
+Botanicum_. Linnaeus gave his name to a genus of plants.
+
+BAUHIN'IA, a genus of plants, ord. Leguminosae, usually lianes, found in
+the woods of hot countries, and often stretching from tree to tree like
+cables. Many are showy and interesting. The bark of _B. varieg[=a]ta_ is
+used in tanning; the bast fibres of some Indian species are made into ropes
+and twine.
+
+BAUMGARTEN (boum'g[.a]r-tn), Alexander Gottlieb, a German philosopher, born
+in 1714 at Berlin; in 1740 was made professor of philosophy at
+Frankfort-on-the-Oder, and died there in 1762. He is the founder of
+aesthetics as a science, and the inventor of this name. His ideas were
+first developed in his _De Nonnullis ad Poema pertinentibus_ (1735), and
+afterwards in the two volumes of his uncompleted _Aesthetica_, published
+1750-8.
+
+BAUR (bour), Ferdinand Christian, German theologian, founder of the
+'Tuebingen School' of theologians and Hegelian thinkers, born in 1792. The
+publication of his first work, _Symbolism and Mythology, or The Natural
+Religion of Antiquity_, in 1824-5, led to his appointment as professor in
+the evangelical faculty of Tuebingen University, a position occupied by him
+till his death in 1860. His chief works in the department of the history of
+Christian dogma are: _The Christian Gnosis, or The Christian Philosophy of
+Religion_ (1835); _The Christian Doctrine of the Atonement_ (1838); _The
+Christian Doctrine of the Trinity and the Incarnation_ (1841-3); _The
+Compendium of and Lectures on the History of Christian Dogmas_ (1847,
+1865). To the department of New Testament criticism and the early history
+of Christianity belong the so-called _Pastoral Epistles of the Apostle
+Paul_ (1835); _Paul the Apostle of Jesus Christ_ (1845); _Critical
+Inquiries Concerning the Canonic Gospels_ (1847); _A History of Christian
+Doctrine to the End of the Eighteenth Century_ (1853-63). Baur's views in
+regard to the Church of the earliest times and the New Testament Scriptures
+have been very influential. He saw different and opposing tendencies at
+work in the Church of apostolic times, and believed that the New Testament
+mainly took form in the second century, the only genuine writings previous
+to A.D. 70 being the four great Pauline epistles and _Revelation_.
+
+BAUTZEN (bout'sen), or BUDISSIN, a German town in Saxony, upon a height on
+the right bank of the Spree, with some old and interesting buildings. The
+inhabitants are mostly Lutheran, and both Catholics and Protestants worship
+in the same cathedral. Chief manufactures: woollen goods, paper, gunpowder,
+machines. Napoleon defeated the united armies of the Russians and the
+Prussians at Bautzen on the 21st May, 1813. Pop. 32,754.
+
+BAUXITE (b[a:]k's[=i]t), a rock resembling clay, but consisting of hydrated
+aluminium oxides, with, in good examples, a silica content of less than 2
+per cent. Bauxite is mined at Les Baux in Provence, in Arkansas, and other
+places, including County Antrim, where it occurs between basaltic lavas. It
+is the source of commercial aluminium, and is also used for bricks for
+high-temperature furnaces, and in alum manufacture. Like laterite (q.v.),
+it results from tropical conditions of weathering acting on a variety of
+silicate rocks.
+
+BAVA'RIA (Ger. _Bayern_; Fr. _Baviere_), previous to the changes caused by
+the European War (1914-8), a kingdom in the south of Germany, the second
+largest State of the _Reich_, composed of two isolated portions, the larger
+comprising about eleven-twelfths of the monarchy, having Wuertemberg,
+Baden, &c., on the west, while the smaller portion, the Pfalz or
+Palatinate, is separated from the other by Wuertemberg and Baden, and lies
+west of the Rhine; total area, 30,346 sq. miles. The main political
+divisions are: Upper Bavaria (pop. 1,532,065; chief town, Munich, the
+capital of the country, pop. 596,467); Lower Bavaria (724,331); Palatinate
+(937,085); Upper Palatinate and Regensburg (600,284); Upper Franconia
+(661,862); Middle Franconia (930,868); Lower Franconia and Aschaffenburg
+(710,943); Sehwaben and Neuburg (789,853); total in (1919), 7,150,146. Next
+towns after Munich are Nuernberg, Augsburg, Wuerzburg, and Ratisbon
+(Regensburg). The main portion of the country is hilly; in the south, where
+it belongs to the Alps, it is mountainous; but north of the Alps and south
+of the Danube, which flows east through the country from Ulm to Passau,
+there is a considerable plateau, averaging about 1600 feet above the
+sea-level. The south frontier is formed by a branch of the Noric Alps,
+offsets from which project far into the plateau; principal peaks: the
+Zugspitze, 10,394 feet, and the Watzmann, 9470 feet. The highest summits on
+the Bohemian (Austrian) frontier, belonging to the Boehmerwald Mountains,
+are the Rachel, 5102 feet, and the Arber, 5185 feet. Ranges of less
+elevation bordering on or belonging to the country are the Fichtelgebirge
+in the north-east, the Frankenwald, Rhoengebirge, and Spessart in the
+north, and the Steigerwald and Franconian Jura in the middle. The
+Palatinate is traversed by the north extremity of the Vosges Mountains, the
+highest peak being the Konigstuhl, 2162 feet. The greater part of the
+country belongs to the basin of the Danube, which is navigable, its
+tributaries on the south being the Iller, Lech, Isar, and Inn; on the
+north, the Wornitz, Altmuehl, Nab, and Regen. The northern portion belongs
+to the basin of the Main, which receives the Regnitz and Saale, and is a
+tributary of the Rhine. The Palatinate has only small streams that flow
+into its boundary river the Rhine. The chief lakes of Bavaria are all on
+the higher part of the south plateau; the smaller within the range of the
+Alps. The Ammer-See is about 10 miles long by 2-1/2 broad, 1736 feet above
+the sea; the Wuerm-See or Starnberger-See, about 12 miles long by 3 broad,
+1899 feet; and Chiem-See, 9 miles long by 9 to 4 broad, 1651 feet. The
+climate in general is temperate and healthy, though somewhat colder than
+the other South German States; yearly average about 47deg F.
+
+As regards soil, Bavaria is one of the most fertile countries in Germany,
+producing the various cereals in abundance, the best hops in Germany,
+fruit, wine, tobacco, &c., and having extensive forests. Lower Franconia
+(the Main valley) and the Palatinate are the great vine-growing districts.
+The celebrated Steinwein and Leistenwein are the produce of the slopes of
+the Steinberg and Marienberg at Wuerzburg (on the Main). The forests of
+Bavaria, chiefly fir and pine, yield a large revenue, much timber being
+annually exported, together with potash, tar, turpentine, &c. The principal
+mineral products are salt, coal, and iron, some of the mining works
+belonging to the State. The minerals worked include copper, quicksilver,
+manganese, cobalt, porcelain clay, alabaster, graphite. Large numbers of
+horses and cattle are reared, as also sheep and swine. The return of cattle
+in 1917 showed 272,667 horses, 3,896,702 cattle, and 616,464 sheep. The
+manufactures are individually mostly on a small scale. The principal
+articles manufactured are linens, woollens, cottons, leather, paper, glass,
+earthen and iron ware, jewellery, &c. The optical and mathematical
+instruments made are excellent. A most important branch of industry is the
+brewing of beer, for which there are upwards of 7000 establishments,
+producing over 300 millions of gallons a year. The distilleries produce
+over 4 millions of gallons of alcohol. A number of the people maintain
+themselves by the manufacture of articles in wood, and by felling and
+hewing timber. The trade of Bavaria in home produce exported and goods
+imported for consumption in the country is not large. Principal exports:
+corn, timber, wine, cattle, glass, hops, fruit, beer, wooden wares, &c. The
+chief imports are sugar, coffee, cotton, rice, spices, dye-stuffs, silk and
+silk goods, lead, &c. From its position Bavaria has a considerable transit
+trade. The Konig Ludwig Canal connects the Main at Bamberg with the
+Altmuehl a short distance above its embouchure in the Danube, thus
+establishing water communication between the North Sea and the Black Sea.
+The railway system has a total mileage of 5290, mostly belonging to the
+State.
+
+Education is in a less satisfactory condition than in most German States.
+There are about 7500 elementary schools, at which attendance is compulsory
+up to fourteen years of age. There are three universities, two of which
+(Munich and Wuerzburg) are Roman Catholic, and one (Erlangen) Protestant.
+In art Bavaria is best known as the home of the Nuernberg school, founded
+about the middle of the sixteenth century by Albert Duerer. Hans Holbein is
+also claimed as a Bavarian; and to these have to be added the eminent
+sculptors Kraft and Vischer, both born about the middle of the fifteenth
+century. The restoration of the reputation of Bavaria in art was chiefly
+the work of Ludwig I, under whom the capital became one of the most
+prominent seats of the fine arts in Europe. The religion of the State is
+Roman Catholicism, over 70 per cent of the population being Roman
+Catholics. All citizens, whatever their creed, possess the same civil and
+political rights. The dioceses of Bavaria comprise two Roman Catholic
+archbishopries, Munich and Bamberg; and six bishopries, Augsburg, Ratisbon,
+Eichstaedt, Passau, Wuerzburg, and Spires.
+
+For over a century Bavaria was a kingdom, and the crown hereditary in the
+male line of the descendants of the ancient Counts of Wittelsbach. The
+executive power was vested in the king, but his ministers were responsible
+for his acts. The legislature consisted of two chambers--one of senators,
+composed of princes of the royal family, the great officers of the State,
+the two archbishops, the heads of certain noble families, and certain
+members appointed by the Crown; the other of deputies, 163 in number,
+elected by direct and secret vote, and calculated at the rate of 1 for
+every 38,000 inhabitants. The lower chamber was elected for six years. The
+Budget for each of the years 1916 and 1917 balanced at L12,183,411; for
+1918 and 1919 at L42,639,595; the public debt on 1st July, 1917, was
+L128,719,000, L98,179,000 being railway debt. The army (peace footing,
+72,000) was raised by conscription--every man being liable to serve from
+the 1st of January of the year in which he completes his twentieth year. In
+time of peace the army was under the command of the King of Bavaria, but in
+time of war under that of the Emperor of Germany, as commander-in-chief of
+the whole German army.
+
+As a result of the revolutionary movement in Nov., 1918, the Bavarian
+dynasty was deposed and a republican form of government set up. The
+provisional constitution, made public on 7th Jan., 1919, established a
+Socialist Republic in Bavaria. The supreme power lies with the people; the
+Diet consists of one chamber; the suffrage is universal; the privileges of
+birth and caste are abolished. The supreme executive power is exercised by
+the ministry as a whole. The Church is separated from the State, and all
+religious associations have equal rights.
+
+_History._--The Bavarians take their name from the Boii, a Celtic tribe
+whose territory was occupied by a confederation of Germanic tribes, called
+after their predecessors Boiarii. These were made tributary first to the
+Ostrogoths, and then to the Franks; and on the death of Charlemagne his
+successors governed the country by lieutenants with the title of margrave,
+afterwards converted (in 921) into that of duke. In 1070 Bavaria passed to
+the family of the Guelphs, and in 1180 by imperial grant to Otho, Count of
+Wittelsbach, founder of the dynasty reigning until 1918. In 1623 the
+reigning duke was made one of the Electors of the empire. Elector
+Maximilian II joined in the War of the Spanish Succession on the side of
+France, and this led, after the battle of Blenheim, 1704, to the loss of
+his dominions for the next ten years. His son, Charles Albert, likewise
+lost his dominions for a time to Austria, but they were all recovered again
+by Charles's son, Maximilian III (1745). In the wars following the French
+revolution Bavaria was in a difficult position between France and Austria,
+but in the end joined Napoleon, from whom its Elector Maximilian IV
+received the title of king (1805), a title afterwards confirmed by the
+treaties of 1814 and 1815. King Maximilian I was succeeded by his son,
+Ludwig (or Louis) I, under whom various circumstances helped to quicken a
+desire for political change. Reform being refused, tumults arose in 1848,
+and Ludwig resigned in favour of his son, Maximilian II, under whom certain
+modifications of the constitution were carried out. At his death in 1864 he
+was succeeded by Ludwig II. In the war of 1866 Bavaria sided with Austria,
+and was compelled to cede a small portion of its territory to Prussia, and
+to pay a war indemnity of L2,500,000. Soon after Bavaria entered into an
+alliance with Prussia, and in 1867 joined the Zollverein. In the
+Franco-German War of 1870-1 the Bavarians took a prominent part, and it was
+at the request of the King of Bavaria, on behalf of all the other princes
+and the senates of the free cities of Germany, that the King of Prussia
+agreed to accept the title of Emperor of Germany. From Jan., 1871, to 1918
+Bavaria formed part of the German Empire, and was represented in the
+Bundesrath by six, and in the Reichstag by forty-eight members. The
+eccentricity early displayed by Ludwig II developed to such an extent that
+in June, 1886, he was placed under control, and a regency established under
+Prince Luitpold (Leopold). The change was almost immediately followed by
+the suicide of the king, and as Prince Otto, the brother and heir of the
+late king, was insane, the regency was continued. Prince Luitpold died on
+12th Dec., 1912, and his son, Ludwig, became regent. On 5th Nov., 1913, the
+prince was proclaimed king, under the name of Ludwig III, in succession to
+his cousin, King Otto, who was declared incapable of ruling. King Otto died
+on 12th Oct., 1916. Ludwig III abdicated in Nov., 1918, and the Bavarian
+Government was taken over by a cabinet under the leadership of Kurt Eisner.
