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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:00:45 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:00:45 -0700 |
| commit | 6167a6d871c72e69500db884146a67a88509b5d3 (patch) | |
| tree | 9b0f5b8351962d9d41bc097fc4ffc4e3d38ea559 /34047-h | |
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} + + div.minind {text-align: justify;} + div.condensed, div.condensed1 { line-height: 1.3em; margin-left: 3%; margin-right: 3%; font-size: 95%; } + div.condensed1 p {margin-left: 0; padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} + div.condensed span.sidenote {font-size: 90%} + + div.list {margin-left: 0;} + div.list p {padding-left: 4em; text-indent: -2em; margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em;} + div.list1 {margin-left: 0;} + div.list1 p {padding-left: 5em; text-indent: -3em;} + + .pt05 {padding-top: 0.5em;} + .pt1 {padding-top: 1em;} + .pt2 {padding-top: 2em;} + .ptb1 {padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;} + td.prl {padding-left: 6em; padding-right: 7em; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 2, Slice 3, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 2, Slice 3 + "Apollodorus" to "Aral" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: October 8, 2010 [EBook #34047] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 2, SL 3 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +One typographical error has been corrected. It +appears in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME II SLICE III<br /><br /> +Apollodorus to Aral</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">APOLLODORUS</a> (Athenian painter)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">APPREHENSION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">APOLLODORUS</a> (Athenian grammarian)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">APPRENTICESHIP</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">APOLLODORUS</a> (of Carystus)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">APPROPRIATION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">APOLLODORUS</a> (Greek architect)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">APPURTENANCES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">APOLLONIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">APRAKSIN, THEDOR MATVYEEVICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">APOLLONIUS</a> (the Surly)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">APRICOT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">APOLLONIUS</a> (Greek rhetorician)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">APRIES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">APOLLONIUS</a> (the Sophist)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">APRIL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">APOLLONIUS MOLON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">APRIL-FOOLS’ DAY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">APOLLONIUS OF PERGA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">A PRIORI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">APOLLONIUS OF RHODES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">APRON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">APOLLONIUS OF TRALLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">APSARAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">APOLLONIUS OF TYANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">APSE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">APOLLONIUS OF TYRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">APSE and APSIDES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">APOLLOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">APSINES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">APOLLYON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">APT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">APOLOGETICS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">APTERA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">APOLOGUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">APTERAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">APOLOGY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">APTIAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">APONEUROSIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">APULEIUS, LUCIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">APOPHTHEGM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">APULIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">APOPHYGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">APURÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">APOPHYLLITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">APURIMAC</a> (river of Peru)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">APOPHYSIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">APURIMAC</a> (department of Peru)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">APOPLEXY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">APYREXIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">APOROSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">‛AQĪBA BEN JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">APOSIOPESIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">AQUAE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">APOSTASY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">AQUAE CUTILIAE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">APOSTIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">AQUAMARINE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">APOSTLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">AQUARELLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">APOSTLE SPOONS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">AQUARII</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">APOSTOLICAL CONSTITUTIONS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">AQUARIUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">APOSTOLIC CANONS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">AQUARIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">APOSTOLIC FATHERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">AQUATINT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">APOSTOLICI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">AQUAVIVA, CLAUDIO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">APOSTOLIC MAJESTY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">AQUEDUCT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">APOSTOLIUS, MICHAEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">AQUILA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">APOSTROPHE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">AQUILA, CASPAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">APOTACTITES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">AQUILA, SERAFINO DELL’</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">APOTHECARY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">AQUILA</a> (city of Italy)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">APOTHEOSIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">AQUILA</a> (constellation)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">AQUILA ROMANUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">APPANAGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">AQUILEIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">APPAREL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">AQUILLIUS, MANIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">APPARITIONS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">AQUINAS, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">APPARITOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">AQUINO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">APPEAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">AQUITAINE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">APPEARANCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">ARABESQUE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">APPENDICITIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">ARABGIR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">APPENDICULATA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">ARABIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">APPENDINI, FRANCESCO MARIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">APPENZELL</a> (canton of Switzerland)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">ARABIAN SEA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">APPENZELL</a> (city of Switzerland)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">ARABICI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">APPERCEPTION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">ARABI PASHA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">APPERLEY, CHARLES JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">ARABISTAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">APPERT, BENJAMIN NICOLAS MARIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">ARABS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">APPIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">ARACAJÚ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">APPIANI, ANDREA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">ARACATY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">APPIA, VIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">ARACHNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">APPIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">ARACHNIDA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">APPLAUSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">ARAD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">APPLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">ARAEOSTYLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">APPLEBY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">ARAEOSYSTYLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">APPLETON, NATHAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">ARAGO, DOMINIQUE FRANÇOIS JEAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">APPLETON</a> (city of U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">ARAGON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">APPOGGIATURA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">ARAGONITE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">APPOINTMENT, POWER OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">ARAGUA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">ARAGUAYA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">APPONYI, ALBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">ARAKAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">APPORTIONMENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">ARAKCHEEV, ALEKSYEI ANDREEVICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">APPORTIONMENT BILL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">ARAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">APPRAISER</a></td> <td> </td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page186" id="page186"></a>186</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">APOLLODORUS,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> an Athenian painter, who flourished at the +end of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He is said to have introduced great +improvements in perspective and chiaroscuro. What these +were it is impossible to say: perspective cannot have been in +his day at an advanced stage. Among his works were an +Odysseus, a priest in prayer, and an Ajax struck by lightning.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOLLODORUS,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> an Athenian grammarian, pupil of Aristarchus +and Panaetius the Stoic, who lived about 140 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He +was a prolific and versatile writer. There is extant under his +name a treatise on the gods and the heroic age, entitled <span class="grk" title="Bibliothaekae">Βιβλιοθἠκη</span>, +a valuable authority on ancient mythology. Modern +critics are of opinion that, if genuine, it is an abridgment of a +larger work by him (<span class="grk" title="Peri theon">Περὶ θεῶν</span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Edition, with commentary, by Heyne (1803); text by Wagner +(1894) (<i>Mythographi Graeci</i>, vol. i. Teubner series). Amongst other +works by him of which only fragments remain, collected in Müller, +<i>Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum</i>, may be mentioned: <span class="grk" title="Chronika">Χρονικά</span>, +a universal history from the fall of Troy to 144 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; <span class="grk" title="Periaegaesis">Περιήγησις</span>, a +gazetteer written in iambics; <span class="grk" title="Peri Neon">Περὶ Νεῶν</span>, a work on the Homeric +catalogue of ships; and a work on etymology (<span class="grk" title="Etymologiai">Έτυμολογίαι</span>).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOLLODORUS,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> of Carystus in Euboea, one of the most +important writers of the New Attic comedy, who flourished at +Athens between 300 and 260 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He is to be distinguished from +an older Apollodorus of Gela (342-290), also a writer of comedy, +a contemporary of Menander. He wrote 47 comedies and +obtained the prize five times. Terence borrowed his <i>Hecyra</i> +and <i>Phormio</i> from the <span class="grk" title="Hekyra">Έκυρά</span> and <span class="grk" title="Epidikazomenos">Έπιδικαζόμενος</span> of Apollodorus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Fragments in Koch, <i>Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta</i>, ii. (1884); +see also Meineke, <i>Historia Critica Comicorum Graecorum</i> (1839).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOLLODORUS,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> of Damascus, a famous Greek architect, who +flourished during the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> He was a favourite of +Trajan, for whom he constructed the stone bridge over the +Danube (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 104-105). He also planned a gymnasium, a +college, public baths, the Odeum and the Forum Trajanum, +within the city of Rome; and the triumphal arches at Beneventum +and Ancona. The Trajan column in the centre of the +Forum is celebrated as being the first triumphal monument of +the kind. On the accession of Hadrian, whom he had offended +by ridiculing his performances as architect and artist, Apollodorus +was banished, and, shortly afterwards, being charged with +imaginary crimes, put to death (Dio Cassius lxix. 4). He also +wrote a treatise on <i>Siege Engines</i> (<span class="grk" title="Poliorkaetika">Πολιορκητικά</span>), which was +dedicated to Hadrian.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOLLONIA,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> the name of more than thirty cities of antiquity. +The most important are the following: (1) An Illyrian city +(known as Apollonia <span class="grk" title="kat Epidamnon">κατ᾽ Έπίδαμνον</span> or <span class="grk" title="pros Epidamno">πρὸς Έπιδάμνῳ</span>) on the +right bank of the Aous, founded by the Corinthians and Corcyraeans. +It soon became a place of increasing commercial +prosperity, as the most convenient link between Brundusium +and northern Greece, and as one of the starting-points of the +Via Egnatia. It was an important military post in the wars +against Philip and during the civil wars of Pompey and Caesar, +and towards the close of the Roman republic acquired fame as a +seat of literature and philosophy. Here Augustus was being +educated when the death of Caesar called him to Rome. It +seems to have sunk with the rise of Aulon, and few remains of its +ruins are to be found. The monastery of Pollina stands on a hill +which probably is part of the site of the old city. (2) A Thracian +city on the Black Sea (afterwards Sozopolis, and now Sizeboli), +colonized by the Milesians, and famous for its colossal statue of +Apollo by Calamis, which Lucullus removed to Rome.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOLLONIUS,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> surnamed <span class="grk" title="ho dyskolos">ὁ δύσκολος</span> (“the Surly or Crabbed”), +a celebrated grammarian of Alexandria, who lived in the reigns +of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. He spent the greater part of +his life in his native city, where he died; he is also said to have +visited Rome and attracted the attention of Antoninus. He +was the founder of scientific grammar and is styled by Priscian +<i>grammaticorum princeps</i>. Four of his works are extant: <i>On +Syntax</i>, ed. Bekker, 1817; and three smaller treatises, on +<i>Pronouns</i>, <i>Conjunctions</i> and <i>Adverbs</i>, ed. Schneider, 1878.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Grammatici Graeci</i>, i. in Teubner series; Egger, <i>Apollonius +Dyscole</i> (1854).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOLLONIUS,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> surnamed <span class="grk" title="ho malakos">ὁ μαλακός</span> (“the Effeminate”), a +Greek rhetorician of Alabanda in Caria, who flourished about +120 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> After studying under Menecles, chief of the Asiatic +school of oratory, he settled in Rhodes, where he taught rhetoric, +among his pupils being Mark Antony.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOLLONIUS,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> surnamed “the Sophist,” of Alexandria, a +famous grammarian, who probably lived towards the end of the +1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> He was the author of a Homeric lexicon +(<span class="grk" title="Lexeis Homaerikai">Λέξεις Όμηρικαί</span>), the only work of the kind we possess. His +chief authorities were Aristarchus and Apion’s Homeric glossary.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Edition by Villoison (1773), I. Bekker (1833); Leyde, <i>De Apollonii +Sophistae Lexico Homerico</i> (1885); E.W.B. Nicholson on a newly +discovered fragment in <i>Classical Review</i> (Nov. 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOLLONIUS MOLON<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (sometimes called simply <span class="sc">Molon</span>), +a Greek rhetorician, who flourished about 70 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He was a +native of Alabanda, a pupil of Menecles, and settled at Rhodes. +He twice visited Rome as an ambassador from Rhodes, and +Cicero and Caesar took lessons from him. He endeavoured +to moderate the florid Asiatic style and cultivated an “Atticizing” +tendency. He wrote on Homer, and, according to Josephus, +violently attacked the Jews.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Müller, <i>Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum</i>, iii.; E. Schürer, +<i>History of the Jewish People</i>, iii. (Eng. tr. 1886).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOLLONIUS OF PERGA<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Pergaeus</span>], Greek geometer of the +Alexandrian school, was probably born some twenty-five years +later than Archimedes, <i>i.e.</i> about 262 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He flourished in the +reigns of Ptolemy Euergetes and Ptolemy Philopator (247-205 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>). His treatise on <i>Conics</i> gained him the title of The Great +Geometer, and is that by which his fame has been transmitted +to modern times. All his numerous other treatises have perished, +save one, and we have only their titles handed down, with general +indications of their contents, by later writers, especially Pappus. +After the <i>Conics</i> in eight Books had been written in a first edition, +Apollonius brought out a second edition, considerably revised as +regards Books i.-ii., at the instance of one Eudemus of Pergamum; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page187" id="page187"></a>187</span> +the first three books were sent to Eudemus at intervals, as revised, +and the later books were dedicated (after Eudemus’ +death) to King Attalus I. (241-197 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Only four Books have +survived in Greek; three more are extant in Arabic; the eighth +has never been found. Although a fragment has been found of a +Latin translation from the Arabic made in the 13th century, it +was not until 1661 that a Latin translation of Books v.-vii. +was available. This was made by Giovanni Alfonso Borelli and +Abraham Ecchellensis from the free version in Arabic made in +983 by Abu ’l-Fath of Ispahan and preserved in a Florence MS. +But the best Arabic translation is that made as regards Books +i.-iv. by Hilal ibn Abi Hilal (d. about 883), and as regards Books +v.-vii. by Tobit ben Korra (836-901). Halley used for his +translation an Oxford MS. of this translation of Books v.-vii., +but the best MS. (Bodl. 943) he only referred to in order to +correct his translation, and it is still unpublished except for a +fragment of Book v. published by L. Nix with German translation +(Drugulin, Leipzig, 1889). Halley added in his edition (1710) +a restoration of Book viii., in which he was guided by the fact +that Pappus gives lemmas “to the seventh and eighth books” +under that one heading, as well as by the statement of Apollonius +himself that the use of the seventh book was illustrated by the +problems solved in the eighth.</p> + +<p>The degree of originality of the <i>Conics</i> can best be judged +from Apollonius’ own prefaces. Books i.-iv. form an “elementary +introduction,” <i>i.e.</i> contain the essential principles; the +rest are specialized investigations in particular directions. For +Books i.-iv. he claims only that the generation of the curves +and their fundamental properties in Book i. are worked out +more fully and generally than they were in earlier treatises, and +that a number of theorems in Book iii. and the greater part of +Book iv. are new. That he made the fullest use of his predecessors’ +works, such as Euclid’s four Books on Conics, is clear +from his allusions to Euclid, Conon and Nicoteles. The generality +of treatment is indeed remarkable; he gives as the fundamental +property of all the conics the equivalent of the Cartesian +equation referred to <i>oblique</i> axes (consisting of a diameter and +the tangent at its extremity) obtained by cutting an oblique +circular cone in any manner, and the axes appear only as a +particular case after he has shown that the property of the conic +can be expressed in the same form with reference to any new +diameter and the tangent at its extremity. It is clearly the form +of the fundamental property (expressed in the terminology of +the “application of areas”) which led him to call the curves for +the first time by the names <i>parabola</i>, <i>ellipse</i>, <i>hyperbola</i>. Books +v.-vii. are clearly original. Apollonius’ genius takes its highest +flight in Book v., where he treats of normals as minimum and +maximum straight lines drawn from given points to the curve +(independently of tangent properties), discusses how many +normals can be drawn from particular points, finds their feet by +construction, and gives propositions determining the centre of +curvature at any point and leading at once to the Cartesian +equation of the evolute of any conic.</p> + +<p>The other treatises of Apollonius mentioned by Pappus are—1st, +<span class="grk" title="Logou apotomae">Λόγου ἀποτομή</span>, <i>Cutting off a Ratio</i>; 2nd, <span class="grk" title="Choriou apotomae">Χωρίου ἀποτομή</span>, +<i>Cutting of an Area</i>; 3rd, <span class="grk" title="Diorismenae tomae">Διωρισμένη τομή</span>, <i>Determinate Section</i>; +4th, <span class="grk" title="Epaphai">Έπαφαί</span>, <i>Tangencies</i>; 5th, <span class="grk" title="Neuseis">Νεύσεις</span>, <i>Inclinations</i>; 6th, <span class="grk" title="Topoi +epipedoi">Τόποι ἐπίπεδοι</span>, <i>Plane Loci</i>. Each of these was divided into two books, +and, with the <i>Data</i>, the <i>Porisms</i> and <i>Surface-Loci</i> of Euclid and +the <i>Conics</i> of Apollonius were, according to Pappus, included in +the body of the ancient analysis.</p> + +<p>1st. <i>De Rationis Sectione</i> had for its subject the resolution of +the following problem: Given two straight lines and a point in +each, to draw through a third given point a straight line cutting +the two fixed lines, so that the parts intercepted between the +given points in them and the points of intersection with this +third line may have a given ratio.</p> + +<p>2nd. <i>De Spatii Sectione</i> discussed the similar problem which +requires the rectangle contained by the two intercepts to be equal +to a given rectangle.</p> + +<p>An Arabic version of the first was found towards the end of +the 17th century in the Bodleian library by Dr Edward Bernard, +who began a translation of it; Halley finished it and published +it along with a restoration of the second treatise in 1706.</p> + +<p>3rd. <i>De Sectione Determinata</i> resolved the problem: Given +two, three or four points on a straight line, to find another point +on it such that its distances from the given points satisfy the +condition that the square on one or the rectangle contained by +two has to the square on the remaining one or the rectangle +contained by the remaining two, or to the rectangle contained +by the remaining one and another given straight line, a given +ratio. Several restorations of the solution have been attempted, +one by W. Snellius (Leiden, 1698), another by Alex. Anderson of +Aberdeen, in the supplement to his <i>Apollonius Redivivus</i> (Paris, +1612), but by far the best is by Robert Simson, <i>Opera quaedam +reliqua</i> (Glasgow, 1776).</p> + +<p>4th. <i>De Tactionibus</i> embraced the following general problem: +Given three things (points, straight lines or circles) in position, +to describe a circle passing through the given points, and touching +the given straight lines or circles. The most difficult case, and +the most interesting from its historical associations, is when the +three given things are circles. This problem, which is sometimes +known as the Apollonian Problem, was proposed by Vieta in the +16th century to Adrianus Romanus, who gave a solution by +means of a hyperbola. Vieta thereupon proposed a simpler +construction, and restored the whole treatise of Apollonius in a +small work, which he entitled <i>Apollonius Gallus</i> (Paris, 1600). +A very full and interesting historical account of the problem is +given in the preface to a small work of J.W. Camerer, entitled +<i>Apollonii Pergaei quae supersunt, ac maxime Lemmata Pappi in +hos Libras, cum Observationibus, &c</i>. (Gothae, 1795, 8vo).</p> + +<p>5th. <i>De Inclinationibus</i> had for its object to insert a straight +line of a given length, tending towards a given point, between +two given (straight or circular) lines. Restorations have been +given by Marino Ghetaldi, by Hugo d’Omerique (<i>Geometrical +Analysis</i>, Cadiz, 1698), and (the best) by Samuel Horsley (1770).</p> + +<p>6th. <i>De Locis Planis</i> is a collection of propositions relating to +loci which are either straight lines or circles. Pappus gives +somewhat full particulars of the propositions, and restorations +were attempted by P. Fermat (<i>Oeuvres</i>, i., 1891, pp. 3-51), F. +Schooten (Leiden, 1656) and, most successfully of all, by R. +Simson (Glasgow, 1749).</p> + +<p>Other works of Apollonius are referred to by ancient writers, +viz. (1) <span class="grk" title="Peri tou pyriou">Περὶ τοῦ πυρίου</span>, <i>On the Burning-Glass</i>, where the focal +properties of the parabola probably found a place; (2) <span class="grk" title="Peri tou +kochliou">Περὶ τοῦ κοχλίου</span>, <i>On the Cylindrical Helix</i> (mentioned by Proclus); (3) a +comparison of the dodecahedron and the icosahedron inscribed +in the same sphere; (4) <span class="grk" title="Hae katholou pragmateia">Ή καθόλου πραγματεία</span>, perhaps a work +on the general principles of mathematics in which were included +Apollonius’ criticisms and suggestions for the improvement of +Euclid’s <i>Elements</i>; (5) <span class="grk" title="Okutokion">Ώκυτόκιον</span> (quick bringing-to-birth), in +which, according to Eutocius, he showed how to find closer +limits for the value of π than the 3<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> and 3<span class="spp">10</span>⁄<span class="suu">71</span> of Archimedes; +(6) an arithmetical work (as to which see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pappus</a></span>) on a system +of expressing large numbers in language closer to that of common +life than that of Archimedes’ <i>Sand-reckoner</i>, and showing how +to multiply such large numbers; (7) a great extension of the +theory of irrationals expounded in Euclid, Book x., from +binomial to multinomial and from <i>ordered</i> to <i>unordered</i> irrationals +(see extracts from Pappus’ comm. on Eucl. x., preserved +in Arabic and published by Woepcke, 1856). Lastly, in +astronomy he is credited by Ptolemy with an explanation of +the motion of the planets by a system of epicycles; he also +made researches in the lunar theory, for which he is said to have +been called Epsilon (ε).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best editions of the works of Apollonius are the following: (1) +<i>Apollonii Pergaei Conicorum libri quatuor, ex versione Frederici +Commandini</i> (Bononiae, 1566), fol.; (2) <i>Apollonii Pergaei Conicorum +libri octo, et Sereni Antissensis de Sectione Cylindri et Coni libri duo</i> +(Oxoniae, 1710), fol. (this is the monumental edition of Edmund +Halley); (3) the edition of the first four books of the Conics given in +1675 by Barrow; (4) <i>Apollonii Pergaei de Sectione, Rationis libri duo: +Accedunt ejusdem de Sectione Spatii libri duo Restituti: Praemittitur, +&c., Opera et Studio Edmundi Halley</i> (Oxoniae, 1706), 4to; (5) a +German translation of the <i>Conics</i> by H. Balsam (Berlin, 1861); +(6) the definitive Greek text of Heiberg (<i>Apollonii Pergaei quae Graece +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" id="page188"></a>188</span> +exstant Opera</i>, Leipzig, 1891-1893); (7) T.L. Heath, <i>Apollonius, +Treatise on Conic Sections</i> (Cambridge, 1896); see also H.G. Zeuthen, +<i>Die Lehre van den Kegelschnitten im Altertum</i> (Copenhagen, 1886 +and 1902).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. L. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOLLONIUS OF RHODES<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Rhodius</span>), a Greek epic poet +and grammarian, of Alexandria, who flourished under the +Ptolemies Philopator and Epiphanes (222-181 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). He was +the pupil of Callimachus, with whom he subsequently quarrelled. +In his youth he composed the work for which he is known—<i>Argonautica</i>, +an epic in four books on the legend of the Argonauts. +When he read it at Alexandria, it was rejected through the +influence of Callimachus and his party. Disgusted with his +failure, Apollonius withdrew to Rhodes, where he was very +successful as a rhetorician, and a revised edition of his epic was +well received. In recognition of his talents the Rhodians +bestowed the freedom of their city upon him—the origin of his +surname. Returning to Alexandria, he again recited his poem, +this time with general applause. In 196, Ptolemy Epiphanes +appointed him librarian of the Museum, which office he probably +held until his death. As to the <i>Argonautica</i>, Longinus’ (<i>De +Sublim</i>. p. 54, 19) and Quintilian’s (<i>Instit</i>, x. 1, 54) verdict of +mediocrity seems hardly deserved; although it lacks the naturalness +of Homer, it possesses a certain simplicity and contains +some beautiful passages. There is a valuable collection of +scholia. The work, highly esteemed by the Romans, was +imitated by Virgil (<i>Aeneid</i>, iv.), Varro Atacinus, and Valerius +Flaccus. Marianus (about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 500) paraphrased it in iambic +trimeters. Apollonius also wrote epigrams; grammatical and +critical works; and <span class="grk" title="Ktiseis">Κτίσεις</span> (the foundations of cities).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Editio Princeps</i> (Florence, 1496); Merkel-Keil (with scholia, 1854); +Seaton (1900). English translations: Verse, by Greene (1780); +Fawkes (1780); Preston (1811); Way (1901); Prose by Coleridge +(1889); see also Couat, <i>La Poésie alexandrine</i>; Susemihl, <i>Geschichte +der griech. Lit. in der alexandnnischen Zeit.</i></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOLLONIUS OF TRALLES<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (in Caria), a Greek sculptor, who +flourished in the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> With his brother Tauriscus, +he executed the marble group known as the Farnese Bull, representing +Zethus and Amphion tying the revengeful Dirce to +the tail of a wild bull.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>, pl. i. fig. 51.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOLLONIUS OF TYANA,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> a Greek philosopher of the Neo-Pythagorean +school, born a few years before the Christian era. +He studied at Tarsus and in the temple of Asclepius at Aegae, +where he devoted himself to the doctrines of Pythagoras and +adopted the ascetic habit of life in its fullest sense. He travelled +through Asia and visited Nineveh, Babylon and India, imbibing +the oriental mysticism of magi, Brahmans and gymnosophists. +The narrative of his travels given by his disciple Damis and +reproduced by Philostratus is so full of the miraculous that many +have regarded him as an imaginary character. On his return +to Europe he was saluted as a magician, and received the greatest +reverence from priests and people generally. He himself claimed +only the power of foreseeing the future; yet in Rome it was said +that he raised from death the body of a noble lady. In the halo +of his mysterious power he passed through Greece, Italy and +Spain. It was said that he was accused of treason both by Nero +and by Domitian, but escaped by miraculous means. Finally +he set up a school at Ephesus, where he died, apparently at the +age of a hundred years. Philostratus keeps up the mystery of +his hero’s life by saying, “Concerning the manner of his death, +<i>if he did die</i>, the accounts are various.” The work of Philostratus +composed at the instance of Julia, wife of Severus, is generally +regarded as a religious work of fiction. It contains a number of +obviously fictitious stories, through which, however, it is not +impossible to discern the general character of the man. In the 3rd +century, Hierocles (<i>q.v.</i>) endeavoured to prove that the doctrines +and the life of Apollonius were more valuable than those of Christ, +and, in modern times, Voltaire and Charles Blount (1654-1693), +the English freethinker, have adopted a similar standpoint. Apart +from this extravagant eulogy, it is absurd to regard Apollonius +merely as a vulgar charlatan and miracle-monger. If we cut +away the mass of mere fiction which Philostratus accumulated, +we have left a highly imaginative, earnest reformer who laboured +to infuse into the flaccid dialectic of paganism a saner spirit of +practical morality.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L. Dyer, <i>Studies of the Gods in Greece</i> (New York, 1891); +A. Chassang, <i>Le Merveilleux dans l’antiquité</i> (1882); D.M. Tredwell, +<i>Sketch of the Life of Apollonius of Tyana</i> (New York, 1886); F.C. +Baur, <i>Apollonius von Tyana und Christus</i>, ed. Ed. Zeller (Leipzig, +1876,—an attempt to show that Philostratus’s story is merely a pagan +counterblast to the New Testament history); J. Jessen, <i>Apollonius +v. Tyana und sein Biograph Philostratos</i> (Hamburg, 1885); J. Göttsching, +<i>Apollonius von Tyana</i> (Berlin, 1889); J.A. Froude, <i>Short +Studies</i>, vol. iv.; G.R.S. Mead, <i>Apollonius of Tyana</i> (London, 1901); +B.L. Gildersleeve, <i>Essays and Studies</i> (New York, 1890); Philostratus’s +<i>Life of Apollonius</i> (Eng. trans. New York, 1905); O. de B. +Priaulx, <i>The Indian Travels of Apollonius</i> (1873); F.W.G. Campbell, +<i>Apoll. of Tyana</i> (1908); see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neo-Pythagoreanism</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOLLONIUS OF TYRE,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> a medieval tale supposed to be +derived from a lost Greek original. The earliest mention of the +story is in the <i>Carmina</i> (Bk. vi. 8, II. 5-6) of Venantius Fortunatus, +in the second half of the 6th century, and the romance +may well date from three centuries earlier. It bears a marked +resemblance to the <i>Antheia and Habrokomes</i> of Xenophon of +Ephesus. The story relates that King Antiochus, maintaining +incestuous relations with his daughter, kept off her suitors by +asking them a riddle, which they must solve on pain of losing +their heads. Apollonius of Tyre solved the riddle, which had +to do with Antiochus’s secret. He returned to Tyre, and, to +escape the king’s vengeance, set sail in search of a place of refuge. +In Cyrene he married the daughter of King Archistrates, and +presently, on receiving news of the death of Antiochus, departed +to take possession of the kingdom of Antioch, of which he was, +for no clear reason, the heir. On the voyage his wife died, or +rather seemed to die, in giving birth to a daughter, and the +sailors demanded that she should be thrown overboard. Apollonius +left his daughter, named Tarsia, at Tarsus in the care +of guardians who proved false to their trust. Father, mother, +and daughter were only reunited after fourteen years’ separation +and many vicissitudes. The earliest Latin MS. of this tale, +preserved at Florence, dates from the 9th or 10th century. +The pagan features of the supposed original are by no means +all destroyed. The ceremonies observed by Tarsia at her nurse’s +grave, and the preparations for the burning of the body of +Apollonius’s wife, are purely pagan. The riddles which Tarsia +propounds to her father are obviously interpolated. They are +taken from the <i>Enigmata</i> of Caelius Firmianus Symposius. The +many inconsistencies of the story seem to be best explained by +the supposition (E. Rohde, <i>Der griechische Roman</i>, 2nd ed., +1900, pp. 435 <i>et seq</i>.) that the Antiochus story was originally +entirely separate from the story of Apollonius’s wanderings, +and was clumsily tacked on by the Latin author. The romance +kept its form through a vast number of medieval rearrangements, +and there is little change in its outlines as set forth in the Shakespearian +play of <i>Pericles</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Latin tale is preserved in about 100 MSS., and was printed +by M. Velser (Augsburg, 1595), by J. Lapaume in <i>Script. Erot</i>. (Didot, +Paris, 1856), and by A. Riese in the <i>Bibl. Teubneriana</i> (1871, new ed. +1893). The most widespread versions in the middle ages were those +of Godfrey of Viterbo in his <i>Pantheon</i> (1185), where it is related as +authentic history, and in the <i>Gesta Romanorum</i> (cap. 153), which +formed the basis of the German folk-tale by H. Steinhöwel (Augsburg, +1471), the Dutch version (Delft, 1493), the French in <i>Le Violier +des histoires romaines</i> (Paris, 1521), the English, by Laurence Twine +(London, 1576, new ed. 1607), also of the Scandinavian, Czech, and +Hungarian tales.</p> + +<p>In England a translation was made as early as the 11th century +(ed. B. Thorpe, 1834, and J. Zupitza in <i>Archiv für neuere Sprachen</i>, +1896); there is a Middle English metrical version (J.O. Halliwell, +<i>A New Boke about Shakespeare</i>, 1850), by a poet who says he was +vicar of Wimborne; John Gower uses the tale as an example of the +seventh deadly sin in the eighth book of his <i>Confessio Amantis</i>; +Robert Copland translated a prose romance of <i>Kynge Apollyne of +Thyre</i> (Wynkyn de Worde, 1510) from the French; <i>Pericles</i> was +entered at Stationers’ Hall in 1607, and was followed in the next +year by George Wilkins’s novel, <i>The Painfull Adventures of Pericles, +Prynce of Tyre</i> (ed. Tycho Mommsen, Oldenburg, 1857), and George +Lillo drew his play <i>Marina</i> (1738) from the piece associated with +Shakespeare; <i>Orendel</i>, by a Middle High German minnesinger, +contains some of the episodes of <i>Apollonius</i>; Heinrich von Neustadt +wrote a poem of 20,000 lines on <i>Apollonius von Tyrland</i> (<i>c</i>. 1400); +the story was well known in Spanish, <i>Libre de Apolonio</i> (verse, <i>c</i>. +1200), and in J. de Timoneda’s <i>Patrañuelo</i> (1576); in French much +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189"></a>189</span> +of it was embodied in <i>Jourdain de Blaives</i> (13th cent.), and it also +appears in Italian and medieval Greek. See A.H. Smyth, <i>Shakespeare’s +Pericles and Apollonius of Tyre</i> (Philadelphia, 1898); Elimar +Klebs, <i>Die Erzahlung van A. aus Tyrus</i> (Berlin, 1899); S. Singer, +<i>Apollonius van Tyrus</i> (Halle, 1895).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOLLOS<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Apollos">Άπολλώς</span>; contracted from Apollonius), an +Alexandrine Jew who after Paul’s first visit to Corinth worked +there in a similar way (1 Cor. iii. 6). He was with Paul at a +later date in Ephesus (1 Cor. xvi. 12). In 1 Cor. i. 10-12 we read +of four parties in the Corinthian church, of which two attached +themselves to Paul and Apollos respectively, using their names, +though the “division” can hardly have been due to conflicting +doctrines. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paul</a></span>.) From Acts xviii. 24-28 we learn that he +spoke and taught with power and success. He may have captivated +his hearers by teaching “wisdom,” as P.W. Schmiedel +suggests, in the allegorical style of Philo, and he was evidently +a man of unusual magnetic force. There seems to be some contradiction +between Acts xviii. 25 <i>a b</i> and Acts xviii. 25 <i>c</i>, 26 <i>b c</i>; +and it has been suggested that these latter passages are subsequent +accretions. Since Apollos was a Christian and “taught +exactly,” he could hardly have been acquainted only with +John’s baptism or have required to be taught Christianity more +thoroughly by Aquila and Priscilla. Martin Luther regarded +Apollos as the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, and many +scholars since have shared his view.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Jerome says that Apollos was so dissatisfied with the division at +Corinth, that he retired into Crete with Zenas, a doctor of the law; +and that the schism having been healed by Paul’s letter to the +Corinthians, Apollos returned to the city, and became its bishop. +Less probable traditions assign to him the bishopric of Duras, or of +Iconium in Phrygia, or of Caesarea.</p> + +<p>See the articles in the <i>Encyclopaedia Biblica</i>; Herzog-Hauck, +<i>Realencyklopadie</i>; <i>The Jewish Encyclopaedia</i>; Hastings’ <i>Dictionary +of the Bible</i>; and cf. Weizsäcker, <i>Das apostolische Zeitalter</i>; A.C. +McGiffert, <i>History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOLLYON,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> the “foul fiend” who assaulted Christian on +his pilgrimage through the Valley of Humiliation in John +Bunyan’s great allegory. The name (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Apollyon">Άπολλύων</span>), which +means “destroyer” (<span class="grk" title="apollyein">ἀπολλύειν</span>, to destroy), is taken from +Rev. ix. 11, where it represents the Hebrew word <i>Abaddon</i> (lit. +“place of destruction,” but here personified). The identification +with the Asmodeus (<i>q.v.</i>) of Tobit iii. 8 is erroneous.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOLOGETICS,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> in theology, the systematic statement of the +grounds which Christians allege for belief in (at least) a <i>supernatural +revelation</i> and a <i>divine redemption</i> (cf. <i>e.g.</i> Heb. i. 1-3). +The majority of apologists in the past have further believed in +an <i>infallible Bible</i>; but they admit this position can only be +reached at a late stage in the argument. We should note, however, +that even a liberal orthodoxy, while saying nothing about +infallibility, is pledged to the <i>essential</i> authority of the Bible; +it cannot <i>e.g.</i> simply ignore the Old Testament with F.E.D. +Schleiermacher. Catholic apologetics must further give a +central position to <i>Church</i> authority, which Roman Catholics +explicitly define as infallible; but this position too is debated +in a late section of their system. On the other hand, there may +be a Christianity which seeks to extricate the “spiritual” from +the “supernatural” (Arnold Toynbee, characterizing T.H. Green). +It would only lead to confusion, however, if we called this method +“apologetic.” Any <i>single</i> effort in apologetics may be termed +“an apology.” More elaborate contrasts have been proposed +between the two words, but are of little practical importance.</p> + +<p>I. <i>The Word itself.</i>—In Greek, <span class="grk" title="apologia">ἀπολογία</span> is the defendant’s reply +(personally, not through a lawyer) to the speech for the prosecution—<span class="grk" title="kataegoria">κατηγορία</span>. +Sometimes defendants’ speeches passed into +literature, <i>e.g.</i> Plato’s splendid version of the <i>Apology</i> of Socrates. +Thus, in view of persecution or slander, the Christian church +naturally produced literary “Apologies,” The word has never +quite lost this connotation of standing on the defensive and +rebutting criticism; <i>e.g.</i> Anselm’s <i>Apologia contra insipientem +Gaunilonem</i> (<i>c.</i> 1100); or the Lutheran <i>Apology for the Augsburg +Confession</i> (1531); or J.H. Newman’s <i>Apologia pro vita sua</i> +(1864); or A.B. Bruce’s <i>Apologetics; or Christianity Defensively +Stated</i> (1892). Of course, defence easily passes into counterattack, +as when early apologists denounce Greek and Roman +religion. Yet the purpose may be defence even then. And +there is perhaps a reason of a deeper kind for holding Apologetics +to the defensive. Christianity is a prophetic religion. Now a +prophet does not argue; he declares what he feels to be God’s +will. For himself, he rests, like the mystic, upon an immediate +vision of truth; but he differs from most mystics in having a +message for others; and—again unlike most mystics—he +addresses the hearer’s <i>conscience</i>, which we might call (in one +sense) the mystic element in every man—or better, perhaps, the +prophetic. Can the positive grounds for a prophet’s message +be analysed and stated in terms of argument? If so, apologetics +is literally a science, and it is pedantry to claim the defensive +and pretend to throw the <i>onus probandi</i> upon objectors. But, +if not, then apologetics is a mere auxiliary, and is only “a +science” in so far as it presents a <i>conscious</i> and <i>systematic</i> plea. +Bruce’s title, and his programme of “succouring distressed faith,” +imply the latter alternative; the moral appeal of Christianity, +primary and essential; its confirmation by argument, secondary. +The view has its difficulties; but it is hignly suggestive.</p> + +<p>The word <span class="grk" title="apologia">ἀπολογία</span> is used by Origen (<i>Contra Cel.</i> ii. 65, v. 19) +of the general Christian defence. But the introduction of the +adjective “apologetic” and of the substantive “apologetics” is +recent. They are serviceable as bracketing together (1) Natural +Theology or Theism, (2) Christian Evidences—chiefly “miracles” +and “prophecy”; or, on a more modern view, chiefly the +character and personality of Christ. The lower usage of Apology +(as expression of regret for a fault) has tipped many a sarcasm +besides George III.’s on the occasion of Bishop Watson’s book, +“I did not know that the Bible needed an apology!”</p> + +<p>II. <i>Apologetics in the Bible.</i>—The Old Testament does not +argue in support of its beliefs, unless when (chiefly in parts of +the Wisdom literature) it seeks to rebut moral difficulties (cf. +T.K. Cheyne, <i>Job and Solomon</i>; A.S. Peake, <i>Problem of Suffering +in the Old Testament</i>, 1904). The New Testament reflects +chiefly controversy with Jews. Great emphasis is laid upon +alleged fulfilments—striking or fanciful, but very generally +striking to that age—of Old Testament prophecy (Matt. especially; +rather differently Ep. to Heb.). The miracles of Jesus are +also canvassed. Jews do not deny their wonderful character, +but attribute them to black art (Mark iii. 22 &c., &c.). On the +other hand, Christians and Jews are pretty well agreed on natural +theology; so the New Testament tends to take its theism for +granted. However, Rom. i. 20 has had great influence on +Christian theology (<i>e.g.</i> Thomas Aquinas) in leading it to base +theism upon reason or argument. One apologetic contention, +aimed at Gentile readers, is found among the motives of Acts. +Christianity is not a lawless but an excellent law-abiding faith. +So (it is alleged) rulers, both Jewish and Gentile, have often +admitted (xviii. 14; xix. 37; xxiii. 9; xxvi. 32).</p> + +<p>III. <i>Early Christian.</i>—When we leave the New Testament, +apologetics becomes conspicuous until the political triumph of +Christianity, and even somewhat later. The atmosphere is no +longer Jewish but fully Greek. True there are, as always, +Jewish controversialists. Justin Martyr writes a <i>Dialogue with +Trypho</i>; Origen deals with many anti-Christian arguments +borrowed by Celsus from a certain nameless Jew. Yet Greece +was the sovereign power in all the world of ancient culture. +And so Christianity was necessarily Hellenized, necessarily +philosophized. One result was to bring natural theology into +the forefront. A pure morality, belief in one God, hopes extending +beyond death—these appealed to the age; the Church +taught them as philosophically true <i>and</i> divinely revealed. +But, further still, philosophy offered a vehicle which could be +applied to the contents of Christianity. The Platonic or eclectic +theism, which adopted the conception of the Logos, made a +place for Christ in terms of philosophy within the Godhead. +(John i. 1 may or may not be affected by Philo; it is almost or +quite solitary in the N.T.) Similarly, the immortality of the +soul may be maintained on Platonic or quasi-Platonic lines, as +by St Athanasius (<i>Contra Gentes</i>, § 33)—a writer who repeatedly +quotes the Alexandrian Book of Wisdom, in which Platonism +and the Old Testament had already joined partnership. This +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page190" id="page190"></a>190</span> +phase of Platonism, however, was much more slowly adopted. +The earlier apologists dispute the natural immortality of the +soul; Athanasius himself, in <i>De Incarnatione Dei</i>, §§ 4, 5, tones +down the teaching of <i>Wisdom</i>; and the somewhat eccentric +writer Arnobius, a layman—from Justin Martyr downwards +apologetics has always been largely in the hands of laymen—stands +for what has recently been called “conditional immortality”—eternal +life for the righteous, the children of God, alone.</p> + +<p>Allied with this more empiricist stand-point is the assertion +that Greek philosophy borrowed from Moses; but in studying +the Fathers we constantly find that groundless assertion +uttered in the same breath with the dominant Idealist view, +according to which Greek philosophy was due to incomplete +revelation from the divine Logos.</p> + +<p>On purely defensive lines, early apologists rebut charges of +cannibalism and sexual promiscuity; the Christians had to +meet in secret, and the gossip of a rotten age drew malignant +conclusions. They make counter attacks on polytheism as a +folly and on the shamefulness of obscene myths. Here they are +in line with non-Christian writers or culture-mockers like Lucian +of Samosata; or graver spirits like Porphyry, who champions +Neo-Platonism as a rival to Christianity, and does pioneer work +in criticism by attacks on some of the Old Testament books. +Turning to Christian evidence proper, we are struck with the +continued prominence of the argument from prophecy. The +Old Testament was an immense religious asset to the early +church. Their enemies had nothing like it; and—the N.T. +canon being as yet but half formed—the Old Testament was +pushed into notice by dwelling on this imperfect “argument,” +which grew more extravagant as the partial control exercised +by Jewish learning disappeared. An argument from miracles +is also urged, though with more reserve. Formally, every one +in that age admitted the supernatural. The question was, +whose supernatural? And how far did it carry you? Miracle +could not be to a 3rd century writer what it was to W. Paley—a +conclusive and well-nigh solitary proof. Other apologies are +by Aristides (recently recovered in translation), Athenagoras +(“elegant”), Eusebius of Caesarea, Cyril of Alexandria; in +Latin by Minucius Felix, Tertullian (a masculine spirit and +phrase-coiner like T. Carlyle, if bitterer still), Lactantius Firmianus, +&c., &c.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>As Christianity wins the day, a new objection is raised to it. +The age is full of troubles; Christianity is ruining the empire! +Besides notices elsewhere, we find the charge specially dealt +with by St Augustine and his friends. Paulus Orosius argues +that the world has always been a vale of tears. Salvian contends +that not the acceptance of Christianity, but the sins of the people +are bringing trouble upon them; and he gives ugly evidence +of the continued prevalence of vice. Most impressive of all +was Augustine’s own contribution in <i>The City of God</i>. Powers +created by worldliness and sin are crumbling, as they well +may; “the city of God remaineth!” Whether he meant it +so or not, the saint’s argument became a programme and an +apologia for the imperializing of the Western Church under the +leadership of Rome during the middle ages.</p> + +<p>IV. <i>Middle Ages.</i>—From the point of view of apologetics, we +may mass together the long stretch of history which covers the +period between the disappearance and the re-appearance of free +discussion. When emperors became converts, the church, so +lately a victim and a pleader for liberty, readily learned to +persecute. Under such conditions there is little scope for +apologetics. Force kills argument and drives doubt below the +smooth surface of a nominal conformity. But there were two +influences beyond the bounds or beyond the power of the +christianized empire. The Jew remained, as always, stubbornly +unconvinced, and, as often, fond of slanders. Many of the +principal medieval attempts in apologetics are directed chiefly +against him, <i>e.g.</i> the <i>Pugio Fidei</i> of Raymond Martini (<i>c.</i> 1280), +which became one of Pascal’s sources (see V. below), or Peter +Abelard’s <i>Dialogus inter Judaeum Philosophum et Christianum</i>. +And the Moslem came on the scenes bringing, as a gift for +Christendom, fuller knowledge of classical, especially Aristotelian, +texts. The Jews, less bitterly opposed to Mahommedanism +than the Christians were, caught fire more rapidly, +and in some cases served as an intermediate link or channel +of communication. These two religions anticipated the discussion +of the problem of faith and reason in the Christian +church. According to the great Avicenna and Maimonides, +faith and the highest reason are sure to coincide (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arabian +Philosophy</a></span>). According to Ghazali, in his <i>Destruction of Philosophers</i>, +the various schools of philosophy cancel each other; +reason is bankrupt; faith is everything. (So nearly Jehuda +Halevi.) According to Averroes, reason suffices, and faith, with +(what he considers) its dreams of immortality and the like, is +useful only for the ignorant masses. Christian theology, however, +strikes out a line of its own. Moslems and Jews were +applying Aristotelian philosophy to rigorously monotheistic +faiths; Christianity had been encouraged by Platonism in +teaching a trinity of divine persons, and Platonism of a certain +order long dominated the middle ages as part of the Augustinian +tradition. In sympathy with this Platonism, the medieval +church began by assuming the entire mutual harmony of faith +and reason. Such is the teaching, along different lines, alike +of St Anselm and of Abelard. But, when increased knowledge +of Aristotle’s texts (and of the commentaries) led to the victory +of a supposed Aristotelianism over a supposed Platonism, +Albertus Magnus, and his still more distinguished pupil Thomas +Aquinas, mark certain doctrines as belonging to faith but not +to reason. They adhere to the general position with exceptions +(in the case of what had been considered Platonic doctrines). +From the point of view of philosophy, this was a compromise. +Faith and reason partly agree, partly diverge. The tendency +of the later middle ages is to add to the number of the doctrines +with which philosophy cannot deal. Thomas’s great rival, Duns +Scotus, does this to a large extent, at times affirming “two +truths.” The latter position, ascribed by the schoolmen to the +Averroists, becomes dominant among the later Nominalists, +William of Occam and his disciples, who withdraw <i>all</i> doctrines +of faith from the sphere of reason. This was a second and a +more audacious compromise. It is not exactly an attempt to +base Christian faith on rational scepticism. It is a consistent +policy of harbouring inconsistencies in the same mind. A +statement may be true in philosophy and false in theology, or +vice versa. To the standpoint of Aquinas, however, the Church +of Rome (at least in regard to the basis of doctrine) has more +and more returned. The councils of Trent and of the Vatican +mark the Two Truths hypothesis as heretical, when they affirm +that there <i>is</i> a natural knowledge of God and natural certainty +of immortality. Along with this affirmation, the Church of +Rome (if less decisively) has adopted the limitations of the +Thomist theory by the condemnation of “Ontologism”; +certain mysterious doctrines are beyond reason. This cautious +compromise sanctioned by the Church does not represent the +<i>extremest</i> reaction against nominalism. Even in the nominalistic +epoch we have Raymond of Sabunde’s <i>Natural Theology</i> (according +to the article in Herzog-Hauck, not the title of the oldest +Paris MS., but found in later MSS. and almost all the printed +editions) or <i>Liber Creaturarum</i> (<i>c.</i> 1435). The book is not what +moderns (schooled unconsciously in post-Reformation developments +of Thomist ideas) expect under the name of natural +theology. It is an attempt once more to demonstrate <i>all</i> +scholastic dogmas out of the book of creation or on principles +of natural reason. At many points it follows Anselm closely, +and, of course, very often “makes light work” of its task.</p> + +<p>The Thomist compromise—or even the more sceptical view +of “two truths”—has the merit of giving filling <i>of a kind</i> to +the formula “supernatural revelation”—mysteries inaccessible +to reason, beyond discovery and beyond comprehension. +According to earlier views—repeatedly revived in Protestantism—revelation +is just philosophy over again. Can the choice be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page191" id="page191"></a>191</span> +fairly stated? If revelation is thought of as God’s personal +word, and redemption as his personal deed, is it reasonable to +view them either as open to a sort of scientific prediction or as +capricious and unintelligible? Even in the middle ages there +were not wanting those—the St Victors, Bonaventura—who +sought to vindicate mystical if not moral redemption as the +central thought of Christianity.</p> + +<p>V. <i>Earlier Modern Period.</i>—It will be seen that apologetics by +no means reissued unchanged from the long period of authority. +The compromise of Aquinas, though not unchallenged, holds the +field and that even with Protestants. G.W. Leibnitz devotes +an introductory chapter in his <i>Théodicée</i>, 1710 (as against Pierre Bayle), to faith and reason. He is a good enough Lutheran to +quote as a “mystery” the Eucharist no less than the Trinity, +while he insists that truths <i>above</i> are not <i>against</i> reason. Stated thus baldly, has the distinction any meaning? The more celebrated +and central thesis of the book—this finite universe, the +best of all such that are possible—also restates positions of +Augustine and Aquinas.</p> + +<p>Before modern philosophy began its career, there was a great +revival of ancient philosophy at the Renaissance; sometimes +anti-Christian, sometimes pro-Christian. The latter furnishes +apologies by Marsilio Ficino, Agostino Steuco, J.L. Vives.</p> + +<p>Early in the modern period occurs the great name of Blaise +Pascal (1623-1662). A staunch Roman Catholic, but belonging +to a school of Augustinian enthusiasts (the Jansenists), whom +the Church put down as heretics, he stands pretty much apart +from the general currents. His <i>Pensées</i>, published posthumously, +seems to have been meant for a systematic treatise, but it +has come to us in fragments. Once again, a lay apologist! A +layman’s work may have the advantage of originality or the +drawback of imperfect knowledge. Pascal’s work exhibits both +characters. It has the originality of rare genius, but it borrows +its material (as industrious editors have shown) from very few +sources—the <i>Pugio Fidei</i>, M. de Montaigne, P. Charron. Ideas +as well as learning are largely Montaigne’s. The latter’s cheerful +man-of-the-world scepticism is transfigured in Pascal to a deep +distrust of human reason, in part, perhaps, from anti-Protestant +motives. But this attitude, while not without parallels both +earlier (Ghazali, Jehuda Halevi) and later (H.L. Mansel), has +peculiarities in Pascal. It is <i>fallen</i> man whom he pursues with +his fierce scorn; his view of man’s nature—intellect as well as +character—is to be read in the light of his unflinching Augustinianism. +Again, Pascal, unlike most apologists, belongs to the +small company of saintly souls. This philosophical sceptic is +full of humble joy in salvation, of deep love for the Saviour.</p> + +<p>Another French Roman Catholic apologist, P.D. Huet (1630-1721)—within +the conditions of his age a prodigy of learning +(in apologetics see his <i>Demonstratio Evangelica</i>)—is +not uninfluenced by Pascal (<i>Traité de la faiblesse de l’esprit humaine</i>).</p> + +<p>As we might expect, Protestant lands are more busily occupied +with apologetics. Intolerant reliance upon <i>force</i> presents +greater difficulties to them; soon it grows quite obsolete. Benedict +Spinoza, the eminent Jewish pantheist (1632-1677), to whom +miracle is impossible, revelation a phrase, and who renews +pioneer work in Old Testament criticism, finds at least a fair +measure of liberty and comfort in Holland (his birth-land). +Bayle, the historical sceptic, lectured and published his learned +<i>Dictionnaire</i> (1696) at Rotterdam. From Holland, earlier, had +proceeded an apologetic work by a man of European fame. +Hugo Grotius’s <i>De Veritate Christianae Religionis</i> (1627) is partly +the medieval tradition:—Oppose Mahommedans and Jews! +It is partly practical:—Arm Christian sailors against religious +danger! But in its cool spirit it forecasts the coming age, whose +master is John Locke. His <i>Reasonableness of Christianity</i> (1695) +is the thesis of “a whole century” of theologians. And his <i>Essay +on the Human Understanding</i> (1690) is almost a Bible to men of +education during the same period; its lightest word treasured. +Locke does not break with the compromise of Aquinas. But he +transfers attention from <i>contents</i> to <i>proof</i>. Reason +proves that a revelation has been made-and then submits. Leibnitz +has to supplement rather than correct Locke on this point.</p> + +<p>In such an atmosphere, deism readily uttered its protest +against mysterious revelation. Deism is, in fact, the Thomist +natural theology (more clearly distinguished from dogmatic +theology than in the middle ages, alike by Protestants and by +the post-Tridentine Church of Rome) now dissolving partnership +with dogmatic and starting in business for itself. Or it is the +doctrine of unfallen man’s “natural state”—a doctrine intensified +in Protestantism—separating itself from the theologians’ +grave doctrine of sin. If Socinianism had challenged natural +theology—Christ, according to it, was the prophet who first +revealed the way to eternal life—it had glorified the natural +powers of man; and the learning of the Arminian divines +(friends of Grotius and Locke) had helped to modernize Christian +apologetics upon rational lines. Deism now taught that reason, +or “the light of nature,” was all-sufficient.</p> + +<p>Not to dwell upon earlier continental “Deists” (mentioned by +Viret as quoted first in Bayle’s <i>Dictionary</i> and again in the +introduction to Leland’s <i>View of the Deistical Writers</i>), Lord +Herbert of Cherbury (<i>De Veritate</i>, 1624; <i>De Religione Gentilium</i>, +1645?—according to J.G. Walch’s <i>Bibliotheca Theologica</i> (1757) +not published complete until 1663) was universally understood +as hinting conclusions hostile to Christianity (cf. also T. Hobbes, +<i>Leviathan</i>, 1651, ch. xxxi.; Spinoza, <i>Tractatus Theologico-Politicus</i>, +1670, ch. xiv.). Professedly, Herbert’s contention +merely is that non-Christians feeling after the “supreme God” +and the law of righteousness must have a chance of salvation. +Herbert was also epoch-making for the whole 18th century in +teaching that <i>priests</i> had <i>corrupted</i> this primitive faith. During +the 18th century deism spread widely, though its leaders were +“irrepressible men like Toland, men of mediocre culture and +ability like Anthony Collins, vulgar men like Chubb, irritated +and disagreeable men like Matthew Tindal, who conformed that +he might enjoy his Oxford fellowship and wrote anonymously +that he might relieve his conscience” (A.M. Fairbairn). More +distinguished sympathizers are Edward Gibbon, who has the +deistic spirit, and David Hume, the historian and philosophical +sceptic, who has at least the letter of the deistic creed (<i>Dialogues +Concerning Natural Religion</i>), and who uses Pascal’s appeal to +“faith” in a spirit of mockery (<i>Essay on Miracles</i>). In France +the new school found powerful speaking-trumpets, especially +Voltaire, the idol of his age—a great denier and scoffer, but +always sincerely a believer in the God of reason—and the deeper +but wilder spirit of J.J. Rousseau. Others in France developed +still more startling conclusions from Locke’s principles, E.B. +Condillac’s sensationalism—Locke’s philosophy purged of its +more ideal if less logical elements—leading on to materialism in +J.O. de la Mettrie; and at least one of the Encyclopedists +(P.H. von Holbach) capped materialism with confessed atheism.</p> + +<p>In Germany the parallel movement of “illumination” (H.S. +Reimarus; J.S. Semler, pioneer in N.T. criticism; and a +layman, the great Lessing) took the form of “rationalism” +within the church—interpreting Bible texts by main force in a +way which the age thought “enlightened” (H.E.G. Paulus, +1761-1851, &c.).</p> + +<p>Among the innumerable English anti-deistic writers (see +W. Law, The <i>Case of Reason</i>; R. Bentley, or “Phileleutherus +Lipsiensis”; &c., &c.), three are of chief importance. Nathaniel +Lardner (Arian, 1684-1768) stands in the front rank of the +scholarship of his time, and uses his vast knowledge to maintain +the genuineness of all books of the New Testament and the +perfect accuracy of its history. Joseph Butler, a very original, +careful and honest thinker, lifts controversy with deists from +details to principles in his <i>Analogy of Religion both Natural and +Revealed to the Constitution and Course of Nature</i> (1736). This +title introduces us to a new conception. Deists and orthodox +in those days agreed in recognizing not merely natural theology +but natural religion—“essential religion,” Butler more than +once styles it; the expression shows how near he stood intellectually +to those he criticized. But morally he stood aloof. +In part i.—on Natural Religion—he defends a moral or punishing +Deity against the sentimental softness of the age. The God of +Nature, whom deists confess does punish in time, if they will +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192"></a>192</span> +but look at the facts; why not in eternity? “Morality,” as +others have confessed, is “the nature of things”! Not the Being +of God is discussed—Butler will not waste words on triflers (as +he thinks them) who deny that—but God’s character. Unfortunately +(perhaps) Butler prefers to argue on <i>admitted +principles</i>; holds much of his own moral belief in reserve; +tries to reduce everything to a question of <i>probable fact</i>. If +this hampers him in part i., the situation appears still worse in +part ii., which is directly occupied with the defence of Christianity. +Butler says nothing about incomprehensible mysteries, +and protests that reason is the only ground we have to proceed +upon. But by treating the atonement simply as revealed (and +unexplained) matter of fact—in spite of some partial analogies +in human experience, a thing essentially anomalous—Butler +repeats, and applies to the <i>moral</i> contents of Christianity, what +Aquinas said of its speculative doctrines. (Whether one calls the +unknowable a revealed mystery or an unexplained and inexplicable +fact makes little difference.) William Paley (1743-1805) +borrows from many writers; he borrows Lardner’s learning +and Butler’s “particular evidence for Christianity,” viz. miracles, +prophecy and “history”; and he states his points with perfect +clearness. No man ever filled a typical position more exactly +than Paley. Eighteenth-century ethics—Hedonism, with a +theological background. Empiricist Natural Theology—the +argument from Design. Christian Evidences—the strong +probability of the resurrection of Christ and the consequent +authority of his teaching. <i>Horae Paulinae</i>—mutual confirmations +of <i>Acts</i> and Epistles; better, though one-sided. When +such exclusively “external” arguments are urged, the contents +of Christianity go for next to nothing.</p> + +<p>VI. <i>Later Modern Period.</i>—Towards the end of the 18th century +a new epoch of reconstruction begins in the thought and life of +civilization. The leader in speculative philosophy is Immanuel +Kant, though he includes many agnostic elements, and draws +the inference (which some things in the letter of Butler might +seem to warrant) that the essence of Christianity is an ethical +theism. While he thus created a new and more ethical “rationalism,” +Kant’s many-sided influence, alike in philosophy and in +theology, worked to further issues. He (and other Germans, +but not G.W.F. Hegel) was represented in England in a fragmentary +way by S.T. Coleridge (1772-1834), probably the most +typical figure of his period—another layman. His general +thought was that “rationalism” represents an uprising of the +lower reason or “understanding” against the higher or true +“reason.” The mysteries of theology are its best part—not +alien to reason but of its substance, the “logos.” This is to +upset the compromise of Aquinas and go back to a Christian +platonism. Of course the difficulty revives again: If a philosophy, +why supernaturally revealed? Thomas Arnold, criticizing +Edward Hawkins, appeals rather to the atonement as +deeper neglected truth. So in Scotland, Thomas Erskine and +Thomas Chalmers—the latter in contradiction to his earlier +position—hold that the doctrine of salvation, when translated +into experience, furnishes “internal evidence”—a somewhat +broader use of the phrase than when it applies merely to evidence +of date or authorship drawn from the contents of a book. This +gives a new and moral filling to the conception of “supernatural +revelation” The attempt to work out either of the reactions +against Thomism in new theological systems is pretty much +confined to Germany. Hegel’s theological followers, of every +shade and party, represent the first, and Schleiermacher’s the +second. Schleiermacher rejects natural religion in favour of the +positive religions, while the school of A. Ritschl and W. Herrmann +reject natural theology outright in favour of revelation—a +striking external parallel to early Socinianism. British and +American divines, on the other hand, are slow to suspect that a +new apologetic principle may mean a new system of apologetics, +to say nothing of a new dogmatic. Among the evangelicals, for +the most part, natural theology, far from being rejected, is not +even modified, and certain doctrines continue to be described as +incomprehensible mysteries. No Protestant, of course, can agree +with Roman Catholic theology that (supernatural) faith is an +obedient assent to church authority and the mysteries it dictates. +To Protestantism, faith is personal trust. But the principle is +hardly ever carried out to the end. Mysterious doctrines are +ascribed by Protestants to <i>scripture</i>; so half of revelation is +regarded as matter for blind assent, if another half is luminous +in experience. The movement of German philosophy which led +from Kant to Hegel has indeed found powerful British champions +(T.H. Green, J. and E. Caird, &c.), but less churchly than +Coleridge (or F.D. Maurice or B.F. Westcott), though churchly +again in J.R. Illingworth and other contributors to <i>Lux Mundi</i> +(1890). Before this wave of thought, H.L. Mansel tried (1858) +to play Pascal’s game on Kantian principles, developing the +sceptical side of Kant’s many-faceted mind. But as he protested +against relying on the human conscience—the one element of +positive conviction spared by Kant—his ingenuity found few +admirers except H. Spencer, who claims him as justifying anti-Christian +agnosticism. Butler’s tradition was more directly +continued by J.H. Newman—with modifications on becoming a +Roman Catholic in the light of the church’s decision in favour of +Thomism. A.M. Fairbairn (<i>Catholicism, Roman and Anglican</i>, +ch. v., and elsewhere) and E.A. Abbott (<i>Philomythus</i>, and +elsewhere) suspect Newman of a sceptical leaven and extend the +criticism to Butler’s doctrine of “probability.” Yet it seems +plain that any theology, maintaining redemption as historical +fact (and not merely ideal), must attach religious importance to +conclusions which are technically probable rather than proven. +If we transfer Christian evidence from the “historical” to the +“philosophical” with H. Rashdall—we surely cut down Christianity +to the limits of theism. And the <i>inner</i> mind of Butler +has moral anchorage in the <i>Analogy</i>, quite as much as in the +<i>Sermons</i>. It is in part ii. more than in part i. of his masterpiece +that the light seems to grow dim. Another of the Oxford converts +to Rome, W.G. Ward, made vigorous contributions to +natural theology.</p> + +<p>VII. <i>Contents of Modern Apologetics.</i>—Superficially regarded, +philosophy ebbs and flows, whatever progress the debate may +reveal to speculative insight. Old positions re-emerge from +forgetfulness, and there is always a philosophy to back every +“case.” More visible dangers arise for the apologist in the region +of science, historical or physical. There the progress of truth, +within whatever limits, is manifest. <i>Essays and Reviews</i> (1860) +was a vehement announcement of scientific results—startling +English conservatism awake for the first time. And in the +scientific region the great apologetic classics, like Butler, are +hopelessly out of date. The modern apologist must do ephemeral +work—unless it should chance that he proves to be the skirmisher, +pioneering for a modified dogmatic. He holds a watching +brief. While he must beware of hasty speech, he has often to +plead that new knowledge does not really threaten faith; or +that it is not genuinely established knowledge at all; or else, +that faith has mistaken its own grounds, and will gain strength +by concentrating on its true field. The work is not always well +done; but the Christian church needs it.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Apologetics and Philosophy.</i>—The main part of this subject +is discussed under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Theism</a></span>. Some notes may be added on special +points, (<i>a</i>) Freewill is generally assumed on the Christian side +(R.C. Church; Scottish philosophy; H. Lotze; J. Martineau; +W.G. Ward. Not in a libertarian sense; Leibnitz. New and +obscure issues raised by Kant). But there is no continuous +tradition or steady trend of discussion. (<i>b</i>) Personal immortality +is affirmed as philosophically certain by the Church of Rome +and many Protestant writers. Others teach “conditional immortality.” +Others base the hope on belief in the resurrection +of Christ, (<i>c</i>) Theodicy—the tradition of Leibnitz is preserved +(on libertarian lines) by Martineau (<i>A Study of Religion</i>, 1883). +See also F.R. Tennant’s <i>Origin and Propagation of Sin</i> (1902)—sin +a “bye-product” of a generally good evolution. Others find +in the gospel of redemption the true theodicy. (<i>d</i>) The problem +of Christian apologetic has been simplified in the past by the +prevalence of the Christian ethics and temper even among many +non-Christians (<i>e.g.</i> J.S. Mill). But hereafter it may not prove +possible for the apologist to assume as unchallenged the Christian +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" id="page193"></a>193</span> +moral outlook. Germans have suspected an anti-Christian +strain in Goethe; all the world knows of it in E. von Hartmann +or F. Nietzsche.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Apologetics and Physical Science.</i>—(<i>a</i>) Copernicanism has +won its battles and the Church of Rome would fain have its error +forgotten. The admission is now general that the Bible cannot +be expected to use the language of scientific astronomy. Still, +it is not certain that the shock of Copernicanism on supernatural +Christianity is exhausted. (<i>b</i>) Geology has also won its battles, +and few now try to harmonize it with Genesis. (<i>c</i>) Evolution +came down from the clouds when C. Darwin and A.R. Wallace +succeeded in displacing the naïf conception of special creation +by belief in the origin of species out of other species through a +process of natural law. This gave immense vogue to wider and +vaguer theories of evolutionary process, notably to H. Spencer’s +grandiose cosmic formula in terms of mechanism. Here the +apologist has more to say. The special Darwinian hypothesis—natural +“selection”—may or may not be true; it was at least +a fruitful suggestion. If true, it need not be exhaustive. Again, +evolution itself need not apply everywhere. We are offered a +philosophical rather than a scientific speculation when E. Caird +(<i>Evolution of Religion</i>, 1893) tries to vindicate Christianity as +the highest working of nature—true just <i>because</i> evolved from +lower religions. The Christian apologist indeed may himself +seek, following John Fiske, to philosophize evolution as a restatement +of natural theology—“one God, one law, one element +and one far-off divine event”—and as at least pointing <i>towards</i> +personal immortality. But if evolution is to be the whole truth +regarding Christianity, we should have to surrender both <i>supernatural +revelation</i> and <i>divine redemption</i>. And these, it may +be strongly urged, contain the magic of Christianity. Losing +them it might sink into a lifeless theory.</p> + +<p>As far as pure science goes, the inference from science in +favour of materialism has visibly lost much of its plausibility, +and Protestant apologists would probably be prepared to accept +in advance all verified discoveries as belonging to a different +region from that of faith. Roman Catholic apologetic prefers to +negotiate in detail.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Apologetics and History.</i>—History brings us nearer the +heart of the Christian position. (<i>a</i>) Old Testament criticism +won startling victories towards the end of the 19th century. It +blots out much supposed knowledge, but throws a vivid and +interesting light on the reconstrued process of history. Most +Protestants accept the general scheme of criticism; those who +hang back make not a few concessions (<i>e.g.</i> J. Orr, <i>Problem of +the O.T.</i>, 1906). The Roman Catholic Church again prefers an +attitude of reserve, (<i>b</i>) New Testament criticism raises even +more delicate issues. Positively it may be affirmed that the +recovered figure of the historical Jesus is the greatest asset in +the possession of modern Christian theology and apologetics. +The “Lives” of Christ, Roman Catholic and Protestant; +“critical” (D.F. Strauss, A. Renan, &c., &c.) and “believing,” +imply this at least. Negatively, “unchallenged historical +certainties” are becoming few in number, or are disappearing +altogether, through the industry of modern minds. True, the +Tübingen criticism of F.C. Baur and his school—important as +the first scientific attempt to conceive New Testament conditions +and literature as a whole—has been abandoned. (A. Ritschl’s +<i>Entstehung der alt-katholischen Kirche</i>, 2nd edition, 1857, was an +especially telling reply.) The synoptic gospels are now treated +with considerable respect. It is no longer suggested in responsible +quarters that they are party documents sacrificing truth to +“tendency.” But not all quarters are responsible; and in the +effort to grasp scientifically, <i>i.e.</i> accurately, the amazing facts of +Christ and primitive Christianity, every imaginable hypothesis +is canvassed. Even the Roman Catholic Church produced the +Abbé Loisy (though he undertakes to play off church certainties +against historical uncertainties). Hitherto at least the fourth +gospel has been the touchstone. The authorship of the epistles +is in many cases a matter of subordinate importance; at least +for Protestants or for those surrendering Bible infallibility, +which Rome can hardly do. (<i>c</i>) New Testament history, +The apologist must maintain (1) that Jesus of Nazareth is a +real historical figure—a point well-nigh overlooked by Strauss, +and denied by some modern advocates of a mythical theory; +(2) that Jesus is knowable (not one “of whom we really know +very little”—B. Jowett) in his teaching, example, character, +historical personality; and that he is full of moral splendour. +On the other hand, faith has no special interest in claiming that +we can compose a biographical study of the development of +Jesus. Certainly no early writer thought of providing material +for such use. It is a common opinion in Germany that our +material is in fact too scanty or too self-contradictory. Yet the +fascination of the subject will always revive the attempt. If it +succeeds, there will be a new line of communication along +which that great personality will tell on men’s minds and +hearts. If it fails—there are other channels; character can be +known and trusted even when we are baffled by a thing necessarily +so full of mystery as the development of a personality. +Notably, the manifest <i>non-consciousness of personal guilt</i> in +Jesus suggests to us his sinlessness. (3) Apologists maintain +that Jesus “claimed” Messiahship. There are speculative +constructions of gospel history which eliminate that claim; +and no doubt apologetics could—with more or less difficulty—restate +its position in a changed form if the paradox of to-day +became accepted as historical fact to-morrow. The central +apologetic thesis is the <i>uniqueness</i> of the “only-begotten”; it +is here that “the supernatural” passes into the substance of +Christian faith. But most probably the description of Jesus as +thus unique will continue to be associated with the allegation—He +told us so; he claimed Messiahship and “died for the +claim.” (See preface to 5th ed. of <i>Ecce Homo</i>.) Nor did so +superhuman a claim crush him, or deprive his soul of its balance. +He imparted to the title a grander significance out of the riches +of his personality. (4) In the light of this the “argument from +prophecy” is reconstructed. It ceases to lay much stress upon +coincidences between Old Testament predictions or “types” +and events in Christ’s career. It becomes the assertion; historically, +providentially, the expectation of a <i>unique religious figure</i> +arose—“the” Messiah; and Jesus gave himself to be thought +of as that great figure. (5) It is also claimed as certain that Jesus +had marvellous powers of healing. More reserve is being shown +towards the other or “nature” miracles. These latter, it may +be remarked, are more unambiguously supernatural. But, if +Jesus really cured leprosy or really restored the dead to life, we +have miracle plainly enough in the region of healing. (6) For +Jesus’ own resurrection several lines of evidence are alleged. +(i.) All who believe that in any sense Christ rose again insist upon +the impression which his personality made during life. It was <i>he</i> +whose resurrection seemed credible! Some practically stop here; +the apologist proceeds. (ii.) There is the report of the empty +grave; historically, not easily waved aside. (iii.) We have New +Testament reports of appearances of the risen Jesus; subjective? +the mere clothing of the impression made by his personality +during life? or objective? “telegrams” from heaven (Th. +Keim)—“Veridical Hallucinations”? or something even more, +throwing a ray of light perhaps on the state and powers of the +happy dead? (iv.) There is the immense influence of Jesus Christ +in history, <i>associated with belief in him</i> as the risen Son of God.</p> + +<p>In view of the claims of Jesus, different possibilities arise, +(i.) The evangelists impute to him a higher claim than he +made. This may be called the rationalistic solution; with +sympathy in Christ’s ethical teaching, there is relief at minimizing +his great claim. So, brilliantly, Wellhausen’s Gospel commentaries +and Introduction. (Mark fairly historical; other +gospels’ fuller account of Christ’s teaching and claims unreliable.) +(ii.) The claim was fraudulent (Reimarus; Renan, +ed. 1; popular anti-Christian agitation). This is a counsel of +despair. (iii.) He was an enthusiastic dreamer, expecting the +world’s end. This the apologist will recognize as the most +plausible hostile alternative. He may feel bound to admit an +element of illusion in Christ’s vision’ of the future; but he will +contend that the apocalyptic form did not destroy the spiritual +content of Christ’s revelations—nay, that it was itself the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194"></a>194</span> +vehicle of great truths. So he will argue as the essence of the +matter that (iv.) he who has occupied Christ’s place in history, +and won such reverence from the purest souls, was what he +claimed to be, and that his many-sidedness comes to focus and +harmony when we recognize him as the Christ of God and the +Saviour of the world.</p> + +<p>To a less extent, similar problems and alternatives arise in +regard to the church:—Catholicism a compromise between +Jewish Christianity and Pauline or Gentile Christianity (F.C. +Baur, &c.); Catholicism the Hellenizing of Christianity (A. +Ritschl, A. Harnack); the Catholic church for good and evil +the creation of St Paul (P. Wernle, H. Weinel); the church +supernaturally guided (R.C. apologetic; in a modified degree +High Church apologetic); essential—not necessarily exclusive—truth +of Paulinism, essential error in first principles of Catholicism +(Protestant apologetic).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—Omitting the Christian fathers as remote from the +present day, we recognize as works of genius Pascal’s <i>Pensées</i> and +Butler’s <i>Analogy</i>, to which we might add J.R. Seeley’s <i>Ecce Homo</i> +(1865). The philosophical, Platonist, or Idealist line of Christian +defence is represented among recent writers by J.R. Illingworth +[Anglican], in <i>Personality, Human and Divine</i> (1894), <i>Divine Immanence</i> +(1898), <i>Reason and Revelation</i> (1902), who at times seems +rather to presuppose the Thomist compromise, and A.M. Fairbairn +[Congregationalist], in <i>Place of Christ in Modern Theology</i> (1893), +<i>Philosophy of the Christian Religion</i> (1902). The appeal to ethical +or Christian experience—“internal evidence”—is found especially +in E.A. Abbott [Christianity supernatural and divine, but not +miraculous], <i>Through Nature to Christ</i> (1877), <i>The Kernel and the +Husk</i> (1886), <i>The Spirit on the Waters</i> (1897), &c., or A.B. Bruce, +<i>Chief End of Revelation</i> (1881), <i>The Miraculous Element in the +Gospels</i> (1886), <i>Apologetics</i> (1892), and other works; Bruce’s +posthumous article, “Jesus” in <i>Encyc. Bib.</i>, was understood by +some as exchanging Christian orthodoxy for bare theism, but probably +its tone of aloofness is due to the attempt to keep well within +the limits of what the author considered pure scientific history. +Scholarly and apologetic discussion on the gospels and life of Jesus +is further represented by the writings of W. Sanday or (earlier) of +J.B. Lightfoot. Much American work of merit on the character of +Christ is headed by W. E Channing, and by H. Bushnell (in <i>Nature +and the Supernatural</i>). For defence of Christ’s resurrection, reference +may be made to H. Latham’s <i>The Risen Lord</i> and R. Mackintosh’s +<i>First Primer of Apologetics</i>. For modification in light of recent +scholarship of argument from prophecy, to Riehm’s <i>Messianic +Prophecy</i>, Stanton’s <i>Jewish and Christian Messiah</i>, and Woods’s +<i>Hope of Israel</i>. Roman Catholic apologetics—of necessity, Thomist—is +well represented by Professor Schanz of Tübingen. The whole +Ritschl movement is apologetic in spirit; best English account in +A.E. Garvie’s <i>Ritschlian Theology</i> (1899). See also the chief church +histories or histories of doctrine (Harnack; Loofs; Hagenbach; +Shedd); A.S. Farrar’s <i>Critical History of Free</i> (<i>i.e.</i> anti-Christian) +<i>Thought</i> (Bampton Lectures, 1862); R.C. Trench’s Introduction to +<i>Notes on the Miracles</i>, and F.W. Macran’s <i>English Apologetic +Theology</i> (1905). For the 18th century, G.V. Lechler’s <i>Geschichte +des englischen Deismus</i> (1841); Mark Pattison in <i>Essays and Reviews</i> +(1860); Leslie Stephen’s <i>English Thought in 18th Century</i> (agnostic); +John Hunt, <i>Religious Thought in England</i> (3 vols., 1870-1873).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. Ma.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> While these writings are of great historical value, they do not, +of course, represent the Christian argument as conceived to-day. +The Church of Rome prefers medieval or modern statements of its +position; Protestantism can use only modern statements.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOLOGUE<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="apologos">ἀπόλογος</span>, a statement or account), +a short fable or allegorical story, meant to serve as a pleasant +vehicle for some moral doctrine or to convey some useful lesson. +One of the best known is that of Jotham in the Book of Judges +(ix. 7-15); others are “The City Rat and Field Rat,” by Horace, +“The Belly and its Members,” by the patrician Menenius Agrippa +in the second book of Livy, and perhaps most famous of all, those +of Aesop. The term is applied more particularly to a story in +which the actors or speakers are taken from the brute creation +or inanimate nature. An apologue is distinguished from a fable +in that there is always some moral sense present, which there +need not be in a fable. It is generally dramatic, and has been +defined as “a satire in action.” It differs from a parable in +several respects. A parable is equally an ingenious tale intended +to correct manners, but it can be <i>true</i>, while an apologue, with +its introduction of animals and plants, to which it lends our +ideas and language and emotions, is necessarily devoid of real +truth, and even of all probability. The parable reaches heights +to which the apologue cannot aspire, for the points in which +brutes and inanimate nature present analogies to man are +principally those of his lower nature, and the lessons taught +by the apologue seldom therefore reach beyond prudential +morality, whereas the parable aims at representing the relations +between man and God. It finds its framework in the world of +nature as it actually is, and not in any grotesque parody of it, +and it exhibits real and not fanciful analogies. The apologue +seizes on that which man has in common with creatures below +him, and the parable on that which he has in common with God. +Still, in spite of the difference of moral level, Martin Luther +thought so highly of apologues as counsellors of virtue that he +edited and revised Aesop and wrote a characteristic preface to +the volume. The origin of the apologue is extremely ancient +and comes from the East, which is the natural fatherland of +everything connected with allegory, metaphor and imagination. +Veiled truth was often necessary in the East, particularly with +the slaves, who dared not reveal their minds too openly. It is +noteworthy that the two fathers of apologue in the West were +slaves, namely Aesop and Phaedrus. La Fontaine in France; +Gay and Dodsley in England; Gellert, Lessing and Hagedorn +in Germany; Tomas de Iriarte in Spain, and Krilov in Russia, +are leading modern writers of apologues. Length is not an +essential matter in the definition of an apologue. Those of La +Fontaine are often very short, as, for example, “Le Coque et +la Perle.” On the other hand, in the romances of Reynard the +Fox we have medieval apologues arranged in cycles, and attaining +epical dimensions. An Italian fabulist, Corti, is said to +have developed an apologue of “The Talking Animals” to the +bulk of twenty-six cantos. La Motte, writing at a time when +this species of literature was universally admired, attributes +its popularity to the fact that it <i>ménage et flatte l’amour-propre</i> +by inculcating virtue in an amusing manner without seeming +to dictate or insist. This was the ordinary 18th-century view +of the matter, but Rousseau contested the educational value of +instruction given in this indirect form.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A work by P. Soullé, <i>La Fontaine et ses devanciers</i> (1866), is a +history of the apologue from the earliest times until its final triumph +in France.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOLOGY<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="apologia">ἀπολογία</span>, defence), in its usual sense, an +expression of regret for something which has been wrongfully +said or done; a withdrawal or retraction of some charge or +imputation which is false. In an action for libel, the fact that +an apology has been promptly and fully made is a plea in mitigation +of damages. The apology should have the same form of +publicity as the original charge. If made publicly, the proper +form is an advertisement in a newspaper; if made within the +hearing of a few only, a letter of apology, which may be read +to those who have heard what was said, should be sufficient. By +the English Libel Act 1843, s. 2, it was enacted that in an action +for libel contained in a newspaper it is a defence for the defendant +to plead that the libel was inserted without actual malice and +without gross negligence, and that before the commencement of +the action and at the earliest opportunity afterwards he inserted +in the newspaper a full apology for the libel, or, where the newspaper +in which the libel appeared was published at intervals +exceeding one week, he offered to publish the apology in any +newspaper selected by the plaintiff. The apology must be full +and must be printed in as conspicuous a place and manner as the +libel was.</p> + +<p>The word “apology” or “apologia” is also used in the sense +of defence or vindication, the only meaning of the Greek +<span class="grk" title="apologia">ἀπολογία</span>, especially of the defence of a doctrine or system, or +of religious or other beliefs, &c., <i>e.g.</i> Justin Martyr’s <i>Apology</i> +or J.H. Newman’s <i>Apologia pro vita sua</i>. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apologetics</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APONEUROSIS<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="apo">ἀπο</span>, away, and <span class="grk" title="neuron">νεῦρον</span>, a sinew), in +anatomy, a membrane separating muscles from each other.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOPHTHEGM<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (from the <span class="grk" title="apophthegma">ἀπόφθεγμα</span>), a short and pointed +utterance. The usual spelling up to Johnson’s day was <i>apothegm</i>, +which Webster and Worcester still prefer; it indicates the pronunciation—<i>i.e.</i> “apothem”—better than the other, which, +however, is more usual in England and follows the derivation. +Such sententious remarks as “Knowledge is Power” are +apophthegms. They become “proverbs” by age and acceptance. +Plutarch made a famous collection in his <i>Apophthegmata +Laconica</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page195" id="page195"></a>195</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">APOPHYGE<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="apophugae">ἀποφυγή</span>, a flying off), in architecture, the +lowest part of the shaft of an Ionic or Corinthian column, or the +highest member of its base if the column be considered as a +whole. The apophyge is the inverted cavetto or concave sweep, +on the upper edge of which the diminishing shaft rests.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOPHYLLITE,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> a mineral often classed with the zeolites, +since it behaves like these when heated before the blowpipe +and has the same mode of occurrence; it differs, however, from +the zeolites proper in containing no aluminium. It is a hydrous +potassium and calcium silicate, H<span class="su">7</span>KCa<span class="su">4</span>(SiO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">8</span> + 4½(H<span class="su">2</span>O). A +small amount of fluorine is often present, and it is one of the few +minerals in which ammonium has been detected. The temperature +at which the water is expelled is higher than is usually the +case with zeolites; none is given off below 200°, and only about +half at 250°; this is slowly reabsorbed again from moist air, +and is therefore regarded as water of crystallization, the remainder +being water of constitution. When heated before the blowpipe, +the mineral exfoliates, owing to loss of water, and on this account +was named apophyllite by R.J. Haüy in 1806, from the Greek +<span class="grk" title="apo">ἀπο</span>, from, and <span class="grk" title="phullon">φύλλον</span>, a leaf.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:288px; height:186px" src="images/img195.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Apophyllite always occurs as distinct crystals, which belong +to the tetragonal system. The form is either a square prism +terminated by the basal +planes (fig. 2), or an acute +pyramid (fig. 1). A prominent +feature of the mineral +is its perfect basal cleavage, +on which the lustre is +markedly pearly, presenting, +in white crystals, somewhat +the appearance of +the eye of a fish after +boiling, hence the old name +fish-eye-stone or ichthyophthalmite for the mineral. On +other surfaces the lustre is vitreous. The crystals are usually +transparent and colourless, sometimes with a greenish or +rose-red tint. Opaque white crystals of cubic habit have +been called albine; xylochlore is an olive-green variety. +The hardness is 4½, and the specific gravity 2.35.</p> + +<p>The optical characters of the mineral are of special interest, +and have been much studied. The sign of the double refraction +may be either positive or negative, and some crystals are divided +into optically biaxial sectors. The variety known as leucocyclite +shows, when examined in convergent polarized light, a peculiar +interference figure, the rings being alternately white and violet-black +and not coloured as in a normal figure seen in white light.</p> + +<p>Apophyllite is a mineral of secondary origin, commonly +occurring, in association with other zeolites, in amygdaloidal +cavities in basalt and melaphyre. Magnificent groups of greenish +and colourless tabular crystals, the crystals several inches +across, were found, with flesh-red stilbite, in the Deccan traps +of the Western Gháts, near Bombay, during the construction of +the Great Indian Peninsular railway. Groups of crystals of a +beautiful pink colour have been found in the silver veins of +Andreasberg in the Harz and of Guanaxuato in Mexico. Crystals +of recent formation have been detected in the Roman remains +at the hot springs of Plombières in France.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOPHYSIS<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="apophysis">ἀπόφυσις</span>, offshoot), a bony protuberance, +in human physiology; also a botanical term for the swelling of +the spore-case in certain mosses.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOPLEXY<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="apoplaexia">ἀποπληξία</span>, from <span class="grk" title="apoplaessein">ἀποπλήσσειν</span>, to strike down, +to stun), the term employed by Galen to designate the “sudden +loss of feeling and movement of the whole body, with the exception +of respiration,” to which, after the time of Harvey, was +added “and with the exception of the circulation.” Although +the term is occasionally employed in medicine with other significations, +yet in its general acceptation apoplexy may be defined as a +sudden loss of consciousness, of sensibility, and of movement without +any <i>essential</i> modification of the respiratory and circulatory +functions occasioned by some brain disease. It was discovered +that the majority of the cases of apoplexy were due to cerebral +haemorrhage, and what looked like cerebral haemorrhage, red +softening; and the idea for a long time prevailed that apoplexy +and cerebral haemorrhage could be employed as synonymous +terms, and that an individual who, in popular parlance, “had +an apoplectic stroke,” had necessarily suffered from haemorrhage +into his brain. A small haemorrhage may not, however, cause +an apoplectic fit, nor is an apoplectic fit always caused by +haemorrhage; it may be due to sudden blocking of a large +vessel by a clot from a distant part (embolism), or by a sudden +clotting of the blood in the vessel itself (thrombosis). Owing +to the prevailing idea in former times that cerebral haemorrhage +and apoplexy were synonymous terms, the word apoplexy was +applied to haemorrhage into other organs than the brain; thus +the terms pulmonary apoplexy, retinal apoplexy and splenic +apoplexy were used.</p> + +<p>The term “apoplexy” is now used in clinical medicine to +denote that form of coma or deep state of unconsciousness +which is due to sudden disturbance of the cerebral circulation +occasioned by a local cause within the cranial cavity, as distinct +from the loss of consciousness due to sudden failure of the +heart’s action (syncope) or the coma of narcotic or alcoholic +poisoning, of <i>status epilepticus</i>, of uraemia or of head injury.</p> + +<p>The sudden coma of sunstroke and heat-stroke might be +included, although owing to the suddenness with which a +person may be struck down, the term <i>heat apoplexy</i> is frequently +used, and, from an etymological point of view, quite justifiably. +The older writers use the term <i>simple apoplexy</i> for a sudden +attack which could not be explained by any visible disease. +Again, <i>congestive apoplexy</i> was applied to those cases of coma +where, at the autopsy, nothing was found to account for the +coma and death except engorgement of the vessels of the brain +and its membranes. In senile dementia and in general paralysis +the brain is shrunken and the convolutions atrophied, the +increased space in the ventricles and between the convolutions +being filled up with the cerebro-spinal fluid. In these diseases +apoplectic states may arise, terminating fatally; the excess of +fluid found in such cases was formerly thought to be the cause +of the symptoms, consequently the condition was called <i>serous +apoplexy</i>. Such terms are no longer used, owing to the better +knowledge of the pathology of brain disease.</p> + +<p>Having thus narrowed down the application of the term +“apoplexy,” we are in a position to consider its chief features, +and the mechanism by which it is produced. Apoplexy may be +rapidly fatal, but it is very seldom <i>instantly</i> fatal. The onset is +usually sudden, and sometimes the individual may be struck +down in an instant, senseless and motionless, “warranting those +epithets, which the ancients applied to the victims of this +disease, of <i>attoniti</i> and <i>siderati</i>, as if they were thunder-stricken +or planet-struck” (Sir Thomas Watson). The attack, however, +may be less sudden and, not infrequently, attended by a convulsion; +while occasionally, in the condition termed <i>ingravescent +apoplexy</i>, the coma is gradual in its onset, occupying hours in its +development. Although unexpected, various warning symptoms, +sometimes slight, sometimes pronounced, occur in the majority +of cases. Such are, fulness in the head, headache, giddiness, +noises in the ears, mental confusion, slight lapses of consciousness, +numbness or tingling in the limbs. A characteristic apoplectic +attack presents the following phenomena: the individual falls +down suddenly and lies without sense or motion, except that +his pulse keeps beating and his breathing continues. He +appears to be in a deep sleep, from which he cannot be roused; +the breathing is laboured and stertorous, and is accompanied +with puffing out of the cheeks; the pulse may be beating more +strongly than natural, and the face is often flushed and turgid. +The reflexes are abolished. Although apoplexy may occur without +paralysis, and paralysis without apoplexy, the two, owning +the same cause, very frequently co-exist, or happen in immediate +sequence and connexion; consequently there is in most cases +definite evidence of paralysis affecting usually one side of the +body in addition to the coma. Thus the pupils are unequal; +there may be asymmetry of the face, or the limbs may be more +rigid or flaccid on one side than on the other. These signs of +localized disease enable a distinction to be made from the coma +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page196" id="page196"></a>196</span> +of narcotic poisoning and alcoholic intoxication. It must be +borne in mind that a person smelling strongly of liquor and +found lying in the street in a comatose state may be suffering +from apoplexy, and the error of sending a dying man to a police +cell may be avoided by this knowledge.</p> + +<p>If the fit is only moderately severe, the reflexes soon return, and +the patient may in a few hours show indications of returning +consciousness by making some movements or opening his eyes +when spoken to, although later it may be found that he is +unable to speak, or may be paralysed or mentally afflicted (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paralysis</a></span>). In severe cases the coma deepens and the patient +dies, usually from interference with the breathing, or, less +commonly, from arrest of the heart’s action.</p> + +<p>The mechanism by which apoplexy is produced has been a +matter of much dispute; the condition was formerly ascribed +to the pressure exerted by the clot on the rest of the brain, but +there is no increase of intracranial pressure in an apoplectic fit +occurring as a result of the sudden closure of a large vessel by +embolism or thrombosis. Suddenness of the lesion appears to +be, then, the essential element common to all cases of apoplexy +from organic brain disease. It is the sudden shock to the delicate +mechanism that produces the unconsciousness; but seeing that +the coma is usually deeper and more prolonged in cerebral +haemorrhage than when occasioned by vascular occlusion, and +that an ingravescent apoplexy coma gradually develops and +deepens as the amount of haemorrhage increases, we may presume +that increase of intracranial pressure does play an important +part in the degree and intensity of the coma caused by the +rupture of a vessel. Apoplexy seldom occurs under forty years +of age, but owing to the fact that disease of the cerebral vessels +may exist at any age, from causes which are fully explained in +the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neuropathology</a></span>, no period of life is exempt; +consequently cases of true apoplexy are not wanting even in +very young children. Recognizing that there are two causes of +apoplexy in advanced life, viz. (1) sudden rupture of a diseased +vessel usually associated with high arterial pressure, enlarged, +powerfully acting heart and chronic renal disease, and (2) the +sudden clotting of blood in a large diseased vessel favoured by a +low arterial pressure due to a weak-acting heart, it is obvious +that the character of the pulse forms a good guide to the diagnosis +of the cause, the prevention and warding off of an attack, and +the treatment of such should it occur.</p> + +<p>Anything which tends directly or indirectly to increase +arterial pressure within the cerebral blood-vessels may bring +on an attack of cerebral haemorrhage; and although the +identification of an apoplectic habit of body with a stout build, +a short neck and florid complexion is now generally discredited, +it being admitted that apoplexy occurs as frequently in thin +and spare persons who present no such peculiarity of conformation, +yet a plethoric habit of body, occasioned by immoderate +eating or drinking associated with the gouty diathesis, leads to a +general arterio-sclerosis and high arterial pressure. All conditions +which can give rise to a local intracranial or a general +bodily increase of the arterial pressure, <i>i.e.</i> severe exertion of +body and mind, violent emotions, much stooping, overheated +rooms, exposure to the sun, sudden shocks to the body, constipation +and straining at stool, may, by suddenly increasing the +strain on the wall of a diseased vessel, lead to its rupture.</p> + +<p>The outlook of apoplexy is generally unfavourable in cases +where the coma is profound; death may take place at different +intervals after the onset. If the patient, after recovering from +the initial coma, suffers with continual headache and lapses +into a drowsy state, the result is likely to be serious; for such a +condition probably indicates that an inflammatory change has +taken place about the clot or in the area of softening.</p> + +<p><i>Treatment.</i>—The patient should be placed in the recumbent +position with the head and shoulders slightly raised. He should +be moved as little as possible from the place where the attack +occurred. The medical man who is summoned will probably +give the following directions: an ice-bag to be applied to the +head; a few grains of calomel or a drop of croton oil in butter +to be placed on the tongue, or an enema of castor oil to be +administered. He may find it necessary to draw off the water +with a catheter. The practice of blood-letting, once so common +in this disease, is seldom resorted to, although in some cases, +where there is very high arterial tension and a general state of +plethora, it might be beneficial. Depletives are not employed +where there is evidence of failure of the heart’s action; indeed +the cautious administration of stimulants may be necessary, +either subcutaneously or by the mouth (if there exist a power of +swallowing), together with warm applications to the surface of +the body; a water-bed may be required, and careful nursing, is +essential to prevent complications, especially the formation of +bedsores.</p> +<div class="author">(F. W. Mo.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOROSE<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="a">ἀ</span>, without, and <span class="grk" title="poros">πόρος</span>, passage), a +biological term meaning imperforate, or not porous: there is a +group of corals called <i>Aporosa</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOSIOPESIS<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (the Greek for “becoming silent”), a rhetorical +device by which the speaker or writer stops short and leaves +something unexpressed, but yet obvious, to be supplied by +the imagination. The classical example is the threat, “Quos +ego——!” of Neptune (in Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> i. 135).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOSTASY<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="apostasis">ἀπόστασις</span>, in classical Greek a defection or +revolt from a military commander), a term generally employed +to describe a complete renunciation of the Christian faith, or +even an exchange of one form of it for another, especially if the +motive be unworthy. In the first centuries of the Christian era, +apostasy was most commonly induced by persecution, and was +indicated by some outward act, such as offering incense to a +heathen deity or blaspheming the name of Christ.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In the +Roman Catholic Church the word is also applied to the renunciation +of monastic vows (<i>apostasis a monachatu</i>), and to the +abandonment of the clerical profession for the life of the world +(<i>apostasis a clericatu</i>). Such defection was formerly often +punished severely.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The readmission of such apostates to the church was a matter +that occasioned serious controversy. The emperor Julian’s +“Apostasy” is discussed under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Julian</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOSTIL,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Apostille</span> (possibly connected with Lat. +<i>appositum</i>, placed near), a marginal note made by a commentator.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOSTLE<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="apostolos">ἀπόστολος</span>, one sent forth on a mission, an envoy, +as in Is. xviii. 2; Symmachus, <span class="grk" title="apostellein apostolous">ἀποστέλλειν ἀποστόλους</span>; Aquila, +<span class="grk" title="presbentas">πρεσβευτάς</span>), a technical term used in the New Testament and in +Christian literature generally for a special envoy of Jesus Christ. +How far it had any similar use in Judaism in Christ’s day is +uncertain; but in the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, at any rate, it denoted +responsible envoys from the central Jewish authority, especially +for the collection of religious funds. In its first and simplest +Christian form, the idea is present already in Mark iii. 14 f., +where from the general circle of his disciples Jesus “made +twelve (‘whom he also named apostles,’ Luke vi. 13, but +doubtful in Mark), that they should be with him, and that he +might from time to time send them forth (<span class="grk" title="hina apostellae">ἵνα ἀποστέλλῃ</span>) to +preach and to have authority to cast out demons.” Later on +(vi. 6 ff.), in connexion with systematic preaching among the +villages of Galilee, Jesus begins actually to “send forth” the +twelve, two by two; and on their return from this mission +(vi. 30) they are for the first time described as “apostles” or +missionary envoys. Matthew (x. 1 ff.) blends the calling of the +twelve with their actual sending forth, while Luke (vi. 13) +makes Jesus himself call them “apostles” (for Luke’s usage +cf. xi. 49, “prophets and apostles,” where Matthew, xxiii. 34, +has “prophets and wise men and scribes”). But it is doubtful +whether Jesus ever used the term for the Twelve, in relation to +their temporary missions, any more than for the “seventy +others” whom he “sent forth” later (Luke x. 1). Even the +Fourth Gospel never so describes them. It simply has “a +servant is not greater than his lord, neither an apostle (envoy) +greater than he that sent him” (xiii. 16); and applies the idea +of “mission” alike to Jesus (cf. Heb. iii. 1, “Jesus, the apostle ... of +our profession”) and to his disciples, generally, as +represented by the Twelve (xvii. 18, with 3, 6 ff.). But while +ideally all Christ’s disciples were “sent” with the Father’s +Name in charge, there were different degrees in which this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page197" id="page197"></a>197</span> +applied in practice; and so we find “apostle” used in several +senses, once it emerges as a technical term.</p> + +<p>1. In the Apostolic age itself, “apostle” often denotes +simply an “envoy,” commissioned by Jesus Christ to be a +primary witness and preacher of the Messianic Kingdom. This +wide sense was shown by Lightfoot (in his commentary on +<i>Galatians</i>, 1865) to exist in the New Testament, <i>e.g.</i> in 1 Cor. +xii. 28 f., Eph. iv. ii, Rom. xvi. 7; and his view has since been +emphasized<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> by the discovery of the <i>Teaching of the Twelve +Apostles</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Didache</a></span>), with its itinerant order of “apostles,” +who, together with “prophets” (cf. Eph. ii. 20, iii. 5) and +“teachers,” constituted a <i>charismatic</i> and seemingly unordained +ministry of the Word, in some part of the Church (in Syria?) +during the early sub-apostolic age. Paul is our earliest witness, +as just cited; also in 1 Cor. xv. 5 ff., where he seems to quote the +language of Palestinian tradition, in saying that Christ “appeared +to Cephas; then to the Twelve; then ... to James; then to +the apostles one and all (<span class="grk" title="tois apostolois pasin">τοῖς ἀποστόλοις πᾶσιν</span>); and last of all ... to +me also.” The appearance to “<i>all</i> the Apostles” must +refer to the final commission given by the risen Christ to certain +assembled disciples (Acts i. 6 ff., cf. Luke xxiv. 33), including not +only the Twelve and the Lord’s brethren (i. 13 f.), but also some +at least of the Seventy. Of this wider circle of witnesses, taken +from among personal disciples during Jesus’s earthly ministry, +we get a further glimpse in the election of one from their number +to fill Judas’s place among the Twelve (i. 21 ff.), as the primary +official witnesses of Messiah and his resurrection. Many of the +120 then present (Acts i. 15), and not only the two set forward +for final choice, must have been personal disciples, who by the +recent commission had been made “apostles.” Among such we +may perhaps name Judas Barsabbas and Silas (Acts xv. 22, cf. +i. 23), if not also Barnabas (1 Cor. ix. 6) and Andronicus and +Junia (Rom. xvi. 7).</p> + +<p>So far, then, we gather that the original Palestinian type of +apostleship meant simply (a) personal mission from the risen +Christ (cf. I Cor. ix. i), following on (b) some preliminary intercourse with Jesus in his earthly ministry. It was pre-eminence +in the latter qualification that gave the Twelve their special +status among apostles (Acts i. 26, ii. 14, vi. 2; in Acts generally +they are simply “the apostles”). Conversely, it was Paul’s +lack in this respect which lay at the root of his difficulties as an +apostle.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It is possible, though not certain, that even those Judaizing +missionaries at Corinth whom Paul styles “false-apostles” or, +ironically, “the superlative apostles” (2 Cor. xi. 5, 13; xii. 11), +rested part of their claim to superiority over Paul on (<i>b</i>), possibly +even as having done service to Christ when on earth (2 Cor. xi. 18, 23). +There is no sign in 2 Cor. that they laid claim to (<i>a</i>). If this be +so, they were “Christ’s apostles” only indirectly, “through men” +(as some had alleged touching Paul, cf. Gal. i. 1), <i>i.e.</i> as sent forth +on mission work by certain Jerusalem leaders with letters of introduction +(2 Cor. iii. 1; E. von Dobschutz, <i>Problems der apost. Zeitalters</i>, +p. 106).</p> +</div> + +<p>2. <i>The Twelve.</i>—When Jesus selected an inner circle of +disciples for continuous training by personal intercourse, his +choice of “twelve” had direct reference to the tribes of Israel +(Matt. xix. 28; Luke xxii. 30). This gave them a symbolic or +representative character as a closed body (cf. Rev. xxi. 14), +marking them off as the primary religious authority (cf. Acts +ii. 42, “the apostles’ teaching”) among the “disciples” or +“brethren,” when these began to assume the form of a community +or church. The relationship which other “apostles” +had enjoyed with the Master had been uncertain; <i>they</i> had been +his recognized intimates, and that as a body. Naturally, then, +they took the lead, collectively—in form at least, though really +the initiative lay with one or two of their own number, Peter in +particular. The process of practical differentiation from their +fellow apostles was furthered by the concentration of the Twelve, +or at least of its most marked representatives, in Jerusalem, +for a considerable period (Acts viii. 1, cf. xii. 1 ff.; an early +tradition specifies twelve years). Other apostles soon went forth +on their mission to “the cities of Israel” (cf. Acts ix. 31), and +so exercised but little influence on the central policy of the +Church. Hence their shadowy existence in the New Testament, +though the actual wording of Matt. x. 5-42, read in the light of +the <i>Didachi</i>, may help us to conceive their work in its main +features.</p> + +<p>3. “<i>Pillar</i>” <i>Apostles.</i>—But in fact differentiation between +apostles existed among the Twelve also. There were “pillars,” +like Peter and John (and his brother James until his death), +who really determined matters of grave moment, as in the +conference with Paul in Gal. ii. 9—a conference which laid the +basis of the latter’s status as an apostle even in the eyes of +Jewish Christians. Such pre-eminence was but the sequel of +personal distinctions visible even in the preparatory days of +discipleship, and it warns us against viewing the primitive facts +touching apostles in the official light of later times.</p> + +<p>Consciousness of such personal pre-eminence has left its marks +on the lists of the Twelve in the New Testament. Thus (1) +Peter, James, John, Andrew, always appear as the first four, +though the order varies, Mark representing relative prominence +during Christ’s ministry, and Acts actual influence in the Apostolic +Church (cf. Luke viii. 51, ix. 28). (2) The others also stand +in groups of four, the first name in each being constant, while the +order of the rest varies.</p> + +<p>The same lesson emerges when we note that one such apostolic +“pillar” stood outside the Twelve altogether, viz. James, the +Lord’s brother (Gal. ii. 9, cf. i. 19); and further, that “the +Lord’s brethren” seem to have ranked above “apostles” +generally, being named between them and Peter in 1 Cor. ix. 5. +That is, they too were apostles with the addition of a certain +personal distinction.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Paul, the</i> “<i>Apostle of the Gentiles.</i>”—So far apostles are +only of the Palestinian type, taken from among actual hearers +of the Messiah and with a mission primarily to Jews—apostles +“of the circumcision” (Gal. ii. 7-9). Now, however, emerges a +new apostleship, that to the Gentiles; and with the change of +mission goes also some change in the type of missionary or +apostle. Of this type Paul was the first, and he remained its +primary, and in some senses its only, example. Though he +could claim, on occasion, to satisfy the old test of having seen +the risen Lord (1 Cor. ix. 1, cf. xv. 8), he himself laid stress not +on this, but on the revelation within his own soul of Jesus as +God’s Son, and of the Gospel latent therein (Gal. i. 16). This +was his divine call as “apostle of the Gentiles” (Rom. xi. 13); +here lay both his qualification and his credentials, once the fruits +of the divine inworking were manifest in the success of his +missionary work (Gal. ii. 8 f.; 1 Cor. xi. 1 f.; 2 Cor. in. 2 f., xii. 12). +But this new criterion of apostleship was capable of wider +application, one dispensing altogether with vision of the risen +Lord—which could not even in Paul’s case be proved so fully +as in the case of the original apostles—but appealing to the +“signs of an apostle” (1 Cor. ix. 2; 2 Cor. xii. 12), the tokens of +spiritual gift visible in work done, and particularly in the planting +of the Gospel in fresh fields (2 Cor. x. 14-18). It may be in this +wide charismatic sense that Paul uses the term in 1 Cor. xii. 28 f., +Eph. ii. 20, iii. 5, iv. 11, and especially in Rom. xvi. 7, “men of +mark among the apostles” (cf. 2 Cor. xi. 13, “pseudo-apostles” +masquerading as “apostles of Christ,” and perhaps 1 Thess. ii, 6, +of himself and Silas). That he used it in senses differing with +the context is proved by 1 Cor. xv. 9, where he styles himself +“the least of apostles,” although in other connexions he claims +the very highest rank, co-ordinate even with the Twelve as a +body (Gal. ii. 7 ff.), in virtue of his distinctive Gospel.</p> + +<p>This point of view was not widely shared even in circles +appreciative of his actual work. To most he seemed but a +fruitful worker within lines determined by “the twelve apostles +of the Lamb” as a body (Rev. xxi. 14). So we read of “the +plant (Church) which the twelve apostles of the Beloved shall +plant” (<i>Ascension of Isaiah</i>, iv. 3); “those who preached the +Gospel to us (especially Gentiles)... unto whom He gave +authority over the Gospel, being twelve for a witness to the +tribes” (Barn. viii. 3, cf. v. 9); and the going forth of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page198" id="page198"></a>198</span> +Twelve, after twelve years, beyond Palestine “into the world,” +to give it a chance to hear (<i>Preaching of Peter</i>, in Clem. Alex. +<i>Strom.</i> vi. 5.43; 6.48). Later on, however, his own claim told +on the Church’s mind, when his epistles were read in church as a +collection styled simply “the Apostle.”</p> + +<p>As the primary medium of the Gentile Gospel (Gal. i. 16, cf. +i. 8, ii. 2) Paul had no peers as an “apostle of the Gentiles” +(Rom. xi. 13, cf. XV. 15-20, and see 1 Cor. xv. 8, “last of all to +me”), unless it were Barnabas who shares with him the title +“apostle” in Acts xiv. 4, 14—possibly with reference to the +special “work” on which they had recently been “sent forth +by the Spirit” (xiii. 2, 4). Yet such as shared the spiritual gift +(<i>charisma</i>) of missionary power in sufficient degree, were in fact +apostles of Christ in the Spirit (1 Cor. xii. 28, II). Such a +secondary type of apostolate—answering to “apostolic missionaries” +of later times (cf. the use of <span class="grk" title="hierapostolos">ἱεραπόστολος</span> in this sense by +the Orthodox Eastern Church to-day)—would help to account +for the apostolic claims of the missionaries censured in Rev. ii. 2, +as also for the “apostles” of the second generation implied in +the Didachē.</p> + +<p>In the <i>sub-apostolic age</i>, however, the class of “missionaries” +enjoying a <i>charisma</i> such as was conceived to convey apostolic +commission through the Spirit, soon became distinguished from +“apostles” (cf. Hennas, <i>Sim.</i> ix. 15.4, “the apostles and teachers +of the message of the Son of God,” so 25.2; in 17.1 the apostles +are reckoned as twelve), as the title became more and more +confined by usage to the original apostles, particularly the +Twelve as a body (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Ascension of Isaiah</i> and the <i>Preaching of +Peter</i>), or to them and Paul (<i>e.g.</i> in Clement and Ignatius), and +as reverence for these latter grew in connexion with their story +in the Gospels and in Acts.<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Thus Eusebius describes as “evangelists” +(cf. Philip the Evangelist in Acts xxi. 8, also Eph. iv. 11, +2 Tim. iv. 5) those who “occupied the first rank in the succession +to the Apostles” in missionary work (<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> iii. 37, cf. v. 10). +Yet the wider sense of “apostle” did not at once die out even +in the third and fourth generations. It lingered on as applied +to the Seventy<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a>—by Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement and Origen— +and even to Clement of Rome, by Clem. Alex. (? as a “fellow-worker” +of Paul, Phil. iv. 3); while the adjective “apostolic” +was applied to men like Polycarp (in his contemporary <i>Acts of +Martyrdom</i>) and the Phrygian, Alexander, martyred at Lyons in +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 177 (Eus. v. 1), who was “not without share of apostolic +<i>charisma</i>.”</p> + +<p>The <i>authority</i> attaching to apostles was essentially spiritual in +character and in the conditions of its exercise. Anything like +autocracy among his followers was alien to Jesus’s own teaching +(Matt, xxiii. 6-11). All Christians were “brethren,” and the +basis of pre-eminence among them was relative ability for service. +But the personal relation of the original Palestinian apostles to +Jesus himself as Master gave them a unique fitness as authorized +witnesses, from which flowed naturally, by sheer spiritual influence, +such special forms of authority as they came gradually +to exercise in the early Church. “There is no trace in Scripture +of a formal commission of authority for government from Christ +Himself” (Hort, <i>Chr. Eccl.</i> p. 84) given to apostles, save as +representing the brethren in their collective action. Even the +“resolutions” (<span class="grk" title="dogmata">δόγματα</span>) of the Jerusalem conference were not +set forth by the apostles present simply in their own name, nor +as <i>ipso facto</i> binding on the conscience of the Antiochene Church. +They expressed “a claim to deference rather than a right to be +obeyed” (Hort, <i>op. cit.</i> 81-85). Such was the kind of authority +attaching to apostles, whether collectively or individually. It +was not a fixed notion, but varied in quantity and quality with +the growing maturity of converts. This is how Paul, from whom +we gather most on the point, conceives the matter. The exercise +of his spiritual authority is not absolute, lest he “lord it over +their faith”; consent of conscience or of “faith” is ever requisite +(2 Cor. i. 24; cf. Rom. xiv. 23). But the principle was elastic in +application, and would take more patriarchal forms in Palestine +than in the Greek world. The case was essentially the same as +on the various mission-fields to-day, where the position of the +“missionary” is at first one of great spiritual initiative and +authority, limited only by his own sense of the fitness of things, +in the light of local usages. So the notion of formal or constitutional +authority attaching to the apostolate, in its various senses, +is an anachronism for the apostolic age. The tendency, however, +was for their authority to be conceived more and more on formal +lines, and, particularly after their deaths, as absolute.</p> + +<p>The authority attaching to apostles as writers, which led +gradually to the formation of a New Testament Canon—“the +Apostles” side by side with “the Books” of the Old Testament +(so 2 Clement xiv., <i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 120-140)—is a subject by itself (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span>).</p> + +<p>This change of conception helped to further the notion of a +certain devolution of apostolic powers to successors constituted +by act of ordination. The earliest idea of an <i>apostolical succession</i> +meant simply the re-emergence in others of the apostolic spirit of +missionary enthusiasm. “The first rank in the succession of the +apostles” consisted of men eminent as disciples of theirs, and so +fitted to continue their labours (Euseb. iii. 37); and even under +Commodus (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 180-193) there were “evangelists of the word” +possessed of “inspired zeal to emulate apostles” (v. 10). Such +were perhaps the “apostles” of the <i>Didachē</i>. Of the notion of +apostolic succession in ministerial grace conferred by ordination, +there is little or no trace before Irenaeus. The famous passage +in Clement of Rome (xliv. 2) refers simply to the succession of +one set of men to another in an office of apostolic institution. +The grace that makes Polycarp “an apostolic and prophetic +teacher” (<i>Mart. Polyc.</i> 16) is peculiar to him personally. But +Irenaeus holds, apparently on <i>a priori</i> grounds, that “elders” +who stand in orderly succession to the apostolic founders of the +true tradition in the churches, have, “along with the succession +of oversight,” also an “assured gift of (insight into) truth” +by the Father’s good pleasure (“cum episcopatus successione +charisma veritatis certum secundum placitum Patris +acceperunt”), in contrast to heretics who wilfully stand outside +this approved line of transmission (<i>adv. Haer.</i> iv. 26. 2). So far, +indeed, the succession is not limited to the monarchical episcopate +as distinct from the presbyteral order to which it belonged (cf. +“presbyterii ordo, principalis consessio” in the same context, +and see iii. 14. 2), though the bishops of apostolic churches, as +capable of being traced individually (iii. 3. 1), are specially +appealed to as witnesses (cf. iv. 33. 8, v. 19. 2)—as earlier by +Hegesippus (Euseb. iv. 22). Nor is there mention of sacerdotal +grace attaching to the succession in apostolic truth.<a name="fa4c" id="fa4c" href="#ft4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a> But once +the idea of supernatural grace going along with office as such +(of which we have already a trace in the Ignatian bishop, though +without the notion of actual apostolic succession) arose in connexion +with <i>successio ab apostolis</i>, the full development of the +doctrine was but a matter of time.<a name="fa5c" id="fa5c" href="#ft5c"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—In England the modern treatment of the subject +dates from J.B. Lightfoot’s dissertation in his <i>Commentary on +Galatians</i>, to which Dr F.J.A. Hort’s <i>The Christian Ecclesia</i> added +elements of value; see also T.M. Lindsay, <i>The Church and the +Ministry</i>, and articles in Hastings’ <i>Dictionary of the Bible</i> and the +<i>Ency. Biblica</i>; A. Harnack, <i>Die Lehre der Apostel</i>, pp. 93 ff., and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id="page199"></a>199</span> +<i>Dogmengeschichte</i> (3rd ed.), i. 153 ff.; E. Haupt, <i>Zum Verstandnis +d. Apostolats in NT.</i> (Halle, 1896); and especially H. Monnier, +<i>La Notion de l’apostolat, des origines à Irénée</i> (Paris, 1903). The later +legends and their sources are examined by T. Schermann, <i>Propheten- und +Apostellegenden</i> (Leipzig, 1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. V. B.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> By analogy, that is; for the wider sense of “apostle” in the +Apostolic age need not be identical with a sub-apostolic use of +the term (see below, 4 <i>fin</i>.).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The tendency is already visible in the Lucan writings. An +anologous process is seen in the use of “disciple,” applicable in +the apostolic age to Christians at large, but in the course of the sub-apostolic +age restricted to personal “disciples of the Lord” or to +martyrs (Papias in Eus. iii. 39, cf. Ignatius, <i>Ad Eph.