+Eisner was assassinated in Feb., 1919, and a struggle ensued between the
+moderate Socialists and the extremists of the Left. The moderate party,
+however, returned to power in May, 1919.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: S. Riezler,
+_Geschichte Bayerns_ (4 vols.); R. Piloty, _Die Verfassungsgeschichte des
+Koenigreichs Bayern_; Goetz, _Geographisch-historisches Handbuch von
+Bayern_; M. Docberl, _Entwickelungsgeschichte Bayerns_; C. P. Higby,
+_Religious Policy of the Bavarian Government during the Napoleonic Period_.
+
+BAXTER, Richard, the most eminent of the English nonconforming divines of
+the seventeenth century, born in Rowton, Shropshire, 1615; ordained in
+1638; parish minister of Kidderminster in 1640. The imposition of the oath
+of universal approbation of the doctrine and discipline of the Church of
+England (the _et caetera oath_) detached him from the Establishment. After
+the battle of Naseby he accepted the chaplaincy of Colonel Whalley's
+regiment. He can scarcely be said, however, to have separated as yet in
+spirit from the Establishment. He upheld the monarchy, condemned the
+execution of the king and the election of Cromwell, preached against the
+Covenant and against separatists and sectaries, but his piety won him the
+respect of all parties. At the Restoration he became king's chaplain, but
+declined the bishopric of Hereford, and on the passage of the Act of
+Uniformity threw in his lot entirely with the nonconformists. In 1685 he
+was arrested, refused a hearing by Jeffreys, and imprisoned. After his
+release he lived in retirement till his death in 1691. He left about 150
+treatises, of which his _Saints' Everlasting Rest_, _Call to the
+Unconverted_, and _Reformed Pastor_ have been the most
+popular.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: William Orme, _Life and Times of Richard Baxter_;
+J. Stalker, _Lecture on Baxter_ in _The Evangelical Succession_; McAdam
+Muir, _Religious Writers of England_; Currier, _Nine Great Preachers_.
+
+BAXTERIANS, followers of Baxter in respect of his attempted compromise
+between Calvinism and Arminianism. They reject the doctrine of reprobation,
+admit a universal potential salvation, becoming actual in the case of the
+elect, and assert the possibility of falling from grace. The Baxterians
+never formed a sect or even a school, but were men of independent minds,
+distinguishing between essentials and non-essentials: in things necessary,
+unity; in things doubtful, liberty; in all things, charity. The two most
+eminent Baxterians were Dr. Isaac Watts and Dr. Philip Doddridge.--Cf.
+McAdam Muir, _Religious Writers of England_.
+
+BAY, the laurel tree, noble laurel, or sweet-bay (_Laurus nob[)i]lis_); but
+the term is loosely given to many trees and shrubs resembling this. A fatty
+or fixed oil (used in veterinary medicine) and also a volatile oil are
+obtained from the berries, but what is called 'bayberry oil' is also
+obtained from the genus Myrica or candleberry. In N. America the
+fragrant-flowered _Magnolia glauca_ is called sweet-bay, the red-bay being
+_Laurus carolinensis_, the loblolly-bay _Gordonia lasianthus_. See
+_Laurel_.
+
+BAY, in geography, an indentation of some size into the shore of a sea or
+lake, generally said to be one with a wider entrance than a gulf.
+
+BAY, in architecture, a term applied to a recessed division or compartment
+of a building, as that marked off by buttresses or pillars.
+
+[Illustration: Nests of Baya (_Ploceus philipp[=i]nus_)]
+
+BA'YA, the weaver-bird (_Ploc[)e]us philipp[=i]nus_), an interesting East
+Indian passerine bird, somewhat like the bullfinch. Its nest resembles a
+bottle, and is suspended from the branch of a tree. The entrance is from
+beneath, and there are two chambers, one for the male, the other for the
+female. The baya is easily tamed, and will fetch and carry at command.
+
+BAYADERES (b[=a]-a-d[=e]rz'), the general European name for the dancing and
+singing girls of India, some of whom are attached to the service of the
+Hindu temples, while others travel about and dance at entertainments for
+hire. Those in the service of the temples are generally devoted to this
+profession (including that of prostitution) from their childhood.
+
+BAYAMO (b[.a]-yae'm[=o]), or ST. SALVADOR, a town in the east of Cuba, near
+the Cauto. Pop. 18,180.
+
+BAYARD (b[.a]-yaer), Pierre du Terrail, Seigneur de, the _Chevalier sans
+peur et sans reproche_, born in 1476 in Castle Bayard, near Grenoble, in
+Southern France. At the age of eighteen he accompanied Charles VIII to
+Italy, and in the battle of Fornovo took a standard. At the beginning of
+the reign of Louis XII, in a battle near Milan, he entered the city at the
+heels of the fugitives, and was taken prisoner, but released by Ludovico
+Sforza without ransom. In Apulia he killed his calumniator, Sotomayor, and
+afterwards defended a bridge over the Garigliano singly against the
+Spaniards, receiving for this exploit as a coat of arms a porcupine, with
+the motto _Vires agminis unus habet_ ('one has the strength of a band'). He
+distinguished himself equally against the Genoese and the Venetians, and,
+when Julius II declared himself against France, went to the assistance of
+the Duke of Ferrara. He was severely wounded at the assault of Brescia, but
+returned, as soon as cured, to the camp of Gaston de Foix, before Ravenna,
+and after new exploits was again dangerously wounded in the retreat from
+Pavia. In the war commenced by Ferdinand the Catholic he displayed the same
+heroism, and the fatal reverses which embittered the last years of Louis
+XII only added to the personal glory of Bayard. When Francis I ascended the
+throne he sent Bayard into Dauphine to open a passage over the Alps and
+through Piedmont. Prosper Colonna lay in wait for him, but was made
+prisoner by Bayard, who immediately after further distinguished himself in
+the battle of Marignano. After his defence of Mezieres against the invading
+army of Charles V he was saluted in Paris as the saviour of his country,
+receiving the honour paid to a prince of the blood. His presence reduced
+the revolted Genoese to obedience, but failed to prevent the expulsion of
+the French after the capture of Lodi. In the retreat the safety of the army
+was committed to Bayard, who, however, was mortally wounded by a stone from
+a blunderbuss in protecting the passage of the Sesia. He kissed the cross
+of his sword, confessed to his squire, and died, 30th April, 1524. He was
+buried in a church of the Minorites, at Grenoble.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: "Le Loyal
+Serviteur" (supposed to be Jacques de Mailles), _La tres joyeuse ...
+histoire ... des faiz, gestes, triumphes et prouesses du bon chevalier sans
+paour et sans reproche, le gentil seigneur de Bayart_ (printed in 1527);
+modern edition of this work by M. J. Roman; A. de Terrebasse, _Histoire de
+Pierre Terrail, Seigneur de Bayart_.
+
+BAYAZID', a ruined town in Armenia, 140 miles S.E. of Erzerum, S.W. of
+Mount Ararat, at various times the scene of warlike operations, and twice
+occupied by the Russians in 1877. Total pop. 4000.
+
+BAYAZID. See _Bajazet_.
+
+BAYBERRY. See _Bay_ (tree) and _Candleberry_.
+
+BAY CITY, an American city, Michigan, on the east side of Saginaw River,
+near its mouth in Saginaw Bay, Lake Huron. Chief articles of trade, lumber
+and salt. Pop. (1920), 47,554.
+
+BAYEUX, (b[.a]-y_eu_) an ancient town, France, department Calvados, 16
+miles N.W. of Caen, with manufactures of lace, calico, and porcelain. In
+its cathedral, said to be the oldest in Normandy, the famous Bayeux
+tapestry was preserved for a long time. Pop. 7638.
+
+[Illustration: A section of the Bayeux Tapestry showing the Norman cavalry
+attacking the English footmen at the Battle of Hastings]
+
+BAYEUX TAPESTRY, so called because it was originally found in the cathedral
+of Bayeux, in the public library of which town it is still preserved.
+Formerly known as the 'Toile de St. Jean', it is supposed to have been
+worked by Matilda, Queen of William the Conqueror, and to have been
+presented by Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, the half-brother of William, to the
+church in which it was found. It is 231 feet in length and 20 inches in
+breadth, and is divided into seventy-two compartments, the subject of each
+scene being indicated by a Latin inscription. These scenes give a pictorial
+history of the invasion and conquest of England by the Normans, beginning
+with Harold's visit to the Norman Court, and ending with his death at
+Hastings.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Bolton Corney, _Researches and Conjectures on the
+Bayeux Tapestry_; Jules Comte, _Tapisserie de Bayeux_; F. R. Fowke, _The
+Bayeux Tapestry_.
+
+BAY ISLANDS, an island group, Bay of Honduras, off N. coast of State of
+Honduras, incorporated as a British colony in 1852, and ceded to Honduras
+in 1856. The largest is Ruatan, 30 miles long. Pop. about 5000.
+
+BAYLE (b[=a]l), Pierre, French critic and miscellaneous writer, the son of
+a Calvinist preacher, born at Carlat (Languedoc) in 1647, died at Rotterdam
+1706. A statue in his honour was erected at Pamiers in 1906. He studied at
+Toulouse, and was employed for some time as a private tutor at Geneva and
+Rouen. He went to Paris in 1674, and soon after was appointed professor of
+philosophy at Sedan. Six years after he removed to Rotterdam, where he
+filled a similar chair. The appearance of a comet, in 1680, which
+occasioned an almost universal alarm, induced him to publish, in 1682, his
+_Pensees Diverses sur la Comete_, a work full of learning, in which he
+discussed various subjects of metaphysics, morals, theology, history, and
+politics. It was followed by his _Critique Generale de l'Histoire du
+Calvinisme de Maimbourg_. This work excited the jealousy of his colleague,
+the theologian Jurieu, and involved Bayle in many disputes. In 1684 he
+undertook a periodical work, _Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres_,
+containing notices of new books in theology, philosophy, history, and
+general literature. This publication, which lasted for three years, added
+much to his reputation as a philosophical critic. In 1693 Jurieu succeeded
+in inducing the magistrates of Rotterdam to remove Bayle from his office.
+He now devoted all his attention to the composition of his _Dictionnaire
+Historique et Critique_, which he first published in 1696, in 2 vols. fol.
+It is a vast storehouse of facts, discussions, and opinions, and though it
+was publicly censured by the Rotterdam consistory for its frequent
+impurities, its pervading scepticism, and tacit atheism, it long remained a
+favourite book both with literary men and with men of the world. The
+articles in his dictionary, in themselves, are generally of little value,
+and serve only as a pretext for the notes, in which the author displays, at
+the same time, his learning and the power of his logic. The best editions
+are that of 1740, in 4 vols. fol. (Amsterdam and Leyden), and that in 16
+vols., published in 1820-4 at Paris.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. A. Feuerbach,
+_Pierre Bayle_; F. Brunetiere, _Etudes Critiques_ (5th series); A. Cazes,
+_Pierre Bayle, sa vie, ses idees, son influence, son oeuvre_.
+
+BAY-LEAF, the leaf of the sweet-bay or laurel tree (_Laurus nobilis_).
+These leaves are aromatic, and are used in cookery and confectionery. See
+_Bay_.
+
+BAYLEN (b[=i]-len'). Same as _Bailen_.
+
+BAYLY (b[=a]'li), Thomas Haynes, English poet, novelist, dramatist, and
+miscellaneous writer, born 1797, died 1839. He was educated at Oxford, and
+intended for the Church. He wrote thirty-six pieces for the stage, most of
+which were successful; several novels: _The Aylmers_, _A Legend of
+Killarney_, &c.; and numerous songs. As a song-writer he was most prolific
+and most popular. _The Soldier's Tear_, _We met--'twas in a Crowd_, were
+the best known.
+
+BAY MAHOGANY, that variety of mahogany exported from Honduras. It is softer
+and less finely marked than the variety known as Spanish mahogany, but is
+the largest and most abundant kind.
+
+BAYNES (b[=a]nz), Thomas Spencer, LL.D., born at Wellington, Somerset, in
+1823, died suddenly in London, 1887. He studied under Sir William Hamilton
+at Edinburgh, and acted as his class assistant from 1851 to 1855. From 1857
+to 1863 he was resident in London, where he acted as examiner in logic and
+mental philosophy in the University of London, and as assistant editor of
+the _Daily News_. In 1864 he was appointed to the chair of logic, rhetoric,
+and metaphysics in St. Andrews University, a post he held till his death.
+In 1873, when he became editor of the ninth edition of the _Encyclopaedia
+Britannica_, his wide acquaintance with men of letters and learning
+assisted him greatly in the selection of suitable contributors. He
+translated the _Port Royal Logic_ (see _Arnauld_), and was a frequent
+contributor to the principal reviews and literary journals.
+
+BAY OF ISLANDS, a large, deep, and safe harbour on the N.E. coast of the N.
+Island of New Zealand. On it is Kororarika, the first European settlement
+in New Zealand.--Also a large bay formed by the Gulf of St. Lawrence, on
+the west coast of Newfoundland. See _New Zealand_.
+
+BAY'ONET (Fr. _baionnette_), a straight, sharp-pointed weapon, invented by
+a Frenchman (probably a native of Bayonne) in the seventeenth century. A
+bayonet was originally screwed into the muzzle of the firelock, converting
+it into a short pike. This system, which practically precluded any further
+use of the firelock as such, was later improved by a Scotchman, who fitted
+the weapon with a socket and bolt, enabling it to be placed over the muzzle
+of the musket instead of being screwed into it. The firelock could then be
+used for both missile and shock action, according to requirements. The
+bayonet replaced the pike in the English army after the revolution of 1690.
+The length, shape, and weight of the bayonet have varied considerably at
+different periods and in different countries; that at present in use in the
+British army is a short sword-shaped weapon, 1 foot 6 inches long and
+weighing about 1 pound. In war it is considered that an attack with the
+bayonet or the immediate threat of one is a necessary preliminary to a
+successful assault.
+
+BAYONNE (b[.a]-yon), a well-built fortified town, the largest in the French
+department Basses-Pyrenees, at the confluence of the Nive and the Adour,
+about 2 miles from their mouth in the Bay of Biscay; with a citadel
+commanding the harbour and city, a cathedral--a beautiful ancient
+building--shipbuilding and other industries, and a considerable trade.
+Among the lower class the Basque language is spoken. Catherine de' Medici
+had an important interview with the Duke of Alva in Bayonne, June, 1565, at
+which it is said the massacre of St. Bartholomew was arranged. It was also
+the scene of the abdication of Charles IV of Spain in favour of Napoleon
+(1808). In 1814 the British forced the passage of the Nive and invested the
+town, from which the French made a desperate but unsuccessful sortie. Pop.
+27,886.
+
+BAYONNE CITY, a suburb of New York, in Hudson County, New Jersey. Pop.
+76,754.
+
+BAYOU (b[=a]-yoe'), in the southern States of North America, a stream which
+flows from a lake or other stream: frequently used as synonymous with creek
+or tidal channel.
+
+BAYREUTH (b[=i]'roit). See _Baireuth_.
+
+BAY RUM, a spirit obtained by distilling the leaves of _Myrica acris_, or
+other West Indian trees of the same genus. It is used for toilet purposes,
+and as a liniment in rheumatic affections.
+
+BAY-SALT, a general term for coarse-grained salt, but properly applied to
+salt obtained by spontaneous or natural evaporation of sea-water in large
+shallow tanks or _bays_.
+
+[Illustration: Bay-window at Bramhall Hall, Cheshire]
+
+BAY-WINDOW, a window forming a recess or bay in a room, projecting
+outwards, and rising from the ground or basement on a plan rectangular,
+semi-octagonal, or semi-hexagonal, but always straight-sided. One of the
+finest examples of bay-windows is that of the banqueting-hall at Hampton
+Court. The term is, however, also often employed to designate a
+_bow-window_, which more properly forms the segment of a circle, and an
+_oriel-window_, which is supported on a kind of bracket, and is usually on
+the first floor.
+
+BAZA (bae'th[.a]), an old town of Spain, Andalusia, province of Granada,
+formerly a large and flourishing city. In 1810 the French, under Marshal
+Soult, here defeated the Spaniards under Generals Blake and Freire. Pop.
+15,964.
+
+BAZAAR. See _Bazar_.
+
+BAZAINE (b[.a]-z[=a]n), Francois Achille, French general, born 1811, died
+1888. He entered the army as a private soldier in 1831, and served in
+Algeria with distinction, gaining the cross of the Legion of Honour, and
+rising to the rank of lieutenant. He next went to Spain and fought in the
+Foreign Legion against the Carlists; and in 1839 returned to Algeria, where
+he eventually held the rank of colonel (1850). He was next engaged in the
+Crimean War, being at first commander of a brigade and then general of
+division, leading the French troops sent to attack the fortress of Kinburn
+(1855). He did good service also in the Italian war of 1859, being actively
+engaged in the battle of Solferino. His military reputation was increased
+by the part he took in the Mexican expedition (1862-4), in which he led the
+first division under Forey, and when this general was recalled became
+commander-in-chief of the French forces in Mexico and marshal of France.
+His loyalty, however, to the cause of the Emperor Maximilian was very
+doubtful. In 1870 he took command of the army of the Rhine, or the third
+army corps, in the Franco-German War, collected a very large army in the
+neighbourhood of Metz, and had the intention of joining his forces with
+those of MacMahon at Chalons. He found this impossible, however, especially
+after Gravelotte, and was forced into Metz, where he capitulated after a
+seven weeks' siege, with an army of 175,000 men. For this act he was tried
+by court-martial in 1871, found guilty of treason, and condemned to death.
+The sentence was commuted to twenty years' seclusion in the Isle of St.
+Marguerite, from which he escaped in 1874, and retired to Spain. He
+published _Episodes de la Guerre de 1870_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: La Brugere,
+_L'Affaire Bazaine_; Comte d'Herisson, _La Legende de Metz_.
+
+BAZAR', or BAZAAR', in the East an exchange, market-place, or place where
+goods are exposed for sale, usually consisting of small shops or stalls in
+a narrow street or series of streets. These bazar-streets are frequently
+shaded by a light material laid from roof to roof, and sometimes are arched
+over. Marts for the sale of miscellaneous articles, chiefly fancy goods,
+are now to be found in most European cities, bearing the name of _bazars_.
+The term bazar is popularly applied to a sale of miscellaneous articles,
+mostly of fancy work, and contributed gratuitously, in furtherance of some
+charitable or other purpose.
+
+BAZAR'JIK, now officially called Dobritsh (q.v.).
+
+BAZIGARS', a tribe of Indians dispersed throughout the whole of Hindustan
+mostly in wandering tribes. They are divided into seven castes; their chief
+occupation is that of jugglers, acrobats, and tumblers, in which both males
+and females are equally skilful. They present many features analogous to
+the gipsies of Europe, and like these each clan has its king.
+
+BAZIN, Rene, French novelist, born 1853. For some time he was professor of
+law in the Catholic University of Angers. His literary reputation was
+established by _Une Tache d'Encre_. His other novels include _La Terre qui
+meurt_, _De Toute son Ame_, _Les Oberle_, _Les Noellet_, _Davidee Birot_,
+all of which have been translated into English by Dr. A. S. Rappoport. He
+has also written _Questions litteraires et sociales_, &c. Bazin was elected
+a member of the Academie Francaise in 1903.
+
+BAZOCHE (b[.a]-zosh'), or BASOCHE (a corruption of _Basilica_), a
+brotherhood formed by the clerks of the Parliament of Paris at the time it
+ceased to be the grand council of the French king. They had a king,
+chancellor, and other dignitaries; and certain privileges were granted them
+by Philip the Fair early in the fourteenth century, as also by subsequent
+monarchs. They had an annual festival, having as a principal feature
+dramatic performances in which satirical allusions were freely made to
+passing events. These farces or satires were frequently interdicted, but
+they had a considerable influence on the French drama. The Bazoche took an
+active part in the French Revolution, but the order was suppressed by the
+decree of 13th Feb., 1791.
+
+BAZZI (b[.a]t's[=e]). See _Sodoma_.
+
+BDELLIUM (del'i-um), an aromatic gum resin brought chiefly from Africa and
+India, in pieces of different sizes and figures, externally of a dark
+reddish brown, internally clear, and not unlike glue. To the taste it is
+slightly bitterish and pungent; its odour is agreeable. It is used as a
+perfume and a medicine, being a weak deobstruent. Indian bdellium is the
+produce of _Balsamodendron Roxburghii_; African of _B. africanum_; Egyptian
+bdellium is obtained from the doum palm; and Sicilian is produced by
+_Daucus gummifer_, a species of the genus to which the carrot belongs. The
+bdellium mentioned in _Gen._ ii, 12, was apparently a precious stone,
+perhaps a pearl. See _Myrrh_.
+
+BEACHES, RAISED, a term applied to those long, terraced, level pieces of
+land, consisting of sand and gravel, and containing marine shells, now, it
+may be, a considerable distance above and away from the sea, but bearing
+sufficient evidences of having been at one time sea-beaches. In Scotland
+such a terrace has been traced extensively along the coasts at about 25
+feet above the present sea-level.
+
+BEACHY HEAD, a promontory in the south of England, on the coast of Sussex,
+rising 575 feet above sea-level, with a revolving light, visible in clear
+weather from a distance of 28 miles. A naval battle took place here, 30th
+June, 1690, in which a French fleet under Tourville defeated an English and
+Dutch combined fleet under Lord Torrington.
+
+BEACON (b[=e]'kon), an object visible at some distance, and serving to
+notify the presence of danger; commonly applied to a fire-signal set on a
+height to spread the news of hostile invasion or other great event; and
+also applied to a mark or object of some kind placed conspicuously on a
+coast or over a rock or shoal at sea for the guidance of vessels, often an
+iron structure of considerable height.
+
+BEACONSFIELD (b[=e]'konz-f[=e]ld), a village of Buckinghamshire, the parish
+church of which contains the remains of Edmund Burke, whose seat was in the
+neighbourhood; while a marble monument to the poet Waller, who owned the
+manor, is in the churchyard. It gave the title of earl to the English
+statesman and novelist Benjamin Disraeli. Pop. (1921), 3642.
+
+BEACONSFIELD, formerly known as Du Toit's Pan, a town of Cape Province
+about a mile to the east of Kimberley, of which it forms a suburb. Pop.
+20,364.