</i> i. 2).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> In the Edessene legend of Abgar, in Eus. i. 12, we read that +“Judas, who is also Thomas, sent Thaddaeus as apostle—one of the +Seventy,” where simply an authoritative envoy of Jesus seems intended. +For traces of the wider sense of “apostle” in Gnostic, +Marcionite and Montanist circles, see Monnier (as below).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4c" id="ft4c" href="#fa4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The above is substantially the view taken by J.B. Lightfoot +in his essay on “The Christian Ministry” (<i>Comm. on Philippians</i>, +6th ed., pp. 239, 252 f.), and by T.M. Lindsay, <i>The Church and the +Ministry</i> (1902), pp. 224-228, 278 ff. Even C. Gore, <i>The Church and +the Ministry</i> (1889), pp. 119 ff., while inferring a sacerdotal element +in Irenaeus’s conception of the episcopate, says: “But it is mainly +as preserving the catholic traditions that Irenaeus regards the +apostolic succession” (p. 120).</p> + +<p><a name="ft5c" id="ft5c" href="#fa5c"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See Lightfoot’s essay for Cyprian’s contribution, as also for that +of the Clementines, which fix on the twofold position of James at +Jerusalem, as apostle and bishop, as bearing on apostolic succession +in the episcopate.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOSTLE SPOONS,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> a set of spoons, usually of silver or silver +gilt, with the handles terminating in figures of the apostles, each +bearing their distinctive emblem. They were common baptismal +gifts during the 15th and 16th centuries, but were dying out by +1666. Often single spoons were given, bearing the figure of the +patron or name saint of the child. Sets of the twelve apostles are +not common, and complete sets of thirteen, with the figure of our +Lord on a larger spoon, are still rarer. The Goldsmiths’ Company +in London has one such set, all by the same maker and bearing +the hall-mark of 1626, and a set of thirteen was sold at Christie’s +in 1904 for £4900.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See William Hone, <i>The Everyday Book</i> and <i>Table Book</i> (1831); +and W.J. Cripps, <i>Old English Plate</i> (9th ed., 1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOSTOLICAL CONSTITUTIONS<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Diatagai">Διαταγαὶ</span> <i>or</i> <span class="grk" title="Diataxeis ton +agion apostolon dia Klaementos tou Rhomaion episkopou te kai +politou. Katholikae didaskalia">Διατάξεις τῶν +ἁγίων ἀποστόλων διὰ Κλήμεντος τοῦ Ῥωμαίων ἐπισκόπου τε καὶ +πολίτου. Καθολικὴ διδασκαλία</span>), a collection of ecclesiastical +regulations in eight books, the last of which concludes with the +eighty-five <i>Canons of the Holy Apostles</i>. By their title the Constitutions +profess to have been drawn up by the apostles, and +to have been transmitted to the Church by Clement of Rome; +sometimes the alleged authors are represented as speaking +jointly, sometimes singly. From the first they have been very +variously estimated; the <i>Canons</i>, as a rule, more highly than the +rest of the work. For example, the Trullan Council of Constantinople +(<i>quini-sextum</i>), <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 692, accepts the Canons as genuine by +its second canon, but rejects the Constitutions on the ground +that spurious matter had been introduced into them by heretics; +and whilst the former were henceforward used freely in the East, +only a few portions of the latter found their way into the Greek +and oriental law-books. Again, Dionysius Exiguus (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 500) +translated fifty of the Canons into Latin,<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> although under the +title <i>Canones qui dicuntur Apostolorum</i>, and thus they passed +into other Western collections; whilst the Constitutions as a +whole remained unknown in the West until they were published +in 1563 by the Jesuit Turrianus. At first received with enthusiasm, +their authenticity soon came to be impugned; and +their true significance was largely lost sight of as it began to be +realized that they were not what they claimed to be. Vain +attempts were still made to rehabilitate them, and they were, +in general, more highly estimated in England than elsewhere. +The most extravagant estimate of all was that of Whiston, who +calls them “the most sacred standard of Christianity, equal in +authority to the Gospels themselves, and superior in authority +to the epistles of single apostles, some parts of them being our +Saviour’s own original laws delivered to the apostles, and the +other parts the public acts of the apostles” (Historical preface +to <i>Primitive Christianity Revived</i>, pp. 85-86). Others, however, +realized their composite character from the first, and by degrees +some of the component documents became known. Bishop +Pearson was able to say that “the eight books of the Apostolic +Constitutions have been after Epiphanius’s time compiled and +patched together out of the <i>didascaliae</i> or doctrines which went +under the names of the holy apostles and their disciples or successors” (<i>Vind. Ign.</i> i. cap. 5); whilst a greater scholar still, +Archbishop Usher, had already gone much further, and concluded, +forestalling the results of modern critical methods, that +their compiler was none other than the compiler of the spurious +Ignatian epistles (<i>Epp. Polyc. et Ign.</i> p. lxiii. f., Oxon. 1644). +The Apostolical Constitutions, then, are spurious, and they are +one of a long series of documents of like character. But we +have not really gauged their significance by saying that they +are spurious. They are the last stage and climax of a gradual +process of compilation and crystallization, so to speak, of unwritten +church custom; and a short account of this process will +show their real importance and value.</p> + +<p>These documents are the outcome of a tendency which is +found in every society, religious or secular, at some point in its +history. The society begins by living in accordance +with its fundamental principles. By degrees these +<span class="sidenote">Origin and real nature.</span> +translate themselves into appropriate action. Difficulties +are faced and solved as they arise; and when +similar circumstances recur they will tend to be met in the +same way. Thus there grows up by degrees a body of what +may be called customary law. Plainly, there is no particular +point of time at which this customary law can be said to have +begun. To all appearance it is there from the first in solution +and gradually crystallizes out; and yet it is being continually +modified as time goes on. Moreover, the time comes when +the attempt is made, either by private individuals or by the +society itself, to put this “customary law” into writing. Now +when this is done, two tendencies will at once show themselves. +(<i>a</i>) This “customary law” will at once become more definite: +the very fact of putting it into writing will involve an effort +after logical completeness. There will be a tendency on the part +of the writer to fill up gaps; to state local customs as if they +obtained universally; to introduce his personal equation, and +to add to that which is the custom that which, in his opinion, +<i>ought</i> to be. (<i>b</i>) There will be a strong tendency to fortify that +which has been written with great names, especially in days +when there is no very clear notion of literary property. This is +done, not always with any deliberate consciousness of fraud +(although it must be clearly recognized that truth is not one of +the “natural virtues,” and that the sense of the obligations of +truthfulness was far from strong), but rather to emphasize the +importance of what was written, and the fact that it was no +new invention of the writer’s. In a non-literary age fame +gathers about great names; and that which, <i>ex hypothesi</i>, has +gone on since the beginning of things is naturally attributed to +the founders of the society. Then come interpolations to make +this ascription more probable, and the prefixing of a title, then +or subsequently, which states it as a fact. This is precisely the +way in which the Apostolical Constitutions and other kindred +documents have come into being. They are attempts, made in +various places and at different times, to put into writing the +order and discipline and character of the Church; in part for +private instruction and edification, but in part also with a view +to actual use; frequently even with an actual reference to +particular circumstances. In this lies their importance, to a +degree which is only just being adequately realized. They +contain evidence of the utmost value as to the order of the +Church in early days; evidence, however, which needs to be +sifted with the greatest care, since the personal preferences of +the writer and the customs of the local church to which he belongs +are continually mixed up with things which have a wider prevalence. +It is only by careful investigation, by the method of +comparisons, that these elements can be disentangled; but as +the number of documents of this class known to us is continually +increasing, their value increases even more than proportionately. +And whilst their local and fugitive character must be fully +recognized and allowed for, is it unjustifiable to set them aside +or leave them out of account as heretical, and therefore negligible.</p> + +<p>It will be sufficient here to mention shortly the chief collections +of this kind which came into existence during the first four +centuries; generally as the work of private individuals, +and having, at any rate, no more than a local authority +<span class="sidenote">Other collections.</span> +of some kind, (<i>a</i>) The earliest known to us is the +<i>Didachē</i> or <i>Teaching of the Twelve Apostles</i>, itself compiled from +earlier materials, and dating from about 120 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Didachē</a></span>). +(<i>b</i>) <i>The Apostolic Church Order</i> (<i>apostolische Kirchenordnung</i> of +German writers); <i>Ecclesiastical Canons of the Holy Apostles</i> of +one MS.; <i>Sententiae Apostolorum</i> of Pitra: of about 300, and +emanating probably from Asia Minor. Its earlier part, cc. 1-14, +depends upon the <i>Didachē</i>, and the rest of it is a book of discipline +in which Harnack has attempted to distinguish two older fragments +of church law (<i>Texte u. Unters</i>. ii. 5). (<i>c</i>) The so-called +<i>Canones Hippolyti</i>, probably Alexandrian or Roman, and of the +first half of the 3rd century. It will be observed that these +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page200" id="page200"></a>200</span> +make no claim to apostolic authorship; but otherwise their +origin is like that of the rest, unless indeed, as has been suggested, +they represent the work of an actual Roman synod, (<i>d</i>) The +so-called <i>Egyptian Church Order</i>, in Coptic from a Greek pre-Nicene +original (<i>c</i>. 310). It is part of the Egyptian Heptateuch +and contains neither communion nor ordination forms, (<i>e</i>) The +<i>Ethiopic Church Order</i>, perhaps twenty years later than (<i>d</i>), and +forming part of the <i>Ethiopic Statutes</i>. (<i>f</i>) The <i>Verona Latin +Fragments</i>, discovered and published by Hauler, portions of +a form akin to (<i>e</i>), which may be dated <i>c</i>. 340, though possibly +earlier. It has a preface which refers to a treatise <i>Concerning +Spiritual Gifts</i> as having immediately preceded it. (<i>g</i>) The +recently discovered <i>Testament of the Lord</i>, which is somewhat +later in date (<i>c.</i> 350), and likewise depends upon the <i>Canones +Hippolyti</i>. (<i>h</i>) The so-called <i>Canons of Basil</i>. This is an Arabic +work perhaps based on a Coptic and ultimately on a Greek +original, embodying with modifications large portions of the +Canons of Hippolytus. (On the relations between the six last-named, +see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hippolytus, Canons of</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Here also may be noticed the <i>Didascalia Apostolorum</i>, originally +written in Greek, but known through a Syriac version and a fragmentary +Latin one published by Hauler. It is of the middle of the +3rd century—in fact, a passage in the Latin translation seems to give +us the date <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 254. It emanates from Palestine or Syria, and is +independent of the documents already mentioned; and upon it the +<i>Constitutions</i> themselves very largely depend. It is a mixture of +moral and ecclesiastical instruction. The <i>Sacramentary of Serapion</i> +(<i>c.</i> 350), <i>The Pilgrimage of Etheria</i> (<i>Silvia</i>) (<i>c</i>. 385), and <i>The Catechetical +Lectures of Cyril of Jerusalem</i> (348) are also of value in this +connexion. In the (so-called) <i>Constitutions through Hippolytus</i> we +have possibly a preliminary draft of the famous 8th book of the +<i>Apostolical Constitutions</i>.<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> +</div> + +<p>The Constitutions themselves fall into three main divisions. +(i.) The first of these consists of books i.-vi., and throughout runs +parallel to the <i>Didascalia</i>. Bickell, indeed, held that +this latter was an abbreviated form of books i.-vi.; +<span class="sidenote">Contents.</span> +but it is now agreed on all hands that the Constitutions are based +on the <i>Didascalia</i> and not vice versa. (ii.) Then follows book vii., +the first thirty-one chapters of which are an adaptation of the +<i>Didachē</i>, whilst the rest contain various liturgical forms of which +the origin is still uncertain, though it has been acutely suggested +by Achelis, and with great probability, that they originated in +the schismatical congregation of Lucian at Antioch. (iii.) Book +viii. is more composite, and falls into three parts. The first two +chapters, <span class="grk" title="peri charismatôn">περὶ χαρισμάτων</span>, may be based upon a lost work of +St Hippolytus, otherwise known only by a reference to it in the +preface of the <i>Verona Latin Fragments</i>; and an examination +shows that this is highly probable. The next section, cc. 3-27, +<span class="grk" title="peri cheirotoyioy">περὶ χειροτονιῶν</span>, and cc. 28-46, <span class="grk" title="peri kayoyoy">περὶ κανόνων</span>, is twofold, and +is evidently that upon which the writer sets most store. The +apostles no longer speak jointly, but one by one in an apostolic +council, and the section closes with a joint decree of them all. +They speak of the ordination of bishops (the so-called Clementine +Liturgy is that which is directed to be used at the consecration +of a bishop, cc. 5-15), of presbyters, deacons, deaconesses, sub-deacons +and lectors, and then pass on to confessors, virgins, +widows and exorcists; after which follows a series of canons on +various subjects, and liturgical formulae. With regard to this +section, all that can be said is that it includes materials which +are also to be found elsewhere—in the <i>Egyptian Church Order</i> +and other documents already spoken of—and that the precise +relation between them is at present not determined. The third +section consists of the Apostolic Canons already referred to, the +last and most significant of which places the Constitutions and +the two epistles of Clement in the canon of Scripture, and omits +the Apocalypse. They are derived in part from the preceding +Constitutions, in part from the canons of the councils of Antioch, +341, Nicaea, 325, and possibly Laodicaea, 363.</p> + +<p>A comparison of the Constitutions with the material upon +which they are based will illustrate the compiler’s method. +(<i>a</i>) To begin with the <i>Didascalia</i> already mentioned. It is unmethodical +and badly digested, homiletical in style, and abounding +in biblical quotations. There is no precise arrangement; +but the subjects, following a general introduction, are the bishop +and his duties, penance, the administration of the offerings, +the settlement of disputes, the divine service, the order of widows, +deacons and deaconesses, the poor, behaviour in persecution, +and so forth. The compiler of the Constitutions finds here +material after his own heart. He is even more discursive and +more homiletical in style; he adds fresh citations of the Scriptures, +and additional explanations and moral reflexions; and +all this with so little judgment that he often leaves confusion +worse confounded (<i>e.g.</i> in ii. 57, where, upon a symbolical +description of the Church as a sheepfold, he has superimposed +the further symbolism of a ship). (<i>b</i>) Passing on to books vii. +and viii., we observe that the compiler’s method of necessity +changes with his new material. In the former book he still +makes large additions and alterations, but there is less scope for +his prolixity than before; and in the latter, where he is no +longer dealing with generalities, but making actual definitions, +the Constitutions of necessity become more precise and statutory +in form. Throughout he adopts and adapts the language of his +sources as far as possible, “only pruning in the most pressing +cases,” but towards the end he cannot avoid making larger +alterations from time to time. And his alterations throughout +are not made aimlessly. Where he finds things which would +obviously clash with the customs of his own day, he unhesitatingly +modifies them. An account of the Passion, with a curiously +perverted chronology, the object of which was to justify the +length of the Passion-tide fast, is entirely revised for this reason +(v. 14); the direction to observe Easter according to the Jewish +computation is changed into the exact contrary for the same +reason (v. 17); and where his archetype lapses into speaking of a +lull in persecution he naïvely informs us that the Romans have +now given up persecuting and have adopted Christianity (vi. 26), +forgetting altogether that he is speaking in the character of the +apostles. Above all, he both magnifies the office of the Christian +ministry as a whole and alters what is said of it in detail (for +example, the deaconess loses rank not a little), to make it agree +with the circumstances of his day in general, and with his own +ideas of fitness in particular. It is here that his evidence is at +once most valuable and needs to be used with the greatest care. +To give one striking example of the value of these documents. +The <i>Canones Hippolyti</i> (vi. 43) provide that one who has been +a confessor for the faith may be received as a presbyter by +virtue of his confessorship and not by the laying on of the +bishop’s hands; but if he be chosen a bishop, he is to be ordained. +This provision passes on into the Egyptian <i>Ecclesiastical Canons</i> +and other kindred documents, and even into the <i>Testamentum +Domini</i>. But the corresponding passage in the Apostolical +Constitutions (viii. 23) entirely reverses it: “A confessor is not +ordained, for he is so by choice and patience, and is worthy of +great honour.... But if there be occasion, he is to be ordained +either a bishop, priest, or deacon. But if any one of the confessors +who is not ordained snatches to himself any such dignity +upon account of his confession, let the same person be deprived +and rejected; for he is not in such an office, since he has denied +the constitution of Christ, and is worse than an infidel.”</p> + +<p>Who, then, is the author of the Constitutions, and what can be +inferred with regard to him? (i.) By separating off the sources +which he used from his own additions to them, it at +once becomes clear that the latter are the work of one +<span class="sidenote">Authorship, place, and date.</span> +man: the style is unmistakable, and the method of +working is the same throughout. The compiler of +books i.-vi. is also the compiler of books vii., viii. (ii.) As to +his theological position, different views have been held. Funk +suggests Apollinarianism, which is the refuge of the destitute; +and Achelis inclines in the same direction. But the affinities of +the author are quite otherwise, the most pronounced of them +being a strong subordinationist tendency, denial of a human +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page201" id="page201"></a>201</span> +soul to Christ, and the like, which suggest not indeed Arianism +but an inclination towards Arianism. Above all, his polemic is +directed against the dying heresies of the 3rd century; and he +writes with an absence of constraint which is not the language +of one who lives amidst violent controversies or who is conscious +of being in a minority. All this points to the position of a +“conservative” or semi-Arian of the East, one who belongs, +perhaps, to the circle of Lucian of Antioch and writes before the +time of Julian. It is hard to think of any other time or circumstances +in which a man could write like this, (iii.) The indications +of <i>time</i> have been held to point to a different conclusion. +On the one hand, the fact that the attempt to rebuild the temple +by Julian in 363 is not mentioned in vi. 24 points to an earlier +date; and the fact that the <span class="grk" title="kopiatai">κοπιᾶται</span> are not mentioned amongst +the church officers points in the same direction, for elsewhere they +are first mentioned in a rescript of Constantius in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 357. On +the other hand, in the cycle of feasts occur the names of several +which are probably of later date—<i>e.g.</i> Christmas and St Stephen, +which were introduced at Antioch <i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 378 and 379 respectively. +Again, Epiphanius (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 374) appears to be unacquainted with +it; he still quotes from the <i>Didascalia</i>, and elaborately explains +it away where it is contrary to the usages of his own day. But +as regards the former point, it is possible that the Apostolical +Constitutions constantly gave rise to these festivals; or, on +the other hand, that the two passages were subsequently introduced +either by the writer himself or by some other hand, +when the last book of the Constitutions was being used as a +law-book. And as regards the latter, the fact that Epiphanius +does not use the Constitutions is no proof that they had not yet +been compiled. (iv.) As to the region of composition there is no +real doubt. It was clearly the East, Syria or Palestine. Many +indications are against the latter, and Syria is strongly suggested +by the use of the Syro-Macedonian calendar. Moreover, the +writer represents the Roman Clement as the channel of communication +between the apostles and the Church. This fact +both supplies him with the name by which he is commonly +known, Pseudo-Clement, and also furnishes corroboration of his +Syrian birth; since the other spurious writings bearing the +name of Clement, the <i>Homilies</i> and <i>Recognitions</i>, are likewise of +Syrian origin. Moreover, the spurious Ignatian epistles, which +are also Syrian, depend throughout upon the Constitutions, +(v.) But this is not all. It was long ago noticed that Pseudo-Clement +bears a very close resemblance to Pseudo-Ignatius, the +interpolator of the Ignatian Epistles in the longer Greek recension. +Usher, as we have seen, identified them, and modern +criticism accepts this identification as a fact (Lagarde, Harnack, +Funk, Brightman). Lightfoot, indeed, still hesitated (<i>Ap. +Fathers</i>, II. i. 266 n.) on the ground that Pseudo-Ignatius occasionally +misunderstands the Constitutions, that the two writings give +the Roman succession differently, and that Pseudo-Clement +shows no knowledge of the Christological controversies of Nicaea. +But as regards the first of these, it is rather a case of condensed +citation than of misinterpretation; the second is explained by +the writer’s carelessness as shown in other passages, and all are +solved if a considerable interval of time elapsed between the compilation +of the Constitutions and the spurious Ignatian epistles.</p> + +<p>It seems clear then that the compiler was a Syrian, and that +he also wrote the spurious Ignatian epistles; he was likewise +probably a semi-Arian of the school of Lucian of Antioch. His +date is given by Harnack as <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 340-360, with a leaning to +340-343; by Lightfoot as the latter half of the 4th century; +by Brightman, 370-380; by Maclean, 375; and by Funk as the +beginning of the 5th century.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—W. Ueltzen, <i>Constitutiones Apostolicae</i> (Schwerin, +1853); P.A. de Lagarde, <i>Didascalia Apostolorum Syriace</i> (Leipz., +1854); <i>Constitutiones Apostolorum</i> (Leipz. and Lond., 1862); M.D. +Gibson, <i>Didascalia Apost. Syriace</i>, with Eng. trans. (<i>Horae Semiticae</i>, +i. and ii., Cambridge, 1903); J.B. Pitra, <i>Juris Ecclesiastici Graecorum +Historia et Monumenta</i>, i. (Rome, 1864); Hauler, <i>Didascaliae +Apostolorum Fragmenta Ueronensia Latina</i>, (Leipzig, 1900); Bickell, +<i>Geschichte des Kirchenrechts</i>, i. (Giessen, 1843); F.X. Funk, <i>Die +apostolischen Konstitutionen</i> (Rottenb., 1891); A. Harnack, <i>Geschichte +d. altchristl. Litteratur</i>, i. 515 ff. (Leipz., 1893); F.E. Brightman, +<i>Liturgies Eastern and Western</i>, I. xvii. ff. (Oxford, 1896); H. +Achelis, in Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopadie</i>, i. 734 f., art. “Apostolische +Konstitutionen und Kanones” (Leipz., 1896); A.S. Maclean, +<i>Recent Discoveries illustrating Early Christian Worship</i> (Lond., 1904); +J. Wordsworth, <i>The Ministry of Grace</i>, pp. 18 ff; J.P. Arendzen, +“The Apostolic Church Order” (Syriac Text, Eng. trans. and notes) +in <i>Journ. of Theol. Studies</i>, iii. 59. Trans. of <i>Apost. Constitutions</i>, +book viii., in Ante-Nicene Christian Library.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. E. Co.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Why he did not go on to give the remaining thirty-five is not +clear; they belong to the same date as, and are not inferior to, the +first fifty.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> At a later date various collections were made of the documents +above mentioned, or some of them, to serve as law-books in different +churches—<i>e.g.</i> the Syrian Octateuch, the Egyptian Heptateuch, +and the Ethiopic Sīnōdōs. These, however, stand on an entirely +different footing, since they are simply collections of existing documents, +and no attempt is made to claim apostolic authorship for +them.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOSTOLIC CANONS,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> a collection of eighty-five rules for the +regulation of clerical life, appended to the eighth book of the +<i>Apostolical Constitutions</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). They are couched in brief +legislative form though on no definite plan, and deal with the +vexed questions of ecclesiastical discipline as they were raised +towards the end of the 4th century. At least half of the canons +are derived from earlier constitutions, and probably not many +of them are the actual productions of the compiler, whose aim +was to gloss over the real nature of the <i>Constitutions</i>, and secure +their incorporation with the Epistles of Clement in the New +Testament of his day. The <i>Codex Alexandrinus</i> does indeed +append the Clementine Epistles to its text of the New Testament. +The Canons may be a little later in date than the preceding +<i>Constitutions</i>, but they are evidently from the same Syrian +theological circle.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOSTOLIC FATHERS,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> a term used to distinguish those early +Christian writers who were believed to have been the personal +associates of the original Apostles. While the title “Fathers” +was given from at least the beginning of the 4th century to +church writers of former days, as being the parents of Christian +belief and thought for later times, the expression “Apostolic +Fathers” dates only from the latter part of the 17th century. +The idea of recognizing these “Fathers” as a special group +exists already in the title “Patres aevi apostolici, sive SS. +Patrum qui temporibus apostolicis floruerunt ... opera,” under +which in 1672 J.B. Cotelier published at Paris the writings +current under the names of Barnabas, Clement of Rome, Hermas, +Ignatius and Polycarp. But the name itself is due to their next +editor, Thomas Ittig (1643-1710), in his <i>Bibliotheca Patrum +Apostolicorum</i> (1699), who, however, included under this title +only Clement, Ignatius and Polycarp. Here already appears +the doubt as to how many writers can claim the title, a doubt +which has continued ever since, and makes the contents of the +“Apostolic Fathers” differ so much from editor to editor. +Thus the Oratorian Andrea Gallandi (1700-1779), in re-issuing +Cotelier’s collection in his <i>Bibliotheca Veterum Patrum</i> (1765-1781), +included the fragments of Papias and the Epistle to +Diognetus, to which recent editors have added the citations +from the “Elders” of Papias’s day found in Irenaeus and, +since 1883, the <i>Didachē</i>.</p> + +<p>The degree of historic claim which these various writings +have to rank as the works<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of Apostolic Fathers varies greatly +on any definition of “apostolic.” Originally the epithet was +meant to be taken strictly, viz. as denoting those whom history +could show to have been personally connected, or at least coeval, +with one or more apostles; and an effort was made, as by +Cotelier, to distinguish the writings rightly and wrongly assigned +to such. Thus editions tended to vary with the historical views +of editors. But the convenience of the category “Apostolic +Fathers” to express not only those who might possibly have +had some sort of direct contact with apostles—such as “Barnabas,” +Clement, Ignatius, Papias, Polycarp—but also those +who seemed specially to preserve the pure tradition of apostolic +doctrine during the sub-apostolic age, has led to its general use +in a wide and vague sense.</p> + +<p>Conventionally, then, the title denotes the group of writings +which, whether in date or in internal character, are regarded as +belonging to the main stream of the Church’s teaching during +the period between the Apostles and the Apologists (<i>i.e.</i> to +c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 140). Or to put it more exactly, the “Apostolic Fathers” +represent, chronologically in the main and still more from the +religious and theological standpoint, the momentous process of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page202" id="page202"></a>202</span> +transition from the type of teaching in the New Testament to +that which meets us in the early Catholic Fathers, from the last +quarter of the 2nd century onwards. The Apologists no doubt +show us certain fresh factors entering into this development; +but on the whole the Apostolic Fathers by themselves go a long +way to explain the transition in question, so far as knowledge of +this <i>saeculum obscurum</i> is within our reach at all. It is +true that they do not include the whole even of the ecclesiastical +literature of the sub-apostolic age, not to mention what remains of +Gnostic and other minority types. The <i>Preaching and Apocalypse</i> +of Peter, for instance, are quite typical of the same period, and help +us to read between the lines of the Apostolic Fathers. Yet +they do not really add much to what is there already, and they +have the drawbacks of pseudonymity; they lack concrete and +personal qualities; they are general expressions of tendencies +which we cannot well locate or measure, save by means of +the Apostolic Fathers themselves or of their earliest Catholic +successors.</p> + +<p>(A) In <i>external features</i> the group is far from homogeneous, +a fact which has led to their being disintegrated as a group in +certain histories of early Christian literature (<i>e.g.</i> those of +Harnack and Krüger), and classed each under its own literary +type—so sacrificing to outer form, which is quite secondary in +primitive Christian writings, the more significant fact of religious +affinity. Its original members, those still best entitled to their +name in any strict sense, are epistles, and in this respect also +most akin to Apostolic writings. Indeed Ignatius takes pleasure +in saluting his readers “after the apostolic stamp” (<i>ad Troll.</i> +inscr.), while yet disclaiming all desire to emulate the apostolic +manner in other respects, being fully conscious of the gulf between +himself and apostles like Peter and Paul in claim to authority +(<i>ib.</i> in. 3, <i>ad Rom.</i> iv. 3). The like holds of Polycarp, +who, in explaining that he writes to exhort the Philippians only at +their own request, adds, “for neither am I, nor is any other like me, +able to follow the wisdom of the blessed and glorious Paul” +(in. 2). Clement’s epistle, indeed, conforms more to the elaborate +and treatise-like form of the Epistle to the Hebrews, on which +it draws so largely; and the same is true of “Barnabas.” But +one and all are influenced by study of apostolic epistles, and +witness to the impression which these produced on the men of +the next generation. Unconsciously, too, they correspond to +the apostolic type of writing in another respect, viz. their +occasional and practical character. They are evoked by pressing +needs of the hour among some definite body of Christians and +not by any literary motive.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> This is a universal trait of primitive +Christian writings; so that to speak of primitive Christian +“literature” at all is hardly accurate, and tends to an artificial +handling of their contents. These sub-apostolic epistles are +veritable “human documents,” with the personal note running +through them. They are after all personal expressions of Christianity, +in which are discernible also specific types of local tradition. +To such spontaneous actuality a large part of their interest and value is due.</p> + +<p>Nor is this pre-literary and vital quality really absent even +from the writing which is least entitled to a place among +“Apostolic Fathers,” the Epistle to Diognetus. This beautiful +picture of the Christian life as a realized ideal, and of Christians +as “the soul” of the world, owes its inclusion to a double error: +first, to the accidental attachment at the end of another fragment +(§ ii), which opens with the writer’s claim to stand forth as a +teacher as being “a disciple of apostles”; and next, to mistaken +exegesis of this phrase as implying personal relations with +apostles, rather than knowledge of their teaching, written or oral. +Whether in form addressed to Diognetus, the tutor of Marcus +Aurelius, as a typical cultured observer of Christianity, or to +some other eminent person of the same name in the locality of its +origin, or, as seems more likely, to cultured Greeks generally, +personified under the significant name “Diognetus” +(“Heaven-born,” of. Acts xvii. 28 along with § iii. 4)—the +epistle is in any case an “open letter” of an essentially literary +type. Further, its opening seems modelled on the lines of the +preface to Luke’s Gospel, to which, along with Acts, it may owe +something of its very conception as a reasoned appeal to the +lover of truth. But while literary in form and conception, its +appeal is in spirit so personal a testimony to what the Gospel +has done for the writer and his fellow Christians, that it is akin +to the piety of the Apostolic Fathers as a group. It is true +that it has marked affinities, <i>e.g.</i> in its natural theology, +with the earliest Apologists, Aristides and Justin, even as it is +itself in substance an apology addressed not to the State, but to +thoughtful public opinion. But this only means that we cannot draw +a hard and fast line between groups of early Christian writings at +a time when practical religious interests overshadowed all others.</p> + +<p>If thus related to the Apologists of the middle of the 2nd +century, the Epistle to Diognetus has also points of contact +with one of the most practical and least literary writings found +among our Apostolic Fathers, viz. the homily originally known +as the Second Epistle of Clement (for this ascription, as for other +details, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clementine Literature</a></span>). The recovery of its +concluding sections in the same MS. which brought the <i>Didachē</i> +to light, proves beyond question that we have here the earliest +extant sermon preached before a Christian congregation, about +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 120-140 (so J.B. Lightfoot). Its opening section, recalling +to its hearers the passing of the mists of idolatry before the +revelation in Jesus Christ, is markedly similar in tone and tenor to +passages in the Epistle to Diognetus. Far closer, however, are +the affinities between the homily and the <i>Shepherd of Hermas</i>, +“the first Christian allegory,” which as a literary whole dates +from about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 140, but probably represents a more or less +prolonged prophetic activity on the part of its author, the brother +of Pius, the Roman bishop of his day (<i>c.</i> 139-154). In both the +primary theme is repentance, as called for by serious sins, after +baptism has placed the Christian on his new and higher level of +responsibility. Thus both are hortatory writings, the one +argumentative in form, the other prophetic, after the manner +of later Old Testament prophets whose messages came in visions +and similitudes. This prophetic and apocalyptic note, which +characterizes Hermas among the Apostolic Fathers (though there are +traces of it also in the <i>Didachē</i> and in Ignatius, <i>ad Eph.</i> xx.), +is a genuinely primitive trait and goes far to explain the vogue which the +<i>Shepherd</i> enjoyed in the generations immediately succeeding, +as also the influence of its disciplinary policy, which is its +prophetic “burden” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hermas, Shepherd of</a></span>).</p> + +<p>We come finally to the anonymous <i>Teaching of the Twelve Apostles</i> +and Papias’s <i>Exposition of Oracles of the Lord</i>, so far as this +is known to us. The former, besides embodying catechetical instruction +in Christian conduct (the “Two Ways”), which goes back in substance to +the early apostolic age and is embodied also in “Barnabas,” depicts in +outline the fundamental usages of +church life as practised in some conservative region (probably +within Syria) about the last quarter of the 1st century and +perhaps even later. The whole is put forth as substantially the +apostolic teaching (<i>Didachē</i>) on the subjects in question. This +is probably a <i>bona fide</i> claim. It expresses the feeling common +to the Apostolic Fathers and general in the sub-apostolic age, at any +rate in regions where apostles had once laboured, that local tradition, +as held by the recognized church leaders, did +but continue apostolic doctrine and practice. Into later developments +of this feeling an increasing element of illusion entered, +and all other written embodiments of it known to us take the +form of literary fictions, more or less bold. It is in contrast to +these that the <i>Didachē</i> is justly felt to be genuinely primitive +and of a piece with the Apostolic Fathers. Thus while its form +would by analogy tend <i>per se</i> to awaken suspicion, its contents +remove this feeling; and we may even infer from this surviving +early formulation of local ecclesiastical tradition, that others of +somewhat similar character came into being in the sub-apostolic +age, but failed to survive save as embodied in later local teaching, +oral or written, very much as if the <i>Didachē</i> had perished +and its literary offspring alone remained (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Didachē</a></span>).</p> + +<p>As regards Papias’s <i>Exposition</i>, which Lightfoot describes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id="page203"></a>203</span> +as “among the earliest forerunners of commentaries, partly +explanatory, partly illustrative, on portions of the New Testament,” +we need here only remark that, whatever its exact form +may have been—as to which the extant fragments still leave +room for doubt—it was in conception expository of the historic +meaning of Christ’s more ambiguous Sayings, viewed in the light +of definitely ascertained apostolic traditions bearing on the +subject. The like is true also of the fragments of the Elders +preserved in Irenaeus (so far as these do not really come from +Papias). Both bodies of exposition represent the traditional +principle at work in the sub-apostolic age, making for the preservation +in relative purity, over against merely subjective interpretations—those +of the Gnostics in particular—of the historic +or original sense of Christ’s teaching, just as Ignatius stood for +the historicity of the facts of His earthly career in their plain, +natural sense.</p> + +<p>(B) Here the question of external form passes readily over +into that of the <i>internal character and spirit</i>. Indeed much has +already been said or suggested bearing on these. The relation +of these writers to the apostolic teaching generally has become +pretty evident. It is one of absolute loyalty and deference, +as to the teaching of inspiration. They are conscious, as are we +in reading them, that they are not moving on the same level of +insight as the Apostles; they are sub-apostolic in that sense +also. Hence there appear constant traces of study of the +Apostolic writings, so far as these were accessible in the locality +of each writer at his date of writing (for the details of this subject, +and its bearing on the history of the Canonical Scriptures of the +New Testament, see <i>The New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers</i>, +Oxford, 1905). As Lightfoot points out (<i>Apostolic Fathers</i>, +pt. i. vol. i. p. 7), however, personality, with its variety of +temperament and emphasis, largely colours the Apostolic +Fathers, especially the primary group. Clement has all the +Roman feeling for duly constituted order and discipline; +Ignatius has the Syrian or semi-oriental passion of devotion, +showing itself at once in his mystic love for his Lord and his +over-strained yearning to become His very “disciple” by drinking +the like cup of martyrdom; Polycarp is, above all things, +steady in his allegiance to what had first won his conscience +and heart, and his “passive and receptive character” comes +out in the contents of his epistle. Of the rest, whose personalities +are less known to us, Papias shares Polycarp’s qualities and +their limitations, the anonymous homilist and Hermas are +marked by intense moral earnestness, while the writer to Diognetus +joins to this a profound religious insight. These personal +traits determine by selective affinity, working under conditions +given by the special local type of tradition and piety, the elements +in the Apostolic writings which each was able to assimilate and +express—though we must allow also for variety in the occasions +of writing. Thus one New Testament type is echoed in one and +another in another; or it may be several in turn. The latter +is the case in Clement, Ignatius and Polycarp; perhaps also in +“Barnabas.” In Hermas there is special affinity to the language +and thought of the epistle of James, and in the homilist to those +of Paul. Yet their very use of the same terms or ideas makes +us the more aware of “a marked contrast to the depth and clearness +of conception with which the several Apostolic writers place +before us different aspects of the Gospel” (Lightfoot). While +Apostolic phrases are used, the sense behind them is often +different and less evangelic. They have not caught the Apostolic +meaning, because they have not penetrated to the full religious +experience which gave to the words, often words with long and +varied history both in the Septuagint and in ordinary Greek +usage, their specific meaning to each apostle and especially to +Paul. This phenomenon was noted particularly by E. Reuss, in +his <i>Histoire de la théologie chrétienne an siècle apostolique</i> (3rd +ed., 1864). Take for instance Clement. Lightfoot, indeed, dwells +on the all-round “comprehensiveness” with which Clement, +as the mouthpiece of the early Roman Church, utters in succession +phrases or ideas borrowed impartially from Peter and Paul +and James and the Epistle to Hebrews. He admits, however, +that such mere co-ordination of the language of Paul and James, +for instance, as appears in his twice bracketing “faith and +hospitality” as grounds of acceptance with God (the cases are +those of Abraham and Rahab, in chs. x. and xii.), is “from a +strictly dogmatic point of view” his weakness. But the weakness +is more than a dogmatic one; it is one of religious experience, as +the source of spiritual insight. It is not merely that “there is no +<i>dogmatic system</i> in Clement” or in any other of the Apostolic +Fathers; that may favour, not hinder, religious insight. There +is a want of depth in Christian experience, in the power of +realizing relative spiritual values in the light of the master principle +involved in the distinctively Christian consciousness, such +as could raise Clement above a verbal eclecticism, rather than +comprehensiveness, in the use of Apostolic language. As R.W. +Dale remarks, in a note on Reuss’s too severe words (Eng. trans. +ii. 295): “The vital force of the Apostolic convictions gave to +Apostolic thought a certain organic and consistent form.” It is +lack of this organic quality in the thought, not only of Clement +but also of the Apostolic Fathers generally—with the possible +exception of Ignatius, who seems to share the Apostolic experience +more fully than any other, to which Reuss rightly directs +attention. In virtue of this defect, due largely to the failure to +enter into the Apostolic experience of mystic union with Christ, +he can rightly speak of “an immense retrogression” in theology +visible “at the end of the century, and in circles where it might +have been least expected” (ii. p. 294, cf. 541).</p> + +<p>In fact the perspective of the Gospel was seriously changed +and its most distinctive features obscured. This was specially +the case with the experimental doctrines of grace. Here the +central glory of the Cross as “the power of God unto salvation” +suffered some eclipse, although the passion of Christ was felt to +be a transcendent act of Divine Grace in one way or another. +But even more serious was the loss of an adequate sense of +the contrast between “grace” and “works” as conditions of +salvation. There was little or no sense of the danger of the +<i>legal principle</i>, as related to human egoism and the instinct to +seek salvation as a reward for merit. The passages in which +these things are laid bare by Paul’s remorseless analysis of his +own experience “under Law” seem to have made practically +no impression on the Apostolic Fathers as a whole. Gentile +Christians had not felt the fang of the Law as the ex-Pharisee +had occasion to feel it. Even if first trained in the Hellenistic +synagogues of the Dispersion, as was often the case, they apprehended +the Law on its more helpful and less exacting side, +and had not been brought “by the Law to die unto the Law,” +that they might “live unto God.” The result was too great a +continuity between their religious conceptions before and after +embracing the Gospel. Thus the latter seemed to them simply +to bring forgiveness of past sins for Christ’s sake, and then an +enhanced moral responsibility to the New Law revealed in +Him. Hence a new sort of legalism, known to recent writers as +Moralism, underlies much of the piety of the Apostolic Fathers, +though Ignatius is quite free from it, while Polycarp and +“Barnabas” are less under its influence than are the <i>Didachē</i>, +Clement, the Homilist and Hermas. It conceives salvation as +a “wages” (<span class="grk" title="osthos">μισθός</span>) to be earned or forfeited; and regards +certain good works, such as prayer, fasting, alms—especially +the last—as efficacious to cancel sins. The reality of this +tendency, particularly at Rome, betrays itself in Hermas, who +teaches the supererogatory merit of alms gained by the self-denial +of fasting (<i>Sim</i>. v. 3. 3 ff.). Marcion’s reaction, too, +against the Judaic temper in the Church as a whole, in the +interests of an extravagant Paulinism, while it suggests that +Paul’s doctrines of grace generally were inadequately realized in +the sub-apostolic age, points also to the prevalence of such +moralism in particular.</p> + +<p>(C) In attempting a final estimate of the value of the Apostolic +Fathers for the historian to-day, we may sum up under these +heads: ecclesiastical, theological, religious. (<i>a</i>) As a mine of +materials for reconstructing the history of Church institutions, +they are invaluable, and that largely in virtue of their spontaneous +and “esoteric” character, with no view to the public +generally or to posterity. (<i>b</i>) Theologically, as a stage in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page204" id="page204"></a>204</span> +history of Christian doctrine, their value is as great negatively +as positively. Impressive as is their witness to the persistence +of the Apostolic teaching in its essential features, amidst all +personal and local variations, perhaps the most striking thing +about these writings is the degree in which they fail to appreciate +certain elements of the Apostolic teaching as embodied in the +New Testament, and those its higher and more distinctively +Christian elements.<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> This negative aspect has a twofold bearing. +Firstly, it suggests the supernormal level to which the Apostolic +consciousness was raised at a bound by the direct influence of +the Founder of Christianity, and justifies the marking-off of the +Apostolic writings as a Canon, or body of Christian classics of +unique religious authority. To this principle Marcion’s Pauline +Canon is a witness, though in too one-sided a spirit. Secondly, +it means that the actual development of ecclesiastical doctrine +began, not from the Apostolic consciousness itself, but from a +far lower level, that of the inadequate consciousness of the sub-apostolic +Church, even when face to face with their written words. +This theological “retrogression” is of much significance for the +history of dogma, (<i>c</i>) On the other hand, there is great religious +and moral continuity, beneath even theological discontinuity, in +the life working below all conscious apprehension of the deeper +ideas involved (E. von Dobschutz, <i>Christian Life in the Primitive +Church</i>, 1905). There is continuity in character; the Apostolic +Fathers strike us as truly good men, with a goodness raised to a +new type and power. This is what the Gospel of Christ aims +chiefly at producing as its proper fruit; and the Apostolic +Fathers would have desired no better record than that they +were themselves genuine “epistles of Christ.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—This is too large to indicate even in outline, but +is given fully in the chief modern editions, viz. of Gebhardt, Harnack +and Zahn jointly (1875-1877), J.B. Lightfoot (1885-1890) and +F.X. Funk (1901); also in O. Bardenhewer, <i>Gesch. der altkirchlichen +Litteratur</i> (1902), Band i., and in <i>Neutestamentliche Apokryphen</i>, +with <i>Handbuch</i> thereto, edited by E. Hennecke (Tübingen, 1904). +The fullest discussion in English of the teaching of Barnabas, +Clement, Ignatius and Polycarp is by J. Donaldson, <i>The Apostolical +Fathers</i> (1874), which, however, suffers from the imperfect state of +the texts when he wrote. The most useful edition for ready reference, +containing critical texts (up to date) and good translations, +is Lightfoot’s one-volume edition, <i>The Apostolic Fathers</i> (London, +1891).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. V. B.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Cotelier included the Acts of Martyrdom of Clement, Ignatius +and Polycarp; and those of Ignatius and Polycarp are still often +printed by editors.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See G.A. Deissmann, +<i>Bible Studies</i>, pp. 1-60, for this distinction between +the genuine “letter” and the literary “epistle,” as applied +to the New Testament in particular.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> One result is their inability to form a true theory of Judaism +and of the Old Testament in relation to the Gospel, a matter of great +moment for them and for their successors.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOSTOLICI<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Apostolic Brethren</span>, or <span class="sc">Apostles</span>, the +names given to various Christian heretics, whose common +doctrinal feature was an ascetic rigidity of morals, which made +them reject property and marriage. The earliest Apostolici +appeared in Phrygia, Cilicia, Pisidia and Pamphylia towards +the end of the 2nd century or the beginning of the 3rd. According +to the information given by Epiphanius (<i>Haer.</i> 61) about +the doctrines of these heretics, it is evident that they were +connected with the Encratites and the Tatianians. They condemned +individual property, hence the name sometimes given to +them of <i>Apotactites</i> or <i>Renuntiatores</i>. They preserved an absolute +chastity and abstained from wine and meat. They refused to +admit into their sect those Christians whom the fear of martyrdom +had once restored to paganism. As late as the 4th century +St Basil (<i>Can</i>. 1 and 47) knew some Apostolici. After that +period they disappeared, either becoming completely extinct, +or being confounded with other sects (see St Augustine, <i>Haer.</i> +40; John of Damascus, <i>Haer.</i> 61).</p> + +<p>Failing a more exact designation, the name of Apostolici has +been given to certain groups of Latin heretics of the 12th century. +It is the second of the two sects of Cologne (the first being composed +very probably of Cathari) that is referred to in the letter +addressed in 1146 by Everwin, provost of Steinfeld, to St Bernard +(Mabillon, <i>Vet. Anal.</i> iii. 452). They condemned marriage (save, +perhaps, first marriages), the eating of meat, baptism of children, +veneration of saints, fasting, prayers for the dead and belief in +purgatory, denied transubstantiation, declared the Catholic +priesthood worthless, and considered the whole church of their +time corrupted by the “negotia saecularia” which absorbed all +its zeal (of. St Bernard, <i>Serm.</i> 65 and 66 <i>in Cantic.</i>). They do +not seem to have been known as Apostles or Apostolici: St +Bernard, in fact, asks his hearers: “Quo nomine istos titulove +censebis?” (<i>Serm. 66 in Cantic.</i>). Under this designation, too, +are included the heretics of Perigueux in France, alluded to in +the letter of a certain monk Heribert (Mabillon, <i>Vet. Anal.</i> iii. +467). Heribert says merely: “Se dicunt apostolicam vitam +ducere.” It is possible that they were Henricians (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Henry +of Lausanne</a></span>). During his mission in the south-east of France +in 1146-1147 St Bernard still met disciples of Henry of Lausanne +in the environs of Périgueux. The heretics of whom Heribert +speaks condemned riches, denied the value of the sacraments +and of good works, ate no meat, drank no wine and rejected +the veneration of images. Their leader, named Pons, gathered +round him nobles, priests, monks and nuns.</p> + +<p>In the second half of the 13th century appeared in Italy the +<i>Order of the Apostles</i> or <i>Apostle Brethren</i> (see especially the <i>Chron.</i> +of Fra Salimbene). This was a product of the mystic fermentation +which proceeded from exalted Franciscanism and from +Joachimism (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fraticelli</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Joachim</a></span>). It presents great +analogies with groups of the same character, <i>e.g.</i> Sachets, +Bizocchi, Flagellants, &c. The order of the Apostles was founded +about 1260 by a young workman from the environs of Parma, +Gerard Segarelli, who had sought admission unsuccessfully to +the Franciscan order. To make his life conform to that of +Christ, his contemporaries say that he had himself circumcised, +wrapped in swaddling clothes and laid in a cradle, and that he +then, clad in a white robe and bare-footed, walked through +the streets of Parma crying “Penitenz agite!” (“Poenitentiam +agite!”). He was soon followed by a throng of men and women, +peasants and mechanics. All had to live in absolute poverty, +chastity and idleness. They begged, and preached penitence. +Opizo, bishop of Parma, protected them until they caused +trouble in his diocese. Their diffusion into several countries +of Christendom disturbed Pope Honorius IV., who in 1286 +ordered them to adhere to an already recognized rule. On their +refusal, the pope condemned them to banishment and Opizo +imprisoned Segarelli. The councils of Würzburg (1287) and +Chichester (1289) took measures against the Apostles of Germany +and England. But in 1291 the sect reappeared, sensibly increased, +and Pope Nicholas IV. published anew the bull of +Honorius IV. From that day the Apostles, regarded as rebels, +were persecuted pitilessly. Four were burned in 1294, and +Segarelli, as a relapsed heretic, went to the stake at Parma in +1300.</p> + +<p>They had had close relations with the dissident Franciscans, +but the Spirituals often disavowed them, especially when the +sect, which in Segarelli’s time had had no very precise doctrinal +character, became with Dolcino frankly heterodox. Dolcino of +Novara was brought up at Vercelli, and had been an Apostle +since 1291. Thrice he fell into the hands of the Inquisition, and +thrice recanted. But immediately after Segarelli’s death he +wrote an epistle, soon followed by a second, in which he declared +that the third Joachimite age began with Segarelli and that +Frederick of Sicily was the expected conqueror (<i>Hist. Dulcini</i> +and <i>Addit. ad Hist. Dulcini</i> in Muratori, <i>Scriptores</i>, vol. ix.). +He gave himself out as an angel sent from God to elucidate the +prophecies. Soon he founded an <i>Apostolic congregation</i> at whose +head he placed himself. Under him were his four lieutenants, +his “mystic sister,” Margherita di Franck, and 4000 disciples. +He taught almost the same principles of devotion as Segarelli, +but the Messianic character which he attributed to himself, +the announcement of a communistic millennial kingdom, and, +besides, an aggressive anti-sacerdotalism, gave to Dolcino’s sect +a clearly marked character, analogous only to the theocratic +community of the Anabaptists of Münster in the 16th century. +On the 5th of June 1305 Pope Clement V., recognizing the +impotence of the ordinary methods of repression, issued bulls +for preaching a crusade against the Dolcinists. But four +crusades, directed by the bishop of Vercelli, were required to +reduce the little army of the heresiarch, entrenched in the +mountains in the neighbourhood of Vercelli. Not till the 23rd +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page205" id="page205"></a>205</span> +of March 1307 were the sectaries definitively overcome. The +Catholic crusaders seized Dolcino in his entrenchments on +Mount Rubello, and the pope at once announced the happy +event to King Philip the Fair. At Vercelli Dolcino suffered a +horrible punishment. He was torn in pieces with red-hot +pincers—the torture lasting an entire day—while Margherita +was burned at a slow fire. Dante mentions Dolcino’s name +(<i>Inferno</i>, c. xxviii.), and his memory is not yet completely effaced +in the province of Novara. The Apostles continued their +propaganda in Italy, Languedoc, Spain and Germany. In turn +they were condemned by the councils of Cologne (1306), Treves +(1310) and Spoleto (1311). The inquisitor of Languedoc, +Bernard Gui, persecuted them unremittingly (see Gui’s <i>Practica +Inquisitionis</i>). From 1316 to 1323 the condemnations of +Apostles increased at Avignon and Toulouse. They disappeared, +however, at a comparatively late date from those regions (council +of Lavaur, 1368; council of Narbonne, 1374). In Germany +two Apostles were burned at Lübeck and Wismar at the beginning +of the 15th century (1402-1403) by the inquisitor Eylard.</p> + +<p>Several controversialists, including Gotti, Krohn and Stockmann, +have mentioned among the innumerable sects that have +sprung from Anabaptism a group of individuals whose open-air +preaching and rigorous practice of poverty gained them the name +of Apostolici. These must be carefully distinguished from the +<i>Apostoolians</i>, Mennonites of Frisia, who followed the teachings of +the pastor Samuel Apostool (1638-beginning of 18th century). +In the Mennonite church they represent the rigid, conservative +party, as opposed to the Galenists, who inclined towards the +Arminian latitudinarianism and admitted into their community +all those who led a virtuous life, whatever their doctrinal +tendencies.</p> +<div class="author">(P. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOSTOLIC MAJESTY,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> a title borne by the kings of Hungary. +About <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1000 it was conferred by Pope Silvester II. upon +St Stephen (975-1038), the first Christian king of Hungary, in +return for his zeal in seeking the conversion of the heathen. It +was renewed by Pope Clement XIII. in 1758 in favour of the +empress Maria Theresa and her descendants. The emperor of +Austria bears the title of apostolic king of Hungary.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOSTOLIUS, MICHAEL<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (d. <i>c.</i> 1480), a Greek theologian and +rhetorician of the 15th century. When, in 1453, the Turks +conquered Constantinople, his native city, he fled to Italy, and +there obtained the protection of Cardinal Bessarion. But +engaging in the great dispute that then raged between the upholders +of Aristotle and Plato, his zeal for the latter led him to +speak so contemptuously of the more popular philosopher and of +his defender, Theodorus Gaza, that he fell under the severe +displeasure of his patron. He afterwards retired to Crete, +where he earned a scanty living by teaching and by copying +manuscripts. Many of his copies are still to be found in the +libraries of Europe. One of them, the <i>Icones</i> of Philostratus at +Bologna, bears the inscription: “The king of the poor of this +world has written this book for his living.” Apostolius died +about 1480, leaving two sons, Aristobulus Apostolius and +Arsenius. The latter became bishop of Malvasia (Monemvasia) +in the Morea.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Of his numerous works a few have been printed: <span class="grk" title="Paroimiai">Παροιμίαι</span> +(Basel, 1538), now exceedingly rare; a collection of proverbs in +Greek, of which a fuller edition appeared at Leiden, “Curante +Heinsio,” in 1619; “Oratio Panegyrica ad Fredericum III.” in +Freher’s <i>Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum</i>, vol. ii. (Frankfort, 1624); +Georgii Gemisthi Plethonis et Mich. Apostolii <i>Orationes funebres duae +in quibus de Immortalitate Animae exponitur</i> (Leipzig, 1793); and a +work against the Latin Church and the council of Florence in +Le Moine’s <i>Varia Sacra</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOSTROPHE<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="apostrophe">ἀποστροφή</span>, turning away; the final <i>e</i> +being sounded), the name given to an exclamatory rhetorical +figure of speech, when a speaker or writer breaks off and addresses +some one directly in the vocative. The same word (representing, +through the French, the Greek <span class="grk" title="apostrophos prosudia">ἀπόστροφος προσῳδία</span>, the +accent of elision) means also the sign (’) for the omission of a +letter or letters, <i>e.g.</i> in “don’t.” In physiology, “apostrophe” +is used more precisely in connexion with its literal meaning of +“turning away,” <i>e.g.</i> for movement away from the light, in the +case of the accumulation of chlorophyll-corpuscles on the cells of +leaves.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOTACTITES,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Apotactici</span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="apotaktos">ἀποτακτός</span>, set +apart), a sect of early Christians, who renounced all their worldly +possessions. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apostolici</a></span> <i>ad init.</i>)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOTHECARY<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>apothecarius</i>, a keeper of an +<i>apotheca</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="apotheke">ἀποθήκη</span>, a store), a word used by Galen to denote +the repository where his medicines were kept, now obsolete in +its original sense. An apothecary was one who prepared, sold +and prescribed drugs, but the preparing and selling of drugs +prescribed by others has now passed into the hands of duly +qualified and authorized persons termed “chemists and druggists,” +while the apothecary, by modern legislation, has become +a general medical practitioner, and the word itself, when used at +all, is applied, more particularly in the United States and in +Scotland, to those who in England are called “pharmaceutical +chemists.” The Apothecaries’ Society of London is one of the +corporations of that city, and both by royal charters and acts of +parliament exercises the power of granting licences to practise +medicine. The members of this society do not possess and +never have possessed any exclusive power to deal in or sell +drugs; and until 1868 any person whatever might open what is +called a chemist’s shop, and deal in drugs and poisons. In that +year, however, the Pharmacy Act was passed, which prohibits +any person from engaging in this business without being +registered.</p> + +<p>From early records we learn that the different branches of +the medical profession were not regularly distinguished till the +reign of Henry VIII., when separate duties were assigned to +them, and peculiar privileges were granted to each. In 1518 +the physicians of London were incorporated, and the barber-surgeons +in 1540. But, independently of the physicians and the +surgeons, there were a great number of irregular practitioners, +who were more or less molested by their legitimate rivals, and it +became necessary to pass an act in 1543 for their protection and +toleration. As many of these practitioners kept shops for the +sale of medicines, the term “apothecary” was used to designate +their calling.</p> + +<p>In April 1606 James I. incorporated the apothecaries as one +of the city companies, uniting them with the grocers. On their +charter being renewed in 1617 they were formed into a separate +corporation, under the title of the “Apothecaries of the City of +London.” These apothecaries appear to have prescribed +medicines in addition to dispensing them, and to have claimed +an ancient right of acting in this double capacity; and it may +be mentioned that Henry VIII., after the grant of the charter +to the College of Physicians, appointed an apothecary to the +Princess Mary, who was delicate and unhealthy, at a salary of +40 marks a year, “<i>pro meliore cura, et consideratione sanitatis +suae</i>.” During the 17th century, however, there arose a warm +contest between the physicians and the apothecaries,—the +former accusing the latter of usurping their province, and the +latter continuing and justifying the usurpation until the dispute +was finally set at rest by a judgment of the House of Lords in +1703 (<i>Rose v. College of Physicians</i>, 5 Bro. P. C. 553), when it was +decided that the duty of the apothecary consisted not only in +compounding and dispensing, but also in directing and ordering +the remedies employed in the treatment of disease. In 1722 +an act was obtained empowering the Apothecaries’ Company to +visit the shops of all apothecaries practising in London, and to +destroy such drugs as they found unfit for use. In 1748 great +additional powers were given to the company by an act authorizing +them to appoint a board of ten examiners, without whose +licence no person should be allowed to dispense medicines in +London, or within a circuit of 7 m. round it. In 1815, however, +an act of parliament was passed which gave the Apothecaries’ +Society a new position, empowering a board, consisting of twelve +of their members, to examine and license all apothecaries +throughout England and Wales. It also enacted that, from the +1st of August of that year, no persons except those who were so +licensed should have the right to act as apothecaries, and it +gave the society the power of prosecuting those who practised +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page206" id="page206"></a>206</span> +without such licence. But the act expressly exempted from +prosecution all persons who were then in actual practice, and it +distinctly excluded from its operation all persons pursuing the +calling of chemists and druggists. It was also provided that +the act should in no way interfere with the rights or privileges +of the English universities, or of the English College of Surgeons +or the College of Physicians; and indeed a clause imposed +severe penalties on any apothecaries who should refuse to compound +and dispense medicines on the order of a physician, +legally qualified to act as such. It is therefore clear that the +act contemplated the creation of a class of practitioners who, +while having the right to practise medicine, should assist and +co-operate with the physicians and surgeons.</p> + +<p>Before this act came into operation the education of the +medical practitioners of England and Wales was entirely optional +on their own part, and although many of them possessed degrees +or licences from the universities or colleges, the greater number +possessed no such qualification, and many of them were wholly +illiterate and uneducated. The court of examiners of the +Apothecaries’ Society, being empowered to enforce the acquisition +of a sufficient medical education upon its future licentiates, +specified from time to time the courses of lectures or terms of +hospital practice to be attended by medical students before their +examination, and in the progress of years regular schools of +medicine were organized throughout England.</p> + +<p>As it was found that, notwithstanding the stringent regulations +as to medical acquirements, the candidates were in many +instances deficient in preliminary education, the court of +examiners instituted, about the year 1850, a preliminary +examination in arts as a necessary and indispensable prerequisite +to the medical curriculum, and this provision has been so expanded +that, at the present day, all medical students in the +United Kingdom are compelled to pass a preliminary examination +in arts, unless they hold a university degree. An act of parliament, +passed in 1858, and known as the Medical Act, made +very little alteration in the powers exercised by the Apothecaries’ +Society, and indeed it confirmed and in some degree amplified +them, for whereas by the act of 1815, the licentiates of the society +were authorized to practise as such only in England and Wales, +the new measure gave them the same right in Scotland and +Ireland. The Medical Act 1886 extended the qualifications +necessary for registration under the medical acts, by making it +necessary to pass a qualifying examination in medicine, surgery +and midwifery. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Medical Education</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>An act, passed in 1874, related exclusively to the Apothecaries’ +Society, and is termed the Apothecaries’ Act Amendment Act. +By this measure some provisions of the act of 1815, which had +become obsolete or unsuitable, were repealed, and powers were +given to the society to unite or co-operate with other medical +licensing bodies in granting licences to practise. The act of +1815 had made it compulsory on all candidates for a licence to +have served an apprenticeship of five years to an apothecary, +and although by the interpretation of the court of examiners +of the society this term really included the whole period of +medical study, yet the regulation was felt as a grievance by many +members of the medical profession. It was accordingly repealed, +and no apprenticeship is now necessary. The restriction of the +choice of examiners to the members of the society was also +repealed, and the society was given the power (which it did not +before possess) to strike off from the list of its licentiates the +names of disreputable persons. The act of 1874 also specified +that the society was not deprived of any right or obligation they +may have to admit women to examination, and to enter their +names on the list of licentiates if they acquit themselves +satisfactorily.</p> + +<p>The Apothecaries’ Society is governed by a master, two +wardens and twenty-two assistants. The members are divided +into Three grades, yeomanry or freemen, the livery, and the court. +Women are not, however, admitted to the freedom. The hall +of the society, situated in Water Lane, London, and covering +about three-quarters of an acre, was acquired in 1633. It was +destroyed by the great fire, but was rebuilt about ten years later +and enlarged in 1786. This is the only property possessed by +the society. In 1673, the society established a botanic and physic +garden at Chelsea, and in 1722 Sir Hans Sloane, who had become +the ground owner, gave it to the society on the condition of +presenting annually to the Royal Society fifty dried specimens +of plants till the number should reach 2000. This condition was +fulfilled in 1774. Owing to the heavy cost of maintenance and +other reasons, the “physic garden” was handed over in 1902, +with the consent of the Charity Commissioners, to a committee +of management, to be maintained in the interests of botanical +study and research.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C.R.B. Barrett, <i>The History of the Society of Apothecaries of +London</i> (1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APOTHEOSIS<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="apotheoûn">ἀποθεοῦν</span>, to make a god, to deify), literally +deification. The term properly implies a clear polytheistic +conception of gods in contrast with men, while it recognizes that +some men cross the dividing line. It is characteristic of polytheism +to blur that line in several ways. Thus the ancient Greek +religion was especially disposed to belief in heroes and demigods. +Founders of cities, and even of colonies, received worship; the +former are, generally speaking, mythical personages and, in +strictness, heroes. But the worship after death of historical +persons, such as Lycurgus, or worship of the living as true +deities, <i>e.g.</i> Lysander and Philip II. of Macedon, occurred +sporadically even before Alexander’s conquests brought Greek +life into contact with oriental traditions. It was inevitable, too, +that ancient monarchies should enlist polytheistic conceptions of +divine or half-divine men in support of the dynasties; “<i>Seu deos +regesve canit deorum Sanguinem</i>,” Horace (<i>Odes</i>, iv. 2, II. 12, 13) +writes of Pindar; though the reference is to myths, yet the +phrase is significant. In the East all such traits are exaggerated, +a result perhaps rather of the statecraft than of the religions of +Egypt and Persia. Whatever part vanity or the flattery of +courtiers may have played with others, or with Alexander, it is +significant that the dynasties of Alexander’s various successors +all claim divine honours of some sort (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ptolemies</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seleucid +Dynasty</a></span>, &c.). Theocritus (<i>Idyll</i> 17) hails Ptolemy Philadelphus +as a demigod, and speaks of his father as seated among the +gods along with Alexander. Ancestor worship, or reverence for +the dead, was a third factor. It may work even in Cicero’s +determination that his daughter should enjoy “<span class="grk" title="apothéôsis">ἀποθέωσις</span>”— +as he writes to Atticus—or receive the “honour” of <i>consecratia</i> +(fragment of his <i>De Consolatione</i>). Lastly, we need not speak of +mere sycophancy. Yet it was common; Verres was worshipped +before he was impeached!</p> + +<p>The Romans had, up to the end of the Republic, accepted +only one official apotheosis; the god Quirinus, whatever his +original meaning, having been identified with Romulus. But +the emperor Augustus carried on the tradition of ancient +statecraft by having Julius Caesar recognized as a god (<i>divus +Julius</i>), the first of a new class of deities proper (<i>divi</i>). The +tradition was steadily followed and was extended to some ladies +of the imperial family and even to imperial favourites. Worship +of an emperor during his lifetime, except as the worship of his +<i>genius</i>, was, save in the cases of Caligula and Domitian, confined +to the provinces. Apotheosis after his death, being in the hands +of the senate, did not at once cease, even when Christianity was +officially adopted. The Latin term is <i>consecratio</i>, which of course +has a variety of senses, including simple burial. (Inscription in +G. Boissier, <i>La Religion romaine</i>; Renier, <i>Inscriptions d’Algiers</i>, +2510.) The Greek term Apotheosis, probably a coinage of the +Hellenistic epoch, becomes more nearly technical for the deification +of dead emperors. But it is still used simply for the erection +of tombs (clearly so in some Greek inscriptions, <i>Corpus Inscript. +Graec.</i> 2831, 2832, quoted in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>s.v. Apotheosis</i>). +Possibly there is a trace of ancestor worship even here; but the +two usages have diverged. The squib of the philosopher Seneca +on the memory of Claudius (d. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 54), <i>Apocolocyntosis</i> (“pumpkinification”), +is evidence that, as early as Seneca’s lifetime, +apotheosis was in use for the recognition of a departed emperor +as a god. It also indicates how much contempt might be +associated with this pretended worship. The people, says +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" id="page207"></a>207</span> +Suetonius (<i>Jul. Caes.</i> c. 88), fully believed in the divinity of +Julius Caesar, hinting at the same time that this was by no +means the case with the majority of the apotheoses subsequently +decreed by the senate. Yet we learn from Capitolinus that +Marcus Aurelius was still worshipped as a household divinity in +the time of Diocletian, and was believed to impart revelations in +dreams (Vit. M. Ant. c. 18). Antinous, the favourite of Hadrian, +was adored in Egypt a century after his death (Origen, <i>Contra +Celsum</i>, iii. 36), though, according to Boissier, his worship never +had official sanction. The ceremonies attendant on an imperial +apotheosis are very fully described by Herodianus (bk. iv. c. 2) +on occasion of the obsequies of Severus, which he appears to +have witnessed. The most significant was the liberation, at the +moment of kindling the funeral pyre, of an eagle which was +supposed to bear the emperor’s soul to heaven. Sharp-sighted +persons had actually beheld the ascension of Augustus (Suet. +<i>August</i>, c. 100), and of Drusilla, sister of Caligula. Representations +of apotheoses occur on several works of art; the most important +are the apotheosis of Homer on a relief in the Townley collection +of the British Museum, that of Titus on the arch of Titus, +and that of Augustus on a magnificent cameo in the Louvre.</p> + +<p>In China at the present day many Taoist gods are (or are +given out as) men deified for service to the state. This again +may be statecraft. In India, the (still unexplained) rise of the +doctrine of transmigration hindered belief. Apotheosis can +mean nothing to those who hold that a man may be reborn as a +god, but still needs redemption, and that men on earth may +win redemption, if they are brave enough. Curiously, Buddhism +itself is ruled by the ghost or shadowy remainder of belief in +transmigration—Karma.</p> + +<p>Apotheosis may also be used in wider senses. (<i>a</i>) Some (<i>e.g.</i> +Herbert Spencer) hold that most gods are deified men, and most +myths historical traditions which have been grotesquely distorted. +This theory is known as Euhemerism (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Euhemerus</a></span>). It is +needless to say that the attitude of those holding the Euhemerist +theory is at the farthest pole from belief in apotheosis. According +to the latter, some men may become gods. According to +the former, all gods are but men; or, some men have been +erroneously supposed to become gods. The Euhemerist theory +mainly appeals to ancestor worship—a fact of undoubted +importance in the history of religion, especially in China and +in ancient Rome. In India, too, a dead person treated with +funeral honours becomes a guardian spirit—if neglected, a +tormenting demon. But whether the great gods of polytheism +were really transfigured ancestors is very doubtful. (<i>b</i>) Again, +there is a tendency to offer something like worship to the +founders of religions. Thus more than human honour is +paid to Zoroaster and Buddha and even to the founders of +systems not strictly religious, <i>e.g.</i> to Confucius and Auguste +Comte. It is noticeable that this kind of worship is not accorded +in rigidly monotheistic systems, <i>e.g.</i> to Moses and Mahomet. +Nor is it accurate to speak of apotheosis in cases where the +founder is in his lifetime regarded as the incarnation of a god +(cf. Ali among Shi’ite Mahommedans; the Băb in Babism; the +Druse Hakim). Most Christians on this ground repudiate the +application of the term to the worship of Jesus Christ. Curiously, +<i>Apotheosis</i> is used by the Latin Christian poet, Prudentius +(<i>c.</i> 400), as the title of a poem defending orthodox views on the +person of Christ and other points of doctrine—the affectation +of a decadent age. (<i>c</i>) The worship paid to Saints, in those +Christian churches which admit it, is formally distinguished as +<i>dulia</i> (<span class="grk" title="douleia">δουλεία</span>) from true worship or <i>latria</i> (<span class="grk" title="latreia">λατρεία</span>). Even the +Virgin Mary, though she is styled Mother of God and Queen of +Heaven, receives only <i>dulia</i> or at most <i>hyperdulia</i>.</p> +<div class="author">(R. G.; R. Ma.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> the general name given to a +vast system of elevations in North America, partly in Canada, +but mostly in the United States, extending as a zone, from 100 +to 300 m. wide, from Newfoundland, Gaspé Peninsula and New +Brunswick, 1500 m. south-westward to central Alabama. The +whole system may be divided into three great sections: the +<i>Northern</i>, from Newfoundland to the Hudson river; the <i>Central</i>, +from the Hudson Valley to that of New river (Great Kanawha), +in Virginia and West Virginia; and the <i>Southern</i>, from New +river onwards. The northern section includes the Shickshock +Mountains and Notre Dame Range in Quebec, scattered elevations +in Maine, the White Mountains and the Green Mountains; +the central comprises, besides various minor groups, the Valley +Ridges between the Front of the Allegheny Plateau and the +Great Appalachian Valley, the New York-New Jersey Highlands +and a large portion of the Blue Ridge; and the southern consists +of the prolongation of the Blue Ridge, the Unaka Range, +and the Valley Ridges adjoining the Cumberland Plateau, with +some lesser ranges.</p> + +<p><i>The Chief Summits.</i>—The Appalachian belt includes, with the +ranges enumerated above, the plateaus sloping southward to the +Atlantic Ocean in New England, and south-eastward to the +border of the coastal plain through the central and southern +Atlantic states; and on the north-west, the Allegheny and +Cumberland plateaus declining toward the Great Lakes and the +interior plains. A remarkable feature of the belt is the longitudinal +chain of broad valleys—the Great Appalachian Valley—which, +in the southerly sections divides the mountain system +into two subequal portions, but in the northernmost lies west +of all the ranges possessing typical Appalachian features, and +separates them from the Adirondack group. The mountain +system has no axis of dominating altitudes, but in every portion +the summits rise to rather uniform heights, and, especially in +the central section, the various ridges and intermontane valleys +have the same trend as the system itself. None of the summits +reaches the region of perpetual snow. Mountains of the Long +Range in Newfoundland reach heights of nearly 2000 ft. In the +Shickshocks the higher summits rise to about 4000 ft. elevation. +In Maine four peaks exceed 3000 ft., including Katahdin (5200 +ft.), Mount Washington, in the White Mountains (6293 ft.), +Adams (5805), Jefferson (5725), Clay (5554), Monroe (5390), +Madison (5380), Lafayette (5269); and a number of summits +rise above 4000 ft. In the Green Mountains the highest point, +Mansfield, is 4364 ft.; Lincoln (4078), Killington (4241), Camel +Hump (4088); and a number of other heights exceed 3000 ft. +The Catskills are not properly included in the system. The Blue +Ridge, rising in southern Pennsylvania and there known as +South Mountain, attains in that state elevations of about 2000 +ft.; southward to the Potomac its altitudes diminish, but 30 m. +beyond again reach 2000 ft. In the Virginia Blue Ridge the +following are the highest peaks east of New river: Mount +Weather (about 1850 ft.), Mary’s Rock (3523), Peaks of Otter +(4001 and 3875), Stony Man (4031), Hawks Bill (4066). In +Pennsylvania the summits of the Valley Ridges rise generally to +about 2000 ft., and in Maryland Eagle Rock and Dans Rock are +conspicuous points reaching 3162 ft. and 2882 ft. above the sea. +On the same side of the Great Valley, south of the Potomac, +are the Pinnacle (3007 ft.) and Pidgeon Roost (3400 ft.). In the +southern section of the Blue Ridge are Grandfather Mountain +(5964 ft.), with three other summits above 5000, and a dozen +more above 4000. The Unaka Ranges (including the Black +and Smoky Mountains) have eighteen peaks higher than 5000 ft., +and eight surpassing 6000 ft. In the Black Mountains, Mitchell +(the culminating point of the whole system) attains an altitude +of 6711 ft., Balsam Cone, 6645, Black Brothers, 6690, and 6620, +and Hallback, 6403. In the Smoky Mountains we have Clingman’s +Peak (6611), Guyot (6636), Alexander (6447), Leconte +(6612), Curtis (6588), with several others above 6000 and many +higher than 5000.</p> + +<p>In spite of the existence of the Great Appalachian Valley, the +master streams are transverse to the axis of the system. The +main watershed follows a tortuous course which crosses the +mountainous belt just north of New river in Virginia; south of +this the rivers head in the Blue Ridge, cross the higher Unakas, +receive important tributaries from the Great Valley, and traversing +the Cumberland Plateau in spreading gorges, escape by +way of the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers to the Ohio and +Mississippi, and thus to the Gulf of Mexico; in the central section +the rivers, rising in or beyond the Valley Ridges, flow through +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page208" id="page208"></a>208</span> +great gorges (water gaps) to the Great Valley, and by south-easterly +courses across the Blue Ridge to tidal estuaries penetrating +the coastal plain; in the northern section the water-parting +lies on the inland side of the mountainous belt, the main lines of +drainage running from north to south.</p> + +<p><i>Geology.</i>—The rocks of the Appalachian belt fall naturally +into two divisions; ancient (pre-Cambrian) crystallines, including +marbles, schists, gneisses, granites and other massive igneous +rocks, and a great succession of Paleozoic sediments. The +crystallines are confined to the portion of the belt east of the +Great Valley where Paleozoic rocks are always highly metamorphosed +and occur for the most part in limited patches, +excepting in New England and Canada, where they assume +greater areal importance, and are besides very generally intruded +by granites. The Paleozoic sediments, ranging in age from +Cambrian to Permian, occupy the Great Valley, the Valley +Ridges and the plateaus still farther west. They are rarely +metamorphosed to the point of recrystallization, though locally +shales are altered to roofing slates, sandstones are indurated, +limestones slightly marblized, and coals, originally bituminous, +are changed to anthracite in northern Pennsylvania, and to +graphite in Rhode Island. Igneous intrusions consist only of +unimportant dikes of trap. The most striking and uniformly +characteristic geologic feature of the mountains is their internal +structure, consisting of innumerable parallel, long and narrow +folds, always closely appressed in the eastern part of any cross-section +(Piedmont Plateau to Great Valley), less so along a +central zone (Great Valley and Valley Ridges), and increasingly +open on the west (Allegheny and Cumberland Plateaus). +Asymmetry of the folds is a marked characteristic in the zones +of closer folding, the anticlines having long gently inclined +easterly limbs, and short, steep and even overturned limbs +upon the west. The effect of such folds is often exaggerated by +thrusts, and faulting of this sort is prominent in the southern +section, where the existence of over-thrusts measured by several +miles has been established.</p> + +<p>What may be termed the ancestral Appalachian system was +formed during the post-carboniferous revolution, though certain +of its elements had been previously outlined, and perhaps at +different dates. Folding of the rocks resulted from the operation +of great compressive forces acting tangentially to the figure of +the earth. Extensive and deep-seated crumpling was necessarily +accompanied by vertical uplift throughout the zone affected, +but once at least since their birth the mountains have been worn +down to a lowland, and the mountains of to-day are the combined +product of subsequent uplift of a different sort, and dissection +by erosion. Produced by long-continued subaerial decay and +erosion, in later Cretaceous times this lowland extended from +the Atlantic Ocean well toward the interior of North America; +since then the whole continent has been generally elevated, and +by successive steps the Appalachian belt has been raised to form +a wide but relatively low arch. The crosswise courses of the +greater rivers result from the rivers being older than the mountains, +which indeed have been produced by circumdenudation. +The master streams of the present have inherited their channels +from the drainage systems of the Cretaceous lowland, and though +raised athwart the courses of the lowland trunk streams the +great arch was developed so slowly that these channels could be +maintained through <i>pari passu</i> deepening. Former tributaries +have given place to others developed with reference to the +distribution of more or less easily eroded strata, the present +longitudinal valleys being determined by the out-crop of soft +shales or soluble limestones, and the parallel ridges upheld by +hard sandstones or schists. Parallelism of mountain ridges +and intervening valleys is thus attributable to the folding of the +rocks, but the origin of the interior structure of the mountains +is to be kept distinct from the origin of the mountains as features +of topography.</p> + +<p><i>Flora and Fauna.</i>—Much of the region is covered with forest +yielding quantities of valuable timber, especially in Canada and +northern New England. The most valuable trees for lumber +are spruce, white pine, hemlock, cedar, white birch, ash, maple +and basswood; all excepting pine and hemlock and poplar in +addition are ground into wood pulp for the manufacture of +paper. In the central and southern parts of the belt oak and +hickory constitute valuable hard woods, and certain varieties +of the former furnish quantities of tan bark. The tulip tree +produces a good clear lumber known as white wood or poplar, +and is also a source of pulp. In the south both white and yellow +pine abounds. Many flowering and fruit-bearing shrubs of the +heath family add to the beauty of the mountainous districts, +rhododendron and kalmia often forming impenetrable thickets. +Bears, mountain lions (pumas), wild cats (lynx) and wolves +haunt the more remote fastnesses of the mountains; foxes +abound; deer are found in many districts and moose in the +north.</p> + +<p><i>Influence on History.</i>—For a century the Appalachians were a +barrier to the westward expansion of the English colonies; the +continuity of the system, the bewildering multiplicity of its +succeeding ridges, the tortuous courses and roughness of its +transverse passes, a heavy forest and dense undergrowth all +conspired to hold the settlers on the seaward-sloping plateaus +and coastal plains. Only by way of the Hudson and Mohawk +valleys, and round about the southern termination of the system +were there easy routes to the interior of the country, and these +were long closed by hostile aborigines and jealous French or +Spanish colonists. In eastern Pennsylvania the Great Valley +was accessible by reason of a broad gateway between the end of +South Mountain and the Highlands, and here in the Lebanon +Valley settled German Moravians, whose descendants even now +retain the peculiar patois known as “Pennsylvania Dutch.” +These were late comers to the New World forced to the frontier +to find unclaimed lands. With their followers of both German +and Scotch-Irish origin, they worked their way southward and +soon occupied all of the Virginia Valley and the upper reaches of +the Great Valley tributaries of the Tennessee. By 1755 the +obstacle to westward expansion had been thus reduced by half; +outposts of the English colonists had penetrated the Allegheny +and Cumberland plateaus, threatening French monopoly in the +transmontane region, and a conflict became inevitable. Making +common cause against the French to determine the control of +the Ohio valley, the unsuspected strength of the colonists was +revealed, and the successful ending of the French and Indian +War extended England’s territory to the Mississippi. To this +strength the geographic isolation enforced by the Appalachian +mountains had been a prime contributor. The confinement of +the colonies between an ocean and a mountain wall led to the +fullest occupation of the coastal border of the continent, which +was possible under existing conditions of agriculture, conducing +to a community of purpose, a political and commercial solidarity, +which would not otherwise have been developed. As early as +1700 it was possible to ride from Portland, Maine, to southern +Virginia, sleeping each night at some considerable village. In +contrast to this complete industrial occupation, the French +territory was held by a small and very scattered population, its +extent and openness adding materially to the difficulties of a +disputed tenure. Bearing the brunt of this contest as they did, +the colonies were undergoing preparation for the subsequent +struggle with the home government. Unsupported by shipping, +the American armies fought toward the sea with the mountains +at their back protecting them against Indians leagued with the +British. The few settlements beyond the Great Valley were +free for self-defence because debarred from general participation +in the conflict by reason of their position.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the separate articles on the states, and also the following +references:—Topographic maps and Geologic Folios of the United +States Geological Survey; Bailey Willis, “The Northern Appalachians,” +and C.W. Hayes, “The Southern Appalachians,” both in +<i>National Geographic Monographs</i>, vol. i.; and chaps, iii., iv. and v. +of Miss E.C. Semple’s <i>American History and its Geographic Conditions</i> +(Boston, 1903).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. C. Sp.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPANAGE,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Apanage</span> (a French word from the late Lat. +<i>apanagium</i>, formed from <i>apanare, i.e. panem porrigere</i>, to give +bread, <i>i.e.</i> sustenance), in its original sense, the means of +subsistence given by parents to their younger children as distinct +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page209" id="page209"></a>209</span> +from the rights secured to the eldest born by the custom of +primogeniture. In its modern usage it is practically confined to +the money endowment given to the younger children of reigning +or mediatized houses in Germany and Austria, which reverts +to the state or to the head of the family on the extinction of the +line of the original grantee. In English history the system of +appanages never played any great part, and the term is now +properly applied only to the appanages of the crown: the duchy +of Cornwall, assigned to the king’s eldest son at birth, or on his +father’s accession to the crown, and the duchy of Lancaster. +In the history of France, however, the appanage was a very +important factor. The word denotes in very early French law +the portion of lands or money given by fathers and mothers to +their sons or daughters on marriage, and usually connotes a +renunciation by the latter of any future inheritance; or it may +denote the portion given by the eldest son to his brothers and +sisters when he was sole inheritor. The word <i>apanage</i> is still +employed in this sense in French official texts of some <i>Customs</i>; +but it was in old public law that it received its definite meaning +and importance. Under the kings of the third dynasty, the +division of the kingdom among the sons of the dead monarch +which had characterized the Merovingian and Carolingian +dynasties, ceased. The eldest son alone succeeded to the crown; +but at the same time a custom was established by which the king +made territorial provision suitable to their rank for his other +children or for his brothers and sisters; custom forbade their +being left landless. Lands and lordships thus bestowed constituted +the appanages, which interfered so greatly with the +formation of ancient France. While the persevering policy of +the Capets, which aimed at reuniting the great fiefs, duchies, +countships, baronies, &c., to the domain of the crown, gradually +reconstructed for their benefit a territorial sovereignty over +France, the institution of the appanage periodically subtracted +large portions from it. Louis XI., in particular, had to struggle +against the appanaged nobles. The old law, however, never +abolished this institution. The edict of Moulins (1566) maintained +it, as one of the exceptions to the inalienability of the +crown-lands; only it was then decided that daughters of France +should be appanaged in money, or that if, in default of coin, +lands were assigned to them, these lands should be redeemable +by the crown in perpetuity. The efforts of the kings to minimize +this evil, and of the old jurisprudence to deal with the matter, +resulted in two expedients: (1) the reversion of the appanage +to the crown was secured as far as possible, being declared inalienable +and transmissible only to male descendants in the +male line of the person appanaged; (2) originally the person +appanaged had possessed all the rights of a duke or count—that +is to say, in the middle ages nearly all the attributes of +sovereignty; the more important of these attributes were now +gradually reserved to the monarch, including public authority +over the inhabitants of the appanage in all essential matters. +However, it is evident from the letters of appanage, dated April +1771, in favour of the count of Provence, how many functions +of public authority an appanaged person still held. The +Constituent Assembly, by the law dated the 22nd of November +1790, decided that in future there should be no appanages in +real estate, and that younger sons of monarchs, married and +over twenty-five years of age, should be provided for by yearly +grants (<i>rentes apanagères</i>) from the public funds. The laws of the +13th of August and the 21st of December 1790 revoked all the +existing appanages, except those of the Luxembourg Palace and +the Palais Royal. To each person hitherto appanaged an annual +income of one million <i>livres</i> was assigned, and two millions for the +brothers of the king. All this came to an end with the monarchy. +Napoleon, by the <i>sénatus-consulte</i> of the 30th of January 1810, +resolved to create appanages for the emperor’s princely descendants, +such appanages to consist for the most part of lands on +French soil. The fall of the empire again annulled this enactment. +The last appanage known in France was that enjoyed +by the house of Orleans. Having been re-established, or +recognized as still existing, by the Restoration, it was formally +confirmed by the law of the 15th of January 1825. On the +accession of Louis Philippe it was united to the national property +by the law of the 2nd of March 1832.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For appanages in ancient law see the <i>Essai sur les apanages ou +mémoires historiques de leur établissement</i>, attributed to Du Vaucel, +about 1780.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. P. E.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPAREL<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (from O. Fr. <i>aparail</i>, <i>aparailler</i>, mod. <i>appareil</i>, from +Low Lat. <i>adpariculare</i>, to make fit or equal), equipment, outfit, +things furnished for the proper performance of anything, now +chiefly used of dress. The word is also applied to the “orphreys,” +<i>i.e.</i> embroidered strips or borders, on ecclesiastical vestments.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPARITIONS.<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> An apparition, strictly speaking, is merely +an appearance (Lat. <i>apparere</i>, to appear), the result of perception +exercised on any stimulus of any of the senses. But in ordinary +usage the word apparition denotes a perception (generally +through the sense of sight) which cannot, as a rule, be shown to +be occasioned by an object in external nature. We say “as a +rule” because many so-called apparitions are merely illusions, +<i>i.e.</i> misconstructions of the perceptive processes, as when a +person in a bad light sees a number of small children leading a +horse, and finds, on nearer approach, that he sees two men +carrying bee-hives suspended from a pole. Again, Sir Walter +Scott’s vision of Byron, then lately dead, proved to be a misconstruction +of certain plaids and cloaks hanging in the hall at +Abbotsford, or so Sir Walter declared. Had he not discovered +the physical basis of this illusion (which, while it lasted, was an +apparition, technically speaking), he and others might have +thought that it was an apparition in the popular sense of the +word, a ghost. In popular phraseology a ghost is understood +to be a phantasm produced in some way by the spirit of a dead +person, the impression being usually visual, though the ghost, +or apparition, may also affect the sense of hearing (by words, +knocks, whistles, groans and so forth), or the sense of touch, +or of weight, as in the case of the “incubus.” In ordinary +speech an apparition of a person not known to the percipient +to be dead is called a wraith, in the Highland phrase, a spirit of +the living. The terms <i>ghost</i> and <i>wraith</i> involve the hypothesis +that the false perceptions are caused by spirits, a survival of the +archaic animistic hypothesis (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Animism</a></span>), an hypothesis as +difficult to prove as to disprove. Apparitions, of course, are not +confined to anthropomorphic phantasms; we hear of phantom +coaches (sometimes seen, but more frequently heard), of phantom +dogs, cats, horses, cattle, deer, and even of phantom houses.</p> + +<p>Whatever may be the causes of these and other false perceptions,—most +curious when the impression is shared by several +witnesses,—they may best be considered under the head of +hallucination (<i>q.v.</i>). Hallucinations may be pathological, <i>i.e.</i> +the result of morbid conditions of brain or nerve, of disease, of +fever, of insanity, of alcoholism, of the abuse of drugs. Again, +they may be the result of dissociation, or may occur in the +borderland of sleep or waking, and in this case they partake +of the hallucinatory nature of dreams (<i>q.v.</i>). Again, hallucinations +may, once or twice in a lifetime, come into the experience +of the sane, the healthy, and, as far as any tests can be applied, +of the wide-awake. In such instances the apparition (whether +it take the form of a visual phantasm, of a recognized voice, of a +touch, or what not) may be coincidental or non-coincidental. +The phantasm is called coincidental if it represents a known and +distant person who is later found to have been dying or in some +other crisis at the moment of the percipient’s experience. When +the false perception coincides with nothing of the sort, it is +styled non-coincidental. Coincidental apparitions have been +explained by the theory of telepathy (<i>q.v.</i>), one mind or brain +impressing another in some unknown way so as to beget an +hallucinatory apparition or phantasm. On the evidence, so far +as it has been collected and analysed, it seems that the mind +which, on the hypothesis, begets the hallucinations, usually +does so without <i>conscious</i> effort (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Subliminal Self</a></span>). There +are, however, a few cases in which the experiment of begetting, +in another, an hallucination from a distance, is said to have been +experimentally and consciously made, with success.</p> + +<p>If the telepathic theory of coincidental hallucinations be +accepted, we have still to account for the much more common +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page210" id="page210"></a>210</span> +non-coincidental apparitions of the living who do not happen +to be in any particular crisis. In these instances it cannot be +demonstrated that telepathy has <i>not</i> been at work, as when a +person is seen at a place which he thought of visiting, but did +not visit. F.W. Myers even upheld a theory of psychorhagy, +holding that the spirits of some persons have a way of manifesting +themselves at a distance by a psychic invasion. This involves, +as he remarked, paleolithic psychology, and the old savage +doctrine of animism, rather than telepathy (see Myers, <i>Human +Personality</i>). Of belief in coincidental hallucinations or wraiths +among savages, records are scanty; the belief, however, is found +among Maoris and Fuegians (see Lang, <i>Making of Religions</i>). +The perception of apparitions of distant but actual scenes and +occurrences is usually called clairvoyance (<i>q.v.</i>). The belief is +also familiar under the name of second sight (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Second Sight</a></span>), +a term of Scots usage, though the belief in it, and the facts +if accepted, are of world-wide diffusion. The apparitions may +either represent actual persons and places, or may be symbolical, +taking the form of phantasmic lights, coffins, skeletons, shrouds +and so forth. Again, the appearances may either represent +things, persons and occurrences of the past (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Retrocognition</a></span>), +or of the present (clairvoyance), or of the future (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Premonition</a></span>). When the apparitions produce themselves in +given rooms, houses or localities, and are exhibited to various +persons at various times, the locality is popularly said to be +haunted by spirits, that is, of the dead, on the animistic hypothesis +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hauntings</a></span>). Like the other alleged facts, these +are of world-wide diffusion, or the belief in them is world-wide, +and peculiar to no race, age, or period of culture. A haunted +place is a centre of permanent possibilities of hallucinations, or is +believed to be so. A distinct species of hauntings are those in +which unexplained sounds and movements of objects, apparently +untouched, occur. The German term <i>Poltergeist</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) has been +given to the supposed cause of these occurrences where the +cause is not ascertained to be sportive imposture. In the performances +of modern spiritualists the Poltergeist appears, as it +were, to be domesticated, and to come at the call of the medium.</p> + +<p>An intermittent kind of ominous haunting attached, not to +places, but to families, is that of the banshee (Celtic) or family +death omen, such as the white bird of the Oxenhams, the Airlie +drummer, the spectral rider of Clan Gilzean, the rappings of the +Woodde family. These apparitions, with fairies and <i>djinns</i> +(the Arab form of fairy), haunt the borderland between folk-lore +and psychical research.</p> + +<p>So far we have been concerned with spontaneous apparitions, +or with the belief in them. Among induced apparitions may be +reckoned the materialized forms of spiritual <i>séances</i>, which have +a material basis of veils, false moustaches, wigs and the <i>corpus +vile</i> of the medium. It is also possible that mere expectancy +and suggestion induce hallucinatory perceptions among the +members of the circle. That apparitions of a sort can be induced +by hypnotic and posthypnotic suggestion is certain enough (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hypnotism</a></span>). Savages produce apparitions in similar ways by +suggestion, accompanied by dances, fumigations, darkness, +fasting, drugs, and whatever can affect the imaginations of the +onlookers (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Magic</a></span>). Both in savage and civilized life, some +persons can provoke themselves into beholding apparitions +usually fantastic, but occasionally coincidental, by sedulously +staring into any clear deep water, a fragment of rock crystal, a +piece of polished basalt or obsidian, a mirror, a ring, a sword +blade, or a glass of sherry (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crystal Gazing</a></span>). Indeed any +object, a wall, the palm of the hand, the shoulder-blade-bone of a +sheep, may be, and has been used to this end (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Divination</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Almost all known apparitions may accommodate themselves +to one or other of the categories given, whether they be pathological, +coincidental or spontaneous, induced, permanently +localized, or sporadic.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See generally, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spiritualism</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psychical Research</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. L.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPARITOR,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Apparator</span> (Latin for a servant of a public +official, from <i>apparere</i>, to attend in public), an attendant who +executed the orders of a Roman magistrate; hence a beadle in a +university, a pursuivant or herald; particularly, in English +ecclesiastical courts, the official who serves the processes of the +court and causes defendants to appear by summons.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPEAL,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> in law. In the old English common law the term +“appeal” was used to describe a process peculiar to English +criminal procedure. It was a right of prosecution possessed as a +personal privilege by a party individually aggrieved by a felony, +a privilege of which the crown could not directly or indirectly +deprive him, since he could use it alike when the prisoner was +tried and acquitted, and when he was convicted and pardoned. +It was chiefly known in practice as the privilege of the nearest +relation of a murdered person. When in 1729 (after Colonel +Oglethorpe’s inquiry and report on the London prisons) Banbridge +and other gaolers were indicted for their treatment of +prisoners, but were acquitted for deficiency of evidence, appeals +for murder were freely brought by relatives of deceased prisoners. +In the case of Slaughterford (1708) the accused was charged with +murdering a woman whom he had seduced; the evidence was +very imperfect, and he was acquitted on indictment. But +public indignation being aroused by the atrocities alleged to +have been perpetrated, an appeal was brought, and on conviction +he was hanged, as his execution was a privilege belonging to the +prosecutor, of which the crown could not deprive him by a +pardon. In 1818 an appeal was ingeniously met by an offer of +battle, since if the appellee were an able-bodied man he had the +choice between combat or a jury (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wager</a></span>). This neutralizing +of one obsolete and barbarous process by another called the +attention of the legislature to the subject, and appeal in criminal +cases, along with trial by battle, was abolished in 1819. The +history of this appeal is fully dealt with in Pollock and Maitland, +<i>History of English Law</i>, 1898.</p> + +<p>In its usual modern sense the term appeal is applied to the +proceeding by which the decision of a court of justice is brought +for review before another tribunal of higher authority. In +Roman jurisprudence it was used in this and in other significations; +it was sometimes equivalent to prosecution, or the calling +up of an accused person before a tribunal where the accuser +appealed to the protection of the magistrate against injustice or +oppression. The derivation from <i>appellare</i> (“call”) suggests +that its earliest meaning was an urgent outcry or prayer against +injustice. During the republic the magistrate was generally +supreme within his sphere, and those who felt themselves outraged +by injustice threw themselves on popular protection by +<i>provocatio</i>, instead of looking to redress from a higher official +authority. Under the empire different grades of jurisdiction +were established, and the ultimate remedy was an appeal to +the emperor; thus Paul, when brought before Festus, appealed +unto Caesar. Such appeals were, however, not heard by the +emperor in person but by a supreme judge representing him. +In the <i>Corpus Juris</i> the appeal to the emperor is called indiscriminately +<i>appellatio</i> and <i>provocatio</i>. A considerable portion +of the 49th book of the <i>Pandects</i> is devoted to appeals; but +little of the practical operation of the system is to be deduced +from the propositions there brought together.</p> + +<p>During the middle ages full scope was afforded for appeals +from the lower to the higher authorities in the church. In +matters ecclesiastical, including those matrimonial, testamentary +and other departments, which the church ever tried to bring +within the operation of the canon law, there were various grades +of appeal, ending with the pope. The claims of the church to +engross appeals in matters trenching on the temporal rights of +princes led to continual conflicts between church and state, +terminated in England at the reformation by the suppression in +1534 of appeals to Rome, which had previously been discouraged +by legislation of Edward III. and Richard II.</p> + +<p>In temporal, as distinct from spiritual matters, it became +customary for ambitious sovereigns to encourage appeals from +the courts of the crown vassals to themselves as represented by +the supreme judges, and Charlemagne usually enjoys the credit +of having set the example of this system of centralization by +establishing <i>missi dominici</i>. It is not improbable that his claim +was suggested or justified by the practice of the Roman empire, +to the sovereignty whereof he claimed to be successor.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page211" id="page211"></a>211</span></p> + +<p><i>England.</i>—When the royal authority in England grew strong +as against that of the tenants <i>in capite</i>, the king’s courts in +England were more effectively organized, and their net swept +wider so as to draw within their cognizance matters previously +adjudged in courts baron or courts leet or in the county court, +and they acquired authority to supervise and review the decisions +of the inferior and local courts, to control and limit their claims +to exercise jurisdiction, and to transfer causes from the local to +the royal courts. The machinery by which this process was +usually effected, under the common law, was not by what is now +known as appeal, but by the process of <i>certiorari</i> or writs of +error or prohibition. Recourse was also had against the decisions +of the royal courts by appeal to the great council of the king, or +to parliament as a whole. The supremacy of the king’s courts +over all causes, as well ecclesiastical as civil, has been completely +established since the reign of Henry VIII., and they have +effectually asserted the power to regulate and keep within their +proper jurisdiction all other tribunals within the realm. Since +that date the organization of judicial tribunals has gradually +been changed and improved with the object (1) of creating a +judicial hierarchy independent of executive control; (2) of +ensuring that all decisions on questions of law shall be co-ordinated +and rendered systematic by correction of the errors and vagaries +of subordinate tribunals; and (3) of securing so far as possible +uniformity in the judicial interpretation and administration of +the law, by creating a supreme appellate tribunal to whose +decisions all other tribunals are bound to conform. It would be +undesirable to detail at length the history of appellate jurisdiction +in England, involving as it would the discussion in great +detail of the history and procedure of English law, and it may +suffice to indicate the system of appeals as at present organized, +beginning with the lowest courts.</p> + +<p><i>Justices of the Peace.</i>—The decisions of justices of the peace +sitting as courts of summary jurisdiction are subject to review +on questions of law only by the High Court of Justice. This +review is in a sense consultative, because it is usually effected by +means of a case voluntarily stated by the justices at the request +of the aggrieved party, in which are set forth the facts as determined +by the justices, the questions of law raised and their +decision thereon, as to the correctness whereof the opinion of the +High Court is invited. The procedure is equally open in criminal +and civil matters brought before the justices. But when the +justices decline to state a case for the opinion of the High Court, +the latter, if review seems desirable, may order the justices to +state a case. And the High Court has also power to control the +action of justices by prohibiting them from acting in a case +beyond their jurisdiction, ordering them to exercise jurisdiction +where they have improperly declined (<i>mandamus</i>), or bringing +up for review and quashing orders or convictions which they have +made in excess of jurisdiction, or in cases in which interested +or biassed justices have adjudicated (<i>certiorari</i>). None of these +regulative processes exactly corresponds to what is popularly +known as an appeal, but in effect if not in form an appeal is +thus given.</p> + +<p>There is also another form of appeal, in the fullest sense of +the term, from the decision of justices sitting as a court of +summary jurisdiction to the justices of the same county sitting +in general or quarter sessions, or in the case of a borough to +the recorder as judge of the borough court of quarter sessions. +This form of appeal is in every case the creation of statute: +and even in text-books it is hardly possible to find a really +complete list of the matters in respect of which such appeal +lies. But as regards criminal cases there is an approximately +general rule, given by § 19 of the Summary Jurisdiction Act +1879, viz. that an appeal to quarter sessions lies from the conviction +or order of a court of summary jurisdiction directing +imprisonment without the option of a fine as a punishment for +an offence, or for failing to do or to abstain from doing any +act required to be done or left undone other than an order for +the payment of money, or to find sureties or give security or to +enter into a recognizance, or a conviction made on a plea of +guilty or admission of the truth of the matter of complaint.</p> + +<p>As a general rule, subject to particular statutory exceptions, +appeals of this kind are by way of rehearing, <i>i.e.</i> the actor or +prosecutor must before the appellate tribunal call his witnesses +and prove his case just as if no previous hearing had taken +place before the court appealed from (Pritchard, <i>Quarter Sessions +Practice</i>, 2nd ed., 461). The only limit is that the appellant +must confine himself to the grounds of appeal stated in the notice +of appeal given by him.</p> + +<p><i>Justices in Quarter Sessions.</i>—This tribunal has under the +commission of the peace and under statute power to refer +questions of difficulty arising before it for decision to the High +Court. The old mode of exercising this power was by sending +on to assizes indictments raising difficult questions which had +been presented at quarter sessions. The High Court has <i>ex +officio</i> power to transfer such indictments where the nature of the +case and the demands of justice call for such transfer. The +quarter sessions had also power under statute on trying an +indictment to refer to the court for crown cases reserved +(Crown Cases Act 1848), abolished by the Criminal Appeal Act +1907, questions of law which had arisen at the trial, and in all +civil cases the quarter sessions has power of its own volition +and subject to no direct compulsion to consult the High Court +on legal questions of difficulty which have arisen. Until 1894 +this jurisdiction was regarded as consultative only. It was and +is exercised by stating the facts, of which the court of quarter +sessions is the sole judge, and indicating the questions of law +arising on the facts, and the view of quarter sessions thereon, +and inviting the opinion of the High Court. Under the Judicature +Act 1894 cases stated in this way are now treated as +“appeals” in the popular sense.</p> + +<p><i>Inferior Courts of purely Civil Jurisdiction.</i>—An appeal also +lies as a general rule to the High Court from the judgment of a +county court or of any inferior tribunal having civil jurisdiction.</p> + +<p>(<i>a</i>) County Courts. Any party to an action or matter in a +county court who is dissatisfied with the determination or +direction of the judge in law or equity, or upon the admission or +rejection of any evidence, may appeal against the decision in the +following cases: (1) if the amount of claim or counter-claim in +the proceeding exceeds £20; or (2) in all equity matters or cases +in which an injunction has been given; or (3) in actions to +recover possession of land where questions of title are involved +(County Courts Act 1888, § 120). In the case of a claim below +£20 no appeal lies except by the leave of the county court. +The old practice of appeal by way of special case as in appeals +from justices has been abolished, and the present procedure is by +notice of motion (R.S.C. O. LIX. rr. 10-18).</p> + +<p>These appeals are heard in the king’s bench division, except +in the case of appeals from judgments of a county court sitting +in the exercise of admiralty jurisdiction, which are heard by +two or more judges sitting in the probate, divorce and admiralty +division. The chancery division has never sat to hear +“appeals” from a county court exercising equity jurisdiction; +but at times, by <i>prohibition</i> or <i>certiorari</i>, has, in effect, reviewed +or restrained excess of jurisdiction by county courts in equity +matters.</p> + +<p>The decision of the High Court on county court appeals is +final unless an appeal to the court of appeal is brought by +leave of that court or of the High Court (Judicature Act 1894, +§ 1, sub. sect. 5; Judicature Act 1873, § 45).</p> + +<p>(<i>b</i>) Other inferior courts of civil jurisdiction. Appeals from +the local courts of record which still survive in certain cities, +towns and districts are in a somewhat anomalous position. The +general rule is that, unless a statute regulates such appeal, it +may be brought in the king’s bench division of the High Court +on notice of motion in any case in which, before the Judicature +Acts, the court of king’s bench could have reviewed the decision +of the inferior court by writ of error. The history of this question +is dealt with in <i>Darlow</i> v. <i>Shuttleworth</i>, 1902, 1 K.B. 721.</p> + +<p>In the case of the mayor’s court of London, under the local +and general statutes regulating that court, the appeal is usually +to the king’s bench division, but where there is what is termed +“error” on the face of the proceedings of the mayor’s court, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page212" id="page212"></a>212</span> +the appeal lies direct to the court of appeal as successor of the +court of exchequer chamber. Appeals from the Liverpool court +of passage and from the chancery courts of the duchies of +Lancaster and Durham lie by statute direct to the court of +appeal.</p> + +<p><i>High Court of Justice.</i>—Until the Supreme Court of Judicature +Acts of 1873 and 1875 came into operation, the superior courts +in England were imperfectly co-ordinated both as to jurisdiction +and appeals. The effect of these acts was to create a Supreme +Court of Judicature divided into two main branches, the High +Court of Justice, which is an appellate court with respect to the +inferior courts already mentioned, and to certain other special +courts and persons; and the court of appeal, which is mainly +concerned with appeals from the High Court of Justice.</p> + +<p>The High Court of Justice acts as an appellate court or court +of consultation with reference to courts of summary jurisdiction +or quarter sessions and to county courts and other inferior +courts of civil jurisdiction in the cases already indicated. The +three divisions of the court are somewhat differently placed +with reference to appeals.</p> + +<p>In the chancery division (made up, in 1908, of six single +judge courts) no appeals are heard except from subordinate +officials (masters) of the court, or an occasional interference +by <i>certiorari</i> or <i>prohibition</i> with a county court.</p> + +<p>In the probate, divorce and admiralty division, besides +the supervision which may be exercised by a single judge over +the subordinate officers of the court (registrars), divisional +courts (of two judges) hear appeals from decisions of the county +court in admiralty causes, and appeals from justices in cases +between husband and wife under the Summary Jurisdiction +(Married Women) Act 1895, as amended by the Licensing Act +1902. In the first of these cases the appeal is on law only as +in the case of other county court appeals; in the second, the +procedure is by rehearing, or reconsideration of the facts +as minuted in the court appealed from, and of the law there +applied to these facts.</p> + +<p>The bulk of the appellate work of the High Court is conducted +in the king’s bench division—which, as successor of the old +court of king’s bench in the duties of <i>custos morum</i> of the +realm, still retains supervisory power over all inferior courts +in all cases in which that supervision has not been transferred +to the other divisions of the High Court or to the court of appeal, +or to the court of criminal appeal.</p> + +<p>The king’s bench division exercises appellate jurisdiction +in the following cases.</p> + +<p>With respect to decisions of justices of the peace sitting at +quarter sessions, or as a court of summary jurisdiction, except +in the case above stated, the subject matter of appeal is for +the most part of a criminal or quasi-criminal character, the civil +jurisdiction of justices being comparatively limited. The +appeal in such cases is as to matters of law only, the justices’ +decision on facts not being subject to review.</p> + +<p>In the case of the courts above named, the appeal is brought +by writ of <i>certiorari</i>, where the jurisdiction of quarter sessions +to give the judgment challenged is denied <i>in toto</i>, or in some cases +by writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>, where the appellant is in custody +under an order of the court appealed from (Judicature Act +1894, § 2). The best example of this is the right of a fugitive +criminal committed for extradition to challenge the legality +of the decision of the committing magistrate by writ of <i>habeas +corpus</i>. Save in cases of want of jurisdiction or refusal to +exercise it, no appeal lies from quarter sessions except by consent +of the court appealed from, which states the facts as ascertained +by the inferior court, and invites the review of the superior +court upon the questions of law raised by the facts as found.</p> + +<p>Decisions of justices sitting in the exercise of summary +jurisdiction are subject to review by a special case in which +the justices state the facts found by them and their decision +on the points of law, and invite the review of the appellate +court on these grounds. Such cases for appeal are usually +stated by consent of the justices, but in the event of their +refusal the appellate court may order that a case shall be stated.</p> + +<p>Decisions of justices in the exercise of summary jurisdiction +may also be challenged by writ of <i>certiorari</i> as having been +wholly outside their jurisdiction; and in such proceeding +the appellate tribunal may review the evidence taken below +so far as to ascertain whether the justices have by an erroneous +finding of fact enabled themselves to assume a jurisdiction +which upon the true facts they did not possess.</p> + +<p>Where the decision appealed from is in a criminal cause +or matter the decision of the High Court is final. Where it +is in a civil matter a further appeal also lies to the court of +appeal by leave of the High Court or of the court of appeal +(Judicature Act 1873, § 45).</p> + +<p>Appeals in criminal cases tried on indictment, criminal +information or coroner’s inquisition, stand on a different footing +from other appeals.</p> + +<p>For many years the question of criminal appeal in general +had been a matter of great controversy. As early as 1844 a +bill had been unsuccessfully introduced for the purpose of +establishing appeal in criminal cases, and from that time up +to 1906 nearly thirty bills were brought forward with the same +object, but none succeeded in passing. In 1892 the question +was referred to the council of judges and favourably reported +upon by them. It may be remarked that England was practically +the only civilized country in which there was no appeal +in criminal cases. It is true there was an appeal on questions +of law arising at the trial. But the procedure was intricate +and technical, being either (1) by writ of error, issued by the +consent of the attorney-general (expressed by his <i>fiat</i>), to review +errors of law appearing in the record of the trial, or (2) by special +case, stated by the judge presiding at the trial, with respect +to a question of law raised at the trial. These appeals were +heard by the king’s bench division. Meanwhile there had +been a considerable development of public opinion in favour +of the establishment of criminal appeal, a development +undoubtedly hastened by the report of a committee of inquiry +in the case of Adolf Beck (1904), showing clearly that the home +office was not a satisfactory tribunal of final appeal. In 1906 +the lord chancellor (Lord Loreburn) introduced another criminal +appeal bill, which passed the House of Lords, but was dropped +in the House of Commons after a first reading. The next year +the act (Criminal Appeal Act 1907), which was ultimately +carried, was introduced into the House of Commons. By this +act a court is established consisting of the lord chief justice +and eight judges of the king’s bench division, the jurisdiction +of the court for crown cases reserved being transferred to the +new court. The court to be duly constituted must consist +of not less than three judges and of an uneven number of judges. +The court may sit in two or more divisions if the lord chief +justice so directs. Its sittings are held in London unless special +directions are given by the lord chief justice that it shall sit +at some other place. The opinion of the majority of those +hearing the case determines any question before the court, +and judgment is pronounced by the president (who is the lord +chief justice or senior member present), unless in questions +of law, when, if it is convenient that separate judgments should +be pronounced by the members of the court, they may be so +pronounced. The judgment of the court of criminal appeal +is final, except where the decision involves a point of law of +exceptional public importance, and a certificate must be obtained +from the attorney-general to that effect. The court of criminal +appeal is a superior court of record. An appeal may be made +either against conviction or against sentence. A person convicted +on indictment may appeal either on a question of law alone +or of fact alone, or on a question of mixed law and fact. On +a point of law a prisoner has an unqualified right of appeal, +on a question of fact or of mixed law and fact there is a right +of appeal only if leave be obtained from the court of criminal +appeal or a certificate be granted by the judge who tried the +prisoner that it is a fit case for appeal. The court is given a +wide discretion as to whether a conviction may be sustained +or set aside. The court may allow the appeal if they think +that the verdict of the jury should be set aside because it is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page213" id="page213"></a>213</span> +unreasonable, or because it cannot be supported having regard +to the evidence, or that the judgment should be set aside +on the ground of a wrong decision on any point of law, or +that on any ground there was a miscarriage of justice. Power is +given to the court to dismiss the appeal if they consider that no +substantial miscarriage of justice has occurred, even though +they are of opinion that the point raised in the appeal +might be decided in favour of the appellant. The sentence +passed at the trial may be quashed by the appeal court and +such other sentence (whether more or less severe) warranted +in law by the verdict substituted. Notice of appeal or notice +of application for leave to appeal must be given within ten +days of the date of conviction; where a conviction involves +sentence of death or corporal punishment the sentence must +not be executed until after the expiration of ten days, and, if +notice of appeal is given, not until after the determination +of the appeal or the final dismissal of the application for leave +to appeal. The act gives the court power to order any witnesses +who would have been compellable witnesses at the trial to attend +and be examined before the court, and to receive the evidence, +if tendered, of any witness who is a competent but not compellable +witness. If any question arises on the appeal involving +prolonged examination of documents or accounts or any scientific +or local investigation, which the court thinks cannot be conveniently +conducted before it, the matter may be referred to +a special commissioner appointed by the court, and the court +may act on the report of that commissioner if it thinks fit. +An appellant is given the right to be present on the hearing +of his appeal, if he desires it, except where the appeal is on +some ground involving a question of law alone, but rules of court +may provide for his presence in such a case, or the court may give +him leave. The act requires shorthand notes to be taken of +the proceedings at the trial of any person, who, if convicted, +would have a right to appeal under the act. Nothing in the act +affects the prerogative of mercy, and the home secretary may, +if he thinks fit, at any time refer a case to the court of criminal +appeal.