+
+BEACONSFIELD, Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of, an eminent English statesman and
+novelist, of Jewish extraction; eldest son of Isaac D'Israeli, author of
+the _Curiosities of Literature_; born in London in 1804, died there in
+1881, buried at Hughenden. He attended for a time a private school, and was
+first destined for the law, but showing a decided taste for literature he
+was allowed to follow his inclination. In 1826 he published _Vivian Grey_,
+his first novel; and subsequently travelled for some time, visiting Italy,
+Greece, Turkey, and Syria, and gaining experiences which were afterwards
+reproduced in his books. His travels and impressions are embodied in a
+volume of letters addressed to his sister and his father. In 1831 another
+novel, _The Young Duke_, came from his pen. It was followed at short
+intervals by _Contarini Fleming_, _Alroy_, _Henrietta Temple_, _Venetia_,
+_The Revolutionary Epic_ (a poem), &c. In 1832, and on two subsequent
+occasions, he appeared as candidate for the representation of High Wycombe,
+with a programme which included vote by ballot and triennial parliaments,
+but was unsuccessful. His political opinions gradually changed: in 1835 he
+unsuccessfully contested Taunton as a Tory. In 1837 he gained an entrance
+to the House of Commons, being elected for Maidstone. His first speech in
+the House was treated with ridicule; but he finished with the prophetic
+declaration that the time would come when they would hear him. During his
+first years in Parliament he was a supporter of Peel; but when Peel pledged
+himself to abolish the corn-laws, Disraeli became the leader of the
+protectionists. About this time he became a leader of what was known as the
+'Young England' party, the most prominent characteristic of which was a
+sort of sentimental advocacy of feudalism. This spirit showed itself in his
+two novels of _Coningsby_ and _Sybil_, published respectively in 1844 and
+1845. Having acquired the manor of Hughenden, in Buckinghamshire, he was in
+1847 elected for this county, and he retained his seat till raised to the
+peerage nearly thirty years later. His first appointment to office was in
+1852, when he became Chancellor of the Exchequer under Lord Derby. The
+following year, however, the ministry was defeated. He remained out of
+office till 1858, when he again became Chancellor of the Exchequer, and
+brought in a Reform Bill which wrecked the Government. During the time the
+Palmerston Government was in office Disraeli led the opposition in the
+Lower House with conspicuous ability and courage. In 1866 the Liberals
+resigned, and Derby and Disraeli came into power, the latter being again
+Chancellor of the Exchequer. They immediately brought in, and carried,
+after a violent and bitter struggle, a Reform Bill on the basis of
+household suffrage. In 1868 he became Premier on the resignation of Lord
+Derby, but his tenure of office was short. In 1874 he again became Prime
+Minister with a strong Conservative majority, and he remained in power for
+six years. This period was marked by his elevation to the peerage in 1876
+as Earl of Beaconsfield, and by the prominent part he took in regard to the
+Eastern question and the conclusion of the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. In
+1880 Parliament was rather suddenly dissolved, and, the new Parliament
+showing an overwhelming Liberal majority, he resigned office, though he
+still retained the leadership of his party. Within a few months of his
+death the publication of a novel called _Endymion_ (his last, _Lothair_,
+had been published ten years before) showed that his intellect was still
+vigorous. Among others of his writings, besides those already mentioned,
+are: _A Vindication of the English Constitution_ (1834); _Alarcos, a
+Tragedy_ (1839); and _Lord George Bentinck, a Political Biography_
+(1852).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: _Selected Speeches of the Earl of Beaconsfield_
+(edited by T. E. Kebbel); T. Martin, _Memorials of Lord Beaconsfield_; the
+article _Disraeli_, by T. E. Kebbel, in _Dictionary of National Biography_;
+Sir William Fraser, _Disraeli and his Day_; Sichel, _Disraeli_; the best
+work, however, is W. F. Monypenny's _Life of Disraeli, Earl of
+Beaconsfield_ (continued by G. E. Buckle).
+
+BEAD (b[=e]d), originally a prayer; then a small perforated ball of gold,
+pearl, amber, glass, or the like, to be strung on a thread, and used in a
+rosary by Roman Catholics in numbering their prayers, one bead being passed
+at the end of each ejaculation or short prayer; finally any such small
+ornamental body. The use of beads among pagans is of greater antiquity than
+their Christian use, but there is no evidence to show that the latter is
+derived from the former. Glass beads are now the most common sort; they
+form a considerable item in the African trade.--In architecture and joinery
+the bead is a small round moulding. It is of frequent occurrence in
+architecture, particularly in the classical styles, and is used in
+picture-frames and other objects carved in wood.--_St. Cuthbert's Beads_,
+the popular name of the detached and perforated joints of encrinites.
+
+BEADLE (b[=e]'dl), an officer in a university, whose chief business is to
+walk with a mace in a public procession: also, a parish officer whose
+business is to punish petty offenders, and a church officer (chiefly,
+although not exclusively, in Scotland) with various subordinate duties, as
+waiting on the clergyman, keeping order in church, attending meetings of
+vestry or session, &c. The primary meaning of the word (from O.E. _beodan_,
+to offer, announce) appears to be 'herald', one who announces or proclaims
+something.
+
+BEAD-SNAKE (_Elaps fulvus_), a beautiful snake of North America, inhabiting
+cultivated grounds, especially plantations of the sweet-potato, and
+burrowing in the ground. It is finely marked with yellow, carmine, and
+black. Though it possesses poison-fangs it never seems to use them.
+
+BEAGLE (b[=e]'gl), a small hound, resembling a foxhound or harrier, and
+used to hunt rabbits and hares, being often kept in packs. The beagle is
+smaller than the harrier, compactly built, smooth-haired, and with
+pendulous ears. The smallest of them are little larger than the lap-dog.
+
+BEALE, Lionel Smith, English physician and biologist, born in 1828, died in
+1906. He was educated at King's College School and King's College, London,
+and was a professor in the medical department of the latter institution for
+forty-three years, finally holding the chair of the principles and practice
+of medicine. His numerous published works treat of medical, anatomical,
+physiological, and biological subjects; the microscope; various questions
+of morality, &c. They include _How to Work with the Microscope_, _The
+Structure of the Tissues_, _Protoplasm_, _Disease Germs_, _Life Theories
+and Religious Thought_, _The Mystery of Life_, _Bioplasm_, _On Slight
+Ailments_, _Religio Medici_, _Religio Scientiae_, _Religio Vitae_, &c.
+
+BEAM, a long, straight, and strong piece of wood, iron, or steel,
+especially when holding an important place in some structure, and serving
+for support or consolidation; often equivalent to _girder_. In a balance it
+is the part from the ends of which the scales are suspended. In a loom it
+is a cylindrical piece of wood on which weavers wind the warp before
+weaving; also, the cylinder on which the cloth is rolled as it is woven. In
+a ship, one of the strong transverse pieces stretching across from one side
+to the other to support the decks and retain the sides at their proper
+distance: hence a ship is said to be 'on her beam ends' when lying over on
+her side. For calculations relating to beams, see Morley's _Strength of
+Materials_ and _Theory of Structures_.
+
+BEAM TREE (_Pyrus aria_), a tree of the same genus as the apple,
+mountain-ash, and service tree found throughout Britain, having berries
+that are edible when quite mellow, and yielding a hard and fine-grained
+wood.
+
+BEAN, a name given to several kinds of leguminous seeds and the plants
+producing them, probably originally belonging to Asia. They belong to
+several genera, particularly to Vicia, garden and field bean; Phase[)o]lus,
+French or kidney bean; and Dolichos, tropical bean. The common bean (_Vicia
+Faba_) is cultivated both in fields and gardens as food for man and beast.
+Beans were believed by some of the ancients to contain the souls of their
+ancestors, and Pythagoras would not eat beans for this reason. One of the
+bean family still retains the name of the Pythagorean bean. Beans were
+introduced by the Moors into Spain, whence they came to France and later to
+England. It is possible, however, that they were brought to Britain by the
+Romans. They are now largely imported from Egypt, Turkey, Greece, and the
+Netherlands. There are many varieties, as the Mazagan, the Windsor, the
+long-pod, &c., in gardens, and the horse or tick bean in fields. The soil
+that best suits is a good strong clay. The seed of the Windsor is fully an
+inch in diameter; the horse bean is much less, often not much more than
+half an inch in length and three-eighths of an inch in diameter. Beans are
+very nutritious, containing nearly 50 per cent of digestible carbohydrate
+and 25 per cent of nitrogenous matter. The bean is an annual, from 2 to 4
+feet high. The flowers are beautiful and fragrant. The _kidney bean_,
+_French bean_, or _haricot_ is the _Phase[)o]lus vulg[=a]ris_, a well-known
+culinary vegetable. There are two principal varieties, annual dwarfs and
+runners. The beans cultivated in America and largely used as articles of
+food belong to the genus Phase[)o]lus. The _scarlet-runner bean_
+(_Phase[)o]lus multiflorus_), a native of Mexico, is cultivated on account
+of its long rough pods and its scarlet flowers.
+
+BEAN-GOOSE (_Anser seg[)e]tum_), a species of wild goose, a migratory bird
+which arrives in Britain in autumn and retires to the north in the end of
+April, though some few remain to breed. Being rather less in size than the
+common wild goose, it is sometimes called the _small grey goose_.
+
+BEAN-KING, the person chosen king in Twelfth Night festivities in virtue of
+having got the piece of cake containing the bean buried in the cake for
+this purpose.
+
+[Illustration: Brown or Black Bear (_Ursus arctos_)]
+
+[Illustration: The Polar or White Bear (_Ursus mar[)i]timus_)]
+
+BEAR, the name of several large plantigrade carnivorous mammals of the
+genus Ursus. The teeth are forty-two in number, as in the dog, but there is
+no carnassial or sectorial tooth, and the molars have a more tubercular
+character than in other carnivores. The eyes have a nictitating membrane,
+the nose is prominent and mobile, and the tail very short. The true bears
+are about ten in number, natives chiefly of Europe, Asia, and N. America.
+They generally lie dormant in their den during the winter months. The brown
+or black bear of Europe is the _Ursus arctos_. It is a native of almost all
+the northern parts of Europe and Asia, and was at one time common in the
+British Islands. It feeds on fruits, roots, honey, ants, and, in case of
+need, on mammals. It sometimes reaches the length of 7 feet, the largest
+specimens being found farthest to the north. It lives solitarily. The
+American black bear is the _U. americ[=a]nus_, with black shining fur, and
+rarely above 5 feet in length. It is a great climber, is less dangerous
+than the brown bear, and is hunted for its fur and flesh. It is very
+amusing in captivity. The grizzly bear (_U. ferox_ or _horribilis_) is an
+inhabitant of the Rocky Mountains; it is a ferocious animal, sometimes 9
+feet in length, and has a bulky and unwieldy form, but is nevertheless
+capable of great rapidity of motion. The extinct cave-bear (_U. spelaeus_)
+seems to have been closely akin to the grizzly. The Siberian bear (_U.
+coll[=a]ris_) is perhaps a variety of the brown bear. The polar or white
+bear (_U. marit[)i]mus_) is an animal possessed of great strength and
+fierceness. It lives in the polar regions, frequents the sea, feeds on
+fish, seals, &c., and usually is 7 to 8 feet in length. The Malayan or
+coco-nut palm bear (_U. malay[=a]nus_) inhabits Cochin-China, Nepaul, the
+Sunda Islands, &c., lives exclusively on vegetable food, and is an expert
+climber. It is called also sun-bear and bruang. The Indian black bear or
+sloth-bear of India and Ceylon (_U. labi[=a]tus_) is reputed to be a fierce
+and dangerous animal.
+
+BEAR, or BERE, a species of barley (_Hord[)e]um hexastichum_), having six
+rows in the ear, cultivated in Scotland and the north of England.
+
+[Illustration: The Constellation of the Great Bear. The two stars on the
+right are the Pointers]
+
+BEAR, GREAT and LITTLE, the popular names of two constellations in the
+northern hemisphere. The Great Bear (_Ursa Major_) is situated near the
+pole. It is remarkable for its well-known seven stars, by two of which,
+called the Pointers, the pole-star is always readily found. These seven
+stars are popularly called the _Wagon_, _Charles's Wain_, or the _Plough_.
+The Little Bear (_Ursa Minor_) is the constellation which contains the
+pole-star. This constellation has seven stars placed together in a manner
+resembling those in the Great Bear.
+
+BEAR-BAITING, the sport of baiting bears with dogs, formerly one of the
+established amusements, not only of the common people, but of the nobility
+and even royalty itself. The places where bears were publicly baited were
+called bear-gardens. Butler gives a description of bear-baiting in his
+_Hudibras_. Bear-baiting was prohibited by Act of Parliament in 1835.
+
+BEARBERRY (_Arctostaphylos uva-ursi_), an evergreen shrub of the heath
+family growing on the barren moors of Scotland, Northern Europe, Siberia,
+and N. America. The leaves, under the name of _uva ursi_, are used in
+medicine as an astringent and tonic.
+
+BEARD, the hair round the chin, on the cheeks, and the upper lip, which is
+a distinction of the male sex and of manhood. It differs from the hair on
+the head by its greater hardness and its form. Some nations have hardly
+any, others a great profusion. The latter generally consider it as a great
+ornament; the former pluck it out; as, for instance, the American Indians.
+The beard has often been considered as a mark of the sage and the priest.
+Moses forbade the Jews to shave their beards. With the ancient Germans the
+cutting off another's beard was a high offence. Even now the beard is
+regarded as a mark of great dignity among many nations in the East, as the
+Turks. Alexander the Great introduced shaving among the Greeks, by ordering
+his soldiers to wear no beards; among the Romans it was introduced in 296
+B.C. The custom of shaving came into use in modern times during the reigns
+of Louis XIII and XIV of France, both of whom ascended the throne without a
+beard. Till then fashion sanctioned divers forms of moustaches and beards.
+In the reign of Henry VIII of England, the authorities of Lincoln's Inn
+prohibited wearers of beards from sitting at the great table unless they
+paid double commons. Taxation of beards was introduced in the reign of
+Elizabeth, beards of above a fortnight's growth being subject to a yearly
+tax of 3s. 4d. This impost was copied by Peter the Great in Russia. It is
+only in comparatively recent times that beards and moustaches have again
+become common.--Cf. Philippe, _Histoire philosophique, politique, et
+religieuse de la barbe_.
+
+BEARD-MOSS (_Usnea barb[=a]ta_), a lichen of grey colour, forming a shaggy
+coat on many forest trees.
+
+BEARDSLEY, Aubrey Vincent, artist in black and white, born 1872, died 1898;
+took up art as a profession at the age of nineteen, and executed a large
+number of drawings for books and periodicals, showing great technical
+skill, originality, and disregard of conventionality, with sometimes a
+tendency towards the repulsive or morbid. Consumption had marked him as its
+victim from the first. Collections of his drawings were published under the
+titles _A Book of Fifty Drawings_, _The Early Work of Aubrey Beardsley_,
+_The Late Work of Aubrey Beardsley_, &c. _Under the Hill_, with his letters
+and poems, was published in 1904. Cf. G. Derry, _An Aubrey Beardsley
+Scrap-book_.
+
+BEARER SECURITIES. See _Stock Exchange_.
+
+BEARING, the direction or point of the compass in which an object is seen,
+or the situation of one object in regard to another, with reference to the
+points of the compass. Thus, if from a certain situation an object is seen
+in the direction of north-east, the _bearing_ of the object is said to be
+N.E. from the situation.--_To take bearings_, to ascertain on what point of
+the compass objects lie.
+
+BEAR LAKE, GREAT, an extensive sheet of fresh water in the North-West
+Territory of Canada, between about 65deg and 67deg 32' N. lat.; and under
+the 120th degree of W. long.; of irregular shape; area about 14,000 sq.
+miles. The water is very clear and the lake abounds in fish.--_Bear Lake
+River_, the outlet at the S.W. extremity of Great Bear Lake, runs S.W. for
+70 miles and joins the Mackenzie River.
+
+BEARN (b[=a]-[.a]r), one of the provinces into which France was formerly
+divided, now chiefly included in the department of Lower Pyrenees. Pau is
+the chief town (pop. 35,000). There is a peculiar and well-marked
+dialect--the Bearnese--spoken in this district, which has much more
+affinity with Spanish than with French.
+
+BEAR-PIT, a deep, open pit with perpendicular walls, built in a zoological
+garden for keeping bears, and having in the centre a pole on which they may
+exercise their climbing powers.
+
+BEAR RIVER, a river of the United States, 400 miles long; rises in the
+north of Utah, and flows northward into Idaho; turns abruptly southward,
+re-enters Utah, and empties into Great Salt Lake.
+
+BEARS AND BULLS. See _Stock Exchange_.
+
+BEAR'S-GREASE, the fat of bears, esteemed as of great efficacy in
+nourishing and promoting the growth of hair. The unguents sold under this
+name, however, are in a great measure made of hog's lard or veal fat, or a
+mixture of both, scented and slightly coloured.
+
+BEAS, river of India. See _Bias_.
+
+BEAT, in acoustics and music, the beating or pulsation resulting from the
+joint vibrations of two sounds of the same strength, and all but in unison.
+Also a short shake or transient grace-note struck immediately before the
+note it is intended to ornament. The word is also used for the movement of
+the hand or baton, by which the rhythm of a piece of music is indicated,
+and by which a conductor ensures perfect agreement in tempo and accent on
+the part of the orchestra or chorus.
+
+BEATH (b[=e]th), a populous parish of Fifeshire, Scotland, containing the
+towns of Cowdenbeath, Kelty, and Hill of Beath. Pop. 24,350, (Cowdenbeath
+having 7908).
+
+BEATIFICATION, in the Roman Catholic Church, an act by which the Pope
+declares a person beatified or blessed after his death. It is the first
+step to canonization, that is, the raising one to the honour and dignity of
+a saint. No person can be beatified till fifty years after his or her
+death. All certificates or attestations of virtues and miracles, the
+necessary qualifications for saintship, are examined by the Congregation of
+Rites. This examination often continues for several years; after which his
+Holiness decrees the beatification, and the corpse and relics of the future
+saint are exposed to the veneration of all good Christians. The present
+custom dates from a Bull of Urban VIII in 1634, although local veneration
+may be traced back to the earliest Christian ages.--In the Orthodox Eastern
+Church beatification is not distinguished from canonization.
+
+BEATING THE BOUNDS, the periodical survey or perambulation by which the
+boundaries of parishes in England are preserved. It was the custom in some
+places that the clergyman of the parish, with the parochial officers and
+the boys of the parish school, should march to the boundaries, where the
+boys were struck with willow rods. A similar ceremony in Scotland was
+called _riding the marches_.
+
+BEA'TON, David, Archbishop of St. Andrews, and cardinal, born 1494. Pope
+Paul III raised him to the rank of cardinal in Dec., 1538. On the death of
+his uncle, Archbishop James Beaton, he succeeded him in the see of St.
+Andrews in 1539. After the accession of Mary he became Chancellor of
+Scotland, and distinguished himself by his zeal in persecuting members of
+the Reformed party, among the rest the famous Protestant preacher George
+Wishart, whose sufferings at the stake he viewed from his window with
+apparent exultation. At length a conspiracy was formed against him, and he
+was assassinated at his own castle of St. Andrews, on the 29th May, 1546.
+His private character was marked by pride, cruelty, and licentiousness.
+
+BEATRICE PORTINARI (b[=a]-[.a]-tr[=e]'ch[=a] por-t[=e]-nae'r[=e]), the
+"glorious lady" of Dante, born about 1266, died 1290; the daughter of a
+wealthy citizen of Florence, and wife of Simone de Bardi. She was but eight
+years of age, and Dante nine, when he met her first at the house of her
+father. He altogether saw her only once or twice, and she probably knew
+little of him. The story of his love is recounted in the _Vita Nuova_,
+which was mostly written after her death.
+
+BEATTIE (b[=e]'ti), James, a Scottish poet and philosophical writer, born
+at Laurencekirk, Kincardineshire, in 1735, died at Aberdeen 1803. He
+studied at Marischal College, Aberdeen, for four years, and received the
+M.A. degree. In 1753 he was appointed schoolmaster at Fordoun, a few miles
+from his native place; from whence he obtained a mastership in the Grammar
+School of Aberdeen, and ultimately was installed professor of moral
+philosophy and logic in Marischal College. In 1760 he published a volume of
+poems, which he subsequently endeavoured to buy up, considering them
+unworthy of him. In 1765 he published a poem, _The Judgment of Paris_, and
+in 1770 his celebrated _Essay on the Nature and Immutability of Truth_,
+attacking Helvetius and Hume and advocating what was afterwards called the
+doctrine of Common Sense, for which the University of Oxford conferred on
+him the degree of D.C.L., and George III honoured him, when on a visit to
+London, with a private conference and a pension. He next published in 1771
+the first book of his poem _The Minstrel_, and in 1774 the second; this is
+the only work by which he is now remembered. In 1776 he published
+dissertations on _Poetry and Music_, _Laughter and Ludicrous Composition_,
+&c.; in 1783 _Dissertations, Moral and Critical_; in 1786 _Evidences of the
+Christian Religion_; and in 1790-3 _Elements of Moral Science_. His closing
+years were darkened by the death of his two sons.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Margaret
+Forbes, _Beattie and His Friends_; A. Mackie, _James Beattie, the Minstrel:
+Some Unpublished Letters_.
+
+BEATTIE, William, M.D., Scottish physician, poet, and miscellaneous writer,
+born in 1793, died at London 1875. He was author of the standard _Life of
+Thomas Campbell_, whose intimate friend he was; published several poems,
+including _John Huss_, _The Heliotrope_, and _Polynesia_; wrote a series of
+descriptive and historical works, beautifully illustrated by his friend and
+fellow-traveller, W. H. Bartlett, on Switzerland, Scotland, &c. He had a
+very extensive and lucrative medical practice.
+
+BEATTY, Admiral of the Fleet, Earl, born in 1871. He entered the navy in
+1884, became Commander in 1898, Rear-Admiral in 1910, and Vice-Admiral in
+1915. He served in the Sudan from 1896 to 1897, and in China in 1900. In
+1912 he was Naval Secretary to the First Lord of the Admiralty, and from
+1912 to 1916 commanded the First Battle Cruiser Squadron. He distinguished
+himself in the battle of Jutland in 1916, and until 1919, when he succeeded
+Admiral Sir Rosslyn Wemyss (now Lord Wester Wemyss) as First Sea Lord, he
+was in command of the Grand Fleet. When the entire German High Seas Fleet
+left port on 31st May, 1916, and steamed up the west coast of Denmark, it
+was quickly sighted by the British scouts, so that the main British fleet
+immediately steamed out from its base to engage the enemy. The British
+Battle Cruiser Squadron, under the command of Earl Beatty (then Sir David)
+was nearer the scene than the main battle fleet under Sir John Jellicoe
+(Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa since 1918). The admiral sighted the enemy
+fleet north-west of the Horn Reef, and about 3.30 in the afternoon the
+ships engaged. The Jutland battle lasted only a few hours. At the end of
+Nov., 1916, Admiral Sir John Jellicoe was made First Sea Lord of the
+Admiralty, and Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty took over the supreme command
+of the Grand Fleet.
+
+He is a D.S.O., an O.M., a G.C.B., a G.C.V.O., and a Grand Officer of the
+French Legion of Honour. He was knighted in 1914, and received a grant of
+L100,000 in Aug., 1919, when he was created an earl. He was elected Lord
+Rector of Edinburgh University in 1917.
+
+BEAUCAIRE (b[=o]-k[=a]r), a small commercial city of Southern France,
+department Gard, on the Rhone opposite Tarascon, with which it communicates
+by a fine suspension-bridge. It is chiefly famous for its great fair
+(founded in 1217), held yearly from the 21st to the 28th July. Pop. 8488.
+
+BEAUCHAMP (b[=o]-shaen), Alphonse de, French historian and publicist, born
+at Mon[)a]co 1767, died at Paris 1832. Under the Directory he had the
+surveillance of the press, a position which supplied him with materials for
+his _History of La Vendee_. He contributed to the _Moniteur_ and the
+_Gazette de France_. Among his chief works are the _History of the Conquest
+of Peru_, the _History of Brazil_, and the _Life of Louis XVIII_. The
+_Memoires de Fouche_ is also with good reason ascribed to him.
+
+BEAUFORT, (b[=o]'fort), Henry, cardinal, natural son of John of Gaunt and
+half-brother of Henry IV, King of England, born 1377, died 1447; was made
+Bishop of Lincoln, whence he was translated to Winchester. He repeatedly
+filled the office of Lord Chancellor, and took part in all the most
+important political movements of his times.
+
+BEAUFORT SCALE. See _Wind Scale_; _Navigation_.
+
+BEAUFORT WEST, a town of Cape Province, capital of the division of that
+name, 339 miles by railway north-east of Cape Town, well built and well
+supplied with water, though in a district with a small rainfall, and
+chiefly yielding wool. It is a popular health resort. Pop. 4530.
+
+BEAUGENCY (b[=o]-zh[.a][n.]-s[=e]), an ancient town, France, department
+Loiret, on the Loire, of some historical interest. General Chanzy was
+defeated there by the Grand-Duke of Mecklenburg, 7th-8th Dec., 1870. Pop.
+3532.
+
+BEAUHARNAIS (b[=o]-[.a]r-n[=a]), Alexandre, Viscount, was born in 1760 in
+Martinique. He married Josephine Tascher de la Pagerie, who was afterwards
+the wife of Napoleon. At the breaking out of the French Revolution he was
+chosen a member of the National Assembly, of which he was for some time
+president. In 1792 he was general of the army of the Rhine. He was falsely
+accused of having promoted the surrender of Mainz, and was sentenced to
+death 23rd July, 1794.