</p> + +<p><i>The Court of Appeal.</i>—The court of appeal, constituted under +the Judicature Acts, is one of the two permanent divisions of the +Supreme Court of Judicature. As now constituted the court +consists of <i>ex officio</i> members and five ordinary members, styled +lords justices of appeal. The <i>ex officio</i> members are the lord +chancellor, every person who has held that office, the lord chief +justice, the master of the rolls, and the president of the probate, +&c., division.</p> + +<p>The ordinary business of the court is carried on by the lords +justices under the presidency of the master of the rolls, who in +1881 ceased to be a judge of the High Court (Judicature Act +1881, § 2). The court usually sits in two divisions of three +judges, but on occasion a third court can be formed, with the +assistance of the other <i>ex officio</i> judges, in the absence of the +ordinary judges from illness or public engagements, or to deal +with arrears of business. The quorum for final appeals is three, +for interlocutory appeals two judges.</p> + +<p>The court of appeal has succeeded to the appellate authority +exercised (1) in the case of equity and bankruptcy matters by +the lord chancellor and the lords justices of appeal in chancery +(Judicature Act 1873, § 18); (2) in the case of common law +matters, by the court of exchequer chamber, as a court of error, +and the superior courts of common law sitting to review the +decisions of single judges of these courts sitting with or without +a jury at first instance in civil actions; (3) in the case of divorce +or probate causes by the full court of divorce (Judicature Act +1881, § 9); (4) in the case of admiralty causes by the king in +council or the judicial committee of the privy council; (5) in +the case of applications for new trials in jury actions by the +king’s bench division (Judicature Act 1890, § 1).</p> + +<p>The court never had jurisdiction to hear an appeal in any +criminal cause or matter, but was able to review by writ of error +decisions of the king’s bench division in such cases, unless the +court for crown cases reserved had dealt with the question +under the Crown Cases Act 1848. This procedure has been +abolished by the Criminal Appeal Act 1907. Instances of +procedure by writ of error were rare. Those best worth notice +are the cases of the Tichborne claimant on his conviction of +perjury, and the case of C. Bradlaugh on the sufficiency of the +indictment against him for publishing the <i>Fruits of Philosophy</i>.</p> + +<p>The appellate jurisdiction of the court as now exercised +entitles the court to hear and determine (1) appeals from every +judgment or decree of every division of the High Court in all +civil cases in which such judgment is not declared final by +statute; (2) applications for a new trial in civil cases tried in +the king’s bench division by judge and jury which, until 1890, +were dealt with by two or more judges in that division; (3) +appeals in matters of civil practice and procedure from decisions +of a single judge in chambers, which, until 1894, were dealt with +in a divisional court or by a judge in open court; (4) appeals +from the chancery courts of Durham (Palatine Court of Durham +Act 1889) and Lancaster (act of 1890, c. 23) and the Liverpool +court of passage (<i>Anderson v. Dean</i>, 1894, 2 Q.B. 222), and on +error in a record of the mayor’s court of London (<i>Le Blanche</i> v. +<i>Heaton Telegram Co.</i>, 1876, 1 Ex.D. 408); and from county +courts under the Agricultural Holdings Acts and Workmen’s +Compensation Acts; (5) appeals on questions of law from +decisions of the railway commissioners in England (Railway and +Canal Traffic Act 1888).</p> + +<p>The court of appeal also exercises the lunacy jurisdiction of the +lord chancellor, but in regard to this the jurisdiction of the court +is for the most part original and not appellate.</p> + +<p>The jurisdiction of the court of appeal is excluded or limited +in the following cases:—(1) judgments of the High Court—(<i>a</i>) +where its jurisdiction is consultative only; (<i>b</i>) where there is an +appeal to the High Court from an inferior court of civil jurisdiction; +(<i>c</i>) where there is an appeal to the High Court from any +court of person, unless in cases (<i>b</i>) and (<i>c</i>) leave be obtained +of the court by which the order is made, or of the court of appeal; +(2) orders of the High Court in registration and election cases +except with the like leave; (3) orders made by consent of parties, +or as to costs only which by law are left to the discretion of the +court; (4) certain interlocutory orders mentioned in § 1 of +the Supreme Court of Judicature (Procedure) Act 1894, except +by leave of the judge appealed from or of the court of appeal +(5) orders of the admiralty division in cases of prize, the appeal +from which lies to His Majesty in Council; (6) where the decision +of any court whose jurisdiction was transferred to the High Court +is declared by statute to be final; (7) matters which from their +nature were not appealable to any court before the Judicature +Acts, or in which the court of appeal has no means of enforcing +or executing its judgment. For example, it was held in the +House of Lords, in <i>Cox</i> v. <i>Hakes</i>, 1890, 15 A.C. 506, that no +appeal lies from the order of a judge discharging a prisoner under +a writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>. “If,” said Lord Herschell, “the contention +of the respondent is to prevail, the statute has effected a +grave constitutional change”; and later, “if” the High Court +“has inherited the combined powers of the courts whose functions +were transferred to it, but none of them had any jurisdiction or +authority to review a discharge by a competent court under a +writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>, or to enforce the arrest of one thus freed +from custody ... it seems to me to follow, that however wrong +the court of appeal might think a discharge to have been, it +would have been powerless to order a rearrest, or at least to +enforce such an order.”</p> + +<p>The procedure of the court of appeal is regulated by the rules +of the Supreme Court. A distinction is drawn between appeals +from a final judgment or order (which, unless the parties consent +to a smaller quorum, must be heard by three judges) and an +appeal from an interlocutory order (which may be determined +by two judges of the court of appeal).</p> + +<p>In the case of appeals from a final or interlocutory “judgment,” +or from an order, including applications for a new trial, +the appeal must be brought within three months from the time +when the judgment or order is signed, entered or otherwise +perfected, or in the case of refusal of an application from the +date of refusal. The appeal is by notice of motion, which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page214" id="page214"></a>214</span> +except in cases of application for a new trial, need not state +the grounds of appeal. Fourteen clear days’ notice of the +motion must be given by the appellant to the other party, the +respondent.</p> + +<p>In the case of appeals from an interlocutory order, or from a +final order, or from an order made in any matter which is not an +action, or from an order made in chambers, the appeal must be +brought within fourteen days by motion, of which four clear +days’ notice must be given by the appellant to all parties directly +affected by the appeal. Controversies have arisen as to the +meaning of the term “interlocutory,” which (in the absence of +any authoritative definition) the court of appeal settles as they +arise. The test most generally accepted is that a judgment or +order is final if, as made, it finally disposes of the rights of the +parties in a manner equally conclusive between them. The +court may by special leave allow appeals of either class to be +brought after the time above limited. The respondent may by +proper notice bring a cross appeal against any portion of the +judgment or order made below with which he is dissatisfied. +The court has power to order the appellant to find security for +the costs of an appeal, if special circumstances, such as insolvency +or poverty or foreign domicile or the like, make the +giving of security desirable. The court of appeal “rehears” +the case. Under ordinary circumstances it does not permit a +new case to be set up inconsistent with the case as presented +below; and it is content with the judges’ notes, or a transcript +of the evidence given below, and with a note or transcript of the +judgment appealed from, but has power on special grounds to +receive fresh evidence either <i>viva voce</i> or on affidavit. The court +may call in for its assistance assessors who are experts on the +matters of fact or science involved in the appeal, and usually +does so in cases arising out of collisions at sea.</p> + +<p>The court of appeal may make any order which it deems just +as to the costs of the whole or any part of an appeal, except +possibly in the case of certain appeals in matters on the crown +side of the High Court, as to which some doubt still exists. In +practice the costs follow the event, unless the court in a particular +case makes an order to the contrary.</p> + +<p>A decision of the court of appeal is final in appeals from +the High Court in bankruptcy, unless leave be given to appeal +to the House of Lords (§ 104, Bankruptcy Act 1883), and in +divorce appeals, except where the decision either is upon the +grant or refusal of a decree for dissolution or nullity of marriage, +or for a declaration of legitimacy, or is upon any question of law +on which the court gives leave to appeal (Supreme Court of +Judicature Act 1881, § 9); but no further appeal to the House +of Lords lies, even with leave of the court of appeal, on appeals +from the High Court sitting as a court of appeal from county +courts in bankruptcy. With these exceptions there is now a right +of appeal from every order of the court of appeal to the House +of Lords.</p> + +<p><i>The House of Lords.</i>—The House of Lords has for centuries +been the court of last resort, and is still the final court of appeal +from the chief courts in the United Kingdom. The origin of the +appellate jurisdiction of the House of Lords was undoubtedly +of that partly feudal and partly popular character already +alluded to, which made the suitor seek from the high court of +parliament the justice denied elsewhere in the baronial courts or +by the king’s judges. The lords exercised the mixed function of +jurymen and judges, and, as in judgments on impeachment, +might be influenced by private or party considerations, debating +and dividing on the question before the House. A revolution +was silently accomplished, however, by which the function of +reviewing the decisions of the courts fell entirely to the lawyers +raised to the peerage, while the unprofessional lords only attended +to give the sanction of a quorum to the proceedings, and the +House has always had the right to invoke the assistance of the +judges of the superior courts to advise on the questions of law +raised by an appeal. The letters and memoirs, so late as Queen +Anne’s reign, show that party or personal influence and persuasion +were employed to procure votes on appeals, as they have +been in later times on railway or other local bills. The last +instance probably in which a strong division of opinion was +manifested among the unprofessional lords was the celebrated +Douglas cause in 1769, when the House was addressed by the +dukes of Newcastle and Bedford, but was led by the authoritative +opinion of Lord Mansfield on the effect of the evidence—an +opinion which was treated rather as that of a political partisan +than of a judge. The case of Daniel O’Connell and others, +brought up on writ of error from the queen’s bench in Ireland +in 1844, may be said to have finally established the precedent +that the judgments of the House of Lords were to be given solely +by the law lords. On that occasion there was a difference of +opinion among the law lords themselves. The judgment of the +majority of the House was strongly against the political feeling +of the government and of the peers as a body, while the law lords +who carried the decision had been appointed by previous governments +opposed in politics to the existing cabinet. But all these +temptations to a party vote by the unprofessional members were +resisted.</p> + +<p>By § 20 of the act of 1873, the appellate jurisdiction of the +House of Lords (so far as it affects England) was abolished, but +this section was repealed by the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876. +Under that act and an amending act of 1887, the appellate +business of the House of Lords is conducted solely by the law +lords, though lay peers may still sit (<i>Bradlaugh</i> v. <i>Clarke</i>, 1882, +8 App. Cas. 354). No appeal may be heard or determined +except in the presence of not less than three of the following +persons:—(1) the lord chancellor; (2) the lords of appeal, four +of whom are appointed under the act from among persons who +hold, or have held, high judicial office, or, at the date of appointment, +have been in practice for not less than fifteen years as +barristers in England or Ireland, or as advocates in Scotland; +(3) such peers of parliament as hold, or have held, high judicial +office. By “high judicial office” is meant the office of lord +chancellor of Great Britain or Ireland, lord of appeal in ordinary, +paid judge of the judicial committee or member of that committee, +or judge of one of the superior courts of Great Britain +or Ireland.</p> + +<p>An appeal lies to the House of Lords (1) from any order or +judgment of the court of appeal in England except as above +stated; (2) from a judgment or order of any court in Scotland +or Ireland from which error or an appeal to the House of Lords +lay by common law or statute immediately before the 1st of +November 1876. No appeals are heard from the decision of +courts in criminal cases. The House of Lords has an indirect +power by standing orders to admit appeals from Scotland or +Ireland which under former law or practice could not be admitted +(Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, § 12). The procedure on +appeals is regulated by standing orders of the House. The +proceedings are commenced by petition of appeal, which must +be lodged with the clerk of the parliaments within one year from +the date of the last judgment it appealed from. Security for +costs (£200) must be given by bond or lodgment of the money, +unless dispensed with by the House on the ground of poverty +(act of 1893). Each party lodges a printed case signed and +certified by counsel, containing a resumé of the matters to be +discussed and of the contentions for or against the allowance of +the appeal. The hearing is before three or more law lords, who may +call in nautical assessors in admiralty cases (acts of 1893 and 1894). +It is not public in the full sense of the term, as persons not concerned +in the appeal can attend only by consent of the House. +The House pronounces the judgment which in the opinion of the +majority of the law lords should have been pronounced below, +and has jurisdiction in the case of all appeals to give or refuse +costs to the successful party. The costs of the appeal if given +are taxed by the officers of the House. The jurisdiction as to +costs does not directly arise under any statute (see <i>West Ham +Guardians</i> v. <i>Bethnal Green Churchwardens</i>, 1896, A.C. 477).</p> + +<p><i>Appeals to the King in Council.</i>—The decisions of ecclesiastical +courts when acting within the limits of their jurisdiction, and +the decisions of courts in the king’s dominions outside the +United Kingdom, and of courts in foreign countries set up under +the Foreign Jurisdiction Acts, cannot be dealt with by the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page215" id="page215"></a>215</span> +House of Lords or any of the ordinary tribunals of any part of +the United Kingdom. The power once claimed by the court +of king’s bench in England to control the courts of Ireland has +lapsed, and its power to intervene in colonial cases is limited +to the grant of the writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> to a possession in which +no court exists having power to issue that writ or one of like +effect (Habeas Corpus Act 1862). As regards all British possessions, +the appeal to the king in council is in its origin and nature +like that of the provincials unto Caesar, and flows from the +royal prerogative to admit appeals. With the growth of the +British empire it has been found necessary to create a comparatively +constant and stable tribunal to advise the king in +the exercise of this prerogative. For this purpose the judicial +committee of the privy council was created in 1833. In 1851, +and again in 1870, it was reorganized, and by acts of 1876, +1887 and 1898 it received its present form. The committee +consists of the president of the council, and of the following +persons, if privy councillors—the lord chancellor and ex-chancellors +of Great Britain and of Ireland, the four lords of +appeal in ordinary, the lords justices of appeal in England or +retired lords justices of appeal in England, and persons who +hold or have held the office (<i>a</i>) of judge of the High Court of +Justice or the court of appeal in England or Ireland, or of the +court of session in Scotland; (<i>b</i>) any person who is or has been +chief justice or a judge of the Supreme Court of Canada or of a +superior court of any province of Canada, of any of the Australian +states (except Fiji and Papua), or of New Zealand or the Cape +of Good Hope or Natal. The number of persons of this class +who may be members at once is limited to five (1895, c. 44); +(<i>c</i>) provision is also made for the payment of two privy councillors +who have been judges in India who attend the privy council.</p> + +<p>Numerous as are the members of the committee, the quorum +is three. One or more of the lords of appeal in ordinary usually +attend at every hearing, but the composition of the committee +is very fluctuating. Appeals from the British dominions abroad +lie in criminal as well as civil matters. The right of appeal is +regulated as to most possessions by order in council, and in some +cases is limited by imperial or colonial statute. Appeals are on +fact as well as on law, but the committee rarely if ever disturbs +the concurrent judgments on facts of two colonial courts. In +the case of admiralty appeals from colonial or consular courts, +naval assessors may be called in. The committee also hears +(with the aid of ecclesiastical assessors) appeals from ecclesiastical +courts. The judgment of the committee is in the form of a +report and advice to the king, which is read by one of the members +sitting, and no indication is given as to whether the members +present are unanimous. Effect is given to the advice by orders +in council dismissing or allowing the appeal, and giving direction +as to the payment of costs and as to the further proceedings to +be taken in the colonial courts.</p> + +<p>The procedure of the committee is on the same lines as that on +appeals to the House of Lords; no well-arranged code of practice +existed however up to the end of 1908, and new rules were +then being proposed on the subject. The appeal is commenced +by a petition of appeal, and by the giving of security for costs. In +colonial appeals printed cases are lodged containing a summary +of the contentions of the parties, and with this a printed copy of +the record of the proceedings and documents used in the courts +appealed from. The hearing is in the privy council chamber +and is not public. When an appeal is called on, the counsel and +parties are summoned into the chamber, and when the arguments +are concluded they are requested to retire. The appeals to the +king in council from colonial states having a federal constitution, +like Canada and Australia, stand in an exceptional position. +The act creating the Supreme Court of Canada purports to make +the decision of that court final. But it is still the practice to +admit by special leave a prerogative appeal from the court, and +to entertain appeals from courts of the provinces of Canada +direct to the king in council, without requiring them to go to +the Supreme Court. The constitution of the Australian Commonwealth +contemplates (§ 73) the possibility of restricting appeals +to the king in council from the supreme courts of Australia, +and sec. 74 forbids appeals to the king in council except by +leave of the High Court of Australia from decision of that court +on any question however arising as to the limits <i>inter se</i> of the +constitutional powers of the commonwealth and those of any +state or states, or as to the limits <i>inter se</i> of the constitutional +powers of any two or more states. The exact effect of these +enactments and of Australian legislation under § 73 is a matter +of controversy.</p> + +<p><i>Scotland.</i>—In Scotland the ordinary appellate tribunal for +decisions of inferior courts and of the lords ordinary is the court +of session, which for appellate purposes sits in two divisions. +Appeals from inferior tribunals in criminal cases go before the +judges of the court of session sitting in the High Court of +Justiciary. The court of session was in its original constitution +a committee of parliament for the performance of its judicial +functions, and an appeal to parliament was consequently +anomalous. In the reign of Charles II., however, the courts +grew so intolerably corrupt that a determined effort was made +to have their judgments overturned, by an appeal which was +strictly of the old character of a cry for protection against +flagrant injustice. It was called a “protest for remeid of law,” +and was inserted as one of the national claims in the Petition of +Right at the revolution. The treaty of union is silent as to +appeals, though definitely excluding the right of English courts +to interfere with Scottish courts or cases. The House of Lords +has since the Union acted without challenge as the final appellate +tribunal for Scotland in civil causes; but has always declined +jurisdiction in Scottish criminal cases.</p> + +<p><i>Ireland.</i>—The Supreme Court of Judicature (Ireland) Acts +have remodelled the courts and appellate system of Ireland on +the same lines as those of England. The High Court of Justice +in Ireland now consists of two divisions only, the chancery +division, which has little or no appellate functions, and the +king’s bench division, which has for Ireland substantially the +same power of reviewing and correcting the decisions of inferior +courts as has the corresponding court in England. To this there +is one exception, that appeals from a county court in Ireland +may be heard on circuit by a single judge of assize. In Ireland +there is also a court of appeal, created in 1877, whose jurisdiction +and procedure follow the same lines as that of the English court +of appeal.</p> + +<p><i>France.</i>—The court of last resort in France for all cases, +whether civil or criminal (<i>en matière criminelle, correctionnelle +et de police</i>), is the <i>cour de cassation</i>, which sits in Paris. It is a +court of error for the review of all judgments of tribunals of last +resort (except <i>juges de paix</i> in certain cases), and for the transfer +of causes from one court to another when justice so demands, +and to determine conflicts of jurisdiction (Law 1 Dec. 1790). +Ordinarily it is confined to errors of law and procedure, but +where evidence not available below is brought before the court, it +may send the case back for retrial or give the appropriate final +judgment, as in the case of Dreyfus (1906). It also hears appeals +from courts martial.</p> + +<p>Next to the <i>cour de cassation</i> are the courts of appeal, which +have jurisdiction to hear appeals (1) in civil matters from courts +of first instance, <i>juges de paix</i>, and where the amount in dispute +exceeds £60 from commercial courts, <i>tribunaux de commerce</i> +(Civil Proc. Code, arts. 443-475); (2) in criminal matters from +<i>tribunaux correctionnels</i> (Com. Proc. Code, arts. 202-235). The +appeal is both on fact and on law, and applies to interlocutory or +preparatory as well as to final judgments.</p> + +<p><i>Spain.</i>—In Spain the jurisdiction and procedure with reference +to appeals is on the same lines as in France. As regards civil +matters it is regulated by title 21 of the Civil Procedure Code. +The appeal to the supreme court is for the most part on questions +of law (<i>por infraccion de ley o de doctrina</i>); but the court has +also power to review judgments on materials not available at +the first hearing (arts. 1796, 1801).</p> + +<p><i>British India.</i>—In British India complete and systematic +provision is made for appeals both in civil and in criminal cases +by the Procedure Codes (Civil of 1882, with subsequent amendments, +and Criminal of 1898), and also to some extent by the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page216" id="page216"></a>216</span> +charters of the high courts of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras +(see Ilbert, <i>Government of India</i>, Oxford, 1898, p. 137). In +addition, the decisions of subordinate tribunals may be revised +by a superior tribunal <i>proprio motu</i>, or reviewed in a proper case +by the tribunal which has given them; and provision is made +for the consultation of a superior by an inferior tribunal in cases +of legal difficulty. The policy of admitting so many appeals +has been criticized. But with an enormous population which +has no representative institutions it has been deemed wise to +provide ample means of correcting judicial errors at the instance +not only of the aggrieved person but also at the instance of the +supervising judicial authorities, as a means of ensuring regularity +and propriety in the conduct of judicial business by subordinate +judges in out-of-the-way districts.</p> + +<p><i>Civil Appeals.</i>—(1) Except where otherwise expressly provided +by the Civil Procedure Code, or by any other law for the +time being in force, an appeal lies from the whole or part of any +decree, whether made <i>ex parte</i> or <i>inter partes</i>, of a court exercising +original jurisdiction (Civil Procedure Code, § 540). By +“decree” is meant the final expression of an adjudication upon +a right claimed or defence set up in a civil court, when such +adjudication, so far as regards the court expressing it, decides +the suit (§ 2). The appeal is both on facts and on law. The +procedure on the appeal is prescribed by c. 41 of the Civil +Procedure Code, and the directions of the code deal even with +the language of the judgment on appeal and the matters to be +stated therein. (2) Decrees passed on an appeal to any court in +India subordinate to a High Court are as a general rule subject +to appeal to the High Court on the grounds (<i>a</i>) that they are +contrary to a specified law, or usage having the force of law; +(<i>b</i>) that they have failed to determine some material issue of law, +or usage having the force of law; (<i>c</i>) of substantial error or defect +in procedure prescribed by the code or other law which might +possibly have produced error or defect in the decision of the case +upon the merits (§ 584). The procedure on these appeals is +regulated by c. 42 of the Civil Procedure Code. (3) Appeals from +orders which do not fall within the definition of decrees are +allowed in the cases specified in § 588 of the code. The procedure +with respect to these appeals is on the same lines as that on +appeals against decrees (§ 590). Provision is made (by c. 44) +for allowing appeals <i>in forma pauperis</i> after certain preliminary +inquiries. In the High Courts appeals lie from the decision of +one judge to two or more judges of the High Court, whose decision +has effect as a judgment of the full court. Appeals, in civil +cases, from the courts of India to the king in council are +regulated by c. 45 of the Civil Procedure Code. The appealable +amount is for most cases Rs. 10,000 or a claim or question as +to property of like amount.</p> + +<p>Besides the provisions stated as to appeals, Indian courts +have power in certain contingencies to review their own decisions +(§ 623). An inferior court may also refer cases of difficulty to the +High Court on a statement of the facts as found in the referring +court and of the opinion thereon of that Court (§§ 617-620); +and in cases in which no appeal lies to the High Court, that court +may call for the record of any case in which the court below +appears to have acted without jurisdiction or failed to exercise +its jurisdiction, or to have exercised its jurisdiction illegally or +with material illegality (§ 622).</p> + +<p><i>Criminal Matters.</i>—Criminal jurisdiction in India is exercised +by magistrates of the first, second and third class, by sessions +courts, and the high or chief courts of the presidencies or +provinces (Criminal Procedure Code of 1898). The higher judges +in a district have the power of revising those decisions which +are not absolutely summary of the judges of the classes below +them in the same district; <i>i.e.</i> the sessions judge can revise the +decisions of a first-class magistrate, and the High Court those +of a sessions judge (§ 435). Inferior tribunals can also refer +questions of law to the High Court (§§ 432, 433); and where a +sentence of death is passed, or a sessions judge differs from the +jury (§ 307), the matter must be referred to the High Court. +On matters of reference or revision the parties have no right to +be heard.</p> + +<p>Provision is also made for appeals by c. 31 of the Code. +Appeals from second- or third-class magistrates are dealt with +by the district (first-class) magistrate (§ 407). Persons convicted +on trial by assistant sessions judges or first-class magistrates, +except in cases where the punishment is very small, have +an appeal to the sessions judge (§§ 408, 413). A person convicted +on trial by the sessions judge has an appeal to the High Court +(§ 410), but where he has pleaded guilty the only point on which +appeal is open is the legality or extent of sentence (§ 412). +Special provision is made as to appeals by persons born in +Europe (whether British subjects or not) and Americans (§§ 408, +415, and c. 33).</p> + +<p>In criminal cases there is a right of appeal to the king in +council in certain cases provided for by the charters of the +chartered high courts (see Ilbert, <i>Government of India</i>, Oxford, +1898, p. 137).</p> + +<p>An appeal also lies in certain cases from the courts of British +officers in feudatory states of India to a high court in India, +and from the courts of Aden and Zanzibar and British East Africa +to the High Court of Bombay. Appeals do not lie from the courts +of native states to British courts in India, though in some cases +there is an appeal of a political rather than judicial nature from +the judicial tribunals of feudatory states; <i>e.g.</i> in the case of +Kathiawar (<i>Hemchand Derchand</i> v. <i>Azam Sakarlal</i>; 1906. L.R. +A.C. 212).</p> + +<p><i>Canada.</i>—In Canada each province has the regulation of its +own courts of justice. In Ontario the judiciary are organized, +under the Provincial Judicature Acts, in much the same manner +as in England; and the review of decisions of inferior courts (by +appeal or other proceedings based on English practice) is in the +hands of the High Court of Justice, subject to appeal to the +provincial court of appeal. In Quebec the highest court (king’s +bench), besides its original jurisdiction, has appellate jurisdiction +over the superior court (see Quebec Civil Procedure Code, art. +1114 <i>et seq</i>.). The jurisdiction is exercised by writ of error or +by appeal, according to the nature of the decision appealed from. +The judges of the superior court have also, under art. 494, power +to review before three judges decisions of a judge of that court +or of a circuit court (arts. 494-504). Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, +Manitoba and British Columbia have supreme courts +with appellate authority over decisions of single judges of the +court and over inferior tribunals in the province. Appeals lie +from the highest courts of each province, in civil matters, to the +Supreme Court of Canada, or to the king in council in cases +falling within the orders in council applying to each province, +but in criminal matters to the king in council. From the +Supreme Court of Canada no appeal lies as of right to the king +in council (Dominion Act 1875, 38 Vic. c. 11, § 47), and the royal +prerogative of granting special leave to appeal is sparingly exercised. +The principles on which the judicial committee acts in +advising for or against the grant of special leave in civil case& +are stated in <i>Daily Telegraph Newspaper Co.</i> v. <i>M‘Laughlin</i>, +1904, L.R. A.C. 776. It is, however, as before, quite common +for appeals to be brought direct to the privy council from +the provincial courts without resort to the Dominion court (see +Wheeler, <i>Privy Council Law</i>, p. 955).</p> + +<p><i>Australia.</i>—Each of the states of the Australian Commonwealth +has its own supreme court. The Commonwealth parliament +constituted in 1903 a High Court for Australia, which, +besides its original federal jurisdiction, is also a court of appeal +from the supreme courts of the constitutional states, or from any +state court from which an appeal lay to the king in council at +the establishment of the Commonwealth. The jurisdiction of the +court is defined by the Judiciary Act of 1903, by which it is +created. The right of appeal is given both as to criminal and +civil matters.</p> + +<p><i>South Africa.</i>—In Cape Colony and Natal the appellate courts +are the supreme courts, subject to further appeal in certain cases +to the king in council. The superior courts of Cape Colony are +empowered to review the proceedings of all inferior courts in +the colony and its dependencies in cases where no appeal lies. +There was for a time an appeal from the High Court of Orange +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" id="page217"></a>217</span> +River Colony to the supreme court of the Transvaal, and from +that court (whether acting for its own colony or on appeal from +the Orange Colony), an appeal to the king in council. In other +colonies the provisions as to appeal follow more or less closely +the lines of English law and procedure as to appeals, and in all +cases the ultimate appeal is to the king in council.</p> + +<p><i>United States.</i>—In the American courts the term “appeal” +covers (1) a removal of a cause to a higher court for retrial on +all the questions of law or fact involved, or (2) taking up points +of law only by proceedings in error, for revision by a higher court. +Decrees in admiralty, bankruptcy and equity, in the federal +courts, are the subjects of an appeal; judgments in actions at +law, of a writ of error. On an equity appeal the evidence taken +at the original hearing is reported at length to the appellate court, +and it has the right to review the conclusions of fact reached by +the court below and come to different ones. This, however, is +seldom done, the appeal being almost always decided on points of +law based upon the conclusions of fact reached in the original +hearing. In admiralty appeals the conclusions of fact reached by +the trial court are specially set forth, and are final.</p> + +<p>“Appeal” in many of the states is the general term for +reviewing any judgment of an inferior court on assignments of +error. It is also often used to signify a mode of reviewing proceedings +of municipal bodies, affecting the interests of particular +persons, <i>e.g.</i> in matters of licences or assessments.</p> + +<p>In criminal prosecutions an appeal, or writ of error on points +of law, is almost everywhere allowed by statute to the defendant, +and often to the state. (<i>United States</i> v. <i>Sanges</i>, 144 United +States Reports, 310; <i>State</i> v. <i>Lee</i>, 65 Connecticut Reports, 265.)</p> + +<p>By the constitution of the United States the Supreme Court +is vested with “appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, +with such exceptions, and under such regulations, as the Congress +shall make.” This provision is held not to create but only to +authorize the creation of the jurisdiction. In the words of +Chancellor Kent, “If congress had not provided any rule to +regulate the proceedings in appeal, the court could not exercise +an appellate jurisdiction: and, if a rule be provided, the court +could not depart from it.” In pursuance of this principle, the +Supreme Court decided in <i>Clarke</i> v. <i>Bazadone</i> that a writ of error +did not lie to that court from a court of the United States territory +north-west of the Ohio, because the act had not authorized an +appeal or writ of error from such a court (<i>Commentaries</i>, i. 324). +The appellate jurisdiction of the court is now regulated by title +13 chap. ii. of the Revised Statutes of the United States (1873), +§§ 690-710; and by the acts enumerated at p. 901 of the Revised +Statutes, United States, 1873 to 1891. Under these statutes the +Supreme Court may entertain appeals from the highest court of a +state of the Union, but only (1) where the state court has decided +against the validity of a treaty or statute of the United States, +or of an authority exercised under the United States; (2) where +a state court has affirmed the validity of a statute, or of an +authority exercised which has been challenged on the ground of +repugnance to the constitution, laws or treaties of the United +States; (3) where the state court has decided against the +existence of a title, right, privilege, or immunity claimed or set +up under the constitution of, or under any statute, treaty, +commission or authority of the United States.</p> + +<p>The appeal from state courts is by writ of error, <i>i.e.</i> on law +only; and applies as well in criminal as in civil cases. The +Supreme Court will not act unless the federal question was +raised in the court below (<i>Chicago U.S. Mail Co.</i> v. <i>McGuire</i>, +1904, 196, U.S. 128). The circuit court of appeals, established +in 1891, deals with appeals from the district and circuit courts of +the United States, except where other provision is made, <i>e.g.</i> +where the jurisdiction of the court appealed from is in question; +in prize causes and convictions of capital crimes (U.S. Statutes, +1801, c. 54. § 5); in cases involving the construction or application +of the constitution; in cases arising in district or circuit courts +involving the constitutional questions already stated as subject +of appeal from state courts.</p> + +<p>The review by the circuit court of appeals is effected by +appeal or by writ of error, and its decision is final, with certain +exceptions but with power to certify cases to the Supreme Court +for instructions (1891, c. 511, § 6).</p> + +<p>The Supreme Court hears appeals from the circuit court +of appeals within the limits above stated, and appeals from +the circuit and district courts in cases in which an appeal +does not lie to the circuit court of appeals, and has power +to issue a <i>certiorari</i> to transfer a case from the circuit court of +Appeals.</p> +<div class="author">(W. F. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPEARANCE<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>apparere</i>, to appear), in law, the +coming into court of either of the parties to a suit; the formal +act by which a defendant submits himself to the jurisdiction of +the court. The defendant in an action in the High Court of +England enters his appearance to the writ of summons by +delivering, either at the central office of the Supreme Court, or +a district registry, a written memorandum either giving his +solicitor’s name or stating that he defends in person. He must +also give notice to the plaintiff of his appearance, which ought, +according to the time limited by the writ, to be within eight +days after service; a defendant may, however, appear any time +before judgment. The <i>Rules of the Supreme Court</i>, orders xii. +and xiii., regulate the procedure with respect to the entering of +an appearance, the giving of notice, the limit of time, the setting +aside and the general effect of default of appearance. In +county courts there is no appearance other than the coming +into court of the parties to the suit. In criminal cases the +accused appears in person. In civil cases infants appear by +their guardians <i>ad litem</i>; lunatics by their committee; companies +by a solicitor; friendly societies by the trustee or other +officer appointed to sue or be sued on behalf thereof.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPENDICITIS,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> the modern medical term for inflammation +of that part of the intestine which is known as the “appendix.” +Though not a new disease, there can be no doubt that it is far +commoner than it used to be, though the explanation of this +increased frequency is not yet forthcoming. Amongst the +virulent micro-organisms associated with the disease no one +specific germ has hitherto been found. It may be remarked that +the theories that influenza, or the use of preserved foods, may +be connected with the disease as cause and effect, have supporters. +Sometimes the disease is due to the impaction of a pin, shot-corn, +tooth-brush bristle, or fish-bone in the appendix, which has set +up inflammation and ulceration. In many cases a patch of +mortification with perforation of the appendix is caused by the +presence of a hard faecal concretion, or “stercolith,” which from +its size, shape and appearance has been mistaken by a casual +observer for a date-stone or cherry-stone.</p> + +<p>Apart from the fact of the more frequent occurrence of +appendicitis, the disease is now better understood and more +promptly recognized. It was formerly included under the term +“perityphlitis”—that is, inflammation connected with the +caecum or <i>blind</i> portion of the large intestine. But in the vast +majority of cases the inflammation begins in the appendix, not +in the intestine proper. It is apt to extend and set up a localized +peritonitis, which in the worst cases may become general.</p> + +<p>Appendicitis is more often met with in the young than the old, +and in boys rather than girls; and in some families there is a +strange predisposition towards it. It is often started by a chill, +or by over-exertion, and sometimes the attack follows a blow or +strain, or some other direct injury, after which the virulent +micro-organisms seize on the mucous membrane and involve the +appendix in acute inflammation.</p> + +<p>The appendix is a narrow tube, about the size of a goose-quill, +with an average length of 3 in. It terminates in a blunt point, +and from its worm-like shape is called <i>vermiformis</i>. It is an +appendage of the large intestine, into which it opens, and is +regarded as the degenerate relic, surviving in man and other +mammals, of an earlier form of intestine. Foreign bodies passing +down the intestinal canal may find their way into the appendix +and lodge there. Frequently the diseased appendix is found +blocked by hard faeces or undigested particles of food, such as +nuts, fibrous vegetable matter, and other imperfectly masticated +substances; inflammation may occur, however, without the +presence of any impacted material. The appendix may be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page218" id="page218"></a>218</span> +twisted, bent, or otherwise strangulated, or its orifice may be +blocked, so that the tube is distended with mucus which can find +no outlet; or ulceration of tuberculous or malignant origin +may occur. Inflammation started in the appendix is liable to +spread to the peritoneum, and herein lies the gravity of the +affection and the indication for treatment. The symptoms vary +from “indigestion,” and slight pain and sickness, which pass off +in a few short days, to an exceedingly violent illness, which may +cause death in a few hours. Pain is usually first felt in the +belly, low down on the right side or across the region of the +navel; sometimes, however, it is diffuse, and at other times it is +scarcely complained of. There is some fever, the temperature +rising to 101° or 102° F., with nausea, and very likely with +vomiting. The abdomen is tender to pressure, and the tenderness +may be referred to the spot mentioned above. Some swelling +may also be made out in that region. The attack may last for +two, three or four days, and then subside. There are, however, +other cases less well defined, in which the mischief pursues a +latent course, producing little more than a vague abdominal +uneasiness, until it suddenly advances into a violent stage. In +some chronic cases the trouble continues, on and off, for months +or even for years.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 280px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:233px; height:303px" src="images/img218.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Large Intestine showing Vermiform +Appendix (<i>v.a.</i>) and +Caecum (<i>c</i>).</td></tr></table> + +<p>On paper it is easy to arrange cases of appendicitis into three +classes—catarrhal, ulcerative and mortifying—but in actual +practice this is neither desirable +nor possible. Such classification +is based upon the symptoms, and +in appendicitis symptoms may be +actually misleading. The three +conditions to which the surgeon +chiefly looks for guidance are +the aspect of the patient, the +rate of his pulse and the degree +of fever as shown by the thermometer. +But in certain cases +of appendicitis, though the surgeon +knows intuitively, or, at +least, suspects, that the general +condition is extremely serious, +the patient looks fairly well and +says that he is not in pain, his +pulse-rate being but little quickened +and his temperature being +but slightly above normal. +Nevertheless, when the surgeon +has opened the belly in the appendix region, he finds the +appendix swollen, perforated and mortified, and lying in a +stinking abscess, whilst inflammation has already spread to +the neighbouring coils of intestine. Unfortunately, the surgeon +can no more tell what he is going to find at his operation in +some of these cases than he can foretell the course which any +particular case is going to run.</p> + +<p>We may most usefully give here the symptoms as they are +likely to be found in an ordinary case of appendicitis, and +as they may be observed by one who is not a member of the +medical profession, in a way that may prove helpful to him when +circumstances have awakened his interest in the disease.</p> + +<p>The case taken shall be that of a boy at school, for, as already +stated, boys are more prone to the disease than girls. The boy +has had, may be, occasional attacks of “indigestion” which +have duly passed away under the influence of aperient medicines, +and, being heated at play, he has sat down upon the cold ground. +Or he has got wet through or over-tired during a long walk or +ride. At any rate, his vital powers have been suddenly lowered, +and the micro-organisms teeming in his bowel have seized upon +the lining membrane of the appendix. He feels out of sorts, and +if he manages to eat a meal he very likely vomits it soon after, +for the whole nervous system of his abdomen is disturbed by +the local inflammation. The act of vomiting gives slight relief, +however, and probably he begins to complain of pains in his +head as well as in his abdomen, and possibly he has an attack of +shivering—the result of disturbance of his general nervous +system. By this time he may be attacked with intense pain in +the part of his abdomen a little above the middle of the right +groin, and at that spot there may be a tenderness, and a feeling +of resistance may be made out by the gentle pressure of the +finger. In order to relax the pressure upon the tender area he +probably lies with his right thigh slightly bent. By this time +he may look ill, his face being slightly flushed, or pale and anxious. +If the clinical thermometer is placed under his tongue, the index +may rise a degree or two, perhaps several degrees, above normal, +and his pulse may be quickened to 90 or 100 beats a minute. +Perhaps it is a good deal quicker than this. Later, the skin of +the lower part of the right side of the abdomen may be flushed +or reddened.</p> + +<p>This clinical picture leaves no room for doubt. The boy has +an attack of acute septic inflammation of his appendix. Let it +be that the symptoms have come on quickly, and that the +affection is not more than ten or twelve hours old; no one can +tell precisely what course the disease is going to run. It may be +that with rest in bed, constant fomentations, and absolute +starvation, the inflammation will subside; but it is just as +likely that in spite of this judicious treatment the symptoms +will go from bad to worse, and that a belated operation will fail +to rescue the boy from a general peritonitis which may end +fatally. But at present, so far as one can tell, the disease is still +limited to the appendix. And what, at this moment, is the best +line of treatment? Some practitioners would answer—“Let +the acute attack settle down, and then, after a week or ten days, +when everything is quiet, remove the appendix, for statistics +show that when the operation is done in the quiet interval the +results are extremely favourable, whilst if it is done in the acute +stage the outlook is not so bright.” This is quite right. But +one cannot be sure that the “quiet interval” will ever arrive. +The case in question may be one of those which rapidly go on +from bad to worse, and mortification and perforation of the +appendix having taken place over some hard faecal concretion, +general peritonitis is inevitable, with distension of the bowel and +hopeless blood-poisoning. If it were certain that the attack of +appendicitis would subside and become quiescent, it would be +wise to wait. But it too often happens that the first attack is, +indeed, the last. Acute appendicitis is one thing; relapsing +appendicitis is another. The latter condition is very manageable.</p> + +<p>Inasmuch, then, as it is impossible to know what direction +the disease will take, whether to quiescence or to disaster, it is +for the greatest good in the greatest number of cases that the +inflamed appendix be removed by operation whilst the disease +is still limited to the appendix. It is highly probable that if +every available hospital surgeon were asked if he had ever had +cause to regret having advised early operation in a case of +appendicitis the answer would be “No”; on the other hand, +every surgeon would be able to recall cases in which delay had +been followed by disaster—which an early resort to operation +would, in all probability, have prevented.</p> + +<p>If the disease is going to assume the severe form, all the +symptoms, as a rule, increase in severity. The facial expression +becomes more anxious, and the accumulation of gas in the +paralysed intestine causes an increase in the abdominal distension, +so that the patient lies with his knees drawn up. The +vomiting continues. The pulse quickens to 120 or 140 a minute, +and the temperature rises, perhaps to 104° F. The swelling and +tenderness increase on the right side of the abdomen, and if the +abscess does not find escape externally it probably bursts into +the general peritoneal cavity, and the patient becomes bathed +in profuse sweat, the result of blood-poisoning. Death is likely +to follow within two days, the result of blood-poisoning and +exhaustion.</p> + +<p><i>Catarrhal and Relapsing Appendicitis.</i>—Some cases of appendicitis +run a mild course, giving rise to no worse symptoms, perhaps, +than those of “indigestion” and nausea, with a feeling of general +discomfort in the abdomen, and, probably, some local tenderness. +The attack may be preceded or accompanied by constipation. +The administration of a mild aperient or an enema, rest, +starvation and fomentation will probably put matters right +again—at any rate for a time.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page219" id="page219"></a>219</span></p> + +<p>This form of the disease may be due to the presence of +“bolted,” unchewed or indigestible food in that part of the +large intestine into which the appendix opens. And these mild +recurrent attacks may sometimes be got rid of altogether by +having the teeth put in order, and by inducing the individual +to choose his food with discretion, to chew it carefully, to take +his meals regularly and to eat slowly.</p> + +<p>Obviously, these attacks are very different from those of +the acute septic form of the disease described above, though +there is no telling that one of them may not develop into the +acute form. Some of the mild attacks are due to a kink in the +appendix, or to some other condition which temporarily prevents +the secretions of the appendix from finding their way into the +large intestine. Others of them are caused by a passing catarrhal +inflammation of the lining of the appendix and have a distant +resemblance to a recurring “sore throat.”</p> + +<p>After undergoing one or two of these mild attacks the patient +would be well advised to have his appendix removed when it has +once more got into the “quiet stage.” Experience abundantly +shows that the operation can then be performed with but slight +disturbance of the patient, and with the smallest possible amount +of risk. And until his vulnerable appendix has been removed +he is never safe.</p> + +<p>In the <i>chronic</i> form of the disease though the patient is never +desperately ill he is never quite well. He has pains and discomfort +in the abdomen, with slight tenderness and nausea, +with “indigestion,” as he may call it. And as one can never tell +when the smouldering inflammation may break out into conflagration, +he is well advised to submit himself to operation +without further delay. To carry about a diseased appendix is to +run the constant risk of being laid up at a time most inconvenient, +as when travelling or when staying in some place where skilled +assistance is far distant or absolutely unobtainable. But having +made up his mind that the appendix had better be removed, +the patient can choose time, place and surgeon, and, having +undergone a week’s careful training for the ordeal, can safely +count on being back at work again in a month or six weeks’ +time.</p> + +<p>As regards <i>treatment</i>, the greatest safety consists in the prompt +removal of the inflamed appendix, and statistics show that if the +operation can be done in the first or second day of even an acute +attack, the result is generally favourable—that is to say, if the +appendix can be removed whilst the disease is still shut up +within its tissues. But in some cases ulceration and perforation, +or mortification, may have taken place over a hard faecal +concretion within the first twenty-four or forty-eight hours, +and, the septic germs having been let loose, peritonitis may +have already set in, and operation may be followed by disappointment. +Still, if the case had been left unoperated on, +no other result could have been expected. It was not to the +operation, but to the intensely acute disease that the calamity +must be attributed.</p> + +<p>Nature is marvellously clever in some of these cases in shutting +off the area of the disease by glueing together the neighbouring +coils of intestine, the limited local peritonitis causing the tissues +to build themselves into a wall which securely shuts in the +abscess cavity. But in other cases she seems helpless, no barrier +being formed for limiting the area of disturbance. In such a +case it is inevitable that disappointment must result from the +surgeon delaying operation in the hope that delimitation might +take place. And when at last he makes his incision he sees that +the disease has had so long a start that his own chance of success +is but a poor one. In a less severe attack, under the influence of +rest, starvation and fomentation, and in cases of chronic and of +relapsing disease, the surgeon may watch and wait and choose +his own time for operating. But when the symptoms are steadily +increasing in severity he should urge an immediate incision. +When, as often happens, the inflammation begins suddenly and +severely, and, under the influence of treatment, steadily quiets +down, the surgeon does well to delay operation. But in a fortnight +or so, when everything has become once more quiet, he +will urge the removal of the appendix, for this one attack is +more than likely to be the forerunner of other attacks if the +diseased appendix is left.</p> + +<p>The most serious cases are those in which the aspect, the +pulse, and the temperature of the patient fail to give warning +of a very advanced state of disease. Every surgeon of experience +has met with cases in which, though there is nothing pointing +to the fact that the patient is on the brink of a disaster, the +operation has shown that the appendix is mortified, and that it +is surrounded with abundant foul matter. It is then that he +regrets not having operated a day or two earlier. Consequently +it is a good rule to operate in all doubtful cases. In cases in +which one happens to know that previous attacks have passed +off under palliative treatment, there is no need for immediate +operation; the quiet interval may be safely waited for. But +in cases in which there is “no history,” and in which the surgeon +has nothing to guide him, the greatest safety is in prompt +operation.</p> + +<p>If an attack of acute appendicitis is allowed to take its course +unoperated on, abscess forms in the peritoneal cavity in the +region of the appendix, but if already inflammation has happily +glued the intestines together around that area, the pus is confined +within definite limits. But as the abscess increases in size the +demand for its evacuation becomes urgent. The pus, under the +influence of a natural law, seeks its escape by the path of least +resistance; sometimes this is into the intestine, and occasionally +into the bladder. The most satisfactory course which it can take +is through the wall of the abdomen and out above the right groin. +As it is making its way in this direction the skin over that part +becomes red, swollen, hot and tender, and the tissues between it +and the skin become swollen and brawny. Rarely is <i>fluctuation</i> +to be made out until the pus has worked its way close to the +surface. Later, ulceration takes place in the undermined skin, +and the stinking contents of the abscess escape, greatly to the +relief of the patient. But long before this could happen the +surgeon should have made an incision through the inflamed +tissues in order to give nature some greatly needed help. For +in many cases she allows the pus blindly to discover that the +course of least resistance is not towards the surface of the +abdomen but through the inflammatory barrier formed by the +adherent coils of bowel, and so into the general peritoneal cavity. +This unfortunate issue may give temporary relief to the patient, +so that he says that he feels much better, and that his pain has +nearly gone. But though his temperature may fall, his pulse is +apt to quicken—an ominous coupling of symptoms; the paralysed +bowels become further distended, so that the lungs are +pressed upon and breathing is embarrassed; hiccough comes on; +and whether operation is now resorted to or not, a fatal end is +highly probable. In other cases, the escaping pus finds its way +up towards the liver and forms an abscess below the base of the +lungs.</p> + +<p>If operation is performed when appendicitis has run on to +the formation of abscess, and the diseased appendix presents +itself, it should of course be removed; but if it does not present +itself the surgeon should abstain from making a determined +search for it, as in so doing he may break down the barrier which +nature has provided, and thus himself become the means of +spreading a septic peritonitis. Nor should he attempt to make +clean the foul abscess cavity. All that he should do is to provide +for efficient drainage. A large proportion of these cases do +extremely well with incision and drainage, and in the subsequent +healing of the cavity the wreckage of the appendix either undergoes +disintegration or is rendered harmless for further anxiety.</p> + +<p>In some cases, however, the damaged appendix remains as a +smouldering ember, ready at any moment to cause further conflagration. +This is made manifest by lingering pains, and by +tenderness and warnings after the abscess has healed, and the +patient will be well advised to have what is left of the appendix +removed by operation at a time of quiescence. The operation, +however, may turn out to be a very difficult one. Sometimes +the wound by which the abscess has been evacuated, by nature +or by art, refuses to heal completely, a little discharge of a faecal +odour continuing to escape. The small wound leads into a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page220" id="page220"></a>220</span> +faecal fistula, and a bent probe passed along it would probably +find its way into the bowel. The wound is likely to close of itself +in due course; but if after many weeks of disappointment it +still continues to discharge, the surgeon may advise an operation +for its obliteration.</p> + +<p>It occasionally happens that after operation the scar of the +wound in the abdominal wall yields under the pressure from +within, and a bulging of the intestines beneath the skin occurs. +This is called a <i>ventral hernia</i>, and if the patient cannot be made +comfortable by wearing a truss with a large flat pad, an operation +may be deemed advisable.</p> + +<p>If, in a case of appendicitis, for one reason or another operation +is to be delayed, what treatment should be resorted to? The +patient should be put to bed with his knees resting over a pillow, +and a large fomentation under oil silk should be laid over the +lower part of the abdomen. No food should be given beyond +an occasional sip of hot water. Purgatives should not be +administered, as this would be to set in movement an inflamed +piece of bowel. If the case is not acute, a large enema of soap +and water with turpentine may be given, or, possibly, a dose of +castor oil by the mouth. As a rule, however, it is unwise to set +the bowels in vigorous action until the diseased appendix has +been removed. No opium should be given.</p> + +<p>Acute intestinal obstruction, cancer of the intestine, inflammation +of the ovary, typhoid fever and renal and gallstone +colic, are affections which are apt to be mistaken for appendicitis. +The first of these resembles it most closely, and diagnosis is +sometimes impossible without resort to operation. And it is a +fortunate thing that, when error of diagnosis has been made, +the operation which was designed for dealing with an inflamed +appendix may be directed with equal advantage to the morbid +condition which is found on opening the abdomen. In typhoid +fever the characteristic temperature, the general condition of +the patient, and the presence of delirium are differentiating +signs of importance; in renal and gallstone colic the situation +and the more paroxysmal character of the pain are usually +distinctive.</p> +<div class="author">(E. O.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPENDICULATA,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> a zoological name introduced by E. Ray +Lankester (preface to the English edition of C. Gegenbaur’s +<i>Comparative Anatomy</i>), and employed by the same writer in the +9th edition of this encyclopaedia (article “Zoology”) to denote the +eighth phylum, or major division, of coelomate animals. The +animals thus associated, the Rotifera, Chaetopoda and Arthropoda, +are composed of a larger or smaller number of hollow rings, +each ring possessing typically a pair of hollow lateral appendages, +moved by intrinsic muscles and penetrated by blood-spaces.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPENDINI, FRANCESCO MARIA<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (1768-1837), Italian +historian and philologist, was born at Poirino, near Turin, on +the 4th of November 1768. Educated at Rome, he took orders +and was sent to Ragusa, where he was appointed professor of +rhetoric. When the French seized Ragusa, Napoleon placed +Appendini at the head of the Ragusan academy. After the +Austrian occupation he was appointed principal of a college at +Zara, where he died in 1837. Appendini’s chief work was his +<i>Notizie Istorico-critiche sulle Antichità, Storia, e Letteratura dei +Ragusci</i> (1802-1803).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPENZELL,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> one of the cantons of north-east Switzerland, +entirely surrounded by the canton of St Gall; both were formed +out of the dominions of the prince abbots of St Gall, whence the +name Appenzell (<i>abbatis cello</i>). It is an alpine region, particularly +in its south portion, where rises the Alpstein limestone +range (culminating in the Säntis, 8216 ft.), though towards the +north the surface is composed rather of green hills, separating +green hollows in which nestle neat villages and small towns. +It is mainly watered by two streams that descend from the +Säntis, the Urnasch joining the Sitter (on which is the capital, +Appenzell), which later flows into the Thur. There are light +railways from Appenzell to St Gall either (12½ m.) past Gais or +(20½ m.) past Herisau, as well as lines from St Gall to Trogen +(6 m.) and from Rorschach to Heiden (4¼ m.). Since 1597 it has +been divided, for religious reasons, into two half-cantons, which +are quite independent of each other, and differ in many points.</p> + +<p>The north and west portion or <i>Ausser Rhoden</i> has a total area +of 93.6 sq. m. (of which 90.6 are classed as “productive”; +forests covering 22·5 sq. m. and glaciers .038 sq. m.), with a +population (in 1900) of 55,281, mainly German-speaking, and +containing 49,797 Protestants as against 5418 Romanists. Its +political capital is Trogen (<i>q.v.</i>), though the largest town is +Herisau (<i>q.v.</i>), while Teufen has 4595 inhabitants, and Heiden +(3745 inhabitants) in the north-east corner is the most frequented +of the many goats’ whey cure resorts for which the entire canton +is famous (Urnäsch and Gais are also in Ausser Rhoden). This +half-canton is divided into three administrative districts, +comprising twenty communes, and is mainly industrial, the manufacture +of cotton goods, muslins, and embroidery being very +flourishing. It sends one member (elected by the <i>Landsgemeinde</i>) +to the federal <i>Ständerath</i> and three to the federal <i>Nationalrath</i> +(elected by a direct popular vote).</p> + +<p>The south or more mountainous portion of Appenzell forms +the half-canton of Appenzell, <i>Inner Rhoden</i>. It has a total area +of 66.7 sq. m. (of which 62.8 sq. m. are classed as “productive,” +forests covering 12.8 sq. m. and glaciers .38 sq. m.), and a total +population of 13,499, practically all German-speaking, and all but +833 Romanists. Its political capital is Appenzell (<i>q.v.</i>), which is +also the largest village, while Weissbad (near it) and Gonten are +the best-known goats’ whey cure resorts. Embroidery and +muslins are made in this half-canton, though wholly at home by +the work-people. But it is very largely pastoral, containing 168 +mountain pastures or “alps,” maintaining each summer 4000 +cows, and of an estimated capital value of 2,682,955 francs (the +figures for Ausser Rhoden are respectively 100 alps, 2800 cows, +and 1,749,900 francs). Inner Rhoden is extremely conservative, +and has the reputation of always rejecting any federal <i>Referendum</i>. +For similar reasons it has preserved many old customs +and costumes, those of the women being very elaborate and +picturesque, while the herdsmen have retained their festival +attire of red waistcoats, embroidered braces and canary-coloured +shorts. It sends one member (named by the <i>Landsgemeinde</i>) to +the federal <i>Ständerath</i>, and one also to the federal <i>Nationalrath</i>, +while it forms but a single administrative district, though divided +into six communes.</p> + +<p>To the outer world the canton of Appenzell is best known by +its institution of <i>Landsgemeinden</i>, or primitive democratic +assemblies held in the open air, in which every male citizen +(not being disqualified) over twenty years of age must (under a +money penalty) appear personally: each half-canton has such +an assembly of its own, that of Inner Rhoden always meeting +at Appenzell, and that of Ausser Rhoden in the odd years at +Hundwil (near Herisau) and in the even years at Trogen. This +institution is of immemorial antiquity, and the meetings in either +case are always held on the last Sunday in April. The <i>Landsgemeinde</i> +is the supreme legislative authority, and elects both the +executive (in Inner Rhoden composed of nine members and called +<i>Ständeskommission</i>, and in Ausser Rhoden of seven members +and called <i>Regierungsrath</i>) and the president or <i>Landammann</i>; +in each half-canton there is also a sort of standing committee +(composed of the members of the executive and representatives +from the communes—in Inner Rhoden one member per 250 or +fraction over 125 of the population, and in Ausser Rhoden one +member per 1000 of the inhabitants) which prepares business for +the <i>Landsgemeinde</i> and decides minor matters; in Inner Rhoden +it is named the <i>Grossrath</i> and in Ausser Rhoden the <i>Kantonsrath</i>. +As various old-fashioned ceremonies are observed at the meetings +and the members each appear with his girded sword, the sight of +a meeting of the <i>Landsgemeinde</i> is most striking and interesting. +The existing constitution of Inner Rhoden dates mainly from +1872, and that of Ausser Rhoden from 1876.</p> + +<p>By the middle of the 11th century the abbots of St Gall had +established their power in the land later called Appenzell, which, +too, became thoroughly teutonized, its early inhabitants having +probably been romanized Raetians. But as early as 1377, this +portion of the abbots’ domains formed an alliance with the +Swabian free imperial cities and adopted a constitution of its +own. The repeated attempts of the abbots to put down this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page221" id="page221"></a>221</span> +independence of their rule were defeated in the battles of +Vögelinsegg (1403), north-west of Trogen, and of the Stoss (1405), +the pass leading from Gais over to Altstätten in the Rhine valley. +In 1411 Appenzell was placed under the “protection” of the +Swiss Confederation, of which, in 1452, it became an “allied +member,” and in 1513 a full member. Religious differences +broke up the land after the Reformation into two portions, each +called <i>Rhoden</i>, a term that in the singular is said to mean a +“clearing,” and occurs in 1070, long before the final separation. +From 1798 to 1803 Appenzell, with the other domains of the abbot +of St Gall, was formed into the canton Säntis of the Helvetic +Republic, but in 1803, on the creation of the new canton of St +Gall, shrank back within its former boundaries. The oldest +codes of the laws and customs of the land date from 1409 and +1585, the original MS. of the latter (called the “Silver Book” +from its silver clasps) being still used in Inner Rhoden when, at +the close of the annual <i>Landsgemeinde</i>, the newly elected <i>Landammann</i> +first takes the oath of office, and the assembled members +then take that of obedience to him, in either case with uplifted +right hands.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <i>Appenzellische Jahrbücher</i> (3 series from 1854, Trogen); +G. Baumberger, “<i>Juhu-Juuhu</i>”—<i>Appenzellerland und +Appenzellerleut</i> (Einsiedeln, 1903); J.G. Ebel, <i>Schilderung d. Gebirgsvolker +d. Schweiz</i>, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1798); W. Kobelt, <i>Die Alpwirthschaft +im Kant. App. Inner Rhoden</i> (Soleure, 1899); I.B. Richman, +<i>Appenzell</i> (London, 1895); H. Ryffel, <i>Die schweiz. Landsgemeinden</i> +(Zürich, 1903); J.J. Tobler and A. Strüby, <i>Die Alpwirthschaft im +Kant. App. Ausser Rhoden</i> (Soleure, 1900); J.C. Zellweger, +<i>Geschichte d. app. Volkes</i> (to 1597), 6 vols in 11 parts (Trogen, +1830-1838); J.C. Zellweger, junior, <i>Der Kant. App.</i>. (Trogen, 1867); +A. Tobler, <i>Das Volkslied im Appenzellerland</i> (Basel, 1906); J.J. +Blumer, <i>Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte d. schweiz. Demokratien</i> (3 vols. +St Gall, 1850-1859).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPENZELL,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> the political capital of the Inner Rhoden half +of the Swiss canton of Appenzell. It is built in a smiling green +hollow on the left bank of the Sitter stream, which is formed by +the union of several mountain torrents descending from the +Säntis. By light railways it is 12½ m. from St Gall past Gais or +20½ m. past Herisau. Its chief streets are paved, but it is rather +a large village than a town, though in 1900 it had 4574 inhabitants, +practically all German-speaking and Romanists. It has a +stately modern parish church (attached to a Gothic choir), a +small but very ancient chapel of the abbots of St Gall (whose +summer residence was this village), and two Capuchin convents +(one for men, founded in 1588, and one for women, founded in +1613). Among the archives, kept in the sacristy of the church, +are several banners captured by the Appenzellers in former +days, among them one taken in 1406 at Imst, near Lanedeck, +with the inscription <i>Hundert Teufel</i>, though popularly this +number is multiplied a thousandfold. In the principal square +the <i>Landsgemeinde</i> (or cantonal democratic assembly) is held +annually in the open air on the last Sunday in April. The +inhabitants are largely employed in the production of embroidery, +though also engaged in various pastoral occupations. About +2½ m. by road south-east of Appenzell is Weissbad, a well-known +goat’s whey cure establishment, while 1½ hours above it is the +quaint little chapel of Wildkirchli, built (1648) in a rock cavern, +on the way to the Säntis.</p> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPERCEPTION<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (Lat. <i>ad</i> and <i>percipere</i>, perceive), in +psychology, a term used to describe the presentation of an +object on which attention is fixed, in relation to the sum of +consciousness previous to the presentation and the mind as a +whole. The word was first used by Leibnitz, practically in the +sense of the modern Attention (<i>q.v.</i>), by which an object is +apprehended as “not-self” and yet in relation to the self. In +Kantian terminology apperception is (1) <i>transcendental</i>—the +perception of an object as involving the consciousness of the +pure self as subject, and (2) <i>empirical</i>,—the cognition of the self +in its concrete existence. In (1) apperception is almost equivalent +to self-consciousness; the existence of the ego may be more +or less prominent, but it is always involved. According to J.F. +Herbart (<i>q.v.</i>) apperception is that process by which an aggregate +or “mass” of presentations becomes systematized (<i>apperceptions-system</i>) +by the accretion of new elements, either sense-given or +product of the inner workings of the mind. He thus emphasizes +in apperception the connexion with the self as resulting from +the sum of antecedent experience. Hence in education the +teacher should fully acquaint himself with the mental development +of the pupil, in order that he may make full use of what +the pupil already knows.</p> + +<p>Apperception is thus a general term for all mental processes +in which a presentation is brought into connexion with an +already existent and systematized mental conception, and +thereby is classified, explained or, in a word, understood; +<i>e.g.</i> a new scientific phenomenon is explained in the light of +phenomena already analysed and classified. The whole intelligent +life of man is, consciously or unconsciously, a process +of apperception, inasmuch as every act of attention involves the +appercipient process.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Karl Lange, <i>Ueber Apperception</i> (6th ed. revised, Leipzig, +1899; trans. E.E. Brown, Boston, 1893); G.F. Stout, <i>Analytic +Psychology</i> (London, 1896), bk. ii. ch. viii., and in general text-books +of psychology; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psychology</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPERLEY, CHARLES JAMES<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1777-1843), English sportsman +and sporting writer, better known as “Nimrod,” the +pseudonym under which he published his works on the chase +and the turf, was born at Plasgronow, near Wrexham, in Denbighshire, +in 1777. Between the years 1805 and 1820 he devoted +himself to fox-hunting. About 1821 he began to contribute to +the <i>Sporting Magazine</i>, under the pseudonym of “Nimrod,” a +series of racy articles, which helped to double the circulation +of the magazine in a year or two. The proprietor, Mr Pittman, +kept for “Nimrod” a stud of hunters, and defrayed all expenses +of his tours, besides giving him a handsome salary. The death +of Mr Pittman, however, led to a law-suit with the proprietors +of the magazine for money advanced, and Apperley, to avoid +imprisonment, had to take up his residence near Calais (1830), +where he supported himself by his writings. He died in London +on the 19th of May 1843. The most important of his works are: +<i>Remarks on the Condition of Hunters, the Choice of Horses</i>, &c. +(1831); <i>The Chase, the Turf, and the Road</i> (originally written for +the <i>Quarterly Review</i>), (1837); <i>Memoirs of the Life of the Late +John Mytton</i> (1837); <i>Nimrod’s Northern Tour</i> (1838); <i>Nimrod +Abroad</i> (1842); <i>The Horse and the Hound</i> (a reprint from the +seventh edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>) (1842); <i>Hunting +Reminiscences</i> (1843).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPERT, BENJAMIN NICOLAS MARIE<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (1797-1847), French +philanthropist, was born in Paris on the 10th of September 1797. +While a young man he introduced a system of mutual instruction +into the regimental schools of the department of the Nord. The +success which it obtained induced him to publish a <i>Manual</i> +setting forth his system. While engaged in teaching prisoners at +Montaigu, he fell under the suspicion of having connived at the +escape of two of them, and was thrown into the prison of La +Force. On his release he resolved to devote the rest of his life +to bettering the condition of those whose lot he had for a time +shared, and he travelled much over Europe for the purpose of +studying the various systems of prison discipline, and wrote +several books on the subject. After the revolution of 1830 he +became secretary to Queen Marie Amélie, and organized the +measures taken for the relief of the needy. He was decorated +with the Legion of Honour in 1833.</p> + +<p>His brother, <span class="sc">François Appert</span> (d. 1840), was the inventor of +the method of preserving food by enclosing it in hermetically +sealed tins; he left a work entitled <i>Art de conserver les substances +animales et végétables</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPIAN<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Appianos">Άππιανός</span>), of Alexandria, Roman historian, +flourished during the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian and Antoninus +Pius. He tells us that, after having filled the chief offices in +his native place, he repaired to Rome, where he practised as an +advocate. When advanced in years, he obtained, by the good +offices of his friend Fronto, the dignity of imperial procurator— +it is supposed in Egypt. His work (<span class="grk" title="Rumaika">Ῥωμαικά</span>) in twenty-four +books, written in Greek, is rather a number of monographs than +a connected history. It gives an account of various peoples and +countries from the earliest times down to their incorporation +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page222" id="page222"></a>222</span> +into the Roman empire. Besides a preface, there are extant +eleven complete books and considerable fragments. In spite of +its unattractive style, the work is very valuable, especially for +the period of the civil wars.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Editio princeps, 1551; Schweighäuser, 1785; Bekker, 1852; +Mendelssohn, 1878-1905. English translations: by W. B., 1578 +(black letter); J. D[avies], 1679; H. White, 1899 (Bohn’s Classical +Library); bk. i. ed. by J.L. Strachan-Davidson, 1902.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPIANI, ANDREA<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1754-1817), the best fresco painter of his +age, was born at Milan. He was made pensioned artist to the +kingdom of Italy by Napoleon, but lost his allowance after the +events of 1814 and fell into poverty. Correggio was his model, +and his best pieces, which are in the church of Santa Maria presso +San Celso and the royal palace at Milan, almost rival those of +his great master. He also painted Napoleon and the chief +personages of his court. Among the most graceful of his oil-paintings +are his “Venus and Love,” and “Rinaldo in the +Garden of Armida.” He is known as “the elder,” to distinguish +him from his great-nephew Andrea Appiani (1817-1865), an +historical painter at Rome. Other painters of the same name +were Niccolo Appiani (fl. 1510) and Francesco Appiani (1704-1792).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPIA, VIA,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> a high-road leading from Rome to Campania +and lower Italy, constructed in 312 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the censor Appius +Claudius Caecus. It originally ran only as far as Capua, but was +successively prolonged to Beneventum, Venusia, Tarentum and +Brundusium, though at what dates is unknown. Probably it +was extended as far as Beneventum not long after the colonization +of this town in 268 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and it seems to have reached +Venusia before 190 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Horace, in the journey to Brundusium +described in <i>Sat</i>. i. 5, followed the Via Appia as far as +Beneventum, but not beyond.</p> + +<p>The original road was no doubt only gravelled (<i>glarea strata</i>); +in 298 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> a footpath was laid <i>saxo quadrato</i> from the Porta +Capena, by which it left Rome, to the temple of Mars, about 1 m. +from the gate. Three years later, however, the whole road was +paved with <i>silex</i> from the temple to Bovillae, and in 191 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +the first mile from the gate to the temple was similarly treated. +The distance from Rome to Capua was 132 m. For the first few +miles the road is flanked by an uninterrupted series of tombs +and other buildings (see L. Canina, <i>Via Appia</i>, Rome, 1853). +As far as Terracina it ran in an almost entirely straight line, +even through the Alban Hills, where the gradients are steep. +A remarkably fine embankment belonging to it still exists at +Aricia. At Forum Appii it entered the Pomptine Marshes; +that this portion (19 m. long, hence called Decennovium) belonged +to the original road was proved by the discovery at Ad Medias +(Mesa) of a milestone of about 250 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Ch. Hülsen, in <i>Römische +Mitteilungen</i>, 1889, 83; 1895, 301). A still older road ran along +the foot of the Volscian mountains past Cora, Norba and Setia; +this served as the post road until the end of the 18th century. +At the time of Strabo and Horace, however, it was the practice +to travel by canal from Forum Appii to Lucus Feroniae; to +Nerva and Trajan were due the paving of the road and the repair +of the bridges along this section. Theodoric in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 486 ordered +the execution of similar repairs, the success of which is recorded +in inscriptions, but in the middle ages it was abandoned and +impassable, and was only renewed by Pius VI. The older road +crossed the back of the promontory at the foot of which Terracina +stands; in imperial times, probably, the rock was cut away +perpendicularly for a height of 120 ft. to allow the road to pass. +Beyond Fundi it passed through the mountains to Formiae, the +engineering of the road being noteworthy; and thence by +Minturnae and Sinuessa (towns of the Aurunci which had been +conquered in 314 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> to Capua. The remains of the road in +this first portion are particularly striking.</p> + +<p>Between Capua and Beneventum, a distance of 32 m., the +road passed near the defile of Caudium (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caudine Forks</a></span>). +The modern highroad follows the ancient line, and remains of the +latter, with the exception of three well-preserved bridges, which +still serve for the modern highroad, are conspicuous by their +absence. The portion of the road from Rome to Beneventum is +described by Sir R. Colt Hoare, <i>Classical Tour through Italy</i>, +57 seq. (London, 1819). He was accompanied on his journey, +made in 1789, by the artist Carlo Labruzzi, who executed a series +of 226 drawings, the greater part of which have not been published; +they are described by T. Ashby in <i>Mélanges de l’École +Française de Rome</i> (1903), p. 375 seq., and <i>Atti del Congresso Internazionale +per le Scienze Storiche</i>, vol. v. (Rome, 1904), p. 125 seq.</p> + +<p>From Beneventum to Brundusium by the Via Appia, through +Venusia and Tarentum, was 202 m. A shorter route, but more +fitted for mule traffic, though Horace drove along part of it,<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +ran by Aequum Tuticum, Aecae, Herdoniae, Canusium, Barium, +and Gnatia (Strabo vi. 282); it was made into a main road by +Trajan, and took the name Via Traiana. The original road, too, +adopted in imperial times a more devious but easier route by +Aeclanum instead of by Trevicum. This was restored by +Hadrian for the 15 m. between Beneventum and Aeclanum. +Under Diocletian and Maximian a road (the Via Herculia) was +constructed from Aequum Tuticum to Pons Aufidi near Venusia, +where it crossed the Via Appia and went on into Lucania, passing +through Potentia and Grumentum, and joining the Via Popilia +near Nerulum. Though it must have lost much of its importance +through the construction of the Via Traiana, the last portion +from Tarentum to Brundusium was restored by Constantine +about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 315.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The Via Appia was the most famous of Roman roads; Statius, +<i>Silvae</i>, ii. 2. 12, calls it <i>longarum regina viarum</i>. It was administered +under the empire by a curator of praetorian rank, as were the other +important roads of Italy. A large number of milestones and other +inscriptions relating to its repair at various times are known. See +Ch. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopadie</i>, ii. 238 seq. (Stuttgart, +1896).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It is important to note how the Romans followed up every +victory with a road.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> From Beneventum he followed the older line of the Via Appia +to Trevicum; thence, leaving the main road at Aquilonia, he went to +Ausculum (“quod versu dicere non est”), the mod. Ascoli Satriano, +by a by-road, for the milestones which have been found there, +though they probably belong to the Via Traiana, cannot be in their +original position, but must have been transplanted thither (Th. +Mommsen in <i>Corp. Inscrip. Lat.</i>, ix. 1883, No. 6016)—and on to +Herdoniae (why Mommsen says that he left Herdoniae on the left, +<i>op. cit.</i> p. 592, is not clear), where he joined the line of the later Via +Traiana.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPIN,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> a coast district of Argyllshire, Scotland, bounded W. +by Loch Linnhe, S. by Loch Creran, E. by the districts of Benderloch +and Lorne, and N. by Loch Leven. It lies north-east to +south-west, and measures 14 m. in length by 7 m. in breadth. +The scenery of the coast is extremely beautiful, and inland the +country is rugged and mountainous. The principal hills are +the double peaks of Ben Vair (3362 ft. and 3284 ft.) and Creag +Ghorm (2372 ft.) in the north, and Fraochie (2883 ft.), Meall +Ban (2148 ft.) and Ben Mhic na Ceisich (2093 ft.) near the right +flank of Glen Creran. The chief streams are the Coe and Laroch, +flowing into Loch Leven, the Duror and Salachan flowing into +Loch Linnhe, and the lola and Creran flowing into Loch Creran. +The leading industries comprise slate and granite quarries and +lead mining. Ballachulish, Duror, Portnacroish, Appin and +Port Appin are the principal villages. Ballachulish and Port +Appin are ports of call for steamers, and the Caledonian railway +company’s branch line from Connel Ferry to Ballachulish runs +through the coast land and has stations at Creagan, Appin, +Duror, Kentallen and Ballachulish Ferry. Appin was the country +of a branch of the Stewarts.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPLAUSE<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (Lat. <i>applaudere</i>, to strike upon, clap), primarily +the expression of approval by clapping of hands, &c.; generally +any expression of approval. The custom of applauding is doubtless +as old and as widespread as humanity, and the variety of its +forms is limited only by the capacity for devising means of +making a noise. Among civilized nations, however, it has at +various times been subject to certain conventions. Thus the +Romans had a set ritual of applause for public performances, +expressing degrees of approval: snapping the finger and thumb, +clapping with the flat or hollow palm, waving the flap of the toga, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id="page223"></a>223</span> +for which last the emperor Aurelian substituted a handkerchief +(<i>orarium</i>), distributed to all Roman citizens (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stole</a></span>). In +the theatre, at the close of the play, the chief actor called out +“Valete et plaudite!”, and the audience, guided by an unofficial +choregus, chaunted their applause antiphonally. This was +often organized and paid for (Böttiger, <i>Über das Applaudieren +im Theater bei den Alten</i>, Leipz., 1822). When Christianity +became fashionable the customs of the theatre were transferred +to the churches. Eusebius (<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> vii. 30) says that Paul +of Samosata encouraged the congregation to applaud his preaching +by waving linen cloths (<span class="grk" title="othonais">ὀθόναις</span>), and in the 4th and 5th +centuries applause of the rhetoric of popular preachers had +become an established custom. Though, however, applause +may provide a healthy stimulus, its abuse has led to attempts +at abolishing or restricting it even in theatres. The institution +of the <i>claque</i>, people hired by performers to applaud them, has +largely discredited the custom, and indiscriminate applause has +been felt as an intolerable interruption to serious performances. +The reverential spirit which abolished applause in church has +tended to spread to the theatre and the concert-room, largely +under the influence of the quasi-religious atmosphere of the +Wagner performances at Baireuth. In Germany (<i>e.g.</i> the court +theatres at Berlin) applause during the performance and +“calling before the curtain” have been officially forbidden, but +even in Germany this is felt to be in advance of public opinion. +(See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Acclamation</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cheering</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPLE<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (a common Teut. word, A.S. <i>aepl, aeppel</i>, O.H.G. <i>aphul, +aphal, apfal</i>, mod. Ger. <i>Apfel</i>), the fruit of <i>Pyrus Malus</i>, belonging +to the sub-order <i>Pomaceae</i>, of the natural order <i>Rosaceae</i>. It +is one of the most widely cultivated and best-known and appreciated +of fruits belonging to temperate climates. In its wild state +it is known as the crab-apple, and is found generally distributed +throughout Europe and western Asia, growing in as high a +latitude as Trondhjem in Norway. The crabs of Siberia belong +to different species of <i>Pyrus</i>. The apple-tree as cultivated is a +moderate-sized tree with spreading branches, ovate, acutely +serrated or crenated leaves, and flowers in corymbs. The fruit is +too well known to need any description of its external characteristics. +The apple is successfully cultivated in higher latitudes +than any other fruit tree, growing up to 65° N., but notwithstanding +this, its blossoms are more susceptible of injury from +frost than the flowers of the peach or apricot. It comes into +flower much later than these trees, and so avoids the night +frost which would be fatal to its fruit-bearing. The apples which +are grown in northern regions are, however, small, hard, and +crabbed, the best fruit being produced in hot summer climates, +such as Canada and the United States. Besides in Europe and +America, the fruit is now cultivated at the Cape of Good Hope, +in northern India and China, and in Australia and New +Zealand.</p> + +<p>Apples have been cultivated in Great Britain probably since +the period of the Roman occupation, but the names of many +varieties indicate a French or Dutch origin of much later date. +In 1688 Ray enumerated seventy-eight varieties in cultivation +in the neighbourhood of London, and now it is calculated that +about 2000 kinds can be distinguished. According to the +purposes for which they are suitable, they can be classed as— +1st, dessert; 2nd, culinary; and 3rd, cider apples. The +principal dessert apples are the Pippins (<i>pepins</i>, seedlings), of +which there are numerous varieties. As culinary apples, besides +Rennets and other dessert kinds, Codlins and Biffins are cultivated. +In England, Herefordshire and Devonshire are famous +for the cultivation of apples, and in these counties the manufacture +of cider (<i>q.v.</i>) is an important industry. Cider is also +extensively prepared in Normandy and in Holland. Verjuice is +the fermented juice of crab apples.</p> + +<p>A large trade in the importation of apples is carried on in +Britain, imports coming chiefly from French, Belgian and Dutch +growers, and from the United States and British North America. +Dried and pressed apples are imported from France for stewing, +under the name of Normandy Pippins, and similarly prepared +fruits come also from America.</p> + +<p>The apple may be propagated by seeds to obtain stocks for +grafting, and also for the production of new varieties. The +established sorts are usually increased by grafting, the method +called whip-grafting being preferred. The stocks should be at +least as thick as the finger; and should be headed back to where +the graft is to be fixed in January, unless the weather is frosty, +but in any case before vegetation becomes active. The scions +should be cut about the same time, and laid in firmly in a trench, +in contact with the moist soil, until required.</p> + +<p>The tree will thrive in any good well-drained soil, the best +being a good mellow calcareous loam, while the less iron there is in +the subsoil the better. The addition of marl to soils that are not +naturally calcareous very much improves them. The trees are +liable to canker in undrained soils or those of a hot sandy nature. +Where the soil is not naturally rich enough, it should be well +manured, but not to the extent of encouraging over-luxuriance. +It is better to apply manure in the form of a compost than to use +it in a fresh state or unmixed.</p> + +<p>To form an orchard, standard trees should be planted at from +25 to 40 ft. between the rows, according to the fertility of the soil +and other considerations. The trees should be selected with +clean, straight, self-supporting stems, and the head should be +shapely and symmetrical, with the main branches well balanced. +In order to obtain such a stem, all the leaves on the first shoot +from the graft or bud should be encouraged to grow, and in the +second season the terminal bud should be allowed to develop a +further leading shoot, while the lateral shoots should be allowed +to grow, but so that they do not compete with the leader, on +which the growth of leaves should be encouraged in order that +they may give additional strength to the stem below them. The +side shoots should be removed gradually, so that the diminution of +foliage in this direction may not exceed the increase made by the +new branches and shoots of the upper portion. Dwarf pyramids, +which occupy less space than open dwarfs, if not allowed to grow +tall, may be planted at from 10 to 12 ft. apart. Dwarf bush trees +may be planted from 10 to 15 ft. apart, according to the variety +and the soil. Dwarf bushes on the Paradise stock are both ornamental +and useful in small gardens, the trees being always +conveniently under control. These bush trees, which must be +on the proper stock—the French Paradise—may be planted at +first 6 ft. apart, with the same distance between the rows, the +space being afterwards increased, if desired, to 12 ft. apart, by +removing every alternate row.</p> + +<p>“Cordons” are trees trained to a single shoot, the laterals of +which are kept spurred. They are usually trained horizontally, +at about 1½ ft. from the ground, and may consist of one stem or +of two, the stems in the latter case being trained in opposite +directions. In cold districts the finer sorts of apples may be +grown against walls as upright or oblique cordons. From these +cordon trees very fine fruit may often be obtained. The apple may +also be grown as an espalier tree, a form which does not require +much lateral space. The ordinary trained trees for espaliers and +walls should be planted 20 ft. apart.</p> + +<p>The fruit of the apple is produced on spurs which form on the +branchlets of two years old and upwards, and continue fertile for +a series of years. The principal pruning should be performed in +summer, the young shoots if crowded being thinned out, and the +superabundant laterals shortened by breaking them half through. +The general winter pruning of the trees may take place any time +from the beginning of November to the beginning of March, in +open weather. The trees are rather subject to the attacks of the +American blight, the white cottony substance found on the bark +and developed by an insect (<i>Eriosoma, mali</i>), somewhat similar +to the green-fly of the garden, but not a true aphis. It may be +removed by scrubbing with a hard brush, by painting the affected +spots with any bland oil, or by washing them with dilute paraffin +and soft soap.</p> + +<p>The apple-blossom weevil (<i>Anthonomus pomorum</i>), a small +reddish-brown beetle, often causes serious damage to the flowers. +The female bores and lays an egg in the unopened bud, and the +maggot feeds on the stamens and pistil. The weevil hibernates +in the crannies of the bark or in the soil at the base of the trees, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224"></a>224</span> +and bandages of tarred doth placed round the stem in spring +will prevent the female from crawling up.</p> + +<p>The codlin moth (<i>Carpocapsa pomonana</i>) lays its eggs in May +in the calyx of the flowers. The young caterpillar, which is +white with black head and neck, gnaws its way through the fruit, +and pierces the rind. When nearly full grown it attacks the core, +and the fruit soon drops. The insect emerges and spins its +cocoon in a crack of the bark.</p> + +<p>To check this disease the apples which fall before ripening +should be promptly removed. A loosely made hay-band twisted +round the stem about a foot from the ground is of use. The +grubs will generally choose the bands in which to make their +cocoon; at the end of the season the bands are collected and +burned.</p> + +<p>The following are a few of the most approved varieties of the +apple tree, arranged in order of their ripening, with the months +in which they are in use:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="2">Dessert Apples.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl cl">White Juneating</td> <td class="tcl cl">July</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Early Red Margaret</td> <td class="tcl">Aug.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Irish Peach</td> <td class="tcl cl">Aug.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Devonshire Quarrenden</td> <td class="tcl">Aug., Sept.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Duchess of Oldenburg</td> <td class="tcl cl">Aug., Sept.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Red Astrachan</td> <td class="tcl">Sept.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Kerry Pippin</td> <td class="tcl cl">Sept., Oct.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Peasgood’s Nonesuch</td> <td class="tcl">Sept.-Nov.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Sam Young</td> <td class="tcl cl">Oct.-Dec.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">King of the Pippins</td> <td class="tcl">Oct.-Jan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Cox’s Orange Pippin</td> <td class="tcl cl">Oct.-Feb.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Court of Wick</td> <td class="tcl">Oct.-Mar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Blenheim Pippin</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-Feb.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sykehouse Russet</td> <td class="tcl">Nov.-Feb.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Fearn’s Pippin</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-Mar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Mannington’s Pearmain</td> <td class="tcl">Nov.-Mar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Margil</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-Mar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ribston Pippin</td> <td class="tcl">Nov.-Mar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Golden Pippin</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-Jan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Reinette de Canada</td> <td class="tcl">Nov.-Apr.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Ashmead’s Kernel</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-Apr.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">White Winter Calville (grown under glass)</td> <td class="tcl">Dec.-Mar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Braddick’s Nonpareil</td> <td class="tcl cl">Dec.-Apr.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Court-pendû Plat</td> <td class="tcl">Dec.-Apr.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Northern Spy</td> <td class="tcl cl">Dec.-May</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cornish Gilliflower</td> <td class="tcl">Dec.-May</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Scarlet Nonpareil</td> <td class="tcl cl">Jan.-Mar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cockle’s Pippin</td> <td class="tcl">Jan.-Apr.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Lamb Abbey Pearmain</td> <td class="tcl cl">Jan.-May</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Old Nonpareil</td> <td class="tcl">Jan.-May</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Duke of Devonshire</td> <td class="tcl cl">Feb.-May</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sturmer Pippin</td> <td class="tcl">Feb.-June</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="2">Kitchen Apples.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Keswick Codlin</td> <td class="tcl cl">Aug.-Sept.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Lord Suffield</td> <td class="tcl">Aug.-Sept.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Manks Codlin</td> <td class="tcl cl">Aug.-Oct.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ecklinville Seedling</td> <td class="tcl">Aug.-Nov.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Stirling Castle</td> <td class="tcl cl">Aug.-Nov.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">New Hawthornden</td> <td class="tcl">Sept.-Oct.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Stone’s Seedling</td> <td class="tcl cl">Sept.-Nov.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Emperor Alexander</td> <td class="tcl">Sept.-Dec.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Waltham Abbey Seedling</td> <td class="tcl cl">Sept.-Jan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cellini</td> <td class="tcl">Oct., Nov.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Gravenstein</td> <td class="tcl cl">Oct.-Dec.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hawthornden</td> <td class="tcl">Oct.-Dec.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Baumann’s Red Winter Reinette</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-Mar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Mère de Ménage</td> <td class="tcl">Oct.-Mar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Beauty of Kent</td> <td class="tcl cl">Oct.-Feb.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Yorkshire Greening</td> <td class="tcl">Oct.-Feb.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Gloria Mundi</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-Jan.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Blenheim Pippin</td> <td class="tcl">Nov.-Feb.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Tower of Glammis</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-Feb.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Warner’s King</td> <td class="tcl">Nov.-Mar.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Alfriston</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-Apr.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Northern Greening</td> <td class="tcl">Nov.-Apr.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Reinette de Canada</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-Apr.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Bess Pool</td> <td class="tcl">Nov.-May</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Winter Queening</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-May</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Lane’s Prince Albert</td> <td class="tcl">Oct.-May</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Norfolk Beaufin</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-July</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2">Apples for table use should have a sweet juicy pulp and rich +aromatic flavour, while those suitable for cooking should possess +the property of forming a uniform soft pulpy mass when boiled +or baked. In their uncooked state they are not very digestible, +but when cooked they form a very safe and useful food, exercising +a gentle laxative influence.</p> + +<p>According to Hutchison their composition is as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tb lb rb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Water.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Proteid.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Ether<br />Extract.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Carbo-<br />hydrate.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Ash.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cellu-<br />lose.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Acids.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Fresh</td> <td class="tcc rb">82.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Dried</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">36.2</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">49.1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4.9</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.6</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Many exotic fruits, having nothing in common with the apple; +are known by that name, <i>e.g.</i> the Balsam apple, <i>Momordica +Balsamina</i>; the custard apple (<i>q.v.</i>), <i>Anona reticulata</i>; the egg +apple, <i>Solanum esculentum</i>; the rose apple, various species of +<i>Eugenia</i>; the pineapple (<i>q.v.</i>), <i>Ananas sativus</i>; the star apple, +<i>Chrysophyllum Cainito</i>; and the apples of Sodom, <i>Solanum +sodomeum</i>.</p> +<div class="author">(A. B. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPLEBY,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough, and +the county town of Westmorland, England, in the Appleby +parliamentary division, 276 m. N.N.W. from London, on the +Midland and a branch of the North Eastern railways. Pop. +(1901) 1764. It is picturesquely placed in the valley of the Eden, +which is richly wooded, and flanked on the north-east by spurs of +Milburn Forest and Dufton and other fells, which rise up to +2600 ft. On a hill above the town stands the castle, retaining a +fine Norman keep and surrounded by a double moat, now partly +laid out as gardens. The remainder of the castle was rebuilt as a +mansion in the 17th century. It was held for the royalists in the +civil wars by Sir Philip Musgrave, and was the residence of Anne, +countess of Pembroke, the last of the family of Clifford, which +had great estates in this part of England. St Ann’s hospital +for thirteen poor women (1654) was of her foundation. The +grammar school (1453) was refounded by Queen Elizabeth. +The modern incorporation dates from 1885, with a mayor, four +aldermen and twelve councillors. Area, 1876 acres.</p> + +<p>Appleby is not mentioned in any Saxon records, but after +the Conquest it rose to importance as the head of the barony +of Appleby which extended over the eastern portion of the +present county of Westmorland. This barony formed part of +the province of Carlisle granted by Henry I. to Ranulf Meschin, +who erected the castle at Appleby and made it his place of +residence. Appleby is a borough by prescription, and the old +charter of incorporation, granted in the first year of James II., +was very shortly abandoned. In 1292 we find the mayor and +commonalty claiming the right to elect a coroner and to have +tolls of markets and fairs. In 1685 the governing body comprised +a mayor, aldermen, a town clerk, burgesses of the common +council, a coroner and subordinate officers. An undated charter +from Henry II. conceding to the burgesses the customs of York, +Was confirmed in 1 John, 16 Henry III., 14 Edward I., and +5 Edward III. John granted the borough to the burgesses for +a fee-farm rent. The impoverishment caused by the Scottish +raids led to its seizure by Edward II. for arrears of payment, +but Edward III. restored it on the same terms as before. Henry +VIII. reduced the fee-farm rent from 20 marks to 2 marks, after +an inquisition which found that Appleby was burnt by the Scots +in 1388 and that part of it still lay in ruins. The town, however, +never seems to have regained its prosperity, and 16th and 17th +century writers speak of it as a poor and insignificant village. +Appleby returned two members to parliament from 1295 until +disfranchised by the Reform Act of 1832. The market and the +St Lawrence fair are held by prescription. James I. granted an +additional fair on the second Thursday in April. In the early +18th century Appleby was celebrated for the best corn-market +in the country.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Westmorland</i>; W. Hewitson, <i>Appleby +Charters</i> (Cumberl. and Westm. Antiq. and Archaeol. Soc., Transactions, +xi. 279-285; Kendal, 1891).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPLETON, NATHAN<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (1770-1861) American merchant and +politician, was born in New Ipswich, New Hampshire, on the +6th of October 1779. He was educated in the New Ipswich +Academy, and in 1794 entered mercantile life in Boston, in the +employment of his brother, Samuel (1766-1853), a successful and +benevolent man of business, with whom he was in partnership +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page225" id="page225"></a>225</span> +from 1800 to 1809. He co-operated with Francis C. Lowell and +others in introducing the power-loom and the manufacture of +cotton on a large scale into the United States, a factory being +established at Waltham, Massachusetts, in 1814, and another +in 1822 at Lowell, Massachusetts, of which city he was one of +the founders. He was a member of the general court of Massachusetts +in 1816, 1821, 1822, 1824 and 1827, and in 1831-1833 +and 1842 of the national House of Representatives, in which he +was prominent as an advocate of protective duties. He died in +Boston on the 14th of July 1861.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Thomas Gold Appleton</span> (1812-1884), who graduated +at Harvard in 1831, had some reputation as a writer, an artist +and a patron of the fine arts, but was better known for his +witticisms, one of which, the oft-quoted “Good Americans, +when they die, go to Paris,” is sometimes attributed to Oliver +Wendell Holmes. He published some poems and, in prose, +<i>Nile Journal</i> (1876), <i>Syrian Sunshine</i> (1877), <i>Windfalls</i> (1878), +and <i>Chequer-Work</i> (1879).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the memoir of Nathan Appleton by Robert C. Winthrop +(Boston, 1861); and Susan Hale’s <i>Life and Letters of Thomas Gold +Appleton</i> (New York, 1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPLETON,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Outagamie county, +Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the lower Fox river, about 90 m. N. of +Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) 11,869; (1900) 15,085, of whom 3605 +were foreign-born; (1910, census) 16,773. It is served by the +Chicago & North-Western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St +Paul railways, and by steamboats on the Fox river, by means of +which it meets lake transportation at De Pere and Green Bay. +Appleton was one of the first cities in the United States to have +an electric street railway line in operation; and electric street +railways now traverse the entire Fox river valley as far as +Fond du Lac on the south and Green Bay on the north. The +city is attractively laid out on high bluffs above the river. +It has several beautiful parks, two hospitals, a number of fine +churches and school buildings, and a public library. The city +is the seat of Lawrence college (changed from university in 1908), +an interdenominational (originally a Methodist Episcopal) +co-educational institution, founded in 1847 as the Lawrence +Institute of Wisconsin and named in honour of Amos Adams +Lawrence (1814-1886) of Boston, son of Amos Lawrence, and +giver of $10,000 for the founding of the Institute. The college +comprises an academy, a college of liberal arts, a school of +expression, a school of commerce, schools of music and of art, +and a school of correspondence; and in 1907-1908 had 33 +instructors, 575 students and a library of 24,400 volumes. The +Fox river furnishes about 10,000 h.p., which is largely utilized +for the manufacture of paper (of which Appleton is one of the +largest producers in the United States), wood-pulp, sulphite +fibre, machinery, wire screens, woollen goods, knit goods, furniture, +dyes and flour. The total value of factory products in +1905 was $6,672,457, an increase of 72.8% over the product +value of 1900. Appleton was first permanently settled in 1833, +and was named in honour of Samuel Appleton of Massachusetts, +who owned part of the original town plot. It was incorporated +as a village in 1853, and received in 1857 a city charter, which +was revised in 1887 and in 1905.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPOGGIATURA<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (from Ital. <i>appoggiare</i>, to lean upon), a +musical term for a melodic ornament, a grace-note prefixed to a +principal note and printed in small character. The effect is +to suspend the principal note, by taking away the time-value of +the <i>appoggiatura</i> prefixed to it. There are two kinds, the long +<i>appoggiatura</i>, now usually printed as played, and the short, +where the suspension of the principal note is scarcely perceptible; +this is often called <i>acciatura</i>, a word properly applied to an +ornament now obsolete, in which a principal note in a melody is +struck together with the note immediately below, the lower note +being at once released and the other held on.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPOINTMENT, POWER OF,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> in English law, an authority +reserved by or limited to a person, to dispose, either wholly or +partially, of real or personal property, either for his own benefit +or for that of others. Thus if A settle property upon trustees +to such uses as B shall by deed or will appoint and in default of +and until such appointment to the use of C and his heirs, B, +though he has no interest in the property, can at any time +appoint the property to any one he pleases, including himself, +and C’s interest which has hitherto been vested in him will be +divested. In the above case A is said to be the donor, B the +donee, and the persons in whose favour the appointment is +exercised are called the appointees. Such powers are either +general or limited. A general power is one which the appointor +may exercise in favour of any person he pleases. It is obvious +that such a power is very nearly equivalent to ownership, and +consequently property which is the subject of a general power +has been made to share the liabilities of ownership. By the +Judgments Act 1838 all hereditaments over which a judgment +debtor has such a power may be seized by the sheriff under a +writ of <i>elegit</i>, and by the Bankruptcy Act 1883 similar property +will vest in the trustees of a bankrupt. By the Finance Act 1894 +property of which the deceased had a general power of appointment +is subject to the payment of estate duty, even though the +power has not been exercised. A limited power is one which +can only be exercised in favour of certain specified persons or +classes; such a power is frequently inserted in marriage settlements +in which after life estates to the husband and wife a power +is given to appoint among the children of the marriage. In such +a case no appointment to any one but children of the marriage is +valid. Formerly it was held that the intention of the donor of +such a power was that each of the class which are the objects of +the power should take some part of the fund, and from this arose +the equitable doctrine of illusory appointments, by which the +courts of equity set aside an appointment which was good at +law on the ground that a merely nominal share had been +appointed to one of the objects. The great difficulty of deciding +what was a nominal or illusory share caused the passing of the +Illusory Appointments Act of 1830, whereby it was enacted +that no appointment should be set aside merely on the ground +that a share appointed was illusory. It was still necessary, +however, that some share should be appointed to each object, +and consequently it was possible in the popular phrase to be +“cut off with a shilling,” but now by the Powers Amendment Act +1874 the appointor is no longer obliged to appoint a share to +each object of the power.</p> + +<p>It is a general rule that every circumstance required by the +instrument creating the power to accompany the execution of it +must be strictly observed. Thus it might be required that the +appointment should be by an instrument witnessed by four +witnesses, or that the consent in writing of some third party +should be signified. The general rule, however, has been modified +both by statute and by the rules of equity. By the Wills Act 1837 +a will made pursuant to the requirements of that statute shall be +a valid execution of a power of appointment by will, notwithstanding +that some additional form or solemnity shall have been +required by the instrument creating the power, and by the Wills +Act 1861 a will made out of the United Kingdom by a British +subject according to the forms required by the law of the place +where the will was made shall, as regards personal estate, be +held to be well executed and admitted to probate; consequently +it has been held that an appointment made by such a will is a +valid exercise of the power. As regards appointments by deed +the Law of Property Amendment Act 1859 enacts that a deed +attested by two witnesses shall, so far as execution and attestation +go, be a valid exercise of a power to appoint by deed. The +courts of equity also will interfere in some cases of defective +execution in order to carry out the intentions of the settlor. +The principle upon which the court acts is obscure, but the rule +has been thus stated:—“Whenever a man having power over +an estate, whether ownership or not, in discharge of moral or +natural relations, shows an intention to execute such power, +the court will operate upon the conscience of the heir (or of the +persons entitled in default) to make him perfect this intention.” +Equity, however, only relieves against defects not of the essence +of the power, such as the absence of seal or execution by will +instead of deed, but where the defect is of the essence of the +power, as where a consent is not obtained, equity will not assist, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page226" id="page226"></a>226</span> +nor will it relieve where a power to appoint by will is purported +to be exercised by deed. A power of appointment if exercised +must be exercised bona fide, otherwise it will be void as fraudulent; +thus it has been frequently decided that where a father, +having a limited power of appointment among his children, +appoints the whole fund to an infant child, who is in no need +of the appointment and who is ill, in the expectation of the +death of the child whereby the fund will come to him as next of +kin, such appointment is void as a fraud upon the power. Where +an execution is partly fraudulent and partly valid the court will, +if possible, separate the two and only revoke that which is +fraudulent; if, however, the two parts are not separable the +whole is void. The same rule is applied in cases of excessive +execution where the power is exercised in favour of persons +some of whom are and some of whom are not objects of the power. +The doctrine of <i>Election</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) applies to appointments under +powers, but there must be a gift of free and disposable property +to the persons entitled in default of appointment.</p> + +<p>The appointment must in law be read into the instrument +creating the power in lieu of the power itself. Thus an appointor +under a limited power cannot appoint to any person to whom the +donor could not have appointed by reason of the rule against +perpetuities, but this is not so in the case of a general power, +for there the appointor is virtually owner of the property +appointed. In applying this rule to appointments a distinction +arises between powers created by deed and will, for a deed +speaks from the date of its execution but a will from the death +of the testator, and so limitations bad when the will was made +may have become good when it comes into operation. Since the +Conveyancing Act 1881 all powers may be released by the +donees thereof, unless the power is coupled with a trust in +respect of which there is a duty cast on the donee to exercise it; +and this is so even though the donee gets a benefit by such +release as one entitled in default of appointment, for this is not +a fraud upon the power.</p> +<div class="author">(E. S. M. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> a village of Appomattox +county, Virginia, U.S.A., 25 m. E. of Lynchburg, in the S. +part of the state. It is served by the Norfolk & Western railway. +The village was the scene of the surrender of the Confederate +Army of Northern Virginia under General Robert E. Lee to +the Federal forces under Lieutenant-General U.S. Grant on +Sunday the 9th of April 1865. The terms were: “the officers to +give their individual paroles not to take up arms against the +government of the United States until properly exchanged, +and each company or regimental commander to sign a like +parole for the men of their commands,” ... neither “side arms +of the officers nor their private horses or baggage” to be +surrendered; and, as many privates in the Confederate Army +owned horses and mules, all horses and mules claimed by men +in the Confederate Army to be left in their possession.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPONYI, ALBERT,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1846-  ), Hungarian statesman, +the most distinguished member of an ancient noble family, +dating back to the 13th century, and son of the chancellor +Gyorgy Apponyi (1808-1899) and the accomplished and saintly +Countess Julia Sztáray, was born at Pesth on the 29th of May +1846. Educated at the Jesuit seminary at Kalksburg and at the +universities of Vienna and Pesth, a long foreign tour completed +his curriculum, and at Paris he made the acquaintance of +Montalembert, a kindred spirit, whose influence on the young +Apponyi was permanent. He entered parliament in 1872 as a +liberal Catholic, attaching himself at first to the Deák party; +but the feudal and ultramontane traditions of his family circle +profoundly modified, though they could never destroy, his +popular ideals. On the break up of the Deák party he attached +himself to the conservative group which followed Baron Pál +Senynyey (1824-1888) and eventually became its leader. Until +1905 Count Albert was constantly in opposition, but in May of +that year he consented to take office in the second Wekerle +ministry. A lofty and magnetic orator, his speeches were +published at Budapest in 1896; and he is the author of an +interesting dissertation, <i>Esthetics and Politics, the Artist and the +Statesman</i> (Hung.) (Budapest, 1895).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPORTIONMENT<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (Fr. <i>apportionement;</i> Med. Lat. <i>apportionamentum;</i> +derived from Lat. portio, share), distribution or +allotment in proper shares; a term used in law in a variety of +senses, (1) Sometimes it is employed roughly and with no +technical meaning to indicate the distribution of a benefit (<i>e.g.</i> +salvage or damages under the Fatal Accidents Act 1846, § 2), or +liability (<i>e.g.</i> general average contributions, or tithe rent-charge), +or the incidence of a duty (<i>e.g.</i> obligations as to the maintenance +of highways). (2) In its strict legal interpretation apportionment +falls into two classes, “apportionment in respect of +estate” and “apportionment in respect of time.”</p> + +<p>1. <i>Apportionment in respect of Estate</i> may result either from the +act of the parties or from the operation of law. Where a lessee +is evicted from, or surrenders or forfeits possession of part of +the property leased to him, he becomes liable at common law +to pay only a rent apportioned to the value of the interest which +he still retains. So where the person entitled to the reversion of +an estate assigns part of it, the right to an apportioned part of the +rent incident to the whole reversion passes to his assignee. The +lessee is not bound, however, by an apportionment of rent +made upon the grant of part of the reversion unless it is made +either with his consent or by the verdict of a jury. The assignee +of the reversion of part of demised premises could not, at common +law, re-enter for breach of a condition, inasmuch as a condition +of re-entry in a lease could not at common law be apportioned. +But this has now been altered by statute both in England (Law +of Property Amendment Act 1859, § 3; Conveyancing Act 1881, +§ 12) and in many of the British colonies (<i>e.g.</i> Ontario, Rev. Stats., +1897, c. 170, § 9; Barbados, No. 12 of 1891, § 9). In the cases +just mentioned there is apportionment in respect of estate by act +of the parties.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Apportionment by operation of law</i> may be brought about where +by act of law a lease becomes inoperative as regards its subject-matter, +or by the “act of God” (as, for instance, where part of an +estate is submerged by the encroachments of the sea). To the same +category belongs the apportionment of rent which takes place under +various statutes (<i>e.g.</i> the Lands Clauses Consolidation Act 1845, +§ 119, when land is required for public purposes; the Agricultural +Holdings Act 1883, § 41, in the case of a tenant from year to year +receiving notice to quit part of a holding; and the Irish Land Act +1903, § 61, apportionment of quit and crown rents).</p> +</div> + +<p><i>2. Apportionment in respect of Time.</i>—At common law, there +was no apportionment of rent in respect of time. Such apportionment +was, however, in ceftain cases allowed in England by the +Distress for Rent Act 1737, and the Apportionment Act 1834, +and is now allowed generally under the Apportionment Act 1870. +Under that statute (§ 2) all rents, annuities, dividends and other +periodical payments in the nature of income are to be considered +as accruing from day to day and to be apportionable in respect +of time accordingly. It is provided, however, that the apportioned +part of such rents, &c., shall only be payable or recoverable +in the case of a continuing payment, when the entire portion +of which it forms part itself becomes payable, and, in the case +of a payment determined by re-entry, death or otherwise, only +when the next entire portion would have been payable if it had +not so determined (§ 3). Persons entitled to apportioned parts +of rent have the same remedies for recovering them when payable +as they would have had in respect of the entire rent; but a lessee +is not to be liable for any apportioned part specifically. The rent +is recoverable by the heir or other person who would, but for the +apportionment, be entitled to the entire rent, and he holds it +subject to distribution (§ 4). The Apportionment Act 1870 +extends to payments not made under any instrument in writing +(§ 2), but not to annual sums made payable in policies of insurance +(§ 6). Apportionment under the act can be excluded by express +stipulation.</p> + +<p>The apportionment created by this statute is “apportionment +in respect of time.” The cases to which it applies are mainly +cases of either (A) apportionment of rent due under leases where +at a time between the dates fixed for payment the lessor or lessee +dies, or some other alteration in the position of parties occurs; +or (B) apportionment of income between the representatives of a +limited owner and the remainder-man when the limited interest +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page227" id="page227"></a>227</span> +determines at a time between the date when such income became +due.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>(A) With regard to the former of these classes, it may be noticed +that although apportioned rent becomes payable only when the +whole rent is due, the landlord, in the case of the bankruptcy of an +ordinary tenant, may prove for a proportionate part of the rent up +to the date of the receiving order (Bankruptcy Act 1883, Sched. ii. +r. 19); and that a similar rule holds good in the winding up of a +company (<i>in re South Kensington Co-operative Stores</i>, 1881, 17 +Ch.D. 161); and further that the act of 1870 applies to the liability +to pay, as well as to the right to receive, rent (<i>in re Wilson</i>, 1893, +62 L.J.Q.B. 628, 632). Accordingly where an assignment of a +lease is made between two half-yearly rent-days, the assignee is not +liable to pay the full amount of the half-year’s rent falling due on the +rent-day next after the date of the assignment, but only an apportioned +part of that half-year’s rent, computed from the last mentioned +date (<i>Glass</i> v. <i>Patterson</i>, 1902, 2 Ir.R. 660).</p> + +<p>(B.) With regard to the apportionment of income, the only points +requiring notice here are that all dividends payable by public +companies are apportionable, whether paid at fixed periods or not, +unless the payment is, in effect, a payment of capital (§ 5).</p> +</div> + +<p>The Apportionment Act 1870 extends to Scotland and Ireland. +It has been followed in many of the British colonies (<i>e.g.</i> Ontario, +Rev. Stats., 1897, c. 170, §§ 4-8; New Zealand, No. 4 of 1886; +Tasmania, No. 8 of 1871; Barbados, No. 12 of 1891, §§ 9-12). +Similar legislation has been adopted in many of the states of the +American Union, where, as in England, rent was not, at common +law, apportionable as to time (Kent, <i>Comm</i>. iii. 469-472).</p> + +<p>An <i>equitable apportionment</i>, apart from statute law, arises where +property is bequeathed on trust to pay the income to a tenant +for life and the reversion to others, and the realization of the +property in the form of a fund capable of producing income is +postponed for the benefit of the estate. In such cases there is an +ultimate apportionment between the persons entitled to the +income and those entitled to the capital of the accumulations +for the period of such postponement. The rule followed is this: +the proceeds, when realized, are apportionable between capital +and income by ascertaining the sum which, put out and accumulated +at 3% <i>per annum</i> from the day of the testator’s death +(with yearly rents and deducting income tax) would have produced +at the day of receipt the sum actually received. The sum +so ascertained should be treated as capital and the residue as +income. (<i>In re Earl of Chesterfield’s Trusts</i>, 1883, 24 Ch.D. +643; <i>In re Goodenough</i>, 1895, 2 Ch. 537; <i>Rowlls</i> v. <i>Bebb</i>, 1900, +2 Ch. 107.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In addition to the authorities cited in the text, see Stroud, <i>Jud. +Dict.</i> (2nd ed., London, 1903), s.v. “Apportion”; Bouvier, <i>Law +Dict.