+
+BEAUHARNAIS, Eugene de, Duke of Leuchtenberg, Prince of Eichstaedt, and
+Viceroy of Italy during the reign of Napoleon, was born 1781, died at
+Munich 1824. He was the son of Alexandre Beauharnais and Josephine,
+afterwards wife of Napoleon and Empress of France. After his father's death
+he joined Hoche in La Vendee, and subsequently studied for a time in Paris.
+He accompanied Napoleon to Egypt in 1798, rose rapidly in the army, was
+appointed Viceroy of Italy in 1805, and married a daughter of the King of
+Bavaria in 1806. He administered the government of Italy with great
+prudence and moderation, and was much beloved by his subjects. In the
+Russian campaign he commanded the third _corps d'armee_, and greatly
+distinguished himself. To him and to Ney France was mainly indebted for the
+preservation of the remains of her army during the retreat from Moscow.
+After the battle of Luetzen of 2nd May, 1813, where, by surrounding the
+right wing of the enemy, he decided the fate of the day, he went to Italy,
+which he defended against the Austrians until the deposition of Napoleon.
+After the fall of Napoleon he concluded an armistice, by which he delivered
+Lombardy and all Upper Italy to the Austrians. He then went immediately to
+Paris, and thence to his father-in-law at Munich, where he afterwards
+resided.--His sister, Hortense Eugenie, Queen of Holland, was born in 1783,
+died in 1837. She became Queen of Holland by marrying Louis Bonaparte, and
+after Louis's abdication of the throne she lived apart from him. She wrote
+several excellent songs, and composed some deservedly popular airs, among
+others the well-known _Partant pour la Syrie_. Napoleon III was her third
+and youngest son.
+
+BEAULY (b[=u]'li), a small seaport of Scotland, Inverness-shire, near the
+mouth of the River Beauly, which enters the Beauly Firth, a sea loch
+branching off from Inverness Firth, with interesting ruins of an old
+priory. Pop. 882.
+
+BEAUMARCHAIS (b[=o]-maer-sh[=a]), Pierre Augustin Caron de, a French wit
+and dramatist, was born at Paris in 1732, died 1799. He was the son of a
+watchmaker named Caron, whose trade he practised for a time. He early gave
+striking proofs of his mechanical and also of his musical talents; attained
+proficiency as a player on the guitar and harp, and was appointed
+harp-master to the daughters of Louis XV. By a rich marriage (after which
+he added 'de Beaumarchais' to his name) he laid the foundation of the
+immense wealth which he afterwards accumulated by his speculations, and
+which was also increased by a second marriage. In the meantime he occupied
+himself with literature, and published two dramas--_Eugenie_ in 1767 and
+_Les Deux Amis_ in 1770. He first really distinguished himself by his
+_Memoires_ (Paris, 1774), or statements in connection with a lawsuit, which
+by their wit, satire, and liveliness entertained all France. The _Barber of
+Seville_ (1775) and the _Marriage of Figaro_ (1784) have given him a
+permanent reputation. His last work was _Mes Six Epoques_, in which he
+relates the dangers to which he was exposed in the revolution. He lost
+about a million livres by his edition of the works of Voltaire (1785), and
+still more at the end of 1792 by his attempt to provide the French army
+with 60,000 muskets. He was a singular instance of versatility of talent,
+being at once an artist, politician, projector, merchant, and
+dramatist.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: L. de Lomenie, _Beaumarchais et son temps_
+(English translation by H. S. Edwards); Gudin de la Brenellerie, _Histoire
+de Beaumarchais_.
+
+BEAUMARIS (b[=o]-ma'ris), a seaport town, North Wales, Isle of Anglesey, on
+the Menai Strait. It is a favourite watering-place, and contains the
+remains of a castle built by Edward I about 1295. Pop. (1921), 1839.
+
+BEAUMONT, a city of the United States, in Eastern Texas, in a region rich
+in cotton, timber, and petroleum, and an important railway centre. Pop.
+28,851.
+
+BEAUMONT (b[=o]'mont), Francis, and FLETCHER, John, two eminent English
+dramatic writers, contemporaries of Shakespeare, and the most famous of
+literary partners. The former, son of a common-pleas judge, was born at
+Grace-Dieu, in Leicestershire, in 1584, died in 1616, and was buried in
+Westminster Abbey. At the age of sixteen he published a translation, in
+verse, of Ovid's _Fable of Salmacis and Hermaphroditus_, and before
+nineteen became the friend of Ben Jonson. With Fletcher also he was early
+on terms of friendship. He married Ursula, daughter of Henry Isley of
+Sundridge, in Kent, by whom he left two daughters.--_John Fletcher_ was
+born at Rye, Sussex, in 1579. His father was successively Dean of
+Peterborough, Bishop of Bristol, Worcester, and London. _The Woman Hater_,
+produced in 1606-7, is the earliest work known to exist in which he had a
+hand. It does not appear that he was ever married. He died in London of the
+plague, Aug., 1625, and was buried at St. Saviour's, Southwark. The
+friendship of Beaumont and Fletcher, like their literary partnership, was
+singularly close; they lived in the same house, and are said to have even
+had their clothes in common. The works that pass under their names consist
+of over fifty plays, a masque, and some minor poems. It is believed that
+all the minor poems except one were written by Beaumont. After the death of
+Beaumont, Fletcher continued to write plays alone or with other dramatists.
+It is now difficult, if not indeed impossible, to determine with certainty
+the respective shares of the two poets in the plays passing under their
+names. According to the testimony of some of their contemporaries, Beaumont
+possessed the deeper and more thoughtful genius, Fletcher the gayer and
+more idyllic. _Four Plays in One_, _Wit at Several Weapons_, _Thierry and
+Theodoret_, _Maid's Tragedy_, _Philaster_, _King and no King_, _Knight of
+the Burning Pestle_, _Cupid's Revenge_, _Little French Lawyer_, _Scornful
+Lady_, _Coxcomb_, and _Laws of Candy_ have been assigned to Beaumont and
+Fletcher conjointly. To Beaumont alone--_The Masque of the Inner Temple and
+Gray's Inn_. To Fletcher alone--_The Faithful Shepherdess_, _Woman Hater_,
+_Loyal Subject_, _Mad Lover_, _Valentinian_, _Double Marriage_, _Humorous
+Lieutenant_, _Island Princess_, _Pilgrim_, _Wild-goose Chase_, _Spanish
+Curate_, _Beggar's Bush_, _Rule a Wife and Have a Wife_, _Fair Maid of the
+Inn_, &c. To Fletcher and Rowley--_Queen of Corinth_, _Maid of the Mill_,
+and _Bloody Brother_. To Fletcher and Massinger--_False One_ and _Very
+Woman_. To Fletcher and Shirley--_Noble Gentleman_, _Night-walker_, and
+_Love's Pilgrimage_. To Fletcher and Shakespeare--_Two Noble
+Kinsmen_.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: G. C. Macaulay, _Francis Beaumont, a Critical
+Study_; Sir A. W. Ward, _History of English Dramatic Literature_ (vol. ii).
+
+BEAUMONT, Sir George, born of an ancient family in Leicestershire in 1753,
+died 1827. He possessed considerable skill as a landscape-painter, but was
+noted more especially as a munificent patron of the arts. The establishment
+of the National Gallery was mainly owing to his exertions. He was a friend
+of Wordsworth, who dedicated to him the 1815 edition of his Poems.
+
+BEAUMONT, Sir John, born 1582, died 1627, brother of Francis Beaumont the
+dramatist; was author of _Bosworth Field_, an historical poem, and various
+sacred and other poems. A poem in eight books, called _The Crown of
+Thorns_, has been lost.
+
+BEAUMONT, Joseph, D.D., born 1615, died 1699; descended from an old
+Leicestershire family. In 1663 he became master of Peterhouse, Cambridge.
+He wrote _Psyche, or Love's Mystery_, a poem once very popular, and an
+attack on Henry More's _Mystery of Godliness_, for which he received the
+thanks of the university.
+
+BEAUMONT, William, M.D., an American surgeon, born 1785, died 1853. His
+experiments on digestion with the Canadian St. Martin, who lived for years
+after receiving a gunshot wound in the stomach which left an aperture of
+about two inches in diameter, were of great importance to physiological
+science.
+
+BEAUMONT-HAMEL, village of France, department Somme, the scene of fierce
+fighting in 1918. See _Somme, Battles of the_.
+
+BEAUNE (b[=o]n), a town, France, department Cote d'Or, 23 miles S.S.W. of
+Dijon, well built, with handsome church, public library, museum, &c., and a
+trade in the fine Burgundy and other wines of the district. Pop. 13,409.
+
+BEAUNE (b[=o]n), Florimond, a distinguished mathematician and friend of
+Descartes, born at Blois 1601, died at the same place 1652. He may be
+regarded as the originator of the integral calculus.
+
+BEAUREGARD (b[=o]'r[.e]-g[.a]rd), Pierre Gustavus Toutant, a general of the
+Confederate troops in the American Civil War, born in 1818 near New
+Orleans. He studied at the military academy, West Point, and left it as
+artillery lieutenant in 1838. He served in the Mexican War, and on the
+outbreak of the Civil War joined the Confederates. He commanded at the
+bombardment of Fort Sumter, gained the battle of Bull Run, lost that of
+Shiloh, assisted in the defence of Charleston, and aided Lee in that of
+Richmond. He was the author of _Principles and Maxims of the Art of War_
+(1863). He died in 1893.
+
+BEAUSOBRE (b[=o]-s[=o]-br), Isaac, born in 1659 at Niort, in France, died
+at Berlin 1738. In 1683 he became Protestant minister of
+Chatillon-sur-Indre, but was compelled by persecution to go into exile in
+1685. In 1694 he became minister to French Protestants at Berlin. He
+enjoyed much of the favour both of Frederick William I and of the Crown
+Prince, afterwards Frederick the Great, and died in 1738. His most
+remarkable work is the _Histoire Critique de Manichee et du Manicheisme_
+(1734).
+
+BEAUVAIS (b[=o]-v[=a]; ancient, _Bellovacum_), a town, France, capital of
+the department of Oise, at the confluence of the Avelon with the Therain,
+43 miles north of Paris, poorly built, but with some fine edifices, the
+choir of the uncompleted cathedral being one of the finest specimens of
+Gothic architecture in France. In 1472 Beauvais resisted an army of 80,000
+Burgundians under Charles the Bold. On this occasion the women particularly
+distinguished themselves, and one of them, Jeanne Laine, called La
+Hachette, seeing a soldier planting a standard on the wall, seized it and
+hurled him to the ground. The banner is preserved in the town hall, and an
+annual procession of young girls commemorates the deed. Manufactures:
+tapestry and carpets, trimmings, woollen cloth, cottons, &c. Pop. 20,250.
+
+[Illustration: Beavers (_Castor fiber_)]
+
+BEAVER, the largest rodent quadruped now existing in the northern
+hemisphere, about 2 feet in length exclusive of the tail, genus Castor (_C.
+fiber_), is now found in considerable numbers only in North America, living
+in colonies, but occurring solitary in Central Europe and Asia. It has
+short ears, a blunt nose, small fore-feet, large webbed hind-feet, with a
+flat ovate tail covered with scales on its upper surface. It is valued for
+its fur, which used to be largely employed in the manufacture of hats, but
+for which silk is now for the most part substituted, and for an odoriferous
+secretion named castor, at one time in high repute, and still largely used
+in some parts of the world as an antispasmodic medicine. The food of the
+beaver consists of the bark of trees, leaves, roots, and berries. Their
+favourite haunts are rivers and lakes which are bordered by forests. In
+winter they live in houses, which are 3 to 4 feet high, are built on the
+water's edge, and, being substantial structures with the entrance under
+water, afford them protection from wolves and other wild animals. These
+dwellings are called beaver 'lodges', and accommodate a single family. They
+also live in burrows. They can gnaw through large trees with their strong
+teeth, this being done partly to obtain food, partly to get materials for
+houses or dam-building. When they find a stream not sufficiently deep for
+their purpose, they throw across it a dam constructed with great ingenuity
+of wood, stones, and mud. Beavers were fairly numerous in Britain in very
+early times, at least in Scotland and Wales. Their existence has been
+recorded in Wales till the thirteenth century, and in Scotland to a later
+date, but they are now extinct in Britain. A colony was some years ago
+introduced into the Island of Bute, but they died out again.--BIBLIOGRAPHY:
+Harting, _British Animals Extinct within Historic Times_; E. A. Mills, _In
+Beaver World_; A. A. R. Dugmore, _The Romance of the Beaver_.
+
+BEAVER (from Fr. _baviere_, a child's bib, from _bave_, saliva), the
+movable face-guard of a helmet, so fitted on as to be raised and lowered at
+pleasure.
+
+BEAVER FALLS, a town of the United States, Pennsylvania, on Beaver River,
+30 miles north-west of Pittsburg, in the coal and natural-gas region. Pop.
+12,191.
+
+BEAVER-RAT (_Hydromys chrysogaster_), a Tasmanian rodent quadruped,
+inhabiting the banks both of salt and fresh waters. They are admirable
+swimmers and divers, and exceedingly shy.
+
+BEBEE'RU. See _Greenheart_.
+
+BEBEL (b[=a]'bl), Ferdinand August, German Socialist, born in 1840, died in
+1913. He became a master turner in Leipzig, was elected to the Reichstag or
+Diet of the new German Empire in 1871, in which he was prominent until his
+death. He opposed the leadership of Prussia in Germany and the
+establishment of the empire, and showed himself favourable to the Paris
+Commune and the International. Found guilty of treasonable practices, he
+was condemned to two years' imprisonment in a fortress in 1872, with six
+months' ordinary imprisonment for insulting the Kaiser. His influence kept
+on increasing as leader of the Social Democrats in Germany and in the
+German Parliament, where he spoke strongly against militarism and the
+emperor's naval policy. His works include _Die Frau und der Socialismus_
+(Woman and Socialism), in which he went so far as to attack marriage as an
+institution; _Die Socialdemokratic und das allgemeine wahlrecht_; _Fuer
+Volkswehr gegen Militarismus_; _Aus meinem Leben_; &c.
+
+BEC, a celebrated abbey of France, in Normandy, near Brionne, founded in
+the eleventh century, now represented only by some ruins. Lanfranc and
+Anselm were both connected with this abbey.
+
+BECCAFI'CO, a European bird (_Sylvia hortensis_), the garden-warbler. These
+birds are much esteemed as dainties in the autumn, when they have fattened
+on figs and grapes.
+
+BECCAFU'MI, Domen'ico, Italian painter, born near Sienna in the latter half
+of the fifteenth century, enriched the churches of Sienna with many noble
+frescoes and other paintings. He drew and coloured well, and possessed
+strong inventive powers. He died at Sienna in 1551, and was buried in its
+cathedral.
+
+BECCARIA (bek-[.a]-r[=e]'[.a]), Cesare Bonesana, Marchese di, Italian
+economist and writer on penal laws, born 1738, died 1794. He is principally
+known from his treatise, _On Crimes and Punishments_, which was speedily
+translated into various languages, and to which many of the reforms in the
+penal codes of the principal European nations are traceable. He became
+professor of political economy at Milan, where he died.
+
+BECCARIA (bek-[.a]-r[=e]'[.a]), Giovanni Battista, an Italian natural
+philosopher, born 1716, died 1781; was appointed professor of experimental
+physics at Turin, 1748; author of a treatise on _Natural and Artificial
+Electricity_, _Letters on Electricity_, &c. He contributed several articles
+to the _Transactions of the Royal Society of London_, and was commissioned
+in 1759 to measure an arc of the meridian in the neighbourhood of Turin.
+
+BECCLES (bek'lz), a municipal borough in Suffolk, England, 33 miles N.N.E.
+from Ipswich, on the right bank of the Waveney; has a fine church of the
+fourteenth century, and a good trade coastwise. Pop. (1921), 7077.
+
+BECELAERE, town of Belgium, province of West Flanders. It was the scene of
+fighting in the third battle of Ypres (1917), and in the battle of Flanders
+(1918).
+
+BECERRA (be-ther'[.a]), Gaspar, Spanish painter and sculptor, born 1520,
+died 1570. He studied under Michel Angelo at Rome, and is credited with the
+chief share in the establishment of the fine arts in Spain.
+
+BECHE (b[=a]sh), Sir Henry de Ia, an English geologist, born 1796, died
+1855. He founded the geological survey of Great Britain, which was soon
+undertaken by the Government, De la Beche being appointed director-general.
+He also founded the Jermyn Street Museum of Economic or Practical Geology,
+and the School of Mines. His principal works are: _Geology of Jamaica_,
+_Classification of European Rocks_, _Geological Manual_, _Researches in
+Theoretical Geology_, _Geology of Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset_, &c.
+
+BECHE-DE-MER (b[=a]sh-d[=e]-m[=a]r). See _Trepang_.
+
+BECHER (be_h_'er), Johann Joachim, German chemist, born in 1625 or 1635,
+died in London 1682. He became a professor at Mainz; was elected a member
+of the Imperial Council at Vienna, 1660, but fell into disgrace and
+subsequently resided in various parts of Germany, Holland, Italy, Sweden,
+and Great Britain. His chief work, _Physica Subterranea_, containing many
+of the fanciful theories of the alchemists, was published in 1669, and
+enlarged in 1681. Among his other works are _Laboratorium portabile_ and
+_Alphabetum minerale_.
+
+BECHSTEIN (be_h_'st[=i]n), Johann Matthaeus, German naturalist, born in
+1757, died in 1822. He wrote a popular _Natural History of Germany_, and
+various works on forestry, in which subject his labours were highly
+valuable. In Britain he is best known by a treatise on cage birds.
+
+BECHUANAS, or BETCHUANAS (bech-wan'az), a widely-spread race of people
+inhabiting the central region of South Africa north of Cape Province. They
+belong to the great Kaffir stem, and are divided into tribal sections. They
+live chiefly by husbandry and cattle-rearing, and they work with some skill
+in iron, copper, ivory, and skins. They were led to seek British protection
+owing to the encroachments of the Boers. The southern portion of their
+territory was first placed under British protection in 1885, and
+subsequently the whole Bechuana country up to the Zambezi was annexed. In
+1895 the southern portion (then a Crown colony) was united to the Cape
+Colony; the remainder is still a protectorate partly under native chiefs.
+The head-quarters of the British administration are at Mafeking in the Cape
+Province. Bechuanaland Protectorate comprises the territory lying between
+the Molopo River on the south and the Zambezi on the north, and extending
+from the Transvaal Province and Matabeleland on the east to South-West
+Africa; area, 275,000 sq. miles; pop. 125,350, of whom about 1700 are
+Europeans. It is generally flat or slightly undulating, and is essentially
+a grass country, the grasses being nutritious and standing drought well.
+Surface water is scarce, but there is underground water, besides swampy
+lakes such as Ngami. Some parts are wooded and well watered. Gold, coal,
+and copper have been found. There is railway connection both with south and
+north.--Cf. G. W. Stow, _The Native Races of South Africa_.
+
+BECK CASE, THE, a celebrated case of mistaken identity, which involved a
+grave miscarriage of justice. Adolf Beck, a Swede, had been sentenced in
+1890 to seven years' penal servitude for a series of mean frauds committed
+against some women, and in 1904 he was again convicted and sentenced for a
+similar offence. Soon after his second trial a Jew named John Smith, who
+had been convicted of fraudulency in 1877, was arrested for similar frauds
+committed while Beck was in custody. The resemblance between the two men
+was remarkable, and it was eventually discovered that Beck was entirely
+innocent. He received two King's pardons, and the sum of L5000 from the
+Home Office as compensation. A commission which considered the case drew
+attention in its report to the carelessness of the police in identifying
+Beck with Smith, though the latter was a Jew; and stated that further legal
+training was desirable for the subordinate officials in the Home Office.
+Beck died in poverty in 1909. Cf. J. Kempster, _Perversion of Justice as
+exhibited in the Beck Case_.
+
+BECKENHAM, a suburban locality on the south of London, in West Kent, now
+forming an urban district, lying south of Sydenham. Pop. 33,350.
+
+BECK'ER, Wilhelm Adolf, German archaeologist, born at Dresden 1796, died at
+Meissen 1846. In 1828 he became a teacher at Meissen, in 1837 was appointed
+extraordinary professor of classical archaeology at Leipzig, and in 1842
+ordinary professor. Best-known works: _Gallus, or Roman Scenes of the Time
+of Augustus_; and _Charicles, or Illustrations of the Life of the Ancient
+Greeks_, which wonderfully reproduce the social life of old Rome and
+Greece.
+
+BECK'ET, Thomas (the form A Becket is also common), Archbishop of
+Canterbury, born in London 1117 or 1119, assassinated in Canterbury
+Cathedral, 29th Dec., 1170. He was educated at Oxford and Paris, and was
+sent, by the favour of Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury, to study civil
+law at Bologna in Italy, and on his return made Archdeacon of Canterbury
+and Provost of Beverley. In 1158 Henry II appointed him High Chancellor and
+preceptor to his son, Prince Henry--the first instance after the Conquest
+of a high office being filled by a native Englishman. At this period he was
+a complete courtier, conforming in every respect to the humour of the king.
+He was, in fact, the king's prime companion, held splendid levees, and
+courted popular applause. On the death of Theobald, 1162, he was
+consecrated archbishop, when he affected an extraordinary austerity of
+character, and appeared as a zealous champion of the Church against the
+aggressions of the king, whose policy was to have the clergy in
+subordination to the civil power. Becket was forced to assent to the
+Constitutions of Clarendon, but a series of bitter conflicts with the king
+followed, ending in Becket's flight to France, when he appealed to the
+Pope, by whom he was supported. After much negotiation a sort of
+reconciliation took place in 1170, and Becket returned to England, resumed
+his office, and renewed his defiance of the royal authority. A rash hint
+from the king induced four barons, Reginald Fitz-Urse, William de Tracy,
+Hugh de Morville, and Richard Breto, to go to Canterbury and murder the
+archbishop while at vespers in the cathedral. He was canonized in 1172 by
+Pope Alexander III, and the splendid shrine erected at Canterbury for his
+remains was, for three centuries, a favourite place of
+pilgrimage.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: J. C. Robertson and J. B. Sheppard, _Materials
+for the History of Archbishop Becket_ (Rolls Series); Canon Morris, _Life
+and Martyrdom of St. Thomas Becket_; Lhuillier, _Saint Thomas de
+Cantorbery_; Abbott, _St. Thomas of Canterbury, His Death and His
+Miracles_.
+
+BECKETT, Gilbert Abbot A. See _A Beckett_.
+
+BECK'FORD, William, an English writer famous in his time for his immense
+wealth and his eccentricities. He was born at Fonthill, his father's estate
+in Wiltshire, in 1759. In 1770 the death of his father left him in the
+possession of L1,000,000 of money, and an income of L100,000 a year. He
+travelled much, and for some time lived in Portugal. He expended an
+enormous sum in building and rebuilding Fonthill Abbey, near Salisbury,
+which he filled with rare and expensive works of art. Here he lived in
+seclusion for twenty years. In 1822 the abbey and greater part of its
+contents were sold, and he retired to Bath, where, with a much-diminished
+fortune, but one amply sufficient, he lived till 1844. His literary fame
+rests upon his Eastern tale _The History of the Caliph Vathek_, which he
+wrote in French, and a translation of which by the Rev. Samuel Henley
+appeared at London in 1786. The tale is still much read, and was highly
+commended by Lord Byron. He had two daughters, one of whom became Duchess
+of Hamilton, and brought his valuable library to this family.--_William
+Beckford_, his father, a London merchant and West Indian proprietor, was
+famous for a spirited speech made to George III when Lord Mayor of
+London.--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Cyrus Redding, _Memoir_; R. Garnett, _Vathek_ (with
+a critical essay); Melville, _The Life and Letters of William Beckford of
+Fonthill_.
+
+BECKMANN, Johann, German writer on the industrial arts and agriculture,
+born 1739, died 1811. He was for a short time professor of physics and
+natural history at Petrograd, and afterwards for almost forty-five years
+professor of philosophy and economy in Goettingen. His _History of
+Inventions_ is well known in the English translation of it. This work
+entitled the author to be regarded as the founder of scientific technology.
+
+BECKX (beks), Pierre Jean, general of the order of Jesuits, born near
+Louvain, Belgium, 1795, died 1887. The success of the Jesuits, especially
+in non-Catholic countries, was greatly due to his tact and energy.
+
+BECQUEREL (bek-rel), Antoine Cesar, French physicist, born 1788, died 1878.
+He served as an officer of engineers, and retired in 1815, after which he
+devoted himself to the study of electricity, especially electro-chemistry.
+In 1837 he was awarded the Copley medal of the Royal Society of London. He
+refuted the 'theory of contact' by which Volta explained the action of his
+pile or battery. Becquerel may be considered one of the creators of
+electro-chemistry.--His son, Alexandre Edmond (1820-91), was associated
+with him in much of his work. He was the author of a work _La Lumiere, ses
+causes et ses effets_ (1867-8).