</i> (London and Boston, 1897), s.v. “Apportionment”; <i>Ruling +Cases</i> (London, 1895), tit. “Apportionment”; Fawcett, <i>Landlord +and Tenant</i> (London, 1905), pp. 238 et seq.; Foa, <i>Landlord and +Tenant</i> (3rd ed., London, 1901), pp. 112 et seq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPORTIONMENT BILL,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> an act passed by the Congress of +the United States after each decennial census to determine the +number of members which each state shall send to the House +of Representatives. The ratio of representation fixed by +the original constitution was 1 to 30,000 of the free population, +and the number of the members of the first House was 65. +As the House would, at this ratio, have become unmanageably +large, the ratio, which is first settled by Congress before +apportionment, has been raised after each census, as will be seen +from the accompanying table.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Under</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Census</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Apportionment</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Whole<br />Number of<br />Repre-<br />sentatives.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year</td> <td class="tccm allb">Population</td> <td class="tccm allb">Year</td> <td class="tccm allb">Ratio</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Constitution</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">1789</td> <td class="tcr rb">30,000</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 65</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">First Census</td> <td class="tcc rb">1790</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,929,214</td> <td class="tcc rb">1793</td> <td class="tcr rb">33,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">105</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Second Census</td> <td class="tcc rb">1800</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,308,483</td> <td class="tcc rb">1803</td> <td class="tcr rb">33,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">141</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Third Census</td> <td class="tcc rb">1810</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,239,881</td> <td class="tcc rb">1813</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">181</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Fourth Census</td> <td class="tcc rb">1820</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,633,822</td> <td class="tcc rb">1823</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">213</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Fifth Census</td> <td class="tcc rb">1830</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,866,020</td> <td class="tcc rb">1833</td> <td class="tcr rb">47,700</td> <td class="tcc rb">240</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sixth Census</td> <td class="tcc rb">1840</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,069,453</td> <td class="tcc rb">1843</td> <td class="tcr rb">70,680</td> <td class="tcc rb">223</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Seventh Census</td> <td class="tcc rb">1850</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,191,876</td> <td class="tcc rb">1853</td> <td class="tcr rb">93,423</td> <td class="tcc rb">234</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Eighth Census</td> <td class="tcc rb">1860</td> <td class="tcr rb">31,443,321</td> <td class="tcc rb">1863</td> <td class="tcr rb">127,381</td> <td class="tcc rb">241</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ninth Census</td> <td class="tcc rb">1870</td> <td class="tcr rb">38,558,371</td> <td class="tcc rb">1873</td> <td class="tcr rb">131,425</td> <td class="tcc rb">292</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tenth Census</td> <td class="tcc rb">1880</td> <td class="tcr rb">50,155,783</td> <td class="tcc rb">1883</td> <td class="tcr rb">151,911</td> <td class="tcc rb">325</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Eleventh Census</td> <td class="tcc rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">62,622,250</td> <td class="tcc rb">1893</td> <td class="tcr rb">173,901</td> <td class="tcc rb">356</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Twelfth Census</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">75,568,686</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1903</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">194,182</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">386</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The same term is applied to the acts passed by the state +legislatures for correcting and redistributing the representation +of the counties. Such acts are usually passed at decennial +intervals, more often after the federal census, but the dates may +vary in different states. The state representatives are usually +apportioned among the several counties according to population +and not by geographical position. The electoral districts so +formed are expected to be equal in proportion to the number of +inhabitants; but this method has led to much abuse in the past, +through the making of unequal districts for partisan purposes. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gerrymander</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>If a state has received an increase in the number of its representatives +and its legislature does not pass an apportionment +bill before the next congressional election, the votes of the whole +state elect the additional members on a general ticket and they +are called “congressmen-at-large.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPRAISER<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>appretiare</i>, to value), one who sets a +value upon property, real or personal. In England the business +of an appraiser is usually combined with that of an auctioneer, +while the word itself has given place, to a great extent, to that of +“valuer.” (See the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Auctions and Auctioneers</a></span>, and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Valuation and Valuers</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>In the United States appraiser is a term often used to describe +a person specially appointed by a judicial or quasi-judicial +authority to put a valuation on property, <i>e.g.</i> on the items of an +inventory of the estate of a deceased person or on land taken +for public purposes by the right of eminent domain. Appraisers +of imported goods and boards of general appraisers have extensive +functions in administering the customs laws of the +United States. Merchant appraisers are sometimes appointed +temporarily under the revenue laws to value where there is no +resident appraiser without holding the office of appraiser (U.S. +Rev. Stats. § 2609).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPREHENSION<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (Lat. <i>ad</i>, to; <i>prehendere</i>, to seize), in +psychology, a term applied to a mode of consciousness in +which nothing is affirmed or denied of the object in question, but +the mind is merely aware of (“seizes”) it. “Judgment” (says +Reid, ed. Hamilton, i. p. 414) “is an act of the mind specifically +different from simple apprehension or the bare conception +of a thing”; and again, “Simple apprehension or conception +can neither be true nor false.” This distinction provides for the +large class of mental acts in which we are simply aware of or +“take in” a number of familiar objects, about which we in +general make no judgment unless our attention is suddenly +called by a new feature. Or again two alternatives may be +apprehended without any resultant judgment as to their respective +merits. Similarly G.F. Stout points out that while +we have a very vivid idea of a character or an incident in a work +of fiction, we can hardly be said in any real sense to have any +belief or to make any judgment as to its +existence or truth. With this mental state +may be compared the purely aesthetic contemplation +of music, wherein apart from, say, +a false note, the faculty of judgment is for +the time inoperative. To these examples may +be added the fact that one can fully understand +an argument in all its bearings without in any +way judging its validity.</p> + +<p>Without going into the question fully, it +may be pointed out that the distinction +between judgment and apprehension is relative. +In every kind of thought there is judgment of +some sort in a greater or less degree of +prominence. Judgment and thought are in +fact psychologically distinguishable merely as +different, though correlative, activities of consciousness. +Professor Stout further investigates the phenomena +of apprehension, and comes to the conclusion that “it is possible +to distinguish and identify a whole without apprehending any of +its constituent details.” On the other hand, if the attention +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page228" id="page228"></a>228</span> +focuses itself for a time on the apprehended object, there is +an expectation that such details will as it were emerge into +consciousness. Hence he describes such apprehension as +“implicit,” and in so far as the implicit apprehension determines +the order of such emergence he describes it as “schematic.” +A good example of this process is the use of formulae in calculations; +ordinarily the formula is used without question; if +attention is fixed upon it, the steps by which it is shown to be +universally applicable emerge and the “schema” is complete +in detail.</p> + +<p>With this result may be compared Kant’s theory of apprehension +as a synthetic act (the “synthesis of apprehension”) +by which the sensory elements of a perception are subjected +to the formal conditions of time and space.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G.F. Stout, <i>Analytic Psychology</i> (London, 1896); F. Brentano, +<i>Psychologie</i> (bk. ii. ch. vii.), and <i>Vom Ursprung sittlicher Erkenntnis</i>; +B. Titchener, <i>Outlines of Psychology</i> (New York, 1902), and +text-books of psychology. Also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psychology</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPRENTICESHIP<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>apprendre</i>, to learn), a contract +whereby one person, called the master, binds himself to teach, +and another, called the apprentice, undertakes to learn, some +trade or profession, the apprentice serving his master for a certain +time.</p> + +<p>Roman law is silent on the subject on this contract, nor does +it seem to have had any connexion with the division of the Roman +citizens into tribes or colleges. So far as can be seen it arose in +the middle ages, and formed an integral part of the system of +trade gilds and corporations by which skilled labourers of all +kinds sought protection against the feudal lords, and the maintenance +of those exclusive privileges with which in the interests +of the public they were favoured. In those times it was believed +that neither arts nor sciences would flourish unless such only +were allowed to practise them as had given proofs of reasonable +proficiency and were formed into bodies corporate, with certain +powers of self-government and the exclusive monopoly of their +respective arts within certain localities; and the medieval +<i>universitas</i> (corporation)—whether of smiths and tailors or of +scholars—included both such as were entitled to practise and +teach and such as were in course of learning. The former were +the masters, the latter the apprentices. Hence the term <i>apprentice</i> +was applied indifferently to such as were being taught a +trade or a learned profession, and even to undergraduates or +scholars who were qualifying themselves for the degree of doctor +or master in the liberal arts. When barristers were first appointed +by Edward I. of England they were styled <i>apprenticii +ad legem</i>—the serjeants-at-law being <i>servientes ad legem</i>; and +these two terms corresponded respectively to the trade names +of apprentices and journeymen. During the middle ages the +term of apprenticeship was seven years, and this period was +thought no more than sufficient to instruct the learner in his +profession, craft or mystery under a properly qualified master, +teacher or doctor—for these names were synonymous—and +to reimburse the latter by service for the training received. +After this the apprentice became himself a master and a member +of the corporation, with full rights to practise the business +and to teach others in his turn; so also it would seem that +undergraduates had to pass through a curriculum of seven years +before they could attain the degree of doctor or master in the +liberal arts. On the continent of Europe these rules were observed +with considerable rigour, both in the learned professions +and in those which we now designate as trades. In England +they made their way more slowly and did not receive much +countenance, there being always a jealousy of anything savouring +of interference with the freedom of trade. Nevertheless the +formation of gilds and companies of tradesmen in England dates +probably from the 12th century, and the institution of apprenticeships +cannot be of much later date. In 1388 and 1405 it is +noticed in acts of parliament. By various subsequent statutes +provisions were made for the regulation of the institution, +and from them it appears that seven years was its ordinary +and normal term in the absence of special arrangement. By a +statute of 1562 this was made the law of the land, and it was +enacted that no person should exercise any “trade or mystery” +without having served a seven years’ apprenticeship. In no +place did the apprentices become so formidable by their numbers +and organization as in London. During the Great Rebellion +they took an active part as a political body, and were conspicuous +after the Restoration by being frequently engaged in tumults. +It was probably owing to this circumstance, quite as much as to +economic considerations of freedom of trade, that the act of +Elizabeth never found much favour with the courts of law. Soon +after the Great Rebellion we find the apprentice laws strongly +reprobated by the judges, who endeavoured, on the theory that +the act of Elizabeth could apply to no trades which were not in +existence at its date, to limit its operation as far as possible. +Such limitation of the act gave rise to many absurd anomalies +and inconsistencies, <i>e.g.</i> that a coachmaker could not make his +own wheels but must buy them of a wheelwright, while the +latter might make both wheels and coaches, because coach-making +was not a trade in England when the act of Elizabeth +was passed. For the like reason the great textile and metal +manufactures which arose at Manchester and Birmingham +were held exempt from the operation of the statute. Concurrently +with the dislike to the apprentice laws which such +anomalies generated, the doctrines of Adam Smith, that all +monopolies or restrictions on the freedom of trade were injurious +to the public interest, had gradually been making their +way, and notwithstanding much opposition an act was passed in +1814 by which the statute of Elizabeth, in so far as it enacts +that no person shall engage in any trade without a seven years’ +apprenticeship, was wholly repealed. The effect of this act was +to give every person the fullest right to exercise any occupation +or calling of a mechanical or trading kind for which he deemed +himself qualified.</p> + +<p>Apprenticeship, therefore, which was formerly a compulsory, +now became a voluntary contract. In the case of the learned +professions the principles and theories which gave birth to +corporations with monopolies, and required apprenticeship or its +equivalents, have—contrary to what has taken place in trade— +been not only maintained but intensified; that is to say, not +only have such bodies retained and even extended in some cases +their exclusive privileges, but in general no one is allowed to +practise in such professions unless his capabilities have been +tested and approved by public authority. Thus no man is +allowed to practise law or medicine in any of their branches who +has not undergone the appropriate training by attendance at a +university or by apprenticeship—sometimes by both combined— +and passed certain examinations. Entrance to the church is +guarded by similar checks. In such instances the old principle— +now generally abandoned in trade—of granting a monopoly to +those possessing a certain standard of qualification is maintained +in greater vigour than ever.</p> + +<p>In some kinds of manufacture the old conditions have been +modified by the subdivisions of labour or by the introduction of +machinery, which have reduced the amount of skill which +formerly was requisite, and thus they have passed out of the +category of the higher skilled handicrafts, as only a very slight +or short training is necessary to make an efficient worker; but +a large number of the higher skilled trades remain which require a +long period of training at the bench, and a careful inquiry into +this subject has shown that in nearly all of such trades there is +a scarcity of skilled workers, which is due to the falling off in the +number of apprenticeships. Many persons qualified to form an +opinion deplore that something in the nature of the old standard +of qualification is not still applied to those trades, and consider +that the only method of restoring a high standard of skill is by +apprenticeship. The decay of apprenticeship in these trades is +due, not to any inherent defect in the system, nor to its having +been superseded by any other form of technical education, but to +difficulties, especially in London and some other large towns, +which place it beyond the reach of that class of persons who have +the greatest need of it. Among these difficulties are:—first, +insufficient organization, and secondly, want of funds to pay +premiums where such are required. These difficulties are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page229" id="page229"></a>229</span> +accentuated in London and some other large towns, but in many +other districts apprenticeship is actively proceeded with. +Efforts are being made, notably by the National Institution of +Apprenticeship, to meet these difficulties. The Charity Commissioners +in their report for 1905 recognized the value of this +institution, and stated that they would in future enable the +trustees of charity endowments for apprenticeship to avail +themselves of the practical co-operation of the institution. The +modern trade unions, on the other hand, have done nothing to +assist in restoring apprenticeship to its proper place; on the +contrary, they have hampered it by restrictions which they have +imposed, limiting the number of apprentices who may be taken. +The result of fewer apprentices has been not only to lower the +standard of skill in the higher trades, but to reduce the productive +capacity of the artisans. The altered conditions now attending +apprenticeship are, mainly, that the apprentice does not live +with the master, and that the term is generally five years instead +of a longer period; but the principle remains precisely the same, +and the fact that it is applied more and more largely in Austria, +Germany and other countries is an evidence of its necessity.</p> + +<p>The contract of apprenticeship is generally created by indenture, +but any writing properly expressed and attested will do. +The full consideration must be set out, and the instrument, +whether a premium is paid or not, must be duly stamped, except +in the case of parish apprentices and apprentices to the sea +service (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seamen, Laws Relating to</a></span>). Where a charity or +institution intervenes, it retains control over the indentures +until the end of the term of apprenticeship, when the indenture +should be cancelled and given up to the apprentice. Any one who +is capable of making a contract can take an apprentice, and the +law does not limit the number which may be taken by any master. +Any person of legal capacity can bind himself as an apprentice, +provided he is over seven years of age, though, as he is by the +common law exempt from all liability <i>ex contractu</i>, it is usual for +the apprentice’s relations or friends to become bound for his +service and good conduct during the period of his apprenticeship. +The consent of the apprentice, however, must be expressed by +his executing the indenture. No child under nine can be bound +as a parish apprentice. The master must teach the apprentice +the agreed trade or trades; should the master exercise two +trades (which he has agreed to teach) and give up one, it would +be good ground for dissolving the contract by the apprentice. +An apprentice is not bound to work on Sundays, but he may be +required to work on bank holidays. He cannot become a volunteer +(soldier) without his master’s consent. It is usual in the +indenture to state whether the apprentice is to be paid wages or +otherwise. If the contract is to pay wages, no deduction can be +made owing to illness or accident, unless it has been so provided +for in the indentures. Nor is the apprentice liable for breakages +or similar faults. The master has been supposed to have a right +to administer moderate corporal punishment, though he may not +delegate it. But this right is really obsolete. According to +old custom a master provided proper food for his apprentices, +and medical attendance when required; but the modern practice +is for apprentices to reside with their parents or friends who +maintain them. A master cannot assign indentures without the +approval of the apprentice or such parties as are named in the +contract for this purpose, even if he should transfer his business. +The contract of apprenticeship may be dissolved by (1) efflux of +time; (2) by death (if the master dies, some part of the premium +is usually returnable, but if the apprentice dies no part is returnable); +(3) by consent; (4) in case of grave misconduct; (5) under +the Bankruptcy Act 1883, providing for discharge of the indentures +of apprenticeship and for payment on account of +premium. Disputes between master and apprentice, in cases +where no premium has been paid, or where the premium does not +exceed £25, are dealt with by courts of summary jurisdiction. +Apprentices bound according to the “custom of London,” who +are infants above the age of fourteen years and under twenty-one +and unmarried, are responsible upon covenants contained in +indentures executed by them just as if they were of full age. +The term of apprenticeship is usually not less than four years. +Apprentices by the custom of London in agreements made at +the Guildhall are subject to the jurisdiction of the chamberlain +of London.</p> + +<p>Parish apprentices are those bound out by guardians of the +poor in England. By the Poor Relief Act 1601, overseers of the +poor were empowered, with the consent of two justices, to put out +poor children as apprentices “where they shall be convenient.” +Owing to the disinclination to receive such apprentices it became +necessary to make the reception compulsory (1696), but this +compulsion to receive them was abolished in 1844. Many +statutes have been passed from time to time regulating the +apprenticing of parish children, but it is now under the control +of the Local Government Board, which issues rules specifying +fully the manner in which such children are to be bound, assigned +and maintained.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—See E. Austin, <i>Law Relating to Apprentices</i> +(1890); Addison, <i>On Contracts</i> (1905). For the state of apprenticeship +in European countries, and, more particularly in France, see +<i>Apprentissage, enquête et documents</i> (Paris, 1904, Conseil Supérieur +du Travail, Ministère du Commerce, de l’Industrie, des Postes et des +Télégraphes, session de 1902). See also the literature issued by the +National Institution of Apprenticeship, London.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. S. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPROPRIATION<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>appropriare</i>, to set aside), the act +of setting apart and applying to a particular use to the exclusion +of all other. In ecclesiastical law, appropriation is the perpetual +annexation of an ecclesiastical benefice to the use of some spiritual +corporation, either aggregate or sole. In the middle ages in +England the custom grew up of the monasteries reserving to +their own use the greater part of the tithes of their appropriated +benefices, leaving only a small portion to their vicars in the +parishes. On the dissolution of the monasteries these “great +tithes” were often granted, with the monastic lands, to laymen, +whose successors, known as “lay impropriators” or “lay rectors,” +still hold them, the system being known as <i>impropriation</i>. Appropriation +may be severed and the church become disappropriate, +by the presentation of a clerk, properly instituted and inducted, +or by the dissolution of the corporation possessing the benefice.</p> + +<p>In the law of debtor and creditor, appropriation of payments is +the application of a particular payment for the purpose of paying +a particular debt. When a creditor has two debts due to him +from the same debtor on distinct accounts, the general law as to +the appropriation of payments made by the debtor is that the +debtor is entitled to apply the payments to such account as he +thinks fit; <i>solvitur in modum solventis</i>. In default of appropriation +by the debtor the creditor is entitled to determine the +application of the sums paid, and may appropriate them even +to the discharge of debts barred by the Statute of Limitations. +In default of appropriation by either debtor or creditor, the law +implies an appropriation of the earlier payments to the earlier +debts.</p> + +<p>In constitutional law, appropriation is the assignment of money +for a special purpose. In the United Kingdom an Appropriation +Bill is a bill passed at the end of each session of parliament, +enumerating the money grants made during the session, and +appropriating the various sums, as voted by committee of supply, +to the various purposes for which it is to be applied. The +United States constitution (art. I. § 9) says: “No money shall +be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations +made by law.” Bills for appropriating money originate in the +House of Representatives, but may be amended in the Senate.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APPURTENANCES<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (from late Lat. <i>appertinentia</i>, from +<i>appertinere</i>, to appertain), a legal term for what belongs to and +goes with something else, the accessories or things usually +conjoined with the substantive matter in question.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APRAKSIN, THEDOR MATVYEEVICH<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1671-1728), Russian +soldier, began life as one of the pages of Tsar Theodore III., after +whose death he served the little tsar Peter in the same capacity. +The playfellowship of the two lads resulted in a lifelong friendship. +In his twenty-first year Apraksin was appointed governor of +Archangel, then the most important commercially of all the +Russian provinces, and built ships capable of weathering storms, +to the great delight of the tsar. He won his colonelcy at the siege +of Azov (1696). In 1700 he was appointed chief of the admiralty, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page230" id="page230"></a>230</span> +in which post (from 1700 to 1706) his unusual technical ability +was of great service. While Peter was combating Charles XII., +Apraksin was constructing fleets, building fortresses and havens +(Taganrog). In 1707 he was transferred to Moscow. In 1708 he +was appointed commander-in-chief in Ingria, to defend the new +capital against the Swedes, whom he utterly routed, besides +capturing Viborg in Carelia. He held the chief command in the +Black Sea during the campaign of the Pruth (1711), and in 1713 +materially assisted the conquest of Finland by his operations +from the side of the sea. In 1710-1720 he personally conducted +the descents upon Sweden, ravaging that country mercilessly, +and thus extorting the peace of Nystad, whereby she surrendered +the best part of her Baltic provinces to Russia. For these great +services he was made a senator and admiral-general of the empire. +His last expedition was to Reval in 1726, to cover the town from +an anticipated attack by the English government, with whom the +relations of Russia at the beginning of the reign of Catharine I. +were strained almost to breaking-point. Though frequently +threatened with terrible penalties by Peter the Great for his +incurable vice of peculation, Apraksin, nevertheless, contrived to +save his head, though not his pocket, chiefly through the mediation +of the good-natured empress, Catharine, who remained his +friend to the last, and whom he assisted to place on the throne on +the death of Peter. Apraksin was the most genial and kind-hearted +of all Peter’s pupils. He is said to have never made an +enemy. He died on the 10th of November 1728.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. Nisbet Bain, <i>The Pupils of Peter the Great</i> (London, 1897).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APRICOT<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>praecox</i>, or <i>praecoquus</i>, ripened +early, <i>coquere</i>, to cook, or ripen; the English form, formerly +“apricock” and “abrecox,” comes through the Fr. <i>abricot</i>, +from the Span. <i>albaricoque</i>, which was an adaptation of the +Arabic <i>al-burquk</i>, itself a rendering of the late Gr. <span class="grk" title="prekokkia">πρεκόκκια</span> or +<span class="grk" title="praikokion">πραικόκιον</span>, adapted from the Latin; the derivation from <i>in +aprico cactus</i> is a mere guess), the fruit of <i>Prunus armeniaca</i>, also +called <i>Armeniaca vulgaris</i>. Under the former name it is regarded +as a species of the genus to which the plums belong, the latter +establishes it as a distinct genus of the natural order <i>Rosaceae</i>. +The apricot is, like the plum, a stone fruit, cultivated generally +throughout temperate regions, and used chiefly in the form of +preserves and in tarts. The tree has long been cultivated in +<i>Armenia</i> (hence the name <i>Armeniaca</i>); it is a native of north +China and other parts of temperate Asia. It flowers very early in +the season, and is a hardy tree, but the fruit will scarcely ripen in +Britain unless the tree is trained against a wall. A great number +of varieties of the apricot, as of most cultivated fruits, are +distinguished by cultivators. The kernels of several varieties +are edible, and in Egypt those of the Musch-Musch variety form +a considerable article of commerce. The French liqueur <i>Eau de +noyaux</i> is prepared from bitter apricot kernels. Large quantities +of fruit are imported from France into the United Kingdom.</p> + +<p>The apricot is propagated by budding on the mussel or common +plum stock. The tree succeeds in good well-drained loamy soil, +rather light than heavy. It is usually grown as a wall tree, the +east and west aspects being preferred to the south, which induces +mealiness in the fruit, though in Scotland the best aspects are +necessary. The most usual and best mode of training is the fan +method. The fruit is produced on shoots of the preceding year, +and on small close spurs formed on the two-year-old wood. The +trees should be planted about 20 ft. apart. The summer pruning +should begin early in June, at which period all the irregular foreright +and useless shoots are pinched off; and, shortly afterwards, +those which remain are fastened to the wall. At the winter +pruning all branches not duly furnished with spurs and fruit buds +are removed. The young bearing shoots are moderately pruned +at the points, care being, however, taken to leave a terminal shoot +or leader to each branch. The most common error in the pruning +of apricots is laying in the bearing shoots too thickly; the +branches naturally diverge in fan training, and when they extend +so as to be about 15 in. apart, a fresh branch should be laid in, +to be again subdivided as required. The blossoms of the apricot +open early in spring, but are more hardy than those of the +peach; the same means of protection when necessary may be +employed for both. If the fruit sets too numerously, it is thinned +out in June and in the beginning of July, the later thinnings being +used for tarts. In the south of England, where the soil is suitable, +the hardier sorts of apricot, as the Breda and Brussels, bear well +as standard trees in favourable seasons. In such cases the trees +may be planted from 20 to 25 ft. apart.</p> + +<p>The ripening of the fruit of the apricot is accelerated by +culture under glass, the trees being either planted out like +peaches or grown in pots on the orchard-house system. They +must be very gently excited, since they naturally bloom when the +spring temperature is comparatively low. At first a maximum of +40° only must be permitted; after two or three weeks it may be +raised to 45°, and later on to 50° and 55°, and thus continued +till the trees are in flower, air being freely admitted, and the +minimum or night temperature ranging from 40° to 45°. After +the fruit is set the temperature should be gradually raised, being +kept higher in clear weather than in dull. When the fruit has +stoned, the temperature may be raised to 60° or 65° by day and +60° by night; and for ripening off it may be allowed to reach 70° +or 80° by sun heat.</p> + +<p>The Moorpark is one of the best and most useful sorts in cultivation, +and should be planted for all general purposes; the Peach +is a very similar variety, not quite identical; and the Hemskerk +is also similar, but hardier. The Large Early, which ripens in +the end of July and beginning of August, and the Kaisha, a +sweet-kernelled variety, which ripens in the middle of August, +are also to be recommended. For standard trees in favourable +localities the Breda and Brussels may be added.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APRIES<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Apries">Άπρίης</span>), the name by which Herodotus (ii. 161) +and Diodorus (i. 68) designate <i>Uehabrē‛</i>, <span class="grk" title="Ouaphres">Οὐαφρής</span> (Pharaoh-Hophra), +the fourth king (counting from Psammetichus I.) of +the twenty-sixth Egyptian dynasty. He reigned from 589 to 570 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Amasis</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APRIL,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> the second month of the ancient Roman, and the +fourth of the modern calendar, containing thirty days. The +derivation of the name is uncertain. The traditional etymology +from Lat. <i>aperire</i>, “to open,” in allusion to its being the season +when trees and flowers begin to “open,” is supported by +comparison with the modern Greek use of <span class="grk" title="anoixis">ἅνοιξις</span> (opening) for +spring. This seems very possible, though, as all the Roman +months were named in honour of divinities, and as April was +sacred to Venus, the <i>Festum Veneris et Fortunae Virilis</i> being +held on the first day, it has been suggested that Aprilis was +originally her month Aphrilis, from her Greek name Aphrodite. +Jacob Grimm suggests the name of a hypothetical god or hero, +<i>Aper</i> or <i>Aprus</i>. On the fourth and the five following days, +games (<i>Ludi Megalenses</i>) were celebrated in honour of Cybele; +on the fifth there was the <i>Festum Fortunae Publicae</i>; on the +tenth (?) games in the circus, and on the nineteenth equestrian +combats, in honour of Ceres; on the twenty-first—which was +regarded as the birthday of Rome—the <i>Vinalia urbana</i>, when +the wine of the previous autumn was first tasted; on the twenty-fifth, +the <i>Robigalia</i>, for the averting of mildew; and on the +twenty-eighth and four following days, the riotous <i>Floralia</i>. +The Anglo-Saxons called April <i>Oster-monath</i> or <i>Eostur-monath</i>, +the period sacred to <i>Eostre</i> or <i>Ostara</i>, the pagan Saxon goddess +of spring, from whose name is derived the modern Easter. +St George’s day is the twenty-third of the month; and St Mark’s +Eve, with its superstition that the ghosts of those who are +doomed to die within the year will be seen to pass into the church, +falls on the twenty-fourth. In China the symbolical ploughing +of the earth by the emperor and princes of the blood takes place +in their third month, which frequently corresponds to our +April; and in Japan the feast of Dolls is celebrated in the same +month. The “days of April” (<i>journées d’avril</i>) is a name +appropriated in French history to a series of insurrections at +Lyons, Paris and elsewhere, against the government of Louis +Philippe in 1834, which led to violent repressive measures, and +to a famous trial known as the <i>procès d’avril</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Chambers’s <i>Book of Days</i>; Grimm’s <i>Geschichte der deutschen +Sprache</i>. Cap. “Monate”; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">April-fools’ Day</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page231" id="page231"></a>231</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">APRIL-FOOLS’ DAY,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> or <span class="sc">All-Fools’ Day</span>, the name given +to the 1st of April in allusion to the custom of playing practical +jokes on friends and neighbours on that day, or sending them +on fools’ errands. The origin of this custom has been much +disputed, and many ludicrous solutions have been suggested, +<i>e.g.</i> that it is a farcical commemoration of Christ being sent +from Annas to Caiaphas, from Caiaphas to Pilate, from Pilate +to Herod, and from Herod back again to Pilate, the crucifixion +having taken place about the 1st of April. What seems certain +is that it is in some way or other a relic of those once universal +festivities held at the vernal equinox, which, beginning on old +New Year’s day, the 25th of March, ended on the 1st of April. +This view gains support from the fact that the exact counterpart +of April-fooling is found to have been an immemorial custom +in India. The festival of the spring equinox is there termed +the feast of Huli, the last day of which is the 31st of March, upon +which the chief amusement is the befooling of people by sending +them on fruitless errands. It has been plausibly suggested that +Europe derived its April-fooling from the French. They were +the first nation to adopt the reformed calendar, Charles IX. +in 1564 decreeing that the year should begin with the 1st of +January. Thus the New Year’s gifts and visits of felicitation +which had been the feature of the 1st of April became associated +with the first day of January, and those who disliked the change +were fair butts for those wits who amused themselves by sending +mock presents and paying calls of pretended ceremony on the +1st of April. Though the 1st of April appears to have been +anciently observed in Great Britain as a general festival, it was +apparently not until the beginning of the 18th century that +the making of April-fools was a common custom. In Scotland +the custom was known as “hunting the gowk,” <i>i.e.</i> the cuckoo, +and April-fools were “April-gowks,” the cuckoo being there, +as it is in most lands, a term of contempt. In France the person +befooled is known as <i>poisson d’avril</i>. This has been explained +from the association of ideas arising from the fact that in April +the sun quits the zodiacal sign of the fish. A far more natural +explanation would seem to be that the April fish would be a +young fish and therefore easily caught.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">A PRIORI<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (Lat. <i>a</i>, from, <i>prior, prius</i>, that which is before, +precedes), (1) a phrase used popularly of a judgment based on +general considerations in the absence of particular evidence; +(2) a logical term first used, apparently, by Albert of Saxony +(14th century), though the theory which it denotes is as old as +Aristotle. In the order of human knowledge the particular +facts of experience come first and are the basis of generalized +laws or causes (the Scholastic <i>notiora nobis</i>); but in the order +of nature the latter rank first as the self-existent, fundamental +truths of existence (<i>notiora naturae</i>). Thus to Aristotle the +<i>a priori</i> argument is from law or cause to effect, as opposed to +what we call <i>a posteriori</i> (<i>posterior</i>, subsequent, derived), from +effect to cause. Since Kant the two phrases have become purely +adjectival (instead of adverbial) with a technical controversial +sense, closely allied to the Aristotelian, in relation to knowledge +and judgments generally. <i>A priori</i> is applied to judgments +which are regarded as independent of experience, and belonging +to the essence of thought; <i>a posteriori</i> to those which are derived +from particular observations. The distinction is analogous to +that between analysis and synthesis, deduction and induction +(but there may be a synthesis of <i>a priori</i> judgments, cf. Kant’s +“Synthetic Judgment <i>a priori</i>”). Round this distinction +a rather barren controversy has raged, and almost all modern +philosophers have labelled themselves either “Intuitionalist” +(<i>a priori</i>) or “Empiricist” (<i>a posteriori</i>) according to the view +they take of knowledge. In fact, however, the rival schools +are generally arguing at cross purposes; there is a knowledge +based on particulars, and also a knowledge of laws or causes. +But the two work in different spheres, and are complementary. +The observation of isolated particulars gives not necessity, but +merely strong probability; necessity is purely intellectual or +“transcendental.” If the empiricist denies the intellectual +element in scientific knowledge, he must not claim absolute +validity for his conclusions; but he may hold against the +intuitionalist that absolute laws are impossible to the human +intellect. On the other hand, pure <i>a priori</i> knowledge can be +nothing more than form without content (<i>e.g.</i> formal logic, the +laws of thought). The simple fact at the bottom of the controversy +is that in all empirical knowledge there is an intellectual +element, without which there is no correlation of empirical data, +and every judgment, however simple, postulates a correlation +of some sort if only that between the predicate and its contradictory.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APRON<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (a corruption arising from a wrong division of “a +napron” into “an apron,” from the Fr. <i>naperon, napperon</i>, a +diminutive of <i>nappe</i>, Lat. <i>mappa</i>, a napkin), an article of costume +used to protect the front of the clothes. It forms part of the +ceremonial dress of Freemasons. The “apron” worn by church +dignitaries is a shortened cassock (<i>q.v.</i>). The word has many +technical uses, as for the protecting slope in front of the sill of +dock-gates, or at the foot of weirs.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APSARAS,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> in Hindu mythology, a female spirit of the clouds +and waters. In the Rig-Veda there is one Apsaras, wife of +Gandharva; in the later scriptures there are many Apsaras +who act as the handmaidens of Indra and dance before his throne. +They are able to change their form, and specially rule over the +fortunes of gaming. One of their duties is to guide to paradise the +heroes who fall in battle, whose wives they then become. They +are distinguished as <i>daivika</i> (“divine”) or <i>laukika</i> (“worldly”).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APSE<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="apsis">ἁψίς</span>, a fastening, especially the felloe of a wheel; +Lat. <i>absis</i>), in architecture, a semicircular recess covered with +a hemispherical vault. The term is applied also to the termination +to the choir, transept or aisle of any church which is either +semicircular or polygonal in plan, whether vaulted or covered +with a timber roof; a church is said to be “apsidal” when it +terminates in an apse.</p> + +<p>The earliest example of an apse is found in the temple of +Mars Ultor at Rome (2 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and it formed afterwards the +favourite feature terminating the rear of any temple, and one +which gave importance to the statue of the deity to whom the +temple was dedicated. Its use by the Romans was not confined +to the temples, as it is found in the palaces on the Palatine Hill, +the great Thermae (Baths) and other monuments. In the civil +basilicas the apse was screened off by columns, and constituted +the court of justice. In the Ulpian (Trajan’s) Basilica the apses +at each end were of such great dimensions as to come better +under the definition of hemicycles (<i>q.v.</i>). In these apses the +floor was raised, and had an altar placed in the centre of its +chord, where sacrifices were made prior to the sittings. The +only other two Roman basilicas in which the semicircular apse +can still be traced are that commenced by Maxentius and +completed by Constantine at Rome and the basilica at Trier +(Trèves).</p> + +<p>In the earliest Christian basilica, St Peter’s at Rome, built +330 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, the apse, 57 ft. in diameter, raised above the confessio +or crypt, was placed at the west end of the church. This orientation +was originally followed in the churches of St Paul and +St Lawrence (S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura), both outside the walls +of Rome, and is found in most of the churches at Rome. On +the other hand, in the Byzantine church, the apse was built at the +east end of the church.</p> + +<p>During the reign of Justin the Second (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 565-574), owing +to a change in the liturgy, two more apses were added, one on +each side of the central apse. These in the Greek Church were +provided not to hold altars but for ceremonial purposes. One of +the earliest examples is found in the church of St Nicholas at +Myra of the 6th century, and the basilica erected in the great +court of the temple at Baalbek shows the triple apse. The +earliest example in Rome is found in the church of Sta Maria +in Cosmedin (772-795), built probably by Greek craftsmen, who +had been exiled by the Iconoclasts. Other triapsal choirs are +found in the cathedral of Parenzo (542 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), in St Mark’s, +Venice, in Sta Fosca and the Duomo at Torcello, and in numerous +examples throughout Italy and Germany. In central Syria +there is one example only, at Kalat Seman, where the side apses +were a later addition.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page232" id="page232"></a>232</span></p> + +<p>There is one important distinction to be drawn between the +Byzantine and the Latin apses; they are both semicircular +internally, but externally the former are nearly always polygonal. +It follows, therefore, that in those churches in Italy +where the apse is polygonal externally, it is a sign of direct +Byzantine influence. This is found in St Mark’s, Venice; +Sta Fosca, Torcello; Murano; nearly all the churches at +Ravenna; and in the Crusaders’ churches throughout Syria.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:303px; height:205px" src="images/img232.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Apse of the White Monastery.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the Coptic church in Egypt we find other characteristics; +in the churches of the Red and White Monasteries, attributed +to St Helena, an unusual +depth is given to the apse, +in the walls of which +niches are sunk; in the +church of St John at +Antinoë there are no fewer +than seven. Similar +niches are found in the +apses of St Mark’s, +Venice, built in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 828, +it is said in imitation of +St Mark’s in Alexandria, +to receive the relics of St Mark brought over from there.</p> + +<p>In a large number of the apses in the Coptic churches the +seats round the apse with the bishop’s throne in the centre are +still preserved; of these the best examples are at Abu Sargah, +Al ‛Adra and Abu-s-Sifain. Unfortunately there are no remains +of the fittings in the tribunes of the ancient Roman basilicas, +but those in St Peter’s at Rome, which were probably copied +from them, are recorded in drawings, there being two or three +rows of stone seats with the papal throne in the centre. It is +possible also that some may still exist in the other early Christian +basilicas at Rome, but there have been so many changes that +it is not possible to trace them. In the cathedral of Parenzo +in Istria (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 532-535), the hemicycle of marble seats for the +clergy with the episcopal chair in the centre still exists. A +similar arrangement is found in the apse of the church of the +6th century attached to the church of St Helena in the island +of Paros, where there are eight steep grades of semicircular +stone seats with the bishop’s chair in the centre. The aspect +of the interior of this apse has in consequence very much the +appearance of a Roman theatre. A third example, better known, +exists at Torcello, with six concentric seats rising one above the +other, and in the centre the episcopal chair with a flight of +thirteen steps down in front of it.</p> + +<p>In the basilica at Bethlehem, the east end of which was +reconstructed probably in the 5th century, apses of similar +dimensions to the eastern apse were built at the north and south +end of the transept. The same disposition is found in the Coptic +churches of the Red and White Monasteries just referred to, +in the church of St Elias at Salonica (<i>c</i>. 1012), the cathedral of +Echmiadzin in Armenia, at Vatopedi, Mt. Athos, and some other +Byzantine churches. An early example in France exists in the +church of Germigny-des-Prés on the Loire (806; rebuilt 1868), +where the three apses are horseshoe on plan, and the same is +found in the church at Oberzell in the island of Reichenau, +Lake of Constance, except that the eastern apse there is square. +Small examples also are found at Querqueville and at St Wandrille +near Caudebec, both in Normandy, but the finest development +takes place in the church of St Maria im Capitol at Cologne, +where the aisles are carried round both the northern and southern +apses. The same feature exists in the cathedral of Tournai in +Belgium and the churches at Cambrai, Soissons and Valenciennes +(the last destroyed at the Revolution) in France, and also in +the cathedrals of Como and of Pisa in Italy. Without aisles, +there are examples in the churches of the Apostles and of +St Martin at Cologne; St Quirinus at Neuss; at Roermond; +St Cross, Breslau; the cathedral of Bonn; and, at a later date, +in the Marienkirche at Trier; S. Elizabeth at Marburg; the +church of Sta Maria-del-Fiore at Florence; and the cathedral +of Parma.</p> + +<p>In consequence of a change made in the orientation of apses +in the 6th or 7th century, others were subsequently added at +the west end of existing churches, and this is considered to have +been the case at Canterbury; but in the German churches +sometimes apses were built from the first at both ends, such as +are shown on the manuscript plan of St Gall, of the 9th century. +Western apses exist at Gernrode; Drübeck; Huyseburg; the +Obermünster of Regensburg; St Godehard in Hildesheim; +the cathedrals of Worms and Trier; the Abbey church of +Laach; the Minster at Bonn; and in St Pietro-in-Grado near +Pisa.</p> + +<p>The triapsal churches, to which we have referred, are those +in which the side apses form the termination of the side aisles; +but where there are transepts, the aisles are sometimes not +continued beyond them, and the expansion of the transept +to north and south gives more ample space for apses; of these +there are many examples, as in the Abbey church of Laach in +Germany; at Romsey; Christchurch, Hants; Gloucester, +Ely, Norwich and Canterbury cathedrals, in England; and at +St Georges de Boscherville in France; sometimes there being +space for two apses on each side.</p> + +<p>In the beginning of the 13th century in France, the apses +became radiating chapels outside the choir aisle, henceforth +known as the chevet. These radiating chapels would seem to +have been suggested in Norwich and Canterbury cathedrals, +but the feature is essentially a French one and in England +is found only in Westminster Abbey, into which it was introduced +by Henry III., to whom the chevets of Amiens, Beauvais +and Reims were probably well known.</p> +<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APSE<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> and <b>APSIDES,</b> in mechanics, either of the two points +of an orbit which are nearest to and farthest from the centre of +motion. They are called the lower or nearer, and the higher +or more distant apsides respectively. The “line of apsides” +is that which joins them, forming the major axis of the orbit.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APSINES<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> of Gadara, a Greek rhetorician, who flourished +during the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> After studying at Smyrna, he +taught at Athens, and gained such a reputation that he was +raised to the consulship by the emperor Maximinus (235-238). +He was the friend of Philostratus, the author of the <i>Lives of the +Sophists</i>, who speaks of his wonderful memory and accuracy. +Two rhetorical treatises by him are extant: <span class="grk" title="technae raetorikae">Τέχνη ῥητορική</span>, +a handbook of rhetoric greatly interpolated, a considerable portion +being taken from the <i>Rhetoric</i> of Longinus; and a smaller +work, <span class="grk" title="perhi eschaematismenon problaematon">Περὶ ἐσχηματισμένων προβλημάτων</span>, on Propositions maintained +figuratively.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Editions by Bake, 1849; Spengel-Hammer in <i>Rhetores Graeci</i>, +ii. (1894): see also Hammer, <i>De Apsine Rhetore</i> (1876); Volkmann, +<i>Rhetorik der Griechen und Romer</i> (1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APT,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> a town of south-eastern France, in the department of +Vaucluse, on the left bank of the Coulon, 41 m. E. of Avignon +by rail. Pop. (1906) 4990. The town was formerly surrounded +by massive ancient walls, but these have now been for the most +part replaced by boulevards; many of its streets are narrow +and irregular. The chief object of interest is the church of +Sainte-Anne (once the cathedral), the building of which was +begun about the year 1056 on the site of a much older edifice, +but not completed until the latter half of the 17th century. +Many Roman remains have been found in and near the town. +A fine bridge, the Pont Julien, spanning the Coulon below the +town, dates from the 2nd or 3rd century. A tribunal of first +instance and a communal college are the chief public institutions. +The chief manufactures are silk, confectionery and earthenware; +and there is besides a considerable trade in fruit, grain and cattle. +Apt was at one time the chief town of the Vulgientes, a Gallic +tribe; it was destroyed by the Romans about 125 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and +restored by Julius Caesar, who conferred upon it the title <i>Apta +Julia</i>; it was much injured by the Lombards and the Saracens, +but its fortifications were rebuilt by the counts of Provence. The +bishopric, founded in the 3rd century, was suppressed in 1790.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APTERA<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (Greek for “wingless”), a term in zoological classification +applied by Linnaeus to various groups of wingless arthropods, +including some of the insects, the centipedes, the millipedes, +the Arachnida (scorpions, spiders, &c.) and the Crustacea. In +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page233" id="page233"></a>233</span> +modern zoology the term has become restricted to the lowest +order of the class Hexapoda or true insects. This order includes +the bristle-tails and the springtails.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:262px; height:726px" src="images/img233a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">From <i>Knowledge</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—A typical Thysanuran +(<i>Machilus maritima</i>). Female, ventral view.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p><i>Mx<span class="sp">1</span>, Mx<span class="sp">2</span></i>, 1st and 2nd maxillae.</p> + +<p>ii.-x., Appendages on 2nd to 10th abdominal segments. The eversible sacs on the +abdominal segments are shown, some protruded and some retracted.</p> + +<p><i>Ovp</i>, Ovipositor.</p> + +<p><i>Mn</i>, Mandible, and <i>Mxl</i>, maxillula, dissected out of head.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>Many wingless insects—such as lice, fleas and certain earwigs +and cockroaches—are placed in various orders together +with winged insects to which they show evident relationships. +In such cases the absence of wings must be regarded as +secondary—due +to a parasitic or other special manner of life. But the +bristle-tails and springtails, which form the modern order +Aptera, are all without any trace of wings, and, on account of +several remarkable archaic +characters which they exhibit, +there is reason for +believing that they are +primitively wingless—that +they represent an early offshoot +which sprang from +the ancestral stock of the +Hexapoda before organs of +flight had been acquired +by the class.</p> + +<p><i>Characters.</i>—In addition +to the complete absence of +wings and of metamorphosis, +the Aptera are +characterized by peculiar +elongate mandibles (figs. +1, <i>Mn</i>.; 2, 4), with toothed +apex and sub-apical grinding +surface, like those of +certain Crustacea; by the +presence between the +mandibles and maxillae of +a pair of appendages +(superlinguae or maxillulae), +fig. 1, <i>Mxl</i>., which +are absent or vestigial in +all other insects; and, in +most genera, by the +presence in the adult of +abdominal appendages used +for locomotion, these latter +varying in number from one +to nine pairs. Among +peculiarities of the internal +organs the segmental +arrangement of the ovaries +in most members of the +order is noteworthy. Many +Aptera are covered with +flattened scales like those +of moths.</p> + +<p><i>Classification.</i>—The +Aptera are divided into +two divergent sub-orders, +the <i>Thysanura</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) or +bristle-tails, and the <i>Collembola</i> +or springtails.</p> + +<p><i>Thysanura.</i>—The bristle-tails +have an abdomen of eleven segments, the tenth usually +carrying a pair of long many-jointed tail-feelers (cerci, fig. 1, x.); +sometimes a median, jointed tail-appendage is also present. +To these feelers the popular name is due. There may also be +abdominal appendages—in the form of simple unjointed stylets +(fig. 1, ii.-ix.), accompanied by paired eversible sacs, probably +respiratory in function—on eight (or fewer) other abdominal +segments. The head of a bristle-tail carries a pair of compound +eyes and a pair of elongate many-jointed feelers.</p> + +<p>The air-tube system is developed in varying degree in different +bristle-tails, the number of pairs of spiracles being three (<i>Campodea</i>), +nine (<i>Machilis</i>), ten (<i>Lepisma</i>), or eleven (<i>Japyx</i>).</p> + +<p>Four families of Thysanura are usually recognized. In the +<i>Machilidae</i> and <i>Lepismidae</i> (these two families are known as +the Ectotrophi) the maxillae are like those of typical biting +insects, and there is a median tail-bristle in addition to the +paired cerci; while in the <i>Campodeidae</i> and <i>Japygidae</i> (which +form the group Entotrophi) the jaws are apparently sunk in the +head, through a deep inpushing at the mouth, and there is no +median tail-bristle. The cerci in <i>Japyx</i> are not, as usual, jointed +feelers, but strong, curved appendages forming a forceps as in +earwigs.</p> + +<p><i>Collembola.</i>—In springtails, or <i>Collembola</i>, the jaws are sunk +into the head, as in the entotrophous Thysanura; the head +carries a pair of feelers with not more than six (usually four) +segments, and there are eight (or fewer) distinct simple eyes on +each side of the head (fig. 2, 1, 2). These are in some genera +like the single elements (<i>ommatidia</i>) of a compound insect eye, in +others like simple ocelli. The abdomen consists of six segments +only. The first of these usually carries a ventral tube, furnished +with paired eversible sacs which assist the insects in walking on +smooth surfaces, and perhaps serve also as organs for breathing. +From the researches of V. Willem it appears that the viscid +fluid which causes the adherence of the ventral tube is secreted +by a pair of glands in the head whose ducts open into a superficial +groove leading from the second maxillae backward to the +tube on the first abdominal segment. The third abdominal +segment usually carries a pair of short appendages whose basal +segments are fused together; this is the “catch” (fig. 2, 7), +whose function is to hold in place the “spring,” which is formed +by the fourth pair of abdominal appendages—also with fused +basal segments. In most Collembola the spring appears to +belong to the fifth abdominal somite, but Willem, by study of +the muscles, has shown that it really belongs to the fourth. The +fused basal segments of the appendages form the “manubrium” +of the spring, which carries the two “dentes” (usually elongate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page234" id="page234"></a>234</span> +and flexible), each with a “mucro” at its tip (fig. 2, 5). The fifth +abdominal segment is the genital, and the sixth the anal somite.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:533px; height:560px" src="images/img233b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f80">From Carpenter, <i>Proc. R. Dub. Soc.</i>, vol. xi.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Structure of Collembola.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90"> +<p>1. <i>Isotoma hibernica</i>. Side view.</p> +<p>2.     ”     Ocelli and post-antennal organ of right side.</p> +<p>3.     ”     Tip of terminal antennal segment with antennal organ.</p> +<p>4.     ”     Mandible.</p> +<p>5.     ”     Tip of left dens with mucro. Outer view.</p> +<p>6.     ”     Hind-foot with claws. × 240.</p> +<p>7. <i>Entomobrya anomala</i>. Catch.</p> +</td></tr></table> + +<p>The spring serves the Collembola which possess it as an +efficient leaping-organ (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Springtail</a></span>). But in some genera it +is greatly reduced and in many quite vestigial.</p> + +<p>Most springtails are without air-tubes, and breathe through +the general cuticle of the body. But in one family (<i>Sminthuridae</i>) +a spiracle, opening on either side between the head and the +prothorax, leads to a branching system of air-tubes. The +<i>Sminthuridae</i> are further characterized by the globular abdomen, +which shows but little external trace of segmentation, and by the +well-developed spring.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Entomobryidae</i> the body is elongate and clearly segmented, +but the dorsal region (tergum) of the prothorax is much +reduced and the head downwardly directed; the spring is well +developed. In the <i>Achorutidae</i> the head is forwardly directed, +the tergum of the prothorax conspicuous, and the spring small or +vestigial.</p> + +<p>In many genera of springtails a curious post-antennal organ, +consisting of sensory structures (often complex in form) surrounded +by a firm ring, is to be noticed on the cuticle of the head +between the eyes and the feelers. It may be of use as an organ of +smell. Other sensory organs occur on the third and fourth antennal +segments in the <i>Achorutidae</i> and <i>Entomobryidae</i> (fig. 2, 3).</p> + +<p><i>Distribution and Habits.</i>—The Aptera are probably the most +widely distributed of all insects. Among the bristle-tails we +find the genus <i>Machilis</i>, represented in Europe (including the +Faeroe Islands) and in Chile; while <i>Campodea</i> lives high on the +mountains and in the deepest caves. The springtails have even +a wider distribution. The genus <i>Isotoma</i>, for example, has some +of its numerous species in regions so remote as Alaska, Franz +Josef Land, the Sandwich Islands, the South Orkneys, Graham +Land, Kerguelen and South Victoria Land. As it is unlikely +that these delicate insects could be transported across sea-channels, +their wide and discontinuous range suggests both their +great antiquity and the former existence of continental tracts +over which they may have travelled to their present stations.</p> + +<p>Springtails and bristle-tails live in damp concealed places—under +stones or tree-bark, in moss, and in the decaying vegetable +or animal matter which serves as food for most of them. Some +species, however, eat fresh plant-tissues. A species of bristle-tail +(<i>Machilis maritima</i>) and quite a number of springtails haunt +the sea-coast at or below high-water mark. In such localities +many thousands of individuals may sometimes be found associated +together. The insect fauna of limestone caves both in +Europe and North America is largely composed of Aptera, +especially Collembola.</p> + +<p><i>Geological History.</i>—A supposed Thysanuran from the Silurian +of New Brunswick has been described by G.F. Matthew, and +another genus from the French Carboniferous by C. Brongniart. +Not till the Tertiary do we find remains of Aptera in any quantity, +species both of living and extinct genera being represented in the +amber.</p> + +<p><i>Development.</i>—The embryonic development of several genera +of Aptera, which has been carefully studied, will be more suitably +described in comparison with that of other insects than here (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hexapoda</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The modern study of the Aptera may be said to +date from the classical memoirs of T. Tullberg, “Sveriges Podurider,” +in <i>Kongl. Svensk Vetensk. Akad. Handl.</i> x., 1872, and Sir J. +Lubbock (Lord Avebury), “Monograph of the Collembola and +Thysanura,” <i>Ray Society</i>, 1873. In these, full references to the +older literature will be found. Subsequently our knowledge of the +Thysanura has been markedly advanced by J.T. Oudemans, <i>Bijdrage +tot de Kennis den Thysanura en Collembola</i> (Amsterdam, 1888); +B. Grassi, who published between 1885 and 1889 a series of memoirs +entitled “I progenitori dei Miriapodi e degli Insetti,” in the <i>Atti +Accad. di Scienz. Nat. Catania</i>, and the <i>Memor. R. Accad. dei Lincei</i>; +and V. Willem, whose “Recherches sur les Collemboles et les Thysanoures,” +in <i>Mem. Cour. Acad. Roy. Belgique</i>, lviii., 1900, are +indispensable to the student. In addition to this work of Willem, +valuable anatomical papers on Collembola have been published by +H.J. Hansen (<i>Zool. Anz.</i> xvi., 1893), J.W. Folsom (<i>Bull. Mus. +Comp. Anat. Harv.</i> xxxv., 1899), C. Börner (<i>Zool. Anz.</i> xxiii., 1900), +and K. Absolon (<i>Zool. Anz.</i> xxiii. and xxiv., 1900, 1901), the two +latter writers having paid especial attention to the peculiar post-antennal +and antennal sense-organs of springtails. Absolon has +also written on the Collembola of caves. These writers, with H. +Schött, C. Schäffer and others, have published many systematic +papers on Collembola, as has F. Silvestri on Thysanura. British +species are mentioned in Lubbock’s monograph; for recent additions +see G.H. Carpenter and W. Evans (<i>Proc. R. Phys. Soc. Edinb.</i> xiv., +1899, and xv., 1903).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. H. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APTERAL<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="apteros">ἄπτερος</span>, wingless, <span class="grk" title="a-">ἀ-</span>, privative and +<span class="grk" title="pteros">πτερός</span>, a wing), an architectural term applied to amphiprostyle +temples which have no columns on the sides; in the Ionic temple +on the Acropolis at Athens known as Nike Apteros, the adjective +is used, not as applying to the goddess of victory but to the +absence of any peristyle on the sides.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APTIAN<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Aptien</i>, from Apt in Vaucluse, France), in +geology, the term introduced in 1843 by A. d’Orbigny (<i>Pal. +France Crét.</i> ii.) for the upper stage of the Lower Cretaceous +rocks. In England it comprises the Lower Greensand and part +of the Speeton beds; in France it is divided into two sub-stages, +the lower, “Bedoulian,” of Bedoule in Provence, with <i>Hoplites +deshayesei</i> and <i>Ancyloceras Matheroni</i>; and an upper, “Gargasian,” +from Gargas near Apt, with <i>Hoplites furcatus</i> (<i>Dufrenoyi</i>) +and <i>Phylloceras Guettardi</i>. To this stage belong the <i>Toucasia</i> +limestone and <i>Orbitolina</i> marls of Spain; the <i>Schrattenkalk</i> (part) +of the Alpine and Carpathian regions; and the <i>Terebrirostra</i> +limestone of the same area. Parts of the Flysch of the eastern +Alps, the Biancone of Lombardy, and <i>argile scagliose</i> of Emilia, +are of Aptian age; so also are the “Trinity Beds” of North +America. Deposits of bauxite occur in the Aptian hippurite limestone +at Les Baux near Aries, and in the Pyrenees. The Aptian +rocks are generally clays, marls and green glauconitic sands +with occasional limestones. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greensand</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cretaceous</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APULEIUS, LUCIUS,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> Platonic philosopher and rhetorician, +was born at Madaura in Numidia about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 125. As the son +of one of the principal officials, he received an excellent education, +first at Carthage and subsequently at Athens. After leaving +Athens he undertook a long course of travel, especially in the +East, principally with the view of obtaining initiation into +religious mysteries. Having practised for some time as an +advocate at Rome, he returned to Africa. On a journey to +Alexandria he fell sick at Oea (Tripoli), where he made the +acquaintance of a rich widow, Aemilia Pudentilla, whom he +subsequently married. The members of her family disapproved +of the marriage, and indicted Apuleius on a charge of having +gained her affections by magical arts. He easily established his +innocence, and his spirited, highly entertaining, but inordinately +long defence (<i>Apologia</i> or <i>De Magia</i>) before the proconsul +Claudius Maximus is our principal authority for his biography. +From allusions in his subsequent writings, and the mention of +him by St. Augustine, we gather that the remainder of his +prosperous life was devoted to literature and philosophy. At +Carthage he was elected provincial priest of the imperial cult, in +which capacity he occupied a prominent position in the provincial +council, had the duty of collecting and managing the funds for +the temples of the cult, and the superintendence of the games +in the amphitheatre. He lectured on philosophy and rhetoric, +like the Greek sophists, apparently with success, since statues +were erected in his honour at Carthage and elsewhere. The +year of his death is not known.</p> + +<p>The work on which the fame of Apuleius principally rests has +little claim to originality. The <i>Metamorphoses</i> or <i>Golden Ass</i> +(the latter title seems not to be the author’s own, but to have +been bestowed in compliment, just as the <i>Libri Rerum Quotidianarum</i> +of Gaius were called <i>Aurei</i>) was founded on a narrative +in the <i>Metamorphoses</i> of Lucius of Patrae, a work extant in the +time of Photius. From Photius’s account (impugned, however, +by Wieland and Courier), this book would seem to have consisted +of a collection of marvellous stories, related in an inartistic +fashion, and in perfect good faith. The literary capabilities of +this particular narrative attracted the attention of Apuleius’s +contemporary, Lucian, who proceeded to work it up in his own +manner, adhering, as Photius seems to indicate, very closely to +the original, but giving it a comic and satiric turn. Apuleius +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page235" id="page235"></a>235</span> +followed this rifacimento, making it, however, the groundwork +of an elaborate romance, interspersed with numerous episodes, +of which the beautiful story of Cupid and Psyche is the most +celebrated, and altering the <i>dénouement</i> to suit the religious +revival of which he was an apostle.</p> + +<p>The adventures of the youthful hero in the form of an ass are +much the same in both romances, but in Apuleius he is restored +to human shape by the aid of Isis, into whose mysteries he is +initiated, and finally becomes her priestess. The book is a +remarkable illustration of the contemporary reaction against a +period of scepticism, of the general appetite for miracle and +magic, and of the influx of oriental and Egyptian ideas into the +old theology. It is also composed with a well-marked literary +aim, defined by Kretzschmann as the emulation of the Greek +sophists, and the transplantation of their <i>tours de force</i> into the +Latin language. Nothing, indeed, is more characteristic of +Apuleius than his versatility, unless it be his ostentation and self-confidence +in the display of it. The dignified, the ludicrous, the +voluptuous, the horrible, succeed each other with bewildering +rapidity; fancy and feeling are everywhere apparent, but not +less so affectation, meretricious ornament, and that effort to say +everything finely which prevents anything being said well. The +Latinity has a strong African colouring, and is crammed with +obsolete words, agreeably to the taste of the time. When these +defects are mitigated or overlooked, the <i>Golden Ass</i> will be pronounced +a most successful work, invaluable as an illustration of +ancient manners, and full of entertainment from beginning to +end. The most famous and poetically beautiful portion is the +episode of Cupid and Psyche, adapted from a popular legend of +which traces are found in most fairy mythologies, which explains +the seeming incongruity of its being placed in the mouth of an old +hag. The allegorical purport he has infused into it is his own, +and entirely in the spirit of the Platonic philosophy. Don +Quixote’s adventure with the wine-skins, and Gil Blas’s captivity +among the robbers, are palpably borrowed from Apuleius; and +several of the humorous episodes, probably current as popular +stories long before his time, reappear in Boccaccio.</p> + +<p>Of Apuleius’s other writings, the <i>Apology</i> has been already +mentioned. The <i>Florida</i> (probably meaning simply “anthology,” +without any reference to style) consists of a collection of excerpts +from his declamations, ingenious but highly affected, and in +general perfect examples of the sophistical art of saying nothing +with emphasis. They deal with the most varied subjects, and +are intended to exemplify the author’s versatility. The pleasing +little tract <i>On the God of Socrates</i> expounds the Platonic doctrine +of beneficent daemons, an intermediate class between gods and +men. Two books on Plato (<i>De Platone et Ejus Dogmate</i>) treat of +his life, and his physical and ethical philosophy; a third, treating +of logic, is generally considered spurious. The <i>De Mundo</i> is an +adaptation of the <span class="grk" title="Peri kosmou">Περὶ κόσμόυ</span> wrongly attributed to Aristotle. +Apuleius informs us that he had also composed numerous poems +in almost all possible styles, and several works on natural history, +some in Greek. In the preparation of these he seems to have +attended more closely to actual anatomical research than was +customary with ancient naturalists. Some other works—dealing +with theology, the properties of herbs, medical remedies and +physiognomy, are wrongly attributed to him.</p> + +<p>The character of Apuleius, as delineated by himself, is attractive; +he appears vehement and passionate, but devoid of +rancour; enterprising, munificent, genial and an enthusiast +for the beautiful and good. His vanity and love of display are +conspicuous, but are extenuated by a genuine thirst for knowledge +and a surprising versatility of attainments. He prided +himself on his proficiency in both Greek and Latin. His place in +letters is accidentally more important than his genius strictly +entitles him to hold. He is the only extant example in Latin +literature of an accomplished sophist in the good sense of the +term. The loss of other ancient romances has secured him a +peculiar influence on modern fiction; while his chronological +position in a transitional period renders him at once the evening +star of the Platonic, and the morning star of the Neo-Platonic +philosophy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Complete works: Editio princeps, ed. Andreas +(1469); Oudendorp (1786-1823); Hildebrand (1842); Helm (1905 et +seq.); P. Thomas (vol. iii. 1908). <i>Metamorphoses</i>, Eyssenhardt (1869), +van der Vliet (1897). <i>Psyche et Cupido</i>, Jahn-Michaelis (1883); Beck +(1902). <i>Apologia</i>, I. Casaubon (1594); Krüger (1864); (with the +<i>Florida</i>), van der Vliet (1900). <i>Florida</i>, Krüger (1883). <i>De Deo +Socratis</i>, Buckley (1844), Lütjohann (1878). <i>De Platone et ejus Dogmate</i>, +Goldbacher (1876) (including <i>De Mundo</i> and <i>De Deo Socratis</i>). +For the relation between Lucian’s <span class="grk" title="Onos">Ὄνος</span> and the <i>Metamorphoses</i> of +Apuleius, see Rohde, <i>Über Lucians Schrift <span class="grk" title="Loukios">Λούκιος</span></i> (1869), and +Burger, <i>De Lucio Patrensi</i> (1887). On the style of Apuleius consult +Kretzschmann, <i>De Latinitate L. Apulei</i> (1865), and Koziol, <i>Der Stil +des A.</i> (1872). There is a complete English translation of the works +of Apuleius in Bohn’s Classical Library. The translations and +imitations of the <i>Golden Ass</i> in modern languages are numerous: +in English, by Adlington, 1566 and later eds. (reissued in the Tudor +translations and Temple Classics), Taylor (1822) (including the +philosophical works), Head (1851). Of the Cupid and Psyche episode +there are recent translations by Robert Bridges (1895) (in verse), +Stuttaford (1903); and it is beautifully introduced by Walter Pater +into his <i>Marius the Epicurean</i>. This episode has afforded the subject +of a drama to Thomas Heywood, and of narrative poems to Shakerley +Marmion, Mrs. Tighe, and William Morris (in the <i>Earthly Paradise</i>).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APULIA<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (sometimes <span class="sc">Appulia</span> in manuscripts but never in +inscriptions), the district inhabited in ancient times by the +Apuli. Strictly a Samnite tribe (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Samnites</a></span>) settled round +Mount Garganus on the east coast of Italy (Strabo vi. 3. 11), +the Apuli mingled with the Iapygian tribes of that part of the +coast (Dauni, Peucetii, Poediculi) who, like the Messapii, had +come from Illyria, so that the name Apulia reached down to the +border of the ancient Calabria. Almost the only monument of +Samnite speech from the district is the famous <i>Tabula Bantina</i> +from Bantia, a small city just inside the Peucetian part of Apulia, +on the Lucanian border. This inscription is one of the latest +and in some ways the most important monument of Oscan, +though showing what appear to be some southern peculiarities +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Osca Lingua</a></span>). Its date is almost certainly between 118 +and 90 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and it shows that Latin had not even then spread +over the district (cf. <span class="sc">Lucania</span>). Far older than this are some +coins from Ausculum and Teate (later known as Teanum Apulum), +of which the earliest belong to the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Roman or +Latin colonies were few, Luceria (planted 314 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) in the north +and Brundisium (soon after 268) being the chief. (See R.S. +Conway, <i>Italic Dialects</i>, xxviii.-xxx. pp. 15 f.; and Mommsen’s +introduction to the opening sections of <i>C.I.L.</i> ix.)</p> +<div class="author">(R. S. C.)</div> + +<p>The wars of the 4th and 3rd centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span> brought a great +part of the pastures of the Apulian plain into the hands of the +Roman state, and a tax was paid on every head of cattle and +every sheep, at first to the tax farmer and later to the imperial +procurator. It was under the Romans that the system of +migration for the flocks reached its full development, and the +practice is still continued; the sheep-tracks (<i>tratturi</i>), 350 ft. +wide, leading from the mountains of the Abruzzi to the plain +of Apulia date in the main at least from the Roman period, and +are mentioned in inscriptions. The plain, however, which once +served as winter grazing ground for a million sheep, now gives +pasture to about one-half of that number.<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The shepherds, +who were slaves, often gave considerable trouble; we hear that +some 7000 of them, who had made the whole country unsafe, +were condemned to death in 185 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Livy xxxix. 29). Sheep-farming +on a large scale was no doubt detrimental to the interests +of the towns. We hear of repeated risings, for the last time in +the Social War. Even in the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the then chief town +of Apulia, Teate or Teanum Apulum (see above), suffered in this +way. Luceria subsequently took its place, largely owing to its +military importance; but under the Empire it was succeeded +by Canusium.</p> + +<p>The road system of Apulia, which touched all the important +towns, consisted of three main lines, the Via Appia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Appia, +Via</a></span>), the Via Traiana, and the coast road, running more or less +parallel in an east-south-east direction. The first (the southernmost), +coming east from Beneventum, entered Apulia at the +Pons Aufidi, and ran through Venusia to Tarentum, and thence, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page236" id="page236"></a>236</span> +turning north-east, to Brundusium. The second, coming north-east +from Beneventum, turned east at Aecae, and ran through +Herdoniae, Canusium, Butuntum, Barium and Gnathia (Gnatia) +to Brundusium. There was also a short cut from Butuntum to +Gnathia through Caelia, keeping inland. The third parallel +line ran to the north of the Via Traiana, in continuation of the +road along the north-east coast of Picenum and Samnium; +it entered Apulia near Larinum (whence a branch ran south to +Bovianum Undecimanorum), and thence, keeping in the plain +to the south of the Mons Garganus, rejoined the coast at Sipontum, +where it received a branch road from the Via Traiana at +Aecae, passing through Luceria and Arpi. It then passed +through Barduli (where it was joined by a road from Canusium +by way of Cannae) to Barium, where it joined the Via Traiana. +From Barium a road probably ran direct to Caelia, and thence +south-south-east to join the Via Appia some 25 m. north-west +of Tarentum.</p> + +<p>Barium was an important harbour, though less so than +Brundusium and Tarentum, which, however, belonged to +Calabria in the Roman sense. Apulia, with Calabria, formed +the second region of Augustus, though we once find Calabria +treated as a part of the third region, Lucania (<i>C.I.L.</i> ix. 2213). +The Hannibalic and later wars had, Strabo tells us, destroyed +the former prosperity of the country; in imperial times we hear +little or nothing of it. Both were governed by a <i>corrector</i> from +the time of Constantine onwards, but in 668 the Lombards +conquered Calabria and Apulia, and it was then that the former +name was transferred to Bruttium, the meaning of the latter +being extended to include Calabria also. In the 10th century +the greater part of this territory was recovered by the Byzantine +emperors, whose governor was called <span class="grk" title="Katapanos">Καταπανός</span>, a name which, +under the corrupt form Capitanata, belonged to the province +of Foggia till 1861. It was conquered by the Normans under +William Bras-de-fer, who took the title of <i>comes Apuliae</i> in 1042; +it was raised to a dukedom with Calabria by Robert Guiscard in +1059, and united to the Sicilian monarchy in 1127. Many of the +important towns possess fine Romanesque cathedrals, constructed +under the Normans and the Hohenstaufen rulers. It +shared the subsequent fate of Sicily, becoming a part of the +kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1734, and being united with +Italy in 1861.</p> + +<p>Modern Apulia comprises the three provinces of Foggia, Bari +and Lecce (the latter corresponding roughly with the ancient +Calabria, which, however, extended somewhat farther +north inland), and is often known as Le Puglie; it +<span class="sidenote">Modern Apulia.</span> +stretches from Monte Gargano to the south-east extremity +of Italy, with an area of 7376 sq. m.; it is bounded on +the north and east by the Adriatic, on the south-east by the +Gulf of Taranto, on the south by Basilicata and on the west +by Campania and the Abruzzi. The three provinces correspond +to the three natural divisions into which it falls. That of Foggia, +though it has mountains on the west and south-west boundary, +and the Monte Gargano at its north-east extremity, is in the main +a great plain called the Tavoliere (chessboard) di Puglia, with +considerable lagoons on its north and east coast. That of Bari, +east-south-east of Foggia and divided from it by the Ofanto +(Aufidus), the only considerable river of Apulia, 104 m. long, is +a hilly district with a coast strip along which are the majority +of the towns—the lack of villages is especially noticeable; in the +<i>circondario</i> of Barletta, the north-east portion of the province, +there are only eleven communes, with a total population of +335,934. That of Lecce, to the east-south-east again, is a low +flat limestone terrace.</p> + +<p>The industries of Apulia are mainly pastoral or agricultural. +Besides sheep, a considerable number of horses, cattle and swine +are bred; while despite the lack of water, which is the great +need of modern Apulia (in 1906 arrangements were made for +a great aqueduct, to supply the three provinces from the headwaters +of the Sele), cultivation is actively carried on, especially +in the province of Bari, where grain, wine, olives, almonds, +lemons, oranges, tobacco, &c., are produced in abundance, and +the export of olive oil is attaining considerable importance. The +salt works of Margherita di Savoia produce large quantities +of salt, and nitre is extracted near Molfetta.</p> + +<p>Railway communications are fairly good, the main line from +Bologna to Brindisi passing through the whole length of Apulia, +by way of Foggia and Bari, and having branches from Foggia +(the main railway centre of Apulia) to Benevento and Caserta, +to Manfredonia, to Lucera and to Rocchetta S. Antonio (and +thence to either Avellino, Potenza or Gioia del Colle), from +Ofantino to Margherita di Savoia, from Barletta to Spinazzola +(between Rocchetta S. Antonio and Gioia del Colle), from Bari +to Putignano, and via Gioia del Colle to Taranto, and from +Brindisi to Taranto, and to Lecce and Otranto; besides which, +there is a steam tramway from Barletta to Bari via Andria.</p> + +<p>The most important harbours of Apulia are Brindisi, Bari, +Taranto, Barletta, Molfetta and Gallipoli. The export of olive +oil to foreign countries from the province of Lecce in 1905 +amounted to 1048 tons, as against 3395 in 1901; but that to +home ports increased from 7077 to 9025 tons in the same period. +The production of wine was 358,953 tons in 1905 as against +203,995 tons in 1901 (an exceptionally bad year) and 284,156 +tons in 1902. Of this 211,872 tons were forwarded by rail and +sea, in the proportion of five to two respectively, the rest being +used for home consumption and as a reserve. The cultivation +of oriental tobacco is extending in the province (see <i>Consular +Report</i>, No. 3672, July 1906).</p> + +<p>The population of the province of Foggia was 425,450 (1901) +as against 322,755 in 1871, the chief towns being Foggia (53,151), +Cerignola (34,195), S. Severo (30,040), Monte S. Angelo (21,870), +S. Marco in Lamis (17,309), Lucera (17,515); that of Bari, +827,698 (1901) as against 604,540 in 1871, the chief towns being +Bari (77,478), Andria (49,569), Barletta (42,022), Corato (41,573), +Molfetta (40,135), Trani (31,800), Bisceglie (30,885), Bitonto +(30,617), Canosa (24,169), Ruvo (23,776), Terlizzi (23,232), +Altamura(22,729), Monopoli (22,545), Gioia del Colle (21,721); +that of Lecce, 706,520 (1901) as against 493,594 in 1871, the chief +towns being Taranto (60,733), Lecce (32,687), Brindisi (25,317), +Martina Franca (25,007), Ostuni (22,997), Francavilla Fontana +(20,422), Ceglie Messapica (16,867), Nardo (14,387), Galatina +(14,071), Gallipoli (13,552), Manduria (13,113).</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The migration was made compulsory by Alphonso I. in 1442, +and remained so until 1865. Since that time the <i>tratturi</i> have been +to some extent absorbed by private proprietors.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APURÉ,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> a river of western Venezuela, formed by the confluence +of the Sarare and Uribante at 6° 45′ N. lat. and 71° W. long., +and flowing eastward across the Venezuelan <i>llanos</i> to a junction +with the Orinoco at about 7° 40′ N. lat. and 66° 45′ W. long. Its +drainage area includes the slopes of both the Colombian and +Venezuelan Andes. It has a sluggish course across the <i>llanos</i> +for about 300 m., and is navigable throughout its length. Its +principal tributaries are the Caparro, Portuguesa and Guarico on +the north, and the Caucagua on the south. Its lateral channels +on the south mingle with those of the Arauca for many miles, +forming an extensive district subject to annual inundations.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APURIMAC,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> a river of central Peru, rising in the Laguna de +Villafra in the western Cordilleras, 7 m. from Caylloma, a village +in the department of Arequipa, and less than 100 m. from the +Pacific coast. It flows first north-easterly, then north-westerly +past Cuzco to the mouth of the Perené tributary, thence east and +north to its junction with the Ucayali at 10° 41′ S. lat., and +73° 34′ W. long. It is known as the Apurimac only down to the +mouth of the Mantaro tributary, 11° 45′ S. lat. and 1325 ft. above +sea-level. Thence to the mouth of the Perene (984 ft.) it is known +as the Ené, and from that point to its junction with the Ucayali +(859 ft.) as the Tambo.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">APURIMAC,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> an interior department of southern Peru, bounded +N. by the department of Ayacucho, E. by Cuzco, S. and W. by +Cuzco and Ayacucho. Area, 8187 sq. m.; pop. (1896) 177,387. +The department was created in 1873 and comprises five provinces. +Its physical features and productions are very similar to those of +Ayacucho (<i>q.v.</i>), with the exception that sugar-cane is cultivated +with noteworthy success in the low valley of the province of +Abancay. The capital, Abancay, 110 m. south-west of Cuzco, +which is only a village in size but is rich in historical associations +and Andahuaylas, in the north-west part of the department, are +its principal towns.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page237" id="page237"></a>237</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">APYREXIA<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="apyrexia">ἀπυρεξία</span>, from <span class="grk" title="a-">ἀ-</span>, privative, <span class="grk" title="pyressein">πυρέσσειν</span>, +to be in a fever, <span class="grk" title="pyr">πῦρ</span>, fire, fever), in pathology, the normal interval +or period of intermission in a fever.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">‛AQĪBA BEN JOSEPH<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 50-132), Jewish Palestinian rabbi, +of the circle known as <i>tana</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). It is almost impossible to +separate the true from the false in the numerous traditions +respecting his life. He became the chief teacher in the rabbinical +school of Jaffa, where, it is said, he had 24,000 scholars. Whatever +their number, it seems certain that among them was the +celebrated Rabbi Meir, and that through him and others ‛Aqība +exerted a great influence on the development of the doctrines +embodied in the Mishnah. He sided with Bar Cochebas in the +last Jewish revolt against Rome, recognized him as the Messiah, +and acted as his sword-bearer. Being taken prisoner by the +Romans under Julius Severus, he was flayed alive with circumstances +of great cruelty, and met his fate, according to tradition, +with marvellous steadfastness and composure. He is said by +some to have been a hundred and twenty years old at the time +of his death. He is one of the ten Jewish martyrs whose names +occur in a penitential prayer still used in the synagogue service. +‛Aqība was among the first to systematize the Jewish tradition, +and he paved the way for the compilation of the Mishnah. +From his school emanated the Greek translation of the scriptures +by Aquila.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AQUAE<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (Lat. for “waters”), a name given by the Romans +to sites where mineral springs issued from the earth. Over a +hundred can be identified, some declaring by their modern names +their ancient use: Aix-les-Bains in Savoy (<i>Aquae Sabaudicae</i>), +Aix-en-Provence (<i>Aquae Sextiae</i>), Aix-la-Chapelle or Aachen +(<i>Aquae Grani</i>), &c. Only two occur in Britain: <i>Aquae Sulis</i>—less +correctly <i>Aquae Solis</i>—at Bath in Somerset, which was +famous, and Buxton (called <i>Aquae</i> simply), which seems to +have been far less important. Aquae Sulis was occupied by +the Romans almost as soon as they entered the island in +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 43, and flourished till the end of the Roman period. It was +frequented by soldiers quartered in Britain, by the Britons, and +by visitors from north Gaul, and its name was known in Italy, +though patients probably seldom travelled so far. Like most +mineral springs known to the ancients, it was under the protection +of a local deity, the Celtic Sul, whom the Romans equated +with their Minerva. Stately remains of its baths and temple +have been found at various times, especially in 1790 and 1878-1895, +and may still be seen there.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AQUAE CUTILIAE,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> a mineral spring in Italy, near the modern +Cittaducale, 9 m. E. of Rieti. The lake near it was supposed +by classical writers to be the central point of Italy, and was +renowned for its floating islands, which, as in other cases, were +formed from the partial petrification of plants by the mineral +substances contained in the water. Considerable remains of +baths may still be seen there—they were apparently resorted to +by both Vespasian and Titus in their last illnesses, for both died +there.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AQUAMARINE<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (Lat. <i>aqua marina</i>, “water of the sea”), a +transparent variety of beryl (<i>q.v.</i>), having a delicate blue or +bluish-green colour, suggestive of the tint of sea-water. It +occurs at most localities which yield ordinary beryl, some of +the finest coming from Russia. The gem-gravels of Ceylon +contain aquamarine. Clear yellow beryl, such as occurs in +Brazil, is sometimes called aquamarine chrysolite. When +corundum presents the bluish tint of typical aquamarine, it is +often termed Oriental aquamarine.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AQUARELLE<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (from Ital. <i>acquarella</i>, water-colour), a form of +painting with thin water-colour or ink.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AQUARII,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> a name given to the Christians who substituted +water for wine in the Eucharist. They were not a sect, for we +find the practice widely in vogue at an early time, even among +the orthodox. In Greek they were called <i>Hydroparastatae</i>, or +those who offer water. Theodosius, in his persecuting edict of +382, classes them as a special sect with the Manicheans, who also +eschewed wine. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eucharist</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AQUARIUM<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (plural <i>aquaria</i>), the name given to a receptacle +for a marine flora and fauna. Until comparatively recently, +aquaria were little more than domestic toys, or show-places +of a popular character, but they have now not only assumed +a profound scientific importance for the convenient study of +anatomical and physiological problems in marine botany and +zoology, but have also attained an economic value, as offering +the best opportunities for that study of the habits and environment +of marketable food-fish without which no steps for the +improvement of sea-fisheries can be safely taken. The numerous +“zoological stations” which have sprung up, chiefly in Europe +and the United States, but also in the British colonies and Japan, +often endeavour to unite these two aims, and have in many cases +become centres of experimental work in problems relating to +fisheries, as well as in less directly practical subjects. Of these +stations, the oldest and the most important is that at Naples, +which, though designed for purely scientific objects, also encourages +popular study by means of a public aquarium. The +following account (1902) of this station by Dr W. Giesbrecht, +a member of the staff, will serve to show the methods and +aims, and the complex and expensive equipment, of a modern +aquarium:—</p> + +<p>“The zoological station at Naples is an institution for the +advancement of biological science—that is, of comparative +anatomy, zoology, botany, physiology. It serves this end by +providing the biologist with the various objects of his study +and the necessary appliances; it is not a teaching institution. +The station was founded by Dr Anton Dohrn, and opened in the +spring of 1874; it is the oldest and largest of all biological +stations, of which there are now about thirty in existence. Its +two buildings are situated near the seashore in the western town +park (Villa Nazionale) of Naples. The older and larger one, +33 metres long, 24 m. deep, 16 m. high, contains on the ground +floor the aquarium, which is open to the public. On the first floor +there is, facing south, the principal library, ornamented with +fresco paintings, and, facing north, a large hall containing twelve +working tables, several smaller rooms and the secretarial offices. +On the second floor is the physiological laboratory, and on the +third floor the small library, a hall with several working tables, +and the dark rooms used in developing photographs. The ground +floor of the smaller building, which was finished in 1887, contains +the rooms in which the animals are delivered, sorted and preserved, +and the fishing tackle kept, together with the workshop +of the engineer; on the first and second floors are workrooms, +amongst others the botanical laboratory; on the third floor are +store-rooms. In the basement of both buildings, which is continued +underneath the court, there are sea-water cisterns and +filters, engines and store-rooms. The materials for study which +the station offers to the biologist are specimens of marine animals +and plants which abound in the western part of the Mediterranean, +and especially in the Gulf of Naples. To obtain these, +two screw-steamers and several rowing boats are required, which +are moored in the harbour of Mergellina, situated close by. The +larger steamer, ‘Johannes Müller’ (15 m. long, 2½ m. wide, +1 m. draught), which can steam eight to ten English miles per +hour, is provided with a steam dredge working to a depth of +eighty fathoms. From the small steamer, ‘Frank Balfour,’ +and the rowing boats, the fishing is done by means of tow-nets. +Besides these there are fishermen and others who daily supply +living material for study. The plankton (small floating animals) +is distributed in the morning, other animals as required. The +animals brought in by the fishermen are at once distributed +amongst the biologists, whereas the material brought up by the +dredges is placed in flat revolving wooden vessels, so as to give +the smaller animals time to come out of their hiding-places. +The students who work in the station have the first claim on +specimens of plants and animals; but specimens are also supplied +to museums, laboratories and schools, and to individuals +engaged in original research elsewhere. Up to the present time +about 4000 such parcels have been despatched, and not infrequently +live specimens of animals are sent to distant places. +This side of the work has been of very great value to science. +The principal appliances for study with which the station provides +the biologist are workrooms furnished with the apparatus +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page238" id="page238"></a>238</span> +and chemicals necessary for anatomical research and physiological +experiments and tanks. Every student receives a tank +for his own special use. The large tanks of the principal +aquarium are also at his disposal for purposes of observation +and experiment if necessary.</p> + +<p>“The water in the tanks is kept fresh by continual circulation, +and is thus charged with the oxygen necessary to the life of the +organisms. It is not pumped into the tanks directly from the +sea, but from three large cisterns (containing 300 cubic metres), +to which it again returns from the tanks. The water wasted or +evaporated during this process is replaced by new water pumped +into the cisterns directly from the sea. The water flows from +the large cisterns into a smaller cistern, from which it is +distributed by means of an electric pump through vulcanite or +lead pipes to the various tanks. The water with which the +tanks on the upper floors are filled is first pumped into large +wooden tanks placed beneath the roof, thence it flows, under +almost constant pressure, into the tanks. The water circulated +in this manner contains by far the largest number of such +animals as are capable of living in captivity in good condition. +Some of them even increase at an undesirable rate, and it +sometimes happens that young Mytilus or Ciona stop up the pipes; +in laying these, therefore, due regard must be had to the arrangements +for cleaning. For the cultivation of very delicate animals +it is necessary to keep the water absolutely free from harmful bacteria; +for this purpose large sand-filters have lately been placed in the +system, through which the water passes after leaving the cisterns. Each +of the smaller cisterns, which are fixed in the workrooms, consist of +two water-tanks, placed one above the other; their frames are of wrought +iron and the walls generally of glass. Vessels containing minute animals +can be placed between these two tanks, receiving their water through a +siphon from the upper tank; the water afterwards flows away into the +lower tank.</p> + +<p>“The twenty-six tanks of the public aquarium (the largest of +which contains 112 cubic metres of water) have stone walls, the +front portion alone being made of glass. As the tanks hold a +very large number of animals in proportion to the quantity of +water, they require to be well aerated. The pipes through which +the water is conducted are therefore placed above the surface of +the water, and the fresh supply is driven through them under +strong pressure. A large quantity of air in the form of fine +bubbles is thus taken to the bottom of the tank and distributed +through the entire mass of water. Should the organisms which +it is desired to keep alive be very minute, there is a danger of +their being washed away by the circulating water. To obviate +this, either the water which flows away is passed through a +strainer, or the water is not changed at all, air being driven +through it by means of an apparatus put into motion by the +drinking-water supply.</p> + +<p>“The library contains about 9000 volumes, which students use +with the help of a slip catalogue, arranged according to authors. +The station has published at intervals since 1879 two periodicals +treating of the organisms of the Mediterranean. One is <i>Fauna +und Flora des Golfes van Neapel</i>, the other <i>Mittheilungen aus der +zoologischen Station zu Neapel</i>. The former consists of monographs +in which special groups of animals and plants are most +exhaustively treated and the Mediterranean species portrayed +according to life in natural colours; up to the present time +twenty-one zoological and five botanical monographs have appeared, +making altogether 1200 4to sheets with about 400 plates. +Of the Mittheilungen, which contain smaller articles on organisms +of the Mediterranean, fourteen volumes in 8vo have been published. +The station also publishes a <i>Zoologischer Jahresbericht</i>, +which at first treated of the entire field of zoology, but since 1886 +has been confined principally to comparative anatomy and +ontogeny; it appears eight to nine months after the end of the +year reported. The <i>Guide to the Aquarium</i>, with its descriptions +and numerous pictures, is meant to give the lay visitor an idea +of the marine animal world.</p> + +<p>“There are about forty officials, amongst them six zoologists, +one physiologist, one secretary, two draughtsmen, one engineer. +The station is a private institution, open to biologists of all +nations under the following conditions: there are agreements +with the governments of Austria, Baden, Bavaria, Belgium, +Hamburg, Holland, Hesse, Italy, Prussia, Russia, Saxony, +Switzerland, Hungary, Württemberg, the province of Naples, and +the universities of Cambridge, Oxford, Strassburg, Columbia +College (New York), and the British Association for the Advancement +of Science, the Smithsonian Institution, and a society of +women in the United States of North America (formerly also with +Bulgaria, Rumania, Spain, the Academy of Sciences in Berlin, +Williams College, University of Pennsylvania), by virtue of which +the governments and corporate bodies named have the right, on +payment of £100 per annum, to send a worker to the station; +this places at his disposal a ‘table’ or workplace, furnished +with all the necessary appliances and materials as set down in +the agreement. At present there are agreements for thirty-three +tables, and since the foundation of the station nearly 1200 +biologists have worked there. The current expenses are paid +out of the table-rents, the entrance fees to the public aquarium, +and an annual subvention paid by the German empire.”</p> + +<p>In England a station on similar lines, but on a smaller scale, +is maintained at Plymouth by the Marine Biological Association +of the United Kingdom, with the help of subsidies from the +government and the Fishmongers’ Company.</p> + +<p>Little difficulty is experienced in maintaining, breeding and +rearing fresh-water animals in captivity, but for many various +reasons it is only by unremitting attention and foresight that +most marine animals can be kept even alive in aquaria, and very +few indeed can be maintained in a condition healthy enough +to breed. Much experience, however, has been gained of late +years at considerable expense, both in England and abroad. In +starting a marine aquarium of whatever size, it should be obvious +that the first consideration must be a supply of the purest possible +water, as free as may be, not only from land-drainage and sewage, +but also from such suspended matters as chalk, fine sand or mud. +This is most ideally and economically secured by placing the +station a few feet above high-water mark, in as sheltered a +position as possible, on a rocky coast, pumping from the sea to +a large reservoir above the station, and allowing the water to +circulate gently thence through the tanks by gravity (Banyuls). +At an inland aquarium (Berlin, Hamburg), given pure water +in the first instance, excellent if less complete results may nevertheless, +be obtained. The next consideration is the method by +which oxygen is to be supplied to the organisms in the aquarium. +Of the two methods hitherto in use, that of pumping a jet of air +into tanks otherwise stagnant or nearly so (Brighton), while +supplying sufficient oxygen, has so many other disadvantages, +that it has not been employed regularly in any of the more +modern aquaria. It is, however, still useful in aerating quite +small bodies of water in which hardy and minute organisms +can be isolated and kept under control. In the other method, +now in general use, a fine jet of water under pressure falls on +to the surface of the tank; this carries down with it a more +than sufficient air-supply, analysis showing in some cases a +higher percentage of oxygen in aquarium water than in the +open sea.</p> + +<p>The water supply is best effected by gravity from reservoirs +placed above the tanks, but may be also achieved by direct +pumping from low reservoirs or from the sea to the tanks. +Provided that an unlimited supply of pure water can be obtained +cheaply, the overflow from the tanks is best run to waste; but +in aquaria less fortunately placed, it returns to a storage low-level +reservoir, from which it is again pumped, thus circulating +round and round (Naples, Plymouth). The storage reservoirs +should be in all cases very large in comparison with the bulk of +water in circulation; if practicable, they should be excavated +in rock, and lined with the best cement. Thera is no reason +why they should not be shallow, exposed to light and air, and +cultivated as rock-pools by the introduction of seaweeds and +small animals, but they must then be screened from rain, cold +and dust. The pumps used in circulation will be less likely to +kill minute animals if of the plunger or ram type, rather than +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page239" id="page239"></a>239</span> +rotary, and should be of gun-metal or one of the new bronze-alloys +which take a patina in salt water. For the circulating +pipes many materials have been tried. Vulcanite is not only +expensive and brittle, but has other disadvantages; common +iron pipes, coated internally with cement or asphalt or glazed +internally, with all unions and joints cemented, have been used +with more or less success. Probably best of all is common lead +piping, the joints being served with red-lead; water should be +circulated through such pipes till they become coated with insoluble +carbonate, for some time before animals are put into the +tanks. For small installations glass may be used, the joints +being made with marine glue or other suitable cement.</p> + +<p>In building the tanks themselves, regard must be had to their +special purposes. If intended for show-tanks for popular admiration, +or for the study of large animals, they must be large +with a plate-glass front; for ordinary scientific work small +tanks with all sides opaque are preferable from every point of +view. According to their character, size and position, fixed tanks +may be of brickwork, masonry or rock, coated in each case with +cement; asphalting the sides offers no particular advantages, +and often gives rise to great trouble and expense. All materials, +and especially the cements, must be of the finest quality procurable. +For smaller and movable tanks, slate slabs bolted or +screwed together have some disadvantages, notably those of +expense, weight and brittleness, but are often used. Better, +cheaper and lighter, if less permanent, are tanks of wood bolted +together, pitched internally. Glass bell-jars, useful in particular +cases, should generally have their sides darkened, except when +required for observation. Provision should always be made +for cleaning every part of the tanks, pipes and reservoirs; all +rock-work in tanks should therefore be removable. As regards +the lighting of fixed tanks, it should always be directly from +above. In all tanks with glass sides, whether large or small, +as much light as possible should be kept from entering through +the glass; otherwise, with a side-light, many animals become +restless, and wear themselves out against the glass, affected by +even so little light as comes through an opposite tank.</p> + +<p>In cases where distance from the sea or other causes make it +impracticable to allow the overflow from the tanks to run to +waste, special precautions must be taken to keep the water pure. +Chemically speaking, the chief character of the water in an +aquarium circulation, when compared with that of the open sea, +lies in the excessive quantity of nitrogen present in various forms, +and the reduced alkalinity; these two being probably connected. +The excess of nitrogen is referable to dead animals, to waste +food and to the excreta of the living organisms. The first two +of these sources of contamination may be reduced by care +and cleanliness, and by the maintenance of a flow of water +sufficient to prevent the excessive accumulation of sediment +in the tanks. The following experiment shows the rapid rise +of nitrogen if unchecked. A tank with a considerable fauna +was isolated from the general circulation and aerated by four +air-jets, except during hours 124-166 of the experiment; +column I. shows per 100,000 the nitrogen estimated as ammonia, +column II. the total inorganic nitrogen:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">I.</td> <td class="tcc">II.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sea-water at source of original supply</td> <td class="tcc">0.001</td> <td class="tcc">0.003</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Aquarium water in tank at commencement of experiment</td> <td class="tcc">0.012</td> <td class="tcc">0.400</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">After 22½ hours</td> <td class="tcc">0.020</td> <td class="tcc">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> ”   75  ”</td> <td class="tcc">0.025</td> <td class="tcc">1.200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> ”   93  ”</td> <td class="tcc">0.019</td> <td class="tcc">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> ”  121½  ”</td> <td class="tcc">0.012</td> <td class="tcc">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> ”  141  ”</td> <td class="tcc">0.015</td> <td class="tcc">2.200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> ”  165  ”</td> <td class="tcc">0.025</td> <td class="tcc">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> ”  169  ”</td> <td class="tcc">0.025</td> <td class="tcc">· ·</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> ”  189  ”</td> <td class="tcc">0.012</td> <td class="tcc">· ·</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">During this time the alkalinity was reduced to the equivalent of +30 mg. CaCO<span class="su">3</span> per litre, ocean water having an alkalinity equivalent +to 50-55 mg. per litre. It has been suggested that the organic +nitrogen becomes oxidized into nitrous, then into nitric acid, +which lowers the carbonate values. A great deal of reduction +of this nitrogenous contamination can be effected by filtration, +a method first introduced successfully at Hamburg, where a +most thriving aquarium has been maintained by the local +Zoological Society for many years on the circulation principle, +new water being added only to compensate for waste and evaporation. +The filters consist of open double boxes, the inner +having a bottom of perforated slate on which rests rough gravel; +on the latter is fine gravel, then coarse, and finally fine sand. +Filtration may be either upwards or downwards through the +inner box to the outer. Such filters, intercalated between tanks +and reservoir, have been shown by analysis to stop a very large +proportion of nitrogenous matter. It is doubtful whether +aquarium water will not always show an excess of nitrogenous +compounds, but they must be kept down in every way possible. +In small tanks, well lighted, seaweeds can be got to flourish in +a way that has not been found practicable in large tanks with +a circulation; these, with Lamellibranchs and small Crustacea +as scavengers, will be found useful in this connexion. Slight +or occasional circulation should be employed here also, to remove +the film of dust and other matters, which otherwise covers the +surface of the water and prevents due oxygenation.</p> + +<p>In such small tanks for domestic use the fauna must be +practically limited to bottom-living animals, but for purposes of +research it is often desired to keep alive larval and other surface-swimming +animals (plankton). In this case a further difficulty +is presented, that of helping to suspend the animals in the water, +and thus to avoid the exhaustion and death which soon follow +their unaided efforts to keep off the bottom; this duty is effected +in nature by specific gravity, tide and surface current. In +order to deal with this difficulty a simple but efficient apparatus +has been devised by Mr E.T. Browne; a “plunger,” generally +a glass plate or filter funnel, moves slowly up and down in a +bell-jar or other small tank, with a period of rest between each +stroke; the motive power is obtained through a simple bucket-and-siphon +arrangement worked by the overflow from other +tanks. This apparatus (first used at the Plymouth Laboratory +of the Marine Biological Association in 1897, and since introduced +into similar institutions), by causing slight eddies in the water, +keeps the floating fauna in suspension, and has proved very successful +in rearing larvae and in similar work.</p> +<div class="author">(G. H. Fo.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AQUARIUS<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (the “Water-bearer” or “Cup-bearer”), in +astronomy, the eleventh sign of the zodiac (<i>q.v.</i>), situated +between Capricornus and Pisces. Its symbol is <img style="width:25px; height:13px" src="images/img239.jpg" alt="" />, representing +part of a stream of water, probably in allusion to the fact that +when the sun is in this part of the heavens (January, February) +the weather is rainy. It is also a constellation mentioned by +Eudoxus (4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and Aratus (3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>); +Ptolemy catalogued forty-five stars, Tycho Brahe forty-one, +Hevelius forty-seven. ζ <i>Aquarii</i> is a well-defined binary, +having both components of the fourth magnitude; it is probably +of long period.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AQUATINT<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (Lat. <i>aqua</i>, water, and <i>tincta</i>, dyed), a kind of +etching (<i>q.v.</i>) which imitates washes with a brush. There are +many ways of preparing a plate for aquatint, the following being +recommended by P.G. Hamerton. Have three different solutions +of rosin in rectified alcohol, making them of various degrees +of strength, but always thin enough to be quite fluid, the weakest +solution being almost colourless. First pour the strongest +solution on the plate. When it dries it will produce a granulation; +and you may now bite as in ordinary etching for your +darker tones, stopping out what the acid is not to operate upon, +or you may use a brush charged with acid, perchloride of iron +being a very good mordant for the purpose. After cleaning the +plate, you proceed with the weaker solutions in the same way, +the weakest giving the finest granulation for skies, distances, &c. +The process requires a good deal of stopping-out, and some +burnishing, scraping, &c., at last. Aquatint may be effectively +used in combination with line etching, and still more harmoniously +with soft ground etching in which the line imitates that of +the lead pencil.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AQUAVIVA, CLAUDIO<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1542-1615), fifth general of the +Jesuits, the youngest son of the duke d’Altri, was born at Naples. +He joined the Jesuits at Rome in 1567, and his high administrative +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page240" id="page240"></a>240</span> +gifts marked him out for the highest posts. He was soon +nominated provincial of Naples and then of Rome; and during +this office he offered to join the Jesuit mission to England that +set out under Robert Parsons (<i>q.v.</i>) in the spring of 1580. The +following year, being then only thirty-seven years old, he was +elected, by a large majority, general of the society in succession +to Mercurian, to the great surprise of Gregory XIII.; but the +extraordinary political ability he displayed, and the vast increase +that came to the Society during his long generalate, abundantly +justified the votes of the electors. He, together with Lainez, +may be regarded as the real founder of the Society as it is known +to history. A born ruler, he secured all authority in his own +hands, and insisted that those who prided themselves on their +obedience should act up to the profession. In his first letter +“On the happy increase of the Society” (25th of July 1581), he +treats of the necessary qualifications for superiors, and points +out that government should be directed not by the maxims of +human wisdom but by those of supernatural prudence. He +successfully quelled a revolt among the Spanish Jesuits, which +was supported by Philip II., and he made use in this matter of +Parsons. A more difficult task was the management of Sixtus V., +who was hostile to the Society. By consummate tact and boldness +Aquaviva succeeded in playing the king against the pope, +and Sixtus against Philip. For prudential reasons, he silenced +Mariana, whose doctrine on tyrannicide had produced deep +indignation in France; and he also appears to have discountenanced +the action of the French Jesuits in favour of the League, +and was thus able to secure solid advantages when Henry IV. +overcame the confederacy. To him is due the Jesuit system of +education in the book <i>Ratio atque institutio studiorum</i> (Rome, +1586). But the Dominicans denounced it to the Inquisition, +and it was condemned both in Spain and in Rome, on account of +some opinions concerning the Thomist doctrines of the divine +physical premotion in secondary causes and predestination. +The incriminated chapters were withdrawn in the edition of 1591. +In the fierce disputes that arose between the Jesuit theologians +and the Dominicans on the subject of grace, Aquaviva managed, +under Clement VIII. and Paul V., to save his party from a +condemnation that at one time seemed probable. He died at +Rome on the 31st of January 1615, leaving the Society numbering +13,000 members in 550 houses and 15 provinces. The subsequent +influence exercised by the Jesuits, in their golden age, +was largely due to the far-seeing policy of Aquaviva, who +is undoubtedly the greatest general that has governed the +Society.</p> +<div class="author">(E. Tn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AQUEDUCT<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (Lat. <i>aqua</i>, water, and <i>ducere</i>, to lead; Gr. +<span class="grk" title="hydragogeion">ὑδραγωγεῖον</span>, <span class="grk" title="hydragogion">ὑδραγώγιον</span>, <span class="grk" title="hyponomos">ὑπόνομος</span>), a term properly including +artificial works of every kind by means of which water is conveyed +from one place to another, but generally used in a more +limited sense. It is, in fact, rarely employed except in cases +where the work is of considerable magnitude and importance, +and where the water flows naturally by gravitation. The most +important purpose for which aqueducts are constructed is that of +conveying pure water, from sources more or less distant, to large +masses of population. Aqueducts are either below ground, on +the surface, or raised on walls either solid or pierced with arches; +to the last the term is often confined in popular language. The +choice of method naturally depends on the contour of the country.</p> + +<p>I. <i>Ancient Aqueducts.</i>—In Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria—flat +countries traversed by big rivers and subject to floods—water +was supplied by means of open canals with large basins. +In Persia devices of all kinds were adopted according +<span class="sidenote">Phoenician.</span> +to the nature of the country. In relation to the +achievements of Greece and Rome, the Phoenicians are the most +important among pre-classical engineers. In Cyprus water was +supplied to temples by rock-cut subterranean conduits carried +across intervening valleys in siphons. Such conduits have been +found near Citium, Amathus, &c. (Cesnola, <i>Cyprus</i>, pp. 187, 341). +In Syria the most striking of Phoenician waterworks is the well +of Ras-el-Ain near Tyre, which consisted of four strong octagonal +towers through which rises to a height of 18 to 20 ft. the water +from four deep artesian wells. The water thus accumulated was +carried off in conduits to reservoirs near the shore, and thence +in vessels or skins to the island. The aqueduct across to the +island is, of course, of Roman work.</p> + +<p>It is not possible in all cases to find a satisfactory date for +the numerous conduits which have supplied Jerusalem; some +probably go back to the times of the kings of Judah. +The principal reservoir consists of the three Pools of +<span class="sidenote">Jerusalem.</span> +Solomon which supplied the old aqueduct; the highest is +about 20 ft. above the middle one and 40 above the lowest. +These pools collected the water from Ain Saleh and other springs, +and sent it to the city by two conduits. The higher of these— +probably the older—was partly a rock-cut canal, partly carried +on masonry; the siphon-pipe system was adopted across the +lower ground near Rachel’s Tomb, where the pipe (15 in. wide) is +formed of large pierced stones embedded in rubble masonry. +The lower conduit is still complete; it winds so much as to be +altogether some 20 m. long. Near the Birket-es-Sultan it passes +over the valley of Hinnom on nine low arches and reaches the +city on the hill above the Tyropeon valley. It enters the Haram +enclosure at the Gate of the Chain (Bāb es-Silsila), outside which +is a basin 84 ft. by 42 by 24 deep. It is interesting to note in the +case of the underground tunnel which brought water from the +Virgin’s Fountain to the pool of Siloam, that the two boring +parties had no certain means of keeping the line; there is +evidence that they had to make shafts to discover their position, +and that ultimately the parties almost passed one another. +Though the direct distance is 1100 ft., the length of the conduit +is over 1700 ft. Perrot and Chipiez incline to attribute +the Pools of Solomon to the Asmonaeans, followed by Roman +governors, whereas the earlier tunnels of the Kedron and +Tyropeon valley may be Punic-Jewish (see also <i>Palest. Explor. +Fund Mem.</i>, “Jerusalem,” pp. 346-365). Besides these conduits +excavation has discovered traces of many other cisterns, tunnels +and conduits of various kinds. Many of them point to periods +of great prosperity and engineering enterprise which gave to the +city a water-supply far superior to that which exists at present.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the publications of the Palestine Exploration Fund; A.S. +Murray’s <i>Handbook to Syria and Palestine</i> (1903), pp. 63-67; Perrot +and Chipiez, <i>History of Art in Sardinia, Judaea, &c.</i> (Eng. trans., +1890), pp. 321 ff.; other authorities quoted under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jerusalem</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<p>The earliest attempts in Europe to solve the problems of +water-supply were made by the Greeks, who perhaps derived +their ideas from the Phoenicians. It has generally +been held, partly on the strength of a passage in Strabo +<span class="sidenote">Greek</span> +(v. 3. 8, p. 235), and partly owing to the comparative unimportance +of the remains discovered, that the Greek works were +altogether inferior to the Roman. Research in the Greek towns +of Asia Minor, together with a juster appreciation of the remains +as a whole, must be held to modify this view. Among the earliest +examples of Greek work are the tunnels or <i>emissaria</i> which +drained Lake Copais in Boeotia; these, though not strictly +aqueducts, were undoubtedly the precursors of such works, +consisting as they did of subterranean tunnels (<span class="grk" title="hyponomoi">ὑπόνομοι</span>) with +vertical shafts (<span class="grk" title="phreatiai">φρεατίαι</span>), sixteen of which are still recognizable, +the deepest being about 150 ft. They may be compared with +that described by Polybius as conveying water from Taurus to +Hecatompylos, and with numerous other remains in Asia Minor, +Syria, Phoenicia and Palmyra. Popular legend ascribed them to +Cadmus, just as Argos referred the irrigation of its lands to +Danaüs. They are undoubtedly of great antiquity.</p> + +<p>The insufficiency of water, supplied by natural springs and +cisterns hewn in the rock, which in an early age had satisfied the +small communities of Greece, had become a pressing public +question by the time of the Tyrants, of whom Polycrates of +Samos and Peisistratus of Athens were distinguished for their +wisdom and enterprise in this respect. The former obtained the +services of Eupalinus, an engineer celebrated for the skill with +which he had carried out the works for the water-supply of +Megara (see <i>Athen. Mittheil.</i> xxv., 1900, 23) under the direction +of the Tyrant Theagenes (<i>c.</i> 625 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). At Samos the difficulty +lay in a hill which rose between the town and the water source. +Through this hill Eupalinus cut a tunnel 8 ft. broad, 8 ft. high +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page241" id="page241"></a>241</span> +and 4200 ft. long, building within the tunnel a channel 3 ft. +broad and 11 ells deep. The water, flowing by an accurately +reckoned declivity, and all along open to the fresh air, was +received at the lower end by a conduit of masonry, and so led +into the town, where it supplied fountains, pipes, baths, cloacae, +&c., and ultimately passed into the harbour (Herod, iii. 60). In +Athens, under the rule of the Peisistratids (<i>c.</i> 560-510 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), a +similarly extensive, if less difficult, series of works was completed +to bring water from the neighbouring hills to supplement the +inadequate supply from the springs. From Hymettus were two +conduits passing under the bed of the Ilissus, most of the course +being cut in the rock. Pentelicus, richer in water, supplied +another conduit, which can still be traced from the modern +village of Chalandri by the air shafts built several feet above the +ground, and at a distance apart of 130-160 ft.; the diameter of +these shafts is 4-5 ft., and the number of them still preserved is +about sixty. Tributary channels conveyed into the main stream +the waters of the district through which it passed. Outside +Athens, those two conduits met in a large reservoir, from which +the water was distributed by a ramification of underground +channels throughout the city. These latter channels vary in +form, being partly round, partly square, and generally walled +with stone; the chief one is sufficiently large for two men to +pass in it. The precise location of the reservoir depends on the +value of Dr Wilhelm Dörpfeld’s theory as to the site of the +Enneacrunus of Thucydides and Pausanias (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>: +<i>Topography and Antiquity</i>). Dörpfeld places it south-west of +the Acropolis, where there is a cistern connected with an aqueduct +which passed under the theatre of Dionysus and on towards the +Ilissus (see map under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>). Others have placed it south of +the Olympieum in the Ilissus bed. Beside these works water was +brought from Pentelicus in an underground conduit begun by the +emperor Hadrian and completed by Antoninus Pius. This +aqueduct is still in use, having been repaired in 1869.</p> + +<p>In Sicily, the works by which Empedocles, it is said, brought +the water into the town of Selinus, are no longer visible; but +it is probable that, like those of Syracuse, they consisted chiefly +of tunnels and pipes laid under the ground. Syracuse was supplied +by two aqueducts, one of which the Athenians destroyed +(Thuc. vi. 100). One was fed by an affluent (the mod. Buttigliara) +of the Anapus (mod. Anapo); it carried the water up to the top +of Epipolae, where the channel was open, and thence down to +the city and finally into the harbour. The other also ascends to +the top of Epipolae, skirts the city on the north, and then +proceeds along the coast. Its course is marked by rectangular +shafts (<i>spiragli</i>) at the bottom of which water is still +visible.</p> + +<p>An example of what appears to have been the earliest form +of aqueduct in Greece was discovered in the island of Cos beside +the fountain Burinna (mod. Fountain of Hippocrates) on Mount +Oromedon. It consists of a bell-shaped chamber, built underground +in the hill-side, to receive the water of the spring and +keep it cool; a shaft from the top of the chamber supplied fresh +air. From this reservoir the water was led by a subterranean +channel, 114 ft. long and 6½ ft. high.</p> +<div class="author">(J. M. M.)</div> + +<p>In comparing Greek and Roman aqueducts, many writers +have enlarged on the greatness of the latter as an example of +Roman contempt for natural obstacles, or even of +Roman ignorance of the laws of nature. Now, in the +<span class="sidenote">Roman.</span> +first place, the Romans were not unacquainted with the law +that water finds its own level (see Pliny, <i>Hist. Nat.</i> xxxi. 57, +“subit altitudinem exortus sui”), and took full advantage of +it in the construction of lofty fountains and the supplying of +the upper floors of houses. That they built aqueducts across +valleys in preference to carrying pipes underground was due +simply to economy. Pipes had to be made of lead which was +weak, or of bronze which was expensive; and the Romans +were not sufficiently expert in the casting of large pipes which +would stand a very great pressure to employ them for the whole +course of a great aqueduct. Secondly, the water was so extremely +hard that it was important that the channels should be +readily accessible for repair as well as for the detection of +leakage.<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Moreover, as we shall see, the Roman aqueducts did not, +in fact, preserve a straight line regardless of the configuration +of the country. A striking example is the aqueduct of Nemausus +(Nîmes), the springs of which are some 10 m. from the town, +though the actual distance traversed is about 25. Other +devices, such as changing the level and then modifying the slope, +and siphon arrangements of various kinds, were adopted (as +in the aqueduct at Aspendus).</p> + +<p>Sextus Julius Frontinus, appointed <i>curator aquarum</i> in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 97, +mentions in his treatise <i>de aquaeductibus urbis Romae</i> (on the +aqueducts of the city of Rome) nine aqueducts as being in use +in his time (the lengths of the aqueducts as given here follow +his measurements). These are: (1) <span class="sc">Aqua Appia</span>, which took its +rise between the 6th and 7th milestones of the Via Collatina, +and measured from its source to the Porta Trigemina 11 +Roman miles, of which all but about 300 ft. were below ground. +It appears to have been the first important enterprise of the +kind at Rome, and was the work of the censor Appius Claudius +Caecus, from whom it derived its name. The date of its construction +was 312 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (2) <span class="sc">Anio Vetus</span>, constructed in 272-269 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the censor Manius Curius Dentatus. From its source +near Tivoli, on the left side of the Anio, it flowed some 43 m.,<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +of which only 1100 ft. was above ground. At the distance of +2 m. from Rome (Frontinus, i. 21), it parted into two courses, +one of which led to the <i>horti Asiniani</i>, and was thence distributed; +while the other (<i>rectus ductus</i>) led by the temple of +Spes to the Porta Esquilina. (3) <span class="sc">Aqua Marcia</span>, reconstructed +in 1869-1870 under the name of Acqua Pia or Marcia-Pia after +Pius IX. (though from Tivoli to Rome the modern aqueduct +takes an entirely different course), rising on the left side of the +Via Valeria near the 36th milestone. It traversed 61¾ m., +of which 54¼ were underground, and for the remaining distance +was carried partly on substructions and partly on arches. It +was the work of the praetor Quintus Marcius Rex (144-140 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), +not of Ancus Marcius, the fourth king of Rome, as Pliny (<i>N.H.</i> +xxxi. 3) fancied, and took its name from its constructor. Its +waters were celebrated for their coolness and excellent quality. +Its volume was largely increased by Augustus, who added to it +the Aqua Augusta; and it was repaired and restored by Titus, +Septimus Severus, Caracalla and Diocletian. (4) <span class="sc">Aqua Tepula</span>, +from its source (now known as Sorgente Preziosa) in the district +of Tusculum, to Rome, was some 11 m. in length. The first +portion of its course must have been almost entirely subterranean +and is not now traceable. For the last 6½ m. it ran on +the same series of arches that carried the Aqua Marcia, but at +a higher level. It was the work of the censors Cn. Servilius +Caepio and L. Cassius Longinus, and was completed in the year +125 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Its water is warm (about 63° Fahr.) and not of the +best quality. (5) The <span class="sc">Aqua Julia</span>, from a source 2 m. from that +of the Tepula, joined its course at the 10th milestone of the Via +Latina. The combined stream, after a distance of 4 m., was +received in a reservoir, and then once more divided into two +channels. The entire length of the Julia was 15½ m. It was +constructed in the year 33 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by M. Vipsanius Agrippa, who +also built the (6) <span class="sc">Aqua Virgo</span> which, from its origin at a copious +spring in a marsh on the Via Collatina, measured 14 m. in length; +it was conveyed in a channel, partly under and partly above +ground. It was begun in the year 33 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and was celebrated +for the excellence of its waters. It was restored to use by +Pius V. in 1570. (7) <span class="sc">Aqua Alsietina</span> or <span class="sc">Augusta</span>, the source +of which is the Lacus Alsietinus (mod. Lago di Martignano), to +the north of Rome, was over 22 m. in length, of which 358 paces +were on arches. It was the work of Augustus, probably with +the object of furnishing water for his <i>naumachia</i> (a basin for +sham sea-fights), and not for drinking purposes. Its course is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page242" id="page242"></a>242</span> +unknown, as no remains of it exist, but an inscription relating +to it is given in <i>Notizie d. Scant</i> (1887), p. 182. (8, 9) The <span class="sc">Aqua +Claudia</span> and <span class="sc">Anio Novus</span> were two aqueducts begun by Caligula +in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 38 and completed by Claudius in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 52. The springs +of the former belonged to the same group as those of the Marcia, +and were situated near the 38th milestone of the Via Sublacensis, +not far from its divergence from the Via Valeria, while the original +intake of the latter from the river Anio was 4 m. farther along +the same road. As the water was thick it was collected in a +purifying tank, and 4 m. below, a branch stream, the Rivus +Herculaneus, was added to it. According to Frontinus, over +10 m. of the course of the Claudia and nearly 9½ of that of the +Anio Novus were above ground. Seven miles out of Rome they +united and ran from that point into Rome, following a natural +isthmus formed by a lava stream from the Alban volcano, upon +a line of arches, which still forms one of the most conspicuous +features of the Campagna. The original inscription of Claudius +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 52) on the Porta Maggiore, by which the Aqua Claudia and +Anio Novus crossed the Via Praenestina and the Via Labicana, +gives the length of the Aqua Claudia as 45 m., and that of the +Anio Novus as 62 m. Frontinus, on the other hand, gives +46.406 m. (<i>i.e.</i> about 43 English miles) and 58.700 m. (<i>i.e.</i> about +54 English miles). Albertini (<i>Mélanges de l’École Française</i>, 1906, +305) explains the difference as due to the fact that Frontinus +was calculating the length of the Claudia from the farthest +spring, the Fons Albudinus, and that of the Anio Novus from +the new intake constructed by Trajan in one of the three lakes +constructed by Nero for the adornment of his villa above Subiaco. +Two other inscriptions on the Porta Maggiore record restorations +by Vespasian in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 70, and by Titus in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 80. That the +aqueducts should be spoken of as <i>vetustate dilapsi</i> so soon after +their construction is not a little surprising, and may be attributed +either to hasty construction in order to complete them +by a fixed date, or to jobbery by the imperial freedmen who +under Claudius were especially powerful, or to the fact that a line +of arches intended originally in all probability for the Aqua +Claudia alone was made to carry the Anio Novus as well.</p> + +<p>The size of the channels (<i>specus</i>) of the principal aqueducts +varies considerably at different points of their course. The +Anio Novus has the largest of them all, measuring 3 to 4 ft. wide +and 9 ft. high to the top of the roof, which is pointed. They +are lined with hard cement (<i>opus signinum</i>) containing fragments +of broken brick. Those aqueducts of which the most conspicuous +remains exist in the neighbourhood of Rome are the +four from the upper valley of the Anio, the two which took +their supply and their name from the river itself, and the Marcia +and the Claudia, which originated from the same group of springs, +in the floor of the Anio valley 6 m. below Subiaco. Those of the +Anio Vetus, which travelled at a considerably lower level than +the other three, are the least conspicuous, while the Claudia and +Anio Novus as a rule kept close together, the latter at the highest +level of all. The ruins of bridges and substructions in the Anio +valley down to Tivoli, though comparatively little known, are +of great importance. In all the aqueducts the original construction +of the bridges was in <i>opus quadratum</i> (masonry), while +the substructions are in brick-faced concrete; but the bridges +are as a rule strengthened (and often several times) with reinforcing +walls of concrete faced with <i>opus reticulatum</i> or brickwork. +Below Tivoli, where the Anio leaves its narrow valley, +the aqueducts sweep round towards the Alban hills, and pass +through some very difficult country between Tivoli and Gallicano, +alternately crossing ravines, some of which are as much +as 300 ft. deep, and tunnelling through hills.<a name="fa3h" id="fa3h" href="#ft3h"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>The engineering skill displayed is remarkable, and one wonders +what instruments were employed—probably the so-called +<i>chorobates</i>, an improvement upon the ordinary water-level +(Vitruvius viii. 6), though this would be slow and complicated. +The optical properties of glass lenses were, however, unknown to +the ancients, and the <i>dioptra</i>, or angle measure, was considered +by Vitruvius less trustworthy than the <i>chorobates</i> for the planning +of aqueducts (cf. E. Hultsch, <i>s.v</i>. in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Real-encyclopädie</i>). +The aqueducts as a rule were carried on separate +bridges, though all four united at the Ponte Lupo, a huge +structure, which after the addition of all the four, and with the +inclusion of all the later strengthening walls that were found +necessary in course of time, measures 105 ft. in height, 508 in +length, and 46 in thickness at the bottom, without including +the buttresses. From Gallicano onwards the course of these +four aqueducts follows the lower slopes of the Alban Hills. +Previous writers on the subject have been unable to determine +their course, which is largely subterranean; but it can be +followed step by step with the indications given by the presence +of the calcareous deposit which was thrown out at the <i>putei</i> or +shafts (which were, as a rule, placed at intervals of 240 ft., as +were the <i>cippi</i>) when the <i>specus</i> was cleaned; and remains of +bridges, though less important, owing to the less difficult character +of the country, are not entirely absent (cf. the works by +T. Ashby cited in bibliography).<a name="fa4h" id="fa4h" href="#ft4h"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Near the 7th milestone of +the Via Latina at Le Capanelle, the Aqua Claudia and Anio +Novus emerge from their underground course, and run into +Rome upon the long series of arches already mentioned, passing +over the Porta Maggiore. The Claudia sent off an important +branch from the Porta Maggiore over the Caclian to the Palatine, +but the main aqueduct soon reached its termination. A mile +farther on the Aqua Marcia also, owing to the gradual slope of +the ground towards Rome, begins to be supported on arches, +which were also used to carry the Aqua Tepula and the Aqua +Julia (of the two latter, before their junction with the Marcia, no +remains exist above ground, but inscribed <i>cippi</i> of the last named +and its underground channel have been found at Le Capanelle, +and <i>cippi</i> also close to its springs, which are a little way above +Grottaferrata at Gli Squarciarelli). The Anio Vetus followed +the same line, but kept underground (as was natural at the early +period at which it was constructed) until the immediate neighbourhood +of Rome, near the locality known as “ad Spem +veterem” (from a temple of Spes, of which no remains are known) +close to the Porta Maggiore. At this point, besides the aqueducts +named, the Aqua Appia, as we are told by Frontinus, entered the +city, and received an important branch, the Appia Augusta. +No remains of either have been discovered outside the city.</p> + +<p>The Aqua Alexandrina must also have entered the city here, +though its channel, which lay at some depth below ground, has +not been discovered. Considerable remains of its brick aqueducts +exist in the district between the Via Praenestina and the Via +Labicana.</p> + +<p>Of the two aqueducts on the right bank of the Tiber, the +Alsietina, as we have said, has no remains at all, while those +of the Traiana are not of great importance. The line of the +aqueducts was marked by <i>cippi</i>, inscribed (in the case of the +Anio Vetus, Marcia, Tepula, Julia and Virgo—those of the +Claudia and Anio Novus are uninscribed, and those of the +Traiana are differently worded) with the name of the aqueduct, +the distance from the next <i>cippus</i> (generally 240 ft.) and the +number, counting from Rome (not from the springs). These +boundary stones were erected in pairs, to mark off the strip of +land 30 ft. in width reserved for the aqueduct, and for the road +or path which generally followed it. The shafts (<i>putei</i>) often +stood, but not necessarily, at the same points as the <i>cippi</i>.</p> + +<p>To these nine must be added the two following, constructed +after Frontinus’s time: (10) <span class="sc">Aqua Traiana</span>, from springs to the +north-west of the Lacus Sabatinus (Lago di Bracciano), constructed +by Trajan in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 109, about 36½ English miles in length. +It was restored by Paul V. in 1611, who made use of and largely +transformed the remains of the ancient aqueduct; he allowed +some of the inferior water of the lake to flow into the channel, and +it is thus no longer used for drinking. (11) <span class="sc">Aqua Alexandrina</span>, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page243" id="page243"></a>243</span> +rising about 14 English miles from Rome, between the Via Praenestina +and the Via Labicana, the work of Alexander Severus +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 226). The springs now supply the modern Acqua Felice, +constructed by Sixtus V. in 1585, but the course of the latter +is mainly subterranean and not identical with that of the +former.</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc"><span class="sc">Plate I.</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:841px; height:518px" src="images/img242a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>Photo, Altnari.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">AQUA CLAUDIA, ROME.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:833px; height:514px" src="images/img242b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>Photo, Neurdein.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">PONT DU CARD, NÎMES (NEMAUSUS).</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc"><span class="sc">Plate II.</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:850px; height:527px" src="images/img242c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>Photo, Laureat y Cia.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">ROMAN AQUEDUCT AT SEGOVIA.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td> +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:406px; height:513px" src="images/img242d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>Photo, Brogi.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">PISCINA MIRABILIS AT BAIAE.</td></tr></table> +</td> + +<td> +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:278px; height:282px" src="images/img242e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">AQUEDUCT OF ROQUEFAVOUR, MARSEILLES.<br /> +<span class="f80">Early nineteenth century.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:399px; height:226px" src="images/img242f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>Photo, Dr T. Ashby.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">AQUA MARCIA, ROME.</td></tr></table> +</td></tr></table> + +<p>It is agreed that these eleven are all that were constructed. +Procopius speaks of fourteen (and the Regionary catalogues +mention others), but this number includes branch conduits. All +the aqueducts ended in the city in huge <i>castella</i> or reservoirs for +the purpose of distribution. Vitruvius recommends the division +of these into three parts—one for the supply of fountains, &c., +one for the public baths and one for private consumers. In the +Piazza Vittorio Emmanuele at Rome there are still to be seen +the remains of a large ornamental fountain built probably for the +Aqua Julia by Domitian or Alexander Severus (Jordan-Hülsen, +<i>Topographie</i>, i. 3350). Besides these main <i>castella</i> there were also +many minor <i>castella</i> in various parts of the city for sub-distribution. +To allow the water to purify itself before being distributed +in the city, filtering and settling tanks (<i>piscinae limariae</i>) were +built outside the walls. These <i>piscinae</i> were covered in with a +vaulted roof, and were sometimes on a very large scale, as in the +example still preserved at Fermo, which consists of two stories, +each having three oblong basins communicating with each other; +or the Piscina Mirabilis at Baiae, which is covered in by a vaulted +roof, supported on forty-eight pillars and perforated to permit +the escape of foul air. Two stairs lead by forty steps to the +bottom of the reservoir. In the middle of the basin is a sinking +to collect the deposit of the water. The walls and pillars are +coated with a stucco so hard as to resist a tool.</p> + +<p>The oversight of aqueducts was placed, in the times of the +republic, under the aediles, who were not, however, the constructors +of them; of the four aqueducts built during this +period, three are the work of censors, one (the Marcia) of a +praetor. Under the empire this task devolved on special +officials styled <i>Curatores Aquarum</i>, instituted by Augustus, +who, as he himself says, “rivos aquarum omnium refecit” (inscription +on the arch by which the Aqua Marcia crossed the Via +Tiburtina).</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + +<p>Among the aqueducts outside Italy, constructed in Roman +times and existing still, the most remarkable are: (1) the aqueduct +at Nîmes (Nemausus), erected probably by Vipsanius +Agrippa in the time of Augustus, which rose to 160 ft. The Pont +du Card, as this aqueduct is now called, consists of three tiers of +arches across the valley of the river Gardon. In the lowest +tier are six arches, of which one has a span of 75 ft., the others +each 60 ft. In the second tier are eleven arches, each with a span +of 75 ft. In the third tier are thirty-five smaller arches which +carried the <i>specus</i>. As a bridge, the Pont du Gard has no rival +for lightness and boldness of design among the existing remains +of works of this class carried out in Roman times. (2) The +aqueduct bridges at Segovia (Merckel, <i>Ingenieurtechnik</i>, pp. +566-568), Tarragona (<i>ibid.</i> 565-566), and Merida in Spain, the +former being 2400 ft. long, with 109 arches of fine masonry, in +two tiers, and reaching the height of 102 ft. The bridge at +Tarragona is 876 ft. long and 83 ft. high. (3) At Mainz are the +ruins of an aqueduct 7000 yds. long, about half of which is +carried on from 500 to 600 pillars (<i>Archaeological Journal</i>, +xlvii., 1890, pp. 211-214). This aqueduct was built by the XIVth +legion and was for the use of the camp, not for the townspeople. +For the similar aqueduct at Luynes see <i>Arch. Journ.</i> xlv. (1888), +pp. 235-237. Similar witnesses of Roman occupation are to be +seen in Dacia, Africa (see especially under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carthage</a></span>), Greece +and Asia Minor. (4) The aqueduct at Jouy-aux-Arches, near +Metz, which originally extended across the Moselle, here very +broad, conveyed to the city an abundance of excellent water +from Gorze. From a large reservoir at the source of the aqueduct +the water passed along subterranean channels built of hewn +stone, and sufficiently spacious for a man to walk in them upright. +Similar channels received the water after it had crossed +the Moselle by this bridge, at the distance of about 6 m. from +Metz, and conveyed it to the city. The bridge consisted of only +one row of arches nearly 60 ft. high. The middle arches have +given way under the force of the water, but the others are still +perfectly solid. This aqueduct is probably to be attributed to +the latter half of the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> It is for the use of the +town; hence its size. (5) One of the principal bridges of the +aqueduct of Antioch in Syria is 700 ft. long, and at the deepest +point 200 ft. high. The lower part consists almost entirely of +solid wall, and the upper part of a series of arches with very +massive pillars. The masonry and design are rude. The water +supply was drawn from several springs at a place called Beit el-Ma +(anc. Daphne) about 4 or 5 m. from Antioch. From these +separate springs the water was conducted by channels of hewn +stone into a main channel, similarly constructed, which traversed +the rest of the distance, being carried across streams and valleys +by means of arches or bridges. (6) At the village of Moris, about +an hour’s distance north-west from the town of Mytilene, is the +bridge of an aqueduct, carried by massive pillars built of large +hewn blocks of grey marble, and connected by means of three +rows of arches, of which the uppermost is of brick. The bridge +extended about 500 ft. in length, and at the deepest point was +from 70 to 80 ft. high. Judged by the masonry and the graceful +design, it has been thought to be a work of the age of Augustus. +Remains of this aqueduct are to be seen at Larisson Lamarousia, +an hour’s distance from Moris, and at St Demetri, two hours +and a half from Ayasos, on the road to Vasilika.</p> + +<p>The whole subject of the ancient and medieval aqueducts of +Asia Minor has been considered in great detail by G. Weber +(“Wasserleitungen in kleinasiatischen Städten,” in +the <i>Jahrbuch des kaiserl. deutsch. archäolog. Instit.</i> +xix., 1904; see also earlier articles in <i>Jahrbuch</i>, 1892, +<span class="sidenote">Asia Minor.</span> +1899). The aqueducts examined are those at Pergamum, +Laodicea and Smyrna (in the earlier articles), and those at +Metropolis (Ionia), Tralles (Aidin), Antioch-on-Maeander, Aphrodisias, +Trapezopolis, Hierapolis, Apamea Cibotus and Antioch +in Pisidia. In most of these cases it is difficult or even impossible +to decide whether the work is Hellenistic or Roman; +to the Romans Weber inclines to attribute, <i>e.g.</i> those at Metropolis, +Tralles (perhaps), Aphrodisias; to the Greeks, <i>e.g.</i> those +at Antioch-on-Maeander and Antioch in Pisidia. Since, therefore, +a detailed description of these remains does not provide +material for any satisfactory generalizations as to the distinctive +features of Hellenistic and Roman work, it will be +sufficient here to mention a few of the more interesting +discoveries.</p> + +<p>In the case of Metropolis, the aqueduct in the valley of the +Astraeus consisted of an arcade about 13 to 16 ft. high. Nearer +to the town in the hills there are distinct traces of a canal with +brick walls. It is clear that the water could not have served +more than the lower parts of the town, the acropolis of which +is nearly 200 ft. above the level of the conduit. In the case of +Tralles the water was supplied by a high pressure conduit and +distributed from the acropolis, where there are the remains of a +basin (13 ft. by 10) arched over with brick. The ancient aqueduct +is to be distinguished from a later, probably Byzantine, +canal conduit, the course of which avoids the deeper depressions, +crossed by the old aqueduct. Of the Antioch-on-Maeander aqueduct +only a few clay-pipes remain, and the same is true of the +aqueduct which was built by Carminius in the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> +to supply the community when reinforced by the amalgamation +of Plarasa and Tauropolis; two of its basins are still distinguishable, +but the two water-towers which are still standing belong +to a later Byzantine structure. Trapezopolis was supplied +from Mt. Salbacus (Baba Dagh): some twenty stone-pipes +have been found built into a low wall which varies from 3¼ to +about 5 ft. wide. Of the pillars which carried the conduit-pipe +to Antioch in Pisidia, nineteen are still standing. Each arch +consists of eleven keystones; no cement was used. The conduit, +which was high-pressure, ends in a distributing tower and +reservoir.</p> +<div class="author">(J. M. M.)</div> + +<p>II. <i>Medieval.</i>—The aqueduct near Spoleto, which now serves +also as a bridge, is deserving of notice as an early instance of the +use of the pointed arch, belonging as it does to the 7th or 8th +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page244" id="page244"></a>244</span> +century. It has ten arches, remarkable for the elegance of their +design and the airy lightness of their proportions, each over +66 ft. in span, and about 300 ft. in height.</p> + +<p>The aqueduct of Pyrgos, near Constantinople, is a remarkable +example of works of this class carried out in the later times of +the Roman empire, and consisted of two branches. +From this circumstance it was called Egri Kemer +<span class="sidenote">Constantinople.</span> +(“the Crooked Aqueduct”), to distinguish it from +the Long Aqueduct, situated near the source of the waters. +One of the branches extends 670 ft. in length, and is 106 ft. in +height at the deepest part. It is composed of three tiers of +arches, those in each row increasing in width from the bottom +to the top—an arrangement very properly introduced with the +view of saving materials without diminishing the strength of the +work. The two upper rows consisted of arches of semicircles, +the lower of Gothic arches; and this circumstance leads to the +belief that the date of the structure is about the 10th century. +The breadth of the building at the base was 21 ft., and it diminished +with a regular batter on each side to the top, where it was +only 11 ft. The base also was protected by strong buttresses +or counterforts, erected against each of the pillars. The other +branch of the aqueduct was 300 ft. long, and consisted of twelve +semicircular arches. This aqueduct serves to convey to Constantinople +the waters of the valley of Belgrad, one of the +principal sources from which the city is supplied. These are +situated on the heights of Mount Haemus, the extremity of the +Balkan Mountains, which overhangs the Black Sea. The water +rises about 15 m. from the city, and between 3 and 4 m. west +of the village of Belgrad, in three sources, which run in three +deep and very confined valleys. These unite a little below the +village, and then are collected into a large reservoir. After +flowing a mile or two from this reservoir, the waters are augmented +by two other streams, and conveyed by a channel of +stone to the Crooked Aqueduct. From this they are conveyed +to another which is the Long Aqueduct; and then, with various +accessions, into a third, termed the Aqueduct of Justinian. +From this they enter a vaulted conduit, which skirts the hills on +the left side of the valley, and crosses a broad valley 2 m. below +the Aqueduct of Justinian, by means of an aqueduct, with two +tiers of arches of a very beautiful construction. The conduit +then proceeds onward in a circuitous route, till it reaches the +reservoir of Egri Kapu, situated just without and on the walls +of the city. From this the water is conducted to the various +quarters of the city, and also to the reservoir of St Sophia, which +supplies the seraglio of the grand signior. The Long Aqueduct +(Usun Kemer) is more imposing by its extent than the Crooked +one, but is far inferior in the regularity of design and disposition +of the materials. It is evidently a work of the Turks. It consists +of two tiers of arches, the lower being forty-eight in number, +and the upper fifty. The whole length was about 2200 ft., and +the height 80 ft. The aqueduct of Justinian (Muallak Kemer +or “Hanging Aqueduct”) is without doubt one of the finest +monuments which remain to us of the middle ages. It consists +of two tiers of large pointed arches, pierced transversely. Those +of the lower story have 55 ft. of span, the upper ones 40 ft. +The piers are supported by strong buttresses, and at different +heights they have little arches passing through them laterally, +which relieve the deadness of the solid pillar. The length of this +aqueduct is 720 ft. and the height 108 ft. This aqueduct has +been attributed both to Constantine I. and to Justinian, the latter +being perhaps the more probable.</p> + +<p>Besides the waters of Belgrad, Constantinople was supplied +from several other principal sources, one of which took its rise +on the heights of the same mountains, 3 or 4 m. east of Belgrad. +This was conveyed in a similar manner by an arched channel +elevated, when it was necessary, on aqueduct bridges, till it +reached the northern parts of the city. It was in the course of +this aqueduct that the contrivance of the <i>souterasi</i> or hydraulic +obelisks, described by Andréossy (on his voyage to the Black Sea, +the account of the Thracian Bosporus), was constructed, which +excited some attention, as being an improvement on the method +of conducting water by aqueduct bridges. “The souterasi,” +says Andréossy, “are masses of masonry, having generally the +form of a truncated pyramid or an Egyptian obelisk. To form +a conduit with souterasi, we choose sources of water, the level +of which is several feet higher than the reservoir by which it is +to be distributed over the city. We bring the water from its +sources in subterranean canals, slightly declining until we come +to the borders of a valley or broken ground. We there raise on +each side a souterasi, to which we adapt vertically leaden pipes +of determinate diameters, placed parallel to the two opposite +sides of the building. These pipes are disjoined at the upper +part of the obelisk, which forms a sort of basin, with which the +pipes are connected. The one permits the water to rise to the +level from whence it had descended; by the other, the water +descends from this level to the foot of the souterasi, where it +enters another canal underground, which conducts it to a second +and to a third souterasi, where it rises and again descends, as at +the last station. Here a reservoir receives it and distributes it +in different directions by orifices of which the discharge is known.” +Again he says, “it requires but little attention to perceive that +this system of conducting tubes is nothing but a series of siphons +open at their upper part, and communicating with each other. +The expense of a conduit by souterasi is estimated at only one-fifth +of that of an aqueduct with arcades.” There seems to be +really no advantage in these pyramids, further than as they serve +the purpose of discharging the air which collects in the pipes. +They are in themselves an evident obstruction, and the water +would flow more freely without any interruption of the kind. In +regard to the leaden pipes, again, they would have required, +with so little head pressure as is stated, to be used of very extraordinary +dimensions to pass the same quantity of water as was +discharged along the arched conduits (see also works quoted +under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Constantinople</a></span>). The other principal source from +which Constantinople is supplied, is from the high grounds 6 or 8 +m. west of the town, from which it is conducted by conduits +and arches, in the same manner as the others. The supply +drawn from all these sources, as detailed by Andréossy, amounted +to 400,000 cubic ft. per day.</p> +<div class="author">(A. S. M.; J. M. M.)</div> + +<p>III. <i>Modern Construction.</i>—Where towns are favourably situated +the aqueduct may be very short and its cost bear a relatively +small proportion to the total outlay upon a scheme of +water supply, but where distant sources have to be relied upon +<span class="sidenote">Aqueducts and water supply.</span> +the cost of the aqueduct becomes one of the +most important features in the scheme, and the quantity +of water obtainable must be considerable to justify the outlay. +Hence it is that only very large towns can undertake the responsibility +for this expenditure. In Great Britain it has in all large +schemes become a condition that, when a town is permitted to +go outside its own watershed, it shall, subject to a priority of +a certain number of gallons per day per head of its own inhabitants, +allow local authorities, any part of whose district is +within a certain number of miles of the aqueduct, to take a +supply on reasonable terms. The first case in which this principle +was adopted on a large scale was the Thirlmere scheme sanctioned +by parliament in 1879, for augmenting the supply of Manchester. +The previous supply was derived from a source only about 15 m. +distant, and the cost of the aqueduct, chiefly cast-iron pipes, +was insignificant compared with the cost of the impounding +reservoirs. But Thirlmere is 96 m. distant from the service +reservoir near Manchester, and the cost of the aqueduct was +more than 90% of the total cost. As a supply of about +50,000,000 gallons a day is available the outlay was justifiable, +and the water is in fact very cheaply obtained. Liverpool +derives a supply of about 40,000,000 gallons a day from the river +Vyrnwy in North Wales, 68 m. distant, and Birmingham has +constructed works for impounding water in Radnorshire, and conveying +it a distance of 74 m., the supply being about 75,000,000 +gallons a day. In the year 1899 an act of parliament was passed +authorizing the towns of Derby, Leicester, Sheffield and Nottingham, +jointly to obtain a supply of water from the head waters of +the river Derwent in Derbyshire. Leicester is 60 m. distant from +this source, and its share of the supply is about 10,000,000 gallons +a day. For more than half the distance, however, the aqueduct +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page245" id="page245"></a>245</span> +is common to Derby and Nottingham, which together are entitled +to about 16,000,000 gallons a day, and the expense to Leicester +is correspondingly reduced. These are the most important cases +of long aqueducts in England, and all are subsequent to 1879. +It is obvious, therefore, how greatly the design and construction +of the aqueduct have grown in importance, and what care must +be Exercised in order that the supply upon which such large +populations depend may not be interrupted, and that the country +through which such large volumes of water are conveyed may not +be flooded in consequence of the failure of any of the works.</p> + +<p>Practically only two types of aqueduct are used in England. +The one is built of concrete, brickwork, &c., the other of cast-iron +(or, in special circumstances, steel) pipes. In the +former type the water surface coincides with the +<span class="sidenote">Construction.</span> +hydraulic gradient, and the conditions are those of an +artificial river; the aqueduct must therefore be carefully graded throughout, so that the fall available between source and +termination may be economically distributed. This condition +requires that the ground in which the work is built shall be at +the proper elevation; if at any point this is not the case, the +aqueduct must be carried on a substructure built up to the +required level. Such large structures are, however, extremely +expensive, and require elaborate devices for maintaining water-tightness against the expansion and contraction of the masonry +due to changes of temperature. They are now only used where +their length is very short, as in cases where mountain streams +have to be crossed, and even these short lengths are avoided by +some engineers, who arrange that the aqueduct shall pass, +wherever practicable, under the streams. Where wide valleys +interrupt the course of the built aqueduct, or where the absence +of high ground prevents the adoption of that type at any part +of the route, the cast-iron pipes hereafter referred to are used.</p> + +<p>The built aqueduct may be either in tunnel, or cut-and-cover, +the latter term denoting the process of cutting the trench, +building the floor, side-walls, and roof, and covering +with earth, the surface of the ground being restored +<span class="sidenote">Masonry aqueducts.</span> +as before. For works conveying water for domestic +supply, the aqueduct is in these days, in England, always +covered. Where, as is usually the case, the water is derived +from a tract of mountainous country, the tunnel work is sometimes +very heavy. In the case of the Thirlmere aqueduct, out +of the first 13 m. the length of the tunnelled portions is 8 m., the +longest tunnel being 3 m. in length. Conditions of time, and the +character of the rock, usually require the use of machinery for +driving, at any rate in the case of the longer tunnels. For the +comparatively small tunnels required for aqueducts, two percussion +drilling machines are usually mounted on a carriage, the +motive power being derived from compressed air sent up the +tunnel in pipes. The holes when driven are charged with explosives +and fired. In the Thirlmere tunnels, driven through very hard Lower +Silurian strata, the progress was about 13 yds. a week at each face, +work being carried on continuously day and night for six days a week. +Where the character of the country through which the aqueduct passes +is much the same as that from which the supply is derived, the tunnels +need not be lined with concrete, &c., more than is absolutely +necessary for retaining the water and supporting weak places in +the rock; the floor, however, is nearly always so treated. The +lining, whether in tunnel or cut-and-cover, may be either of +concrete, or brickwork, or of concrete faced with brickwork. +To ensure the impermeability of work constructed with these materials is in practice +somewhat difficult, and no matter how much care is taken by +those supervising the workmen, and even by the workmen themselves, +it is impossible to guarantee entire freedom from trouble in this +respect. With a wall only about 15 in. thick, any neglect is +certain to make the work permeable; frequently the labourers +do not distribute the broken stone and fine material of the concrete +uniformly, and no matter how excellent the design, the +quality of materials, &c., a leak is sure to occur at such places +(unless, indeed, the pressure of the outside water is superior +and an inflow occurs). A further cause of trouble lies in the +water which flows from the strata on to the concrete, and +washes away some of the cement upon which the work depends +for its watertightness, before it has time to set. For this reason +it is advisable to put in the floor before, and not after, +the sidewalls and arch have been built, otherwise the only outlet for the +water in the strata is through the ground on which the floor has +to be laid. Each length of about 20 ft. should be completely +constructed before the next is begun, the water then having +an easy exit at the leading end. Manholes, by which the aqueduct +can be entered, are usually placed in the roof at convenient +intervals; thus, in the case of the Thirlmere aqueduct, they +occur at every quarter of a mile.</p> + +<p>In some parts of America aqueducts are frequently constructed +of wood, being then termed flumes. These are probably more +extensively used in California than in any other part +of the world, for conveying large quantities of water +<span class="sidenote">Timber aqueducts.</span> +which is required for hydraulic mining, for irrigation, +for the supply of towns and for transporting timber. The flumes +are frequently carried along precipitous mountain slopes, and +across valleys, supported on trestles. In Fresno county, California, +there is a flume 52 m. in length for transporting timber +from the Sierra Nevada Mountains to the plain below; it has a +rectangular V-shaped section, 3 ft. 7 in. wide at the top, and 21 in. +deep vertically. The boards which form the sides are 1¼ in. +thick, and some of the trestlework is 130 ft. high. The steepest +grade occurs where there is a fall of 730 ft. in a length of 3000 ft. +About 9,000,000 ft. of timber were used in the construction. +At San Diego there is a flume 35 m. long for irrigation and +domestic supply, the capacity being 50 ft. per second; it has 315 +trestle bridges (the longest of which is that across Los Coches +Creek, 1794 ft. in length and 65 ft. in height) and 8 tunnels, +and the cost was $900,000. The great bench flume of the +Highline canal, Colorado, is 2640 ft. in length, 28 ft. wide, and +7 ft. deep; the gradient is 5.28 ft. per mile, and the discharge +1184 ft. per second.</p> + +<p>As previously stated, the type of aqueduct built of concrete, +&c., can only be adopted where the ground is sufficiently elevated +to carry it, and where the quantity of water to be conveyed +makes it more economical than piping. Where the falling contour +<span class="sidenote">Aqueduct in iron piping.</span> +is interrupted by valleys too wide for a masonry structure above +the surface of the ground, the detached portions of the built +aqueduct must be connected by rows of pipes laid beneath, and following +the main undulations of, the surface. In such cases the built aqueduct +terminates in a chamber of sufficient size to enclose the mouths +of the several pipes, which, thus charged, carry the water under +the valley up to a corresponding chamber on the farther hillside +from which the built aqueduct again carries on the supply. +These connecting pipes are sometimes called siphons, although +they have nothing whatever to do with the principle of a siphon, +the water simply flowing into the pipe at one end and out at the +other under the influence of gravity, and the pressure of the +atmosphere being no element in the case. The pipes are almost +always made of cast-iron, except in such cases as the lower part +of some siphons, where the pressure is very great, or where they +are for use abroad, when considerations of weight are of importance, +and when they are made of rolled steel with riveted or +welded seams. It is frequently necessary to lay them in deep +cuttings, in which case cast-iron is much better adapted for +sustaining a heavy weight of earth than the thinner steel, though +the latter is more adapted to resist internal pressure. Mr +D. Clarke (<i>Trans. Am. Soc. C.E.</i> vol. xxxviii. p. 93) gives some +particulars of a riveted steel pipe 24 m. long, 33 to 42 in. diameter, +varying in thickness from 0.22 in. to 0.375 in. After a length of +9 m. had been laid, and the trench refilled, it was found that the +crown of the pipe had been flattened by an amount varying +from ½ in. to 4 in. Steel pipes suffer more from corrosion +than those made of cast-iron, and as the metal attacked is +much thinner the strength is more seriously reduced. These +considerations have prevented any general change from cast-iron +to steel.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Mr. Clemens Herschel has made some interesting remarks (<i>Proc. +Inst. C.E.</i> vol. cxv. p. 162) as to the circumstances in which steel +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page246" id="page246"></a>246</span> +pipes have been found preferable to cast-iron. He says that it had +been demonstrated by practice that cast-iron cannot compete with +wrought-iron or steel pipes in the states west of the Rocky Mountains, +on the Pacific slope. This is due to the absence of coal and +iron ore in these states, and to the weight of the imported cast-iron +pipes compared with steel pipes of equal capacity and strength. +The works of the East Jersey Water Company for the supply of +Newark, N.J., include a riveted steel conduit 48 in. in diameter and +21 m. long. This conduit is designed to resist only the pressure due +to the hydraulic gradient, in contradistinction to that which would +be due to the hydrostatic head, this arrangement saving 40% in the +weight and cost of the pipes. For the supply of Rochester, N.Y., +there is a riveted steel conduit 36 in. in diameter and 20 m. long; +and for Allegheny City, Pennsylvania, there is a steel conduit 5 ft. in +diameter and nearly 10 m. long. The works for bringing the water +from La Vigne and Verneuil to Paris include a steel main 5 ft. in +diameter between St. Cloud and Paris.</p> + +<p>Cast-iron pipes rarely exceed 48 in. in diameter, and even this +diameter is only practicable where the pressure of the water is low. +In the Thirlmere aqueduct the greatest pressure is nearly 180 ℔ on +the square inch, the pipes where this occurs being 40 in. in diameter +and 1¾ in. thick. These large pipes, which are usually made in +lengths of 12 ft., are generally cast with a socket at one end for +receiving the spigot end of the next pipe, the annular space being +run with lead, which is prevented from flowing into the interior of +the pipe by a spring ring subsequently removed; the surface of the +lead is then caulked all round the outside of the pipe. A wrought-iron +ring is sometimes shrunk on the outer rim of the socket, previously +turned to receive it, in order to strengthen it against the +wedging action of the caulking tool. Sometimes the pipes are cast +as plain tubes and joined with double collars, which are run with +lead as in the last case. The reason for adopting the latter type is +that the stresses set up in the thicker metal of the socket by unequal +cooling are thereby avoided, a very usual place for pipes to crack +under pressure being at the back of the socket. The method of +turning and boring a portion, slightly tapered, of spigot and socket +so as to ensure a watertight junction by close annular metallic contact, +is not suitable for large pipes, though very convenient for +smaller diameters in even ground. Spherical joints are sometimes +used where a line of main has to be laid under a large river or estuary, +and where, therefore, the pipes must be jointed before being lowered +into the previously dredged trench. This was the case at the Willamette +river, Portland, Oregon, where a length of 2000 ft. was required. +The pipes are of cast-iron 28 in. in diameter, 1½ in. thick, and 17 ft. +long. The spigots were turned to a spherical surface of 20 in. +radius outside, the inside of the sockets being of a radius <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. greater. +After the insertion of the spigot into the socket, a ring, 3 in. deep, +turned inside to correspond with the socket, was bolted to the latter, +the annular space then being run with lead. These pipes were laid +on an inclined cradle, one end of which rested on the bed of the river +and the other on a barge where the jointing was done; as the pipes +were jointed the barge was carefully advanced, thus trailing the +pipes into the trench (<i>Trans. Am. Soc. C.E.</i> vol. xxxiii. p. 257). As +may be conjectured from the pressure which they have to stand, +very great care has to be taken in the manufacture and handling of +cast-iron pipes of large diameter, a care which must be unfailing +from the time of casting until they are jointed in their final position +in the ground. They are cast vertically, socket downwards, so that +the densest metal may be at the weakest part, and it is advisable to +allow an extra head of metal of about 12 in., which is subsequently +cut off in a lathe. An inspector representing the purchaser watches +every detail of the manufacture, and if, after being measured in +every part and weighed, they are found satisfactory they are proved +with internal fluid pressure, oil being preferable to water for this +purpose. While under pressure, they are rapped from end to end +with a hand hammer of about 5 ℔ in weight, in order to discover +defects. The wrought-iron rings are then, if required, shrunk on +to the sockets, and the pipes, after being made hot in a stove, are +dipped vertically in a composition of pitch and oil, in order to +preserve them from corrosion. All these operations are performed +under cover. A record should be kept of the history of the pipe +from the time it is cast to the time it is laid and jointed in the ground, +giving the date, number, diameter, length, thickness, and proof +pressure, with the name of the pipe-jointer whose work closes the +record. Such a history sometimes enables the cause (which is often +very obscure) of a burst in a pipe to be ascertained, the position of +every pipe being recorded.</p> + +<p>Cast-iron pipes, even when dipped in the composition referred to, +suffer considerably from corrosion caused by the water, especially +soft water, flowing through them. One pipe may be found in as +good a condition as when made, while the next may be covered with +nodules of rust. The effect of the rust is twofold; it reduces the +area of the pipe, and also, in consequence of the resistance offered +by the rough surface, retards the velocity of the water. These two +results, expecially the latter, may seriously diminish the capability +of discharge, and they should always be allowed for in deciding the +diameter. Automatic scrapers are sometimes used with good +results, but it is better to be independent of them as long as possible. +In one case the discharge of pipes, 40 in. in diameter, was found +after a period of about twelve years to have diminished at the rate +of about 1% per year; in another case, where the water was soft +and where the pipes were 40 in. in diameter, the discharge was +diminished by 7% in ten years. An account of the state of two +cast-iron mains supplying Boston with water is given in the <i>Trans. +Am. Soc. C.E.</i> vol. xxxv. p. 241. These pipes, which were laid in +1877, are 48 in. in diameter and 1800 ft. long. When they were +examined in 1894-1895, it was estimated that the tubercles of rust +covered nearly one-third of the interior surfaces, the bottom of the +pipe being more encrusted than the sides and top. They had central +points of attachment to the iron, at which no doubt the coating was +defective, and from them the tubercles spread over the surface of +the surrounding coating. In this case they were removed by hand, +and the coating of the pipes was not injured in the process. Cast-iron +pipes must not be laid in contact with cinders from a blast +furnace with which roads are sometimes made, because these corrode +the metal. Mr Russell Aitken (<i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> vol. cxv. p. 93) +found in India that cast-iron pipes buried in the soil rapidly corroded, +owing to the presence of nitric acid secreted by bacteria which +attacked the iron. The large cast-iron pipes conveying the water +from the Tansa reservoir to Bombay are laid above the surface of +the ground. Cast-iron pipes of these large diameters have not been +in existence sufficiently long to enable their life to be predicted. A +main, 40 in. in diameter, conveying soft water, after being in existence +fifty years at Manchester, was apparently as good as ever. In 1867 +Mr J.B. Francis found that no apparent deterioration had taken +place in a cast-iron main, 8 in. diameter, which was laid in the year +1828, a period of thirty-nine years (<i>Trans. Soc. Am. C.E.</i> vol. i. +p. 26). These two instances are probably not exceptional.</p> +</div> + +<p>Pipes in England are usually laid with not less than 2 ft. 6 in. +of cover, in order that the water may not be frozen in a severe +winter. Where they are laid in deep cutting they +should be partly surrounded with concrete, so that they +<span class="sidenote">Methods of laying.</span> +may not be fractured by the weight of earth above +them. Angles are turned by means of special bend pipes, the +curves being made of as large a radius as convenient. In the +case of the Thirlmere aqueduct, double socketed castings about +12 in. long (exclusive of the sockets) were used, the sockets +being inclined to each other at the required angle. They were +made to various angles, and for any particular curve several +would be used connected by straight pipes 3 ft. long. As special +castings are nearly double the price of the regular pipes, the +cost was much diminished by making them as short as possible, +while a curve, made up of the slight angles used, offered practically +no more impediment to the flow of water in consequence +of its polygonal form, than would be the case had special bend +pipes been used. In all cases of curves on a line of pipes under +internal fluid pressure, there exists a resultant force tending +to displace the pipes. When the curve is in a horizontal plane +and the pipes are buried in the ground, the side of the pipe +trench offers sufficient resistance to this force. Where, however, +the pipes are above ground, or when the curve is in a vertical +plane, it is necessary to anchor them in position. In the case of +the Tansa aqueduct to Bombay, there is a curve of 500 ft. radius +near Bassein Creek. At this point the hydrostatic head is about +250 ft., and the engineer, Mr Clerke, mentions that a tendency +to an outward movement of the line of pipes was observed. At +the siphon under Kurla Creek the curves on the approaches as +originally laid down were sharp, the hydrostatic head being there +about 210 ft.; here the outward movement was so marked that +it was considered advisable to realign the approaches with +easier curves (<i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> vol. cxv. p. 34). In the case of +the Thirlmere aqueduct the greatest hydrostatic pressure, 410 ft., +occurs at the bridge over the river Lune, where the pipes are +40 in. in diameter, and in descending from the bridge make reverse +angles of 31½°. The displacing force at each of these angles +amounts to 54 tons, and as the design includes five lines of +pipes, it is obvious that the anchoring arrangements must be +very efficient. The steel straps used for anchoring these and all +other bends were curved to fit as closely as possible the castings +to be anchored. Naturally the metal was not in perfect contact, +but when the pipes were charged the disappearance of all the +slight inequalities showed that the straps were fulfilling their +intended purpose. At every summit on a line of pipes one or +more valves must be placed in order to allow the escape of +air, and they must also be provided on long level stretches, +and at changes of gradient where the depth of the point of +change below the hydraulic gradient is less than that at both +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page247" id="page247"></a>247</span> +sides, causing what may be called a virtual summit. It is better +to have too many than too few, as accumulations of air may +cause an enormous diminution in the quantity of water delivered. +In all depressions discharge valves should be placed for emptying +the pipes when desired, and for letting off the sediment which +accumulates at such points. Automatic valves are frequently +placed at suitable distances for cutting off the supply in case of +a burst. At the inlet mouth of the pipe they may depend for +their action on the sudden lowering of the water (due to a burst +in the pipe) in the chamber from which they draw their supply, +causing a float to sink and set the closing arrangement in motion. +Those on the line of main are started by the increased velocity in +the water, caused by the burst on the pipe at a lower level. +The water, when thus accelerated, is able to move a disk hung +in the pipe at the end of a lever and weighted so as to resist the +normal velocity; this lever releases a catch, and a door is then +gradually revolved by weights until it entirely closes the pipe. +Reflux valves on the ascending leg of a siphon prevent water +from flowing back in case of a burst below them; they have +doors hung on hinges, opening only in the normal direction of +flow. Due allowance must be made, in the amount of head +allotted to a pipe, for any head which may be absorbed by such +mechanical arrangements as those described where they offer +opposition to the flow of the water. These large mains require +most careful and gradual filling with water, and constant attention +must be given to the air-valves to see that the gutta-percha +balls do not wedge themselves in the openings. A large mass of +water, having a considerable velocity, may cause a great many +bursts by water-ramming, due to the admission of the water +at too great a speed. In places where iron is absent and timber +plentiful, as in some parts of America, pipes, even of large +diameter and in the most important cases, are sometimes made +of wooden staves hooped with iron. A description of two of +these will be found below.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Thirlmere Aqueduct</i> is capable of conveying 50,000,000 +gallons a day from Thirlmere, in the English lake district, to Manchester. +The total length of 96 m. is made up of 14 m. +of tunnels, 37 m. of cut-and-cover, and 45 m. of cast-iron +<span class="sidenote">Thirlmere.</span> +pipes, five rows of the latter being required. The tunnels +where lined, and the cut-and-cover, are formed of concrete, and are +7 ft. in height and width, the usual thickness of the concrete being +15 in. The inclination is 20 in. per mile. The floor is flat from side +to side, and the side-walls are 5 ft. high to the springing of the arch, +which has a rise of 2 ft. The water from the lake is received in a +circular well 65 ft. deep and 40 ft. in diameter, at the bottom of +which there is a ring of wire-gauze strainers. Wherever the concrete +aqueduct is intersected by valleys, cast-iron pipes are laid; +in the first instance only two of the five rows 40 in. in diameter were +laid, the city not requiring its supply to be augmented by more than +20,000,000 gallons a day, but in 1907 it was decided to lay a third +line. All the elaborate arrangements described above for stopping +the water in case of a burst have been employed, and have perfectly +fulfilled their duties in the few cases in which they have been called +into action. The water is received in a service reservoir at Prestwich, +near Manchester, from which it is supplied to the city. The supply +from this source was begun in 1894. The total cost of the complete +scheme may be taken at about £5,000,000, of which rather under +£3,000,000 had been spent up to the date of the opening, at which +time only one line of pipes had been laid.</p> + +<p>The <i>Vyrnwy Aqueduct</i> was sanctioned by parliament in 1880 for +the supply of Liverpool from North Wales, the quantity of water +obtainable being at least 40,000,000 gallons a day. A +tower built in the artificial lake from which the supply is +<span class="sidenote">Vyrnwy.</span> +derived, contains the inlet and arrangements for straining the water. +The aqueduct is 68 m. in length, and for nearly the whole distance +will consist of three lines of cast-iron pipes, two of which, varying in +diameter from 42 in. to 39 in., are now in use. As the total fall +between Vyrnwy and the termination at Prescot reservoirs is about +550 ft., arrangements had to be made to ensure that no part of the +aqueduct be subjected to a greater pressure than is required for the +actual discharge. Balancing reservoirs have therefore been constructed +at five points on the line, advantage being taken of high +ground where available, so that the total pressure is broken up into +sections. At one of these points, where the ground level is 110 ft. +below the hydraulic gradient, a circular tower is built, making a +most imposing architectural feature in the landscape. At the crossing +of the river Weaver, 100 ft. wide and 15 ft. deep, the three pipes, +here made of steel, were connected together laterally, floated into +position, and sunk into a dredged trench prepared to receive them. +Under the river Mersey the pipes are carried in a tunnel, from which, +during construction, the water was excluded by compressed air.</p> + +<p><i>Denver Aqueduct.</i>—The supply to Denver City, initiated by the +Citizens Water Company in 1889, is derived from the Platte river, +rising in the Rocky Mountains. The first aqueduct +constructed is rather over 20 m. in length, of which a +<span class="sidenote">Denver.</span> +length of 16½ m. is made of wooden stave pipe, 30 in. in diameter. +The maximum pressure is that due to 185 ft. of water; the average +cost of the wooden pipe was $1.36½ per foot, and the capability of +discharge 8,400,000 gallons a day. Within a year of the completion +of the first conduit, it became evident that another of still greater +capacity was required. This was completed in April 1893; it is +34 in. in diameter and will deliver 16,000,000 gallons a day. By +increasing the head upon the first pipe, the combined discharge is +30,000,000 gallons a day. An incident in obtaining a temporary +supply, without waiting for the completion of the second pipe, was +the construction of two wooden pipes, 13 in. in diameter, crossing a +stream with a span of 104 ft., and having no support other than that +derived from their arched form. One end of the arch is 24½ ft. +above the other end, and, when filled with water, the deflection with +eight men on it was only <span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> of an inch. A somewhat similar arch, +60 ft. span, occurs on the 34-in. pipe where it crosses a canal. +Schuyler points out (<i>Trans. Am. Soc. C.E.</i> vol. xxxi. p. 148) that the +fact that the entire water supply of a city of 150,000 inhabitants +is conveyed in wooden mains, is so radical a departure from all +precedents, that it is deserving of more than a passing notice. He +says that it is manifestly and unreservedly successful, and has +achieved an enormous saving in cost. The sum saved by the use of +wooden, in preference to cast-iron pipes, is estimated at $1,100,000. +It is perhaps necessary to state that the pipe is buried in the ground +in the same way as metal pipes. The edges of the staves are dressed +to the radius with a minute tongue <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span> in. high on one edge of each +stave, but with no corresponding groove in the next stave; its +object is to ensure a close joint when the bands are tightened up. +Leaks seldom or never occur along the longitudinal seams, but the +end shrinkage caused troublesome joint leaks. The shrinkage in +California redwood, which had seasoned 60 to 90 days before milling, +was frequently as much as 3 in. in the 20 staves that formed the +34-in. pipe, and the space so formed had to be filled by a special +closing stave. Metallic tongues, ¾ in. deep, are inserted at the ends +of abutting staves, in a straight saw cut. The bands, which are of +mild steel, have a head at one end and a nut and washer at the +other; the ends are brought together on a wrought-iron shoe, +against which the nut and washer set. The staves forming the lower +half of the pipe are placed on an outside, and the top staves on an +inside, mould. While the bands are being adjusted the pipe is +rounded out to bring the staves out full, and the staves are carefully +driven home on to the abutting staves. The spacing of the bands +depends on circumstances, but is about 150 bands per 100 ft. With +low heads the limit of spacing was fixed at 17 in. The outer surface +of the pipe, when charged, shows moisture oozing slightly over the +entire surface. This condition Schuyler considers an ideal one for +perfect preservation, and the staves were kept as thin as possible +to ensure its occurrence. Samples taken from pipes in use from +three to nine years are quite sound, and it is concluded that the wood +will last as long as cast-iron if the pipe is kept constantly charged. +The bands are the only perishable portion, and their life is taken at +from fifteen to twenty years. Other portions of the second conduit +for a length of nearly 3 m. were formed of concrete piping, 38 in. +diameter, formed on a mould in the trench, the thickness being 2½ +to 3 in. So successful an instance of the use of wooden piping on a +large scale is sure to lead to a large development of this type of +aqueduct in districts where timber is plentiful and iron absent.</p> + +<p><i>Pioneer Aqueduct, Utah.</i>—The construction of the Pioneer Aqueduct, +Utah, was begun in 1896 by the Pioneer Electric Power +Company, near the city of Ogden, 35 m. north of Salt +Lake City. The storage reservoir, from which it draws +<span class="sidenote">Pioneer, Utah.</span> +its water, will coyer an area of 2000 acres, and contain +about 15,000 million gallons of water. The aqueduct is a pipe 6 ft. +in diameter, and of a total length of 6 m.; for a distance of rather +more than 5 m. it is formed of wooden staves, the remainder, where +the head exceeds 117 ft., being of steel. It is laid in a trench and +covered to a depth of 3 ft. The greatest pressure on the steel pipe +is 200 ℔ per sq. in., and the thickness varies from <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> to <span class="spp">11</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span> in. The +pipe was constructed according to the usual practice of marine +boiler-work for high pressures, and each section, about 9 ft. long, +was dipped in asphalt for an hour. These sections were supported +on timber blocking, placed from 5 to 9 ft. apart, and consisting of +three to six pieces of 6 × 6 in. timbers laid one on the top of the other; +they were then riveted together in the ordinary way. The wooden +stave-pipe is of the type successfully used in the Western States for +many years, but its diameter is believed to be unequalled for any +but short lengths. There were thirty-two staves in the circle, 2 in. +in thickness, and about 20 ft. long, hooped with round steel rods <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. +in diameter, each hoop being in two pieces. The pipe is supported +at intervals of 8 ft. by sills 6 × 8 in. and 8 ft. long. The flow through +it is 250 cubic ft. per second.</p> + +<p>The <i>Santa Ana Canal</i> was constructed for irrigation purposes in +California, and is designed to carry 240 cub. ft. of water per second +(<i>Trans. Am. Soc. C.E.</i> vol. xxxiii. p. 99). The cross +section of the flumes shows an elliptical bottom and +<span class="sidenote">Santa Ana.</span> +straight sides consisting of wooden staves held together by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page248" id="page248"></a>248</span> +iron and steel ribs. The width and depth are each 5 ft. 6 in., the +intended depth of water being 5 ft. The staves are held by T-iron +supports resting on wooden sills spaced 8 ft. apart, and are +compressed together by a framework. They were caulked with oakum, +on the top of which, to a third of the total depth, hot asphalt was +run. The use of nails was altogether avoided except in parts of the +framework, it being noticed that decay usually starts at nail-holes. +It was found possible to make the flume absolutely watertight, and +in case of repair being necessary at any part the framework is easily +taken to pieces so that new staves can be inserted. The water in the +flume has a velocity of 9.6 ft. per second. The Warm Springs, Deep, +and Morton cañons on the line are crossed by wooden stave pipes +52 in. in diameter, bound with round steel rods, and laid above the +surface of the ground. The work is planned for two rows of pipes, +each capable of carrying 123 cub. ft. per second; of these one so +far has been laid. The lengths of the pipes at each of the three +cañons are 551, 964 and 756 ft. respectively, and the maximum +head at any place is 160 ft. The pipes are not painted, and it has +been suggested that they would suffer in their exposed position in +case of a bush fire, a contingency to which, of course, flumes are also liable.</p> + +<p><i>Aqueducts of New York.</i>—There are three aqueducts in New +York—the Old Croton Aqueduct (1837-1843), the Bronx River +Conduit (1880-1885), and the New Croton Aqueduct (1884-1893), +discharging respectively 95, 28, and 302 million U.S. +<span class="sidenote">New York.</span> +gallons a day; their combined delivery is therefore 425 million +gallons a day. The Old Croton Aqueduct is about 41 m. in length, +and was constructed as a masonry conduit, except at the Harlem +and Manhattan valleys, where two lines of 36-in. pipe were used. +The inclination of the former is at the rate of about 13 in. per +mile. The area of the cross-section is 53.34 sq. ft., the height +is 8½ ft., and the greatest width 7 ft. 5 in.; the roof is +semicircular, the floor segmental, and the sides have a batter +on the face of ½ in. per foot. The sides and invert are of +concrete, faced with 4 in. of brickwork, the roof being entirely +of brickwork. There is a bridge over the Harlem river 1450 ft. +in length, consisting of fifteen semicircular arches; its +soffit is 100 ft. above high water, and its cost was $963,427. +The construction of the New Croton Aqueduct was begun in 1885, +and the works were sufficiently advanced by the 15th of July +1890 to allow the supply to be begun. The lengths of the various +parts of the aqueduct are as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">Miles.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Tunnel</td> <td class="tcr">29.75</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cut-and-cover</td> <td class="tcr">1.12</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Cast-iron pipes, 48 in. diameter, 8 rows.</td> <td class="tcr">2.38</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">——</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc">Croton Inlet to Central Park.</td> <td class="tcr">33.25</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">====</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The length of tunnel under pressure (circular form) is 7.17 m., and +that not under pressure (horse-shoe form) 23.70 m. The maximum +pressure in the former is 55 ℔ per sq. in. The width and height of +the horse-shoe form are each 13 ft. 7 in., and the diameter of the +circular form (with the exception of two short lengths) is 12 ft. +3 in. The reason for constructing the aqueduct in tunnel for so long a +distance was the enhanced value of the low-lying ground near the +old aqueduct. The tunnel deviates from a straight line only for the +purpose of intersecting a few transverse valleys at which it could be +emptied. For 25 m. the gradient is 0.7 foot per mile; the tunnel is +then depressed below the hydraulic gradient, the maximum depth +being at the Harlem river, where it is 300 ft. below high water. The +depth of the tunnel varies from 50 to 500 ft. from the surface of the +ground. Forty-two shafts were sunk to facilitate driving, and in +four cases where the surface of the ground is below the hydraulic +gradient these are closed by watertight covers. The whole of the +tunnel is lined with brickwork from 1 to 2 ft. in thickness, the voids +behind the lining being filled with rubble-in-mortar. The entry to +the old and new aqueducts is controlled by a gatehouse of elaborate +and massive design, and the pipes which take up the supply at the +end of the tunnel are also commanded by a gate-house. The aqueduct, +where it passes under the Harlem river, is worthy of special notice. +As it approaches the river it has a considerable fall, and eventually +ends in a vertical shaft 12 ft. 3 in. in diameter (where the water has +a fall of 174 ft.), from the bottom of which, at a depth of 300 ft. +below high-water level, the tunnel under the river starts. The latter +is circular in form, the diameter being 10 ft. 6 in., and the length +is 1300 ft.; it terminates at the bottom of another vertical shaft +also 12 ft. 3 in. in diameter. The depth of this shaft, measured from +the floor of the lower tunnel to that of the upper tunnel leading +away from it, is 321 ft.; it is continued up to the surface of the +ground, though closed by double watertight covers a little above +the level of the upper tunnel. Adjoining this shaft is another shaft +of equal diameter, by means of which the water can be pumped out, +and there is also a communication with the river above high-water +level, so that the higher parts can be emptied by gravitation. The +cost of the Old Croton Aqueduct was $11,500,000; that of the new +aqueduct is not far short of $20,000,000.</p> + +<p>The <i>Nadrai Aqueduct Bridge</i>, in India, opened at the end of +1889, is the largest structure of its kind in existence. It was +built to carry the water of the Lower Ganges canal over the Kali Naddi, in +connexion with the irrigation canals of the north-west provinces. +<span class="sidenote">Nadrai.</span> +In the year 1888-1889 this canal had 564 m. of main line, with +2050 m. of minor distributaries, and irrigated 519,022 acres of crops. +The new bridge replaces one of much smaller size (five spans of 35 +ft.), which was completely destroyed by a high flood in July 1885. +It gives the river a waterway of 21,000 sq. ft., and the canal a +waterway of 1040 sq. ft., the latter representing a discharge of +4100 cub. ft. per second. Its length is 1310 ft., and it is carried +on fifteen arches having a span of 60 ft. The width between the +faces of the arches is 149 ft. The foundations below the river-bed +have a depth of 52 ft., and the total height of the structure is 88 ft. +It cost 44½ lakhs of rupees, and occupied four years in building. +The foundations consist of 268 circular brick cylinders, and the +fifteen spans are arranged in three groups, divided by abutment +piers; the latter are founded on a double row of 12-ft. cylinders, +and the intermediate piers on a single row of 20-ft. cylinders, all +the cylinders being hearted with hydraulic lime concrete filled in +with skips. This aqueduct-bridge has a very fine appearance, owing +to its massive proportions and design.</p> +<div class="author">(E. P. H.*)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—For ancient aqueducts in general: Curt Merckel, <i>Die +Ingenieurtechnik im Alterthum</i> (Berlin, 1899); ch. vi. contains a very +full account from the earliest Assyrian aqueducts onwards, with +illustrations, measurements and an excellent bibliography. For Greek +aqueducts see E. Curtius, “Über städtische Wasserbauten der Hellenen,” +in <i>Archaeologische Zeitung</i> (1847); G. Weber (as above); papers in +<i>Athen. Mittheil.</i> (Samos), 1877, (Enneacrunus) 1892, 1893, 1894, 1905, +and articles on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pergamum</a></span>, &c. For Roman aqueducts: R. Lanciani, +“I Commentari di Frontino intorno le acque e gli acquedotti,” in +<i>Memorie dei Lincei</i>, serie iii. vol. iv. (Rome, 1880), 215 sqq., and +separately; C. Herschel, <i>The Two Books on the Water Supply of the City +of Rome of Sextus Julius Frontinus</i> (Boston, 1899); T. Ashby in +<i>Classical Review</i> (1902), 336, and articles in <i>The Builder</i>; cf. also +the maps to T. Ashby’s “Classical Topography of the Roman Campagna,” in +<i>Papers of the British School at Rome</i>, i., in., iv. (in progress).</p> + +<p>For modern aqueducts, see Rickman’s <i>Life of Telford</i> (1838); +Schramke’s <i>New York Croton Aqueduct; Second Annual Report of +the Department of Public Works of the City of New York in 1872; +Report of the Aqueduct Commissioners</i> (1887-1895), and <i>The Water +Supply of the City of New York</i> (1896), by Wegmann; <i>Mémoires sur +les eaux de Paris</i>, presentés par le Préfet de la Seine au Conseil +Municipal (1854 and 1858); <i>Recherches statistiques sur les sources du +bassin de la Seine</i>, par M. Belgrand, Ingénieur en chef des ponts et +chaussées (1854); “Descriptions of Mechanical Arrangements of the +Manchester Waterworks,” by John Frederic Bateman, F.R.S., +Engineer-in-chief, from the <i>Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution +of Mechanical Engineers</i> (1866); <i>The Glasgow Waterworks</i>, by James M. +Gale, Member Inst. C.E. (1863 and 1864); <i>The Report of the Royal +Commission on Water Supply, and the Minutes of Evidence</i> (1867 and +1868). For accounts of other aqueducts, see the Transactions of the +Societies of Engineers in the different countries, and the Engineering +Journals.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> There have been found at Caerwent, in Monmouthshire, clear +traces of wooden pipes (internal diameter about 2 in.) which must +have carried drinking-water, and almost certainly a pressure supply +from the surrounding hills. Some patches of lead also have been +found obviously nailed on to the pipes at points where they had +burst (see <i>Archaeologia</i>, 1908).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This distance will not agree with the length given on some of the +<i>cippi</i> (Lanciani, <i>Bull. Com.</i>, 1899, 38).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3h" id="ft3h" href="#fa3h"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The course of the Aqua Claudia was considerably shortened by +the cutting of a tunnel 3 m. long under the Monte Affliano in the time +of Domitian (T. Ashby, in <i>Papers of the British School at Rome</i>, iii, +133).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4h" id="ft4h" href="#fa4h"><span class="fn">4</span></a> About 3 m. south-east of this point the presence of large +quantities of deposit and a sudden fall in the level of the channels +seems to indicate the existence of settling tanks, of which no actual +traces can be seen.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AQUILA<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> <span class="grk" title="Akulas">Άκύλας</span>, (1) a Jew from Rome, who with his wife +Prisca or Priscilla had settled in Corinth, where Paul stayed +with them (Acts xviii. 2,3). They became Christians and fellow-workers +with Paul, to whom they seem to have shown their +devotion in some special way (Rom. xvi. 3, 4). (2) A native of +Pontus, celebrated for a very literal and accurate translation of +the Old Testament into Greek. Epiphanius (<i>De Pond. et Mens.</i> +c. 15) preserves a tradition that he was a kinsman of the emperor +Hadrian, who employed him in rebuilding Jerusalem (Aelia +Capitolina, <i>q.v.</i>), and that he was converted to Christianity, but, +on being reproved for practising pagan astrology, apostatized +to Judaism. He is said also to have been a disciple of Rabbi +’Aqiba (d. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 132), and seems to be referred to in Jewish writings +as <span title="akiles">עקילס</span>. Aquila’s version is said to have been used +in place of the Septuagint in the synagogues. The Christians +generally disliked it, alleging without due grounds that it rendered +the Messianic passages incorrectly, but Jerome and Origen speak +in its praise. Origen incorporated it in his <i>Hexapla</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It was thought that this was the only copy extant, but in 1897 +fragments of two codices were brought to the Cambridge University +Library. These have been published—the fragments containing +1 Kings xx. 7-17; 2 Kings xxiii. 12-27 by F.C. Burkitt in 1897, those +containing parts of Psalms xc.-ciii. by C. Taylor in 1899. See F.C. +Burkitt’s article in the <i>Jewish Encyclopaedia</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AQUILA, CASPAR<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Kaspar Adler</span>] (1488-1560), German +reformer, was born at Augsburg on the 7th of August 1488, +educated there and at Ulm (1502), in Italy (he met Erasmus in +Rome), at Bern (1508), Leipzig (1510) and Wittenberg (1513). +According to his son, he entered the ministry in August 1514, +at Bern. He was for some time a military chaplain. In 1516 +he became pastor of Jenga, near Augsburg. Openly proclaiming +his adhesion to Luther’s doctrine, he was imprisoned for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>249</span> +half a year (1520 or 1522) at Dillingen, by order of the bishop +of Augsburg; a death sentence was commuted to banishment +through the influence of Isabella, wife of Christian II. of +Denmark and sister of Charles V. Returning to Wittenberg he +met Luther, acted as tutor to the sons of Franz von Sickingen +at Ebernburg, taught Hebrew at Wittenberg, and aided Luther +in his version of the Old Testament. The dates and particulars +of his career are uncertain till 1527, when he became pastor at +Saalfeld, and in 1528, superintendent. His vehement opposition +to the Augsburg Interim (1548) led him to take temporary +shelter at Rudolstadt with Catherine, countess of Schwarzburg. +In 1550 he was appointed dean of the Collegiatstift in +Schmalkalden. Here he had a controversy with Andreas Osiander. +Restored to Saalfeld, not without opposition, in 1552, he +remained there, still engaged in controversy, till his death on +the 12th of November 1560. He was twice married, and left +four sons. He published numerous sermons, a few Old Testament +expositions and some controversial tracts.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Kawerau, in A. Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopadie</i> (1896); <i>Allgemeine +deutsche Biog.</i> (1875); Lives by J. Avenarius (1718); J.G. +Hillinger (1731); Chr. Schlegel (1737); Fr. Gensler (1816).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AQUILA, SERAFINO DELL’<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1466-1500), Italian poet and +improvisatore, was born in 1466 at the town of Aquila, from +which he took his name, and died in the year 1500. He spent +several years at the courts of Cardinal Sforza and Ferdinand, +duke of Calabria; but his principal patrons were the Borgias +at Rome, from whom he received many favours. Aquila seems +to have aimed at an imitation of Dante and Petrarch; and his +poems, which were extravagantly praised during the author’s +lifetime, are occasionally of considerable merit. His reputation +was in great measure due to his remarkable skill as an +improvisatore and musician. His works were printed at Venice in +1502, and there have been several subsequent editions.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AQUILA,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> a city of the Abruzzi, Italy, the capital of the +province of Aquila, and the seat of an archbishop, 2360 ft. above +sea-level, 50 m. directly N.E. of Rome, and 145 m. by rail. +Pop. (1901) town, 18,494; commune, 21,261. It lies on a hill +in the wide valley of the Aterno, surrounded by mountains on +all sides, the Gran Sasso d’Italia being conspicuous on the +north-east. It is a favourite summer resort of the Italians, but is +cold and windy in winter. In the highest part of the town is +the massive citadel, erected by the Spanish viceroy Don Pedro +de Toledo in 1534. The church of S. Bernardino di Siena (1472) +has a fine Renaissance façade by Nicolò Filotesio (commonly +called Cola dell’ Amatrice), and contains the monumental tomb +of the saint, decorated with beautiful sculptures, and executed +by Silvestro Ariscola in 1480. The church of S. Maria di +Collemaggio, just outside the town, has a very fine Romanesque +façade of simple design (1270-1280) in red and white marble, +with three finely decorated portals and a rose-window above +each. The two side doors are also fine. The interior contains +the mausoleum of Pope Celestine V. (d. 1296) erected in 1517. +Many smaller churches in the town have similar façades (S. +Giusta, S. Silvestro, &c.). The town also contains some fine +palaces: the municipality has a museum, with a collection of +Roman inscriptions and some illuminated service books. The +Palazzi Dragonetti and Persichetti contain private collections +of pictures. Outside the town is the <i>Fontana delle novantanove +cannelle</i>, a fountain with ninety-nine jets distributed along three +walls, constructed in 1272. Aquila has some trade in lace and +saffron, and possesses other smaller industries. It was a university +town in the middle ages, but most of its chairs have now +been suppressed.</p> + +<p>Aquila was founded by Conrad, son of the emperor +Frederick II., about 1250, as a bulwark against the power of +the papacy. It was destroyed by Manfred in 1259, but soon +rebuilt by Charles I. of Anjou. Its walls were completed in 1316; +and it maintained itself as an almost independent republic until +it was subdued in 1521 by the Spaniards, who had become +masters of the kingdom of Naples in 1503. It was twice sacked +by the French in 1799.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See V. Bindi, <i>Monumenti storici ed artistici degli Abruzzi</i> (Naples, +1889), pp. 771 seq.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AQUILA,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> in astronomy, the “Eagle,” sometimes named the +“Vulture,” a constellation of the northern hemisphere, mentioned +by Eudoxus (4th cent. <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and Aratus (3rd cent. <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). +Ptolemy catalogued nineteen stars jointly in this constellation +and in the constellation <i>Antinous</i>, which was named in the reign +of the emperor Hadrian (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 117-138), but sometimes, and +wrongly, attributed to Tycho Brahe, who catalogued twelve +stars in Aquila and seven in Antinous; Hevelius determined +twenty-three stars in the first, and nineteen in the second. +The most brilliant star of this constellation, α-<i>Aquilae</i> or Altair, +has a parallax of 0.23″, and consequently is about eight times as +bright as the sun; <i>η-Aquilae</i> is a short-period variable, while +<i>Nova Aquilae</i> is a “temporary” or “new” star, discovered +by Mrs Fleming of Harvard in 1899.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AQUILA ROMANUS,<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> a Latin grammarian who flourished +in the second half of the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> He was the author +of an extant treatise <i>De Figuris Sententiarum et Elocutionis</i>, +written as an instalment of a complete rhetorical handbook for +the use of a young and eager correspondent. While recommending +Demosthenes and Cicero as models, he takes his own +examples almost exclusively from Cicero. His treatise is really +adapted from that by Alexander, son of Numenius, as is expressly +stated by Julius Rufinianus, who brought out a supplementary +treatise, augmented by material from other sources. Aquila’s +style is harsh and careless, and the Latin is inferior.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Halm, <i>Rhetores Latini minores</i> (1863); Wensch, <i>De Aquila Romano</i> +(1861).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AQUILEIA,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> an ancient town of Italy, at the head of the +Adriatic at the edge of the lagoons, about 6 m. from the sea, on +the river Natiso (mod. Natisone), the course of which has changed +somewhat since Roman times. It was founded by the Romans +in 181 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> as a frontier fortress on the north-east, not far from +the site where, two years before, Gaulish invaders had attempted +to settle. The colony was led by two men of consular and one +of praetorian rank, and 3000 <i>pedites</i> formed the bulk of the +settlers. It was probably connected by road with Bononia in +175 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; and subsequently with Genua in 148 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the Via +Postumia, which ran through Cremona, Bedriacum and Altinum, +joining the first-mentioned road at Concordia, while the +construction of the Via Popilia from Ariminum to Ad Portum near +Altinum in 132 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> improved the communications still further. +In 169 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, 1500 more families were settled there as a +reinforcement to the garrison. The discovery of the goldfields near +the modern Klagenfurt in 150 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Strabo iv. 208) brought +it into notice, and it soon became a place of importance, not +only owing to its strategic position, but as a centre of trade, +especially in agricultural products. It also had, in later times +at least, considerable brickfields. It was originally a Latin +colony, but became a <i>municipium</i> probably in 90 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The +customs boundary of Italy was close by in Cicero’s day. It was +plundered by the Iapydes under Augustus, but, in the period +of peace which followed, was able to develop its resources. +Augustus visited it during the Pannonian wars in 12-10 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +and it was the birthplace of Tiberius’s son by Julia, in the latter +year. It was the starting-point of several important roads leading +to the north-eastern portion of the empire—the road (Via +Iulia Augusta) by Iulium Carnicum to Veldidena (mod. Wilten, +near Innsbruck), from which branched off the road into Noricum, +leading by Virunum (Klagenfurt) to Lauricum (Lorch) on the +Danube, the road into Pannonia, leading to Emona (Laibach)<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +and Sirmium (Mitrowitz), the road to Tarsatica (near Fiume) +and Siscia (Sissek), and that to Tergeste (Trieste) and the +Istrian coast.</p> + +<p>In the war against the Marcomanni in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 167, the town +was hard pressed; the fortifications had fallen into disrepair +during the long peace. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 238, when the town took the +side of the senate against the emperor Maximinus, they were +hastily restored, and proved of sufficient strength to resist for +several months, until Maximinus himself was assassinated. +The 4th century marks, however, the greatest importance of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page250" id="page250"></a>250</span> +Aquileia; it became a naval station and, probably, the seat of +the <i>corrector Venetiarum et Histriae</i>; a mint was established here, +the coins of which are very numerous, and the bishop obtained +the rank of patriarch. An imperial palace was constructed here, +in which the emperors after the time of Diocletian frequently +resided; and the city often played a part in the struggles +between the rulers of the 4th century. At the end of the century, +Ausonius enumerated it as the ninth among the great cities of +the world, placing Rome, Mediolanum and Capua before it, and +called it “moenibus et portu celeberrima.” In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 452, however, +it was destroyed by Attila, though it continued to exist +until the Lombard invasion of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 568. After this the patriarchate +was transferred to Grado. In 606 the diocese was +divided into two parts, and the patriarchate of Aquileia, protected +by the Lombards, was revived, that of Grado being +protected by the exarch of Ravenna and later by the doges of +Venice. In 1027 and 1044 Patriarch Poppo of Aquileia entered +and sacked Grado, and, though the pope reconfirmed the patriarch +of the latter in his dignities, the town never recovered, +though it continued to be the seat of the patriarchate until its +formal transference to Venice in 1450. The seat of the patriarchate +of Aquileia had been transferred to Udine in 1238, but +returned in 1420 when Venice annexed the territory of Udine. +It was finally suppressed in 1751, and the sees of Udine and +Gorizia (Görz) established in its stead. Its buildings served as +stone quarries for centuries, and no edifices of the Roman period +remain above ground. Excavations have revealed one street +and the north-west angle of the town walls, while the local +museum contains over 2000 inscriptions, besides statues and +other antiquities. The cathedral, a flat-roofed basilica, was +erected by Patriarch Poppo in 1031 on the site of an earlier +church, and rebuilt about 1379 in the Gothic style by Patriarch +Marquad. The narthex and baptistery belong to an earlier +period. Of the palace of the patriarchs only two isolated +columns remain standing. The modern village (pop. 2300) is +rendered unhealthy by rice-fields.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See T.W. Jackson, <i>Dalmatia, Istria and the Quarnero</i> (Oxford, +1887), iii. 377 seq.; H. Maionica, <i>Aquileia zur Romerzeit</i> (Görz, +1881), <i>Fundkarte van Aquileia</i> (Görz, 1893), “Inschriften in Grado” +(Roman inscriptions removed thither from Aquileia) in <i>Jahreshefte +des Österr. Arch. Instituts</i>, i. (1898), Beiblatt, 83, 125.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This road is described in detail by O. Cuntz in <i>Jahreshefte des +Österr. Arch. Inst.</i> v. (1902), Beiblatt, pp. 139 seq.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AQUILLIUS, MANIUS,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> Roman general, consul in 101 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +He successfully put down a revolt of the slaves under Athenion +in Sicily. After his return, being accused of extortion, he was +acquitted on account of his military services, although there +was little doubt of his guilt. In 88 he acted as legate against +Mithradates the Great, by whom he was defeated and taken +prisoner. Mithradates treated him with great cruelty, and is +said to have put him to death by pouring molten gold down his +throat.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Diodorus Siculus xxxvi. 3; Appian, <i>Mithrid</i>. ii. 17. 21; Vell. +Paterculus ii. 18; Cicero, <i>Verres</i>, iii. 54, <i>De Officiis</i>, ii. 14, <i>Tusc</i>. +v. 5.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AQUINAS, THOMAS<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Thomas of Aquin</span> or <span class="sc">Aquino</span>], (<i>c.</i> 1227-1274), +scholastic philosopher, known as <i>Doctor Angelicus, Doctor +Universalis</i>, was of noble descent, and nearly allied to several of +the royal houses of Europe. He was born in 1225 or 1227, at +Roccasecca, the castle of his father Landulf, count of Aquino, +in the territories of Naples. Having received his elementary +education at the monastery of Monte Cassino, he studied for six +years at the university of Naples, leaving it in his sixteenth year. +While there he probably came under the influence of the Dominicans, +who were doing their utmost to enlist within their ranks +the ablest young scholars of the age, for in spite of the opposition +of his family, which was overcome only by the intervention of +Pope Innocent IV., he assumed the habit of St Dominic in his +seventeenth year.</p> + +<p>His superiors, seeing his great aptitude for theological study, +sent him to the Dominican school in Cologne, where Albertus +Magnus was lecturing on philosophy and theology. In 1245 +Albertus was called to Paris, and there Aquinas followed him, +and remained with him for three years, at the end of which he +graduated as bachelor of theology. In 1248 he returned to +Cologne with Albertus, and was appointed second lecturer and +<i>magister studentium</i>. This year may be taken as the beginning +of his literary activity and public life. Before he left Paris he +had thrown himself with ardour into the controversy raging +between the university and the Friar-Preachers respecting the +liberty of teaching, resisting both by speeches and pamphlets the +authorities of the university; and when the dispute was referred +to the pope, the youthful Aquinas was chosen to defend his +order, which he did with such success as to overcome the arguments +of Guillaume de St Amour, the champion of the university, +and one of the most celebrated men of the day. In 1257, along +with his friend Bonaventura, he was created doctor of theology, +and began to give courses of lectures upon this subject in Paris, +and also in Rome and other towns in Italy. From this time +onwards his life was one of incessant toil; he was continually +engaged in the active service of his order, was frequently travelling +upon long and tedious journeys, and was constantly consulted +on affairs of state by the reigning pontiff.</p> + +<p>In 1263 we find him at the chapter of the Dominican order +held in London. In 1268 he was lecturing now in Rome and +now in Bologna, all the while engaged in the public business of +the church. In 1271 he was again in Paris, lecturing to the +students, managing the affairs of the church and consulted by +the king, Louis VIII., his kinsman, on affairs of state. In 1272 +the commands of the chief of his order and the request of King +Charles brought him back to the professor’s chair at Naples. +All this time he was preaching every day, writing homilies, +disputations, lectures, and finding time to work hard at his great +work the <i>Summa Theologiae</i>. Such rewards as the church could +bestow had been offered to him. He refused the archbishopric of +Naples and the abbacy of Monte Cassino. In January 1274 he +was summoned by Pope Gregory X. to attend the council convened +at Lyons, to investigate and if possible settle the differences +between the Greek and Latin churches. Though suffering from +illness, he at once set out on the journey; finding his strength +failing on the way, he was carried to the Cistercian monastery of +Fossa Nuova, in the diocese of Terracina, where, after a lingering +illness of seven weeks, he died on the 7th of March 1274, Dante +(<i>Purg</i>. xx. 69) asserts that he was poisoned by order of Charles +of Anjou. Villani (ix. 218) quotes the belief, and the <i>Anonimo +Fiorentino</i> describes the crime and its motive. But Muratori, +reproducing the account given by one of Thomas’s friends, +gives no hint of foul play. Aquinas was canonized in 1323 by +Pope John XXII., and in 1567 Pius V. ranked the festival of St +Thomas with those of the four great Latin fathers, Ambrose, +Augustine, Jerome and Gregory. No theologian save Augustine +has had an equal influence on the theological thought and +language of the Western Church, a fact which was strongly +emphasized by Leo XIII. (<i>q.v.</i>) in his <i>Encyclical</i> of August 4, +1879, which directed the clergy to take the teachings of Aquinas +as the basis of their theological position. In 1880 he was declared +patron of all Roman Catholic educational establishments. In a +monastery at Naples, near the cathedral of St Januarius, is still +shown a cell in which he is said to have lived.</p> + +<p>The writings of Thomas are of great importance for philosophy +as well as for theology, for by nature and education he is the spirit +of scholasticism incarnate. The principles on which his system +rested were these. He held that there were two sources of +knowledge—the mysteries of Christian faith and the truths of +human reason. The distinction between these two was made +emphatic by Aquinas, who is at pains, especially in his treatise +<i>Contra Gentiles</i>, to make it plain that each is a distinct fountain +of knowledge, but that revelation is the more important of the +two. Revelation is a source of knowledge, rather than the +manifestation in the world of a divine life, and its chief characteristic +is that it presents men with mysteries, which are to be +believed even when they cannot be understood. Revelation is +not Scripture alone, for Scripture taken by itself does not correspond +exactly with his description; nor is it church tradition +alone, for church tradition must so far rest on Scripture. Revelation +is a divine source of knowledge, of which Scripture and +church tradition are the channels; and he who would rightly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page251" id="page251"></a>251</span> +understand theology must familiarize himself with Scripture, +the teachings of the fathers, and the decisions of councils, in such +a way as to be able to make part of himself, as it were, those +channels along which this divine knowledge flowed. Aquinas’s +conception of reason is in some way parallel with his conception +of revelation. Reason is in his idea not the individual reason, +but the fountain of natural truth, whose chief channels are the +various systems of heathen philosophy, and more especially the +thoughts of Plato and the methods of Aristotle. Reason and +revelation are separate sources of knowledge; and man can put +himself in possession of each, because he can bring himself into +relation to the church on the one hand, and the system of philosophy, +or more strictly Aristotle, on the other. The conception +will be made clearer when it is remembered that Aquinas, taught +by the mysterious author of the writings of the pseudo-Dionysius, +who so marvellously influenced medieval writers, sometimes +spoke of a natural revelation, or of reason as a source of truths +in themselves mysterious, and was always accustomed to say +that reason as well as revelation contained two kinds of knowledge. +The first kind lay quite beyond the power of man to +receive it, the second was within man’s reach. In reason, as in +revelation, man can only attain to the lower kind of knowledge; +there is a higher kind which we may not hope to reach.</p> + +<p>But while reason and revelation are two distinct sources +of truths, the truths are not contradictory; for in the last +resort they rest on <i>one</i> absolute truth—they come from the one +source of knowledge, God, the Absolute One. Hence arises the +compatibility of philosophy and theology which was the fundamental +axiom of scholasticism, and the possibility of a Summa +Theologiae, which is a Summa Philosophiae as well. All the +many writings of Thomas are preparatory to his great work the +<i>Summa Theologiae</i>, and show us the progress of his mind training +for this his life work. In the <i>Summa Catholicae Fidei contra +Gentiles</i> he shows how a Christian theology is the sum and crown +of all science. This work is in its design apologetic, and is meant +to bring within the range of Christian thought all that is of value +in Mahommedan science. He carefully establishes the necessity +of revelation as a source of knowledge, not merely because it +aids us in comprehending in a somewhat better way the truths +already furnished by reason, as some of the Arabian philosophers +and Maimonides had acknowledged, but because it is the absolute +source of our knowledge of the mysteries of the Christian faith; +and then he lays down the relations to be observed between +reason and revelation, between philosophy and theology. This +work, <i>Contra Gentiles</i>, may be taken as an elaborate exposition +of the method of Aquinas. That method, however, implied a +careful study and comprehension of the results which accrued +to man from reason and revelation, and a thorough grasp of +all that had been done by man in relation to those two sources +of human knowledge; and so, in his preliminary writings, +Thomas proceeds to master the two provinces. The results of +revelation he found in the Holy Scriptures and in the writings +of the fathers and the great theologians of the church; and +his method was to proceed backwards. He began with +Peter of Lombardy (who had reduced to theological order, in +his famous book on the <i>Sentences</i>, the various authoritative +statements of the church upon doctrine) in his <i>In Quatuor +Sententiarum P. Lombardi libros</i>. Then came his deliverances +upon undecided points in theology, in his <i>XII. Quodlibeta +Disputata</i>, and his <i>Quaestiones Disputatae</i>. His <i>Catena Aurea</i> +next appeared, which, under the form of a commentary on the +Gospels, was really an exhaustive summary of the theological +teaching of the greatest of the church fathers. This side of his +preparation was finished by a close study of Scripture, the +results of which are contained in his commentaries, <i>In omnes +Epistolas Dim Apostoli Expositio</i>, his <i>Super Isaiam et Jeremiam</i>, +and his <i>In Psalmos</i>. Turning now to the other side, we have +evidence, not only from tradition but from his writings, that +he was acquainted with Plato and the mystical Platonists; +but he had the sagacity to perceive that Aristotle was <i>the</i> great +representative of philosophy, and that his writings contained +the best results and method which the natural reason had as yet +attained to. Accordingly Aquinas prepared himself on this side +by commentaries on Aristotle’s <i>De Interpretatione</i>, on his <i>Posterior +Analytics</i>, on the <i>Metaphysics</i>, the <i>Physics</i>, the <i>De Anima</i>, and +on Aristotle’s other psychological and physical writings, each +commentary having for its aim to lay hold of the material and +grasp the method contained and employed in each treatise. +Fortified by this exhaustive preparation, Aquinas began his +<i>Summa Theologiae</i>, which he intended to be the sum of all known +learning, arranged according to the best method, and subordinate +to the dictates of the church. Practically it came to be +the theological dicta of the church, explained according to the +philosophy of Aristotle and his Arabian commentators. The +<i>Summa</i> is divided into three great parts, which shortly may be +said to treat of God, Man and the God-Man. The first and the +second parts are wholly the work of Aquinas, but of the third +part only the first ninety quaestiones are his; the rest of it was +finished in accordance with his designs. The first book, after +a short introduction upon the nature of theology as understood +by Aquinas, proceeds in 119 questions to discuss the nature, +attributes and relations of God; and this is not done as in a +modern work on theology, but the questions raised in the physics +of Aristotle find a place alongside of the statements of Scripture, +while all subjects in any way related to the central theme are +brought into the discourse. The second part is divided into +two, which are quoted as <i>Prima Secundae</i> and <i>Secunda Secundae</i>. +This second part has often been described as ethic, but this is +scarcely true. The subject is man, treated as Aristotle does, +according to his <span class="grk" title="telos">τέλος</span>, and so Aquinas discusses all the ethical, +psychological and theological questions which arise; but any +theological discussion upon man must be mainly ethical, and so +a great proportion of the first part, and almost the whole of the +second, has to do with ethical questions. In his ethical discussions +(a full account of which is given under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethics</a></span>) Aquinas +distinguishes theological from natural virtues and vices; the +theological virtues are faith, hope and charity; the natural, +justice, prudence and the like. The theological virtues are +founded on faith, in opposition to the natural, which are founded +on reason; and as faith with Aquinas is always belief in a proposition, +not trust in a personal Saviour, conformably with his +idea that revelation is a new knowledge rather than a new life, +the relation of unbelief to virtue is very strictly and narrowly +laid down and enforced. The third part of the <i>Summa</i> is also +divided into two parts, but by accident rather than by design. +Aquinas died ere he had finished his great work, and what has +been added to complete the scheme is appended as a <i>Supplementum +Tertiae Partis</i>. In this third part Aquinas discusses +the person, office and work of Christ, and had begun to discuss +the sacraments, when death put an end to his labours.</p> + +<p>The purely philosophical theories of Aquinas are explained +in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scholasticism</a></span>. In connexion with the problem +of universals, he held that the diversity of individuals depends +on the quantitative division of matter (<i>materia signata</i>), and +in this way he attracted the criticism of the Scotists, who pointed +out that this very matter is individual and determinate, and, +therefore, itself requires explanation. In general, Aquinas +maintained in different senses the real existence of universals +<i>ante rem</i>, <i>in re</i> and <i>post rem</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best modern edition of the works of Aquinas is that prepared +at the expense of Leo XIII. (Rome, 1882-1903). The Abbé Migne +published a very useful edition of the <i>Summa Theologiae</i>, in four 8vo +vols., as an appendix to his <i>Patrologiae Cursus Completus</i>; English +editions, J. Rickaby (London, 1872), J.M. Ashley (London, 1888). +See <i>Acta Sanct</i>., vii. Martii; A. Touron, <i>La Vie de St Thomas d’Aquin, +avec un exposé de sa doctrine et de ses ouvrages</i> (Paris, 1737); Karl +Werner, <i>Der Heilige Thomas van Aquino</i> (1858); and R.B. Vaughan, +<i>St Thomas of Aquin, his Life and Labours</i> (London, 1872): other lives +by P. Cavanagh (London, 1890); E. Desmousseaux de Giuré (Paris, +1888); M. Didot (Louvain, 1894). For the philosophy of Aquinas, +see Albert Stöckl, <i>Geschichte der Philosophie des Mittelalters</i>, ii.; +B. Hauréau, <i>De la philosophie scolastique</i>, vol. ii.; J. Frohschammer, +<i>Die Philos. d. Th. van A</i>. (Leipzig, 1889); K. Prantl, <i>Geschichte d. +Logik</i>, vol. iii.; C.M. Schneider, <i>Natur, Vernunft, Gott</i> (Regensburg, +1883), <i>Das Wissen Gottes nach d. Lehre des Th. v. A</i>. (4 vols. Regensburg, +1884-1886), <i>Die socialistische Staatsidee beleuchtet durch Th. +v. A</i>. (Paderborn, 1894); A. Harnack, <i>Hist, of Dogma</i> (trans. Wm. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page252" id="page252"></a>252</span> +Gilchrist, London, 1899); Ueberweg’s <i>History of Philosophy</i>, vol. i. +See also H.C. O’Neill, <i>New Things and Old in St Thomas Aquinas</i> +(1909), with biography.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. M. L.; J. M. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AQUINO,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> a town and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, in the +province of Caserta; it is 56 m. N.W. by rail from the town +of Caserta, and 7½ m. N.W. of Cassino. Pop. (1901) 2672. The +modern town, close to the ancient, is unimportant, though the +canons of the cathedral have the privilege of wearing the mitre +and <i>cappa magna</i> at great festivals. It is close to the site of the +ancient Aquinum, a <i>municipium</i> in the time of Cicero, and made +a colony by the Triumviri, the birthplace of Juvenal and of the +emperor Pescennius Niger. The Via Latina traversed it; one +of the gates through which it passed, now called Porta S. Lorenzo, +is still well preserved, and there are remains within the walls +(portions of which, built of large blocks of limestone, still remain) +of two (so called) temples, a basilica and an amphitheatre (see +R. Delbrück in <i>Röm. Mitteilungen</i>, 1903, p. 143). Outside, on the +south is a well-preserved triumphal arch with composite capitals, +and close to it the 11th-century basilica of S. Maria Libera, a +handsome building in the Romanesque style, but now roofless. +Several Roman inscriptions are built into it, and many others +that have been found indicate the ancient importance of the place, +which, though it does not appear in early history, is vouched for +by Cicero and Strabo.<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> A colony was planted here by the Triumviri. +St Thomas Aquinas was born in the castle of Roccasecca, 5 m. N.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Grossi, <i>Aquinum</i> (Rome, 1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> According to H. Nissen, <i>Ital. Landeskunde</i> (Berlin, 1902), ii. 665, +a road ran from here to Minturnae; but no traces of it are to be +seen.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">AQUITAINE,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> the name of an ancient province in France, the +extent of which has varied considerably from time to time. +About the time of Julius Caesar the name <i>Aquitania</i> was given +to that part of Gaul lying between the Pyrenees and the Garonne, +and its inhabitants were a race, or races, distinct from the Celts. +The name Aquitania is probably a form of Auscetani, which in +its turn is a lengthened form of Ausces, and is thus cognate with +the words Basque and Wasconia, <i>i.e.</i> Gascony. Although many +of the tribes of Aquitania submitted to Julius Caesar, it was not +until about 28 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> that the district was brought under the +Roman yoke. In keeping with the Roman policy of denationalization, +the term Aquitania was extended, and under Augustus +it included the whole of Gaul south and west of the Loire and +the Allier, and thus ceased to possess ethnographical importance. +In the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> this larger Aquitania was divided into +three parts: <i>Aquitania Prima</i>, the eastern part of the district +between the Loire and the Garonne; <i>Aquitania Secunda</i>, the +western part of the same district; and <i>Aquitania Tertia</i>, or +<i>Novempopulana</i>, the region between the Garonne and the +Pyrenees, or the original Aquitania. The seats of government +were respectively Bourges, Bordeaux and Eauze; the province +contained twenty-six cities, and was in the diocese of Vienne. +Like the rest of Gaul, Aquitania absorbed a large measure of +Roman civilization, and this continued to distinguish the district +down to a late period. In the 5th century the Visigoths +established themselves in Aquitania Secunda, and also in parts +of Aquitania Prima and Novempopulana, but after the defeat +of their king Alaric II. by the Franks under Clovis in 507, they +were supplanted by their conquerors. Clovis and his successors +extended their authority nominally to the Pyrenees, but, as +Guizot has remarked, “the conquest of Aquitania by Clovis left +it almost as alien to the people and king of Franks as it had +formerly been.” Subsequently during the Merovingian period +it was contended for by the feeble rulers of the various Frankish +kingdoms, and was frequently partitioned among them; but +the Aquitanians had little difficulty in effectually resisting this +authority, although they did not establish themselves as a separate +kingdom. About 628, indeed, they gathered around Charibert, +or Haribert, a brother of the Frankish king, Dagobert I., in the +hope of national independence; but after his death in 630 they +returned to their former condition. But this effort, although +a failure, brought about a certain measure of concord between +the two principal races inhabiting the district, and so prepared +the way for the stubborn resistance which, subsequently, the +Aquitanians were able to offer to the Franks.</p> + +<p>The first line of dukes began about 660 with one Felix, who, +like his successor, Lupus, probably owned allegiance to the +Frankish kings, and whose seat of government was Toulouse. +About the end of the 7th century an adventurer named Odo, +or Eudes, made himself master of this region. Attacked by the +Saracens he inflicted on them a crushing defeat, but when they +reappeared, he was obliged to invoke the aid of Charles Martel, +who, as the price of his support, claimed and received the homage +of his ally. Odo was succeeded by his son Hunald, who after +carrying on a war against the Franks under Pippin the Short, +retired to a convent, leaving both the kingdom and the conflict +to Waifer, or Guaifer. For some years Waifer strenuously +carried on an unequal struggle with the Franks, but he was +assassinated in 768, and with him perished the national independence, +although not the national individuality, of the +Aquitanians. In 781 Charlemagne bestowed Aquitaine upon his +young son, Louis, and as Louis was generally described as a +king, Aquitaine is referred to during the Carolingian period +as a kingdom, and not as a duchy. When Louis succeeded +Charlemagne as emperor in 814, he granted Aquitaine to his +son Pippin, on whose death in 838 the Aquitanians chose his +son Pippin II. (d. 865) as their king. The emperor Louis I., +however, opposed this arrangement and gave the kingdom to +his youngest son Charles, afterwards the emperor Charles the +Bald. Now followed a time of confusion and conflict which +resulted eventually in the success of Charles, although from +845 to 852 Pippin was in possession of the kingdom. In 852 +Pippin was imprisoned by Charles the Bald, who soon afterwards +gave to the Aquitanians his own son Charles as their king. +On the death of the younger Charles in 866, his brother Louis +the Stammerer succeeded to the kingdom, and when, in 877, +Louis became king of the Franks, Aquitaine was united to the +Frankish crown.</p> + +<p>A new period now begins in the history of Aquitaine. By a +treaty made in 845 between Charles the Bald and Pippin II. +the kingdom had been diminished by the loss of Poitou, Saintonge +and Angoumois, which had been given to Rainulf I., count +of Poitiers. Somewhat earlier than this date the title of duke +of the Aquitanians had been revived, and this was now borne +by Rainulf, although it was also claimed by the counts of +Toulouse. The new duchy of Aquitaine, comprising the three districts +already mentioned, remained in the hands of Rainulf’s +successors, in spite of some trouble with their Frankish overlords, +until 893 when Count Rainulf II. was poisoned by order +of King Charles III. the Simple. Charles then bestowed the +duchy upon William the Pious, count of Auvergne, the founder +of the abbey of Cluny, who was succeeded in 918 by his nephew, +Count William II., who died in 926. A succession of dukes +followed, one of whom, William IV., fought against Hugh Capet, +king of France, and another of whom, William V., called the +Great, was able considerably to strengthen and extend his +authority, although he failed in his attempt to secure the Lombard +crown. William’s duchy almost reached the limits of +the Roman Aquitania Prima and Secunda, but did not stretch +south of the Garonne, a district which was in the possession +of the Gascons. William died in 1030, and the names of +William VI. (d. 1038), Odo or Eudes (d. 1039), who joined Gascony +to his duchy, William VII. and William VIII. bring us down to +William IX. (d. 1127), who succeeded in 1087, and made himself +famous as a crusader and a troubadour. William X. (d. 1137) +married his daughter Eleanor to Louis VII., king of France, +and Aquitaine went as her dowry. When Eleanor was divorced +from Louis and was married in 1152 to Henry II. of England +the duchy passed to her new husband, who, having suppressed +a revolt there, gave it to his son Richard. When Richard died +in 1199, it reverted to Eleanor, and on her death five years later, +was united to the English crown and henceforward followed +the fortunes of the English possessions in France. Aquitaine +as it came to the English kings stretched as of old from the +Loire to the Pyrenees, but its extent was curtailed on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page253" id="page253"></a>253</span> +south-east by the wide lands of the counts of Toulouse. The name +Guienne, a corruption of Aquitaine, seems to have come into +use about the 10th century, and the subsequent history of +Aquitaine is merged in that of Gascony (<i>q.v.</i>) and Guienne (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Desjardins, <i>Géographie historique el administrative de la +Gaule romaine</i> (Paris, 1876, 93); A. Luchaire, <i>Les Origines linguistiques +de l’Aquitaine</i> (Paris, 1877); A. Longnon, <i>Géographie de la +Gaule au VI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1876); A. Perroud, <i>Les Origines du +premier duché d’Aquitaine</i> (Paris, 1881); and E. Mabille, <i>Le Royaume +d’Aquitaine et ses marches sous les Carlovingiens</i> (Paris, 1870).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARABESQUE,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> a word meaning simply “Arabian,” but +technically used for a certain form of decorative design in +flowing lines intertwined; hence comes the more metaphorical +use of this word, whether in nature or in morals, indicating a +fantastic or complicated interweaving of lines against a background. +In decorative design the term is historically a +misnomer. It is applied to the grotesque decoration derived from +Roman remains of the early time of the empire, not to any style +derived from Arabian or Moorish work. Arabesque and Moresque +are really distinct; the latter is from the Arabian style of ornament, +developed by the Byzantine Greeks for their new masters, +after the conquests of the followers of Mahomet; and the former +is a term pretty well restricted to varieties of cinquecento decoration, +which have nothing in common with any Arabian +examples in their details, but are a development derived from +Greek and Roman grotesque designs, such as we find them in +the remains of ancient palaces at Rome, and in ancient houses +at Pompeii. These were reproduced by Raphael and his pupils +in the decoration of some of the corridors of the Loggie of the +Vatican at Rome: grotesque is thus a better name for these +decorations than Arabesque. This technical Arabesque, therefore, +is much more ancient than any Arabian or Moorish decoration, +and has really nothing in common with it except the mere +symmetrical principles of its arrangement. Pliny and Vitruvius +give us no name for the extravagant decorative wall-painting +in vogue in their time, to which the early Italian revivers of it +seem to have given the designation of grotesque, because it, was +first discovered in the arched or underground chambers (<i>grotte</i>) +of Roman ruins—as in the golden house of Nero, or the baths of +Titus. What really took place in the Italian revival was in some +measure a supplanting of the Arabesque for the classical +grotesque, still retaining the original Arabian designation, while +the genuine Arabian art, the Saracenic, was distinguished as +Moresque or Moorish. So it is now the original Arabesque that +is called by its specific names of Saracenic, Moorish and Alhambresque, +while the term Arabesque is applied exclusively to the +style developed from the debased classical grotesque of the +Roman empire.</p> + +<p>There is still much of the genuine Saracenic element in Renaissance +Arabesques, especially in that selected for book-borders +and for silver-work, the details of which consist largely of the +conventional Saracenic foliations. But the Arabesque developed +in the Italian cinquecento work repudiated all the original +Arabian elements and devices, and limited itself to the manipulating +of the classical elements, of which the most prominent +feature is ever the floriated or foliated scroll; and it is in this +cinquecento decoration, whether in sculpture or in painting, +that <i>Arabesque</i> has been perfected.</p> + +<p>In the Saracenic, as the elder sister of the two styles, which +was ingeniously developed by the Byzantine Greek artists for their +Arabian masters in the early times of Mahommedan conquest, +every natural object was proscribed; the artists were, therefore, +reduced to making symmetrical designs from forms which should +have no positive meaning; yet the Byzantine Greeks, who were +Christians, managed to work even their own ecclesiastical +symbols, in a disguised manner, into their tracery and diapers; +as the lily, for instance. The cross was not so introduced; this, +of course, was inadmissible; but neither was the crescent ever +introduced into any of this early work in Damascus or Cairo. +The crescent was itself not a Mahommedan device till after the +conquest of Constantinople in 1453 <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The crescent, as the +new moon, was the symbol of Byzantium; and it was only after +that capital of the Eastern empire fell into the hands of the Turks +that this symbol was adopted by them. The crescent and the +cross became antagonist standards, therefore, first in the 15th +century. And the crescent is not an element of original Moorish +decoration.</p> + +<p>The Alhambra diapers and original Majolica (Majorca) ware +afford admirable specimens of genuine Saracenic or Moorish +decoration. A conventional floriage is common in these diapers; +tracery also is a great feature in this work, in geometrical combinations, +whether rectilinear or curvilinear; and the designs +are rich in colour; idolatry was in the reproduction of natural +forms, not in the fanciful combination of natural colours. These +curves and angles, therefore, or interlacings, chiefly in stucco, +constitute the prominent elements of an Arabian ornamental +design, combining also Arabic inscriptions; composed of a mass +of foliation or floral forms conventionally disguised, as the exclusion +of all natural images was the fundamental principle of +the style in its purity. The Alhambra displays almost endless +specimens of this peculiar work, all in relief, highly coloured, +and profusely enriched with gold. The mosque of Tulun, in +Cairo, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 876, the known work of a Greek, affords the +completest example of this art in its early time; and Sicily +contains many remains of this same exquisite Saracenic +decoration.</p> + +<p>Such is the genuine Arabesque of the Arabs, but a very +different style of design is implied by the Arabesque of the +cinquecento, a purely classical ornamentation. This owes its +origin to the excavation and recovery of ancient monuments, +and was developed chiefly by the sculptors of the north, and the +painters of central Italy; by the Lombardi of Venice, by +Agostino Busti of Milan, by Bramante of Urbino, by Raphael, +by Giulio Romano, and others of nearly equal merit. Very +beautiful examples in sculpture of this cinquecento Arabesque +are found in the churches of Venice, Verona and Brescia; in +painting, the most complete specimens are those of the Vatican +Loggie, and the Villa Madama at Rome and the ducal palaces +at Mantua. The Vatican Arabesques, chiefly executed for +Raphael by Giulio Romano, Gian Francesco Penni, and Giovanni +da Udine, though beautiful as works of painting, are often +very extravagant in their composition, ludicrous and sometimes +aesthetically offensive; as are also many of the decorations of +Pompeii. The main features of these designs are balanced +scrolls in panels; or standards variously composed, but symmetrically +scrolled on either side, and on the tendrils of these +scrolls are suspended or placed birds and animals, human figures +and chimeras, of any or all kinds, or indeed any objects that may +take the fancy of the artist. The most perfect specimens of +cinquecento Arabesque are certainly found in sculpture. As +specimens of exquisite work may be mentioned the Martinengo +tomb, in the church of the Padri Riformati at Brescia, and the +façade of the church of Santa Maria del Miracoli there, by +the Lombardi; and many of the carvings of the Château de +Gaillon, France—all of which fairly illustrate the beauties and +capabilities of the style.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Wornum, <i>Analysis of Ornament</i> (1874).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. W.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARABGIR,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Arabkir</span> (Byz. <i>Arabraces</i>), a town of Turkey +in Asia in the Mamuret el-Aziz or Kharput vilayet, situated +near the confluence of the eastern and western Euphrates, but +some miles from the right bank of the combined streams. Pop. +about 20,000, of which the larger half is Mussulman. It is connected +with Sivas by a <i>chaussée</i>, prolonged to the Euphrates. +The inhabitants are enterprising and prosperous, many of them +leaving their native city to push their fortunes elsewhere, while +of those that remain the greater part is employed in the manufacture +of silk and cotton goods, or in the production of fruit. +The present town was built at a comparatively recent date; +but about 2 m. north-east is the old town, now called Eski-Shehr, +given (<i>c.</i> 1021) to Senekherim of Armenia by the emperor Basil II. +It contains the ruins of a castle and of several Seljuk mosques. +The Armenian population suffered severely during the massacres +of 1895.</p> +<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page254" id="page254"></a>254</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARABIA,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> a peninsula in the south-west of Asia, lying between +34º 30′ and 12º 45′ N., and 32º 30′ and 60º E., is bounded W. +by the Red Sea, S. by the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean, +and E. by the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf. Its northern +or land boundary is more difficult to define; most authorities, +however, agree in taking it from El Arish on the Mediterranean, +along the southern border of Palestine, between the Dead Sea +and the Gulf of Akaba, then bending northwards along the Syrian +border nearly to Tadmur, thence eastwards to the edge of the +Euphrates valley near Anah, and thence south-east to the +mouth of the Shat el Arab at the head of the Persian Gulf,—the +boundary so defined includes the northern desert, which +belongs geographically to Arabia rather than to Syria; while +on the same grounds lower Mesopotamia and Irak, although +occupied by an Arab population, are excluded.</p> + +<p>In shape, the peninsula forms a rough trapezium, with its +greatest length from north-west to south-east. The length of its +western side from Port Said to Aden is 1500 m.; its base from +the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb (or Bab al Mandab) to Ras el Had +is 1300 m., its northern side from Port Said to the Euphrates +600 m.; its total area approximately 1,200,000 sq. m.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Geography</p> + +<p><i>General Features.</i>—In general terms Arabia may be described +as a plateau sloping gently from south-west to north-east, and +attaining its greatest elevation in the extreme south-west. +The western escarpment of the plateau rises steeply from the +Red Sea littoral to a height of from 4000 to 8000 ft., leaving a +narrow belt of lowland rarely exceeding 30 m. in width between +the shore and the foot-hills. On the north-east and east the +plateau shelves gradually to the Euphrates and the Persian Gulf; +only in the extreme east is this general easterly slope arrested by +the lofty range of Jebel Akhdar, which from Ras Musandan to +Ras el Had borders the coast of Oman.</p> + +<p>Its chief characteristic is the bareness and aridity of its surface; +one-third of the whole desert, and of the remainder only +a small proportion is suited to settled life, owing to its scanty +water-supply and uncertain rainfall. Its mountains are insufficient +in elevation and extent to attract their full share of +the monsoon rains, which fall so abundantly on the Abyssinian +highlands on the other side of the Red Sea; for this reason Arabia +has neither lakes nor forests to control the water-supply and +prevent its too rapid dissipation, and the rivers are mere torrent +beds sweeping down occasionally in heavy floods, but otherwise +dry.</p> + +<p>The country falls naturally into three main divisions, a +northern, a central and a southern; the first includes the area +between the Midian coast on the west and the head of the Persian +Gulf on the east, a desert tract throughout, stony in the north, +sandy in the south, but furnishing at certain seasons excellent +pasturage; its population is almost entirely nomad and pastoral. +The central zone includes Hejaz (or Hijaz), Nejd and El Hasa; +much of it is a dry, stony or sandy steppe, with few wells or +watering-places, and only occupied by nomad tribes; but the +great wadis which intersect it contain many fertile stretches of +alluvial soil, where cultivation is possible and which support a +considerable settled population, with several large towns and +numerous villages.</p> + +<p>The third or southern division contains the highland plateaus +of Asir and Yemen in the west, and J. Akhdar in the east, +which with a temperate climate, due to their great elevation and +their proximity to the sea, deserve, if any part of Arabia does, +the name of Arabia Felix—the population is settled and agricultural, +and the soil, wherever the rainfall is sufficient, is productive. +The Batina coast of Oman, irrigated by the mountain +streams of J. Akhdar, is perhaps the most fertile district in the +peninsula; Hadramut, too, contains many large and prosperous +villages, and the torrents from the Yemen highlands fertilize +several oases in the Tehama (or Tihama) or lowlands of the +western and southern coast. These favourable conditions of soil +and climate, however, extend only a comparatively short distance +into the interior, by far the larger part of which is covered by +the great southern desert, the Dahna, or Ruba el Khali, empty +as its name implies, and uninhabitable.</p> + +<p><i>Exploration.</i>—Before entering on a detailed description of the +several provinces of Arabia, our sources of information will be +briefly indicated. Except in the neighbourhood of Aden, no +regular surveys exist, and professional work is limited to the +marine surveys of the Indian government and the admiralty, +which, while laying down the coast line with fair accuracy, give +little or no topographical information inland. For the mapping of +the whole vast interior, except in rare cases, no data exist beyond +the itineraries of explorers, travelling as a rule under conditions +which precluded the use of even the simplest surveying instruments. +These journeys, naturally following the most frequented +routes, often cover the same ground, while immense tracts, owing +to their difficulty of access, remain unvisited by any European.</p> + +<p>The region most thoroughly explored is Yemen, in the south-west +corner of the peninsula, where the labours of a succession +of travellers from Niebuhr in 1761 to E. Glaser and R. Manzoni in +1887 have led to a fairly complete knowledge of all that part of +the province west of the capital Sana; while in 1902-1904 the +operations of the Anglo-Turkish boundary commission permitted +the execution of a systematic topographical survey of the British +protectorate from the Red Sea to the Wadi Bana, 30 m. east of +Aden. North of Yemen up to the Hejaz border the only +authority is that of E.F. Jomard’s map, published in 1839, +based on the information given by the French officers employed +with Ibrahim Pasha’s army in Asir from 1824 to 1827, and of +J. Halévy in Nejran. On the south coast expeditions have +penetrated but a short distance, the most notable exceptions +being those of L. Hirsch and J.T. Bent in 1887 to the Hadramut +valley. S.B. Miles, J.R. Wellsted, and S.M. Zwemer have +explored Oman in the extreme east; but the interior south of a +line drawn from Taif to El Katr on the Persian Gulf is still +virgin ground. In northern Arabia the Syrian desert and the +great Nafud (Nefud) have been crossed by several travellers, +though a large area remains unexplored in the north-east between +Kasim and the gulf. In the centre, the journeys of W. Palgrave, +C. Doughty, W. Blunt and C. Huber have done much to elucidate +the main physical features of the country. Lastly, in the north-west +the Sinai peninsula has been thoroughly explored, and the +list of travellers who have visited the Holy Cities and traversed +the main pilgrim routes through Hejaz is a fairly long one, +though, owing to the difficulties peculiar to that region, the +hydrography of southern Hejaz is still incompletely known.</p> + +<p>The story of modern exploration begins with the despatch +of C. Niebuhr’s mission by the Danish government in 1761. +After a year spent in Egypt and the Sinai peninsula +the party reached Jidda towards the end of 1762, and +<span class="sidenote">Modern Exploration in Yemen.