+
+BECQUEREL RAYS (bek-rel), the rays given out by radium and other
+'radioactive' substances, so named from their discoverer, the French
+physicist, Henri Becquerel (born 1852, died 1908), son of Alexandre Edmond
+Becquerel. They were first detected in 1896, as proceeding from uranium
+salts; and it is only by uranium, thorium, radium, and one or two other
+elements that they are emitted, these bodies giving them out spontaneously
+and without any apparent loss of radioactive power or change of any kind.
+The Becquerel rays are invisible, and only known by their effects, which
+are of various kinds: thus, like the Roentgen rays, they blacken a
+photographic plate, even after passing through glass or other intervening
+substances; they cause a number of different substances to give out a
+fluorescent light, and they render air a conductor of electricity. Like the
+Roentgen rays, they act strongly on the human skin. They consist of a
+mixture of [alpha]-, [beta]-, and [gamma]-rays. See _Radio-activity_;
+_Radium_.
+
+BECSE (bech'e), OLD, a town of Hungary, 48 miles S. of Szegedin, on the
+right bank of the Theiss. Pop. 19,000.--NEW BECSE, a market-town on the
+left bank of the Theiss, 5 miles E. of Old Becse. Pop. 7725, or, with the
+immediately adjoining village of Franyova, about 15,000. Both towns carry
+on an extensive trade in grain.
+
+BECSKEREK (bech'ke-rek), two towns of South Hungary.--_Great Becskerek_,
+now in Yugo-Slavia, is on the Bega, 45 miles N. of Belgrade, with which it
+communicates by the Bega Canal. Trade in cattle and agricultural produce.
+Pop. 26,407.--_Little Becskerek_, now belonging to Roumania, is 11 miles by
+railway from Temesvar. Pop. 3660.
+
+BED, BEDSTEAD, an article of furniture to sleep or rest on. The term _bed_
+properly is applied to a large flat bag filled with feathers, down, wool,
+or other soft material, and also to a mattress supported on spiral springs
+or form of elastic chains or wirework which is raised from the ground on a
+bedstead. The term, however, sometimes includes the bedstead or frame for
+supporting the bed. The forms of beds are necessarily very various--every
+period and country having its own form of bed. Air-beds and water-beds are
+much used by invalids.
+
+BED, in geology, a layer or stratum, usually a stratum of considerable
+thickness.
+
+BEDA. See _Bede_.
+
+BEDARIEUX (b[=a]-daer-i-_eu_), a thriving town, Southern France, department
+Herault, situated on the Orb. Pop. 6186.
+
+BED-BUG. See _Bug_.
+
+BED-CHAMBER, LORDS OF THE, officers of the royal household of Britain under
+the Groom of the Stole. They are twelve in number, and wait a week each in
+turn. In the case of a queen regnant these posts are occupied by ladies,
+called _Ladies of the Bed-chamber_.
+
+BEDDOES (bed'[=o]z), Thomas, physician and author, born 1760; educated at
+Oxford, London, and Edinburgh. After taking his doctor's degree, and
+visiting Paris, he was appointed professor of chemistry at Oxford. There he
+published some excellent chemical treatises, and essays upon such subjects
+as the calculus, sea-scurvy, consumption, catarrh, and fever. His expressed
+sympathy with the French revolutionists led to his retirement from his
+professorship in 1792, soon after which he published his _Observations on
+the Nature of Demonstrative Evidence_, and the exceedingly popular _History
+of Isaac Jenkins_. In 1794 he married a sister of Maria Edgeworth; and in
+1798, with the pecuniary aid of Wedgwood, opened a pneumatic institution
+for curing phthisical and other diseases by inhalation of gases. It
+speedily became an ordinary hospital, but was noteworthy as connected with
+the discovery of the properties of nitrous oxide, and as having been
+superintended by the young Humphry Davy. Beddoes' essays _On Consumption_
+(1779) and _On Fever_ (1807), and his _Hygeia_ (3 vols., 1807) had a high
+contemporary repute. He died in 1808.
+
+BEDDOES, Thomas Lovell, poet, son of above, born 1803, died 1849; published
+_The Bride's Tragedy_ while a student at Oxford, studied medicine, and
+lived long abroad. His work was largely fragmentary, but his posthumous
+_Death's Jest-book, or The Fool's Tragedy_ (1850), received the high praise
+of such judges as Landor and Browning. His _Poems_, with memoir, appeared
+in 1851.
+
+BEDE, BEDA, or BAEDA, known as the Venerable, English historian and
+theologian, born in 672 or 673 in the neighbourhood of Monkwearmouth,
+County Durham; educated at St. Peter's Monastery, Wearmouth; took deacon's
+orders in his nineteenth year at St. Paul's Monastery, Jarrow, and was
+ordained priest at thirty by John of Beverley, Bishop of Hexham. His life
+was spent in studious seclusion, the chief events in it being the
+production of homilies, hymns, lives of saints, commentaries, and works in
+history, chronology, grammar, &c. He was the most learned Englishman of his
+day, and in some sense the father of English history, his most important
+work being his _Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum_ (or _Ecclesiastical
+History of England_), afterwards translated by King Alfred into
+Anglo-Saxon. Besides his familiarity with Latin, he knew Greek and had some
+acquaintance with Hebrew. Most of his writings were on scriptural and
+ecclesiastical subjects, but he also wrote on chronology, physical science,
+grammar, &c., and had considerable ability in the writing of Latin verse.
+He died in 735, an interesting record of his closing days being preserved
+in a letter by his pupil Cuthbert. His body was after a lapse of time
+removed from Jarrow church to Durham, but of the shrine which formerly
+enclosed them only the Latin inscription remains, ending with the
+verse--'Hac sunt in fossa Bedae venerabilis ossa'. On 13th Nov., 1899, Leo
+XIII decreed that the feast of the Venerable Bede should be celebrated in
+the Church on 27th May. An edition of the whole works of Bede (12 vols.),
+with an English translation, was prepared by Dr. Giles
+(1843-4).--BIBLIOGRAPHY: Gehle. _De Bedae Venerabilis Vita et Scriptis_;
+Browne, _The Venerable Bede_; C. Plummer's introduction to his edition of
+the _Historia Ecclesiastica_.
+
+BEDEGUAR, or BEDEGAR (bed'e-gaer), a spongy excrescence or gall, sometimes
+termed sweet-brier sponge, found on various species of roses, and produced
+by several insects as receptacles for their eggs, especially by the _Cynips
+rosae_, It was once thought to be a diuretic and vermifuge.
+
+BEDELL', William, a celebrated Irish bishop, born in Essex in 1570. In 1604
+he went to Venice as chaplain to Sir Henry Wotton, and remained eight
+years. After holding the living of Horingsheath from 1615-27, he became
+Provost of Trinity College, Dublin, and in 1629 Bishop of Kilmore and
+Ardagh, though he resigned the latter of the united sees in 1630. He set
+himself to reform abuses and promote the spread of Protestantism, procured
+the translation of the Old Testament into Irish, and by his tact and wisdom
+conciliated the adherents of both creeds. He underwent a brief imprisonment
+on the breaking out of the rebellion in 1641, and died in the year
+following. His biography was written by Bishop Burnet.
+
+BE'DER WARE. See _Bidery_.
+
+BED'FORD, a municipal and, until 1918, a parliamentary borough, England,
+county town of Bedfordshire, on the Ouse. The chief buildings are the law
+courts, a range of public schools, a large infirmary, county jail, &c., and
+the churches. The town is rich in charities and educational institutions,
+the most prominent being the Bedford Charity, embracing grammar and other
+schools, and richly endowed. There is an extensive manufactory of
+agricultural implements; lace is also made, and there is a good trade. John
+Bunyan was born at Elstow, a village near the town, and it was at Bedford
+that he lived, preached, and was imprisoned. Bedford gives its name to a
+parliamentary division of the county. Pop. 40,247.--_Bedfordshire_ or
+_Beds_, the county, is bounded by Northampton, Bucks, Herts, Cambridge, and
+Huntingdon; area, 302,942 acres, of which 260,000 are under tillage or in
+permanent pasture. Chalk hills, forming a portion of the Chilterns, cross
+it on the south; north of this is a belt of sand; the soil of the vale of
+Bedford, consisting mostly of clay and loam, is very fertile; and the
+meadows on the Ouse, Ivel, and other streams furnish rich pasturage.
+Two-thirds of the soil is under tillage. Besides the usual cereal and other
+crops, culinary vegetables are extensively cultivated for the London
+market. Principal manufactures: agricultural implements, and straw-plait
+for hats, which is made up principally at Dunstable and Luton. The county
+returns three members to Parliament (divisions: Bedford, Luton, Midlands).
+Pop. (1921), 206,478.
+
+BEDFORD, John, Duke of, one of the younger sons of Henry IV, King of
+England; famous as a statesman and a warrior. He defeated the French fleet
+in 1416, commanded an expedition to Scotland in 1417, and was lieutenant of
+England during the absence of Henry V in France. On the king's death he
+became Regent of France, and for several years his policy was as successful
+as it was able and vigorous, the victory of Verneuil in 1424 attesting his
+generalship. The greatest stain on his memory is his execution of the Maid
+of Orleans (Joan of Arc) in 1431. He died in 1435 at Rouen, and was buried
+in the cathedral of that city.
+
+BEDFORD LEVEL, a large tract of marshy land in England, of about 400,000
+acres total area, comprising 63,000 in Norfolk, 30,000 in Suffolk, 50,000
+in Huntingdon, the Peterborough fen in Northampton, the Holland district in
+Lincolnshire, and most of the Isle of Ely in Cambridge. It derives its name
+from Francis, Earl of Bedford, who in 1634 made an agreement with Charles I
+for the drainage of the Level, in consideration of receiving 95,000 acres
+of the reclaimed land. A great part of the Level is under cultivation, and
+produces grain, flax, and cole-seed; the remainder yields a winter harvest
+of wild-fowl for the London market. See _Fenland_.
+
+BEDFORDSHIRE REGIMENT, THE, raised in 1688 on the approach of the Prince of
+Orange, suffered severely at Blenheim, and distinguished itself in a marked
+manner at the siege of Lille. In 1797 it went to Scotland and there
+recruited 1000 'parish boys' under sixteen years old, who later made
+excellent soldiers. The regiment shared in the Chitral and South African
+(1900-2) campaigns; on going to the front in 1914, sustained heavy losses
+at Givenchy, and distinguished itself at Ypres and the Aisne.
+
+BEDIVERE, the last knight of the Round Table (q.v.). See _Morte d'Arthur_.
+
+BED'LAM, a corruption of Bethlehem (Hospital), the name of a religious
+house in London, converted, after the general suppression by Henry VIII,
+into a hospital for lunatics. The original Bedlam stood in Bishopsgate
+Street; its modern successor in St. George's Fields was opened in 1815,
+having been built on the site of the notorious tavern called 'The Dog and
+the Duck'. The lunatics were at one time treated as little better than wild
+beasts, and hence Bedlam came to be typical of any scene of wild confusion.
+The average number of patients is about 300.
+
+BED'LINGTON, a town and urban district of England, in Northumberland, near
+the mouth of the Blyth, and not far from the seaport of Blyth, with
+collieries, ironworks, &c. Pop. 25,440.
+
+BEDLINGTON TERRIER, an English Dog, deriving its name from Bedlington, in
+Northumberland, having first become well known as a favourite among the
+miners of that place. It is a dog of moderate size, head rather long, with
+a light, silky tuft on top, ears hanging close to the cheeks, legs
+moderately long and strong, tail tapering to the point, which is almost
+bare; colour, dark blue, blue and tan, liver, liver and tan, sandy, or
+sandy and tan; courageous, intelligent, and generally useful.
+
+BEDLIS. See _Betlis_.
+
+_Printed and bound in Great Britain_
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+Corrections made to printed original.
+
+Article Barthelmy-Saint-Hilaire. "Buddhism, Mohammed and Mohammedanism":
+'Mohammedansim' in original.
+
+Article Baryta. "barium carbonate or witherite (BaCO_3)": 'BaCo_3' in
+original.
+
+Article Bass. "from its voracity sea-wolf": 'it voracity' in original.
+
+Article Batoum. "in July, 1886, the Russian Government ...": 'Goverment' in
+original.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The New Gresham Encyclopedia. Vol. 1
+Part 3, by Various
+
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