</span> +after a short stay sailed on to Lohaia in the north of +Yemen, the exploration of which formed the principal +object of the expedition; thence, travelling through the Tehama +or lowlands, Niebuhr and his companions visited the towns of +Bet el Fakih, Zubed and Mokha, then the great port for the +coffee trade of Yemen. Continuing eastward they crossed the +mountainous region and reached the highlands of Yemen at +Uden, a small town and the centre of a district celebrated for its +coffee. Thence proceeding eastwards to higher altitudes where +coffee plantations give way to fields of wheat and barley, they +reached the town of Jibla situated among a group of mountains +exceeding 10,000 ft. above sea-level; and turning southwards +to Taiz descended again to the Tehama via Hes and Zubed to +Mokha. The mission, reduced in numbers by the death of its +archaeologist, von Haven, again visited Taiz in June 1763, where +after some delay permission was obtained to visit Sana, the +capital of the province and the residence of the ruling sovereign +or imam. The route lay by Jibla, passing the foot of the lofty +Jebel Sorak, where, in spite of illness, Forskal, the botanist +of the party, was able to make a last excursion; a few days later +he died at Yarim. The mission continued its march, passing +Dhamar, the seat of a university of the Zedi sect, then frequented +by 500 students. Thence four marches, generally over a stony +plateau dominated by bare, sterile mountains, brought them to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page255" id="page255"></a>255</span> +Sana, where they received a cordial welcome from the imam, +el Mahdi Abbas.</p> + +<p>The aspect of the city must have been nearly the same as +at present; Niebuhr describes the <i>enceinte</i> flanked by towers, +the citadel at the foot of J. Nukum which rises 1000 ft. above the +valley, the fortress and palace of the imams, now replaced by the +Turkish military hospital, the suburb of Bir el Azab with its +scattered houses and gardens, the Jews’ quarter and the village +of Rauda, a few miles to the north in a fertile, irrigated plain +which Niebuhr compares to that of Damascus. After a stay +of ten days at Sana the mission set out again for Mokha, travelling +by what is now the main route from the capital to Hodeda, +through the rich coffee-bearing district of J. Haraz, and thence +southward to Mokha, where they embarked for India. During the +next year three other members of the party died, leaving Niebuhr +the sole survivor. Returning to Arabia a year later, he visited +Oman and the shores of the Persian Gulf, and travelling from +Basra through Syria and Palestine he reached Denmark in 1764 +after four years’ absence.</p> + +<p>The period was perhaps specially favourable for a scientific +mission of the sort. The outburst of fanaticism which convulsed +Arabia twenty years later had not then reached Yemen, and +Europeans, as such, were not exposed to any special danger. +The travellers were thus able to move freely and to pursue their +scientific enquiries without hindrance from either people or ruler. +The results published in 1772 gave for the first time a comprehensive +description not only of Yemen but of all Arabia; while +the parts actually visited by Niebuhr were described with a +fulness and accuracy of detail which left little or nothing for +his successors to discover.</p> + +<p>C.G. Ehrenberg and W.F. Hemprich in 1825 visited the +Tehama and the islands off the coast, and in 1836 P.E. Botta +made an important journey in southern Yemen with +a view to botanical research, but the next advance +<span class="sidenote">Asir.</span> +in geographical knowledge in south Arabia was due to the +French officers, M.O. Tamisier, Chedufau and Mary, belonging +to the Egyptian army in Asir; another Frenchman, L. Arnaud, +formerly in the Egyptian service, was the first to visit the +southern Jauf and to report on the rock-cut inscriptions and +ruins of Marib, though it was not till 1869 that a competent +<span class="sidenote">Jauf and Marib.</span> +archaeologist, J. Halévy, was able to carry out any +complete exploration there. Starting from Sana, +Halévy went north-eastward to El Madid, a town +of 5000 inhabitants and the capital of the small district +of Nihm; thence crossing a plateau, where he saw the +ruins of numerous crenellated towers, he reached the village of +Mijzar at the foot of J. Yam, on the borders of Jauf, a vast +sandy plain, extending eastwards to El Jail and El Hazm, where +Halévy made his most important discoveries of Sabaean inscriptions: +here he explored Main, the ancient capital of the +Minaeans, Kamna on the banks of the W. Kharid, the ancient +Caminacum, and Kharibat el Beda, the Nesca of Pliny, where +the Sabaean army was defeated by the Romans under Aelius +Gallus in 24 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> From El Jail Halévy travelled northward, +passing the oasis of Khab, and skirting the great desert, reached +the fertile district of Nejran, where he found a colony of Jews, +with whom he spent several weeks in the oasis of Makhlaf. An +hour’s march to the east he discovered at the village of Medinat +el Mahud the ruins of the Nagra metropolis of Ptolemy. In +June 1870 he at last reached the goal of his journey, Marib; +here he explored the ruins of Medinat an Nahas (so called from +its numerous inscriptions engraved on brass plates), and two +hours to the east he found the famous dam constructed by the +Himyarites across the W. Shibwan, on which the water-supply +of their capital depended.</p> + +<p>One other explorer has since visited Marib, the Austrian +archaeologist, E. Glaser (1855-1908), who achieved more for +science in Yemen than any traveller since Niebuhr. Under +Turkish protection, he visited the territory of the Hashid and +Bakil tribes north-east of Sana, and though their hostile attitude +compelled him to return after reaching their first important +town, Khamr, he had time to reconnoitre the plateau lying +between the two great wadis Kharid and Hirran, formerly +covered with Himyaritic towns and villages; and to trace the +course of these wadis to their junction at El Ish in the Dhu +Husen country, and thence onward to the Jauf. In 1889 he +succeeded, again under Turkish escort, in reaching Marib, where +he obtained, during a stay of thirty days, a large number of new +Himyaritic inscriptions. He was unable, however, to proceed +farther east than his predecessors, and the problem of the Jauf +drainage and its possible connexion with the upper part of the +Hadramut valley still remains unsolved.</p> + +<p>The earliest attempt to penetrate into the interior from the +south coast was made in 1835 when Lieuts. C. Cruttenden and +J.R. Wellsted of the “Palinurus,” employed on the +marine survey of the Arabian coast, visited the ruins +<span class="sidenote">Exploration in Hadramut.</span> +of Nakb (el Hajar) in the W. Mefat. The Himyaritic +inscriptions found there and at Husn Ghurab near +Mukalla, were the first records discovered of ancient Arabian +civilization in Hadramut. Neither of these officers was able to +follow up their discoveries, but in 1843 Adolph von Wrede +landed at Mukalla and, adopting the character of a pilgrim to +the shrine of the prophet Hud, made his way northward across +the high plateau into the W. Duwan, one of the main southern +tributaries of the Hadramut valley, and pushed on to the +edge of the great southern desert; on his return to the W. +Duwan his disguise was detected and he was obliged to return +to Mukalla. Though he did not actually enter the main Hadramut +valley, which lay to the east of his track, his journey established +the existence of this populous and fertile district which +had been reported to the officers of the “Palinurus” as lying +between the coast range and the great desert to the north. This +was at last visited in 1893 by L. Hirsch under the protection +of the sultan of Mukalla, the head of the Kaiti family, and +practically ruler of all Hadramut, with the exception of the towns +of Saiyun and Tarim, which belong to the Kathiri tribe. Starting +like von Wrede from Mukalla, Hirsch first visited the W. +Duwan and found ancient ruins and inscriptions near the village +of Hajren; thence he proceeded north-eastward to Hauta in +the main valley, where he was hospitably received by the Kaiti +sultan, and sent on to his deputy at Shibam. Here he procured +a Kathiri escort and pushed on through Saiyun to Tarim, the +former capital. After a very brief stay, however, he was compelled +by the hostility of the people to return in haste to Shibam, +from which he travelled by the W. bin Ali and W. Adim back +to Mukalla. J. Theodore Bent and his wife followed in the same +track a few months later with a well-equipped party including +a surveyor, Imam Sharif, lent by the Indian government, who +made a very valuable survey of the country passed through. Both +parties visited many sites where Himyaritic remains and inscriptions +were found, but the hostile attitude of the natives, more +particularly of the Seyyids, the religious hierarchy of Hadramut, +prevented any adequate examination, and much of archaeological +interest undoubtedly remains for future travellers to discover.</p> + +<p>In Oman, where the conditions are more favourable, explorers +have penetrated only a short distance from the coast. Niebuhr +did not go inland from Muscat; the operations by a +British Indian force on the Pirate coast in 1810 gave +<span class="sidenote">Exploration in Oman.</span> +no opportunities for visiting the interior, and it was +not till 1835 that J.R. Wellsted, who had already +tried to penetrate into Hadramut from the south, landed at +Muscat with the idea of reaching it from the north-east. Sailing +thence to Sur near Ras el Had, he travelled southward through +the country of the Bani bu Ali to the borders of the desert, then +turning north-west up the Wadi Betha through a fertile, well-watered +country, running up to the southern slopes of J. Akhdar, +inhabited by a friendly people who seem to have welcomed him +everywhere, he visited Ibra, Semed and Nizwa at the southern +foot of the mountains. Owing to the disturbed state of the +country, due to the presence of raiding parties from Nejd, +Wellsted was unable to carry out his original intention of exploring +the country to the west, and after an excursion along +the Batina coast to Sohar he returned to India.</p> + +<p>In 1876 Colonel S.B. Miles, who had already done much to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page256" id="page256"></a>256</span> +advance geographical interests in south Arabia, continued +Wellsted’s work in Oman; starting from Sohar on the Batina +coast he crossed the dividing range into the Dhahira, and reached +Birema, one of its principal oases. His investigations show that +the Dhahira contains many settlements, with an industrious +agricultural population, and that the unexplored tract extending +250 m. west to the peninsula of El Katr is a desolate gravelly +steppe, shelving gradually down to the salt marshes which border +the shores of the gulf.</p> + +<p>Leaving southern Arabia, we now come to the centre and +north. The first explorer to enter the sacred Hejaz with a +definite scientific object was the Spaniard, Badia y +Leblich, who, under the name of Ali Bey and claiming +<span class="sidenote">Exploration in Hejaz.</span> +to be the last representative of the Abbasid Caliphs, +arrived at Jidda in 1807, and performed the pilgrimage +to Mecca. Besides giving to the world the first accurate +description of the holy city and the Haj ceremonies, he was the first to +fix the position of Mecca by astronomical observations, and to +describe the physical character of its surroundings. But the +true pioneer of exploration in Hejaz was J.L. Burckhardt, who +had already won a reputation as the discoverer of Petra, and +whose experience of travel in Arab lands and knowledge of Arab +life qualified him to pass as a Moslem, even in the headquarters +of Islam. Burckhardt landed in Jidda in July 1814, when +Mehemet Ali had already driven the Wahhabi invaders out of +Hejaz, and was preparing for his farther advance against their +stronghold in Nejd. He first visited Taif at the invitation of the +pasha, thence he proceeded to Mecca, where he spent three +months studying every detail of the topography of the holy +places, and going through all the ceremonies incumbent on a +Moslem pilgrim. In January 1815 he travelled to Medina by +the western or coast route, and arrived there safely but broken +in health by the hardships of the journey. His illness did not, +however, prevent his seeing and recording everything of interest +in Medina with the same care as at Mecca, though it compelled +him to cut short the further journey he had proposed to himself, +and to return by Yambu and the sea to Cairo, where he died +only two years later.</p> + +<p>His striking successor, Sir Richard Burton, covered nearly +the same ground thirty-eight years afterwards. He, too, travelling +as a Moslem pilgrim, noted the whole ritual of the pilgrimage +with the same keen observation as Burckhardt, and while +amplifying somewhat the latter’s description of Medina, confirms +the accuracy of his work there and at Mecca in almost every +detail. Burton’s topographical descriptions are fuller, and his +march to Mecca from Medina by the eastern route led him over +ground not traversed by any other explorer in Hejaz: this route +leads at first south-east from Medina, and then south across the +lava beds of the Harra, keeping throughout its length on the high +plateau which forms the borderland between Hejaz and Nejd. +His original intention had been after visiting Mecca to find his +way across the peninsula to Oman, but the time at his disposal +(as an Indian officer on leave) was insufficient for so extended a +journey; and his further contributions to Arabian geography +were not made until twenty-five years later, when he was deputed +by the Egyptian government to examine the reported gold +deposits of Midian. Traces of ancient workings were found in +several places, but the ores did not contain gold in paying +quantities. Interesting archaeological discoveries were made, +and a valuable topographical survey was carried out, covering +the whole Midian coast from the head of the Gulf of Akaba to +the mouth of the Wadi Hamd, and including both the Tehama +range and the Hisma valley behind it; while the importance +of the W. Hamd and the extent of the area drained by its +tributaries was for the first time brought to light.</p> + +<p>Burckhardt had hoped in 1815 that the advance of the +Egyptian expedition would have given him the opportunity +to see something of Nejd, but he had already left +Arabia before the overthrow of the Wahhabi power +<span class="sidenote">Exploration in Nejd.</span> +by Ibrahim Pasha had opened Nejd to travellers from +Hejaz, and though several European officers accompanied +the expedition, none of them left any record of his +experience. It is, however, to the Egyptian conquest that the +first visit of a British traveller to Nejd is due. The Indian +government, wishing to enter into relations with Ibrahim Pasha, +as <i>de facto</i> ruler of Nejd and El Hasa, with a view to putting down +piracy in the Persian Gulf, which was seriously affecting Indian +trade, sent a small mission under Captain G.F. Sadlier to +congratulate the pasha on the success of the Egyptian arms, +and no doubt with the ulterior object of obtaining a first-hand +report on the real situation. On his arrival at Hofuf, Sadlier +found that Ibrahim had already left Deraiya, but still hoping +to intercept him before quitting Nejd, he followed up the retreating +Egyptians through Yemama, and Wushm to Ras in Kasim, +where he caught up the main body of Ibrahim’s army, though +the pasha himself had gone on to Medina. Sadlier hesitated +about going farther, but he was unable to obtain a safe conduct +to Basra, or to return by the way he had come, and was compelled +reluctantly to accompany the army to Medina. Here he +at last met Ibrahim, but though courteously received, the +interview had no results, and Sadlier soon after left for Yambu, +whence he embarked for Jidda, and after another fruitless attempt +to treat with Ibrahim, sailed for India. If the political results +of the mission were <i>nil</i>, the value to geographical science was +immense; for though no geographer himself, Sadlier’s route +across Arabia made it possible for the first time to locate the +principal places in something like their proper relative positions; +incidentally, too, it showed the practicability of a considerable +body of regular troops crossing the deserts of Nejd even in the +months of July and August.</p> + +<p>Sadlier’s route had left Jebel Shammar to one side; his +successor, G.A. Wallin, was to make that the objective of his +journey. Commissioned by Mehemet Ali to inform him about the +situation in Nejd brought about by the rising power of Abdallah +Ibn Rashid, Wallin left Cairo in April 1845, and crossing the +pilgrim road at Ma’an, pushed on across the Syrian desert to +the Wadi Sirhan and the Jauf oasis, where he halted during the +hot summer months. From the wells of Shakik he crossed the +waterless Nafud in four days to Jubba, and after a halt there in +the nomad camps, he moved on to Hail, already a thriving town, +and the capital of the Shammar state whose limits included all +northern Arabia from Kasim to the Syrian border. After a stay +in Hail, where he had every opportunity of observing the character +of the country and its inhabitants, and the hospitality and +patriarchal, if sometimes stern, justice of its chief, he travelled +on to Medina and Mecca, and returned thence to Cairo to report +to his patron. Early in 1848 he again returned to Arabia, +avoiding the long desert journey by landing at Muwela, thence +striking inland to Tebuk on the pilgrim road, and re-entering +Shammar territory at the oasis of Tema, he again visited Hail; +and after spending a month there travelled northwards to +Kerbela and Bagdad.</p> + +<p>The effects of the Egyptian invasion had passed away, and +central Arabia had settled down again under its native rulers +when W.G. Palgrave made his adventurous journey +through Nejd, and published the remarkable narrative +<span class="sidenote">Palgrave’s journey to Nejd.</span> +which has taken its place as the classic of Arabian +exploration. Like Burton he was once an officer in the +Indian army, but for some time before his journey he had been +connected with the Jesuit mission in Syria. By training and +temperament he was better qualified to appreciate and describe +the social life of the people than their physical surroundings, +and if the results of his great journey are disappointing to the +geographer, his account of the society of the oasis towns, and of +the remarkable men who were then ruling in Hail and Riad, +must always possess an absorbing interest as a portrait of Arab +life in its freest development.</p> + +<p>Following Wallin’s route across the desert by Ma’an and Jauf, +Palgrave and his companion, a Syrian Christian, reached Hail +in July 1862; here they were hospitably entertained by the +amir Talal, nephew of the founder of the Ibn Rashid dynasty, +and after some stay passed on with his countenance through +Kasim to southern Nejd. Palgrave says little of the desert part +of the journey or of its Bedouin inhabitants, but much of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page257" id="page257"></a>257</span> +fertility of the oases and of the civility of the townsmen; and +like other travellers in Nejd he speaks with enthusiasm of its +bright, exhilarating climate. At Riad, Fesal, who had been in +power since the Egyptian retirement, was still reigning; and +the religious tyranny of Wahhabism prevailed, in marked contrast +to the liberal régime of Talal in Jebel Shammar. Still, +Palgrave and his companions, though known as Christians, +spent nearly two months in the capital without molestation, +making short excursions in the neighbourhood, the most important +of which was to El Kharfa in Aflaj, the most southerly +district of Nejd. Leaving Riad, they passed through Yemama, +and across a strip of sandy desert to El Hasa where Palgrave +found himself in more congenial surroundings. Finally, a voyage +to the Oman coast and a brief stay there brought his adventures +in Arabia to a successful ending.</p> + +<p>Charles Doughty, the next Englishman to visit northern +Arabia, though he covered little new ground, saw more of the +desert life, and has described it more minutely and +faithfully than any other explorer. Travelling down +<span class="sidenote">Doughty.</span> +from Damascus in 1875 with the Haj caravan, he stopped at El +Hajr, one of the pilgrim stations, with the intention of awaiting +the return of the caravan and in the meantime of exploring the +rock-cut tombs of Medain Salih and El Ala. Having successfully +completed his investigations and sent copies of inscriptions and +drawings of the tombs to Renan in Paris, he determined to push +on farther into the desert. Under the protection of a sheikh of +the Fukara Bedouin he wandered over the whole of the borderland +between Hejaz and Nejd. Visiting Tema, where among +other ancient remains he discovered the famous inscribed stone, +afterwards acquired by Huber for the Louvre. Next summer he +went on to Hail and thence back to Khaibar, where the negro +governor and townsmen, less tolerant than his former Bedouin +hosts, ill-treated him and even threatened his life. Returning +to Hail in the absence of the amir, he was expelled by the +governor; he succeeded, however, in finding protection at +Aneza, where he spent several months, and eventually after +many hardships and perils found his way to the coast at Jidda.</p> + +<p>Three years later Mr Wilfrid and Lady Anne Blunt made their +expedition to J. Shammar. In their previous travels in Syria +they had gained the confidence and friendship of a young sheikh +whose family, though long settled at Tadmur, came originally +from Nejd, and who was anxious to renew the connexion with his +kinsmen by seeking a bride among them. In his company the +Blunts set out from Damascus, and travelled across the Syrian +desert by the Wadi Sirhan to Jauf. Here the sheikh found some +of his relations and the matrimonial alliance was soon arranged; +but though the object of the journey had been attained, the +Blunts were anxious to visit Hail and make the acquaintance of +the amir Ibn Rashid, of whose might and generosity they daily +heard from their hosts in Jauf. The long stretch of waterless +desert between Jauf and J. Shammar was crossed without +difficulty, and the party was welcomed by the amir and hospitably +entertained for a month, after which they travelled northwards +in company with the Persian pilgrim caravan returning to +Kerbela and Bagdad.</p> + +<p>In 1883 the French traveller, C. Huber, accompanied by the +archaeologist, J. Euting, followed the same route from Damascus +to Hail. The narrative of the last named forms a +valuable supplement to that published by the Blunts, +<span class="sidenote">Huber.</span> +and together with Doughty’s, furnishes as complete a picture +as could be wished for of the social and political life of J. Shammar, +and of the general nature of the country. Huber’s journal, +published after his death from his original notes, contains a mass +of topographical and archaeological detail of the greatest scientific +value: his routes and observations form, in fact, the first +and only scientific data for the construction of the map of +northern Arabia. To archaeology also his services were of equal +importance, for, besides copying numerous inscriptions in the district +between Hail and Tema, he succeeded in gaining possession +of the since famous Tema stone, which ranks with the Moabite +stone among the most valuable of Semitic inscriptions. From +Hail Huber followed nearly in Doughty’s track to Aneza and +thence across central Nejd to Mecca and Jidda, where he +despatched his notes and copies of inscriptions. A month later, +in July 1884, he was murdered by his guides a few marches +north of Jidda, on his way back to Hail.</p> + +<p>One other traveller visited Hail during the lifetime of the +amir Mahommed—Baron E. Nolde—who arrived there in 1893, +not long after the amir had by his victory over the combined +forces of Riad and Kasim brought the whole of Nejd under his +dominion. Nolde crossed the Nafud to Haiyania by a more +direct track than that from Shakik to Jubba. The amir was away +from his capital settling the affairs of his newly acquired territory; +Nolde therefore, after a short halt at Hail, journeyed on to Ibn +Rashid’s camp somewhere in the neighbourhood of Shakra. +Here he was on new ground, but unfortunately he gives little or +no description of his route thither, or of his journey northwards +by the Persian pilgrim road, already traversed by Huber in 1881. +His narrative thus, while containing much of general interest on +the climate and on the animal life of northern Arabia, its horses +and camels in particular, adds little to those of his predecessors +as regards topographical detail.</p> + +<p>If the journeys detailed above be traced on the map they +will be found to cover the northern half of the peninsula above +the line Mecca-Hofuf, with a network of routes, +which, though sometimes separated by wide intervals, +<span class="sidenote">General results of exploration.</span> +are still close enough to ensure that no important +geographical feature can have been overlooked, +especially in a country whose general character varies so little +over wide areas. In the southern half, on the other hand, except +in Nejran and Jauf, no European traveller has penetrated 100 m. +in a direct line from the coast. The vast extent of the Dahna, or +great southern desert, covering perhaps 250,000 sq. m., accounts +for about a third of this area, but some of the most favoured +districts in Arabia—Asir and northern Yemen—remain unexplored, +and the hydrography of the Dawasir basin offers some +interesting problems, while a great field remains for the archaeologist +in the seat of the old Sabaean kingdom from Jauf to the +Hadramut valley.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Topographical Details.</i>—Beginning from the north-west, the Sinai +peninsula belongs to Egypt, though geographically part of Arabia. +It is bounded on the E. by a line drawn from Ar Rafa, a +few miles E. of El Arish on the Mediterranean, to the head +<span class="sidenote">Sinai Peninsula.</span> +of the Gulf of Akaba; and on the W. by the Suez Canal; +its length from El Arish to its most southern point is +240 m., and its breadth from Suez to Akaba is nearly 160 m. The +greater part drains to the Mediterranean, from which the land rises +gradually to the summit of the Tih plateau. The deep depression of +Wadi Feran separates the Tih from the higher mass of Sinai (<i>q.v.</i>), +in which J. Katherine attains a height of 8500 ft.; except in W. +Feran there is little cultivable land, the greater part consisting of +bare, rocky hills and sandy valleys, sparsely covered with tamarisk +and acacia bushes. The Egyptian pilgrim road crosses the peninsula +from Suez to Akaba, passing the post of An Nakhl, with a reservoir +and a little cultivation, about half way; a steep descent leads down +from the edge of the Tih plateau to Akaba.</p> + +<p>The rest of the northern borderland is covered by the Syrian +desert, extending from the borders of Palestine to the edge of the +Euphrates valley. This tract, known as the Hamad, is a +gravelly plain unbroken by any considerable range of hills +<span class="sidenote">Syrian desert.</span> +or any continuous watercourse except the Wadi Hauran, +which in rainy seasons forms a succession of pools from J. Hauran +to the Euphrates. Its general slope is to the north-east from the +volcanic plateau of the Harra south of J. Hauran to the edge of the +Euphrates valley. The Wadi Sirhan, a broad depression some 500 ft. +below the average level of the Hamad, crosses it from north-east to +south-west between Hauran and Jauf; it has a nearly uniform +height above sea-level of 1850 ft., and appears to be the bed of an +inland sea rather than a true watercourse. Water is found in it a +few feet below the surface, and a little cultivation is carried on at +the small oases of Kaf and Ithri, whence salt produced in the neighbouring +salt lakes is exported. The W. Sirhan is continuous with the +depression known as the Jauf, situated on the northern edge of the +Nefud or Nafud, and the halfway station between Damascus and +Hail; and it is possible that this depression continues eastward +towards the Euphrates along a line a little north of the thirtieth +parallel, where wells and pasturages are known to exist. Jauf is a +small town consisting, at the time of the Blunts’ visit in 1879, +of not more than 500 houses. The town with its gardens, surrounded +by a mud wall, covers a space of 2 m. in length by half a mile in +width; the basin in which it lies is barely 3 m. across, and except +for the palm gardens and a few patches of corn, it is a dead flat of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page258" id="page258"></a>258</span> +white sand, closed in by high sandstone cliffs, beyond which lies the +open desert. The oases of Sakaka and Kara are situated in a similar +basin 15 m. to the east; the former a town of 10,000 inhabitants +and somewhat larger than Jauf according to Huber.</p> + +<p>A short distance south of Jauf the character of the desert changes +abruptly from a level black expanse of gravel to the red sands of the +Nafud. The northern edge of this great desert follows +very nearly the line of the thirtieth parallel, along which +<span class="sidenote">The Nafud.</span> +it extends east and west for a length of some 400 m.; +its breadth from north to south is 200 m. Though almost waterless, +it is in fact better wooded and richer in pasture than any part of +the Hamad; the sand-hills are dotted with <i>ghada</i>, a species of +tamarisk, and other bushes, and several grasses and succulent plants +—among them the <i>adar</i>, on which sheep are said to feed for a month +without requiring water—are found in abundance in good seasons. +In the spring months, when their camels are in milk, the Bedouins +care nothing for water, and wander far into the Nafud with their +flocks in search of the green pasture which springs up everywhere +after the winter rains. A few wells exist actually in the Nafud in the +district called El Hajra, near its north-eastern border, and along +its southern border, between J. Shammar and Tema, there are +numerous wells and artificial as well as natural reservoirs resorted to +by the nomad tribes.</p> + +<p>Owing to the great extent of the Nafud desert, the formation of +sand-dunes is exemplified on a proportionate scale. In many places +longitudinal dunes are found exceeding a day’s journey in length, +the valleys between which take three or four hours to cross; but +the most striking feature of the Nafud are the high crescent-shaped +sand-hills, known locally as <i>falk</i> or <i>falj</i>, described by Blunt and +Huber, who devoted some time to their investigation. The falks +enclose a deep hollow (known as <i>ka‘r</i>), the floor of which is often hard +soil bare of sand, and from which the inner slopes of the falk rise as +steeply as the sand will lie (about 50°). On the summit of the falk +there is generally a mound known as <i>tas</i> or <i>barkhus</i> composed of +white sand which stands out conspicuously against the deep red of +the surrounding deserts; the exterior slopes are comparatively +gentle. The falks are singularly uniform in shape, but vary greatly +in size; the largest were estimated by Huber and Euting at 1¼ m. +across and 330 ft. deep. They run in strings irregularly from east +to west, corresponding in this with their individual direction, the +convex face of the falk being towards the west, <i>i.e.</i> the direction of +the prevailing wind, and the cusps to leeward. In the south of the +Nafud, where Huber found the prevailing wind to be from the south, +the falks are turned in that direction. Though perhaps subject to +slight changes in the course of years, there is no doubt that these +dunes are practically permanent features; the more prominent ones +serve as landmarks and have well-known distinctive names. The +character of the vegetation which clothes their slopes shows that +even superficial changes must be slight. The general level of the +Nafud was found by Huber’s observations to be about 3000 ft. above +sea-level; the highest point on the Jauf-Hail route is at Falk Alam, +the rocky peaks of which rise 200 or 300 ft. above the surface of the +sand. Other peaks cropping out of the Nafud are Jebel Tawil, near +the wells of Shakik, and J. Abrak Rada, a long black ridge in the +middle of the desert.</p> + +<p>The high plateau which from. J. Hauran southward forms the main +watershed of the peninsula is covered in places by deep beds of lava, +which from their hardness have preserved the underlying +sandstones from degradation, and now stand up considerably +<span class="sidenote">The Harra.</span> +above the general level. These tracts are known as +<i>harra</i>; the most remarkable is the Harrat El Awerid, west of the +Haj route from Tebuk to El Ala, a mountain mass 100 m. in length +with an average height of over 5000 ft., and the highest summit of +which, J. Anaz, exceeds 7000 ft. The harra east of Khaibar is also +of considerable extent, and the same formation is found all along +the Hejaz border from Medina to the Jebel el Kura, east of Mecca. +The surface of the harra is extremely broken, forming a labyrinth of +lava crags and blocks of every size; the whole region is sterile and +almost waterless, and compared with the Nafud it produces little +vegetation; but it is resorted to by the Bedouin in the spring and +summer months when the air is always fresh and cool. In winter it +is cold and snow often lies for some time.</p> + +<p>Hejaz, if we except the Taif district in the south, which is properly +a part of the Yemen plateau, forms a well-marked physical division, +lying on the western slope of the peninsula, where that +slope is at its widest, between the Harra and the Red Sea. +<span class="sidenote">Hejaz.</span> +A high range of granite hills, known as the Tehama range, the highest +point of which, J. Shar, in Midian, exceeds 6500 ft., divides it +longitudinally into a narrow littoral and a broader upland zone +2000 or 3000 ft. above the sea. Both are generally bare and unproductive, +the uplands, however, contain the fertile valleys of +Khaibar and Medina, draining to the Wadi Hamd, the principal +river system of western Arabia; and the Wadi Jadid or Es Safra, +rising in the Harra between Medina and Es Safina, which contain +several settlements, of which the principal produce is dates. The +quartz reefs which crop out in the granite ranges of the Tehama +contain traces of gold. These and the ancient copper workings were +investigated by Burton in 1877. The richer veins had evidently +been long ago worked out, and nothing of sufficient value to justify +further outlay was discovered. The coast-line is fringed with small +islets and shoals and reefs, which make navigation dangerous. The +only ports of importance are Yambu and Jidda, which serve respectively +Medina and Mecca; they depend entirely on the pilgrim +traffic to the holy cities, without which they could not exist.</p> + +<p>The great central province of Nejd occupies all inner Arabia +between the Nafud and the southern desert. Its northern part +forms the basin of the Wadi Rumma, which, rising in the +Khaibar harra, runs north-eastward across the whole +<span class="sidenote">Nejd.</span> +width of Nejd, till it is lost in the sands of the eastern Nafud, north +of Aneza. The greater portion of this region is an open steppe, +sandy in places and in others dotted with low volcanic hills, but with +occasional ground water and in favourable seasons furnishing support +for a considerable pastoral population. Its elevation varies from +about 5000 ft. in the west to 2500 ft. in the east. In Jebel Shammar, +Kasim and Wushm, where the water in the wadi beds rises nearly +to the ground level, numerous fertile oases are found with thriving +villages and towns.</p> + +<p>Jebel Shammar, from which the northern district of Nejd takes +its name, is a double range of mountains some 20 m. apart, rising +sharply out of the desert in bare, granite cliffs. J. Aja, the western +and higher of the two ranges, has a length of about 100 m. from +north-east to south-west, where it merges into the high plateau +extending from and continuous with the Khaibar harra. The highest +point, J. Kara, near its north-eastern extremity, is about 4600 ft. +above sea-level, or 1600 ft. above the town of Hail, which, like most +of the larger villages, lies along the wadi bed at the foot of J. Aja. +The town, which has risen with the fortunes of the Ibn Rashid +family to be the capital of Upper Nejd, is at the mouth of the valley +between the twin ranges, about 2 m. from the foot of J. Aja, +and contained at the time of Nolde’s visit in 1893 about 12,000 +inhabitants.</p> + +<p>The principal tributaries of the W. Rumma converge in lower +Kasim, and at Aneza Doughty says its bed is 3 m. wide from bank +to bank. Forty years before his visit a flood is said to have occurred, +which passed down the river till it was blocked by sand-drifts at +Thuwerat, 50 m. lower down, and for two years a lake stood nearly +100 m. long, crowded by waterfowl not known before in that desert +country. Below this its course has not been followed by any European +traveller, but it may be inferred from the line of watering-places +on the road to Kuwet, that it runs out to the Persian Gulf in that +neighbourhood.</p> + +<p>East of Kasim the land rises gradually to the high plateau culminating +in the ranges of Jebel Tuwek and J. Arid. The general direction +of these hills is from north-west to south-east. On the west they rise +somewhat steeply, exposing high cliffs of white limestone, which +perhaps gave Palgrave the impression that the range is of greater +absolute height than is actually the case. J. Tuwek in any case +forms an important geographical feature in eastern Nejd, interrupting +by a transverse barrier 200 m. in length the general north-easterly +slope of the peninusla, and separating the basin of the W. Rumma +from that of the other great river system of central Arabia, the Wadi +Dawasir. The districts of Suder and Wushm lie on its northern side, +Arid in the centre, and Aflaj, Harik and Yemama on its south, in the +basin of the W. Dawasir; the whole of this hilly region of eastern +Nejd is, perhaps, rather a rolling down country than truly mountainous, +in which high pastures alternate with deep fertile valleys, +supporting numerous villages with a large agricultural population. +The W. Hanifa is its principal watercourse; its course is marked by +an almost continuous series of palm groves and settlements, among +which Deraiya the former, and Riad the present, capital of the Ibn +Saud kingdom are the most extensive. Its lower course is uncertain, +but it probably continues in a south-east direction to the districts +of El Harik and Yemama when, joined by the drainage from Aflaj +and the W. Dawasir, it runs eastward till it disappears in the belt of +sandy desert 100 m. in width that forms the eastern boundary of +Nejd, to reappear in the copious springs that fertilize El Hasa and +the Bahrein littoral.</p> + +<p>As regards the unexplored southern region, Palgrave’s informants +in Aflaj, the most southerly district visited by him, stated that a +day’s march south of that place the Yemen road enters +the W. Dawasir, up which it runs for ten days, perhaps +<span class="sidenote">Unexplored region of S. Nejd.</span> +200 m., to El Kura, a thinly peopled district on the borders +of Asir; this accords with the information of the French +officers of the Egyptian army in that district, and with that +of Halévy, who makes all the drainage from Nejran northward run +to the same great wadi. Whether there be any second line of drainage +in southern Nejd skirting the edge of the great desert and following +the depression of the W. Yabrin must remain a matter of conjecture. +Colonel Miles concluded, from his enquiries, that the low salt swamp, +extending inland for some distance from Khor ed Duwan, in the bay +east of El Katr, was the outlet of an extensive drainage system +which may well be continuous with the W. Yabrin and extend far +into the interior, if not to Nejran itself.</p> + +<p>East of Nejd a strip of sandy desert 50 m. in width extends almost +continuously from the great Nafud to the Dahna. East of this again +a succession of stony ridges running parallel to the coast +has to be crossed before El Hasa is reached. This +<span class="sidenote">El Hasa.</span> +province, which skirts the Persian Gulf from the mouth of the +Euphrates to the frontiers of Oman, is low and hot; its shores are +flat, and with the exception of Kuwet at the north-west corner of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page259" id="page259"></a>259</span> +the gulf, it possesses no deep water port. North of Katif it is desert +and only inhabited by nomads; at Katif, however, and throughout +the district to the south bordering on the Gulf of Bahrein there are +ample supplies of underground water, welling up in abundant springs +often at a high temperature, and bringing fertility to an extensive +district of which El Hofuf, a town of 15,000 to 20,000 inhabitants, +is the most important centre.</p> + +<p>South-western Arabia, from the twenty-first parallel down to the +Gulf of Aden, including the Taif district of Hejaz, Asir and Yemen, +forms one province geographically. Throughout its length +it consists of three zones, a narrow coastal strip, rarely +<span class="sidenote">South-western Arabia.</span> +exceeding 20 m. in width, a central mountainous tract, +embracing the great chain which runs parallel to the coast +from near Taif to within 50 m. of Aden, and an inner plateau falling +gradually to the north-east till it merges in the Nejd steppes or the +sands of the great desert.</p> + +<p>The lowland strip or Tehama consists partly of a gravelly plain, +the <i>Khabt</i>, covered sparsely with acacia and other desert shrubs and +trees, and furnishing pasturage for large flocks of goats and camels; +and partly of sterile wastes of sand like the <i>Ramla</i>, which extends +on either side of Aden almost from the seashore to the foot of the +hills. The Tehama is, however, by no means all desert, the mountain +torrents where they debouch into the plain have formed considerable +tracts of alluvial soil of the highest degree of fertility producing in +that warm equable climate two and even three crops in the year. +The flood-water is controlled by a system of dams and channels +constructed so as to utilize every drop, and the extent of cultivation +is limited more by the supply of water available than by the amount +of suitable soil. These districts support a large settled population +and several considerable towns, of which Bet el Fakih and Zubed in +the western and Lahej in the southern Tehama, with 4000 to 6000 +inhabitants, are the most important. There are signs that this +coastal strip was until a geologically recent period below sea-level; +and that the coast-line is still receding is evidenced by the history +of the town of Muza, once a flourishing port, now 20 m. inland; +while Bet el Fakih and Zubed, once important centres of the coffee +trade, have lost their position through the silting up of the ports +which formerly served them.</p> + +<p>The jebel or mountain-land is, however, the typical Yemen, the +<i>Arabia Felix</i> of the ancients. Deep valleys winding through the +barren foothills lead gradually up to the higher mountains, and as the +track ascends the scenery and vegetation change their character; +the trees which line the banks of the wadi are overgrown with +creepers, and the running stream is dammed at frequent intervals, +and led off in artificial channels to irrigate the fields on either side; +the steeper parts of the road are paved with large stones, substantially +built villages, with their masonry towers or <i>dars</i>, crowning every +height, replace the collection of mud walls and brushwood huts of +the low country; while tier above tier, terraced fields cover the hill +slopes and attest the industry of the inhabitants and the fertility +of their mountains. On the main route from Hodeda to Sana the +first coffee plantations are reached at Usil, at an altitude of 4300 ft., +and throughout the western slopes of the range up to an altitude of +7000 ft. it is the most important crop. Jebel Haraz, of which +Manakha, a small town of 3000 inhabitants is the chief place, is +described by Glaser as one vast coffee garden. Here the traveller +ascending from the coast sees the first example of the jebel or highland +towns, with their high three-storeyed houses, built of quarried +stone, their narrow façades pierced with small windows with whitewashed +borders and ornamented with varied arabesque patterns; +each dar has the appearance of a small castle complete in itself, and +the general effect is rather that of a cluster of separate forts than of a +town occupied by a united community.</p> + +<p>The scenery in this mountain region is of the most varied description; +bare precipitous hill-sides seamed with dry, rocky watercourses +give place with almost startling rapidity to fertile slopes, +terraced literally for thousands of feet. General Haig in describing +them says: “One can hardly realize the enormous labour, toil and +perseverance that these represent; the terrace walls are usually +5 to 8 ft. in height, but towards the top of the mountains they are +sometimes as much as 15 or 18 ft.; they are built entirely of rough +stone without mortar, and I reckon that on an average each wall +retains not more than twice its own height in breadth, and I do not +think I saw a single break in them unrepaired.”</p> + +<p>The highest summits as determined by actual survey are between +10,000 and 11,000 ft. above sea-level. J. Sabur, a conspicuous mass +in the extreme south, is 9900 ft., with a fall to the Taiz valley of +5000 ft.; farther north several points in the mountains above Ibb +and Yarim attain a height of 10,500 ft., and J. Hadur, near the +Sana-Hodeda road, exceeds 10,000 ft. From the crest of the range +there is a short drop of 2000 or 3000 ft. to the broad open valleys +which form the principal feature of the inner plateau. The town of +Yarim lies near its southern extremity at an altitude of about +8000 ft.; within a short distance are the sources of the W. Yakla, +W. Bana and W. Zubed, running respectively east and south and +west. The first named is a dry watercourse ultimately joining the +basin of the W. Hadramut; the two others run for a long distance +through fertile valleys and, like many of the wadis on the seaward +side of the range, have perennial streams down to within a few miles +of the sea. Sana, the capital of Yemen, lies in a broad valley 7300 ft. +above sea-level, sloping northwards to the W. Kharid which, with +the Ghail Hirran, the sources of which are on the eastern slopes of +J. Hadur, run north-eastward to the Jauf depression. The Arhab +district, through which these two great wadis run, was formerly the +centre of the Himyar kingdom; cultivation is now only to be found +in the lower parts on the borders of the watercourses, all above +being naked rock from which every particle of soil has been denuded. +In the higher parts there are fine plains where Glaser found numerous +Himyaritic remains, and which he considers were undoubtedly +cultivated formerly, but they have long fallen out of cultivation +owing to denudation and desiccation—the impoverishment of the +country from these causes is increasing. Eastward the plateau +becomes still more sterile, and its elevation probably falls more +rapidly till it reaches the level of the Jauf and Nejran valleys on the +borders of the desert. The water-parting between central and +southern Arabia seems to be somewhere to the south of Nejran, +which, according to Halévy, drains northward to the W. Dawasir, +while the Jauf is either an isolated depression, or perhaps forms part +of the Hadramut basin.</p> + +<p>Farther north, in Asir, the plateau is more mountainous and +contains many fertile valleys. Of these may be mentioned Khamis +Mishet and the Wadi Shahran rising among the high +summits of the maritime chain, and the principal affluents +<span class="sidenote">Asir.</span> +of the Wadi Besha; the latter is a broad well-watered valley, with +numerous scattered hamlets, four days’ journey (perhaps 80 m.) +from the crest of the range. Still farther north is the Wadi Taraba +and its branches running down from the highland district of Zahran. +The lower valleys produce dates in abundance, and at higher elevations +wheat, barley, millets and excellent fruit are grown, while +juniper forests are said to cover the mountain slopes. In Yemen this +tree was probably more common formerly; the place-name Arar, +signifying juniper, is still often found where the tree no longer exists.</p> + +<p>The western coast of Yemen, like that of Hejaz, is studded with +shoals and islands, of which Perim in the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, +Kamaran, the Turkish quarantine post, 40 m. north of +Hodeda, and the Farsan group, off the Abu Arish coast, +<span class="sidenote">Coast of Yemen.</span> +are the principal. Hodeda is the only port of any importance +since the days of steamships began; the other ports, Mokha, +Lohaia and Kanfuda merely share in the coasting trade. The south +coast is free from the shoals that imperil the navigation of the Red +Sea, and in Aden it possesses the only safe natural harbour on the +route between Suez and India. Several isolated volcanic hills crop +out on the shore line between Aden and the straits; the most remarkable +are J. Kharaz, 2500 ft., and J. Shamshan, 1700 ft., at the base +of which Aden itself is built. In both of these the crater form is +very clearly marked. A low maritime plain, similar to the Tehama +of the western coast, extends for some 200 m. east of the Straits of +Bab-el-Mandeb, backed by mountains rising to 7000 ft. or more; +farther east the elevation of the highland decreases steadily, and in +<span class="sidenote">Hadramut.</span> +the Hadramut, north of Mukalla, does not much exceed +4000 ft. The mountain chain, too, is less distinctly +marked, and becomes little more than the seaward escarpment of +the plateau which intervenes between the coast and the Hadramut +valley. This valley runs nearly east and west for a distance of +500 m. from the eastern slopes of the Yemen highlands to its mouth +on the Mahra coast near Sihut. The greater part of it is desert, but +a short stretch lying between the 48th and 50th meridians is well +watered and exceptionally fertile. This begins a little to the east of +Shabwa, the ancient capital, now half buried in the advancing sand, +and for a distance of over 70 m. a succession of villages and towns +surrounded by fields and date groves extends along the main valley +and into the tributaries which join it from the south. Shibam, +Saiyun and Tarim are towns of 6000 or more inhabitants, and Hajren +and Haura in the W. Duwan are among the larger villages. Himyaritic +remains have been found here and in the W. Mefat which +enters the Gulf of Aden near Balhaf. A few small fishing villages +or ports are scattered along the coast, but except Mukalla and Shihr +none is of any importance.</p> + +<p>The Gara coast was visited by the Bents, who went inland from +Dhafar, one of the centres of the old frankincense trade, to the crest +of the plateau. The narrow coastal strip seems to be moderately +fertile, and the hills which in places come down to the seashore are +covered with trees, among which the frankincense and other gum-bearing +trees are found. On the plateau, which has an altitude of +4000 ft., there is good pasturage; inland the country slopes gently +to a broad valley beyond which the view was bounded by the level +horizon of the desert.</p> + +<p>Oman (<i>q.v.</i>) includes all the south-eastern corner of the peninsula. +Its chief feature is the lofty range of J. Akhdar, 10,000 ft. above +sea-level. Like the great range of western Arabia, it runs +parallel to the coast; it differs, however, from the western +<span class="sidenote">Oman.</span> +range in that its fall on the landward side is as abrupt and nearly +as great as on its seaward side. Its northern extremity, Ras +Musandan, rises precipitously from the straits of Hormuz; farther +south the range curves inland somewhat, leaving a narrow but fertile +strip, known as the Batina coast, between it and the sea, and containing +several populous towns and villages of which Sohar, Barka +and Sib are the chief. Muscat, the capital of the province and the +principal port on the coast, is surrounded on three sides by bare, +rocky hills, and has the reputation of being the hottest place in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page260" id="page260"></a>260</span> +Arabia. Zwemer says the fertility of the highland region of J. +Akhdar is wonderful and is in striking contrast to the barrenness of +so much of the coast; water issues in perennial springs from many +rocky clefts, and is carefully husbanded by the ingenuity of the +people; underground channels, known here as <i>faluj</i>, precisely similar +to the <i>kanat</i> or <i>karez</i> of Persia and Afghanistan, are also largely used. +The principal villages on the eastern slopes are Rustak, Nakhl and +Semail in the well-watered valley of the same name; on the western +slopes are Tanuf and Nizwa, lying immediately below the highest +summit of the range; Semed, Ibra and Bidiya in the W. Betha +are all well-built villages with palm-groves and irrigated fields. In +the north-west the Dhahira district sloping towards the Jewasimi +coast is more steppe-like in character; but there two oases of great +fertility are found, of which Birema, visited by both Miles and +Zwemer, supports a population of 15,000. West of Abu Dhabi a low +flat steppe with no settled inhabitants extends up to the Katr +peninsula, merging on the north into the saline marshes which border +the Persian Gulf, and on the south into the desert.</p> + +<p>The great desert known as the Dahna or the Rub’a el Khali (“the +empty quarter”) is believed to cover all the interior of southern +Arabia from the borders of Yemen in the west to those +of Oman in the east. Halévy in Nejran, Von Wrede in +<span class="sidenote">The southern desert.</span> +Hadramut, and Wellsted in Oman reached its edge, +though none of them actually entered it, and the guides +accompanying them all concurred in describing it as uninhabitable +and uncrossed by any track. Its northern fringe is no doubt frequented +by the Bedouin tribes of southern Nejd after the rains, +when its sands, like those of the northern desert, produce herbage; +but towards the east, according to Burckhardt’s information, it is +quite without vegetation even in the winter and spring. The +farthest habitable spot to the south of Nejd is the Wadi Yabrin, +which L. Pelly heard of from the Ahl Murra Bedouins as once a +fertile district, and which still produces dates, though, owing to +malaria, it is now deserted; thence southward to the Hadramut +valley no communication is known to exist.</p> + +<p>[<i>Geology.</i>—The geological structure of Arabia is very similar to +that of Egypt. The oldest rocks consist of granite and schist, +penetrated by intrusive dykes, and upon this foundation rest the +flat-lying sedimentary deposits, beginning with a sandstone like the +Nubian sandstone of Egypt. In the northern part of Arabia the +crystalline rocks form a broad area extending from the peninsula +of Sinai eastwards to Hail and southwards at least as far as Mecca. +Towards the north the crystalline floor is overlaid by the great +sandstone series which covers nearly the whole of the country north +of Hail. Upon the sandstone rest a few scattered outliers of limestone, +probably of Cretaceous age, the largest of which occur near +Jauf and east of Bureda. Over both sandstone and granite great +sheets of lava have been poured, and these, protecting the softer +beds beneath from further denudation, now stand up as the high +plateaus and hills called <i>harra</i>. Volcanic cones still exist in large +numbers, and the sheets of lava appear as fresh as any recent flows +of Etna or Vesuvius. Arabian manuscripts describe an eruption on +the harra near Medina in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1256. In the south of Arabia the +crystalline floor appears at intervals along the southern coast and +on the shores of the Gulf of Oman. At Marbat the granite is overlaid +by sandstone, presumably the Nubian sandstone: this is followed +by marls containing Cenomanian fossils; and these are overlaid +by Upper Cretaceous limestones, upon which rest isolated patches +of <i>Alveolina</i> limestone. Generally, however, the Cretaceous beds +do not appear, and the greater part of southern Arabia seems to be +formed of <i>Alveolina</i> and nummulite limestones of Tertiary age. +An extinct volcano occurs at Aden, and volcanic rocks are found at +other places near the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. Throughout the +whole of Arabia, so far as is known, the sedimentary beds show no +signs of any but the most gentle folding. Faulting, however, is by +no means absent, and some of the faults are of considerable magnitude. +The Gulf of Akaba is a strip of country which has been let +down between two parallel faults, and several similar faulted troughs +occur in the Sinai peninsula. The Red Sea itself is a great trough +bounded by faults along each side.]</p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—Owing to its low latitude and generally arid surface, +Arabia is on the whole one of the hottest regions of the earth; this +is especially the case along the coasts of the Persian Gulf and the +southern half of the Red Sea, where the moist heat throughout the +year is almost intolerable to Europeans. In the interior of northern +and central Arabia, however, where the average level of the country +exceeds 3000 ft., the fiery heat of the summer days is followed by +cool nights, and the winter climate is fresh and invigorating; while +in the highlands of Asir and Yemen in the south-west, and of Oman +in the east, the summer heat is never excessive, and the winters are, +comparatively speaking, cold.</p> + +<p>In the northern desert the temperature is subject to extreme +variations. Nolde states that on the 1st of February 1893 in the +desert north of Hail the thermometer fell from 78° a little before +sunset to 18° a quarter of an hour after. The midday temperatures +recorded by Huber at Hail during January and the first half of +February average about 65° F., and water froze on several nights; +at Medina the winters are cold and night frosts of frequent occurrence, +and these conditions prevail over all the western part of the +Nejd plateau. In the east where the elevation is lower the climate is +warmer. In the elevated highland district which extends from +Taif to within 50 m. of Aden, the summer heat is tempered by the +monsoon winds, and the seasonal variation of temperature is less +marked. From observations made at Sana by Manzoni, Deflers and +Glaser, the mean temperature for the year of that city at an altitude +of 7300 ft. and in 15° 22′ N. appears to be 60° F.; for July the +mean maximum was 77°, mean minimum 54°; for January the +figures were 62°and 40° respectively, the lowest recorded temperature +in 1878 was 26.6° on the 26th of January. At Aden at the sea-level +the mean temperature for the year is 83°; the highest observed +temperature in 1904 was 97.3°, the lowest 67.4°.</p> + +<p>The rainfall throughout northern and central Arabia is chiefly in +the winter months between October and April, and is scanty and +irregular. Doughty states that in 1876 rain to wet the ground had +not fallen for three years at Medain Salih; in that year showers fell +on the 29th of December and on two days in January and again in +March. After a very hot summer the bright weather changed to +clouded skies on the 2nd of October, rain fell tempestuously the +same evening, and there were showery days and nights till the 14th. +The autumn rains fell that year abundantly in the Nafud towards +Jauf, but very little in the basin of the W. Hamd (on the western +slope). Doughty adds that the Nejd highlands between Kasim and +Mecca are watered yearly by seasonable rains, which at Taif are +expected about the end of August and last commonly from four to +six weeks. This appears to be about the northern limit reached by +the south-west monsoon, which from June to September brings a +fairly abundant rainfall to the Yemen highlands, though the Tehama +remains almost entirely rainless. The rainfall is heaviest along the +western fringe of the plateau, and penetrates inland in decreasing +quantity over a zone which perhaps extends to 100 m. in width. In +good seasons it is sufficient for the cultivation of the summer crop +of millet, and for the supply of the perennial streams and springs, +on which the irrigation of the winter crops of wheat and barley +depend. The amount measured at Dhala at the extreme south of +the plateau at an elevation of 4800 ft. was in 1902 as follows:—June, +4.0 in.; July, 5.5; August, 5.8; September, 1.9. Only +slight showers were recorded in the other months of the year. At +higher elevations the rainfall is no doubt heavier; Manzoni mentions +that at Sana there was constant rain throughout August and September +1878, and that the thermometer during August did not reach +65°. In the Tehama occasional showers fall during the winter +months; at Aden the average rainfall for the year is 2.97 in., but +during 1904 only 0.5 in. was recorded. Snow falls on the Harra and +on the Tehama range in northern Arabia, and Nolde records a fall of +snow which lay on the Nafud on the 1st of February 1893. It also +falls on J. Akhdar in Oman, but is very rarely known on the Yemen +mountains, probably because the precipitation during the winter +months is so slight.</p> + +<p>The prevailing winds in northern Arabia as far as is known are +from the west; along the southern coast they are from the east; +at Sana there is generally a light breeze from the north-north-west +from 9 to 11 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, from noon till 4 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> a steady and often strong +wind blows from the south-south-east, which dies away later. The +climate is extremely dry, but this is compensated for by the heavy +mists which sweep up from the plains during the rainless months +and exercise a most beneficial effect in the coffee-growing districts. +This phenomenon is known as the sukhemani or amama. In the +morning the Tehama, as seen from the mountain tops, appears +buried in a sea of white cloud; towards noon the clouds drift up +the mountain slopes and cover the summits with wreaths of light +mist charged with moisture which condenses on the trees and +vegetation; in the afternoon they disappear, and the evenings are +generally clear and still.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna.</i>—The wild animals of Arabia are all of the desert-loving +type: antelopes and gazelles are found in small numbers throughout +the peninsula; the latter are similar to the <i>chikara</i> or ravine deer of +India. The larger antelopes, so common on the African side of the +Gulf of Aden, are not found, except one variety, the <i>Oryx beatrix</i> +(called by the Arabs, wild cow), which is an inhabitant of the Nafud +between Tema and Hail; it is about the size of a donkey, white, +and with long straight horns. Hares are numerous both in the desert +and in cultivated tracts. In the Yemen mountains the <i>wal</i>, a wild +goat with massive horns, similar to the Kashmir ibex, is found; +monkeys also abound. Among smaller animals the jerboa and other +descriptions of rat, and the <i>wabar</i> or cony are common; lizards +and snakes are numerous, most of the latter being venomous. +Hyenas, wolves and panthers are found in most parts of the country, +and in the mountains the leopard and wild cat. Of birds the ostrich +is found in the Nafud and in the W. Dawasir. Among game birds +the bustard, guinea fowl, sand grouse (<i>kata</i>), blue rock, green pigeon, +partridge, including a large chikor (<i>akb</i>) and a small species similar +to the Punjab sisi; quail and several kinds of duck and snipe are +met with. In the cultivated parts of Yemen and Tehama small +birds are very numerous, so also are birds of prey, vultures, kites and +hawks.</p> + +<p>Insects of all sorts abound; scorpions, centipedes, spiders, and an +ugly but harmless millipede known in Yemen as <i>hablub</i> are very +common in summer. Ants and beetles too are very numerous, +and anthills are prominent features in many places. Locusts appear +in great swarms and do much damage; fires are lighted at night +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page261" id="page261"></a>261</span> +to attract them, and large quantities are caught and eaten by the +poorer people. Bees are kept, and in Yemen and Hadramut the +honey is exceptionally good.</p> + +<p>Of domesticated animals the camel is far the most useful to the +Arab. Owing to its endurance of thirst the long desert journeys +which separate the populous centres are made practicable, +and in the spring months, when green forage is plentiful +<span class="sidenote">Camel.</span> +in the desert, the Bedouins pitch their camps for long periods far from +any water, and not only men but horses subsist on camel’s milk. +The Arabian camel belongs to the one-humped species, though there +are many varieties differing in appearance as much as the thoroughbred +race-horse from the English cart-horse. The ordinary load for +a pack camel is about 400 ℔, and in hot weather good camels will +march 20 to 25 m. daily and only require water every third or fourth +day: in cool weather, with ample green fodder they can go twenty-five +days or more without drinking. A good <i>dalul</i> or riding camel +will carry his rider 100 m. a day for a week on end. Nolde gives an +instance from his own experience of a camel rider covering 62 m. in +seven hours. The pure-bred riding camel is only found in perfection +in inner Arabia; for some unexplained reason when taken out +of their own country or north of the 30th degree they rapidly +degenerate.</p> + +<p>The horse does not occupy the important position in the Bedouin +economy that is popularly supposed. In Nejd the number of horses +is, comparatively speaking, very small; the want of +water in the Nafud where alone forage is obtainable, +<span class="sidenote">Horse.</span> +and the absence of forage in the neighbourhood of the towns makes +horse-breeding on a large scale impracticable there. Horses are in +fact only kept by the principal sheiks, and by far the larger proportion +of those now in Nejd are the property of the amir and his family. +These are kept most of the year in the Nafud, five or ten days’ +march from Hail, where they find their own food on the desert +herbage. When a raid is in contemplation, they are brought in and +given a little barley for a few weeks. Reared in this way they are +capable of marvellous endurance, marching during a raid twenty +hours a day for eight or ten days together. As a rule, they are only +mounted at the moment of attack, or in pursuit. Water and forage +have to be carried for them on camels.</p> + +<p>The great majority of the horses that come into the market as +Arabs, are bred in the northern desert and in Mesopotamia, by the +various sections of the Aneza and Shammar tribes, who emigrated +from Nejd generations ago, taking with them the original Nejd +stock. In size and appearance, and in everything but endurance, +these northern horses are admittedly superior to the true Nejdi. A +few of the latter are collected by dealers in the nomad camps and +exported chiefly from Kuwet. The amir Mahommed Ibn Rashid +used to send down about one hundred young horses yearly.</p> + +<p>Asses of excellent quality are bred all over the country; they +are much used as mounts by the richer townsmen. Except in the +settled districts horned cattle are not numerous; they are similar +to the Indian humped cattle, but are greatly superior in milking +qualities. The great wealth of the Arabs is in their flocks of sheep +and goats; they are led out to pasture soon after sunrise, and in the +hotter months drink every second day. In the spring when the +succulent <i>ashub</i> and <i>adar</i> grow plentifully in the desert, they go for +weeks without drinking. They are milked once a day about sunset +by the women (the men milk the camels), and a large proportion of +the milk is made into <i>samn</i>, clarified butter, or <i>marisi</i>, dried curd. +The wool is not of much value, and is spun by the women and woven +into rugs, and made up into saddlebags or into the black Bedouin +tents.</p> + +<p><i>Flora.</i>—The flora of Arabia has been investigated by P. Forskal, +the botanist of Niebuhr’s mission, P.E. Botta, G. Schweinfurth and +A. Deflers, to whose publications the technical reader is referred. +Its general type approaches more closely to the African than to +that of southern Asia. In the higher regions the principal trees are +various species of fig, tamarind, carob and numerous kinds of +cactiform <i>Euphorbia</i>, of which one, the <i>Euphorbia arborea</i>, grows to +a height of 20 ft. Of Coniferae the juniper is found on the higher +slopes of J. Sabur near Taiz, where Botta describes it as forming an +extensive forest and growing to a large size; it is also found in the +range overlooking the W. Madin, 50 m. W. of Aden. Considerable +forests are said to exist in Asir, and Burton found a few fine specimens +which he regarded as the remains of an old forest, on the +Tehama range in Midian. On the rocky hill-sides in Yemen the +<i>Adenium Obesum</i> is worthy of notice, with its enormous bulb-like +stems and brilliant red flowers. Some fine aloes or agaves are also +found. In the cultivated upland valleys all over Arabia the <i>Zisyphus +jujuba</i>, called by some travellers lotus, grows to a large tree; its +thorny branches are clipped yearly and used to fence the cornfields +among which it grows. In the broad sandy wadi beds the tamarisk +(<i>athl</i>) is everywhere found; its wood is used for making domestic +implements of all sorts. Among fruit trees the vine, apricot, peach, +apple, quince, fig and banana are cultivated in the highlands, and in +the lower country the date palm flourishes, particularly throughout +the central zone of Arabia, in Hejaz, Nejd and El Hasa, where it is +the prime article of food. A hundred kinds of date are said to grow +at Medina, of which the <i>birni</i> is considered the most wholesome; +the <i>halwa</i> and the <i>jalebi</i> are the most delicately flavoured and sell at +very high rates; the <i>khulas</i> of El Hasa is also much esteemed.</p> + +<p>Of cereals the common millets, <i>dhura</i> and <i>dukhn</i>, are grown in all +parts of the country as the summer crop, and in the hot irrigated +Tehama districts three crops are reaped in the year; in the highlands +maize, wheat and barley are grown to a limited extent as the winter +crop, ripening at the end of March or in April. Among vegetables +the common kinds grown include radishes, pumpkins, cucumbers, +melons, potatoes, onions and leeks. Roses are grown in some places +for the manufacture of <i>atr</i>, or attar of roses; mignonette, jasmine, +thyme, lavender and other aromatic plants are favourites in Yemen, +when the Arabs often stick a bunch in their head-dress.</p> + +<p>Of the products special to Arabia coffee comes first; it is nowhere +found wild, and is believed to have been introduced from Abyssinia +in the 6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> It thrives on the seaward slopes +of the western range in the zone of the tropical rains, at +<span class="sidenote">Coffee.</span> +altitudes between 4000 and 7000 ft. The principal centres of production +are the upper valleys of the W. Surdad, between Kaukaban +and Manakha, and particularly on J. Haraz; in the Wadi Zubed +west of Uden; in Hajaria on the slopes of J. Sabur, and in the Yafa +district north-east of Aden. It is planted in terraces on the mountain +slopes; shady trees, such as tamarind and fig, are planted in the +border as a protection from the sun, and the terraces are irrigated +by channels led from a neighbouring rivulet or spring. The plants +are raised from seedlings, and when six or seven weeks old they are +transplanted in rows 4 to 6 ft. apart; they require watering twice +a month, and bear in two to four years. The berries are dried in the +sun and sent down to Hodeda or Aden, where they are subjected +to a process for separating the husk from the bean; the result is +about 50% of cleaned berries, <i>bun safi</i>, which is exported, and a +residue of husk or <i>kishr</i>, from which the Yemenis make their favourite +beverage.</p> + +<p>Another plant universally used as a stimulant in Southern Arabia +is <i>khat</i> (<i>Catha edulis</i>). The best is grown on J. Sabur and the +mountainous country round Taiz. It is a small bush propagated from +cuttings which are left to grow for three years; the leaves are then +stripped, except a few buds which develop next year into young +shoots, these being cut and sold in bunches under the name of <i>khat +mubarak</i>; next year on the branches cut back new shoots grow; +these are sold as <i>khat malhani</i>, or second-year kat, which commands +the highest price. The bush is then left for three years, when the +process is repeated. The leaves and young shoots are chewed; +they have stimulating properties, comparable with those of the coca +of Peru.</p> + +<p>The aromatic gums for which Arabia was famed in ancient times +are still produced, though the trade is a very small one. The tree +from which myrrh is extracted grows in many places, but the +industry is chiefly carried on at Suda, 60 m. north-north-east of Sana. +Longitudinal slits are made in the bark, and the gum is caught in +cups fixed beneath. The balsam of Mecca is produced in the same +way, chiefly in the mountains near the W. Safra between Yambu +and Medina.</p> + +<p>The stony plains which cover so large a part of the country are +often covered with acacia jungle, and in the dry water-courses a kind +of wild palm, the <i>dom</i>, abounds, from the leaves of which baskets +and mats are woven. Brushwood and rough pasturage of some sort +is found almost everywhere, except in the neighbourhood of the +larger settlements, where forage and firewood have to be brought +in from long distances. The Nafud sands, too, are tufted in many +places with bushes or small trees, and after the winter rains they +produce excellent pasture.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—The people, according to their own traditions, +are derived from two stocks, the pure Arabs, descended from +Kahtan or Joktan, fourth in descent from Shem; and the +Mustarab or naturalized Arabs, from Ishmael. The former are +represented at the present day by the inhabitants of Yemen, +Hadramut and Oman, in general a settled agricultural population; +the latter by those of Hejaz, Nejd, El Hasa, the Syrian +desert and Mesopotamia, consisting of the Bedouin or pastoral +tribes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arabs</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bedouins</a></span>). This distinction between the +characteristics of the two races is only true in a general sense, +for a considerable population of true Bedouin origin has settled +down to agricultural life in the oases of Hejaz and Nejd, while in +southern Arabia the tribes dwelling on the fringe of the great +desert have to a certain extent adopted the nomad life.</p> + +<p>Both among the nomad and settled Arabs the organization +is essentially tribal. The affairs of the tribe are administered by +the sheiks, or heads of clans and families; the position of sheik +in itself gives no real governing power, his word and counsel +carry weight, but his influence depends on his own personal +qualities. All matters affecting the community are discussed in +the <i>majlis</i> or assembly, to which any tribesman has access; +here, too, are brought the tribesmen’s causes; both sides plead +and judgment is given impartially, the loser is fined so many +head of small cattle or camels, which he must pay or go into +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page262" id="page262"></a>262</span> +exile. Murder can be expiated by the payment of <i>diya</i> or +blood-money, if the kinsmen of the murdered man consent; they +may, however, claim the life of the murderer, and long and +troublesome blood feuds often ensue, involving the relatives of +both sides for generations.</p> + +<p>Apart from the tribesmen there is in Hejaz and south Arabia +a privileged, religious class, the Sharifs or Seyyids, who claim +descent from Mahomet through his daughter Fatima. Until the +Egyptian invasion in 1814 the Sharifs of Mecca were the recognized +rulers of Hejaz, and though the Turks have attempted to +suppress their importance, the Sharif still executes justice according +to the Mahommedan law in the holy cities, though, nominally, +as a Turkish official. In Yemen and Hadramut many villages +are occupied exclusively by this religious hierarchy, who are +known as Ashraf, Sada or Kudha (<i>i.e.</i> Sharifs, Seyyids or Kadhis); +the religious affairs of the tribes are left in their hands; they do +not, however, interfere in tribal matters generally, or join in +fighting.</p> + +<p>Below these two classes, which may be looked on as the priestly +and the military castes, there is, especially in the settled districts, +a large population of artisans and labourers, besides negro slaves +and their descendants, slave or free. The population of Khaibar +consists almost entirely of the latter, and in Hail Huber estimates +the pure Arab inhabitants at only one-third of the whole. In the +desert, too, there is a widely scattered tribe, the Salubi, which +from its name (<i>Salib</i>, cross) is conjectured to be of early Christian +origin; they are great hunters, killing ostriches and gazelles; +the Arabs despise them as an inferior race, but do not harm +them; they pay a small tax to the tribe under whose protection +they live, and render service as labourers, for which they receive +in the spring milk and cheese; at the date harvest they get +wages in kind; with this, and the produce of the chase, +they manage to exist in the desert without agriculture or +flocks.</p> + +<p>In southern Arabia the Jews form a large element in the town +population. According to one authority their presence in Yemen +dates from the time of Solomon, others say from the +capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezzar. Manzoni +<span class="sidenote">The Jews in Arabia.</span> +estimated their number in Sana in 1878 at 1700 out +of a total population of 20,000; at Aden they are a numerous +and wealthy community, with agents in most of the towns of +Yemen. Even in remote Nejran, Halévy, himself a Jew, found a +considerable colony of his co-religionists. They wear a distinctive +garb and are not allowed to carry arms or live in the same quarter +as Moslems. Another foreign element of considerable strength +in the coast towns of Muscat, Aden and Jidda, is the British +Indian trading class; many families of Indian origin also have +settled at Mecca, having originally come as pilgrims.</p> + +<p>Estimates of the population of Arabia vary enormously, and +the figures given in the following table can only be regarded as a +very rough approximation:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hejaz</td> <td class="tcr">300,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Yemen and Asir</td> <td class="tcr">1,800,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Nejd</td> <td class="tcr">1,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hadramut </td> <td class="tcr">150,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Oman</td> <td class="tcr">1,000,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">El Hasa</td> <td class="tcr">300,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Syrian desert and border</td> <td class="tcr">275,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">4,825,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Communications.</i>—The principal land routes in Arabia are +those leading to the holy cities. In the present day the Syrian +pilgrim route, or Darb el Haj, from Damascus to Medina and +Mecca is the most used. The annual pilgrim caravan or haj, +numbering some 6000 people with 10,000 pack animals, is +escorted by a few Turkish irregulars known as <i>agel</i>; small +fortified posts have been established at the regular halting-places +some 30 m. apart, each furnished with a well and reservoir, and +for the further protection of the haj, payments are made to the +Bedouin tribes through whose territories the route passes. The +road is a mere camel track across the desert, the chief places +passed are Ma’an on the Syrian border, a station on the old +Sabaean trade route to Petra, and Medain Salih, the site of the +rock-cut tombs and inscriptions first brought to notice by +Doughty. From Medina the route usually followed descends +the W. Safra to Badr Hunen, whence it keeps near the coast +passing Rabigh and Khulesa to Mecca. The total distance, +1300 m., is covered in forty days.</p> + +<p>The Egyptian pilgrim route from Cairo, across the Sinai +peninsula and down the Midian coast to El Wijh, joins the +Syrian route at Badr Hunen. It also was formerly provided +with stations and reservoirs, but owing to the greater facilities +of the sea journey from Suez to Jidda it is now little used. +Another important route is that taken by the Persian or Shia +pilgrims from Bagdad and Kerbela across the desert, by the +wells of Lina, to Bureda in Kasim; thence across the steppes of +western Nejd till it crosses the Hejaz border at the Ria Mecca, +50 m. north-east of the city. It lies almost entirely in the +territory of the amir Ibn Rashid of J. Shammar, who derives a +considerable revenue from the pilgrimage. The old reservoirs +on this route attributed to Zubeda, wife of Harun al Rashid, +were destroyed during the Wahhabi raids early in the 19th +century, and have not been repaired. The Yemen pilgrim route, +known as the Haj el Kabsi, led from Sada through Asir to Taif +and Mecca, but it is no longer used.</p> + +<p>The principal trade routes are those leading from Damascus to +Jauf and across the Nafud to Hail. Other important routes +leading to Nejd are those from Kuwet to Hail, and from El Hasa +to Riad respectively. In the west and south the principal routes, +other than those already mentioned, are from Yambu to Medina, +from Jidda to Mecca, Hodeda to Sana, Aden to Sana, and from +Mukalla to the Hadramut valley. Railway construction has +begun in Arabia, and in 1908 the Hejaz line, intended to connect +Damascus with Mecca, had reached Medina, 500 m. south of +Ma’an. This line is of great strategical importance, as strengthening +the Turkish hold on the Red Sea provinces. But the principal +means of commercial communication for a country like Arabia +must always be by sea. Bahrein, Kuwet and Muscat are in steam +communication with India, and the Persian Gulf ports; all the +great lines of steamships call at Aden on their way between Suez +and the East, and regular services are maintained between Suez, +Jidda, Hodeda and Aden, as well as to the ports on the African +coast, while native coasting craft trade to the smaller ports on +the Red Sea and Indian Ocean.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Commerce.</i>—The total value of the trade of Aden for 1904 +amounted to over £6,000,000. The imports to Jidda in the same +year were £1,405,000, largely consisting of rice, wheat and other food +stuffs from India; the exports, which have dwindled away in late +years, amounted in 1904 to only £25,000. To balance the exports +and imports specie was exported in the three years 1902-1904 +amounting to £2,319,000; a large proportion of this was perhaps +provided by cash brought into the country by pilgrims.</p> + +<p>The pilgrim traffic increased largely in 1904 as compared with +previous years; 74,600 persons landed at Jidda, 18,000 of whom +were from British India, 13,000 from Java and the Straits Settlements, +and the remainder from Turkish territory, Egypt and other +countries: 235 out of a total of 334 steamships engaged in this +traffic were British.</p> + +<p>The trade of Hodeda, which contributes by far the largest share +to that of Turkish Yemen, fell off considerably during the period +from 1901-1905, chiefly owing to the disturbed state of the country. +In the latter year the imports amounted to £467,000, and the exports +to £451,000; coffee, the mainstay of Yemen trade, shows a serious +decline from £302,000 in 1902 to £229,000 in 1904; this is attributable +partly to the great increase of production in other countries, but +mainly to the insecurity of the trade routes and the exorbitant +transit dues levied by the Turkish administration.</p> + +<p>Oman, through its chief port Muscat, had a total trade of about +£550,000, two-thirds of which is due to imports and one-third to +exports. The chief items of imports are arms and ammunition, rice, +coffee and piece goods; the staple export is dates, which in a good +year accounts for nearly half the total; much of the trade is in the +hands of British Indians, and of the shipping 92% is British.</p> + +<p>The principal trade centre of the Arabian side of the Persian Gulf +is Bahrein; the total volume of trade of which amounted in 1904 +to £1,900,000, nearly equally divided between imports and exports; +rice, piece goods, &c., form the bulk of the former, while pearls are +the most valuable part of the latter.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. A. W.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Antiquities</p> + +<p>Arabia cannot be said to be “destitute of antiquities,” but +the material for the study of these is still very incomplete. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page263" id="page263"></a>263</span> +The difficulties in the way of travelling in Arabia with a view +to scientific investigation are such that little or nothing is being +done, and the systematic work which has given such good results +in Egypt, Palestine and Babylonia-Assyria is unknown in Arabia. +Yet the passing notes of travellers from the time of Carsten +Niebuhr show that antiquities are to be found.</p> + +<p><i>Prehistoric Remains.</i>—Since prehistoric remains must be +studied where they are found, the difficulty in the way of exploration +makes itself severely felt. That such remains exist +seems clear from the casual remarks of travellers. Thus Palgrave +(<i>Central and Eastern Arabia</i>, vol. i. ch. 6) speaks of part of a circle +of roughly shaped stones taken from the adjacent limestone +mountains in the Nejd. Eight or nine of these stones still +exist, some of them 15 ft. high. Two of them, 10 to 12 ft. apart, +still bear their horizontal lintel. They are all without ornament. +Palgrave compares them with the remains at Stonehenge and +Karnak. Doughty (<i>Arabia Deserta</i>, vol. ii.), travelling in north-west +Arabia, saw stones of granite in a row and “flagstones set +edgewise” (though he does not regard these as religious), also +“round heaps, perhaps barrows,” and “dry-built round +chambers,” which may be ancient tombs. J.T. Bent (<i>Southern +Arabia</i>, pp. 24 ff.) explored one of several mounds in Bahrein. +It proved to be a tomb, and the remains in it are said to be +Phoenician.</p> + +<p><i>Castles and Walls.</i>—In the south of Arabia, where an advanced +civilization existed for centuries before the Christian era, the +ruins of castles and city-walls are still in existence, and have been +mentioned, though not examined carefully, by several travellers. +In Yemen and Hadramut especially these ruins abound, and in +some cases inscriptions seem to be still <i>in situ</i>. Great castles +are often mentioned in early Arabian literature. One in the +neighbourhood of San‛a was described as one of the wonders of +the world by Qazwīnī (<i>Athār ul-Bilād</i>, p. 33, ed. Wüstenfeld, +Göttingen, 1847, cf. <i>Journal of the German Oriental Society</i>, +vol. 7, pp. 472, 476, and for other castles vol. 10, pp. 20 ff.). +The ruins of the city of Ma’rib, the old Sabaean capital, have +been visited by Arnaud, Halévy and Glaser, but call for further +description, as Arnaud confined himself to a description of the +dike (see below), while Halévy and Glaser were interested chiefly +in the inscriptions.</p> + +<p><i>Wells and Dikes.</i>—From the earliest times the conservation +of water has been one of the serious cares of the Arabs. All over +the country wells are to be found, and the masonry of some of +them is undoubtedly ancient. Inscriptions are still found in +some of these in the south. The famous well Zemzem at Mecca +is said to belong to the early times, when the eastern traffic +passed from the south to the north-west of Arabia through the +Hejaz, and to have been rediscovered shortly before the time of +Mahomet. Among the most famous remains of Ma’rib are those +of a great dike reminding one of the restored tanks familiar to +visitors at Aden. These remains were first described by Arnaud +(<i>Journal asiatique</i>, January 1874, with plan). Their importance +was afterwards emphasized by Glaser’s publication of two long +inscriptions concerning their restoration in the 5th and 6th +centuries <span class="scs">A.D.</span> (“Zwei Inschriften über den Dammbruch von +Marib,” in the <i>Mitteilungen der Vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft</i>, +Berlin, 1897). Another dike about 150 yds. long was seen by +W.B. Harris at Hîrran in Yemen. Above it was a series of three +tanks (<i>A Journey through the Yemen</i>, p. 279, London, 1893).</p> + +<p><i>Stones and Bronzes.</i>—The 19th century has brought to the +museums of Europe (especially to London, Paris, Berlin and +Vienna) a number of inscriptions in the languages of Minea and +Saba, and a few in those of Hadramut and Katabania (Qatta-bania). +These inscriptions are generally on limestone or marble +or on tablets of bronze, and vary from a few inches to some +feet in length and height. In some cases the originals have been +brought to Europe, in other cases only squeezes of the inscriptions. +The characters employed are apparently derived from +the Phoenician (cf. Lidzbarski’s <i>Ephemeris</i>, vol. i. pp. 109 ff.). +The languages employed have been the subject of much study +(cf. F. Hommel’s <i>Süd-arabische Chrestomathie</i>, Munich, 1893), +but the archaeological value of these remains has not been so +fully treated. Very many of them are votive inscriptions and +contain little more than the names of gods and princes or private +men. A few are historical, but being (with few and late exceptions) +undated, have given rise to much controversy among +scholars. Their range seems to be from about 800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (or 1500 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> according to E. Glaser) to the 6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Few are +still <i>in situ</i>, the majority having been taken from their original +positions and built into houses, mosques or wells of more recent +date. Among these remains are altars, and bases for statues +of gods or for golden images of animals dedicated to gods. The +earlier stones are devoid of ornamentation, but the later stones +and bronzes are sometimes ornamented with designs of leaves, +flowers, ox-heads, men and women. Some bear figures of the +conventionalized sacred tree with worshippers, similar to +Babylonian designs. Besides these there are gravestones, stelae +with human heads, fragments of limestone, architectural designs +as well as bronze castings of camels, horses, mice, serpents, &c. +(cf. D.H. Müller’s <i>Südarabische Alterthümer im Kunsthistorischen +Museum</i>, Vienna, 1899, with plates).</p> + +<p><i>Seals, Weights and Coins.</i>—The Vienna Museum possesses a +small number of seals and gems. The seals are inscribed with +Sabaean writing and are of bronze, copper, silver and stone. +The gems of onyx, carnelian and agate are later and bear various +figures, and in some cases Arabic inscriptions. One or two +weights are also in existence. A number of coins have been +brought to the British Museum from Aden, San’a and Ma’rib. +Others were purchased by G. Schlumberger in Constantinople; +others have been brought to Europe by Glaser, and are now in +the Vienna Museum. These are imitations of Greek models, +while the inscriptions are in Sabaean characters (cf. B.V. Head, +in the <i>Numismatic Chronicle</i>, 1878, pp. 273-284; G. Schlumberger, +<i>Le Trêsor de San‛a</i>, Paris, 1880; D.H. Müller, <i>op. cit.</i> +pp. 65 ff. and plates).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the problem of Arabic antiquities in Rhodesia see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rhodesia</a></span> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Zimbabwe</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">History</p> + +<p><i>Introduction.</i>—Arabia is a land of Semites, and is supposed by +some scholars to have been the original home of the Semitic +peoples. Although this cannot be said to be proved, the studies, +linguistic and archaeological, of Semitic scholars have shown +it to be probable. The dispersion from Arabia is easy to imagine. +The migration into Babylonia was simple, as there are no natural +boundaries to separate it from north-east Arabia, and similar +migrations have taken place in historic times. That of the +Aramaeans at an early period is likewise free from any natural +hindrance. The connexion with Palestine has always been close; +and the Abyssinian settlement is probably as late as the beginning +of the Christian era. Of these migrations, however, history knows +nothing, nor are they expressed in literature. Arabian literature +has its own version of prehistoric times, but it is entirely +legendary and apocryphal. It was, and still is, the custom of +Arabian historians to begin with the creation of the world and +tell the history from then to the time of which they are writing. +Consequently even the more sober histories contain a mass of +fables about early days. Many of these, taken in part from +Jewish and Christian sources, find a place in the Koran. Of all +these stories current at the time of Mahomet, the only ones of +any value are the accounts of the “days of the Arabs,” <i>i.e.</i> +accounts of some famous inter-tribal battles in Arabia.</p> + +<p><i>Authorities.</i>—Until recently the Arab traditions were practically +the only source for the pre-Islamic history of Arabia. The +Old Testament references to Arabs were obscure. The classical +accounts of the invasion of Aelius Callus in 26 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> threw little +light on the state of Arabia at the time, still less on its past +history. The Greek writers from Theophrastus in the 4th +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to Ptolemy in the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> mention many +names of Arabian peoples and describe the situation of their +cities, but contribute little to their history, and that little could +not be controlled. The same applies to the information of Pliny +in his <i>Natural History</i>. In the 19th century the discovery +and decipherment of the Assyrian inscriptions gave a slight +glance into the relations between Arabs and Assyrians from the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page264" id="page264"></a>264</span> +8th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> But the great contribution of the century to +the early history of Arabia was the collecting and translating +of numerous early Arabian inscriptions (cf. section <i>Antiquities</i> +above), which have done service both by their own indication of +a great civilization in Arabia for nearly (or more than) a thousand +years before the Christian era, and by the new stimulus which +they gave to the study and appreciation of the materials in the +Assyrian inscriptions, the Old Testament, and the Greek and +Roman writers. At the same time the facts that the inscriptions +are undated until a late period, that few are historical in their +contents, and for the most part yield only names of gods and +rulers and domestic and religious details, and that our collection +is still very incomplete, have led to much serious disagreement +among scholars as to the reconstruction of the history of Arabia +in the pre-Christian centuries.</p> + +<p>All scholars, however, are agreed that the inscriptions reach as +far back as the 9th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (some say to the 16th) and prove +the existence of at least four civilized kingdoms during these +centuries. These are the kingdoms of Ma‛īn (Minaean), of +Saba (Sabaean), of Hadramaut (Hadramut) and of Katabania +(Katabanū). Of the two latter little is known. That of Hadramut +had kings from the time of the Minaeans to about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 300, when +it was conquered by Ethiopia. The limits of the kingdom of +Katabania are not known, but it has its own inscriptions.</p> + +<p>As to the Sabaean kingdom there is fair agreement among +scholars. The inscriptions go back to 800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> or earlier, and +the same applies to the kingdom. A queen of this people (the +“Queen of Sheba”) is said (1 Kings x.) to have visited Solomon +about 950 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> There is, however, no mention of such a queen +in the inscriptions. An Assyrian inscription mentions Ith‛amara +the Sabaean who paid tribute to Sargon in 715 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> At this time +the Sabaeans must have been in north Arabia unless the inscription +refers to a northern colony of the southern Sabaeans. +The former opinion is held by E. Glaser, who thinks that in the +9th and 8th centuries they moved down along the west coast to +the south, where they conquered the Minaeans (see below). +The Sabaean rule is generally divided into periods indicated by +the titles given to their rulers. In the first of these ruled the +Makarib, who seem to have been priest-kings. Their first capital +was at Ṣirwāḥ. Ten such rulers are mentioned in the inscriptions. +Their rule extended from the 9th to the 6th century. The second +period begins about 550 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The rulers are known as “kings of +Saba.” Their capital was Ma’rib. The names of seventeen of +these kings are known from the inscriptions. Their sway lasted +until about 115 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when they were succeeded by the Himyarites. +During this period they were engaged in constant strife +with the neighbouring kingdoms of Hadramut and Katabania. +The great prosperity of south-west Arabia at this time was due +in large measure to the fact that the trade from India with Egypt +came there by sea and then went by land up the west coast. +This trade, however, was lost during this period, as the Ptolemies +established an overland route from India to Alexandria. The +connexion of Saba with the north, where the Nabataeans (<i>q.v.</i>) +had existed from about 200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, was now broken. The decay +that followed caused a number of Sabaeans to migrate to other +parts of Arabia.</p> + +<p>The Minaean kingdom extended over the south Arabian +Jauf, its chief cities being Karnau, Ma‛īn and Yathil. Some +twenty-five kings are known from the inscriptions; of these +twenty are known to be related to one another. Their history +must thus cover several centuries. As inscriptions in the Minaean +language are found in al-’Ula in north Arabia, it is probable that +they had colonies in that district. With regard to their date +opinion is very much divided; some, with E. Glaser and +F. Hommel, maintaining that their kingdom existed prior to +that of Saba, probably from about 1500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> or earlier until the +Sabaeans came from their home in the north and conquered +them in the 9th century. Other scholars think, with D.H. +Müller, partly on palaeographical grounds (cf. M. Lidzbarski’s +<i>Ephemeris</i>, vol. i. pp. 109 seq., Giessen, 1902), that none of the +inscriptions are earlier than about 800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and that the Minaean +kingdom existed side by side with the Sabaean. It is curious that +the Sabaean inscriptions contain no mention of the Minaeans, +though this may be due to the fact that very few of the inscriptions +are historical in content.</p> + +<p>About 115 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the power over south Arabia passed from the +Sabaeans to the Himyarites, a people from the extreme south-west +of Arabia; and about this time the kingdom of Katabania +came to an end. The title taken by the new rulers was “king of +Saba and Raidan.” Twenty-six kings of this period are known +from the inscriptions, some of which are dated. In this period +the Romans made their one attempt at direct interference in the +affairs of Arabia. The invasion under Aelius Gallus was an +absolute failure, the expedition being betrayed by the guides +and lost in the sands of the desert. During the latter part of +this time the Abyssinians, who had earlier migrated from Arabia +to the opposite coast of Africa, began to flow back to the south +of Arabia, where they seem to have settled gradually and +increased in importance until about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 300, when they became +strong enough to overturn the Himyarite kings and establish a +dynasty of their own. The title assumed by them was “king of +Saba, Raidān, Hadramut and Yemen.” The Himyarites were, +however, still active, and after a struggle succeeded in establishing +a Jewish Sabaean kingdom, having previously accepted +Judaism as their religion. Their best-known king was Dhu +Nuwas. The struggle between them and the Abyssinians now +became one of Judaism against Christianity. The persecution +of the Christians was very severe (see E. Glaser’s <i>Die Abyssinier +in Arabien und Afrika</i>, Munich, 1895, and F.M.E. Pereira’s +<i>Historia dos Martyres de Nagran</i>, Lisbon, 1899). Apparently for +this reason Christian Abyssinia was supported from Byzantium +in its attempts to regain power. These attempts were crowned +with success in 525. Of the Christian Abyssinian kings in Arabia +tradition tells of four, one only of whom is mentioned in inscriptions. +The famous expedition of Abraha, the Abyssinian viceroy, +against Mecca, took place in 570. Five years later the Persians, +who had been called in by the opponents of Christianity, succeeded +in taking over the rule and in appointing governors over +Yemen. (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethiopia</a></span>: <i>The Axumite Kingdom</i>.)</p> + +<p><i>Hira, Ghassān and Kinda.</i>—Before passing to the time of +Mahomet it is necessary to take account of three other Arabian +powers, those of Hira, Ghassan and Kinda.</p> + +<p>The kingdom of Hira (Ḥīra) was established in the boundary +land between the Euphrates and the Arabian desert, a district +renowned for its good air and extraordinary fertility. +The chief town was Hira, a few miles south of the site +<span class="sidenote">Hira.</span> +of the later town of Kufa. The inhabitants of this land are said +in Tabari’s history to have been of three classes:—(1) The +Tanukh (Tnuhs), who lived in tents and were made up of Arabs +from the Tehama and Nejd, who had united in Bahrein to form +a new tribe, and who migrated from there to Hīra, probably at +the beginning or middle of the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, when the +Arsacid power was growing weak. The Arabian historians relate +their conflict with Zenobia. (2) The ‛Ibād or ‛Ibādites, who +dwelt in the town of Hira in houses and so led a settled life. +These were Christians, whose ecclesiastical language was Syriac, +though the language of intercourse was Arabic. A Christian +bishop of Hira is known to have attended a synod in 410. In +the 5th century they became Nestorians. (3) Refugees of various +tribes, who came into the land but did not belong to the Tanukh +or the ‛Ibad. There is no trustworthy information as to the +earlier chiefs of this people. The dynasty of the Lakhmids, +famed in Arabian history and literature, arose towards the end +of the 3rd century and lasted until about 602. The names of +twenty kings are given by Hishām al-Kalbī in Ṭabari’s history. +Although so many of their subjects were Christian, the Lakhmids +remained heathen until Nu’mān, the last of the dynasty. The +kingdom of Hīra was never really independent, but always stood +in a relation of dependence on Persia, probably receiving pay +from it and employing Persian soldiers. At the height of its +power it was able to render valuable aid to its suzerain. Much +of its time was spent in wars with Rome and Ghassān. Its +revenues were derived from the Bedouins of the surrounding +lands as well as from its own subjects at home. About 602 the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id="page265"></a>265</span> +Lakhmid dynasty fell, and the Persian Chosroes (Khosrau) II. +appointed as governor an Arab of the tribe of Tāi. Shortly after +it came into relation with Islam.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:920px; height:692px" src="images/img264.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img264a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p class="pt2">See G. Rothstein’s <i>Die Dynastie der Lakhmiden in al-Hira</i> (Berlin, +1899); Th. Nöldeke’s <i>Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der +Sassaniden</i> (Leiden, 1879).</p> +</div> + +<p>In the beginning of the 6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> a dynasty known as +the Jafnids, enter into the history alike of the Roman and +Persian empires. They ruled over the tribe of Ghassān +in the extreme north-west of Arabia, east of the +<span class="sidenote">Ghassān.</span> +Jordan, from near Petra in the south to the neighbourhood of +Rosafa in the north-east. Of their origin little is known except +that they came from the south. A part of the same tribe inhabited +Yathrib (Medina) at the time of Mahomet. The first +certain prince of the Jafnid house was Harith ibn Jabala, who, +according to the chronicle of John Malalas, conquered Mondhir +(Mundhir) of Hira in 528. In the following year, according to +Procopius, Justinian perceived the value of the Ghassānids as an +outpost of the Roman empire, and as opponents of the Persian +dependants of Hīra, and recognized Hārith as king of the Arabs +and patrician of the Roman empire. He was thus constantly +engaged in battles against Hīra. In 541 he fought under Belisarius +in Mesopotamia. After his death about 569 or 570 the +friendly relations with the West continued, but about 583 there +was a breach. The Ghassanid kingdom split into sections each +with its own prince. Some passed under the sway of Persia, +others preserved their freedom at the expense of their neighbours. +At this point their history ceases to be mentioned in the Western +chronicles. There are references to the Ghassānid Nu’mān in the +poems of Nābigha. Arabian tradition tells of their prince +Jabala ibn Aiham who accepted Islam, after fighting against +it, but finding it too democratic, returned to Christianity and +exile in the Roman empire. As Islam advanced, some of the +Ghassānids retreated to Cappadocia, others accepted the new +faith.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Th. Nöldeke, <i>Die ghassanischen Fürsten aus dent Hause +Gafna’s</i> (Berlin, 1887).</p> +</div> + +<p>In the last decade of the 5th century a new power arose in +central Arabia. This was the tribe of Kinda under the sway of +the family of Aqil ul Murār, who came from the south. +They seem to have stood in much the same relation to +<span class="sidenote">Kinda.</span> +the rulers of Yemen, as the people of Hīra to the Persians and +the Ghassanids to Rome. Abraha in his invasion of the Hejaz +was accompanied by chiefs of Kinda. Details of their history +are not known, but they seem to have gained power at one time +even over the Lakhmids of Hīra; and to have ruled over +Bahrein as well as Yemama until the battle of Shi‛b ul Jabala, +when they lost this province to Hira. The poet Amru‛ul Qais +was a member of the princely family of Kinda.</p> + +<p>Outside the territory of the powers mentioned above, Arabia +in the 6th century was in a state of political chaos. Bahrein, +inhabited chiefly by the Bani‛Abd Qais and the Bani +Bakr, was largely subject to Persian influence near +<span class="sidenote">Other parts of Arabia.</span> +its coast, and a Persian governor, Sebocht, resided +in Hajar, its chief town. In Oman the Arabs, who +were chiefly engaged in fishing and seafaring, were Azdites +mixed with Persians. The ruling dynasty of Julanda in their +capital Suhar lasted on till the Abbasid period. No Persian +officials are mentioned in this country; whether Persians exercised +authority over it is doubtful. On the west coast of Arabia +the influence of the kingdom of Yemen was felt in varying degree +according to the strength of the rulers of that land. Apart from +this influence the Hejaz was simply a collection of cities each +with its own government, while outside the cities the various +tribes governed themselves and fought continual battles with +one another.</p> + +<p><i>Time of Mahomet.</i>—Thus at the time of Mahomet’s advent +the country was peopled by various tribes, some more or less +settled under the governments of south Arabia, Kinda, Hira and +Ghassan, these in turn depending on Abyssinia, Persia and +Rome (<i>i.e.</i> Byzantium); others as in the Hejaz were ruled in +smaller communities by members of leading families, while +in various parts of the peninsula were wandering Arabs still +maintaining the traditions of old family and tribal rule, forming +no state, sometimes passing, as suited them, under the influence +and protection of one or another of the greater powers. To these +may be added a certain number of Jewish tribes and families +deriving their origin partly from migrations from Palestine, +partly from converts among the Arabs themselves. Mahomet +appealed at once to religion and patriotism, or rather created a +feeling for both. For Mahomet as a religious teacher and for the +details of his career see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahomet</a></span>. It is enough here to outline +his actions in so far as he attempted to create a united, and then +a conquering, Arabia. Though the external conquests of the +Arabs belong more properly to the period of the caliphate, yet +they were the natural outcome of the prophet’s ideas. His idea +of Arabia for the Arabians could only be realized by summoning +the great kings of the surrounding nations to recognize Islam; +otherwise Abyssinia, Persia and Rome (Byzantium) would +continue their former endeavours to influence and control the +affairs of the peninsula. Tradition tells that a few years before +his death he did actually send letters to the emperor Heraclius, +to the negus of Abyssinia, the king of Persia, and Cyrus, patriarch +of Alexandria, the “Mukaukis” of Egypt, summoning them to +accept Islam and threatening them with punishment in case of +refusal. But the task of carrying out these threats fell to the lot +of his successors; the work of the prophet was to be the subjugating +and uniting of Arabia. This work, scarcely begun in Mecca, +was really started after the migration to Medina by the formation +of a party of men—the <i>Muhājirun</i> (Refugees or Emigrants) +and the <i>Ansār</i> (Helpers or Defenders)—who accepted Mahomet +as their religious leader. As the necessity of overcoming his +enemies became urgent, this party became military. A few +successes in battle attracted to him men who were interested in +fighting and who were willing to accept his religion as a condition +of membership of his party, which soon began to assume a +national form. Mahomet early found an excuse for attacking +the Jews, who were naturally in the way of his schemes. The +Bani Nadīr were expelled, the Bani Quraiza slaughtered. By the +time he had successfully stormed the rich Jewish town of Khaibar, +he had found that it was better to allow industrious Jews to +remain in Arabia as payers of tribute than to expel or kill them: +this policy he followed afterwards. The capture of Mecca (630) +was not only an evidence of his growing power, which induced +Arabs throughout the peninsula to join him, but gave him a valuable +centre of pilgrimage, in which he was able by a politic adoption +of some of the heathen Arabian ceremonies into his own rites to +win men over the more easily to his own cause. At his death in +623 Mahomet left Arabia practically unified. It is true that rival +prophets were leading rebellions in various parts of Arabia, +that the tax-collectors were not always paid, and that the +warriors of the land were much distressed for want of work +owing to the brotherhood of Arabs proclaimed by Mahomet. +The tribes were a seething mass of restlessness, their old feuds +ready to break out again. But they had realized that they had +common interests. The power of the foreigner in Arabia was +broken. Islam promised rich booty for those who fought and +won, paradise for those who fell.</p> + +<p><i>Early Caliphs</i>.<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> I. <i>Conquest.</i>—One task of the early caliphs +was to find an outlet for the restless fighting spirit. Abu Bekr +(632-634), the first of these caliphs, was a man of simple life and +profound faith. He understood the intention of Mahomet as to +foreign nations, and set himself resolutely to carry it out in the +face of much difficulty. Hence as soon as he assumed office he +sent out the army already chosen to advance against the Romans +in the north. The successful reduction of the rebels in Arabia +enabled him in his first year to send his great general Khālid +with his Arab warriors first against Persians, then against +Romans. His early death prevented him from seeing the fruits +of his policy. Under the second caliph Omar (634-644) the +Persians were defeated at Kadesiya (Kadessia), and Irak was +completely subdued and the new cities of Kufa and Basra were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page266" id="page266"></a>266</span> +founded (635). In the same year Damascus fell into the hands +of the Arabs under Abu ‛Ubaida. In 636 Jerusalem fell and +received a visit from the caliph. Three years later the fateful +step was taken of appointing Moawiya (Mu’awīyya) governor of +Syria. In 640 ‛Amr-ibn-el-Ass (Amr ibn al-‛Ās) invaded Egypt +and the following year took Alexandria and founded Fostat +(which later became Cairo). The victory at Nehavend in 641 +over the Persians, the flight of the last Sassanid king and the +capture of Rei or Rai (class. Rhagae) in 643 meant the entire +subjugation of Persia and crowned the conquests of Omar’s +caliphate. The reign of the third caliph Othman (644-656) was +marked by the beginning of that internal strife which was to +ruin Arabia; but the foreign conquests continued. In the north +the Moslem arms reached Armenia and Asia Minor; on the west +they were successful as far as Carthage on the north coast of +Africa. After the murder of Othman, ‛Ali (656-661) became +caliph, but Moawiya, governor of Syria, soon rebelled on the +pretext of avenging the death of Othman. After the battle of +Siffin (657) arbitration was resorted to for the settlement of the +rival claims. By a trick ‛Ali was deposed (658), and the Omayyad +dynasty was established with its capital at Damascus.</p> + +<p>During these early years the Arabs had not only made conquests +by land, but had found an outlet for their energy at sea. +In 640 Omar sent a fleet of boats across the Red Sea +to protect the Moslems on the Abyssinian coast. +<span class="sidenote">Institution of navy.</span> +The boats were wrecked. Omar was so terrified by +this that when Moawiya applied to him for permission to use +ships for an attack on the islands of the Levant, he resolutely +refused. Othman was less careful, and allowed a fleet from +Africa to help in the conquests of the Levant and Asia Minor. +In 649 he sanctioned the establishment of a maritime service, +on condition that it should be voluntary. Abu Qais, appointed +admiral, showed its usefulness by the capture of Cyprus. In 652 +Abu Sarh with a fleet from Egypt won a naval battle over the +Byzantine fleet near Alexandria.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Internal Affairs.</i>—In the meantime what had become of +Arabia and its unification? The first task of Abu Bekr had +been to reduce those rebels who threatened to destroy that unity +even before it was fully established. This he did by the aid of +the great general Khālid. First he swept down on the Bani +Hanīfa in Yemāma, who with their rival prophet Mosailama +(Mosailima) and 40,000 men were in arms. The battle of +Yemama (633) was fierce and decisive. Mosailama was slain. +The Bani Hanīfa returned to Islam. Bahrein was influenced by +this battle, and the rebellion there, which was threatening, was +crushed. Oman was reconquered by Huddhaifa, who became its +governor. Ikrima settled Māhra. Muhājir, with the help of +Ikrima, succeeded with difficulty, but thoroughly, in defeating +Amr ibn Ma’dikarib and Qais ibn ‛Abd Yaghūth in Yemen and +Ashath ibn Qais in Hadramut. The Hejaz and Tehama were +cleared of the plundering nomads by ‛Attāb and Ṭāhir. At the +end of the first year of his caliphate Abu Bekr saw Arabia united +under Islam. The new national feeling demanded that all +Arabs should be free men, so the caliph ordained that all Arab +slaves should be freed on easy terms. The solidarity of Arabia +survived the first foreign conquests. It was not intended that +Arabs should settle in the conquered lands except as armies of +occupation. Thus it was at first forbidden that Arabs should +buy or possess land in these countries. Kūfa was to be only a +military camp, as was Fostat in Egypt. The taxes with the booty +from conquests were to be sent to Arabia for distribution among +the Moslems. Omar tried to prevent the advance of conquests +lest Arabia should suffer. “I would rather the safety of my +people than thousands of spoil and further conquest.” But +men could not be prevented from pouring out from their homes +in search of new conquests and more booty. Many of those who +went forth did not return. They acquired property and rank in +the new lands. Kūfa attracted chiefly men of south Arabia, +Basra those of the north. Both became great cities, each with +a population of 150,000 to 200,000 Arabians. Yet so long as the +caliphs lived in Medina, the capital of Arabia was the capital +of the expanding Arabian empire. To it was brought a large +share of the booty. The caliphs were chosen there, and there the +rules for the administration were framed. Thence went out the +governors to their provinces. Omar was the great organizer +of Arabian affairs. He compiled the Koran, instituted the civil +list, regulated the military organization. He, too, desired that +Mahomet’s wish should be carried out and that Arabia should be +purely Moslem. To this end he expelled the Christians from +Nejrān and gave them lands in Syria and Irak, where they were +allowed to live in peace on payment of tribute. The Jews, too, +were shortly after expelled from Khaibar. The secondary position +that Arabia was beginning to assume in the Arabian empire +is clearly marked in the progress of events during the caliphate +of Othman. In his appointments to governorships and other +offices, as well as in his distribution of spoil, Othman showed a +marked preference for the members of his own tribe the Koreish +(Quraish) and the members of his own family the Bani Omayya +(Umayya). The other Arab tribes became increasingly jealous +of the Koreish, while among the Koreish themselves the Hāshimite +family came to hate the Omayyad, which now had much +power, although it had been among the last to accept Islam and +never was very strict in its religious duties. But the quarrels +which led to the murder of Othmān were fomented not so much +in Arabia as in Kūfa and Baṣra and Fostat. In these cities the +rival parties were composed of the most energetic fighting men, +who were brought into the most intimate contact with one +another, and who kept up their quarrels from the home land. +In Kūfa a number of the Koreish had settled, and their arrogance +became insupportable. The governors of all these towns were of +Othman’s own family. After some years of growing dissatisfaction +deputies from these places came to Medina, and the result +was the murder of the caliph. Syria alone remained loyal to the +house of Omayya, and Othmān had been advised to take refuge +there, but had refused. Arabia itself counted for little in the +strife. Yet its prestige was not altogether lost. After the +murder the rebels were unwilling to return home until a new +caliph had been chosen in the capital. The Egyptian rebels +managed to gain most influence, and, in accordance with their +desire, ‛Alī was appointed caliph by the citizens of Medina. +But Medina itself was being corrupted by the constant influx of +captives, who, employed at first as servants, soon became +powerful enough to dictate to their masters. In the struggle that +ensued upon the election of ‛Alī, Arabia was involved. Ayesha, +Ṭalḥa and Zobair, who were strong in Mecca, succeeded in +obtaining possession of Baṣra, but were defeated in 656 at the +battle of the Camel (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ali</a></span>). In the south of Arabia ‛Alī succeeded +in establishing his own governor in Yemen, though the +government treasure was carried off to Mecca. But the centre +of strife was not to be Arabia. When ‛Alī left Medina to secure +Basra, he abandoned it as the capital of the Arabian empire. +With the success of Moawiya Damascus became the capital of +the caliphate (658) and Arabia became a mere province, though +always of importance because of its possession of the two sacred +cities Mecca and Medina. Both these cities were secured by +Moawiya in 660, and at the same time Yemen was punished for +its adherence to ‛Alī. The final blow to any political pretensions +of Medina was dealt by the caliph when he had his son Yazīd +declared as his successor, thus taking away any claim on the +part of the citizens of Medina to elect to the caliphate.</p> + +<p><i>The Omayyads.</i>—The early years of the Omayyads were years +of constant strife in Arabia. The Kharijites who had opposed +‛Alī on the ground that he had no right to allow the appeal to +arbitration, were defeated at Nahrawān or Nahrwān (658), but +those who escaped became fierce propagandists against the +Koreish, some claiming that the caliph should be chosen by the +Faithful from any tribe of the Arabs, some that there should +be no caliph at all, that God alone was their ruler and that the +government should be carried on by a council. They broke up +into many sects, and were long a disturbing political force in +Arabia as elsewhere. On the death of ‛Alī his house was represented +by his two sons Ḥasan and Ḥosain (Ḥusain). Ḥasan +soon made peace with Moawiya. On the accession of Yazid, +Ḥosain refused homage and raised an army, but was slain at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page267" id="page267"></a>267</span> +Kerbela (680). ‛Ābdallah ibn Zobair (of the house of Hashim) +immediately stepped forward in Mecca as the avenger of ‛Alī’s +family and the champion of religion. The two sacred cities +supported him. Medina was besieged and sacked by the troops +of Yazīd (682) and Mecca was besieged the following year. The +siege was raised in the third month on the news of the death of +Yazīd, but not before the Ka‛ba had been destroyed. ‛Ābdallah +remained in Mecca recognized as caliph in Arabia, and soon +after in Egypt and even a part of Syria. He defeated the troops +of Merwān I., but could not win the support of the Khārijites. +In 691 Abdalmalik (‛Abdul-Malik) determined to crush his +rival and sent his general Hajjāj against Mecca. The siege was +begun in March 692, and in October the city was taken and +‛Ābdallah slain. Abdalmalik was now supreme in Arabia and +throughout the Moslem world. During the remaining years +of the Omayyad dynasty (<i>i.e.</i> until 750) little is heard of Arabia +in history. The conquests of Islam in Spain on the one side +and India on the other had little or no effect on it. It was merely +a province.</p> + +<p><i>The ‛Abbāsids.</i>—The accession of Abul ‛Abbās (of the house +of Hāshim) and the transference of the capital of the caliphate +from Damascus to Kūfa, then Anbar and soon after (in 760) +to Bagdad meant still further degradation to Arabia and Arabs. +From the beginning the ‛Abbāsids depended for help on Persians +and Turks, and the chief offices of state were frequently filled +with foreigners. In one thing only the Arabs conquered to the +end; that was in their language. The study of Arabic was taken +up by lexicographers, grammarians and poets (mostly of foreign +origin) with a zeal rarely shown elsewhere. The old Arabian +war spirit was dying. Although the Arabians, as a rule, were in +favour of the Omayyad family, they could not affect the succession +of the ‛Abbāsids. They returned more and more to their +old inter-tribal disputes. They formed now not only a mere +branch of the empire of the caliphate, but a branch deriving +little life from and giving less to the main stock. In 762 there +was a rebellion in favour of a descendant of ‛Alī, but it was put +down with great severity by the army of the caliph Manṣūr. +A more local ‛Alyite revolt in Mecca and Medina was crushed +in 785. In the contest between the two sons of Harūn al Rashīd +all Arabia sided with Mamūn (812). In 845-846 the lawless +raids of Bedouin tribes compelled the caliph Wāthiq to send +his Turkish general Bogha, who was more successful in the north +than in the centre and south of Arabia in restoring peace.</p> + +<p><i>The Carmathians.</i>—Towards the close of the 9th century +Arabia was disturbed by the rise of a new movement which during +the next hundred years dominated the peninsula, and at its +close left it shattered never to be united again. In the year +880 Yemen was listening to the propaganda of the new sect of +the Carmathians (<i>q.v.</i>) or followers of Hamdān Qarmaṭ. Four +years later these had become a public force. In 900 ‛Abū Sa‛id +al-Jannābi, who had been sent to Bahrein by Hamdān, had secured +a large part of this province and had won the city of Kaṭif (Ketif) +which contained many Jews and Persians. The Arabs who +lived more inland were mostly Bedouin who found the obligations +of Islam irksome, and do not seem to have made a very vigorous +opposition to the Carmathians who took Hajar the capital of +Bahrein in 903. From this they made successful attacks on +Yemāma (Yamama), and attempts only partially successful +at first at Oman. In 906 the court at Bagdad learned that +these sectaries had gained almost all Yemen and were threatening +Mecca and Medina. Abū Sa‛īd was assassinated (913) in his +palace at Laḥsa (which in 926 was fortified and became the +Carmathian capital of Bahrein). His son Sa‛īd succeeded him, +but proved too weak and was deposed and succeeded by his +brother Abu Ṭāhir. His success was constant and the caliphate +was brought very low by him. In Arabia he subjugated Oman, +and swooping down on the west in 929 he horrified the Moslem +world by capturing Mecca and carrying off the sacred black +stone to Bahrein. The Fatimite caliph ‛Obaidallah (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fatimites</a></span>), +to whom Abu Tahir professed allegiance, publicly wrote +to him to restore the stone, but there is some reason to believe +that he secretly encouraged him to retain it. In 939, however, +the stone was restored and pilgrimages to the holy cities were +allowed to pass unmolested on payment of a tax. So long as +Abū Ṭāhir lived the Carmathians controlled Arabia. After +his death, however, they quarrelled with the Fatimite rulers +of Egypt (969) and began to lose their influence. In 985 they +were completely defeated in Irak, and soon after lost control +of the pilgrimages. Oman recovered its independence. Three +years later Kaṭīf, at that time their chief city, was besieged +and taken by a Bedouin sheik, and subsequently their political +power in Arabia came to an end. It was significant that their +power fell into the hands of Bedouins. Arabia was now completely +disorganized, and was only nominally subject to the +caliphate. The attempt of Mahomet to unify Arabia had +failed. The country was once more split up into small governments, +more or less independent, and groups of wandering tribes +carrying on their petty feuds. Of the history of these during +the next few centuries little is known, except in the case of the +Hejaz. Here the presence of the sacred cities led writers to +record their annals (cf. F. Wüstenfeld’s <i>Die Chroniken der +Stadt Mekka</i>, 4 vols., Leipzig, 1857-1861). The two cities were +governed by Arabian nobles (<i>sherīfs</i>), often at feud with one +another, recognizing formally the overlordship of the caliph +at Bagdad or the caliph of Egypt. Thus in 966 the name of the +caliph Moti was banished from the prayers at Mecca, and an +‛Alyite took possession of the government of the city and recognized +the Egyptian caliph as his master. About a century later +(1075-1094) the ‛Abbāsid caliph was again recognized as spiritual +head owing to the success in arms of his protector, the Seljuk +Malik-Shah. With the fall of the Bagdad caliphate all attempts +at control from that quarter came to an end. After the visit of +the Sultaft Bibars (1269) Mecca was governed by an amir dependent +on Egypt. Outside the two cities anarchy prevailed, +and the pilgrimage was frequently unsafe owing to marauding +Bedouins. In 1517 the Osmānlī Turkish sultan Selim conquered +Egypt, and having received the right of succession to the caliphate +was solemnly presented by the sherīf of Mecca with the keys of +the city, and recognized as the spiritual head of Islam and ruler +of the Hejaz. At the same time Yemen, which since the 9th +century had been in the power of a number of small dynasties +ruling in Zubed, San‛ā, Sa‛da and Aden, passed into the hands +of the Turk.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the history of Yemen during this period cf. H.C. Kay, +<i>Omarah’s History of Yaman</i> (London, 1892), and S. Lane-Poole, +<i>The Mahommedan Dynasties</i>, pp. 87-103 (Westminster, 1894). +Little more than a century later (1630), a Yemen noble Khāṣim +succeeded in expelling the Turk and establishing a native imāmate, +which lasted until 1871. For descriptions of it in the 18th century +cf. C. Niebuhr’s accounts of his travels in Arabia in 1761.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Oman.</i>—Since the separation from the caliphate (before +1000 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>) Oman had remained independent. For more than +a century it was governed by five elected imāms, who were +chosen from the tribe of al-Azd and generally lived at Nizwa. +After them the Bani Nebhān gained the upper hand and established +a succession of kings (<i>māliks</i>) who governed from 1154 +to 1406. During this time the country was twice invaded by +Persians. The “kings of Hormūz” claimed authority over the +coast land until the beginning of the 16th century. In 1435 +the people rose against the tyranny of the Bani Nebhan and +restored the imamate of the tribe al-Azd. In 1508 the Portuguese +under Albuquerque seized most of the east coast of Oman. +In 1624 a new dynasty arose in the interior, when Nāṣir ibn +Murshid of the Yariba (Ya‛aruba) tribe (originally from Yemen) +was elected imām and established his capital at Rustak. He +was able to subdue the petty princes of the country, and the +Portuguese were compelled to give up several towns and pay +tribute for their residence at Muscat. About 1651 the Portuguese +were finally expelled from this city, and about 1698 from the +Omanite settlements on the east coast of Africa.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the history of Oman from 661 to 1856 cf. G.P. Badger, +<i>History of the Imāms and Seyyids of Oman by Salil-ibn-Razik</i> (London, +Hakluyt Society, 1871).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div> + +<p><i>Wahhābi Movement.</i>—Modern Arabian history begins with +that of the Wahhabi movement in the middle of the 18th century. +Its originator, Mahommed Ibn Abdul Wahhāb, was born (1691) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page268" id="page268"></a>268</span> +at Ayana in Nejd, and after studying in Basra and Damascus, +and making the pilgrimage to Mecca returned to his native +country and settled down at Huremala near Deraiya. The abuses +and corruptions which had overgrown the practice of orthodox +Islam had deeply impressed him, and he set to work to combat +them, and to inculcate on all good Moslems a return to the +pure simplicity of their original faith. In 1742 Mahommed +Ibn Saud, sheik of Deraiya, accepted his doctrines, and enforced +them by his sword with such effect that before his death in 1765 +the whole of eastern Nejd and El Hasa was converted to the +faith of Abdul Wahhab, and accepted the political supremacy +of Ibn Saūd. His son and successor, Abdul Aziz, in a rapid +series of successful campaigns, extended his dominion and that +of the reformed faith far beyond the limits of Nejd. His attacks +on the pilgrim caravans, begun in 1783 and constantly repeated, +startled the Mahommedan world,<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and compelled the attention +of the sultan, as the nominal protector of the faithful. In 1798 +a Turkish force was sent from Bagdad into El Hasa, but was +compelled to retreat without accomplishing anything, and its +discomfiture added much to the renown of the Wahhābi power. +In 1801 Saud, son of the amir Abdul Aziz, led an expedition to +the Euphrates, and on the festival of Bairam, the 20th of April, +stormed Kerbela, put the defenders to the sword, destroyed the +sacred tomb, scattered the sacred relics and returned laden with +the treasures, accumulated during centuries in the sanctuary +of the Shiā faith. Mecca itself was taken; plundering was forbidden, +but the tombs of the saints and all objects of veneration +were ruthlessly destroyed, and all ceremonies which seemed in +the eye of the stern puritan conqueror to suggest the taint of +idolatry were forbidden.</p> + +<p>On the 14th of October 1802 the amir Abdul Aziz, at the age of +eighty-two years, was murdered by a Shiā fanatic when at prayers +in the mosque of Deraiya, and Saūd, who had for many years +led the Wahhābi armies, became the reigning amir. In 1804 +Medina was taken and with its fall all resistance ceased. The +Wahhabi empire had now attained its zenith, a settled government +was established able to enforce law and order in the desert +and in the towns, and a spirit of Arabian nationality had grown +up which bade fair to extend the Wahhābi dominion over all +the Arab race. It already, however, bore within it the germ of +decay; the accumulation of treasure in the capital had led to a +corruption of the simple manners of the earlier times; the +exhaustion of the tribes through the heavy blood tax had roused +discontent among them; the plundering of the holy places, +the attacks on the pilgrim caravans under the escort of Turkish +soldiers, and finally, in 1810, the desecration of the tomb of +Mahomet and the removal of its costly treasures, raised a cry +of dismay throughout the Mahommedan world, and made it +clear even to the Turkish sultan that unless the Wahhābi +power were crushed his claims to the caliphate were at an +end.</p> + +<p>But Turkey was herself fully occupied by affairs in Europe, +and to Mehemet Ali, then pasha of Egypt, was deputed the task +of bringing the Wahhābis into subjection. In October 1811 an +expedition consisting of 10,000 men under Tusun Pasha, the +pasha’s son, a youth of sixteen, landed in Hejaz without opposition. +Saūd with his main forces had started northwards to +attack Bagdad, but returning at once he met and defeated +Tusun with great loss and compelled him to retire. Medina +and subsequently Mecca were eventually taken by the Egyptians, +but in spite of continual reinforcements they could do little +more than hold their own in Hejaz. In 1813 Mehemet Ali was +compelled to take the field himself with fresh troops, but was +unable to achieve any decisive success, and in 1814 Tusun was +again defeated beyond Taif. In May 1814 Saud died, and his +son, Ābdallah, attempted to negotiate, but Mehemet Ali refused all +overtures, and in January 1815 advanced into Nejd, defeated the +Wahhābi army and occupied Ras, then the chief town in Kasim. +Terms of peace were made, but on the retirement of the Egyptians +Ābdallah refused to carry out the conditions agreed on, which +included the return of the jewels plundered by his father, and +another campaign had to be fought before his submission was +obtained. Ibrahim Pasha replaced Tusun in command, and on +reaching Arabia in September 1816 his first aim was to gain +over the great Bedouin tribes holding the roads between Hejaz +and his objective in Nejd; having thus secured his line of advance +he pushed on boldly and defeated Abdallah at Wiya, where he +put to death all prisoners taken; thence rapidly advancing, +with contingents of the friendly Harb and Muter tribes in +support of his regular troops, he laid siege to Ras; this place, +however, held out and after a four months’ siege he was compelled +to give up the attack. Leaving it on one side he pushed +on eastwards, took Aneza after six days’ bombardment and +occupied Bureda. Here he waited two months for reinforcements, +and with his Bedouin contingent, strengthened by the +adhesion of the Āteba and Bani Khālid tribes, advanced on +Shakra in Wushm, which fell in January 1818 after a regular +siege. After destroying Huremala and massacring its inhabitants, +he arrived before Deraiya on the 14th of April 1818. +For six months the siege went on with varying fortune, but at +last the courage and determination of Ibrahim triumphed, +and on the 9th of September, after a heroic resistance, Ābdallah, +with a remnant of four hundred men, was compelled to surrender. +The Wahhābi leader was soon after sent to Constantinople, +where, in spite of Mehemet Ali’s intercession, he and the companions +who had followed him in his captivity were condemned +to death, and after being paraded through the city with ignominy +for three days were finally beheaded.</p> + +<p>Deraiya was razed to the ground and the principal towns of +Nejd were compelled to admit Egyptian garrisons; but though +the Arabs saw themselves powerless to stand before disciplined +troops, the Egyptians, on the other hand, had to confess that +without useless sacrifices they could not retain their hold on the +interior.</p> + +<p>In 1824 Turki, son of the unfortunate Ābdallah, headed a +rising which resulted in the re-establishment of the Wahhābi +state with Riad as its new capital; and during the next ten years +he consolidated his power, paying tribute to and under the +nominal suzerainty of Egypt till his murder in 1834. His son, +Fesal, succeeded him, but in 1836 on his refusal to pay tribute +an Egyptian force was sent to depose him and he was taken +prisoner and sent to Cairo, while a rival claimant, Khalid, was +established as amir in Riad. Mehemet Ali and his son Ibrahim +Pasha were, however, now committed to their conflict with +Turkey for Syria and Asia Minor, and had no troops to spare +for the thankless task of holding the Arabian deserts; the +garrisons were gradually withdrawn, and in 1842 Fēsal, who +had escaped from his prison at Cairo reappeared and was everywhere +recognized as amir. The few remaining Egyptian troops +were ejected from Riad, and with them all semblance of Egyptian +or Turkish rule disappeared from central Arabia.</p> + +<p>For a time it looked as if the supremacy of the Wahhābi +empire was to be renewed; El Hasa, Harik, Kasim and Asir +returned to their allegiance, but over Oman and Yemen Fēsal +never re-established his dominion, and the Bahrein sheiks +with British support kept their independence.</p> + +<p>A rival state had, however, arisen, under Ābdallah Ibn Rashid +in Jebel Shammar. Driven into exile owing to a feud between +his family and the Ibn Āli, the leading family of the +Shammar, Ābdallah came to Riad in 1830, and was +<span class="sidenote">Ibn Rashid.</span> +favourably received by the amir Turki. In 1834 he +was with Fēsal on an expedition against El Hasa when news came +of the amir’s murder by his cousin Mashārah. By Ābdallah’s +advice the expedition was abandoned; Fēsal hastened back +with all his forces to Riad, and invested the citadel where +Masharah had taken refuge, but failed to gain possession of it, +until Ābdallah with two companions found his way into the +palace, killed Mashārah, and placed Fēsal on the throne of his +father. As a reward for his services Ābdallah was appointed +governor of Jebel Shammar, and had already established himself +in Hail when the Egyptian expedition of 1836 removed Fēsal +temporarily from Nejd. During the exile of the latter he steadily +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page269" id="page269"></a>269</span> +consolidated his power, extending his influence more especially +over the desert tribes, till on Fēsal’s return in 1842 he had +created a state subject only in name to that of which Riad was +the capital.</p> + +<p>On the death of Ābdallah in 1843, his son Talāl succeeded. +He set himself to work to establish law and order throughout +the state, to arrange its finances, and to encourage the settlement +in Hail of artificers and merchants from abroad; the building +of the citadel and palace commenced by Mehemet Ali, and +continued by Ābdallah Ibn Rashid, was completed by Talāl. The +town walls were strengthened, new wells dug, gardens planted, +mosques and schools built. His uncle Obed, to whom equally +with Ābdallah is due the foundation of the Ibn Rashid dynasty, +laboured to extend the Shammar boundaries. Khaibar, Tema +and Jauf became tributary to Hail.</p> + +<p>Though tolerant in religion Talāl was careful to avoid the +suspicion of lukewarmness towards the Wahhābi formulas. +Luxury in clothing and the use of tobacco were prohibited; +attendance at the mosque was enforced: any doubt as to his +orthodoxy was silenced by the amount and regularity of the +tribute sent by him to Riad. Equally guarded was his attitude +to the Turkish authorities; it is not improbable that Talal had +also entered into relations with the viceroy of Egypt to ensure +his position in case of a collision with the Porte. During his +twenty years’ reign Jebel Shammar became a model state, where +justice and security ruled in a manner before unheard of. Fēsal +may well have watched with jealous anxiety the growing strength +of his neighbour’s state as compared with his own, where all +progress was arrested by the deadening tyranny of religious +fanaticism.</p> + +<p>On the 11th of March 1868 Talāl, smitten with an incurable +malady, fell by his own hand and was succeeded by his brother +Matāb; after a brief reign he was murdered by his +nephews, the elder of whom, Bandar, became amir. +<span class="sidenote">The amir Mahommed.</span> +Mahommed, the third son of the amir Ābdallah, was at +the time absent; with a view of getting his uncle into +his power, Bandar invited him to return to Hail, and on his arrival +went out to meet him accompanied by Hamud, son of Obed, and +a small following. Warned by a hurried sign by Hamud that his +life was in danger, Mahommed at once attacked Bandar, stabbed +him and took possession of the citadel; a general massacre of +all members of the house of Ibn Rashid followed, and next day +Mahommed appeared with his cousin Hamud in the market-place +of Hail, and announced his assumption of the amirship. A +strong and capable ruler, he soon established his authority over +all northern and western Nejd, and in 1872 the opportunity +arrived for his intervention in the east. In that year Abdallah, +who had succeeded Fēsal in Riad in 1867, was deposed, but with +the assistance of Mahommed was reinstated; two years later, +however, he was again deposed and forced to seek refuge at Hail, +from which place he appealed for assistance to the Turkish +authorities at Bagdad. Midhat Pasha, then governor-general, +seized the occasion of asserting Turkish dominion on the Persian +Gulf coast, and in 1875, in spite of British protests, occupied +El Hasa and established a new province under the title of Nejd, +with its headquarters at Hofuf, of which Ābdallah was appointed +governor. This was an event of some importance, as it constituted +the first Turkish claim to the sovereignty over Nejd +abandoned by Egypt thirty-three years earlier. The Turks did +not support their client by advancing into Nejd itself, and he +and his rivals were left to fight out their battles among +themselves. Turkey was indeed too much occupied by the war +with Russia to pay much attention to Arab affairs, though +a few years later she attempted to occupy Bahrein by a +<i>coup de main</i>, which was only frustrated by the action of a +British gunboat.</p> + +<p>Owing to the dissensions among the ruling family of Riad, +the towns of eastern Nejd gradually reverted to their former +condition of independence, but menaced in turn by the growing +power of Hail, they formed a coalition under the leadership of +Zāmil, sheik of Aneza, and in the spring of 1891, Aneza, Bureda, +Shakra, Ras and Riad assembled their contingents to contest +with Ibn Rashid the supremacy in Nejd. The latter had besides +20,000 of his own south Shammar tribesmen, the whole strength +of the Harb Bedouins, some 10,000 men, and an additional +support of 1000 mounted men from his kinsmen, the northern +Shammar from the Euphrates, while the Muter and Āteba tribes +took part with the allies. The total strength of each side +amounted to about 30,000 men. Zāmil’s forces held a strong +position between Aneza and Bureda, and for over a month +desultory fighting went on; finally an attack was made against +the defenders’ centre, covered by 20,000 camel riders; the men +of Aneza broke and the whole allied forces fled in disorder; Zamil +and his eldest son were killed, as were also two of the Ibn Saud +family, while the remainder were taken prisoners. Aneza and +Bureda surrendered the same day, and shortly after Ras, Shakra +and Riad tendered their submission.</p> + +<p>This victory placed the whole of northern and central Arabia +under the supremacy of Mahommed Ibn Rashid, which he held +undisputed during the rest of his life.</p> + +<p>On his death in 1897 his nephew Abdul-Aziz, son of the +murdered amir Matab, succeeded; during his reign a new +element has been introduced into Nejd politics by the +rising importance of Kuwet (Koweit) and the attempts +<span class="sidenote">Recent history.</span> +of Turkey to obtain possession of its important harbour. +In 1901 a quarrel arose between Sheik Mubārak of Kuwet and +the amir of Hail whose cause was supported by Turkey. A force +was equipped at Basra under Ahmad Feizi Pasha with the +intention of occupying Kuwet; Mubārak thereupon appealed to +Great Britain and action was taken which prevented the Turkish +designs from being carried out. Kuwet was not formally placed +under British protection, but it was officially announced by the +government on the 5th of May 1903 “that the establishment of a +naval base or fortified port in the Persian Gulf by any other +power would be regarded as a very grave menace to British +interests which would certainly be resisted with all the means at +its disposal.”</p> + +<p>In the meantime Sheik Mubārak had found useful allies in +the Muntafik Arabs from the lower Euphrates, and the Wahhābis +of Riad; the latter under the amir Ibn Saūd marched against +Ibn Rashid, who at the instigation of the Porte had again +threatened Kuwet (Koweit), compelled him to retire to his own +territory and took possession of the towns of Bureda and Aneza. +Sheik Mubārak and his allies continued their advance, defeated +Ibn Rashid in two engagements on the 22nd of July and the 26th +of September 1904, and drove him back on his capital, Hail. +The Porte now made another effort to assist its protégé; two +columns were despatched from Medina and Basra respectively, +to relieve Hail, and drive out the Wahhabis. Ahmad Feizi Pasha, +in command of the Basra column, 4200 strong, crossed the +desert and reached the wells of Lina, 200 m. from Hail, on the +5th of March 1905; here, however, he received orders to halt and +negotiate before proceeding farther. The Turkish government +realized by this time the strength of the hostile combination, +and in view of the serious state of affairs in Yemen, hesitated to +undertake another campaign in the deserts of Nejd. Arrangements +were accordingly made with the Wahhābis, and on the +10th of April Ahmad Feizi Pasha left Lina, ostensibly with the +object of protecting the pilgrim road, and joined the Medina +column by the end of the month. Bureda and Aneza were +occupied without opposition, the rebellious sheiks amnestied by +the sultan and loaded with gifts, and formal peace was made +between the rival factions.</p> + +<p>European influence was not felt in Arabia until the arrival +of the Portuguese in the eastern seas, following on the discovery +of the Cape route. In 1506 Hormuz was taken by +Albuquerque, and Muscat and the coast of Oman (<i>q.v.</i>) +<span class="sidenote">History of European influence.</span> +were occupied by the Portuguese till 1650. In 1516 +their fleets appeared in the Red Sea and an unsuccessful +attempt was made against Jidda; but the effective occupation +of Yemen by the Turks in the next few years frustrated any +designs the Portuguese may have had in S.W. Arabia. Even in +Oman their hold on the country was limited to Muscat and the +adjacent ports, while the interior was ruled by the old Yāriba +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page270" id="page270"></a>270</span> +(Ya-‛aruba) dynasty from their capital at Rustak. The Persian +occupation, which followed that of the Portuguese, came to an +end in the middle of the 18th century, when Ahmad Ibn Said +expelled the invaders and in 1759 established the Ghafari +dynasty which still reigns in Oman. He was succeeded by his +son, who in 1798 made a treaty with the East India Company with +the object of excluding the French from Oman, and the connexion +<span class="sidenote">British intervention in Oman.</span> +with Great Britain was further strengthened during +the long reign of his grandson Sultan Sāid, 1804-1856. +During the earlier years of his reign he was constantly +at war with the Wahhābi empire, to which Oman +became for a time tributary. The piracies committed by the +Jawasimi Arabs in the gulf compelled the intervention of England, +and in 1810 their strongholds were destroyed by a British-Indian +expedition. The overthrow of the Wahhabis in 1817 restored +Sultan Said to independence; he equipped and armed on +Western models a fleet built in Indian ports, and took possession +of Sokotra and Zanzibar, as well as the Persian coast north of +the straits of Hormuz as far east as Gwadur, while by his liberal +policy at home Sohar, Barka and Muscat became prosperous +commercial ports.</p> + +<p>On his death in 1856 the kingdom was divided, Majīd, a +younger son, taking Zanzibar, while the two elder sons contested +the succession to Oman. The eldest, Thuwēni, with British +support, finally obtained the throne, and in 1862 an engagement +was entered into by the French and English governments respecting +the independence of the sultans of Oman. He was +assassinated in 1866, and his successor, Seyyid Turki, reigned +till 1888. On his death several claimants disputed the succession; +ultimately his son Fēsal was recognized by the British government, +and was granted a subsidy from British-Indian revenues, +in consideration of which he engaged not to cede any of his +territory without the consent of the British government; similar +engagements have been entered into by the tribes who occupy +the south coast from the borders of Oman westward to the +straits of Bab-el-Mandeb.</p> + +<p>The opening of the overland route to India again brought +the west coast of Arabia into importance. Aden was occupied +by the British in 1839. The Hejaz coast and some +of the Yemen ports were still held by Mehemet Ali, +<span class="sidenote">British sphere of influence.</span> +as viceroy of Egypt, but on his final withdrawal from +Arabia in 1845, Hejaz came under direct Turkish rule, +and the conquest of Yemen in 1872 placed the whole Red Sea +littoral (with the exception of the Midian coast, ceded by Egypt +on the accession of Abbas Hilmi Pasha) under Ottoman administration. +The island of Perim at the southern entrance of the Red Sea +has been a British possession since 1857, while the promontory +of Shekh Said on the Arabian side of the strait is in Turkish +occupation. In order to define the limits between Turkish +territory and that of the independent Arab tribes in political +relations with Great Britain, a joint commission of British and +Turkish officers in 1902-1905 laid down a boundary line from +Shekh Said to a point on the river Bana, 12 m. north-east of the +small town of Kataba, from which it is continued in a north-easterly +direction up to the great desert. This delimitation +places the whole of southern Arabia, east of this line, within the +British sphere of influence, which thus includes the district +surrounding Aden (<i>q.v.</i>), the Hadramut and Oman with its +dependencies.</p> + +<p>The provinces of Hejaz and Yemen are each administered by +a Turkish governor-general, with headquarters at Taif and Sana +respectively; the country is nominally divided up +into divisions and districts under minor officials, but +<span class="sidenote">Turkish rule.</span> +Turkish rule has never been acquiesced in by the +inhabitants, and beyond the larger towns, all of which are held +by strong garrisons, Turkish authority hardly exists. The +powerful Bedouin tribes of Hejaz have always asserted their +independence, and are only kept quiet by the large money +payments made them by the sultan on the occasion of the +annual pilgrimage to the holy cities. A large part of Asir +and northern Yemen has never been visited by Turkish +troops, and such revenues as are collected, mainly from +vexatious customs and transit duties, are quite insufficient +to meet the salaries of the officials, while the troops, ill-fed +and their pay indefinitely in arrears, live on the country as +best they can.</p> + +<p>A serious revolt broke out in Yemen in 1892. A Turkish +detachment collecting taxes in the Bani Merwan lands north +of Hodeda was destroyed by a body of Arabs. This +reverse set all Yemen aflame; under the leadership +<span class="sidenote">Yemen revolt.</span> +of the imam, who had, since the Turkish occupation, +lived in retirement at Sada, 120 m. north of the capital, the powerful +tribes between Asir and Sana advanced southwards, occupied +the principal towns and besieged the few Turkish fortified posts +that still held out. In many cases the garrisons, Arab troops +from Syria, went over to the insurgents. Meanwhile, reinforcements +under General Ahmad Feizi Pasha reached Hodeda, +Manakha was retaken, Sana relieved, and by the end of January +1893 the country with the exception of the northern mountainous +districts was reconquered.</p> + +<p>A state of intermittent rebellion, however, continued, and in +1904 a general revolt took place with which the normal garrison +of Yemen, the 7th army corps, was quite unable to cope. The +military posts were everywhere besieged, and Sana, the capital, +was cut off from all communication with the coast. During +February 1905 reinforcements were sent up which raised the +garrison of Sana to a strength of eight battalions, and in March +a further reinforcement of about the same strength arrived, +and fought its way into the capital with the loss of almost all +its guns and train. The position was then desperate, wholesale +desertion and starvation had decimated the garrison, and three +weeks later Ali Riza Pasha, the Turkish commander, was compelled +to surrender. The fall of Sana made a deep impression +at Constantinople, every effort was made to hasten out reinforcements, +the veteran Ahmad Feizi Pasha was nominated to the +supreme command, and Anatolian troops in place of the unreliable +Syrian element were detailed. The scale of the operations +may be judged from the fact that the total number of troops +mobilized up to the beginning of July 1905 amounted to 126 +battalions, 8 squadrons and 15 batteries; the rebel leader +Mahommed Yahiya had at this time a following of 50,000.</p> + +<p>By the end of June, Ahmad Feizi Pasha was in a position to +advance on Manakha, where he organized an efficient transport, +rallied the scattered remnants of Ali Riza’s army, and with the +newly arrived troops had by the middle of July a force of some +40 battalions available for the advance on Sana. He left +Manakha on the 17th of July, and after almost daily fighting +reached Sana on the 30th of August; on the 31st he entered +the city without serious opposition, the insurgents having +retreated northward.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—D.G. Hogarth, <i>Penetration of Arabia</i> (London, +1904); C. Niebuhr, <i>Travels and Description of Arabia</i> (Amsterdam, +1774); A. Zehme, <i>Arabien und die Araber seit Hundert Jahren</i> (Halle, +1875); J.L. Burckhardt, <i>Travels in Arabia</i> (London, 1829); R.F. +Burton, <i>Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Meccah</i> (London, 1855), +<i>Midian revisited</i> (1879); W.G. Palgrave, <i>Central and Eastern +Arabia</i> (London, 1865); C. Doughty, <i>Arabia Deserta</i> (Cambridge, +1888), and an abridgment, containing mainly the personal narrative, +under the title of <i>Wanderings in Arabia</i> (London, 1908); +L. van den Berg, <i>Le Hadramut et les colonies arabes</i>, &c. (Batavia, +1885); C. Huber, <i>Journal d’un voyage en Arabie</i> (Paris, 1891); +J. Euting, <i>Reise in inner Arabien</i> (Leiden, 1896); E. Nolde, <i>Reise +nach inner Arabien</i> (Brunswick, 1895); L. Hirsch, <i>Reise in Sud +Arabien</i> (Leiden, 1897); J.T. Bent, <i>Southern Arabia</i> (1895); +R. Manzoni, <i>Il Yemen</i> (Rome, 1884); A. Deflers, <i>Voyage en Yémen</i> +(Paris, 1889); J. Halévy, <i>Journal Asiatique</i> (1872); Lady Anne +Blunt, <i>Pilgrimage to Nejd</i> (London, 1881); E. Glaser, <i>Petermann’s +Mitt.</i> (1886, 1888 and 1889); W.B. Harris, <i>Journey through Yemen</i> +(Edinburgh, 1893); J.R. Wellsted, <i>Travels in Arabia</i> (London, +1838); Capt. F.M. Hunter, <i>Aden</i> (London, 1877). Consult also +<i>Proc. R.G.S.</i> and <i>Geogr. Journal</i>. For geology see H.J. Carter, +“Memoir on the Geology of the South-East Coast of Arabia,” +<i>Journ. Bombay Branch Roy. Asiat. Soc.</i> vol. iv. pp. 21-96 (1852); +Doughty’s <i>Arabia Deserta</i>; W.F. Hume, <i>The Rift Valleys and +Geology of Eastern Sinai</i> (London, 1901). For ancient geography of +Arabia:—A. Sprenger, <i>Alte Geographie Arabiens</i> (Berne, 1875); +E.H. Bunbury, <i>History of Ancient Geography</i> (London, 1883); +D.H. Müller, <i>Hamdani’s Geographie</i> (Leiden, 1884); E. Glaser, +<i>Geschichte und Geographie Arabiens</i> (Berlin, 1890).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. A. W.)</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page271" id="page271"></a>271</span></p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Literature</p> + +<p>The literature of Arabia has its origin in the songs, improvisations, +recitations and stories of the pre-Mahommedan Arabs. +Of written literature in those days there was, so far as we know, +none. But where books failed memory was strong and the +power of retaining things heard was not confined to a professional +class. At every festive meeting many could contribute a poem +or a story, many could even improvise the one or the other. +When members of different tribes met in peace (as at the fair +of ‛Ukāẓ) the most skilful reciters strove to maintain the honour +of their own people, and a ready improviser was held in high +esteem. The smartest epigrams, the fairest similes, the keenest +satires, spoken or sung on such occasions, were treasured in the +memory of the hearers and carried by them to their homes. +But the experience of all peoples in that memory requires to be +helped by form. Sentences became balanced and were made +clear by some sort of definite ending. The simplest form of this +in Arabian literature is the <i>saj‛</i> or rhymed prose, in which the +sentences are usually (though not always) short and end in a +rhyme or assonance. Mahomet used this form in many parts +of the Koran (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Sura</i>, 81). The next step was the introduction +of metre into the body of the sentence and the restriction of +the passages to a definite length. This in its simplest form gave +rise to the <i>rajaz</i> verses, where each half-line ends in the same +rhyme and consists of three feet of the measure <img style="width:50px; height:12px" src="images/img271.jpg" alt="" />. Other +metres were introduced later until sixteen altogether were recognized. +In all forms the rhyme is the same throughout the +poem, and is confined to the second half of the line except in the +first line where the two halves rhyme. While, however, these +measures were in early use, they were not systematically analysed +or their rules enunciated until the time of Khalīl ibn Ahmad +in the 8th century. Two other features of Arabian poetry are +probably connected with the necessity for aiding the memory. +The first of these is the requirement that each line should have +a complete sense in itself; this produces a certain jerkiness, +and often led among the Arabs to displacement in the order +of the lines in a long poem. The other feature, peculiar to the +long poem (<i>qasīda</i>, elegy), is that, whatever its real object, +whatever its metre, it has a regular scheme in the arrangement +of its material. It begins with a description of the old camping-ground, +before which the poet calls on his companion to stop, +while he bewails the traces of those who have left for other places. +Then he tells of his love and how he had suffered from it, how he +had journeyed through the desert (this part often contains some +of the most famous descriptions and praises of animals) until +his beast became thin and worn-out. Then at last comes the +real subject of the poem, usually the panegyric of some man of +influence or wealth to whom the poet has come in hope of reward +and before whom he recites the poem.</p> + +<p><i>Poetry.</i>—The influence of the poet in pre-Mahommedan days +was very great. As his name, <i>ash-Shā‛ir</i>, “the knowing man,” +indicates, he was supposed to have more than natural knowledge +and power. Panegyric and satire (<i>hijā‛</i>) were his chief instruments. +The praise of the tribe in well-chosen verses ennobled +it throughout the land, a biting satire was enough to destroy +its reputation (cf. I. Goldziher’s <i>Abhandlungen zur arabischen +Philologie</i>, i. pp. 1-105). Before Mahomet the ethics of the +Arabs were summed up in <i>muruwwa</i> (custom). Hospitality, +generosity, personal bravery were the subjects of praise; meanness +and cowardice those of satire. The existence of poetry +among the northern Arabs was known to the Greeks even in the +4th century (cf. St Nilos in Migne’s <i>Patrologia Graeca</i>, vol. 79, +col. 648, and Sozomen’s <i>Ecclesiastical History</i>, bk. 6, ch. 38). +Women as well as men composed and recited poems before the +days of the Prophet (cf. L. Cheikho’s <i>Poetesses of the Jāhiliyya</i>, +in Arabic, Beirut, 1897).</p> + +<p>The transmission of early Arabic poetry has been very imperfect. +Many of the reciters were slain in battle, and it was +not till the 8th to the 10th centuries and even later that the +earliest collections of these poems were made. Many have to +be recovered from grammars, dictionaries, &c., where single +lines or groups of lines are quoted to illustrate the proper use +of words, phrases or idioms. Moreover, many a reciter was not +content to declaim the genuine verses of ancient poets, but +interpolated some of his own composition, and the change of +religion introduced by Islam led to the mutilation of many +verses to suit the doctrines of the new creed.<a name="fa3k" id="fa3k" href="#ft3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>The language of the poems, as of all the best Arabian literature, +was that of the desert Arabs of central Arabia; and to use it +aright was the ambition of poets and scholars even in the Abbasid +period. For the man of the towns its vocabulary was too copious +to be easily understood, and in the age of linguistic studies +many commentaries were written to explain words and idioms.</p> + +<p>Of the pre-Mahommedan poets the most famous were the six +whose poems were collected by Asma‛ī about the beginning of +the 9th century (ed. W. Ahlwardt, <i>The Diwans of the Six Ancient +Arabic Poets</i>, London, 1870). Single poems of four of +these—Amru-ul-Qais, Ṭarafa, Zuhair and ‛Antara—appear in the +Mo’allakat (<i>q.v.</i>). The other two were Nābigha (<i>q.v.</i>) and +‛Alqama (<i>q.v.</i>). But besides these there were many others whose +names were famous; such as Ta‛abbata Sharran, a popular +hero who recites his own adventures with great gusto; his +companion Shanfarā, whose fame rests on a fine poem which has +been translated into French by de Sacy (in his <i>Chrestomathie +Arabe</i>) and into English by G. Hughes (London, 1896); Aus ibn +Hajar of the Bani Tamin, famous for his descriptions of weapons +and hunting scenes (ed. R. Geyer, Vienna, 1892); Ḥātim Tā’i, +renowned for his open-handed generosity as well as for his poetry +(ed. F. Schulthess, Leipzig, 1897, with German translation); +and ‛Urwa ibn ul-Ward of the tribe of ‛Abs, rival of Ḥātim in +generosity as well as in poetry (ed. Th. Nöldeke, Göttingen, +1863). Among these early poets are found one Jew of repute, +Samau’al (Samuel) ibn Adiyā (cf. Th. Nöldeke’s <i>Beiträge</i>, +pp. 52-86; art. <i>s.v.</i> “Samuel ibn Adiya” in <i>Jewish Encyc.</i> and +authorities there quoted), and some Christians such as ‛Adī‛ibn +Zaid of Hira, who sang alike of the pleasures of drink and of +death (ed. by Louis Cheikho in his <i>Les Poètes arabes chrétiens</i>, +pp. 439-474, Beirut, 1890; in this work many Arabian poets +are considered to be Christian without sufficient reason). One +poet, a younger contemporary of Mahomet, has attracted much +attention because his poems were religious and he was a monotheist. +This is Umayya ibn Abi-ṣ-Ṣalt, a Meccan who did not +accept Islam and died in 630. His poems are discussed by +F. Schulthess in the <i>Orientalische Studien</i> dedicated by Th. +Nöldeke, Giessen, 1906, and his relation to Mahomet by E. Power +(in the <i>Mélanges de la faculté orientale de l’université Saint-Joseph</i>, +Beirut, 1906). Mahomet’s relation to the poets generally was +one of antagonism because of their influence over the Arabs +and their devotion to the old religion and customs. Ka‛b ibn +Zuhair, however, first condemned to death, then pardoned, later +won great favour for himself by writing a panegyric of the +Prophet (ed. G. Freytag, Halle, 1823). Another poet, A‛sha +(<i>q.v.</i>), followed his example. Labīd (<i>q.v.</i>) and Hassān ibn Thābit +(<i>q.v.</i>) were also contemporary. Among the poetesses of the time +Khansa (<i>q.v.</i>) is supreme. In the scarcity of poets at this time +two others deserve mention; Abū Mihjan, who made peace +with Islam in 630 but was exiled for his love of wine, which he +celebrated in his verse (ed. L. Abel, Leiden, 1887; cf. C. Landberg’s +<i>Primeurs arabes</i>, 1, Leiden, 1886), and Jarwal ibn Aus, +known as al-Ḥuṭai‛a, a wandering poet whose keen satires led +to his imprisonment by Omar (Poems, ed. by I. Goldziher in the +<i>Journal of the German Oriental Society</i>, vols. 46 and 47).</p> + +<p>Had the simplicity and religious severity of the first four +caliphs continued in their successors, the fate of poetry would +have been hard. Probably little but religious poetry would have +been allowed. But the Omayyads (with one exception) were not +religious men and, while preserving the outward forms of Islam, +allowed full liberty to the pre-Islamic customs of the Arabs and +the beliefs and practices of Christians. At the same time the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page272" id="page272"></a>272</span> +circumstances of the poet’s life were altered. Poetry depended +on patronage, and that was to be had now chiefly in the court of +the caliph and the residences of his governors. Hence the centre +of attraction was now the city with its interests, not the desert. +Yet the old forms of poetry were kept. The <i>qasīda</i> still required +the long introduction (see above), which was entirely occupied +with the affairs of the desert. Thus poetry became more and +more artificial, until in the Abbasid period poets arose who felt +themselves strong enough to give up the worn-out forms and +adopt others more suitable. The names of three great poets +adorn the Omayyad period: Akhtal, Farazdaq and Jarīr were +contemporaries (see separate articles). The first was a Christian +of the tribe of Taghlib, whose Christianity enabled him to write +many verses which would have been impossible to a professing +Moslem. Protected by the caliph he employed the old weapons +of satire to support them against the “Helpers” and to exalt +his own tribe against the Qaisites. Farazdaq of the Bani Tamīm, +a good Moslem but loose in morals, lived chiefly in Medina and +Kufa, and was renowned for his command of language. Jarīr of +another branch of the Bani Tamīm lived in Irak and courted the +favour of Hajjāj, its governor. His satires were so effective that +he is said to have crushed forty-three rivals. His great efforts +were against Farazdaq, who was supported by Akhtal (cf. <i>The +Naka’id of Jarīr and al-Farazdaq</i>, ed. A.A. Bevan, Leiden, 1906 +foll.). Among many minor poets one woman is conspicuous. +Laila ul-Akhyalīyya (d. 706) was married to a stranger. On the +death of her lover in battle, she wrote numerous elegies bewailing +him, and so became famous and devoted the rest of her life to the +writing of verse. Two poets of the Koreish attained celebrity in +Arabia itself at this time. Qais ur-Ruqayyāt was the poet of +‛Abdallah ibn uz-Zubair (Abdallah ibn Zobair) and helped him +until circumstances went against him, when he made his peace +with the caliph. His poems are chiefly panegyrics and love songs +(ed. N. Rhodonakis, Vienna, 1902). ‛Umar ibn Abī Rabī‛a +(<i>c.</i> 643-719) was a wealthy man, who lived a life of ease in his +native town of Mecca, and devoted himself to intrigues and +writing love songs (ed. P. Schwarz, Leipzig, 1901-1902). His +poems were very popular throughout Arabia. As a dweller in +the town he was independent of the old forms of poetry, which +controlled all others, but his influence among poets was not great +enough to perpetuate the new style. One other short-lived +movement of the Omayyad period should be mentioned. The +<i>rajaz</i> poems (see above) had been a subordinate class generally +used for improvisations in pre-Mahommedan times. In the 7th +and 8th centuries, however, a group of poets employed them +more seriously. The most celebrated of these were ‛Ajjāj and +his son Ru’ba of the Bani Tamīm (editions by W. Ahlwardt, +Berlin, 1903; German trans. of Ru’ba’s poems by Ahlwardt, +Berlin, 1904).</p> + +<p>With the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, a new epoch +in Arabian poetry began. The stereotyped beginning of the +<i>qasīda</i> had been recognized as antiquated and out of place in +city life even in the Omayyad period (cf. Goldziher, <i>Abhandlungen</i>, +i. 144 ff). This form had been ridiculed but now it lost +its hold altogether, and was only employed occasionally by way +of direct imitation of the antique. The rise of Persian influence +made itself felt in much the same way as the Norman influence +in England by bringing a newer refinement into poetry. Tribal +feuds are no longer the main incentives to verse. Individual +experiences of life and matters of human interest become more +usual subjects. Cynicism, often followed by religion in a poet’s +later life, is common. The tumultuous mixture of interests and +passions to be found in a city like Bagdad are the subjects of a +poet’s verse. One of the earliest of these poets, Muti‛ ibn Ayās, +shows the new depth of personal feeling and refinement of +expression. Bashshār ibn Burd (d. 783), a blind poet of Persian +descent, shows the ascendancy of Persian influence as he openly +rails at the Arabs and makes clear his own leaning to the Persian +religion. In the 8th century Abu Nuwās (<i>q.v.</i>) is the greatest +poet of his time. His language has the purity of the desert, his +morals are those of the city, his universalism is that of the man of +the world. Abū-l-‛Atāhiya (<i>q.v.</i>), his contemporary, is fluent, +simple and often didactic. Muslim ibn ul-Walīd (ed. de Goeje, +Leiden, 1875), also contemporary, is more conservative of old +forms and given to panegyric and satire. In the 9th century two +of the best-known poets—Abū Tammām (<i>q.v.</i>) and Buḥturī (<i>q.v.</i>) +—were renowned for their knowledge of old poetry (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hamasa</a></span>) +and were influenced by it in their own verse. On the other hand +Ibn ul-Mo‛tazz (son of the caliph) was the writer of brilliant +occasional verse, free of all imitation. In the 10th century the +centre of interest is in the court of Saif ud-Daula (addaula) at +Aleppo. Here in Motanabbī (<i>q.v.</i>) the claims of modern poetry +not only to equal but to excel the ancient were put forward and +in part at any rate recognized. Abū Firās (932-968) was a +member of the family of Saif ud-Daula, a soldier whose poems +have all the charm that comes from the fact that the writer has +lived through the events he narrates (ed. by R. Dvořák, Leiden, +1895). Many Arabian writers count Motanabbi the last of the +great poets. Yet Abū-l-‛Alā ul-Ma‛arrī (<i>q.v.</i>) was original alike +in his use of rhymes and in the philosophical nature of his poems. +Ibn Farīd (<i>q.v.</i>) is the greatest of the mystic poets, and Busīri +(<i>q.v.</i>) wrote the most famous poem extant in praise of the Prophet. +In the provinces of the caliphate there were many poets, who, +however, seldom produced original work. Spain, however, produced +Ibn ‛Abdūn (d. 1126), famous for the grace and finish of +his style (ed. with commentary of Ibn Badrun by R.P.A. Dozy, +Leiden, 1846). The Sicilian Ibn Hamdīs (1048-1132) spent the +last fifty years of his life in Spain (<i>Diwān</i>, ed. Moaçada, Palermo, +1883; <i>Canzoniere</i>, ed. Schiaparelli, Rome, 1897). It was also +apparently in this country that the strophe form was first used +in Arabic poems (cf. M. Hartmann’s <i>Das arabische Strophengedicht</i>, +Weimar, 1897), and Ibn Quzmān (12th century), a +wandering singer, here first used the language of everyday life +in the form of verse known as <i>Zajal</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Anthologies.</i>—As supplemental to the account of poetry may +be mentioned here some of the chief collections of ancient verse, +sometimes made for the sake of the poems themselves, sometimes +to give a <i>locus classicus</i> for usages of grammar or lexicography, +sometimes to illustrate ancient manners and customs. The +earliest of these is the <i>Mo‛allakat</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). In the 8th century Ibn +Mofaddal compiled the collection named after him the <i>Mofaddalīyāt</i>. +From the 9th century we have the Hamasas of Abū +Tammām and Buhturī, and a collection of poems of the tribe +Hudhail (second half ed. in part by J.G.L. Kosegarten, London, +1854; completed by J. Wellhausen in <i>Skizzen und Vorarbeiten</i>, i. +Berlin, 1884). The numerous quotations of Ibn Qutaiba (<i>q.v.</i>) in +the ‛Uyūn ul-Akhbār (ed. C. Brockelmann, Strassburg, 1900 ff.) +and the <i>Book of Poetry and Poets</i> (ed. M.J. de Goeje, Leiden, +1904) bring these works into this class. In the 10th century +were compiled the <i>Jamharat ash‛ar al Arab</i>, containing forty-nine +poems (ed. Būlāq, 1890), the work <i>al-‛Iqd ul-Farīd</i> of Ibn‛ Abdi-r-Rabbihi +(ed. Cairo, various years), and the greatest work of all +this class, the <i>Kītāb ul-Aghāni</i> (“Book of Songs”) (cf. <span class="sc">Abu-l +Faraj</span>). The 12th century contributes the <i>Diwān Mukhtarāt +ush-Shu‛arā’i</i> with fifty qasīdas. The <i>Khizānai ul-Adab</i> of +Abdulqādir, written in the 17th century in the form of a commentary +on verses cited in a grammar, contains much old verse +(ed. 4 vols., Būlāq, 1882).</p> + +<p><i>Belles-Lettres and Romances.</i>—Mahomet in the Koran had made +extensive use of <i>saj’</i> or rhymed prose (see above). This form +then dropped out of use almost entirely for some time. In the +10th century, however, it was revived, occurring almost simultaneously +in the <i>Sermons</i> of Ibn Nubāta (946-984) and the +<i>Letters</i> of Abū Bakr ul-Khwārizmī. Both have been published +several times in the East. The epistolary style was further +cultivated by Hamadhāni (<i>q.v.</i>) and carried to perfection by +Abū-l‛Alā ul-Ma‛arrī. Hamadhīni was also the first to write +in this rhymed prose a new form of work, the <i>Maqāma</i> +(“assembly”). The name arose from the fact that scholars +were accustomed to assemble for the purpose of rivalling one +another in orations showing their knowledge of Arabic language, +proverb and verse. In the <i>Maqāmas</i> of Hamadhāni a narrator +describes how in various places he met a wandering scholar who +in these assemblies puts all his rivals to shame by his eloquence. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page273" id="page273"></a>273</span> +Each oration forms the substance of a <i>Maqāma</i>, while the <i>Maqāmas</i> +themselves are united to one another by the constant meetings +of narrator and scholar. Harīrī (<i>q.v.</i>) quite eclipsed the fame +of his predecessor in this department, and his <i>Maqāmas</i> retain +their influence over Arabian literature to the present day. As +late as the 19th century the sheik Nāṣīf ul Yāzījī (1800-1871) +distinguished himself by writing sixty clever <i>Maqāmas</i> in the +style of Hariri (ed. Beirut, 1856, 1872). While this class of +literature had devoted itself chiefly to the finesses of the language, +another set of works was given to meeting the requirements +of moral education and the training of a gentleman. This, +which is known as “Adab literature,” is anecdotic in style with +much quotation of early poetry and proverb. Thus government, +war, friendship, morality, piety, eloquence, are some of the titles +under which Ibn Qutaiba groups his stories and verses in the +<i>‛Uyūn ul Akhbār</i>. <i>Jāhiz</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) in the 9th century and Baihaqī +(<i>The Kitāb al-Maḥāsin val-Masāwi</i>, ed. F. Schwally, Giessen, +1900-1902) early in the 10th, wrote works of this class. A little +later a Spaniard, Ibn ‛Abdrabbihi (Abdi-r-Rabbihi), wrote his +<i>‛Iqd ul-Farīd</i> (see section <i>Anthologies</i>). The growth of city +life in the Abbasid capital led to the desire for a new form +of story, differing from the old tales of desert life. This was met +in the first place by borrowing. In the 8th century Ibn Muqaffa‛, +a convert from Mazdaism to Islam, translated the Pahlavi +version of Bidpai’s fables (itself a version of the Indian +<i>Panchatantra</i>) into Arabic with the title <i>Kalīla wa Dimna</i> (ed. Beirūt, +various years). Owing to the purity of its language and style +it has remained a classic work. The <i>Book of the 1001 Nights</i> +(<i>Arabian Nights</i>) also has its basis in translations from the Indian +through the Persian, made as early as the 9th century. To these +stories have been added others originating in Bagdad and Egypt +and a few others, which were at first in independent circulation. +The whole work seems to have taken its present form (with local +variations) about the 13th century. Several other romances of +considerable length are extant, such as the <i>Story of ‛Antar</i> +(ed. 32 vols., Cairo, 1869, &c., translated in part by Terrick +Hamilton, 4 vols., London, 1820), and the <i>Story of Saif ibn Dhī +Yezen</i> (ed. Cairo, 1892).</p> +<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div> + +<p><i>Historical Literature.</i>—Arabian historians differ from all +others in the unique form of their compositions. Each event is +related in the words of eye-witnesses or contemporaries transmitted +to the final narrator through a chain of intermediate +reporters (<i>rāwīs</i>), each of whom passed on the original report +to his successor. Often the same account is given in two or +more slightly divergent forms, which have come down through +different chains of reporters. Often, too, one event or one important +detail is told in several ways on the basis of several contemporary +statements transmitted to the final narrator through +distinct lines of tradition. The writer, therefore, exercises no independent +criticism except as regards the choice of authorities; for +he rejects accounts of which the first author or one of the intermediate +links seems to him unworthy of credit, and sometimes +he states which of several accounts seems to him the best.</p> + +<p>A second type of Arabian historiography is that in which an +author combines the different traditions about one occurrence +into one continuous narrative, but prefixes a statement as to +the lines of authorities used and states which of them he mainly +follows. In this case the writer recurs to the first method, +already described, only when the different traditions are greatly +at variance with one another. In yet a third type of history +the old method is entirely forsaken and we have a continuous +narrative only occasionally interrupted by citation of the +authority for some particular point. But the principle still is +that what has been well said once need not be told again in other +words. The writer, therefore, keeps as close as he can to the letter +of his sources, so that quite a late writer often reproduces the +very words of the first narrator.</p> + +<p>From very early times story-tellers and singers found their +subjects in the doughty deeds of the tribe on its forays, and +sometimes in contests with foreign powers and in the impression +produced by the wealth and might of the sovereigns of Persia +and Constantinople. The appearance of the Prophet with the +great changes that ensued, the conquests that made the Arabs +lords of half the civilized world, supplied a vast store of new +matter for relations which men were never weary of hearing +and recounting. They wished to know everything about the +apostle of God. Every one who had known or seen him was +questioned and was eager to answer. Moreover, the word of +God in the Koran left many practical points undecided, and +therefore it was of the highest importance to know exactly how +the Prophet had spoken and acted in various circumstances. +Where could this be better learned than at Medina, where he had +lived so long and where the majority of his companions continued +to live? So at Medina a school was gradually formed, where the +chief part of the traditions about Mahomet and his first successors +took a form more or less fixed. Soon men began to assist memory +by making notes, and pupils sought to take written jottings +of what they had heard from their teachers. Thus by the close +of the 1st century many <i>dictata</i> were already in circulation. +For example, Ḥasan of Baṣra (d. 728 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>) had a great mass +of such notes, and he was accused of sometimes passing off as +oral tradition things he had really drawn from books; for oral +tradition was still the one recognized authority, and it is related +of more than one old scholar, and even of Hasan of Basra himself, +that he directed his books to be burned at his death. The books +were mere helps. Long after this date, when all scholars drew +mainly from books, the old forms were still kept up. Ṭabarī, +for example, when he cites a book expresses himself as if he had +heard what he quotes from the master with whom he read the +passage or from whose copy he transcribed it. He even expresses +himself in this wise: “‛Omar b. Shabba has <i>related</i> to +me in his book on the history of Baṣra.” No independent book +of the 1st century from the Flight (<i>i.e.</i> 622-719) has come down +to us. It is told, however, that Moawiya summoned an old +man named ‛Abid ibn Sharya from Yemen to Damascus to +tell him all he knew about ancient history and that he induced +him to write down his information. This very likely formed +the nucleus of a book which bore the name of that sheik and +was much read in the 3rd century from the Flight. It seems to be +lost now. But in the 2nd century (719-816) real books began to +be composed. The materials were supplied in the first place by +oral tradition, in the second by the <i>dictata</i> of older scholars, +and finally by various kinds of documents, such as treaties, +letters, collections of poetry and genealogical lists. Genealogical +studies had become necessary through Omar’s system of assigning +state pensions to certain classes of persons according to their +kinship with the Prophet, or their deserts during his lifetime. +This subject received much attention even in the 1st century, +but books about it were first written in the 2nd, the most famous +being those of Ibn al-Kalbī (d. 763), of his son Hishām (d. 819), +and of Al-Sharqī ibn al-Quṭāmī. Genealogy, which often called +for elucidations, led on to history. Baladhuri’s excellent <i>Ansāb +al-Ashrāf</i> (Genealogies of the Nobles) is a history of the Arabs +on a genealogical plan.</p> + +<p>The oldest extant history is the biography of the Prophet +by Ibn Isḥāq (d. 767). This work is generally trustworthy. +Mahomet’s life before he appeared as a prophet and the story +of his ancestors are indeed mixed with many fables illustrated +by spurious verses. But in Ibn Isḥāq’s day these fables were +generally accepted as history—for many of them had been first +related by contemporaries of Mahomet—and no one certainly +thought it blameworthy to put pious verses in the mouth of the +Prophet’s forefathers, though, according to the <i>Fihrist</i> (p. 92), +Ibn Isḥāq was duped by others with regard to the poems he +quotes. The original work of Ibn Isḥāq seems to be lost. That +which we possess is an edition of it by Ibn Hishām (d. 834) with +additions and omissions (text ed. by F. Wüstenfeld, Göttingen, +1858-1860; German translation by Weil, Stuttgart, 1864).</p> + +<p>The <i>Life</i> of the Prophet by Ibn Oqba (d. 758), based on the +statements of two very trustworthy men, ‛Urwa ibn az-Zubair +(d. 713) and Az-zuhri (d. 742), was still much read in Syria in +the 14th century. Fragments of this have been edited by +E. Sachau, Berlin, 1904. We fortunately possess the <i>Book of +the Campaigns</i> of the Prophet by al-Wāqidī (d. 822) and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page274" id="page274"></a>274</span> +important <i>Book of Classes</i> of his disciple Ibn Sa‛d (<i>q.v.</i>). Wāqidī +had much more copious materials than Ibn Isḥāq, but gives +way much more to a popular and sometimes romancing style +of treatment. Nevertheless he sometimes helps us to recognize +in Ibn Isḥāq’s narrative modifications of the genuine tradition +made for a purpose, and the additional details he supplies set +various events before us in a clearer light. Apart from this his +chief merits lie in his studies on the subject of the traditional +authorities, the results of which are given by Ibn Sa‛d, and in +his chronology, which is often excellent. A special study of the +traditions about the conquest of Syria made by M.J. de Goeje +in 1864 (<i>Mémoires sur la conquête de la Syrie</i>, 2nd ed., Leiden, +1900), led to the conclusion that Waqidi’s chronology is sound +as regards the main events, and that later historians have gone +astray by forsaking his guidance. This result has been confirmed +by certain contemporary notices found by Th. Nöldeke in 1874 +in a Syriac MS. of the British Museum. And that Ibn Isḥāq +agrees with Wāqidī in certain main dates is important evidence +for the trustworthiness of the former also. For the chronology +before the year 10 of the Flight Wāqidī did his best, but here, +the material being defective, many of his conclusions are precarious. +Wāqidī had already a great library at his disposal. +He is said to have had 600 chests of books, chiefly <i>dictata</i> written +by or for himself, but in part real books by Abū Mikhnaf (d. 748), +Ibn Isḥāq (whom he uses but does not name), ‛Awāna (d. 764), +Abū Mashar (d. 791) and other authors. Abū Mikhnaf left a +great number of monographs on the chief events from the death +of the Prophet to the caliphate of Walid II. These were much +used by later writers, and we have many extracts from them, +but none of the works themselves except a sort of romance based +on his account of the death of Hosain (Ḥusain) of which Wüstenfeld +has given a translation. With regard to the history of Irak +in particular he was deemed to have the best information, and +for this subject he is Tabari’s chief source, just as Madāinī, a +younger contemporary of Wāqidī, is followed by preference in +all that relates to Khorasan. Madāinī’s <i>History of the Caliphs</i> +is the best, if not the oldest, published before Ṭabarī; but this +book is known only by the excerpts given by later writers, +particularly Balādhuri and Ṭabarī. From these we judge that +he had great narrative power, with much clear and exact learning, +and must be placed high as a critical historian. His plan was +to record the various traditions about an event, choosing them +with critical skill; sometimes, however, he fused the several +traditions into a continuous narrative. A just estimate of the +relative value of the historians can only be reached by careful +comparison in detail. This has been essayed by Brünnow in +his study on the Khārijites (Leiden, 1884), in which the narrative +of Mubarrad in the Kāmil is compared with the excerpts of +Madaini given by Balādhuri and those of Abū Mikhnaf given by +Ṭabarī. The conclusion reached is that Abū Mikhnaf and +Mādainī are both well informed and impartial.</p> + +<p>Among the contemporaries of Wāqidī and Mādainī were +Ibn Khidāsh (d. 838), the historian of the family Muhallab, +whose work was one of Mubarrad’s sources for the <i>History of +the Khārijites</i>; Haitham ibn ‛Adi (d. 822), whose works, though +now lost, are often cited; and Saif ibn ‛Omar at-Tamīmī, whose +book on the revolt of the tribes under Abu-Bekr and on the +Mahommedan conquests was much used by Ṭabarī. His +narratives are detailed and often tinged with romance, and he +is certainly much inferior to Wāqidī in accuracy. Wellhausen +has thoroughly examined the work of Saif in <i>Skizzen und +Vorarbeiten</i>, vi. Besides these are to be mentioned Abū ‛Ubaida +(d. 825), who was celebrated as a philologist and wrote several +historical monographs that are often cited, and Azraqī, whose +excellent <i>History of Mecca</i> was published after his death by his +grandson (d. 858). With these writers we pass into the 3rd +century of Islam. But we have still an important point to notice +in the 2nd century; for in it learned Persians began to take part +in the creation of Arabic historical literature. Ibn Muqaffa‛ +translated the great <i>Book of Persian Kings</i>, and others followed +his example. Ṭabarī and his contemporaries, senior and junior, +such as Ibn Qutaiba, Ya‛qūbī, Dīnawarī, preserve to us a good +part of the information about Persian history made known +through such translations.<a name="fa4k" id="fa4k" href="#ft4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a> But even more important than the +knowledge conveyed by these works was their influence on +literary style and composition. Half a century later began +versions from the Greek either direct or through the Syriac. +The pieces translated were mostly philosophical; but the Arabs +also learned something, however superficially, of ancient history.</p> + +<p>The 3rd century (816-913) was far more productive than the +2nd. Abū ‛Ubaida was succeeded by Ibn al-A‛rābī (d. 846), who +in like manner was chiefly famous as a philologist, and who wrote +about ancient poems and battles. Much that he wrote is quoted +in Tabrīzī’s commentary on the <i>Ḥamāsa</i>, which is still richer in +extracts from the historical elucidations of early poems given +by ar-Riyāshī (d. 871). Of special fame as a genealogist was +Ibn Ḥabīb (d. 859), of whom we have a booklet on Arabian tribal +names (ed. Wüstenfeld, 1850). Azraqi again was followed by +Fākihī, who wrote a <i>History of Mecca</i> in 885,<a name="fa5k" id="fa5k" href="#ft5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a> and ‛Omar b. +Shabba (d. 876), who composed an excellent history of Baṣra, +known to us only by excerpts. Of the works of Zubair b. Bakkār +(d. 870), one of Ṭabarī’s teachers, a learned historian and genealogist +much consulted by later writers, there is a fragment in the +Köprülü library at Constantinople, and another in Göttingen, +part of which has been made known by Wüstenfeld (<i>Die Familie +Al-Zobair</i>, Göttingen, 1878). Ya‛qūbī (Ibn Wāḍiḥ) wrote a +short general history of much value (published by Houtsma, +Leiden, 1883). About India he knows more than his predecessors +and more than his successors down to Berūnī. Ibn +Khordādhbeh’s historical works are lost. Ibn ‛Abdalḥakam +(d. 871) wrote of the conquest of Egypt and the West. Extracts +from this book are given by M‛G. de Slane in his <i>Histoire des +Berbères</i>, from which we gather that it was a medley of true +tradition and romance, and must be reckoned, with the book +of his slightly senior contemporary, the Spaniard Ibn Ḥābīb, +in the class of historical romances. A high place must be +assigned to the historian Ibn Qutaiba or Kotaiba (d. 889), +who wrote a very useful <i>Handbook of History</i> (ed. Wüstenfeld, +Göttingen, 1850). Much more eminent is Balādhurī (d. 893), +whose book on the Arab conquest (ed. M.J. de Goeje, Leiden, +1865-1866) merits the special praise given to it by Mas‛ūdī, +and who also wrote a large work, the <i>Ansāb al-Ashrāf</i>. A +contemporary, Ibn abi Tāhir Taifūr (d. 894), wrote on the +Abbasid caliphs and was drawn on by Ṭabarī. The sixth part +of his work is in the British Museum. The universal history +of Dinawari (d. 896), entitled <i>The Long Narratives</i>, has been +edited by Girgas (1887).</p> + +<p>All these histories are more or less thrown into the shade by +the great work of Ṭabarī (<i>q.v.</i>), whose fame has never faded from +his own day to ours. The <i>Annals</i> (ed. M. de Goeje, Leiden, +1879-1901) are a general history from the creation to 302 <span class="scs">A.H.</span> +(= <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 915). As a literary composition they do not rank very +high, which may be due partly to the author’s years, partly to +the inequality of his sources, sometimes superabundant, sometimes +defective, partly perhaps to the somewhat hasty condensation +of his original draft. Nevertheless the value of the book is +very great: the author’s selection of traditions is usually happy, +and the episodes of most importance are treated with most +fulness of detail, so that it deserves the high reputation it has +enjoyed from the first. This reputation rose steadily; there +were twenty copies (one of them written by Tabari’s own hand) +in the library of the Fatimite caliph ‛Aziz (latter half of the 4th +century), whereas, when Saladin became lord of Egypt, the +princely library contained 1200 copies (Maqrīzī, i. 408 seq.).</p> + +<p>The <i>Annals</i> soon came to be dealt with in various ways. They +were published in shorter form with the omission of the names +of authorities and of most of the poems cited; some passages +quoted by later writers are not found even in the Leiden edition. +On the other hand, some interpolations took place, one in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page275" id="page275"></a>275</span> +author’s lifetime and perhaps by his own hand. Then many +supplements were written, <i>e.g.</i> by Ferghānī (not extant) and by +Hamadhani (partly preserved in Paris). ‛Arīb of Cordova made +an abridgment, adding the history of the West and continuing +the story to about 975.<a name="fa6k" id="fa6k" href="#ft6k"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Ibn Mashkawaih wrote a history from +the creation to 980, with the purpose of drawing the lessons of +the story, following Ṭabarī closely, as far as his book is known, +and seldom recurring to other sources before the reign of +Moqtadir; what follows is his own composition and shows him +to be a writer of talent.<a name="fa7k" id="fa7k" href="#ft7k"><span class="sp">7</span></a> In 963 an abridgment of the <i>Annals</i> +was translated into Persian by Bal‛amī, who, however, interwove +many fables.<a name="fa8k" id="fa8k" href="#ft8k"><span class="sp">8</span></a> Ibn al-Athīr (d. 1234) abridged the whole work, +usually with judgment, but sometimes too hastily. Though he +sometimes glided lightly over difficulties, his work is of service +in fixing the text of Ṭabarī. He also furnished a continuation to +the year 1224. Later writers took Ṭabarī as their main authority, +but sometimes consulted other sources, and so add to our knowledge—especially +Ibn al-Jauzī (d. 1201), who adds many +important details. These later historians had valuable help +from the biographies of famous men and special histories of +countries and cities, dynasties and princes, on which much +labour was spent from the 4th century from the Flight onwards.</p> + +<p>The chief historians after Ṭabarī may be briefly mentioned +in chronological order. Rāzī (d. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 932) wrote a <i>History of +Spain</i>; Eutychius (d. 940) wrote <i>Annals</i> (ed. L. Cheikho, Paris, +1906), which are very important because he gives the Christian +tradition; Suli (d. 946) wrote on the Abbasid caliphs, their +viziers and court poets; Mas‛udi (<i>q.v.</i>) composed various historical +and geographical works (d. 956). Of Ṭabarī’s contemporary +Hamza Ispahānī (<i>c.</i> 940) we have the Annals (ed. Gottwaldt, +St Petersburg, 1844); Ibn al-Qūṭīya wrote a <i>History of +Spain</i>; Ibn Zūlāq (d. 997) a <i>History of Egypt</i>; ‛Otbi wrote the +<i>History of Mahmud of Ghazna</i>, at whose court he lived (printed +on the margin of the Egyptian edition of Ibn al-Athīr); Tha‛labī +(d. 1036) wrote a well-known <i>History of the Old Prophets</i>; Abu +Nu‛aim al-Ispahānī (d. 1039) wrote a <i>History of Ispahan</i>, chiefly +of the scholars of that city; Tha‛ālibī (d. c. 1038) wrote, <i>inter +alia</i>, a well-known <i>History of the Poets of his Time</i>, published at +Damascus, 1887; Birūnī (<i>q.v.</i>) (d. 1048) takes a high place among +historians; Koda‛ī (d. 1062) wrote a <i>Description of Egypt</i> and +also various historical pieces, of which some are extant; Ibn +Sā‛id of Cordova (d. 1070) wrote a <i>View of the History of the +Various Nations</i>. Bagdad and its learned men found an excellent +historian in al-Khātib al-Baghdādī (d. 1071), and Spain +in Ibn Hayan (d. 1076), and half a century later in Ibn Khaqān +(d. 1135) and Ibn Bassam (d. 1147). Sam‛ani (d. 1167) wrote +an excellent book on genealogies; ‛Umāra (d. 1175) wrote a +<i>History of Yemen</i> (ed. H.C. Kay, London, 1892); Ibn ‛Asaqir +(d. 1176) a <i>History of Damascus and her Scholars</i>, which is of great +value, and exists in whole or in part in several libraries. The +<i>Biographical Dictionary</i> of the Spaniard Ibn Pascual (d. 1182) +and that of Dabbi, a somewhat junior contemporary, are edited +in Codera’s <i>Bibliotheca Arab. Hisp.</i> (1883-1885); Saladin found +his historian in the famous ‛Imād uddīn (d. 1201) (Arabic text, +ed. C. Landberg, Leiden, 1888). Ibn ul-Jauzī, who died in the +same year, has been already mentioned. Abdulwahid’s <i>History +of the Almohades</i>, written in 1224, was published by Dozy (2nd +ed., 1881). Abdullatif or Abdallatīf (d. 1232) is known by his +writings about Egypt (trans. de Sacy, 1810); Ibn al-Athīr +(d. 1233) wrote, in addition to the <i>Chronicle</i> already mentioned, +a <i>Biographical Dictionary of Contemporaries of the Prophet</i>. +Qifti (d. 1248) is especially known by his <i>History of Arabic +Philologists</i>. Sibt ibn al-Jauzi (d. 1256), grandson of the Ibn +al-Jauzī already mentioned, wrote a great <i>Chronicle</i>, of which +much the larger part still exists. Codera has edited (Madrid, +1886) Ibn al-‛Abbar’s (d. 1260) <i>Biographical Lexicon</i>, already +known by Dozy’s excerpts from it. Ibn al-‛Adīm (d. 1262) is +famed for his <i>History of Aleppo</i>, and Abu Shama (d. 1267) wrote +a well-known <i>History of Saladin and Nureddin</i>, taking a great +deal from ‛Imad uddin. Ibn abī Usaibia (d. 1269) wrote a +<i>History of Physicians</i>, ed. A. Müller. The <i>History</i> of Ibn al-‛Amīd +(d. 1276), better known as Elmacin, was printed by Erpenius in +1625. Ibn Sa‛īd al-Maghribī (d. 1274 or 1286) is famous for his +histories, but still more for his geographical writings. The +noted theologian Nawāwī (<i>q.v.</i>; d. 1278) wrote a <i>Biographical +Dictionary of the Worthies of the First Ages of Islam</i>. Preeminent +as a biographer is Ibn Khallikān (<i>q.v.</i>; d. 1282), whose +much-used work was partly edited by de Slane and completely +by Wüstenfeld (1835-1840), and translated into English by the +former scholar (4 vols., 1843-1871).</p> + +<p>Abu ‛l-Faraj, better known as Bar-Hebraeus (d. 1286), wrote, +besides his Syriac <i>Chronicle</i>, an Arabic <i>History of Dynasties</i> (ed. +E. Pocock, Oxford, 1663, Beirut, 1890). Ibn ‛Adharī’s <i>History +of Africa and Spain</i> has been published by Dozy (2 vols., Leiden, +1848-1851), and the <i>Qartas</i> of Ibn abī Zar‛ by Tornberg (1843). +One of the best-known of Arab writers is Abulfeda (d. 1331) (<i>q.v.</i>). +Not less famous is the great <i>Encyclopaedia</i> of his contemporary +Nuwairi (d. 1332), but only extracts from it have been printed. +Ibn Sayyid an-Nās (d. 1334) wrote a full biography of the +Prophet; Mizzī (d. 1341) an extensive work on the men from +whom traditions have been derived. We still possess, nearly +complete, the great <i>Chronicle</i> of Dhahabī (d. 1347), a very +learned biographer and historian. The geographical and historical +<i>Masālik al-Absār</i> of Ibn Fadlallāh (d. 1348) is known at +present by extracts given by Quatremère and Amari. Ibn al-Wardi +(d. <i>c</i>. 1349), best known by his <i>Cosmography</i>, wrote a +<i>Chronicle</i> which has been printed in Egypt. Ṣafadī (d., 1363) +got a great name as a biographer. Yafi‛ī (d. 1367) wrote a +<i>Chronicle of Islam</i> and <i>Lives of Saints</i>. Subkī (d. 1369) published +<i>Lives of the Theologians of the Shafi’ite School</i>. Of Ibn Kathīr’s +<i>History</i> the greatest part is extant. For the history of Spain +and the Maghrib the writings of Ibn al-Khatīb (d. 1374) are of +acknowledged value. Another history, of which we possess the +greater part, is the large work of Ibn al-Furāt (d. 1404). Far +superior to all these, however, is the famous Ibn Khaldūn (<i>q.v.</i>) +(d. 1406). Of the historical works of the famous lexicographer +Fairūzabādī (<i>q.v.</i>) (d. 1414) only a <i>Life of the Prophet</i> remains. +Maqrizī (d. 1442) is the subject of a separate article; Ibn Hajar +(d. 1448) is best known by his <i>Biographical Dictionary of Contemporaries +of the Prophet</i>, published in the <i>Bibliotheca Indica</i>. +Ibn ‛Arabshāh (d. 1450) is known by his <i>History of Timur</i> +(Leeuwarden, 1767). ‛Ainī (d. 1451) wrote a <i>General History</i>, +still extant. Abu‛l-Mahāsin ibn Taghrībirdī (d. 1469) wrote at +length on the history of Egypt; the first two parts have been +published by Juynboll and Matthes, Leiden, 1855-1861. Flügel +has published Ibn Kotlubogha’s <i>Biographies of the Hanifite +Jurists</i>. Ibn Shihna (d. 1485) wrote a <i>History of Aleppo</i>. Of +Sakhawi we possess a bibliographical work on the historians. +The polymath Suyūtī (<i>q.v.</i>) (d. 1505) contributed a <i>History of the +Caliphs</i> and many biographical pieces. Samhūdī’s <i>History of +Medina</i> is known through the excerpts of Wüstenfeld (1861). Ibn +Iyās (d. 1524) wrote a <i>History of Egypt</i>, and Diarbekri (d. 1559) +a <i>Life of Mahomet</i>. To these names must be added Maqqari +(Makkari) (<i>q.v.</i>) and Hajji Khalīfa (<i>q.v.</i>) (d. 1658). He made +use of European sources, and with him Arabic historiography +may be said to cease, though he had some unimportant successors.</p> + +<p>A word must be said of the historical romances, the beginnings +of which go back to the first centuries of Islam. The interest in +all that concerned Mahomet and in the allusions of the Koran +to old prophets and races led many professional narrators to +choose these subjects. The increasing veneration paid to the +Prophet and love for the marvellous soon gave rise to fables about +his childhood, his visit to heaven, &c., which have found their +way even into sober histories, just as many Jewish legends told +by the converted Jew Ka‛b al-Aḥbār and by Wahb ibn Monabbih, +and many fables about the old princes of Yemen told by ‛Abīd, +are taken as genuine history (see, however, Mas‛ūdī, iv. 88 seq.). +A fresh field for romantic legend was found in the history of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page276" id="page276"></a>276</span> +victories of Islam, the exploits of the first heroes of the +faith, the fortunes of ‛Alī and his house. Then, too, history was +often expressly forged for party ends. The people accepted all +this, and so a romantic tradition sprang up side by side with the +historical, and had a literature of its own, the beginnings of which +must be placed as early as the 2nd century of the Flight. The +oldest specimens still extant are the fables about the conquest of +Spain ascribed to Ibn Ḥabīb (d. 852), and those about the conquest +of Egypt and the West by Ibn ‛Abd al-Hakam (d. 871). In +these truth and falsehood are mingled. But most of the extant +literature of this kind is, in its present form, much more recent; +<i>e.g.</i> the <i>Story of the Death of Hosain</i> by the pseudo-Abū Mikhnaf +(translated by Wüstenfeld); the <i>Conquest of Syria</i> by Abu Ismā‛īl +al-Basri (edited by Nassau Lees, Calcutta, 1854, and discussed by +de Goeje, 1864); the pseudo-Waqidi (see Hamaker, <i>De Expugnatione +Memphidis et Alexandriae</i>, Leiden, 1835); the pseudo-Ibn +Qutaiba (see Dozy, <i>Recherches</i>); the book ascribed to A‛ṣam Kūfī, +&c. Further inquiry into the origin of these works is called for, +but some of them were plainly directed to stirring up fresh zeal +against the Christians. In the 6th century of the Flight some +of these books had gained so much authority that they were +used as sources, and thus many untruths crept into accepted +history.</p> +<div class="author">(M. J. de G.; G. W. T.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geography.</i>—The writing of geographical books naturally began +with the description of the Moslem world, and that for practical +purposes. Ibn Khordādhbeh, in the middle of the 9th century, +wrote a <i>Book of Roads and Provinces</i> to give an account of the highways, +the posting-stations and the revenues of the provinces. In +the same century Ya‛qūbī wrote his <i>Book of Countries</i>, describing +specially the great cities of the empire. A similar work describing +the provinces in some detail was that of Qudāma or Kodāma (d. +922). Hamdāni (<i>q.v.</i>) was led to write his great geography of Arabia +by his love for the ancient history of his land. Muqaddasi +(Mokaddasi) at the end of the 10th century was one of the early travellers +whose works were founded on their own observation. The study of +Ptolemy’s geography led to a wider outlook, and the writing of +works on geography (<i>q.v.</i>) in general. A third class of Arabian +geographical works were those written to explain the names of places +which occur in the older poets. Such books were written by Bakrī +(<i>q.v.</i>) and Yāqūt (<i>q.v.</i>)<a name="fa9k" id="fa9k" href="#ft9k"><span class="sp">9</span></a></p> + +<p><i>Grammar and Lexicography.</i>—Arab tradition ascribes the first +grammatical treatment of the language to Abū-l-Aswad ud-Du‛alī +(latter half of the 7th century), but the certain beginnings of Arabic +grammar are found a hundred years later. The Arabs from early +times have always been proud of their language, but its systematic +study seems to have arisen from contact with Persian and from the +respect for the language of the Koran. In Irāk the two towns of +Basra and Kufa produced two rival schools of philologists. Bagdad +soon had one of its own (cf. G. Flügel’s <i>Die grammatischen Schulen +der Araber</i>, Leipzig, 1862). Khalīl ibn Aḥmad (718-791), an Arab +from Omān, of the school of Basra, was the first to enunciate the +laws of Arabic metre and the first to write a dictionary. His pupil +Sibawaihi (<i>q.v.</i>), a Persian, wrote the grammar known simply as +<i>The Book</i>, which is generally regarded in the East as authoritative +and almost above criticism. Other members of the school of Basra +were Abu ‛Ubaida (<i>q.v.</i>), Asma‛ī (<i>q.v.</i>), Mubarrad (<i>q.v.</i>) and Ibn +Duraid (<i>q.v.</i>). The school of Kufa claimed to pay more attention +to the living language (spoken among the Bedouins) than to written +laws of grammar. Among its teachers were Kisā‛ī, the tutor of +Harūn al-Rashīd’s sons, Ibn A‛rābi, Ibn as-Sikkīt (d. 857) and Ibn +ul-Anbāri (885-939). In the fourth century of Islam the two schools +of Kūfa and Basra declined in importance before the increasing +power of Bagdad, where Ibn Qutaiba, Ibn Jinnī (941-1002) and +others carried on the work, but without the former rivalry of the +older schools. Persia from the beginning of the 10th century produced +some outstanding students of Arabic. Hamadhāni (d. 932) +wrote a book of synonyms (ed. L. Cheikho, Beirut, 1885). Jauharī +(<i>q.v.</i>) wrote his great dictionary the <i>Sahāh</i>. Tha‛ālibi (<i>q.v.</i>) and +Jurjānī (<i>q.v.</i>) were almost contemporary, and a little later came +Zamakhsharī (<i>q.v.</i>), whose philological works are almost as famous +as his commentary on the Koran. The most important dictionaries +of Arabic are late in origin. The immense work, <i>Lisān ul Arab</i> +(ed. 20 vols, Būlāq, 1883-1889), was compiled by Ibn Manzūr +(1232-1311), the <i>Qāmūs</i> by Fairūzābādī, the <i>Taj ul‛Arūs</i> (ed. 10 vols., +Būlāq, 1890), founded on the <i>Qāmūs</i>, by Murtadā uz-Zabīdī (1732-1790).</p> + +<p><i>Scientific Literature.</i>—The literature of the various sciences is +dealt with elsewhere. It is enough here to mention that such +existed, and that it was not indigenous. It was in the early Abbasid +period that the scientific works of Greece were translated into Arabic, +often through the Syriac, and at the same time the influence of +Sanskrit works made itself felt. Astronomy seems in this way to +have come chiefly from India. The study of mathematics learned +from Greece and India was developed by Arabian writers, who in +turn became the teachers of Europe in the 16th century. Medical +literature was indebted for its origin to the works of Galen and the +medical school of Gondesapur. Many of the Arabian philosophers +were also physicians and wrote on medicine. Chemistry proper was +not understood, but Arabian writings on alchemy led Europe to it +later. So also the literature of the animal world (cf. Damīrī) is not +zoological but legendary, and the works on minerals are practical +and not scientific. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arabian Philosophy</a></span> and historical sections +of such scientific articles as <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Astronomy</a></span>, &c.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the general history of the succeeding period see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caliphate</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>History</i>, § “Mahommedan.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> For further details of this period, see Egypt: <i>History</i>, “Mahommedan +Period,” § 8.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> On the subject of transmission cf. Th. Nöldeke’s <i>Beiträge zur +Kenntniss der Poesie der alten Araber</i> (Hanover, 1804); and W. +Ahlwardt’s <i>Bemerkungen über die Aechtheit der alten arabischen +Gedickte</i> (Greifswald, 1872).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4k" id="ft4k" href="#fa4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> For details see the introduction to Nöldeke’s translation of +Tabari’s <i>Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der Sasaniden</i> +(Leiden, 1879).</p> + +<p><a name="ft5k" id="ft5k" href="#fa5k"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Published in excerpt by Wüstenfeld along with Azraqi (Leipzig, +1857-1859).</p> + +<p><a name="ft6k" id="ft6k" href="#fa6k"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Of this work the Gotha Library has a portion containing 290-320 +A.H., of which the part about the West has been printed by Dozy in +the Bayan, and the rest was published at Leiden in 1897.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7k" id="ft7k" href="#fa7k"><span class="fn">7</span></a> A fragment (198-251 <span class="scs">A.H.</span>) is printed in de Goeje, <i>Fragm. Hist. +Ar.</i> (vol. ii., Leiden, 1871).</p> + +<p><a name="ft8k" id="ft8k" href="#fa8k"><span class="fn">8</span></a> The first part was rendered into French by Dubeux in 1836. +There is an excellent French translation by Zotenberg (1874).</p> + +<p><a name="ft9k" id="ft9k" href="#fa9k"><span class="fn">9</span></a> The chief Arabian geographical works have been edited by +M.J. de Goeje in his <i>Bibliotheca Geographorum arabicorum</i> (Leiden, +1874 ff.).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY. W<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span>hat is known as “Arabian” +philosophy owed to Arabia little more than its name and its +language. It was a system of Greek thought, expressed in a +Semitic tongue, and modified by Oriental influences, called into +existence amongst the Moslem people by the patronage of their +more liberal princes, and kept alive by the intrepidity and zeal +of a small band of thinkers, who stood suspected and disliked +in the eyes of their nation. Their chief claim to the notice of +the historian of speculation comes from their warm reception +of Greek philosophy when it had been banished from its original +soil, and whilst western Europe was still too rude and ignorant +to be its home (9th to 12th century).</p> + +<p>In the course of that exile the traces of Semitic or Mahommedan +influence gradually faded away, and the last of the line of +Saracenic thinkers was a truer exponent of the one +philosophy which they all professed to teach than +<span class="sidenote">Origin.</span> +the first. The whole movement is little else than a chapter in +the history of Aristotelianism. That system of thought, after +passing through the minds of those who saw it in the hazy +light of an orientalized Platonism, and finding many laborious +but narrow-purposed cultivators in the monastic schools of +heretical Syria, was then brought into contact with the ideas +and mental habits of Islam. But those in whom the two currents +converged did not belong to the pure Arab race. Of the so-called +Arabian philosophers of the East, al-Fārābī, Ibn-Sīnā +and al-Ghazālī were natives of Khorasan, Bokhara and the +outlying provinces of north-eastern Persia; whilst al-Kindī, +the earliest of them, sprang from Basra, on the Persian Gulf, +on the debatable ground between the Semite and the Aryan. +In Spain, again, where Ibn-Bājja, Ibn-Tufail and Ibn Rushd +rivalled or exceeded the fame of the Eastern schools, the Arabians +of pure blood were few, and the Moorish ruling class was deeply +intersected by Jewish colonies, and even by the natives of +Christian Spain. Thus, alike at Bagdad and at Cordova, Arabian +philosophy represents the temporary victory of exotic ideas +and of subject races over the theological one-sidedness of Islam, +and the illiterate simplicity of the early Saracens.</p> + +<p>Islam had, it is true, a philosophy of its own among its theologians +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahommedan Religion</a></span>). It was with them that +the Moslem theology—the science of the word (<i>Kalām</i>)—first +came into existence. Its professors, the <i>Mutākallimun</i> (known +in Hebrew as <i>Medabberim</i>, and as <i>Loquentes</i> in the Latin versions), +may be compared with the scholastic doctors of the Catholic +Church. Driven in the first instance to speculation in theology +by the needs of their natural reason, they came, in after days, +when Greek philosophy had been naturalized in the Caliphate, +to adapt its methods and doctrines to the support of their views. +They employed a quasi-philosophical method, by which, according +to Maimonides, they first reflected how things ought to be +in order to support, or at least not contradict, their opinions, +and then, when their minds were made up with regard to this +imaginary system, declared that the world was no otherwise +constituted. The dogmas of creation and providence, of divine +omnipotence, chiefly exercised them; and they sought to assert +for God an immediate action in the making and the keeping +of the world. Space they looked upon as pervaded by atoms +possessing no quality or extension, and time was similarly divided +into innumerable instants. Each change in the constitution +of the atoms is a direct act of the Almighty. When the fire +burns, or the water moistens, these terms merely express the +habitual connexion which our senses perceive between one thing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page277" id="page277"></a>277</span> +and another. It is not the man that throws a stone who is its +real mover: the supreme agent has for the moment created +motion. If a living being die, it is because God has created +the attribute of death; and the body remains dead, only because +that attribute is unceasingly created. Thus, on the one hand, +the object called the cause is denied to have any efficient power +to produce the so-called effect; and, on the other hand, the +regularities or laws of nature are explained to be direct interferences +by the Deity. The supposed uniformity and necessity +of causation is only an effect of custom, and may be at any +moment rescinded. In this way, by a theory which, according +to Averroes, involves the negation of science, the Moslem +theologians believed that they had exalted God beyond the +limits of the metaphysical and scientific conceptions of law, +form and matter; whilst they at the same time stood aloof +from the vulgar doctrines, attributing a causality to things. +Thus they deemed they had left a clear ground for the possibility +of miracles.</p> + +<p>But at least one point was common to the theological and the +philosophical doctrine. Carrying out, it may be, the principles +of the Neo-Platonists, they kept the sanctuary of the Deity +securely guarded, and interposed between him and his creatures +a spiritual order of potent principles, from the Intelligence, +which is the first-born image of the great unity, to the Soul and +Nature, which come later in the spiritual rank. Of God the +philosophers said we could not tell what He is, but only what +He is not. The highest point, beyond which strictly philosophical +inquirers did not penetrate, was the active intellect,—a sort of +soul of the world in Aristotelian garb—the principle which +inspires and regulates the development of humanity, and in +which lies the goal of perfection for the human spirit. In theological +language the active intellect is described as an angel. +The inspirations which the prophet receives by angelic messengers +are compared with the irradiation of intellectual light, which +the philosopher wins by contemplation of truth and increasing +purity of life. But while the theologian incessantly postulated +the agency of that God whose nature he deemed beyond the pale +of science, the philosopher, following a purely human and natural +aim, directed his efforts to the gradual elevation of his part of +reason from its unformed state, and to its final union with the +controlling intellect which moves and draws to itself the spirits +of those who prepare themselves for its influences. The philosophers +in their way, like the mystics of Persia (the Sufites) +in another, tended towards a theory of the communion of man +with the spiritual world, which may be considered a protest +against the practical and almost prosaic definiteness of the creed +of Mahomet.</p> + +<p>Arabian philosophy, at the outset of its career in the 9th +century, was able without difficulty to take possession of those +resources for speculative thought which the Latins had barely +achieved at the close of the 12th century by the slow process of +rediscovering the Aristotelian logic from the commentaries and +verses of Boëtius. What the Latins painfully accomplished, +owing to their fragmentary and unintelligent acquaintance with +ancient philosophy, was already done for the Arabians by the +scholars of Syria. In the early centuries of the Christian era, +both within and without the ranks of the church, the Platonic +tone and method were paramount throughout the East. Their +influence was felt in the creeds which formulated the orthodox +dogmas in regard to the Trinity and the Incarnation. But in +its later days the Neo-Platonist school came more and more to +find in Aristotle the best exponent and interpreter of the philosopher +whom they thought divine. It was in this spirit that +Porphyry, Themistius and Joannes Philoponus composed their +commentaries on the treatises of the Peripatetic system which, +modified often unconsciously by the dominant ideas of its +expositors, became in the 6th and 7th centuries the philosophy +of the Eastern Church. But the instrument which, in the hands +of John of Damascus (Damascenus), was made subservient to +theological interests, became in the hands of others a dissolvent +of the doctrines which had been reduced to shape under the prevalence +of the elder Platonism. Peripatetic studies became +the source of heresies; and conversely, the heretical sects +prosecuted the study of Aristotle with peculiar zeal. The church +of the Nestorians, and that of the Monophysites, in their several +schools and monasteries, carried on from the 5th to the 8th +century the study of the earlier part of the Organon, with almost +the same means, purposes and results as were found among the +Latin schoolmen of the earlier centuries. Up to the time when +the religious zeal of the emperor Zeno put a stop to the Nestorian +school at Edessa, this “Athens of Syria” was active in translating +and popularizing the Aristotelian logic. Their banishment +from Edessa in 489 drove the Nestorian scholars to Persia, where +the Sassanid rulers gave them a welcome; and there they continued +their labours on the Organon. A new seminary of logic +and theology sprang up at Nisibis, not far from the old locality; +and at Gandisapora (or Nishapur), in the east of Persia, there +arose a medical school, whence Greek medicine, and in its +company Greek science and philosophy, ere long spread over the +lands of Iran. Meanwhile the Monophysites had followed in +the steps of the Nestorians, multiplying Syriac versions of the +logical and medical science of the Greeks. Their school at Resaina +is known from the name of Sergius, one of the first of these translators, +in the days of Justinian; and from their monasteries +at Kinnesrin (Chalcis) issued numerous versions of the introductory +treatises of the Aristotelian logic. To the Isagoge of +Porphyry, the Categories and the Hermeneutica of Aristotle, +the labours of these Syrian schoolmen were confined. These +they expounded, translated, epitomized and made the basis of +their compilations, and the few who were bold enough to attempt +the Analytics seem to have left their task unaccomplished.</p> + +<p>The energy of the Monophysites, however, began to sink with +the rise of the Moslem empire; and when philosophy revived +amongst them in the 13th century, in the person of Gregorius +Bat-Hebraeus (Abulfaragius) (1226-1286), the revival was due +to the example and influence of the Arabian thinkers. It was +otherwise with the Nestorians. Gaining by means of their +professional skill as physicians a high rank in the society of the +Moslem world, the Nestorian scholars soon made Bagdad familiar +with the knowledge of Greek philosophy and science which they +possessed. But the narrow limits of the Syrian studies, which +added to a scanty knowledge of Aristotle some acquaintance +with his Syrian commentators, were soon passed by the curiosity +and zeal of the students in the Caliphate. During the 8th and +9th centuries, rough but generally faithful versions of Aristotle’s +principal works were made into Syriac, and then from the +Syriac into Arabic. The names of some of these translators, +such as Johannitius (Hunain ibn-Ishāq), were heard even in the +Latin schools. By the labours of Hunain and his family the +great body of Greek science, medical, astronomical and mathematical, +became accessible to the Arab-speaking races. But for +the next three centuries fresh versions, both of the philosopher +and of his commentators, continued to succeed each other.</p> + +<p>To the Arabians Aristotle represented and summed up Greek +philosophy, even as Galen became to them the code of Greek +medicine. They adopted the doctrine and system which the +progress of human affairs had made the intellectual aliment +of their Syrian guides. From first to last Arabian philosophers +made no claim to originality; their aim was merely to propagate +the truth of Peripateticism as it had been delivered to them. +It was with them that the deification of Aristotle began; and +from them the belief that in him human intelligence had reached +its limit passed to the later schoolmen (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scholasticism</a></span>). +The progress amongst the Arabians on this side lies in a closer +adherence to their text, a nearer approach to the bare exegesis +of their author, and an increasing emancipation from control +by the tenets of the popular religion.</p> + +<p>Secular philosophy found its first entrance amongst the +Saracens in the days of the early caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty, +whose ways and thoughts had been moulded by their +residence in Persia amid the influences of an older +<span class="sidenote">Under the Caliphate.</span> +creed, and of ideas which had in the last resort sprung +from the Greeks. The seat of empire had been transferred to +Bagdad, on the highway of Oriental commerce; and the distant +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278"></a>278</span> +Khorasan became the favourite province of the caliph. Then +was inaugurated the period of Persian supremacy, during which +Islam was laid open to the full current of alien ideas and culture. +The incitement came, however, not from the people, but from +the prince: it was in the light of court favour that the colleges +of Bagdad and Nishapur first came to attract students from +every quarter, from the valleys of Andalusia as well as the +upland plains of Transoxiana. Mansūr, the second of the +Abbasids, encouraged the appropriation of Greek science; but +it was al-Ma’mūn, the son of Harūn al-Rashīd, who deserves in +the Mahommedan empire the same position of royal founder +and benefactor which is held by Charlemagne in the history of +the Latin schools. In his reign (813-833) Aristotle was first +translated into Arabic. Orthodox Moslems, however, distrusted +the course on which their chief had entered, and his philosophical +proclivities became one ground for doubting as to his final +salvation.</p> + +<p>In the eastern provinces the chief names of Arabian philosophy +are those known to the Latin schoolmen as Alkindius, Aliarabius, +Avicenna and Algazel, or under forms resembling these. The +first of these, Alkindius (<i>see</i> <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kindi</a></span>), flourished at the court of +Bagdad in the first half of the 9th century. His claims to notice +at the present day rest upon a few works on medicine, theology, +music and natural science. With him begins that encyclopaedic +character—the simultaneous cultivation of the whole field of +investigation which is reflected from Aristotle on the Arabian +school. In him too is found the union of Platonism and Aristotelianism +expressed in Neo-Platonic terms. Towards the close +of the 10th century the presentation of an entire scheme of +knowledge, beginning with logic and mathematics, and ascending +through the various departments of physical inquiry to the +region of religious doctrine, was accomplished by a society +which had its chief seat at Basra, the native town of al-Kindi. +This society—the Brothers of Purity or Sincerity (Ikhwān us +Safā’i)—divided into four orders, wrought in the interests of +religion no less than of science; and though its attempt to +compile an encyclopaedia of existing knowledge may have been +premature, it yet contributed to spread abroad a desire for +further information. The proposed reconciliation between +science and faith was not accomplished, because the compromise +could please neither party. The fifty-one treatises of which +this encyclopaedia consists are interspersed with apologues +in true Oriental style, and the idea of goodness, of moral perfection, +is as prominent an end in every discourse as it was +in the alleged dream of al-Ma‛mūn. The materials of the work +come chiefly from Aristotle, but they are conceived in a Platonizing +spirit, which places as the bond of all things a universal +soul of the world with its partial or fragmentary souls. Contemporary +with this semi-religious and semi-philosophical +society lived Alfarabius (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Farābī</a></span>), who died in 950. His +paraphrases of Aristotle formed the basis on which Avicenna +constructed his system, and his logical treatises produced a +permanent effect on the logic of the Latin scholars. He gave the +tone and direction to nearly all subsequent speculations among +the Arabians. His order and enumeration of the principles +of being, his doctrine of the double aspect of intellect, and of +the perfect beatitude which consists in the aggregation of noble +minds when they are delivered from the separating barriers of +individual bodies, present at least in germ the characteristic +theory of Averroes. But al-Farābī was not always consistent +in his views; a certain sobriety checked his speculative flights, +and although holding that the true perfection of man is reached +in this life by the elevation of the intellectual nature, he came +towards the close to think the separate existence of intellect +no better than a delusion.</p> + +<p>Unquestionably the most illustrious name amongst the +Oriental Moslems was Avicenna (980-1037). His rank in the +medieval world as a philosopher was far beneath his +fame as a physician. Still, the logic of Albertus +<span class="sidenote">Avicenna.</span> +Magnus and succeeding doctors was largely indebted to him +for its formulae. In logic Avicenna starts from distinguishing +between the isolated concept and the judgment or assertion; +from which two primitive elements of knowledge there is artificially +generated a complete and scientific knowledge by the two +processes of definition and syllogism. But the chief interest +for the history of logic belongs to his doctrine in so far as it bears +upon the nature and function of abstract ideas. The question +had been suggested alike to East and West by Porphyry, and +the Arabians were the first to approach the full statement of the +problem. Farābī had pointed out that the universal and individual +are not distinguished from each other as understanding +from the senses, but that both universal and individual are in +one respect intellectual, just as in another connexion they play +a part in perception. He had distinguished the universal essence +in its abstract nature, from the universal considered in relation +to a number of singulars. These suggestions formed the basis +of Avicenna’s doctrine. The essences or forms—the <i>intelligibilia</i> +which constitute the world of real knowledge—may be looked +at in themselves (metaphysically), or as embodied in the things +of sense (physically), or as expressing the processes of thought +(logically). The first of these three points of view deals with the +form or idea as self-contained in the principles of its own being, +apart from those connexions and distinctions which it receives +in real (sensuous) science, and through the act of intellect. +Secondly, the form may be looked at as the similarity evolved +by a process of comparison, as the work of mental reflection, +and in that way as essentially expressing a relation. When +thus considered as the common features derived by examination +from singular instances, it becomes a universal or common term +strictly so called. It is intellect which first makes the abstract +idea a true universal. <i>Intellectus in formis agit universalitatem.</i> +In the third place, the form or essence may be looked upon as +embodied in outward things (<i>in singularibus propriis</i>), and +thus it is the type more or less represented by the members +of a natural kind. It is the designation of these outward things +which forms the “first intention” of names; and it is only at a +later stage, when thought comes to observe its own modes, +that names, looked upon as predicables and universals, are taken +in their “second intention.” Logic deals with such second intentions. +It does not consider the forms <i>ante multiplicitatem</i>, +<i>i.e.</i> as eternal ideas—nor in <i>multiplicitate</i>, <i>i.e.</i> as immersed in the +matter of the phenomenal world—but <i>post multiplicitatem</i>, <i>i. e.</i> +as they exist in and for the intellect which has examined and +compared. Logic does not come in contact with things, except +as they are subject to modification by intellectual forms. In +other words, universality, individuality and speciality are all +equally modes of our comprehension or notion; their meaning +consists in their setting forth the relations attaching to any +object of our conception. In the mind, <i>e.g.</i>, one form may be +placed in reference to a multitude of things, and as thus related +will be universal. The form animal, <i>e.g.</i>, is an abstract intelligible +or metaphysical idea. When an act of thought employs it as +a schema to unify several species, it acquires its logical aspect +(<i>respectus</i>) of generality; and the various living beings qualified +to have the name animal applied to them constitute the natural +class or kind. Avicenna’s view of the universal may be compared +with that of Abelard, which calls it “that whose nature +it is to be predicated of several,” as if the generality became +explicit only in the act of predication, in the <i>sermo</i> or proposition, +and not in the abstract, unrelated form or essence. The three +modes of the universal before things, in things, and after things, +spring from Arabian influence, but depart somewhat from his +standpoint.</p> + +<p>The place of Avicenna amongst Moslem philosophers is seen in +the fact that Shahrastānī takes him as the type of all, and that +Ghazālī’s attack against philosophy is in reality almost entirely +directed against Avicenna. His system is in the main a codification +of Aristotle modified by fundamental views of Neo-Platonist +origin, and it tends to be a compromise with theology. In order, +for example, to maintain the necessity of creation, he taught that +all things except God were admissible or possible in their own +nature, but that certain of them were rendered necessary by +the act of the creative first agent,—in other words, that the +possible could be transformed into the necessary. Avicenna’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279"></a>279</span> +theory of the process of knowledge is an interesting part of his +doctrine. Man has a rational soul, one face of which is turned +towards the body, and, by the help of the higher aspect, acts as +practical understanding; the other face lies open to the reception +and acquisition of the intelligible forms, and its aim is to become +a reasonable world, reproducing the forms of the universe and +their intelligible order. In man there is only the susceptibility +to reason, which is sustained and helped by the light of the active +intellect. Man may prepare himself for this influx by removing +the obstacles which prevent the union of the intellect with the +human vessel destined for its reception. The stages of this +process to the acquisition of mind are generally enumerated by +Avicenna as four; in this part he follows not Aristotle, but the +Greek commentator. The first stage is that of the hylic or +material intellect, a state of mere potentiality, like that of a child +for writing, before he has ever put pen to paper. The second +stage is called <i>in habitu</i>; it is compared to the case of a child +that has learned the elements of writing, when the bare possibility +is on the way to be developed, and is seen to be real. In +this period of half-trained reason, it appears as happy conjecture, +not yet transformed into art or science proper. When the power +of writing has been actualized, we have a parallel to the <i>intellectus +in actu</i>—the way of science and demonstration is entered. And +when writing has been made a permanent accomplishment, +or lasting property of the subject, to be taken up at will, it +corresponds to the <i>intellectus adeptus</i>—the complete mastery +of science. The whole process may be compared to the gradual +illumination of a body naturally capable of receiving light. +There are, however, grades of susceptibility to the active intellect, +<i>i.e.</i> in theological language, to communication with God and +his angels. Sometimes the receptivity is so vigorous in its +affinity, that without teaching it rises at one step to the vision +of truth, by a certain “holy force” above ordinary measure. +(In this way philosophy tried to account for the phenomenon +of prophecy, one of the ruling ideas of Islam.) But the active +intellect is not merely influential on human souls. It is the +universal giver of forms in the world.</p> + +<p>In several points Avicenna endeavoured to give a <i>rationale</i> +of theological dogmas, particularly of prophetic rule, of miracles, +divine providence and immortality. The permanence of individual +souls he supports by arguments borrowed from those +of Plato. The existence of a prophet is shown to be a corollary +from a belief in God as a moral governor, and the phenomena +of miracles are required to evidence the genuineness of the +prophetic mission. Thus Avicenna, like his predecessors, +tried to harmonize the abstract forms of philosphy with the +religious faith of his nation. But his arguments are generally +vitiated by the fallacy of assuming what they profess to prove. +His failure is made obvious by the attack of Ghazali on the +tendencies and results of speculation.</p> + +<p>To Ghazālī (<i>q.v.</i>) it seemed that the study of secular philosophy +had resulted in a general indifference to religion, and that the +scepticism which concealed itself under a pretence of +piety was destroying the life and purity of the nation. +<span class="sidenote">Ghazālī.</span> +With these views he carried into the fields of philosophy the aims +and spirit of the Moslem theologian. His restless life was the +reflex of a mental history disturbed by prolonged agitation. +Revolting, in the height of his success, against the current +creed, he began to examine the foundations of knowledge. The +senses are contradicted by one another, and disproved by +reason. Reason, indeed, professes to furnish us with necessary +truths; but what assurance have we that the verdicts of reason +may not be reversed by some higher authority? Ghazālī then +interrogated all the sects in succession to learn their criterion of +truth. He first applied to the theological schoolmen, who +grounded their religion on reason; but their aim was only to +preserve the faith from heresy. He turned to the philosophers, +and examined the accepted Aristotelianism in a treatise which +has come down to us—<i>The Destruction of the Philosophers</i>. He +assails them on twenty points of their mixed physical and metaphysical +peripateticism, from the statement of which, in spite +of his pretended scepticism, we can deduce some very positive +metaphysical opinions of his own. He claims to have shown +that the dogmas of the eternity of matter and the permanence +of the world are false; that their description of the Deity as +the demiurgos is unspiritual; that they fail to prove the existence, +the unity, the simplicity, the incorporeality or the knowledge +(both of species and accidents) of God; that their ascription +of souls to the celestial spheres is unproved; that their theory +of causation, which attributes effects to the very natures of +the causes, is false, for that all actions and events are to be +ascribed to the Deity; and, finally, that they cannot establish +the spirituality of the soul, nor prove its mortality. These criticisms +disclose nothing like a sceptical state of mind, but rather +a reversion from the metaphysical to the theological stage of +thought. He denies the intrinsic tendencies, or souls, by which +the Aristotelians explained the motion of the spheres, because +he ascribes their motion to God. The sceptic would have denied +both. G.H. Lewes censures Renan for asserting of Ghazālī’s +theory of causation—“<i>Hume n’a rien dit plus</i>.” It is true that +Ghazālī maintains that the natural law according to which effects +proceed inevitably from their causes is only custom, and that +there is no <i>necessary</i> connexion between them. But while Hume +absolutely denies the necessity, Ghazālī merely removes it one +stage farther back, and plants it in the mind of the Deity. This, +of course, is not metaphysics, but theology. Having, as he +believed, refuted the opinions of the philosophers, he next investigated +the pretensions of the Allegorists, who derived their +doctrines from an imam. These Arabian ultramontanes had +no word for the doubter. They could not, he says, even understand +the problems they sought to resolve by the assumption +of infallibility, and he turned again, in his despair, to the instructors +of his youth—the Sūfīs. In their mystical intuition +of the laws of life, and absorption in the immanent Deity, he at +last found peace. This shows the true character of the treatise +which, alike in medieval and modern times, has been quoted as +containing an exposition of his opinions. The work called <i>The +Tendencies of the Philosophers</i>, translated in 1506, with the title +<i>Logica et Philosophia Algazelis Arabis</i>, contains neither the logic +nor the philosophy of Ghazālī. It is a mere abstract or statement +of the Peripatetic systems, and was made preliminary to +that <i>Destruction</i> of which we have already spoken.</p> + +<p>This indictment against liberal thought from the standpoint +of the theological school was afterwards answered in Spain by +Averroes; but in Bagdad it heralded the extinction of the light +of philosophy. Moderate and compliant with the popular +religion as Alfarabius and Avicenna had always been, as compared +with their Spanish successor, they had equally failed to +conciliate the popular spirit, and were classed in the same category +with the heretic or the member of an immoral sect. The +12th century exhibits the decay of liberal intellectual activity +in the Caliphate, and the gradual ascendancy of Turkish races +animated with all the intolerance of semi-barbarian proselytes +to the Mahommedan faith. Philosophy, which had only sprung +up when the purely Arabian influences ceased to predominate, +came to an end when the sceptre of the Moslem world passed +away from the dynasty of Persia. Even in 1150 Bagdad had +seen a library of philosophical books burned by command of the +caliph Mostanjid; and in 1192 the same place might have witnessed +a strange scene, in which the books of a physician were +first publicly cursed, and then committed to the flames, while +their owner was incarcerated. Thus, while the Latin church +showed a marvellous receptivity for ethnic philosophy, and +assimilated doctrines which it had at an earlier date declared +impious, in Islam the theological system entrenched itself +towards the end of the 12th century in the narrow orthodoxy +of the Asharites, and reduced the votaries of Greek philosophy +to silence.</p> + +<p>The same phenomena were repeated in Spain under the +Mahommedan rulers of Andalusia and Morocco, with this +difference, that the time of philosophical development +was shorter, and the heights to which Spanish thinkers +<span class="sidenote">In Spain.</span> +soared were greater. The reign of al-Hakam the Second (961-976) +inaugurated in Andalusia those scientific and philosophical +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page280" id="page280"></a>280</span> +studies which were simultaneously prosecuted by the Society +of Basra. From Cairo, Bagdad, Damascus and Alexandria, +books both old and new were procured at any price for the library +of the prince; twenty-seven free schools were opened in Cordova +for the education of the poor; and intelligent knowledge was +perhaps more widely diffused in Mahommedan Spain than in +any other part of Europe at that day. The mosques of the city +were filled with crowds who listened to lectures on science and +literature, law and religion. But the future glory thus promised +was long postponed. The usurping successor of Hakam +found it a politic step to request the most notable doctors of the +sacred law to examine the royal library; and every book treating +of philosophy, astronomy and other forbidden topics was +condemned to the flames. But the spirit of research, fostered +by the fusion of races and the social and intellectual competition +thus engendered, was not crushed by these proceedings; and +for the next century and more the higher minds of Spain found +in Damascus and Bagdad the intellectual aliment which they +desired. At last, towards the close of the 11th century, the +long-pent spiritual energies of Mahommedan Spain burst forth +in a brief series of illustrious men. Whilst the native Spaniards +were narrowing the limits of the Moorish kingdoms, and whilst +the generally fanatical dynasty of the Almohades might have +been expected to repress speculation, the century preceding +the close of Mahommedan sway saw philosophy cultivated +by Avempace, Abubacer and Averroes. Even amongst the +Almohades there were princes, such as Yusūf (who began his +reign in 1163) and Yaqūb Almansūr (who succeeded in 1184), +who welcomed the philosopher at their courts and treated him +as an intellectual compeer. But about 1195 the old distrust of +philosophy revived; the philosophers were banished in disgrace; +works on philosophical topics were ordered to be confiscated and +burned; and the son of Almansūr condemned a certain Ibn-Habīb +to death for the crime of philosophizing.</p> + +<p>Arabian speculation in Spain was heralded by Avicebron or +Ibn Gabirol (<i>q.v.</i>), a Jewish philosopher (1021-1058). About +a generation later the rank of Moslem thinkers was +introduced by Abū-Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya, +<span class="sidenote">Avempace.</span> +surnamed Ibn-Bājja, and known to the Latin world as Avempace. +He was born at Saragossa, and died comparatively young +at Fez in 1138. Besides commenting on various physical +treatises of Aristotle’s, he wrote some philosophical essays, +notably one on the <i>Republic or Régime of the Solitary</i>, understanding +by that the organized system of rules, by obedience to +which the individual may rise from the mere life of the senses +to the perception of pure intelligible principles and may participate +in the divine thought which sustains the world. These +rules for the individual are but the image or reflex of the political +organization of the perfect or ideal state; and the man who +strives to lead this life is called the <i>solitary</i>, not because he withdraws +from society, but because, while in it, he guides himself +by reference to a higher state, an ideal society. Avempace +does not develop at any length this curious Platonic idea of the +perfect state. His object is to discover the highest end of human +life, and with this view he classifies the various activities of the +human soul, rejects such as are material or animal, and then +analyses the various spiritual forms to which the activities may +be directed. He points out the graduated scale of such forms, +through which the soul may rise, and shows that none are final +or complete in themselves, except the pure intelligible forms, +the ideas of ideas. These the intellect can grasp, and in so +doing it becomes what he calls <i>intellectus acquisitus</i>, and is in a +measure divine. This self-consciousness of pure reason is the +highest object of human activity, and is to be attained by the +speculative method. The intellect has in itself power to know +ultimate truth and intelligence, and does not require a mystical +illumination as Ghazālī taught. Avempace’s principles, it is +clear, lead directly to the Averroistic doctrine of the unity of +intellect, but the obscurity and incompleteness of the Regime +do not permit us to judge how far he anticipated the later thinker. +(See Munk, <i>Mélanges de phil. juive et arabe</i>, pp. 383-410.)</p> + +<p>The same theme was developed by Ibn.-Ṭufail (<i>q.v.</i>) in his +philosophical romance, called <i>Hayy ibn-Yakdhān</i> (the Living, +Son of the Waking One), best known by Pococke’s Latin version, +as the <i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i>. It describes the process by +which an isolated truth-seeker detaches himself from his lower +passions, and raises himself above the material earth and the orbs +of heaven to the forms which are the source of their movement, +until he arrives at a union with the supreme intellect. The +experiences of the religious mystic are paralleled with the +ecstatic vision in which the philosophical hermit sees a world +of pure intelligences, where birth and decease are unknown. +It was this theory which Averroes (1126-1198), the last and +most famous of the thinkers of Moslem Spain, carried out to his +doctrine of the unity of intellect.</p> + +<p>For Aristotle the reverence of Averroes was unbounded, +and to expound him was his chosen task. The uncritical receptivity +of his age, the defects of the Arabic versions, +the emphatic theism of his creed, and the rationalizing +<span class="sidenote">Averroes.</span> +mysticism of some Oriental thought, may have sometimes led +him astray, and given prominence to the less obvious features +of Aristotelianism. But in his conception of the relation +between philosophy and religion, Averroes had a light which +the Latins were without. The science, falsely so called, of the +several theological schools, their groundless distinctions and +sophistical demonstrations, he regarded as the great source +of heresy and scepticism. The allegorical interpretations and +metaphysics which had been imported into religion had taken +men’s minds away from the plain sense of the Koran. God had +declared a truth meet for all men, which needed no intellectual +superiority to understand, in a tongue which each human soul +could apprehend. Accordingly, the expositors of religious +metaphysics, Ghazālī included, are the enemies of true religion, +because they make it a mere matter of syllogism. Averroes +maintains that a return must be made to the words and teaching +of the prophet; that science must not expend itself in dogmatizing +on the metaphysical consequences of fragments of doctrine +for popular acceptance, but must proceed to reflect upon and +examine the existing things of the world. Averroes, at the same +time, condemns the attempts of those who tried to give demonstrative +science where the mind was not capable of more than +rhetoric: they harm religion by their mere negations, destroying +an old sensuous creed, but cannot build up a higher and +intellectual faith.</p> + +<p>In this spirit Averroes does not allow the fancied needs of +theological reasoning to interfere with his study of Aristotle, +whom he simply interprets as a truth-seeker. The points by +which he told on Europe were all implicit in Aristotle, but +Averroes set in relief what the original had left obscure, and +emphasized things which the Christian theologian passed by or +misconceived. Thus Averroes had a double effect. He was +the great interpreter of Aristotle to the later Schoolmen. On the +other hand, he came to represent those aspects of Peripateticism +most alien to the spirit of Christendom; and the deeply religious +Moslem gave his name to the anti-sacerdotal party, to the +materialists, sceptics and atheists, who defied or undermined +the dominant beliefs of the church.</p> + +<p>On three points Averroes, like other Moslem thinkers, came +specially into relation, real or supposed, with the religious creed, +viz. the creation of the world, the divine knowledge of particular +things, and the future of the human soul.</p> + +<p>The real grandeur of Averroes is seen in his resolute prosecution +of the standpoint of science in matters of this world, and in his +recognition that religion is not a branch of knowledge to be +reduced to propositions and systems of dogma, but a personal +and inward power, an individual truth which stands distinct +from, but not contradictory to, the universalities of scientific +law. In his science he followed the Greeks, and to the Schoolmen +he and his compatriots rightly seemed philosophers of the +ancient world. He maintained alike the claim of demonstrative +science with its generalities for the few who could live in that +ethereal world, and the claim of religion for all—the common +life of each soul as an individual and personal consciousness. +But theology, or the mixture of the two, he regarded as a source +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page281" id="page281"></a>281</span> +of evil to both—fostering the vain belief in a hostility of philosophers +to religion, and meanwhile corrupting religion by a +pseudo-science.</p> + +<p>The latent nominalism of Aristotle only came gradually to +be emphasized through the prominence which Christianity +gave to the individual life, and, apart from passing notices as +in Abelard, first found clear enunciation in the school of Duns +Scotus. The Arabians, on the contrary, emphasized the idealist +aspect which had been adopted and promoted by the Neo-Platonist +commentators. Hence, to Averroes the eternity of the +world finds its true expression in the eternity of God. The +ceaseless movement of growth and change, which presents +matter in form after form as a continual search after a finality +which in time and movement is not and cannot be reached, +represents only the aspect the world shows to the physicist and +to the senses. In the eye of reason the full fruition of this desired +finality is already and always attained; the actualization, invisible +to the senses, is achieved now and ever, and is thus beyond +the element of time. This transcendent or abstract being is that +which the world of nature is always seeking. He is thought or +intellect, the actuality, of which movement is but the fragmentary +attainment in successive instants of time. Such a mind +is not in the theological sense a creator, yet the onward movement +is not the same as what some modern thinkers seem to +mean by development. For the perfect and absolute, the consummation +of movement is not generated at any point in the +process; it is an ideal end, which guides the operations of nature, +and does not wait upon them for its achievement. God is the +unchanging essence of the movement, and therefore its eternal +cause.</p> + +<p>A special application of this relation between the prior perfect, +and the imperfect, which it influences, is found in the doctrine +of the connexion of the abstract (transcendent) intellect with +man. This transcendent mind is sometimes connected with +the moon, according to the theory of Aristotle, who assigned +an imperishable matter to the sphere beyond the sublunary, +and in general looked upon the celestial orbs as living and intelligent. +Such an intellect, named active or productive, as being +the author of the development of reason in man, is the permanent, +eternal thought, which is the truth of the cosmic and physical +movement. It is in man that the physical or sensible passes +most evidently into the metaphysical and rational. Humanity +is the chosen vessel in which the light of the intellect is revealed; +and so long as mankind lasts there must always be some individuals +destined to receive this light. What seems from the +material point of view to be the acquisition of learning, study +and a moral life, is from the higher point of view the manifestation +of the transcendent intellect in the individual. The preparation +of the heart and faculties gives rise to a series of grades +between the original predisposition and the full acquisition of +actual intellect. These grades in the main resemble those given +by Avicenna. But beyond these, Averroes claims as the highest +bliss of the soul a union in this life with the actual intellect. +The intellect, therefore, is one and continuous in all individuals, +who differ only in the degree which their illumination has +attained. Such was the Averroist doctrine of the unity of +intellect—the eternal and universal nature of true intellectual life. +By his interpreters it was transformed into a theory of one soul +common to all mankind, and when thus corrupted conflicted +not unreasonably with the doctrines of a future life, common +to Islam and Christendom.</p> + +<p>Averroes, rejected by his Moslem countrymen, found a hearing +among the Jews, to whom Maimonides had shown the free paths +of Greek speculation. In the cities of Languedoc and +of Provence to which they had been driven by Spanish +<span class="sidenote">Opponents of Averoism.</span> +fanaticism, the Jews no longer used the learned Arabic, +and translations of the works of Averroes became +necessary. His writings became the text-book of Levi ben +Gerson at Perpignan, and of Moses of Narbonne. Meanwhile, +before 1250, Averroes became accessible to the Latin Schoolmen +by means of versions, accredited by the names of Michael Scot +and others. William of Auvergne is the first Schoolman who +criticizes the doctrines of Averroes, not, however, by name. +Albertus Magnus and St Thomas devote special treatises to an +examination of the Averroist theory of the unity of intellect, +which they labour to confute in order to establish the orthodoxy +of Aristotle. But as early as Aegidius Romanus (1247-1316). +Averroes had been stamped as the patron of indifference to +theological dogmas, and credited with the emancipation which +was equally due to wider experience and the lessons of the +Crusades. There had never been an absence of protest against +the hierarchical doctrine. Berengar of Tours (11th century) had +struggled in that interest, and with Abelard, in the 12th century, +the revolt against authority in belief grew loud. The dialogue +between a Christian, a Jew and a philosopher suggested a comparative +estimate of religions, and placed the natural religion of +the moral law above all positive revelations. Nihilists and +naturalists, who deified logic and science at the expense of +faith, were not unknown at Paris in the days of John of Salisbury. +In such a critical generation the words of Averroism +found willing ears, and pupils who outran their teacher. Paris +became the centre of a sceptical society, which the decrees of +bishops and councils, and the enthusiasm of the orthodox doctors +and knights-errant of Catholicism, were powerless to extinguish. +At Oxford Averroes told more as the great commentator. In +the days of Roger Bacon he had become an authority. Bacon, +placing him beside Aristotle and Avicenna, recommends the +study of Arabic as the only way of getting the knowledge which +bad versions made almost hopeless. In Duns Scotus, Averroes +and Aristotle are the unequalled masters of the science of proof; +and he pronounces distinctly the separation between Catholic +and philosophical truth, which became the watchword of Averroism. +By the 14th century Averroism was the common leaven +of philosophy; John Baconthorpe is the chief of Averroists, and +Walter Burley has similar tendencies.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Averrcism had come to be regarded by the great +Dominican school as the arch-enemy of the truth. When the +emperor Frederick II. consulted a Moslem free-thinker on the +mysteries of the faith, when the phrase or legend of the “Three +Impostors” presented in its most offensive form the scientific +survey of the three laws of Moses, Christ and Mahomet, and +when the characteristic doctrines of Averroes were misunderstood, +it soon followed that his name became the badge of the +scoffer and the sceptic. What had begun with the subtle disputes +of the universities of Paris, went on to the materialist +teachers in the medical schools and the sceptical men of the world +in the cities of northern Italy. The patricians of Venice and +the lecturers of Padua made Averroism synonymous with +doubt and criticism in theology, and with sarcasm against the +hierarchy. Petrarch refuses to believe that any good thing can +come out of Arabia, and speaks of Averroes as a mad dog barking +against the church. In works of contemporary art Averroes +is at one time the comrade of Mahomet and Antichrist; at +another he lies with Arius and Sabellius, vanquished by the +lance of St Thomas.</p> + +<p>It was in the universities of north Italy that Averroism +finally settled, and there for three centuries it continued as +a stronghold of Scholasticism to resist the efforts of +revived antiquity and of advancing science. Padua +<span class="sidenote">The school of Padua.</span> +became the seat of Averroist Aristotelianism; and, +when Padua was conquered by Venice in 1405, the printers of +the republic spread abroad the teaching of the professors in the +university. As early as 1300, at Padua, Petrus Aponensis, a +notable expositor of medical theories, had betrayed a heterodoxy +in faith; and John of Jandun, one of the pamphleteers on the +side of Louis of Bavaria, was a keen follower of Averroes, whom +he styles a “perfect and most glorious physicist.” Urbanus +of Bologna, Paul of Venice (d. 1428), and Cajetanus de Thienis +(1387-1465), established by their lectures and their discussions +the authority of Averroes; and a long list of manuscripts rests +in the libraries of Lombardy to witness the diligence of these +writers and their successors. Even a lady of Venice, Cassandra +Fedele, in 1480, gained her laurels in defence of Averroist theses.</p> + +<p>With Pietro Pomponazzi (<i>q.v.</i>) in 1495, a brilliant epoch began +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page282" id="page282"></a>282</span> +for the school of Padua. Questions of permanent and present +interest took the place of outworn scholastic problems. The +disputants ranged themselves under the rival commentators, +Alexander and Averroes; and the immortality of the soul became +the battle-ground of the two parties. Pomponazzi defended the +Alexandrist doctrine of the utter mortality of the soul, whilst +Agostino Nifo (<i>q.v.</i>), the Averroist, was entrusted by Leo X. +with the task of defending the Catholic doctrine. The parties +seemed to have changed when Averroism thus took the side of +the church; but the change was probably due to compulsion. +Nifo had edited the works of Averroes (1495-1497); but his +expressions gave offence to the dominant theologians, and he +had to save himself by distinguishing his personal faith from his +editorial capacity. Alessandro Achillini, the persistent philosophical +adversary of Pomponazzi, both at Padua and subsequently +at Bologna, attempted, along with other moderate but +not brilliant Averroists, to accommodate their philosophical +theory with the requirements of Catholicism. It was this comparatively +mild Averroism, reduced to the merely explanatory +activity of a commentator, which continued to be the official +dogma at Padua during the 16th century. Its typical representative +is Marc-Antonio Zimara (d. 1552), the author of a reconciliation +between the tenets of Averroes and those of Aristotle.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, in 1497, Aristotle was for the first time expounded +in Greek at Padua. Plato had long been the favourite study +at Florence; and Humanists, like Erasmus, Ludovicus +Vives and Nizolius, enamoured of the popular philosophy +<span class="sidenote">Summary.</span> +of Cicero and Quintilian, poured out the vials of their +contempt on scholastic barbarism with its “impious and thrice-accursed +Averroes.” The editors of Averroes complain that +the popular taste had forsaken them for the Greek. Nevertheless, +while Fallopius, Vesalius and Galileo were claiming attention +to their discoveries, G. Zabarella, Francesco Piccolomini +(1520-1604) and Cesare Cremonini (1550-1631) continued the +traditions of Averroism, not without changes and additions. +Cremonini, the last of them, died in 1631, after lecturing twelve +years at Ferrara, and forty at Padua. The great educational +value of Arabian philosophy for the later schoolmen consisted +in its making them acquainted with an entire Aristotle. At +the moment when it seemed as if everything had been made +that could be made out of the fragments of Aristotle, and the +compilations of Capella, Cassiodorus and others, and when +mysticism and scepticism seemed the only resources left for +the mind, the horizon of knowledge was suddenly widened by +the acquisition of a complete Aristotle. Thus the mistakes +inevitable in the isolated study of an imperfect <i>Organon</i> could +not henceforth be made. The real bearing of old questions, +and the meaninglessness of many disputes, were seen in the +new conception of Aristotelianism given by the <i>Metaphysics</i> +and other treatises. The former Realism and Nominalism were +lifted into a higher phase by the principle of the universalizing +action of intellect—<i>Intellectus in formis agit universalitatem</i>. +The commentaries of the Arabians in this respect supplied +nutriment more readily assimilated by the pupils than the pure +text would have been.</p> + +<p>Arabian philosophy, whilst it promoted the exegesis of Aristotle +and increased his authority, was not less notable as the source +of the separation between theology and philosophy. Speculation +fell on irreligious paths. In many cases the heretical movement +was due less to foreign example than to the indwelling tendencies +of the dominant school of realism. But it is not less certain that +the very considerable freedom of the Arabians from theological +bias prepared the time when philosophy shook off its ecclesiastical +vestments. In the hurry of first terror, the church struck +Aristotle with the anathema launched against innovations in +philosophy. The provincial council of Paris in 1209, which +condemned Amalricus and his followers, as well as David of +Dinant’s works, forbade the study of Aristotle’s <i>Natural Philosophy</i> +and the <i>Commentaries</i>. In 1215 the same prohibition +was repeated, specifying the <i>Metaphysics</i> and <i>Physics</i>, and the +<i>Commentaries</i> by the Spaniard Mauritius (<i>i.e.</i> probably Averroes). +Meanwhile Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, accepting +the exegetical services of the Arabians, did their best to controvert +the obnoxious doctrine of the Intellect, and to defend the +orthodoxy of Aristotle against the unholy glosses of infidels. +But it is doubtful whether even they kept as pure from the +infection of illegitimate doctrine as they supposed. The tide +meanwhile flowed in stronger and stronger. In 1270 Étienne +Tempier, bishop of Paris, supported by an assembly of theologians, +anathematized thirteen propositions bearing the stamp +of Arabian authorship; but in 1277 the same views and others +more directly offensive to Christians and theologians had to be +censured again. Raymond Lully, in a dialogue with an infidel +thinker, broke a lance in support of the orthodox doctrine, and +carried on a crusade against the Arabians in every university; +and a disciple of Thomas Aquinas drew up a list (<i>De erroribus +philosophorum</i>) of the several delusions and errors of each of +the thinkers from Kindi to Averroes. Strong in their conviction +of the truth of Aristotelianism, the Arabians carried out their +logical results in the theological field, and made the distinction +of necessary and possible, of form and matter, the basis of conclusions +in the most momentous questions. They refused to +accept the doctrine of creation because it conflicted with the +explanation of forms as the necessary evolution of matter. +They denied the particular providence of God, because knowledge +in the divine sphere did not descend to singulars. They excluded +the Deity from all direct action upon the world, and +substituted for a cosmic principle the active intellect,—thus +holding a form of Pantheism. But all did not go the same length +in their divergence from the popular creed.</p> + +<p>The half-legendary accounts which attribute the introduction +of Arabian science to Gerbert, afterwards Pope Sylvester II., +to Constantinus Africanus and to Adelard of Bath, if they have +any value, refer mainly to medical science and mathematics. +It was not till about the middle of the 12th century that under +the patronage of Raymond, archbishop of Toledo, a society of +translators, with the archdeacon Dominicus Gundisalvi at their +head, produced Latin versions of the <i>Commentaries</i> of Avicenna, +and Ghazali, of the <i>Fons Vitae</i> of Avicebron, and of several +Aristotelian treatises. The working translators were converted +Jews, the best-known among them being Joannes Avendeath. +With this effort began the chief translating epoch for Arabic +works. Avicenna’s <i>Canon of Medicine</i> was first translated into +Latin by Gerard of Cremona (d. 1187), to whom versions of other +medical and astronomical works are due. The movement +towards introducing Arabian science and philosophy into Europe, +however, culminated under the patronage of the emperor +Frederick II. (1212-1250). Partly from superiority to the +narrowness of his age, and partly in the interest of his struggle +with the Papacy, this <i>Malleus ecclesiae Romanae</i> drew to his +court those savants whose pursuits were discouraged by the +church, and especially students in the forbidden lore of the +Arabians. He is said to have pensioned Jews for purposes of +translation. One of the scholars to whom Frederick gave a +welcome was Michael Scot, the first translator of Averroes. +Scot had sojourned at Toledo about 1217, and had accomplished +the versions of several astronomical and physical treatises, +mainly, if we believe Roger Bacon, by the labours of a Jew named +Andrew. But Bacon is apparently hypercritical in his estimate of +the translators from the Arabic. Another protégé of Frederick’s +was Hermann the German (Alemannus), who, between the years +1243 and 1256, translated amongst other things a paraphrase of +al-Fārābī on the <i>Rhetoric</i>, and of Averroes on the <i>Poetics</i> and +<i>Ethics</i> of Aristotle. Jewish scholars held an honourable place +in transmitting the Arabian commentators to the schoolmen. +It was amongst them, especially in Maimonides, that Aristotelianism +found refuge after the light of philosophy was extinguished +in Islam; and the Jewish family of the Ben-Tibbon +were mainly instrumental in making Averroes known to southern +France.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See S. Munk, <i>Mélanges de philosophie juive et arabe</i> (Paris, 1859); +E. Renan, <i>De Philosophia Peripatetica apud Syros</i> (1852), and +<i>Averroës et l’Averroisme</i> (Paris, 3rd ed., 1867); Am. Jourdain, +<i>Recherches critiques sur l’âge et l’origine des traductions latines +d’Aristote</i> (Paris, 2<span class="sp">me</span> ed., 1843); B. Hauréau, <i>Philosophie scolastique</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page283" id="page283"></a>283</span> +(Paris, 1850), tome i. p. 359; E. Vacherot, <i>École d’Alexandrie</i> +(1846-1851), tome iii. p. 85; Schmolders, <i>Documenta philosophiae +Arabum</i> (Bonn, 1836), and <i>Essai sur les écoles philosophiques chez les +Arabes</i> (Paris, 1842); Shahrastani, <i>History of Religious and Philosophical +Sects</i>, in German translation by Haarbrücker (Halle, 1850-1851); +Dieterici, <i>Streit zwischen Mensch und Thier</i> (Berlin, 1858), +and his other translations of the <i>Encyclopaedia of the Brothers of +Sincerity</i> (1861 to 1872); T.J. de Boer, <i>The History of Philosophy +in Islam</i> (London, 1903); K. Prantl, <i>Geschichte der Logik</i> (Leipzig, +1861); and the Histories of Philosophy; also the literature under +the biographies of philosophers mentioned.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. W.; G. W. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARABIAN SEA<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (anc. <i>Mare Erythraeum</i>), the name applied +to the portion of the Indian Ocean bounded E. by India, N. by +Baluchistan and part of the southern Persian littoral, W. by +Arabia, and S., approximately, by a line between Cape Guardafui, +the north-east point of Somaliland, and Cape Comorin in India. +It has two important branches—at the south-west the Gulf of +Aden, connecting with the Red Sea through the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb; +and at the north-west the Gulf of Oman, connecting +with the Persian Gulf. Besides these larger ramifications, there +are the Gulfs of Cambay and Kach on the Indian coast. An +interest and importance belong to this sea as forming part of the +chief highway between Europe and India. Its islands are few +and insignificant, the chief being Sokotra, off the African, and +the Laccadives, off the Indian coast.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARABICI,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> a religious sect originating about the beginning of +the 3rd century, which is mentioned by Augustine (<i>De Haeres</i>. +c. lxxxiii.), and called also <span class="grk" title="thnetopseuchitai">θνητοψυχίται</span> (“mortal-souled”) by +John of Damascus (<i>De Haeres</i>. c. xc.) The name is given to +the Arabians mentioned by Eusebius (<i>Hist. Eccl</i>. vi. 37), whose +distinctive doctrine was a form of Christian materialism, showing +itself in the belief that the soul perished and was restored to life +along with the body. We may compare Tatian’s view of the +soul as a subtler variety of matter. According to Eusebius, +they were convinced of their error by Origen, and renounced it +at a council held about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 246.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARABI PASHA<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1839-  ), more correctly <span class="sc">Ahmad ‛Arābī</span>, +to which in later years he added the epithet <i>al-Misrī</i>, “the +Egyptian,” Egyptian soldier and revolutionary leader, was born +in Lower Egypt in 1839 or 1840 of a fellah family. Having +entered the army as a conscript he was made an officer by Said +Pasha in 1862, and was employed in the transport department +in the Abyssinian campaign of 1875 under Ismail Pasha. A +charge of peculation, unproved, was made against him in connexion +with this expedition and he was placed on half-pay. +During this time he joined a secret society formed by Ali Rubi +with the object of getting rid of Turkish officers from the +Egyptian army. Arabi also attended lectures at the mosque +El Azhar and acquired a reputation as an orator. In 1878 he +was employed by Ismail in fomenting a disturbance against the +ministry of Nubar, Rivers Wilson and de Blignières, and received +in payment a wife from Ismail’s harem and the command of a +regiment. This increased his influence with the secret society, +which, under the feeble government of Tewfik Pasha and the +Dual Control, began to agitate against Europeans. In all that +followed Arabi was put forward as the leader of the discontented +Egyptians; he was in reality little more than the mouthpiece +and puppet of abler men such as Ali Rubi and Mahmud +Sami. On the 1st of February 1881 Arabi and two other +Egyptian colonels, summoned before a court-martial for acts +of disobedience, were rescued by their soldiers, and the khedive +was forced to dismiss his then minister of war in favour of +Mahmud Sami. A military demonstration on the 8th of +September 1881, led by Arabi, forced the khedive to increase +the numbers and pay of the army, to substitute Sherif Pasha +for Riaz Pasha as prime minister, and to convene an assembly +of notables. Arabi became under-secretary for war at the +beginning of 1882, but continued his intrigues. The assembly +of notables claimed the right of voting the budget, and thus +came into conflict with the foreign controllers who had been +appointed to guard the interests of the bondholders in the +management of the Egyptian finances. Sherif fell in February, +Mahmud Sami became prime minister, and Arabi (created a +pasha) minister of war. Arabi, after a brief fall from office, +acquired a dictatorial power that alarmed the British government. +British and French warships went to Alexandria at the +beginning of June; on the 11th of that month rioting in that +city led to the sacrifice of many European lives. Order could +only be restored through the intervention of Arabi, who now +adopted a more distinctly anti-European attitude. His arming +of the forts at Alexandria was held to constitute a menace to +the British fleet. On the refusal of France to co-operate, the +British fleet bombarded the forts (11th July), and a British force, +under Sir Garnet Wolseley, defeated Arabi on the 13th of +September at Tel-el-Kebir. Arabi fled to Cairo where he surrendered, +and was tried (3rd of December) for rebellion. In +accordance with an understanding made with the British +representative, Lord Dufferin, Arabi pleaded guilty, and sentence +of death was immediately commuted to one of banishment for +life to Ceylon. The same sentence was passed on Mahmud +Sami and others. After Arabi’s exile had lasted for nearly +twenty years, however, the khedive Abbas II. exercised his +prerogative of mercy, and in May 1901 Arabi was permitted to +return to Egypt. Arabi, as has been said, was rather the figurehead +than the inspirer of the movement of 1881-1882; and +was probably more honest, as he was certainly less intelligent, +than those whose tool, in a large measure, he was. The movement +which he represented in the eye of Europe, whatever the +motives of its leaders, “was in its essence a genuine revolt +against misgovernment,”<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and it was a dim recognition of this +fact which led Arabi to style himself “the Egyptian.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>History</i>; also the accounts of Arabi in <i>Khedives +and Pashas</i>, by C.F. Moberly Bell (1884); and in Lord Cromer’s +<i>Modern Egypt</i> (1908).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Lord Cromer in <i>Egypt</i>, No. 1, 1905, p. 2.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARABISTAN<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (formerly <span class="sc">Khuzistan</span>), a province of Persia, +bounded on the S. by the Persian Gulf, on the W. by Turkish +territory, on the N. by Luristan and on the E. by the Bakhtiari +district and Fars. It has its modern name, signifying “land of +the Arabs,” from the Arabs who form the bulk of the population, +and is subdivided into the districts of Muhamrah, Fellahiyeh +(the old Dorak), Ram Hormuz (popularly known as Ramiz), +Havizeh, Shushter and Dizful. It has a population of about +200,000 and pays a yearly revenue of about £30,000. The soil +is very fertile, but since the dam over the Karun at Ahvaz was +swept away and the numerous canals which diverted the waters +of the river for irrigation became useless, a great part of the +province is uncultivated, and most of the crops and produce +depend for water on rainfall and wells. The climate is hot, and +in the low-lying, swampy districts very unhealthy; the prevailing +winds are north-west and south-east, the former hot and +dry from the arid districts west of Mesopotamia, the latter bearing +much moisture from the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. +The principal Arab tribes are the Kab (generally known as +Chaab) and Beni Lam, the former mostly settled in towns and +villages and by religion Shi’ites, the latter nomads and Sunnites. +The staples of food are dates and fish in the south, elsewhere +the produce of the herds and flocks and rice, wheat and barley. +Other products are maize, cotton, silk and indigo, and the manufactures +include carpets without pile, coarse woollens, cottons +and silk nettings. Dyeing is extensively carried on in Dizful +where most of the indigo is grown.</p> + +<p>Khuzistan (meaning “the land of the Khuz”) was a part of +the Biblical Elam, the classical Susiana, and appears in the great +inscription of Darius as Uvaja.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARABS,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> the name given to that branch of the Semitic race +which from the earliest historic times inhabited the south-western +portion of the Arabian peninsula. The name, to-day +the collective term for the overwhelming majority of the surviving +Semitic peoples, was originally restricted to the nomad +tribes who ranged the north of the peninsula east of Palestine +and the Syro-Arabian desert. In this narrow sense “Arab” +is used in the Assyrian inscriptions, in the Old Testament and +in the Minaean inscriptions. Before the Christian era it had +come to include all the inhabitants of the peninsula. This, it is +suggested, may have been due to the fact that the “Arabs” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page284" id="page284"></a>284</span> +were the chief people near the Greek and Roman colonies in +Syria and Mesopotamia. Classical writers use the term both +in its local and general sense. The Arabs to-day occupy, besides +Arabia, a part of Mesopotamia, the western shores of the Red +Sea, the eastern coast of the Persian Gulf and the north of +Africa. The finest type of the race is found in south Arabia +among the Ariba Arabs, among the mountaineers of Hadramut +and Yemen and among the Bedouin tribes roaming over the +interior of central and northern Arabia. The Arabs of the +coasts and those of Mesopotamia are hybrids, showing Turkish, +Negroid and Hamitic crossings. The people of Syria and +Palestine are hybrids of Arab, Phoenician and Jewish descent. +The theory that early Arab settlements were made on the east +coast of Africa as far as Sofala south of the Zambezi, is without +foundation; the earliest Arab settlement on the east coast of +Africa that can be proved is Magadoxo (Mukdishu) in the 10th +century, and the ruined cities of Mashonaland, once supposed +to be the remains of Arab settlements, are now known to be +of medieval African origin. On the East African coast-lands +Arab influence is still considerable. Traces of the Arab type +are met with in Asia Minor, the Caucasus, western Persia and +India, while the influence of the Arab language and civilization +is found in Europe (Malta and Spain), China and Central +Asia.</p> + +<p>The Arabs are at once the most ancient as they in many ways +are the purest surviving type of the true Semite. Certainly +the inhabitants of Yemen are not, and in historic +times never were, pure Semites. Somali and other +<span class="sidenote">Ethnology.</span> +elements, generally described under the collective racial name +of Hamitic, are clearly traceable; but the inland Arabs still +present the nearest approach to the primitive Semitic type. +The origin of the Arab race can only be a matter of conjecture. +From the remotest historic times it has been divided into two +branches, which from their geographical position it is simplest +to call the North Arabians and the South Arabians. Arabic +and Jewish tradition trace the descent of the latter from Joktan +(Arabic <i>Kahtan</i>) son of Heber, of the former from Ishmael. +The South Arabians—the older branch—were settled in the +south-western part of the peninsula centuries before the uprise +of the Ishmaelites. These latter include not only Ishmael’s +direct descendants through the twelve princes (Gen. xxv. 16), +but the Edomites, Moabites, Ammonites, Midianites and other +tribes. This ancient and undoubted division of the Arab race +—roughly represented to-day by the universally adopted +classification into Arabs proper and Bedouin Arabs (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bedouins</a></span>)-has caused much dispute among ethnologists. +All authorities agree in declaring the race to be Semitic in the +broadest ethnological signification of that term, but some +thought they saw in this division of the race an indication of a +dual origin. They asserted that the purer branch of the Arab +family was represented by the sedentary Arabs who were of +Hamitic (Biblical Cushite), <i>i.e.</i> African ancestry, and that the +nomad Arabs were Arabs only by adoption, and were nearer +akin to the true Semite as sons of Ishmael. Many arguments +were adduced in support of this theory, (1) The unquestioned +division in remote historic times of the Arab race, and the immemorial +hostility between the two branches. (2) The concurrence +of pre-Islamitic literature and records in representing the +first settlement of the “pure” Arab as made in the extreme +south-western part of the peninsula, near Aden. (3) The use +of Himyar, “dusky” or “red” (suggesting African affinities), +as the name sometimes for the ruling class, sometimes for the +entire people. (4) The African affinities of the Himyaritic +language. (5) The resemblance of the grammar of the Arabic +now spoken by the “pure” Arabs, where it differs from that +of the North, to the Abyssinian grammar. (6) The marked +resemblance of the pre-Islamitic institutions of Yemen and its +allied provinces-its monarchies, courts, armies and serfs—to +the historical Africo-Egyptian type and even to modern Abyssinia. +(7) The physique of the “pure” Arab, the shape and +size of the head, the slenderness of the lower limbs, all suggesting +an African rather than an Asiatic origin. (8) The habits of the +people, viz. their sedentary rather than nomad occupations, +their fondness for village life, for dancing, music and society, +their cultivation of the soil, having more in common with African +life than with that of the western Asiatic continent. (9) The +extreme facility of marriage which exists in all classes of the +southern Arabs with the African races, the fecundity of such +unions and the slightness or even total absence of any caste +feeling between the dusky “pure” Arab and the still darker +African, pointing to a community of origin. And further arguments +were found in the characteristics of the Bedouins, their +pastoral and nomad tendencies; the peculiarities of their idiom +allied to the Hebrew; their strong clan feeling, their continued +resistance to anything like regal power or centralized +organization.</p> + +<p>Such, briefly, were the more important arguments; but +latterly ethnologists are inclined to agree that there is little +really to be said for the African ancestry theory and that the +Arab race had its beginning in the deserts of south Arabia, +that in short the true Arabs are aborigines.</p> + +<p>Mahommedans call the centuries before the Prophet’s birth +waqt-el jahilīya, “the time of ignorance,” but the fact is that +the Arab world has in some respects never since reached so high +a level as it had in those days which it suits Moslems to paint in +dreary colours. Writing was a fine art and poetry flourished. +Eloquence was an accomplishment all strove to acquire, and +each year there were assemblies, lasting sometimes a month, +which were devoted to contests of skill among the orators and +poets, to listen to whose friendly rivalry tribesmen journeyed +long distances. Last, that surest index of a people’s +civilization—the treatment of women—contrasted very favourably with +their position under the Koran. Women had rights and were +respected. The veil and the harem system were unknown before +Mahomet. According to Nöldeke the Nabataean inscriptions +and coins show that women held a high social position in northern +Arabia, owning large estates and trading independently. Polyandry +and polygamy, it is true, were practised, but the right of +divorce belonged to the woman as well as the man. Two kinds +of marriage were celebrated. One was a purely personal contract, +with no witnesses, the wife not leaving her home or passing +under marital authority. The other was a formal marriage, the +woman becoming subject to her husband by purchase or capture. +Even captive women were not kept in slavery. Arabic wealth +and culture had indeed thus early reached a stage which justified +Professor Robertson Smith in writing, “In this period the name +of Arab was associated to Western writers with ideas of effeminate +indolence and peaceful opulence ... the golden age of +Yemen.” But long before Mahomet’s time this early Arab +predominance was at an end, possibly due in great measure +to the loss of the caravan trade through the increase of shipping. +The abandonment of great cities and the ruin of many tribes +contributed to the apparent nationalization of the Arab peoples. +Though the traditional jealousy and hostility of the two branches, +the Yemenites and Maadites or Ishmaelites, remained, the Arab +world had attained by the levelling process of common misfortune +the superficial unity it presents to-day. The nation thus +formed, never a nation in the strict sense of the word, was +distinctively and thoroughly Semitic in character and language, +and has remained unchanged to the present day. The sporadic +brilliancy of the ancient Arab kingdoms gave place to a social +and political lethargy, the continuation of which for many centuries +made the uprise of Saracenic empires seem a miracle to +a world ignorant of the Arab past. The Arab race up to +Mahomet’s day had been in the main pagan. Monotheism, if +it ever prevailed, early gave place to sun and star worship, +or simple idolatry. Professor Robertson Smith suggests that +totemism was the earliest form of Arabian idolatry, and that +each tribe had its sacred animal. This he supports by the fact +that some tribal names were derived from those of animals, and +that animal-worship was not unknown in Arabia. What seems +certain is that Arab religion was of a complex hybrid nature, +not much to be wondered at when one remembers that Arabia +was the asylum of many religious refugees, Zoroastrians, Jews, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page285" id="page285"></a>285</span> +Christians. In the later pre-Islamitic times spirits, or jinns, +as they were called, of which each tribe or family had its +own, were worshipped, and there was but a vague idea of a +Supreme Being. Images of the jinns to the number of +360, one for each day of the lunar year, were collected in +the temple at Mecca, the chief seat of their worship. That +worship was of a sanguinary nature. Human sacrifice was +fairly frequent. Under the guise of religion female infanticide +was a common practice. At Mecca the great object of worship +was a plain black stone, and to it pilgrimages were made from +every part of Arabia. This stone was so sacred to the Arabs +that even Mahomet dared not dispense with it, and it remains +the central object of sanctity in the Ka’ba to-day. The temples +of the Sabaeans and the Minaeans were built east of their +cities, a fact suggesting sun-worship, yet this is not believed to +have been the cult of the Minaeans. Common to both was the +worship of Attar, the male Ashtoreth.</p> + +<p>With the appearance of Mahomet the Arabs took anew a place +in the world’s history.</p> + +<p>Physically the Arabs are one of the strongest and +noblest races of the world. Baron de Larrey, surgeon-general to +Napoleon on his expedition to Egypt and Syria, +writes: “Their physical structure is in all respects +<span class="sidenote">Physique.</span> +more perfect than that of Europeans; their organs of sense +exquisitely acute, their size above the average of men in general, +their figure robust and elegant, their colour brown; their intelligence +proportionate to their physical perfection and without +doubt superior, other things being equal, to that of other +nations.” The typical Arab face is of an oval form, lean-featured; +the eyes a brilliant black, deep-set under bushy +eyebrows; nose aquiline, forehead straight but not high. In +body the Arab is muscular and long-limbed, but lean. Deformed +individuals or dwarfs are rare among Arabs; nor, except +leprosy, which is common, does any disease seem to be hereditary +among them. They often suffer from ophthalmia, though not +in the virulent Egyptian form. They are scrupulously clean +in their persons, and take special care of their teeth, which are +generally white and even. Simple and abstemious in their +habits, they often reach an extreme yet healthy old age; nor +is it common among them for the faculties of the mind to give +way sooner than those of the body.</p> + +<p>Thus, physically, they yield to few races, if any, of mankind; +mentally, they surpass most, and are only kept back in the +march of progress by the remarkable defect of organizing +power and incapacity for combined action. +<span class="sidenote">Character.</span> +Lax and imperfect as are their forms of government, it is with +impatience that even these are borne; of the four caliphs +who alone reigned—if reign theirs could be called—in Arabia +proper, three died a violent death; and of the Wahhabi princes, +the most genuine representatives in later times of pure Arab +rule, almost all have met the same fate. The Arab face, which +is not unkindly, but never smiling, expresses that dignity and +gravity which are typical of the race. While the Arab is always +polite, good-natured, manly and brave, he is also revengeful, +cruel, untruthful and superstitious. Of the Arab nature Burckhardt +(other authorities, <i>e.g.</i> Barth and Rohlfs, are far less complimentary) +wrote: “The Arab displays his manly character when +he defends his guest at the peril of his own life, and submits +to the reverses of fortune, to disappointment and distress, with +the most patient resignation. He is distinguished from a Turk +by the virtues of pity and gratitude. The Turk is cruel, the Arab +of a more kind temper; he pities and supports the wretched, and +never forgets the generosity shown to him even by an enemy.” +The Arab will lie and cheat and swear false oaths, but once his +word is pledged he may be trusted to the last. There are some +oaths such as <i>Wallah</i> (by Allah) which mean nothing, but such +an oath as the threefold one with <i>wa, bi</i> and <i>ta</i> as +particles of swearing the meanest thief will not break. In temper, or +at least in the manifestation of it, the Arab is studiously calm; +and he rarely so much as raises his voice in a dispute. But this +outward tranquillity covers feelings alike keen and permanent; +and the remembrance of a rash jest or injurious word, uttered +years before, leads only too often to that blood-revenge which +is a sacred duty everywhere in Arabia.</p> + +<p>There exist, however, marked tribal or almost semi-national +diversities of character among the Arabs. Thus, the inhabitants +of Hejaz are noted for courtesy and blamed for fickleness; those +of Nejd are distinguished by their stern tenacity and dignity +of deportment; the nations of Yemen are gentle and pliant, but +revengeful; those of Hasa and Oman cheerful and fond of sport, +though at the same time turbulent and unsteady. Anything +approaching to a game is rare in Nejd, and in the Hejaz religion +and the yearly occurrence of the pilgrim ceremonies almost +exclude all public diversions; but in Yemen the well-known +game of the “jerid,” or palm-stick, with dances and music is +not rare. In Oman such amusements are still more frequent. +Again in Yemen and Oman, coffee-houses, where people resort +for conversation, and where public recitals, songs and other +amusements are indulged in, stand open all day; while nothing +of the sort is tolerated in Nejd. So too the ceremonies of circumcision +or marriage are occasions of gaiety and pastime on the +coast, but not in the central provinces.</p> + +<p>An Arab town, or even village, except it be the merest hamlet, +is invariably walled round; but seldom is a stronger material +than dried earth used; the walls are occasionally +flanked by towers of like construction. A dry ditch +<span class="sidenote">Manners and customs.</span> +often surrounds the whole. The streets are irregular +and seldom parallel. The Arab, indeed, lacks an +eye for the straight. The Arab carpenter cannot form a right +angle; an Arab servant cannot place a cloth square on a table. +The Ka’ba at Mecca has none of its sides or angles equal. The +houses are of one or two storeys, rarely of three, with flat mud +roofs, little windows and no external ornament. If the town +be large, the expansion of one or two streets becomes a market-place, +where are ranged a few shops of eatables, drugs, coffee, +cottons or other goods. Many of these shops are kept by women. +The chief mosque is always near the market-place; so is also +the governor’s residence, which, except in size and in being +more or less fortified Arab fashion, does not differ from a private +house. Drainage is unthought of; but the extreme dryness of +the air obviates the inconvenience and disease that under other +skies could not fail to ensue, and which in the damper climates +of the coast make themselves seriously felt. But the streets are +roughly swept every day, each householder taking care of the +roadway that lies before his own door. Whitewash and colour +are occasionally used in Yemen, Hejaz and Oman; elsewhere a +light ochre tint, the colour of the sun-dried bricks, predominates, +and gives an Arab town the appearance at a distance of a +large dust-heap in the centre of the bright green ring of gardens +and palm-groves. Baked bricks are unknown in Arabia, and +stone buildings are rare, especially in Nejd. Palm branches +and the like, woven in wattles, form the dwellings, of the poorer +classes in the southern districts. Many Arab towns possess +watch-towers, like huge round factory chimneys in appearance, +built of sun-dried bricks, and varying in height from 50 to 100 ft. +or even more. Indeed, two of these constructions at the town +of Birkat-el-Mauj, in Oman, are said to be each of 170 ft. in +height, and that of Nezwah, in the same province, is reckoned +at 140; but these are of stone.</p> + +<p>The principal feature in the interior of an Arab house is the +“kahwah” or coffee-room. It is a large apartment spread with +mats, and sometimes furnished with carpets and a few cushions. +At one end is a small furnace or fireplace for preparing coffee. +In this room the men congregate; here guests are received, and +even lodged; women rarely enter it, except at times when +strangers are unlikely to be present. Some of these apartments +are very spacious and supported by pillars; one wall is usually +built transversely to the compass direction of the Ka’ba; it +serves to facilitate the performance of prayer by those who +may happen to be in the kahwah at the appointed times. The +other rooms are ordinarily small.</p> + +<p>The Arabs are proverbially hospitable. A stranger’s arrival +is often the occasion of an amicable dispute among the wealthier +inhabitants as to who shall have the privilege of receiving him. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page286" id="page286"></a>286</span> +Arab cookery is of the simplest. Roughly-ground wheat cooked +with butter; bread in thin cakes, prepared on a heated iron +plate or against the walls of an open oven; a few vegetables, +generally of the leguminous kinds; boiled mutton or camel’s +flesh, among the wealthy; dates and fruits—this is the <i>menu</i> +of an ordinary meal. Rice is eaten by the rich and fish is +common on the coasts. Tea, introduced only a few decades +back, is now largely drunk. A food of which the Arabs are fond +is locusts boiled in salt and water and then dried in the sun. +They taste like stale shrimps, but there is a great sale for them. +Spices are freely employed; butter much too largely for a +European taste.</p> + +<p>After eating, the hands are always washed, soap or the ashes +of an alkaline plant being used. A covered censer with burning +incense is then passed round, and each guest perfumes his hands, +face, and sometimes his clothes; this censer serves also on first +receptions and whenever special honour is intended. In Yemen +and Oman scented water often does duty for it. Coffee, without +milk or sugar, but flavoured with an aromatic seed brought from +India, is served to all. This, too, is done on the occasion of a +first welcome, when the cups often make two or three successive +rounds; but, in fact, coffee is made and drunk at any time, as +frequently as the desire for it may suggest itself; and each time +fresh grains are sifted, roasted, pounded and boiled—a very +laborious process, and one that requires in the better sort of +establishments a special servant or slave for the work. Arabs +generally make but one solid meal a day—that of supper, soon +after sunset. Even then they do not eat much, gluttony being +rare among them, and even daintiness esteemed disgraceful. +Wine, like other fermented drinks, is prohibited by the Koran, +and is, in fact, very rarely taken, though the inhabitants of the +mountains of Oman are said to indulge in it. On the coast +spirits of the worst quality are sometimes procured; opium +and hashish are sparingly indulged in. On the other hand, +wherever Wahhābiism has left freedom of action, tobacco-smoking +prevails; short pipes of clay, long pipes with large +open bowls, or most frequently the water-pipe or “nar-ghileh,” +being used. The tobacco smoked is generally strong +and is either brought from the neighbourhood of Bagdad or +grown in the country itself. The strongest quality is that of +Oman; the leaf is broad and coarse, and retains its green colour +even when dried; a few whiffs have been known to produce +absolute stupor. The aversion of the Wahhābis to tobacco is +well known; they entitle it “mukhzi” or “the shameful,” +and its use is punished with blows, as the public use of wine +would be elsewhere.</p> + +<p>In dress much variety prevails. The loose cotton drawers +girded at the waist, which in hot climates do duty for trousers, +are not often worn, even by the upper classes, in Nejd +or Yemama, where a kind of silk dressing-gown is +<span class="sidenote">Dress.</span> +thrown over the long shirt; frequently, too, a brown or black +cloak distinguishes the wealthier citizen; his head-dress is a +handkerchief fastened round the head by a band. But in Hejaz, +Yemen and Oman, turbans are by no means uncommon; the +ordinary colour is white; they are worn over one or more skullcaps. +Trousers also form part of the dress in the two former +of these districts; and a voluminous sash, in which a dagger +or an inkstand is stuck, is wrapped round the waist. The poorer +folk, however, and the villagers often content themselves with +a broad piece of cloth round the loins, and another across the +shoulders. In Oman trousers are rare, but over the shirt a long +gown, of peculiar and somewhat close-fitting cut, dyed yellow, +is often worn. The women in these provinces commonly put +on loose drawers and some add veils to their head-dresses; +they are over-fond of ornaments (gold and silver); their hair +is generally arranged in a long plait hanging down behind. All +men allow their beards and moustaches full growth, though +this is usually scanty. Most Arabs shave their heads, and indeed +all, strictly speaking, ought by Mahommedan custom to do so. +An Arab seldom or never dyes his hair. Sandals are worn more +often than shoes; none but the very poorest go barefoot.</p> + +<p>Slavery is still, as of old times, a recognized institution throughout +Arabia; and an illicit traffic in blacks is carried on along +the coasts of the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. The +slaves themselves were obtained chiefly from the east +<span class="sidenote">Slavery.</span> +African coast districts down as far as Zanzibar, but this +source of supply was practically closed by the end of the +19th century. Slaves are usually employed in Arabia as +herdsmen or as domestic servants, rarely in agricultural work; +they also form a considerable portion of the bodyguards with +which Eastern greatness loves to surround itself. Like their +countrymen elsewhere, they readily embrace the religion of their +masters and become zealous Mahommedans. Arab custom +enfranchises a slave who has accepted Islam at the end of seven +years of bondage, and when that period has arrived, the master, +instead of exacting from his slave the price of freedom, generally, +on giving him his liberty, adds the requisite means for supporting +himself and a family in comfort. Further, on every important +occasion, such as a birth, circumcision, a marriage or a death, +one or more of the household slaves are sure of acquiring their +freedom. Hence Arabia has a considerable free black population; +and these again, by inter-marriage with the whites +around, have filled the land with a mulatto breed of every shade, +till, in the eastern and southern provinces especially, a white +skin is almost an exception. In Arabia no prejudice exists +against negro alliances; no social or political line separates +the African from the Arab. A negro may become a sheik, +a kadi, an amir, or whatever his industry and his talents may +render him capable of being. This is particularly so in Nejd, +Yemen and Hadramut; in the Hejaz and the north a faint +line of demarcation may be observed between the races.</p> + +<p>The Arabs are good soldiers but poor generals. Personal +courage, wonderful endurance of privation, fixity of purpose, +and a contempt of death are qualities common to +almost every race, tribe and clan that compose the +<span class="sidenote">Military qualities.</span> +Arab nation. In skirmishing and harassing they have +few equals, while at close quarters they have often shown themselves +capable of maintaining, armed with swords and spears +alone, a desperate struggle against guns and bayonets, neither +giving nor receiving quarter. Nor are they wholly ignorant +of tactics, their armies, when engaged in regular war, being +divided into centre and wings, with skirmishers in front and a +reserve behind, often screened at the outset of the engagement +by the camels of the expedition. These animals, kneeling and +ranged in long parallel rows, form a sort of entrenchment, from +behind which the soldiers of the main body fire their matchlocks, +while the front divisions, opening out, act on either flank of the +enemy. This arrangement of troops may be traced in Arab +records as far back as the 5th century, and was often exemplified +during the Wahhābi wars.</p> + +<p>Arab women are scarcely less distinguished for their bravery +than the men. Records of armed heroines occur frequently in +the chronicles or myths of the pre-Islamitic time; and in authentic +history the Battle of the Camel, 656 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, where Ayesha, the +wife of Mahomet, headed the charge, is only the first of a number +of instances in which Arab amazons have taken, sword in hand, +no inconsiderable share in the wars and victories of Islam. Even +now it is the custom for an Arab force to be always accompanied +by some courageous maiden, who, mounted on a blackened +camel, leads the onslaught, singing verses of encouragement +for her own, of insult for the opposing tribe. Round her litter +the fiercest of the battle rages, and her capture or death is the +signal of utter rout; it is hers also to head the triumph after the +victory of her clan.</p> + +<p>There is little education, in the European sense of the word, in +Arabia. Among the Bedouins there are no schools, and few, +even of the most elementary character, in the towns +or villages. Where they exist, little beyond the +<span class="sidenote">Education.</span> +mechanical reading of the Koran, and the equally mechanical +learning of it by rote, is taught. On the other hand, Arab male-children, +brought up from early years among the grown-up +men of the house or tent, learn more from their own parents +and at home than is common in other countries; reading +and writing are in most instances thus acquired, or rather +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page287" id="page287"></a>287</span> +transmitted; besides such general principles of grammar and +eloquence, often of poetry and history, as the elders themselves +may be able to impart. To this family schooling too are due +the good manners, politeness, and self-restraint that early distinguish +Arab children. In the very few instances where a +public school of a higher class exists, writing, grammar and +rhetoric sum up its teachings. Law and theology, in the narrow +sense that both these words have in the Islamitic system, are +explained in afternoon lectures given in most mosques; and +some verses of the Koran, with one of the accepted commentaries, +that of Baidawi for example, form the basis of the instruction. +Great attention is paid to accuracy of grammar and purity of +diction throughout Arabia; yet something of a dialectic difference +may be observed in the various districts. The purest Arabic, +that which is as nearly as possible identical in the choice of words +and in its inflections with the language of the Koran, is spoken +in Nejd, and the best again of that in the province of Suder. +Next in purity comes the Arabic of Shammar. Throughout the +Hejaz in general, the language, though extremely elegant, is +not equally correct; in el-Hasa, Bahrein and Oman it is decidedly +influenced by the foreign element called Nabataean. +In Yemen, as in other southern districts of the peninsula, Arabic +merges insensibly into the Himyaritic or African dialect of +Hadramut and Mahra. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Semitic Languages</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Lieutenant Wellsted, <i>Travels in Arabia</i> (Lond., +1838); “Narrative of a Journey to the Ruins of Nakeb el Hajar” +(<i>Jour. R. Geog. Soc.</i> vii. 20); Carsten Niebuhr. <i>Travels through +Arabia</i> (transl. into English by Robert Heron, 2 vols., Edin., 1792); +John Lewis Burckhardt, <i>Travels in Arabia</i> (2 vols., Lond., 1829); +<i>Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabis</i>, (2 vols., Lond., 1830; in German, +Weimar, 1831); C.J. Cruttenden, <i>Journal of an Excursion to Sana’a, +the Capital of Yemen</i> (Bombay, 1838); A. Sprenger, <i>Die alte Geographie +Arabiens als Grundlage der Entwicklungsgeschichte des +Semitismus</i> (Berne, 1875); Sir Richard F. Burton, <i>Personal Narrative +of a Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Meccah</i> (Lond., 1855); W. +Robertson Smith, <i>Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia</i> (Cambridge); +E. Reclus, <i>Les Arabes</i> (Brussels, 1898); Lady Anne Blunt, +<i>A Pilgrimage to Nejd</i> (2 vols., Lond., 1881); C.M. Doughty, <i>Arabia +Deserta</i> (2 vols., 1888); Rev. S.M. Zwemer, <i>Arabia: the Cradle of +Islam</i> (1900); Albrecht Zehme, <i>Arabien und die Araber, seit hundert +Jahren</i> (1875).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARACAJÚ,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> a city and seaport of Brazil, capital of the state +of Sergipe, 170 m. N.N.E. of Bahia, on the river Cotinguiba, +or Cotindiba, 6 m. from the coast. The municipality, of which +it forms a part, had a population in 1890 of 16,336, about two-thirds +of whom lived in the city itself. Aracajú is a badly built +town on the right bank of the river at the base of a ridge of low +sand-hills and has the usual features of an unprogressive provincial +capital. Good limestone is quarried in its vicinity, and +the country tributary to this port produces large quantities of +sugar. Cotton is also grown, and the back country sends down +hides and skins for shipment. The anchorage is good, but a +dangerous bar at the mouth of the river prevents the entrance +of vessels drawing more than 12 ft. The port is visited, therefore, +only by the smaller steamers of the coastwise lines. The +river is navigable as far as the town of Maroim, about 10 m. +beyond Aracajú. The city was founded in 1855.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARACATY,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Aracatí</span>, a city and port of Brazil, in the state +of Ceará, 75 m. S.E. of Fortaleza, on the river Jaguaribe, 8 m. +from the sea. Pop. of the municipality (1890) 20,182, of whom +about 12,000 belonged to the city. A dangerous bar at the +mouth of the river permits the entrance only of the smaller +coasting steamers, but the port is an important commercial +centre, and exports considerable quantities of cotton, hides, +maniçoba, rubber, fruit, and palm wax.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARACHNE,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> in Greek mythology, the daughter of Idmon of +Colophon in Lydia, a dyer in purple. She had acquired such +skill in the art of weaving that she ventured to challenge Athena. +While the goddess took as subjects her quarrel with Poseidon +as to the naming and possession of Attica, and the warning +examples of those who ventured to pit themselves against the +immortals, Arachne depicted the metamorphoses of the gods +and their amorous adventures. Her work was so perfect that +Athena, enraged at being unable to find any blemish in it, tore +it to pieces. Arachne hanged herself in despair; but the goddess +out of pity loosened the rope, which became a cobweb, while +Arachne herself was changed into a spider (Ovid, <i>Metam</i>. vi. +5-145). The story probably indicates the superiority of Asia +over Greece in the textile arts.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARACHNIDA,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> the zoological name given in 1815 by Lamarck +(Gr. <span class="grk" title="harachnae">ἁράχνη</span>, a spider) to a class which he instituted for the +reception of the spiders, scorpions and mites, previously classified +by Linnaeus in the order Aptera of his great group Insecta. +Lamarck at the same time founded the class Crustacea for the +lobsters, crabs and water-fleas, also until then included in the +order Aptera of Linnaeus. Lamarck included the Thysanura +and the Myriapoda in his class Arachnida. The Insecta of +Linnaeus was a group exactly equivalent to the Arthropoda +founded a hundred years later by Siebold and Stannius. It was +thus reduced by Lamarck in area, and made to comprise only +the six-legged, wing-bearing “Insecta.” For these Lamarck +proposed the name Hexapoda; but that name has been little used, +and they have retained to this day the title of the much larger +Linnaean group, viz. Insecta. The position of the Arachnida +in the great sub-phylum Arthropoda, according to recent anatomical +and embryological researches, is explained in the article +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arthropoda</a></span>. The Arachnida form a distinct class or line of +descent in the grade Euarthropoda, diverging (perhaps in +common at the start with the Crustacea) from primitive Euarthropods, +which gave rise also to the separate lines of descent +known as the classes Diplopoda, Crustacea, Chilopoda and +Hexapoda.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:433px; height:300px" src="images/img287.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Entosternum, entosternite or plastron of <i>Limulus +polyphemus</i>, Latr. Dorsal surface.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>LAP, Left anterior process.</p> +<p>RAP, Right anterior process.</p> +<p>PhN, Pharyngeal notch.</p> +<p>ALR, Anterior lateial rod or tendon.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>PLR, Posterior lateral rod or tendon.</p> +<p>PLP, Posterior lateral process.</p> +<p>Natural size.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(From Lankester, <i>Q. J. Mic. Sci.</i>, N S vol. xxiv, 1884.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Limulus an Arachnid.</i>—Modern views as to the classification +and affinities of the Arachnida have been determined by +the demonstration that <i>Limulus</i> and the extinct Eurypterines +(<i>Pterygotus</i>, &c.) are Arachnida; that is to say, are identical +in the structure and relation of so many important parts with +<i>Scorpio</i>, whilst differing in those respects from other Arthropoda, +that it is impossible to suppose that the identity is due to homoplasy +or convergence, and the conclusion must be accepted that +the resemblances arise from close genetic relationship. The view +that Limulus, the king-crab, is an Arachnid was maintained as +long ago as 1829 by Strauss-Dürckheim (<b>1</b>), on the ground of its +possession of an internal cartilaginous sternum—also possessed +by the Arachnida (see figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6)—and of the similarity +of the disposition of the six leg-like appendages around +the mouth in the two cases (see figs. 45 and 63). The evidence +of the exact equivalence of the segmentation and appendages +of Limulus and Scorpio, and of a number of remarkable points +of agreement in structure, was furnished by Ray Lankester in +an article published in 1881 (“Limulus an Arachnid,” <i>Quart. +Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. xxi. N.S.), and in a series of subsequent +memoirs, in which the structure of the entosternum, of the coxal +glands, of the eyes, of the veno-pericardiac muscles, of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page288" id="page288"></a>288</span> +respiratory lamellae, and of other parts, was for the first time +described, and in which the new facts discovered were shown +uniformly to support the hypothesis that Limulus is an Arachnid. +A list of these memoirs is given at the close of this article (<b>2, 3, +4, 5</b> and <b>13</b>). The Eurypterines (Gigantostraca) were included +in the identification, although at that time they were supposed +to possess only five pairs of anterior or prosomatic appendages. +They have now been shown to possess six pairs (fig. 47), as do +Limulus and Scorpio.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:423px; height:297px" src="images/img288a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Ventral surface of the entosternum of <i>Limulus polyphemus</i>, +Latr. Letters as in fig. 1 with the addition of NF, neural +fossa protecting the aggregated ganglia of the central nervous system; +PVP, left posterior ventral process; PMP, posterior median +process. Natural size.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Lankester.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:324px; height:289px" src="images/img288b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Entosternum of scorpion +(<i>Palamnaeus Indus</i>, de Geer); dorsal surface.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p><i>asp</i>, Paired anterior process of the sub-neural +arch.</p> + +<p><i>snp</i>, Sub-neural arch.</p> + +<p><i>ap</i>, Anterior lateral process (same as RAP +and LAP in fig. 1).</p> + +<p><i>lmp</i>, Lateral median process (same as ALR +and PLR of fig. 1).</p> + +<p><i>pp</i>, Posterior process (same as PLP in +fig. 1).</p> + +<p><i>pf</i>, Posterior flap or diaphragm of Newport.</p> + +<p><i>m<span class="sp">1</span></i> and <i>m<span class="sp">2</span></i>, Perforations of the diaphragm +for the passage of muscles.</p> + +<p>DR, The paired dorsal ridges.</p> + +<p>GC, Gastric canal or foramen.</p> + +<p>AC, Arterial canal or foramen.</p></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(After Lankester, <i>loc. cit.</i>)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The various comparisons previously made between the structure +of Limulus and the Eurypterines on the one hand, and that +of a typical Arachnid, such as Scorpio, on the other, had been +vitiated by erroneous notions as to the origin of the nerves +supplying the anterior appendages of Limulus (which were finally +removed by Alphonse Milne-Edwards in his beautiful memoir +(<b>6</b>) on the structure +of that animal), and +secondly by the erroneous +identification of the +double sternal plates +of Limulus, called +“chilaria,” by Owen, +with a pair of appendages +(<b>7</b>). Once the +identity of the chilaria +with the pentagonal +sternal plate of the +scorpion is recognized—an +identification first +insisted on by +Lankester—the whole +series of segments and +appendages in the two +animals, Limulus and +Scorpio, are seen to correspond +most closely, +segment for segment, +with one another (see +figs. 7 and 8). The +structure of the prosomatic +appendages or +legs is also seen to present +many significant +points of agreement +(see figures), but a curious +discrepancy existed +in the six-jointed structure +of the limb in Limulus, which differed from the seven-jointed +limb of Scorpio by the defect of one joint. R.I. Pocock of the +British Museum has observed that in Limulus a marking exists +on the fourth joint, which apparently indicates a previous +division of this segment into two, and thus establishes the agreement +of Limulus and Scorpio in this small feature of the number +of segments in the legs (see fig. 11).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It is not desirable to occupy the limited space of this article by a +full description of the limbs and segments of Limulus and Scorpio. +The reader is referred to the complete series of figures here given, +with their explanatory legends (figs 12, 13, 14, 15). Certain matters, +however, require comment and explanation to render the comparison +intelligible. The tergites, or chitinized dorsal halves of the body +rings, are fused to form a +“prosomatic carapace,” or +carapace of the prosoma, in +both Limulus and Scorpio +(see figs. 7 and 8). This +region corresponds in both +cases to six somites, as indicated +by the presence of six +pairs of limbs. On the surface +of the carapace there are +in both animals a pair of +central eyes with simple lens +and a pair of lateral eye-tracts, +which in Limulus +consist of closely-aggregated +simple eyes, forming a “compound” +eye, whilst in +Scorpio they present several +separate small eyes. The +microscopic structure of the +central and the lateral eyes +has been shown by Lankester +and A.G. Bourne (<b>5</b>) to +differ; but the lateral eyes of +Scorpio were shown by them +to be similar in structure to the lateral eyes of Limulus, and the +central eyes of Scorpio to be identical in structure with the +central eyes of Limulus (see below).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:287px; height:290px" src="images/img288c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—Ventral surface of the same +entosternum as that drawn in fig. 3. +Letters as in fig. 3 with the addition +of NC, neural canal or foramen.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(After Lankester, <i>loc. cit.</i>)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:208px; height:220px" src="images/img288d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—Entosternum of +one of the mygalomorphous +spiders; ventral surface. +Ph.N., pharyngeal notch. +The posterior median process +with its repetition of +triangular segments closely +resembles the same process +in Limulus.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Lankester, <i>loc. cit.</i>)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:231px; height:222px" src="images/img288e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—Dorsal surface of +the same entosternum as +that drawn in fig. 5. Ph.N., +pharyngeal notch.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">After Lankester, <i>loc. cit.</i></td></tr></table> + +<p>Following the prosoma is a region consisting of six segments (figs. 14 +and 15), each carrying a pair of plate-like +appendages in both Limulus and Scorpio. +This region is called the mesosoma. The +tergites of this region and those of the +following region, the metasoma, are +fused to form a second or posterior +carapace in Limulus, whilst remaining +free in Scorpio. The first pair of foliaceous +appendages in each animal is +the genital operculum; beneath it are +found the openings of the genital ducts. +The second pair of mesosomatic appendages +in Scorpio are known as the +“pectens.” Each consists of an axis, +bearing numerous blunt tooth-like processes +arranged in a series. This is +represented in Limulus by the first gill-bearing +appendage. The leaves (some +150 in number) of the gill-book (see +figure) correspond to the tooth-like +processes of the pectens of Scorpio. +The next four pairs of appendages (completing +the mesosomatic series of six) +consist, in both Scorpio and Limulus, +of a base carrying each 130 to 150 +blood-holding, leaf-like plates, lying on +one another like the leaves of a book. Their minute structure is +closely similar in the two cases; the leaf-like plates receive blood +from the great sternal sinus, and +serve as respiratory organs. The +difference between the gill-books of +Limulus and the lung-books of +Scorpio depends on the fact that the +latter are adapted to aerial respiration, +while the former serve for +aquatic respiration. The appendage +carrying the gill-book stands out on +the surface of the body in Limulus, +and has other portions developed +besides the gill-book and its base; +it is fused with its fellow of the +opposite side. On the other hand, in +Scorpio, the gill-book-bearing appendage +has sunk below the surface, +forming a recess or chamber for +itself, which communicates with the +exterior by an oval or circular +“stigma” (fig. 10, <i>stg</i>). That this +in-sinking has taken place, and that the lung-books or in-sunken +gill-books of Scorpio really represent appendages (that is to say, +limbs or parapodia) is proved by their developmental history (see +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page289" id="page289"></a>289</span> +figs. 17 and 18). They appear at first as outstanding processes on +the surface of the body.</p> + +<p>The exact mode in which the in-sinking of superficial outstanding +limbs, carrying gill-lamellae, has historically taken place has been a +matter of much speculation. It was to be hoped that the specimen +of the Silurian scorpion (<i>Palaeophonus</i>) from Scotland, showing the +ventral surface of the mesosoma (fig. 49), would throw light on this +matter; but the specimen recently carefully studied by the writer +and Pocock reveals neither gill-bearing limbs nor stigmata. The +probability appears to be against an actual introversion of the +appendage and its lamellae, as was at one time suggested by +Lankester. It is probable that such an in-sinking as is shown in the +accompanying diagram has taken place (fig. 15); but we are yet in +need of evidence as to the exact equivalence of margins, axis, &c., +obtaining between the lung-book of Scorpio and the gill-book of +Limulus. Zoologists are familiar with many instances (fishes, +crustaceans) in which the protective walls of a water-breathing +organ or gill-apparatus become converted into an air-breathing +organ or lung, but there is no other case known of the conversion +of gill processes themselves into air-breathing plates.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:504px; height:676px" src="images/img289a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—Diagram of the dorsal surface of <i>Limulus polyphemus</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>oc</i>, Lateral compound eyes.</p> + +<p><i>oc′</i>, Central monomeniscous eyes.</p> + +<p>PA, Post-anal spine.</p> + +<p>I to VI, The six appendage-bearing +somites of the prosoma.</p> + +<p>VII, Usually considered to be +the tergum of the genital +somite, but suggested by +Pocock to be that of the otherwise suppressed praegenital +somite.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>VIII to XIII, The six somites of +the mesosoma, each with a +movable pleural spine and a +pair of dorsal entopophysis or +muscle-attaching ingrowths.</p> + +<p>XIV to XVIII, The confluent or +unexpressed six somites of the +metasoma.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2">[According to the system of numbering explained in the text, if +VII is the tergum of the praegenital somite (as is probable) it should +be labelled <i>Prg</i> without any number, and the somites VIII to XIII +should be lettered 1 to 6, indicating that they are the six normal +somites of the mesosoma; whilst XV to XVIII should be replaced +by the numbers 7 to 12—an additional suppressed segment (making +up the typical six) being reckoned to the metasomatic fusion.]</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(From Lankester, <i>Q.J. Micr Set</i>. vol. xxi., 1881.)</td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:175px; height:658px" src="images/img289b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.—Diagram +of the dorsal surface +of a scorpion to compare +with fig. 7. +Letters and Roman +numerals as in fig. 7, +excepting that VII +is here certainly the +tergum of the first +somite of the mesosoma—the genital +somite—and is <i>not</i> +a survival of the embryonic +praegenital +somite. The anus (not +seen) is on the sternal +surface.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Lankester, <i>loc. cit.</i>)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The identification of the lung-books of Scorpio with the gill-books +of Limulus is practically settled by the existence of the pectens in +Scorpio (fig. 14, VIII) on the second mesosomatic somite. There is +no doubt that <i>these</i> are parapodial or limb appendages, carrying +numerous imbricated secondary processes, and therefore comparable +in essential structure to the leaf-bearing plates of the second +mesosomatic somite of Limulus. They have remained unenclosed and +projecting on the surface of the body, as once were the appendages +of the four following somites. But they have lost their respiratory +function. In non-aquatic life such an unprotected organ cannot +subserve respiration. The “pectens” have become more firmly +chitinized and probably somewhat altered in shape as compared +with their condition in the aquatic ancestral scorpions. Their +present function in scorpions is not ascertained. They are not +specially sensitive under ordinary conditions, and may be touched +or even pinched without causing any discomfort to the scorpion. +It is probable that they acquire special sensibility at the breeding +season and serve as “guides” in copulation. The shape of the legs +and the absence of paired terminal claws in the Silurian <i>Palaeophonus</i> +(see figs. 48 and 49) as compared with living +scorpions (see fig. 10) show that the early +scorpions were aquatic, and we may hope +some day in better-preserved specimens than +the two as yet discovered, to find the respiratory +organs of those creatures in the condition +of projecting appendages serving +aquatic respiration somewhat as in Limulus, +though not necessarily repeating the exact +form of the broad plates of Limulus.</p> + +<p>It is important to note that the series of +lamellae of the lung-book and the gill-book +correspond <i>exactly</i> in structure, the narrow, +flat blood-space in the lamellae being interrupted +by pillar-like junctions of the two +surfaces in both cases (see Lankester (<b>4</b>)), and +the free surfaces of the adjacent lamellae being +covered with a very delicate chitinous cuticle +which is drawn out into delicate hairs and +processes. The elongated axis which opens +at the stigma in Scorpio and which can be +cleared of soft, surrounding tissues and coagulated +blood so as to present the appearance +of a limb axis carrying the book-like leaves +of the lung is not really, as it would seem to +be at first sight, the limb axis. That is necessarily +a blood-holding structure and is +obliterated and fused with soft tissues of the +sternal region so that the lamellae cannot be +detached and presented as standing out +from it. The apparent axis or basal support +of the scorpion’s lung-books shown in the +figures, is a false or secondary axis and merely +a part of the infolded surface which forms +the air-chamber. The maceration of the soft +parts of a scorpion preserved in weak spirit +and the cleaning of the chitinized in-grown +cuticle give rise to the false appearance of a +limb axis carrying the lamellae. The margins +of the lamellae of the scorpion’s lung-book, +which are <i>lowermost</i> in the figures (fig. 15) +and appear to be free, are really those which +are attached to the blood-holding axis. The +true free ends are those nearest the stigma.</p> + +<p>Passing on now from the mesosoma we +come in Scorpio to the metasoma of six +segments, the first of which is broad whilst +the rest are cylindrical. The last is perforated +by the anus and carries the post-anal spine +or sting. The somites of the metasoma carry +no parapodia. In Limulus the metasoma is +practically suppressed. In the allied extinct +Eurypterines it is well developed, and resembles +that of Scorpio. In the embryo +Limulus (fig. 42) the six somites of the +mesosoma are not fused to form a carapace +at an early stage, and they are followed by +three separately marked metasomatic somites; +the other three somites of the metasoma have +disappeared in Limulus, but are represented +by the unsegmented prae-anal region. It is +probable that we have in the metasoma of Limulus a case of the disappearance +of once clearly demarcated somites. It would be possible +to suppose, on the other hand, that new somites are only beginning +to make their appearance here. The balance of various considerations +is against the latter hypothesis. Following the metasoma in +Limulus, we have as in Scorpio the post-anal spine—in this case +not a sting, but a powerful and important organ of locomotion, +serving to turn the animal over when it has fallen upon its +back. The nature of the post-anal spine has been strangely misinterpreted +by some writers. Owen (<b>7</b>) maintained that it represented +a number of coalesced somites, regardless of its post-anal +position and mode of development. The agreement of the grouping +of the somites, of the form of the parapodia (appendages, limbs) in each +region, of the position of the genital aperture and operculum, of the +position and character of the eyes, and of the powerful post-anal spines +not seen in other Arthropods, is very convincing as to the affinity +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page290" id="page290"></a>290</span> +of Limulus and Scorpio. Perhaps the most important general agreement +of Scorpio compared with Limulus and the Eurypterines is the +division of the body into the three regions (or tagmata)—prosoma, +mesosoma and metasoma—each consisting of six segments, the +prosoma having leg-like appendages, the mesosoma having foliaceous +appendages, and the metasoma being destitute of appendages.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:438px; height:372px" src="images/img290a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.—Ventral view of the posterior carapace or meso-metasomatic +(opisthospmatic) fusion of <i>Limulus polyphemus</i>. The soft +integument and limbs of the mesosoma have been removed as well +as all the viscera and muscles, so that the inner surface of the terga +of these somites with their entopophyses are seen. The unsegmented +dense chitinous sternal plate of the metasoma (XIII to XVIII) is +not removed. Letters as in fig. 7.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">After Lankester, <i>loc. cit.</i>)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:300px; height:518px" src="images/img290b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.—Ventral view of a scorpion, +<i>Palamnaeus indus</i>, de Geer, to show +the arrangement of the coxae of the +limbs, the sternal elements, genital +plate and pectens.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p>M, Mouth behind the oval median +camerostome.</p> + +<p>I, The chelicerae.</p> + +<p>II, The chelae.</p> + +<p>III to VI, the four pairs of walking legs.</p> + +<p>VII<i>go</i>, The genital somite or first +somite of the mesosoma with the +genital operculum (a fused pair of +limbs).</p> + +<p>VIII<i>p</i>, The pectiniferous somite.</p> + +<p>IX<i>stg</i> to XII<i>stg</i>, the four pulmonary +somites.</p> + +<p><i>met</i>, The pentagonal metasternite of +the prosoma behind all the coxae.</p> + +<p><i>x</i>, The sternum of the pectiniferous +somite.</p> + +<p><i>y</i>, The broad first somite of the metasoma.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:302px; height:222px" src="images/img290c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.—Third leg of <i>Limulus polyphemus</i>, +showing the division of the fourth +segment of the leg by a groove S into +two, thus giving seven segments to the +leg as in scorpion.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From a drawing by Pocock.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>In 1893, some years after the identification of the somites of +Limulus with those of Scorpio, thus indicated, had been published, +zoologists were startled by the discovery by a Japanese zoologist, +Kishinouye (<b>8</b>), of a seventh prosomatic somite in the embryo of +Limulus longispina. This was seen in longitudinal sections, as shown +in fig. 19. The simple identification of somite with somite in Limulus +and Scorpio seemed to be threatened by this discovery. But in +1896 Dr August Brauer of Marburg (<b>9</b>) discovered in the embryo +of Scorpio a seventh prosomatic somite (see VII PrG, figs. 17 and 18), +or, if we please so to term it, a <i>praegenital</i> somite, hitherto unrecognized. +In the case of Scorpio this segment is indicated in the embryo +by the presence of a pair of rudimentary appendages, carried by a +well-marked somite. As in Limulus, so in Scorpio, this unexpected +somite and its appendages disappear in the course of development. +In fact, more or less complete “excalation” of the somite takes place. +Owing to its position it is convenient to term the somite which is +excalated in Limulus and Scorpio “the praegenital somite.” It +appears not improbable that the sternal plates wedged in between +the last pair of legs in both Scorpio and Limulus, viz. the pentagonal +sternite of Scorpio (fig. 10) and the chilaria of Limulus (see figs. 13 +and 20), may in part represent in the adult the sternum of the excalated +praegenital somite. This has not been demonstrated by an +actual following out of the development, but the position of these +pieces and the fact that they are (in Limulus) supplied by an independent +segmental nerve, favours the view that they may comprise +the sternal area of the vanished praegenital somite. This interpretation, +however, of the “metasternites” of Limulus and Scorpio +is opposed by the coexistence in Thelyphonus (figs. 55, 57 and 58) +of a similar metasternite with a complete praegenital somite. H.J. +Hansen (<b>10</b>) has recognized that the “praegenital somite” persists +in a rudimentary condition, forming a “waist” to the series of +somites in the Pedipalpi and Araneae. The present writer is of +opinion that it will be found most convenient to treat this evanescent +somite as something special, and not to attempt to reckon it to +either the prosoma or the mesosoma. These will then remain as +typically composed each of six appendage-bearing somites-the +prosoma comprising in addition the ocular prosthomere.<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> When +the praegenital somite or traces of it are present it should not be +called “the seventh prosomatic” or the “first mesosomatic,” but +simply the “praegenital somite.” The first segment of the mesosoma +of Scorpio and Limulus thus remains the first segment, and can +be identified as such throughout the Eu-arachnida, carrying as it +always does the genital apertures. But it is necessary to remember, +in the light of recent discoveries, that the sixth prosomatic pair of +appendages is carried on the seventh somite of the whole series, +there being two prosthomeres or somites in front of the mouth, the +first carrying the eyes, the second the chelicerae; also that the first +mesosomatic or genital somite is not the seventh or even the eighth +of the whole senes of somites which have been historically present, +but is the ninth, owing to the presence or to the excalation of a +praegenital somite. It seems that confusion and trouble will be +best avoided by abstaining +from the introduction of +the non-evident somites, +the ocular and the praegenital, +into the numerical +nomenclature of the component +somites of the three +great body regions. We +shall, therefore, ignoring +the ocular somite, speak of +the first, second, third, +fourth, fifth and sixth leg-bearing +somites of the prosoma, +and indicate the +appendages by the Roman +numerals, I, II, III, IV, +V, VI, and whilst ignoring +the praegenital somite we +shall speak of the first, +second, third, &c., somite of +the mesosoma or opisthosoma +(united mesosoma and +metasoma) and indicate +them by the Arabic +numerals.</p> + +<p>There are a number of +other important points of +structure besides those referring +to the somites and +appendages in which +Limulus agrees with Scorpio +or other Arachnida and +differs from other Arthropoda. +The chief of these +are as follows:—</p> + +<p>1. <i>The Composition of the +Head</i> (that is to say, of the +anterior part of the prosoma) +<i>with especial Reference +to the Region in Front of the +Mouth.</i>—It appears (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arthropoda</a></span>) that there is +embryological evidence of +the existence of two somites +in Arachnida which were +originally post-oral, but +have become prae-oral by +adaptational shifting of the +oral aperture. These +forwardly-slipped somites +are called “prosthomeres.” +The first of these has, in +Arachnids as in other +Arthropods, its pair of appendages +represented by +the eyes. The second has +for its pair of appendages +the small pair of limbs +which in all living Arachnids is either chelate or retrovert (as in +spiders), and is known as the chelicerae. It is possible, as maintained +by some writers (Patten and others), that the lobes of the cerebral +nervous mass in Arachnids +indicate a larger +number of prosthomeres +as having fused in this +region, but there is no +<i>embryological</i> evidence at +present which justifies us +in assuming the existence +in Arachnids of more than +two prosthomeres. The +position of the chelicerae +of Limulus and of the +ganglionic nerve-masses +from which they receive +their nerve-supply, is +closely similar to that of +the same structures in +Scorpio. The cerebral +mass is in Limulus more +easily separated by dissection +as a median lobe +distinct from the laterally-placed +ganglia of the chelceral somite than is the case in Scorpio, but +the relations are practically the same in the two forms. Formerly +it was supposed that in Limulus both the chelicerae and the next +following pair of appendages were prosthomerous, as in Crustacea, +but the dissections of Alphonse Milne-Edwards (<b>6</b>) demonstrated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page291" id="page291"></a>291</span> +the true limitations of the cerebrum, whilst embryological researches +have done as much for Scorpio. Limulus thus agrees with Scorpio +and differs from the Crustacea, in which there are three prosthomeres—one +ocular and two carrying palpiform appendages. It is true that in +the lower Crustacea (Apus, &c.) we have evidence of the +gradual movement forward of the nerve-ganglia belonging to these +palpiform appendages. But although in such lower Crustacea the +nerve-ganglia of the third prosthomere have not fused with the +anterior nerve-mass, there is no question as to the prae-oral position +of two appendage-bearing somites in addition to the ocular prosthomere. +The Crustacea have, in fact, three prosthomeres in the head and the +Arachnida only two, and Limulus agrees with the Arachnida +in this respect and differs from the Crustacea. The central nervous +systems of Limulus and of Scorpio present closer agreement in +structure than can be found when a Crustacean is compared with +either. The wide divarication of the lateral cords in the prosoma +and their connexion by transverse commissures, together with the +“attraction” of ganglia to the prosomatic ganglion group which +properly belong to hinder segments, are very nearly identical in the +two animals. The form and disposition of the ganglion cells are also +peculiar and closely similar in the two. (See Patten (<b>42</b>) for important +observations on the neuromeres, &c., of Limulus and Scorpio.)</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:493px; height:900px" src="images/img291a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.—The prosomatic +appendages of <i>Limulus polyphemus</i> (right) and Scorpio (left), +<i>Palamnaeus indus</i> compared. The corresponding appendages are +marked with the same Roman numeral. The Arabic numerals indicate +the segments of the legs.<br /><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>cox</i>, Coxa or basal segment of the leg.</p> + +<p><i>stc</i>, The sterno-coxal process or jaw-like up-growth of the coxa.</p> + +<p><i>epc</i>, The articulated movable outgrowth of the coxa, called +the epi-coxite (present only in III of the scorpion and III, IV and V of Limulus).</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>ex</i><span class="sp">1</span>, The exopodite of the sixth limb of Limulus.</p> + +<p><i>a, b, c, d</i>, Movable processes on the same leg (see for some +suggestions on the morphology of this leg, Pocock in <i>Quart. +Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> March 1901; see also fig. 50 below and +explanation).</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(From Lankester, <i>loc. cit.</i>)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:358px; height:275px" src="images/img291b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.—Diagrams of the metasternite <i>st</i>, +with genital operculum <i>op</i>, and the first lamelligerous +pair of appendages <i>ga</i>, with uniting sternal element <i>st</i> +of Scorpio (left) and Limulus (right).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Lankester, <i>loc. cit.</i>)</td></tr></table> + +<p>2. <i>The Minute Structure of the Central Eyes and of the Lateral +Eyes.</i>—Limulus agrees with Scorpio not only in having a pair of +central eyes and also lateral eyes, but in the microscopic structure +of those organs, which differs in the central and lateral eyes +respectively. The central eyes are “simple eyes,” that is to say, +have a single lens, and are hence called “monomeniscous.” The +lateral eyes are in Limulus “compound eyes,” that is to say, consist +of many lenses placed close together; beneath each lens is a complex +of protoplasmic cells, in which the optic nerve terminates. Each +such unit is termed an “ommatidium.” The lateral eyes of Scorpio +consist of groups of separate small lenses each with its ommatidium, +but they do not form a continuous compound eye as in Limulus. The ommatidium +(soft structure beneath the lens-unit of a compound eye) is very +simple in both Scorpio and Limulus. It consists of a single layer +of cells, continuous with those which secrete the general chitinous +covering of the prosoma. The cells of the ommatidium are a good +deal larger than the neighbouring common cells of the epidermis. +They secrete the knob-like lens (fig. 22). But they also receive the +nerve fibres of the optic nerve. They are at the same time both +optic nerve-end cells, that is to say, retina cells, and corneagen cells or +secretors of the chitinous lens-like cornea. In Limulus (fig. 23) each +ommatidium has a peculiar ganglion cell developed in a central position, +whilst the ommatidium of the lateral eyelets of Scorpio shows small +intermediate cells between the larger nerve-end cells. The +structure of the lateral eye of Limulus was first described by +Grenacher, and further and more accurately by Lankester and +Bourne (<b>5</b>) and by Watase; that of Scorpio by Lankester and Bourne, +who showed that the statements of von Graber were erroneous, and +that the lateral eyes of Scorpio +have a single cell-layered or “monostichous” ommatidium like that +of Limulus. Watase has shown, in a very convincing way, how by +deepening the pit-like set of cells beneath a simple lens the +more complex ommatidia of the compound eyes of Crustacea and Hexapoda may +be derived from such a condition as that presented in the lateral +eyes of Limulus and Scorpio. (For details the reader is referred +to Watase (<b>11</b>) and to Lankester and Bourne (<b>5</b>).) The structure of +the central eyes of Scorpio and spiders and also of Limulus differs +essentially from that of the lateral eyes in having two layers +of cells (hence called diplostichous) beneath the lens, separated +from one another by a membrane (figs. 24 and 25). The upper layer is the +corneagen and secretes the lens, the lower is the retinal layer. The +mass of soft cell-structures beneath a large lens of a central eye is +called an “ommatoeum.” It shows in Scorpio and Limulus a +tendency to segregate into minor groups or “ommatidia.” It is +found that in embryological growth the retinal layer of the central +eyes forms as a separate pouch, which is pushed in laterally beneath +the corneagen layer from the epidermic cell layer. Hence it is in +origin double, and consists of a true retinal layer and a post-retinal +layer (fig. 24, B), though these are not separated by a membrane. +Accordingly the diplostichous ommatoeum or soft tissue of the +Arachnid’s central eye should strictly be called “triplostichous,” +since the deep layer is itself doubled or folded. The retinal cells of +both the lateral and central eyes of Limulus and Scorpio produce +cuticular structures on their sides; each such piece is a rhabdomere +and a number (five or ten) uniting form a rhabdom (fig. 26). In +the specialized ommatidia of the compound eyes of Crustacea and +Hexapods the rhabdom is an important structure.<a name="fa2m" id="fa2m" href="#ft2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a> It is a very significant fact +that the lateral and central eyes of Limulus and Scorpio not +only agree each with each in regard to their monostichous and +diplostichous structure, but also in the formation in both +classes of eyes of rhabdomeres and rhabdoms in which the +component pieces are five or a multiple of five (fig. 26). +Whilst each unit of the lateral eye of Limulus has a rhabdom of ten<a name="fa3m" id="fa3m" href="#ft3m"><span class="sp">3</span></a> pieces +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page292" id="page292"></a>292</span> +forming a star-like chitinous centre in section, each lateral eye of +Scorpio has several rhabdoms of five or less rhabdomeres, indicating +that the Limulus lateral eye-unit is more specialized than the detached +lateral eyelet of Scorpio, so as to present a coincidence of one lens +with one rhabdom. Numerous rhabdomeres (grouped as rhabdoms in +Limulus) are found in the retinal layer of the central eyes also.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:604px; height:416px" src="images/img292a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.—The first three pairs of mesosomatic appendages +of Scorpio and Limulus compared.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>VII, The genital operculum.</p> + +<p>VIII, The pectens of Scorpio and the +first branchial plate of Limulus.</p> + +<p>IX, The first pair of lung-books of +Scorpio and the second branchial +plate of Limulus.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>gp</i>, Genital pore.</p> + +<p><i>epst</i>, Epistigmatic sclerite.</p> + +<p><i>stg</i>, Stigma or orifice of the hollow +tendons of the branchial plates of +Limulus.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(After Lankester, <i>loc. cit.</i>)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Whilst Limulus agrees thus closely with Scorpio in regard to the +eyes, it is to be noted that no Crustacean has structures corresponding +to the peculiar diplostichous central eyes, though these +occur again (with differences in detail) in <i>Hexapoda</i>. Possibly, +however, an investigation of the development of the median eyes of +some Crustacea (Apus, Palaemon) may prove them to be diplostichous +in origin.</p> + +<p>3. <i>The so-called</i> “<i>Coxal Glands</i>.”—In 1882 (<i>Proc. Roy. Soc</i>. +No. 221) Lankester described under the name “coxal +glands” a pair of brilliantly white oviform bodies lying in +the Scorpion’s prosoma immediately above the coxae of +the fifth and sixth pairs of legs (fig. 27). These bodies +had been erroneously supposed by Newport (<b>12</b>) and +other observers to be glandular outgrowths of the alimentary +canal. They are really excretory glands, and +communicate with the exterior by a very minute aperture +on the posterior face of the coxa of the fifth limb on each +side. When examined with the microscope, by means of +the usual section method, they are seen to consist of a +labyrinthine tube lined with peculiar cells, each cell having +a deep vertically striated border on the surface farthest +from the lumen, as is seen in the cells of some renal organs. +The coils and branches of the tube are packed by connective +tissue and blood spaces. A similar pair of coxal glands, +lobate instead of ovoid in shape, was described by +Lankester in Mygale, and it was also shown by him that +the structures in Limulus called “brick-red glands” by +Packard have the same structure and position as the coxal +glands of Scorpio and Mygale. In Limulus these organs +consist each of four horizontal lobes lying on the coxal +margin of the second, third, fourth, and fifth prosomatic +limbs, the four lobes being connected to one another by +a transverse piece or stem (fig. 28). Microscopically their +structure is the same in essentials as that of the coxal +glands of Scorpio (<b>13</b>). Coxal glands have since been +recognized and described in other Arachnida. In 1900 it +was shown that the coxal gland of Limulus is provided +with a very delicate thin-walled coiled duct which opens, +even in the adult condition, by a minute pore on +the coxa of the fifth leg (Patten and Hazen, <b><span class="scs">13A</span></b>). +Previously to this, Lankester’s pupil Gulland had shown (1885) that +in the embryo the coxal gland is a comparatively simple tube, +which opens to the exterior in this position and by its other extremity +into a coelomic space. Similar observations were made by Laurie +(<b>17</b>) in Lankester’s laboratory (1890) with regard to the early +condition of the coxal gland of Scorpio, and by Bertkau (<b>41</b>) as to +that of the spider Atypus. H.M. Bernard (<b><span class="scs">13B</span></b>) showed that the +opening remains in the adult scorpion. In all the embryonic or +permanent opening is on the coxa of the fifth pair of prosomatic +limbs. Thus an organ newly discovered in Scorpio was found to +have its counterpart in Limulus.</p> + +<p>The name “coxal gland” needs to be carefully distinguished +from “crural gland,” with which it is apt to be confused. The crural +glands, which occur in many terrestrial Arthropods, are epidermal +in origin and totally distinct from the coxal glands. The +coxal glands of the Arachnida are structures of the same +nature as the green glands of the higher Crustacea and +the so-called “shell glands” of the Entomostraca. The +latter open at the base of the fifth pair of limbs of the +Crustacean, just as the coxal glands open on the coxal +joint of the fifth pair of limbs of the Arachnid. Both +belong to the category of “coelomoducts,” namely, +tubular or funnel-like portions of the coelom opening to +the exterior in pairs in each somite (potentially,) and +usually persisting in only a few somites as either “urocoels” +(renal organs) or “gonocoets” (genital tubes). In Peripatus +they occur in every somite of the body. They have till +recently been very generally identified with the nephridia +of Chaetopod worms, but there is good reason for considering +the true nephridia (typified by the nephridia +of the earthworm) as a distinct class of organs (see +Lankester in vol. ii. chap. in. of <i>A Treatise on Zoology</i>, +1900). The genital ducts of Arthropoda are, like the +green glands, shell glands and coxal glands, to be regarded +as coelomoducts (gonocoels). The coxal glands +do not establish any special connexion between Limulus +and Scorpio, since <span class="correction" title="amended from thay">they</span> also occur in the same somite +in the lower Crustacea, but it is to be noted that the +coxal glands of Limulus are in minute structure and +probably in function more like those of Arachnids than +those of Crustacea.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:596px; height:406px" src="images/img292b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.—The remaining three pairs of mesosomatic appendages of Scorpio +and Limulus. Letters as in fig. 14. <i>l</i>130 indicates that there are 130 lamellae +in the scorpion’s lung-book, whilst <i>l</i>150 indicates that 150 similar lamellae are +counted in the gill of Limulus.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(After Lankester, <i>loc. cit.</i>)</td></tr></table> + +<p>4. <i>The Entosternites and their Minute Structure.</i>—Strauss-Dürckheim +(<b>1</b>) was the first to insist on the affinity +between Limulus and the Arachnids, indicated by the +presence of a free suspended entosternum or plastron +or entosternite in both. We have figured here (figs. 1 to +6) the entosternites of Limulus, Scorpio and Mygale. +Lankester some years ago made a special study of the +histology (<b>3</b>) of these entosternites for the purpose of +comparison, and also ascertained the relations of the +very numerous muscles which are inserted into them +(<b>4</b>). The entosternites are cartilaginous in texture, but they +have neither the chemical character nor the microscopic structure +of the hyaline cartilage of Vertebrates. They yield chitin in +place of chondrin or gelatin—as does also the cartilage of +the Cephalopod’s endoskeleton. In microscopic structure they all +present the closest agreement with one another. We find a firm, +homogeneous or sparsely fibrillated matrix in which are embedded +nucleated cells (corpuscles of protoplasm) arranged in rows of three, +six or eight, parallel with the adjacent lines of fibrillation.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:282px; height:419px" src="images/img293a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter" style="vertical-align: bottom;"><img style="width:264px; height:280px" src="images/img293b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90" style="vertical-align: top;"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.—Diagram to +show the way in which an +outgrowing gill-process +bearing blood-holding +lamellae, may give rise, if +the sternal body wall sinks +inwards, to a lung-chamber +with air-holding lamellae.<br /><br /></p> + +<p>I is the embryonic condition.</p> + +<p><i>bs</i>, Blood sinus.</p> + +<p>L is the condition of outgrowth +with <i>gl</i>, gill lamellae.</p> + +<p>A is the condition of in-sinking +of the sternal +surface and consequent +enclosure of the lamelligerous +surface of the +appendage in a chamber +with narrow orifice—the +pulmonary air-holding +chamber.</p> + +<p><i>pl</i>, Pulmonary lamellae.</p> +<p><i>bs</i>, Blood sinus.</p> + +<p class="center f90"><br />(After Kingsley.)</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="vertical-align: top;"> +<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 17.—Embryo of scorpion, +ventral view showing somites and appendages.<br /><br /></p> + +<p><i>sgc</i>, Frontal groove.</p> + +<p><i>sa</i>, Rudiment of lateral eyes.</p> + +<p><i>obl</i>, Camerostome (upper lip).</p> + +<p><i>so</i>, Sense-organ of Patten.</p> + +<p>PrG<i>abp</i><span class="sp">1</span>, Rudiment of the appendage +of the praegenital somite +which disappears.</p> + +<p><i>abp</i><span class="sp">2</span>, Rudiment of the right half of +the genital operculum.</p> + +<p><i>abp</i><span class="sp">3</span>, Rudiment of the right pecten.</p> + +<p><i>abp</i><span class="sp">4</span> to <i>abp</i><span class="sp">7</span>. Rudiments of the four +appendages which carry the pulmonary lamellae.</p> + +<p>I to VI, Rudiments of the six limbs of the prosoma.</p> + +<p>VIIPrG, The evanescent praegenital somite.</p> + +<p>VIII, The first mesosomatic somite or genital somite.</p> + +<p>IX, The second mesosomatic somite or pectiniferous somite.</p> + +<p>X to XIII, The four pulmoniferous somites.</p> + +<p>XIV, The first metasomatic somite.</p> + +<p class="center f90"><br />(After Brauer, <i>Zeitsch. wiss. Zool</i>., vol. lix., 1895.)</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>A minute entosternite having the above-described structure is +found in the Crustacean Apus between the bases of the mandibles, +and also in the Decapoda in a similar position, but in no Crustacean +does it attain to any size or importance. On the other hand, the +entosternite of the Arachnida is a very large and important feature +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page293" id="page293"></a>293</span> +in the structure of the prosoma, and must play an important part +in the economy of these organisms. In Limulus (figs. 1 and 2) it +has as many as twenty-five pairs of muscles attached to it, coming +to it from the bases of the surrounding limbs and from the dorsal +carapace and from the pharynx. It consists of an oblong plate 2 in. +in length and 1 in breadth, with a pair of tendinous outgrowths +standing out from it at right angles on each side. It “floats” +between the prosomatic nerve +centres and the alimentary +canal. In each somite of the +mesosoma is a small, free entosternite +having a similar position, +but below or ventral to +the nerve cords, and having a +smaller number of muscles +attached to it. The entosternite +was probably in origin +part of the fibrous connective +tissue lying close to the integument +of the sternal surface—giving attachment to muscles +corresponding more or less to +those at present attached to +it. It became isolated and +detached, why or with what +advantage to the organism it +is difficult to say, and at that +period of Arachnidan development +the great ventral nerve +cords occupied a more lateral +position than they do at +present. We know that such +a lateral position of the nerve +cords preceded the median +position in both Arthropoda +and Chaetopoda. Subsequently +to the floating off of +the entosternite the approximation +of the nerve cords took +place in the prosoma, and thus +they were able to take up a +position below the entosternite. +In the mesosoma the approximation +had occurred before the +entosternites were formed.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:204px; height:159px" src="images/img293c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 18.—Portion of a similar +embryo at a later stage +of growth. The praegenital +somite, VII PrG, is still +present, but has lost its +rudimentary appendages; +<i>go</i>, the genital operculum, +left half; Km, the left +pecten; <i>abp</i><span class="sp">4</span> to <i>abp</i><span class="sp">7</span>, the +rudimentary appendages of +the lung-sacs.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(After Brauer, <i>loc. cit</i>.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:240px; height:190px" src="images/img293d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 19.—Section through an +early embryo of <i>Limulus longispina</i>, +showing seven transverse +divisions in the region of the +unsegmented anterior carapace. +The seventh, VII, is anterior to +the genital operculum, <i>op</i>, and +is the cavity of the praegenital +somite which is more or less +completely suppressed in subsequent +development, possibly +indicated by the area marked +VII in fig. 7 and by the great +entopophyses of the prosomatic +carapace.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(After Kishinouye, <i>Journ. Sci. Coll. Japan</i>, vol. v., 1892.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the scorpion (figs. 3 and 4) +the entosternite has tough +membrane-like outgrowths +which connect it with the +body-wall, both dorsally and +ventrally forming an oblique +diaphragm, cutting off the +cavity of the prosoma from +that of the mesosoma. It was +described by Newport as “the +diaphragm.” Only the central +and horizontal parts of this structure correspond precisely to the entosternite +of Limulus: the right and left anterior processes (marked <i>ap</i> in +figs. 3 and 4, and RAP, LAP, in figs. 1 and 2) correspond in the two +animals, and the median lateral process <i>lmp</i> of the scorpion represents +the tendinous outgrowths ALR, PLR of Limulus. The scorpion’s +entosternite gives rise to outgrowths, besides the great posterior +flaps, <i>pf</i>, which form the diaphragm, unrepresented in Limulus. +These are a ventral arch forming a neural canal through which the +great nerve cords pass (figs. 3 and 4, <i>snp</i>), and further a dorsal +gastric canal and arterial canal which transmit the alimentary tract +and the dorsal artery respectively (figs. 3 and 4, GC, DR).</p> + +<p>In Limulus small entosternites are found in each somite of the +appendage-bearing mesosoma, and we +find in Scorpio, in the only somite of +the mesosoma which has a well-developed +pair of appendages, that of +the pectens, a small entosternite with +ten pairs of muscles inserted into it. +The supra-pectinal entosternite lies +ventral to the nerve cords.</p> + +<p>In Mygale (figs. 5 and 6) the form +of the entosternite is more like that +of Limulus than is that of Scorpio. +The anterior notch Ph.N. is similar +to that in Limulus, whilst the imbricate +triangular pieces of the posterior +median region resemble the similarly-placed +structures of Limulus in a +striking manner.</p> + +<p>It must be confessed that we are +singularly ignorant as to the functional +significance of these remarkable organs—the +entosternites. Their movement +in an upward or downward direction +in Limulus and Mygale must exert a +pumping action on the blood contained +in the dorsal arteries and the +ventral veins respectively. In Scorpio +the completion of the horizontal plate by oblique naps, so as to form +an actual diaphragm shutting off the cavity of the prosoma from the +rest of the body, possibly gives to the organs contained in the +anterior chamber a physiological +advantage in respect of the supply +of arterial blood and its separation +from the venous blood of the +mesosoma. Possibly the movement +of the diaphragm may +determine the passage of air into +or out of the lung-sacs. Muscular +fibres connected with the suctorial +pharynx are in Limulus inserted +into the entosternite, and the +activity of the two organs may be +correlated.</p> + +<p>5. <i>The Blood and the Blood-vascular +System.</i>—The blood fluids +of Limulus and Scorpio are very +similar. Not only are the blood +corpuscles of Limulus more like +in form and granulation to those +of Scorpio than to those of any +Crustacean, but the fluid is in +both animals strongly impregnated +with the blue-coloured +respiratory proteid, haemocyanin. +This body occurs also in the blood +of Crustacea and of Molluscs, but +its abundance in both Limulus +and Scorpio is very marked, and +gives to the freshly-shed blood a +strong indigo-blue tint.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="3"><img style="width:199px; height:222px" src="images/img293e.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 20.—View of the ventral surface +of the mid-line of the prosomatic region +of <i>Limulus polyphemus</i>. The coxae of +the five pairs of limbs following the chelicerae +were arranged in a series on each +side between the mouth, M, and the metasternites, <i>mets</i>.<br /><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90"> +<p><i>sf</i>, The sub-frontal median sclerite.</p> + +<p>Ch, The chelicerae.</p> + +<p><i>cam</i>, The camerostome or upper lip.</p> + +<p>M, The mouth.</p> + +<p><i>pmst</i>, The promesosternal sclerite of +chitinous plate, unpaired.</p> + +<p><i>mets</i>, The right and left metasternites +(corresponding to the similarly placed +pentagonal sternite of Scorpio). Natural size.</p></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(After Lankester.)</td></tr></table> + +<p> </p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:414px; height:161px" src="images/img294a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2l.—Development of the lateral eyes of a scorpion. <i>h</i>, Epidermic +cell-layer; <i>mes</i>, mesoblastic connective tissue; <i>n</i>, nerves; +II, III, IV, V, depressions of the epidermis in each of which a +cuticular lens will be formed.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(<i>From Korschelt and Heider, after Laurie</i>.)</td></tr></table> + +<p> </p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="3"><img style="width:306px; height:255px" src="images/img294b.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 22.—Section +through the lateral eye of <i>Euscorpius italicus</i>.<br /><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90"> +<p><i>lens</i>, Cuticular lens.</p> +<p><i>nerv c</i>, Retinal cells (nerve-end cells).</p> +<p><i>rhabd</i>, Rhabdomes.</p> +<p><i>nerv f</i>, Nerve fibres of the optic nerve.</p> +<p><i>int</i>, Intermediate cells (lying between the bases + of the retinal cells).</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80">(After Lankester and Bourne +from Parker and Habwell’s <i>Text +book of Zoology</i>, Macmillan & Co.)</td></tr></table> + +<p> </p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:520px; height:398px" src="images/img294c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 23.—Section through a portion of the lateral eye of Limulus, +showing three ommatidia—A, B and C. <i>hyp</i>, The epidermic cell-layer +(so-called hypodermis), the cells of which increase in volume below +each lens, <i>l</i>, and become nerve-end cells or retinula-cells, <i>rt</i>; in A, +the letters <i>rh</i> point to a rhabdomere secreted by the cell <i>rt</i>; <i>c</i>, the +peculiar central spherical cell; <i>n</i>, nerve fibres; <i>mes</i>, mesoblastic +skeletal tissue; <i>ch</i>, chitinous cuticle.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Korschelt and Heider after Watase.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The great dorsal contractile vessel or “heart” of Limulus is +closely similar to that of Scorpio; its ostia or incurrent orifices are +placed in the same somites as those of Scorpio, but there is one +additional posterior pair. The origin of the paired arteries from the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294"></a>294</span> +heart differs in Limulus from the arrangement obtaining in Scorpio, +in that a pair of lateral commissural arteries exist in Limulus (as +described by Alphonse Milne-Edwards (<b>6</b>)) leading to a suppression +of the more primitive direct connexion of the four pairs of posterior +lateral arteries and of the great median posterior arteries with the +heart itself (fig. 29). The arterial system is very completely developed +in both Limulus and Scorpio, branching repeatedly until minute +arterioles are formed, not to be distinguished from true capillaries; +these open into irregular swollen vessels which are the veins or +venous sinuses. A very remarkable feature in Limulus, first described +by Owen, is the close accompaniment of the prosomatic nerve centres +and nerves by arteries, so close indeed that the great ganglion mass +and its out-running nerves are actually sunk in or invested by +arteries. The connexion is not so intimate in Scorpio, but is nevertheless +a very close one, closer than we find in any other Arthropods +in which the arterial system is well developed, <i>e.g.</i> the Myriapoda +and some of the arthrostracous Crustacea. It seems that there is a +primitive tendency in the Arthropoda for the arteries to accompany +the nerve cords, and a “supra-spinal” artery—that is to say, an +artery in close relation to the ventral nerve cords—has been described +in several cases. On the other hand, in many Arthropods, especially +those which possess tracheae, the arteries do not have a long course, +but soon open into wide blood sinuses. Scorpio certainly comes +nearer to Limulus in the high development of its arterial system, +and the intimate relation of the anterior aorta and its branches +to the nerve centres and great nerves, than does any other Arthropod.</p> + +<p>An arrangement of great functional importance in regard to the +venous system must now be described, which was shown in 1883 by +Lankester to be common to Limulus and Scorpio. This arrangement +has not hitherto been detected in any other class than the Arachnida, +and if it should ultimately prove to be peculiar to that group, would +have considerable weight as a proof of the close genetic affinity of +Limulus and Scorpio.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:386px; height:641px" src="images/img294d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 24.—Diagrams of the development and adult structure of one +of the paired central eyes of a scorpion.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"> +<p>A, Early condition before the lens is deposited, showing the folding + of the epidermic cell-layer into three.</p> +<p>B, Diagram showing the nature of this infolding.</p> +<p>C, Section through the fully formed eye.</p> +<p><i>h</i>, Epidermic cell-layer.</p> +<p><i>r</i>, The retinal portion of the same which, owing to the infolding, + lies between <i>gl</i>, the corneagen or lens-forming portion, and <i>pr</i>, + the post-retinal or capsular portion or fold.</p> +<p><i>l</i>, Cuticular lens.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, Line separating lens from the lens-forming or corneagen cells + of the epidermis.</p> +<p><i>n</i>, Nerve fibres.</p> +<p><i>rh</i>, Rhabdomeres.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption">[How the inversion of the nerve-end-cells and their connexion with +the nerve-fibres is to be reconciled with the condition found in the +adult, or with that of the monostichous eye, has not hitherto been +explained.]</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Korschelt and Heider.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The great pericardial sinus is strongly developed in both animals. +Its walls are fibrous and complete, and it holds a considerable volume +of blood when the heart itself is contracted. Opening in pairs in +each somite, right and left into the pericardial sinus are large veins, +which bring the blood respectively from the gill-books and the lung-books +to that chamber, whence it passes by the ostia into the heart. +The blood is brought to the respiratory organs in both cases by a +great venous collecting sinus having a ventral median position. In +both animals <i>the wall of the pericardial sinus is connected by vertical +muscular bands to the wall of the ventral venous sinus</i> (its lateral expansions +around the lung-books in Scorpio) in each somite through +which the pericardium passes. There are seven pairs of these <i>veno-pericardiac +vertical muscles</i> in Scorpio, and eight in Limulus (see +figs. 30, 31, 32). It is obvious that the contraction of these muscles +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id="page295"></a>295</span> +must cause a depression of the floor of the pericardium and a rising +of the roof of the ventral blood sinus, and a consequent increase of +volume and flow of blood to each. Whether the pericardium and +the ventral sinus are made to expand simultaneously or all the movement +is made by one only of the surfaces concerned, must depend +on conditions of tension. In any case it is clear that we have in +these muscles an apparatus for causing the blood to flow differentially +in increased volume into either the pericardium, through the veins +leading from the respiratory organs, or from the body generally into +the great sinuses which bring the blood to the respiratory organs. +These muscles act so as to pump the blood through the respiratory +organs.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:462px; height:571px" src="images/img295a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 25.—Section through one of the central eyes of a young +Limulus.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> + <p>L, Cuticular or corneous lens.</p> + <p><i>hy</i>, Epidermic cell-layer.</p> + <p><i>corn</i>, Its corneagen portion immediately underlying the lens.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> + <p><i>ret</i>, Retinula cells.</p> + <p><i>nf</i>, Nerve fibres.</p> + <p><i>con. tiss</i>, Connective tissue (mesoblastic skeletal tissue).</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(After Lankester and Bourne, <i>Q. J. Mic. Sci.</i>, 1883.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>It is not surprising that with so highly developed an arterial +system Limulus and Scorpio should have a highly developed mechanism +for determining the flow of blood to the respiratory organs. +That this is, so to speak, a need of animals with localized respiratory +organs is seen by the existence of provisions serving a similar purpose +in other animals, <i>e.g.</i> the branchial hearts of the Cephalopoda.</p> + +<p>The veno-pericardiac muscles of Scorpio were seen and figured by +Newport but not described by him. Those of Limulus were described +and figured by Alphonse Milne-Edwards, but he called them merely +“transparent ligaments,” and did not discover their muscular +structure. They are figured and their importance for the first time +recognized in the memoir on the muscular and skeletal systems of +Limulus and Scorpio by Lankester, Beck and Bourne (<b>4</b>).</p> + +<p>6. <i>Alimentary Canal and Gastric Glands.</i>—The alimentary canal in +Scorpio, as in Limulus, is provided with a powerful suctorial pharynx, +in the working of which extrinsic muscles take a part. The mouth +is relatively smaller in Scorpio than in Limulus—in fact is minute, +as it is in all the terrestrial Arachnida which suck the juices of +either animals or plants. In both, the alimentary canal takes a +straight course from the pharynx (which bends under it downwards +and backwards towards the mouth in Limulus) to the anus, and is +a simple, narrow, cylindrical tube (fig. 33). The only point in which +the gut of Limulus resembles that of Scorpio rather than that of +any of the Crustacea, is in possessing more than a single pair of ducts +or lateral outgrowths connected with ramified gastric glands or +gastric caeca. Limulus has two pairs of these, Scorpio as many as +six pairs. The Crustacea never have more than one pair. The +minute microscopic structure of the gastric glands in the two animals +is practically identical. The functions of these gastric diverticula +have never been carefully investigated. It is very probable that in +Scorpio they do not serve merely to secrete a digestive fluid (shown +in other Arthropoda to resemble the pancreatic fluid), but that they +also become distended by the juices of the prey sucked in by the +scorpion—as certainly must occur in the case of the simple unbranched +gastric caeca of the spiders.</p> + +<p>The most important difference which exists between the structure +of Limulus and that of Scorpio is found in the hinder region of the +alimentary canal. Scorpio is here provided with a single or double +pair of renal excretory tubes, which have been identified by earlier +authors with the Malpighian tubes of the Hexapod and Myriapod +insects. Limulus is devoid of any such tubes. We shall revert to +this subject below.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:390px; height:436px" src="images/img295b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 26.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>A, Diagram of a retinula of the +central eye of a scorpion consisting +of five retina-cells (<i>ret</i>), +with adherent branched pigment +cells (<i>pig</i>).</p> + +<p>B, Rhabdom of the same, consisting +of five confluent rhabdomeres.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>C, Transverse section of the +rhabdom of a retinula of the +scorpion’s central eye, showing +its five constituent rhabdomeres +as rays of a star.</p> + +<p>D, Transverse section of a +retinula of the lateral eye of +Limulus, showing ten retinula +cells (<i>ret</i>), each bearing a +rhabdomere (<i>rhab</i>).</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(After Lankester.)</td></tr></table> + +<p> </p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="3"><img style="width:227px; height:280px" src="images/img295c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="f90"><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 27.—Diagram showing +the position of the coxal glands +of a scorpion, <i>Buthus australis</i>, +Lin., in relation to the legs, +diaphragm (entosternal flap), and +the gastric caeca.<br /><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90"> +<p>1 to 6, The bases of the six +prosomatic limbs.</p> + +<p>A, prosomatic gastric gland +(sometimes called salivary).</p> + +<p>B, Coxal gland.</p> + +<p>C, Diaphragm of Newport = fibrous +flap of the entosternum.</p> + +<p>D, Mesosomatic gastric caeca +(so-called liver).</p> + +<p>E, Alimentary canal.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Lankester, <i>Q. J. Mic. Sci.</i>, vol. +xxiv. N.S. p. 152.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">7. <i>Ovaries and Spermaries: Gonocoels and Gonoducts.</i>—The +scorpion is remarkable for having the specialized portion of coelom +from the walls of which egg-cells or sperm-cells are developed +according to sex, in the form of a simple but extensive network. +It is not a pair of simple tubes, nor of dendriform tubes, but a closed +network. The same fact is true of Limulus, as was shown by Owen (<b>7</b>) +in regard to the ovary, and by Benham (<b>14</b>) in regard to the testis. +This is a very definite and remarkable agreement, since such a +reticular gonocoel is not found in Crustacea (except in the male +Apus). Moreover, there is a significant agreement in the character +of the spermatozoa of Limulus and Scorpio. The Crustacea are—with +the exception of the Cirrhipedia—remarkable for having stiff, +motionless spermatozoids. In Limulus Lankester found (<b>15</b>) the +spermatozoa to possess active flagelliform “tails,” and to resemble +very closely those of Scorpio which, as are those of most terrestrial +Arthropoda, are actively motile. This is a microscopic point of +agreement, but is none the less significant.</p> + +<p>In regard to the important structures concerned with the fertilization +of the egg, Limulus and Scorpio differ entirely from one another. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page296" id="page296"></a>296</span> +The eggs of Limulus are fertilized in the sea after they have been +laid. Scorpio, being a terrestrial animal, fertilizes by copulation. +The male possesses elaborate copulatory structures of a chitinous +nature, and the eggs are fertilized in the female without even quitting +the place where they are formed on the wall of the reticular gonocoel. +The female scorpion is viviparous, and the young are produced in a +highly developed condition as fully formed scorpions.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="3"><img style="width:288px; height:282px" src="images/img296a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="f90"><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 28.—The right coxal +gland of <i>Limulus polyphemus</i>, +Latr.<br /><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90"> +<p><i>a</i><span class="sp">2</span> to <i>a</i><span class="sp">5</span>, Posterior borders of +the chitinous bases of the +coxae of the second, third, +fourth and fifth prosomatic +limbs.</p> + +<p><i>b</i>, Longitudinal lobe or stolon +of the coxal gland.</p> + +<p><i>c</i>. Its four transverse lobes or +outgrowths corresponding +to the four coxae.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Lankester, <i>loc. cit.</i>, after +Packard.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Differences between Limulus and Scorpio.</i>—We have now passed in +review the principal structural features in which Limulus agrees +with Scorpio and differs from other Arthropoda. There remains for +consideration the one important structural difference between the +two animals. Limulus agrees with the majority of the Crustacea in +being destitute of renal excretory caeca or tubes opening into the +hinder part of the gut. Scorpio, on the other hand, in common +with all air-breathing Arthropoda except Peripatus, possesses these +tubules, which are often called Malpighian tubes. A great deal has +been made of this difference by some writers. It has been considered +by them as proving that Limulus, in spite of all its special agreements +with Scorpio (which, however, have scarcely been appreciated by the +writers in question), really belongs to the Crustacean line of descent, +whilst Scorpio, by possessing Malpighian tubes, is declared to be +unmistakably tied together with the other Arachnida to the tracheate +Arthropods, the Hexapods, Diplopods, and Chilopods, which all +possess Malpighian tubes.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:228px; height:361px" src="images/img296b.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="f90"><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 29.—Diagram of the +arterial system of A, Scorpio, +and B, Limulus. The Roman +numerals indicate the body +somites and the two figures +are adjusted for comparison. +<i>ce</i>, Cerebral arteries; <i>sp</i>, +supra-spinal or medullary +artery; <i>c</i>, caudal artery; +<i>l</i>, lateral anastomotic artery +of Limulus. The figure B +also shows the peculiar neural +investiture formed by the +cerebral arteries in Limulus +and the derivation from this +of the arteries to the limbs, +III, IV, VI, whereas in +Scorpio the latter have a +separate origin from the +anterior aorta.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Lankester, “Limulus an +Arachnid.”</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">It must be pointed out that the presence or absence of such renal +excretory tubes opening into the intestine appears to be a question +of adaptation to the changed physiological conditions of respiration, +and not of morphological significance, since a pair of renal excretory +tubes of this nature is found in certain Amphipod Crustacea (Talorchestia, +&c.) which have abandoned a purely aquatic life. This view +has been accepted and supported by Professors Korschelt and Heider +(<b>16</b>). An important fact in its favour was discovered by Laurie (<b>17</b>), +who investigated the embryology of two species of Scorpio under +Lankester’s direction. It appears that the Malpighian tubes of +Scorpio are developed from the mesenteron, viz. that portion of the +gut which is formed by the hypoblast, whereas in Hexapod insects +the similar caecal tubes are developed from the proctodaeum or +in-pushed portion of the gut which is formed from epiblast. In fact +it is not possible to maintain that the renal excretory tubes of the +gut are of one common origin in the Arthropoda. They have +appeared independently in connexion with a change in the excretion +of nitrogenous waste in Arachnids, Crustacea, and the other classes +of Arthropoda when aerial, as opposed to aquatic, respiration has +been established—and they have been formed in some cases from +the mesenteron, in other cases from the proctodaeum. Their +appearance in the air-breathing Arachnids does not separate those +forms from the water-breathing Arachnids which are devoid of them, +any more than does their appearance in certain Amphipoda separate +those Crustaceans from the other members of the class.</p> + +<p>Further, it is pointed out by Korschelt and Heider that the hinder +portion of the gut frequently acts in Arthropoda as an organ of +nitrogenous excretion in the absence of any special excretory tubules, +and that the production of such caeca from its surface in separate +lines of descent does not involve any elaborate or unlikely process of +growth. In other words, the Malpighian tubes of the terrestrial +Arachnida are <i>homoplastic</i> with those of Hexapoda and Myriapoda, +and not <i>homogenetic</i> with them. We are compelled to take a similar +view of the agreement between the tracheal air-tubes of Arachnida +and other tracheate Arthropods. They are homoplasts (see <b>18</b>) one +of another, and do not owe their existence in the various classes +compared to a common inheritance of an ancestral tracheal system.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:242px; height:375px" src="images/img296c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 30.—View from below of +a scorpion (<i>Buthus occitanus</i>) +opened and dissected so as to +show the pericardium with its +muscles, the lateral arteries, and +the tergo-sternal muscles.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p>PRO, Prosoma.</p> + +<p><i>dpm</i>, Dorso-plastral muscle.</p> + +<p><i>art</i>, Lateral artery.</p> + +<p><i>tsm</i><span class="sp">1</span>, Tergo-sternal muscle (labelled +<i>dv</i> in fig. 31) of the +second (pectiniferous) mesosomatic +somite; this is the most +anterior pair of the series of +six, none are present in the +genital somite.</p> + +<p><i>tsm</i><span class="sp">4</span>, Tergo-sternal muscle of +the fifth mesosomatic somite.</p> + +<p><i>tsm</i><span class="sp">6</span>, Tergo-sternal muscle of +the enlarged first metasomatic +somite.</p> + +<p><i>Per</i>, Pericardium.</p> + +<p>VPM<span class="sp">1</span> to VPM<span class="sp">7</span>, The series of +seven pairs of veno-pericardiac +muscles (labelled <i>pv</i> in fig. 31).</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption1">There is some reason to admit +the existence of another more +anterior pair of these muscles in +Scorpio; this would make the +number exactly correspond with +the number in Limulus.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80">(After Lankester, <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> +vol. xi, 1883.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Conclusions arising from the Close Affinity of Limulus and +Scorpio.</i>—When we consider the relationships of the various +classes of Arthropoda, having +accepted and established the +fact of the close genetic affinity +of Limulus and Scorpio, we are +led to important conclusions. +In such a consideration we have +to make use not only of the fact +just mentioned, but of three important +generalizations which +serve as it were as implements +for the proper estimation of the +relationships of any series of +organic forms. First of all there +is the generalization that the +relationships of the various +forms of animals (or of plants) +to one another is that of the +ultimate twigs of a much-branching +genealogical tree. Secondly, +identity of structure in two organisms +does not necessarily +indicate that the identical +structure has been inherited from +an ancestor common to the two +organisms compared (homogeny), +but may be due to +independent development of a +like structure in two different +lines of descent (homoplasy). +Thirdly, those members of a +group which, whilst exhibiting +undoubted structural characters +indicative of their proper assignment +to that group, yet are +simpler than and inferior in +elaboration of their organization +to other members of the group, +are not necessarily representatives +of the earlier and primitive +phases in the development of +the group—but are very often +examples of retrogressive change +or degeneration. The second +and third implements of analysis +above cited are of the nature of +cautions or checks. Agreements +are not <i>necessarily</i> due to +common inheritance; simplicity is not <i>necessarily</i> primitive and +ancestral.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, we must not rashly set down agreements +as due to “homoplasy” or “convergence of development” if +we find two or three or more concurrent agreements. The probability +is against agreement being due to homoplasy when the +agreement involves a number of really separate (not correlated) +coincidences. Whilst the chances are in favour of some <i>one</i> +homoplastic coincidence or structural agreement occurring +between some member or other of a large group <i>a</i> and some +member or other of a large group <i>b</i>, the matter is very different +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page297" id="page297"></a>297</span> +when by such an initial coincidence the two members have been +particularized. The chances against these two selected members +exhibiting <i>another</i> really independent homoplastic agreement +are enormous: let us say 10,000 to 1. The chances against yet +another coincidence are a hundred million to one, and against +yet one more “coincidence” they are the square of a hundred +million to one. Homoplasy can only be assumed when the coincidence +is of a simple nature, and is such as may be reasonably +supposed to have arisen by the action of like selective conditions +upon like material in two separate lines of descent.<a name="fa4m" id="fa4m" href="#ft4m"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>So, too, degeneration is not to be lightly assumed as the explanation +of a simplicity of structure. There is a very definite +criterion of the simplicity due to degeneration, which can in +most cases be applied. Degenerative simplicity is never uniformly +distributed over all the structures of the organism. It +affects many or nearly all the structures of the body, but leaves +some, it may be only one, at a high level of elaboration and +complexity. Ancestral simplicity is more uniform, and does +not co-exist with specialization and elaboration of a single organ. +Further: degeneration cannot be inferred safely by the examination +of an isolated case; usually we obtain a series of forms +indicating the steps of a change in structure—and what we have +to decide is whether the movement has been from the simple +to the more complex, or from the more complex to the simple. +The feathers of a peacock afford a convenient example of primitive +and degenerative simplicity. The highest point of elaboration +in colour, pattern and form is shown by the great eye-painted +tail feathers. From these we can pass by gradual transitions +in two directions, viz. either to the simple lateral tail feathers +with a few rami only, developed only on one side of the shaft +and of uniform metallic coloration—or to the simple contour +feathers of small size, with the usual symmetrical series of +numerous rami right and left of the shaft and no remarkable +colouring. The one-sided specialization and the peculiar metallic +colouring of the lateral tail feathers mark them as the extreme +terms of a degenerative series, whilst the symmetry, likeness of +constituent parts <i>inter se</i>, and absence of specialized pigment, +as well as the fact that they differ little from any average feather +of birds in general, mark the contour feather as primitively +simple, and as the starting-point from which the highly elaborated +eye-painted tail feather has gradually evolved.</p> + +<p>Applying these principles to the consideration of the Arachnida, +we arrive at the conclusion that the smaller and simpler +Arachnids are not the more primitive, but that the Acari or mites +are, in fact, a degenerate group. This was maintained by +Lankester in 1878 (<b>19</b>), again in 1881 (<b>20</b>); it was subsequently +announced as a novelty by Claus in 1885 (<b>21</b>). Though the +aquatic members of a class of animals are in some instances +derived from terrestrial forms, the usual transition is from an +aquatic ancestry to more recent land-living forms. There is no +doubt, from a consideration of the facts of structure, that the +aquatic water-breathing Arachnids, represented in the past by +the Eurypterines and to-day by the sole survivor Limulus, have +preceded the terrestrial air-breathing forms of that group. +Hence we see at once that the better-known Arachnida form +a series, leading from Limulus-like aquatic creatures through +scorpions, spiders and harvest-men, to the degenerate Acari or +mites. The spiders are specialized and reduced in apparent +complexity, as compared with the scorpions, but they cannot be +regarded as degenerate since the concentration of structure +which occurs in them results in greater efficiency and power than +are exhibited by the scorpion. The determination of the relative +degree of perfection of organization attained by two animals +compared is difficult when we introduce, as seems inevitable, +the question of efficiency and power, and do not confine the +question to the perfection of morphological development. We +have no measure of the degree of power manifested by various +animals—though it would be possible to arrive at some conclusions +as to how that “power” should be estimated. It is not +possible here to discuss that matter further. We must be content +to point out that it seems that the spiders, the pedipalps, and +other large Arachnids have not been derived from the scorpions +directly, but have independently developed from aquatic +ancestors, and from one of these independent groups—probably +through the harvest-men from the spiders—the Acari have finally +resulted.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:448px; height:152px" src="images/img297a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">After Beck, <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> <span class="sc">Vol.</span> xi., 1883.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 31.—Diagram of a lateral view of a longitudinal section of +a scorpion.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> + <p><i>d</i>, Chelicera.</p> + <p><i>ch</i>, Chela.</p> + <p><i>cam</i>, Camerostome.</p> + <p><i>m</i>, Mouth.</p> + <p><i>ent</i>, Entosternum.</p> + <p><i>p</i>, Pecten.</p> + <p><i>stig</i><span class="sp">1</span>, First pulmonary aperture.</p> + <p><i>stig</i><span class="sp">4</span>, Fourth pulmonary aperture.</p> +</td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> + <p><i>dam</i>, Muscle from carapace to a praeoral entosclerite.</p> + <p><i>ad</i>, Muscle from carapace to entosternum.</p> + <p><i>md</i>, Muscle from tergite of genital somite to entosternum (same as <i>dpm</i> in fig. 30).</p> + <p><i>dv</i><span class="sp">1</span> to <i>dv<span class="sp">6</span></i>, Dorso-ventral muscles (same as the series labelled <i>tsm</i> in fig. 30).</p> + <p><i>pv</i><span class="sp">1</span> to <i>pv<span class="sp">7</span></i>, The seven veno-pericardiac muscles of the right side (labelled VPM in fig. 30).</p> +</td></tr></table> + +<p> </p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:514px; height:214px" src="images/img297b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">After Benham, <i>Trans Zool. Soc.</i> vol. xi, 1883.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 32.—Diagram of a lateral view of a longitudinal section of +Limulus.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> + <p><i>Suc</i>, Suctorial pharynx.</p> + <p><i>al</i>, Alimentary canal.</p> + <p><i>Ph</i>, Pharynx.</p> + <p><i>M</i>, Mouth.</p> + <p><i>Est</i>, Entosternum.</p> + <p>VS, Ventral venous sinus.</p> + <p><i>chi</i>, Chilaria.</p> + <p><i>go</i>, Genital operculum.</p> +</td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> + <p><i>br</i><span class="sp">1</span> to <i>br</i><span class="sp">5</span>, Branchial appendages,</p> + <p><i>met</i>, Unsegmented metasoma.</p> + <p><i>Entap</i><span class="sp">4</span>, Fourth dorsal entapophysis of left side.</p> + <p><i>tsm</i>, Tergo-sternal muscles, six pairs as in Scorpio (labelled <i>dv</i> in fig. 31).</p> + <p>VPM<span class="sp">1</span> to VPM<span class="sp">8</span>, The eight pairs of veno-pericardiac muscles (labelled <i>pv</i> in + fig. 31). VPM<span class="sp">1</span> is probably represented in Scorpio, though not marked in figs. 30 and 31.</p> +</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:217px; height:514px" src="images/img298.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Lankester, “Limulua an Arachnid.”</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 33.—The alimentary canal and gastric +glands of a scorpion (A) and of Limulus (B).</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p><i>ps</i>, Muscular suctorial enlargement +of the pharynx.</p> + +<p><i>sal</i>, Prosomatic pair of gastric caeca in Scorpio, called salivary glands +by some writers.</p> + +<p><i>c</i><span class="sp">1</span>, and <i>c</i><span class="sp">2</span>, +The anterior two pairs of gastric caeca and ducts of the mesosomatic region.</p> + +<p><i>c</i><span class="sp">3</span>, <i>c</i><span class="sp">4</span> and +<i>c</i><span class="sp">5</span>. Caeca and ducts of Scorpio not represented +in Limulus.</p> + +<p>M, The Malpighian or renal caecal diverticula of Scorpio.</p> + +<p><i>pro</i>, The proctodaeum or portion of gut leading to anus and formed +embryologically by an inversion of the epiblast at that +orifice.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Leaving that question for consideration in connexion with +the systematic statement of the characters of the various groups +of Arachnida which follows on p. 299, it is well now to consider +the following question, viz., seeing that Limulus and Scorpio are +such highly developed and specialized forms, and that they seem +to constitute as it were the first and second steps in the series of +recognized Arachnida—what do we know, or what are we led to +suppose with regard to the more primitive Arachnida from which +the Eurypterines and Limulus and Scorpio have sprung? Do +we know in the recent or fossil condition any such primitive +Arachnids? Such a question is not only legitimate, but +prompted by the analogy of at least one other great class of +Arthropods. The great Arthropod class, the Crustacea, presents +to the zoologist at the present day an immense range of forms, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page298" id="page298"></a>298</span> +comprising the primitive phyllopods, the minute copepods, the +parasitic cirrhipedes and the powerful crabs and lobsters, and +the highly elaborated sand-hoppers and slaters. It has been +insisted, by those who accepted Lankester’s original doctrine +of the direct or genetic affinity of the Chaetopoda and Arthropoda, +that Apus and Branchipus really come very near to the +ancestral forms which connected those two great branches of +Appendiculate (Parapodiate) animals. On the other hand, the +land crabs are at an immense distance from these simple forms. +The record of the Crustacean family-tree +is, in fact, a fairly complete +one—the lower primitive members +of the group are still represented +by living forms in great abundance. +In the case of the Arachnida, if we +have to start their genealogical +history with Limulus and Scorpio, +we are much in the same position +as we should be in dealing with +the Crustacea, were the whole of the +Entomostraca and the whole of the +Arthrostraca wiped out of existence +and record. There is no possibility +of doubt that the series of forms +corresponding in the Arachnidan +line of descent, to the forms distinguished +in the Crustacean line +of descent as the lower grade—the +Entomostraca—have ceased to +exist, and not only so, but have +left little evidence in the form of +fossils as to their former existence +and nature. It must, however, be +admitted as probable that we should +find some evidence, in ancient rocks +or in the deep sea, of the early more +primitive Arachnids. And it must +be remembered that such forms +must be expected to exhibit, when +found, differences from Limulus and +Scorpio as great as those which +separate Apus and Cancer. The +existing Arachnida, like the higher +Crustacea, are “nomomeristic,” +that is to say, have a fixed typical +number of somites to the body. +Further, they are like the higher +Crustacea, “somatotagmic,” that is +to say, they have this limited set of +somites grouped in three (or more) +“tagmata” or regions of a fixed +number of similarly modified somites—each +tagma differing in the modification +of its fixed number of somites +from that characterizing a neighbouring +“tagma.” The most +primitive among the lower Crustacea, +on the other hand, for +example, the Phyllopoda, have +not a fixed number of somites, some genera—even allied +species—have more, some less, within wide limits; they are “anomomeristic.” They also, as is generally the case +with anomomeristic animals, do not exhibit any conformity +to a fixed plan of “tagmatism” or division of the +somites of the body into regions sharply marked off from one +another; the head or prosomatic tagma is followed by a trunk consisting of somites which either graduate in character as we +pass along the series or exhibit a large variety in different genera, families and orders, of grouping of the somites. They are +anomotagmic, as well as anomomeristic.</p> + +<p>When it is admitted—as seems to be reasonable—that the +primitive Arachnida would, like the primitive Crustacea, be +anomomeristic and anomotagmic, we shall not demand of +claimants for the rank of primitive Arachnids agreement with +Limulus and Scorpio in respect of the exact number of their +somites and the exact grouping of those somites; and when +we see how diverse are the modifications of the branches of +the appendages both in Arachnida and in other classes of +Arthropoda (<i>q.v.</i>), we shall not over-estimate a difference +in the form of this or that appendage exhibited by the claimant as compared with +the higher Arachnids. With those considerations in mind, the +claim of the extinct group of the trilobites to be considered +as representatives of the lower and more primitive steps in the +Arachnidan genealogy must, it seems, receive a favourable +judgment. They differ from the Crustacea in that they have only +a single pair of prae-oral appendages, the second pair being +definitely developed as mandibles. This fact renders their +association with the Crustacea impossible, if classification is +to be the expression of genetic affinity inferred from structural +coincidence. On the contrary, this particular point is one in +which they agree with the higher Arachnida. But little is known +of the structure of these extinct animals; we are therefore +compelled to deal with such special points of resemblance and +difference as their remains still exhibit. They had lateral eyes<a name="fa5m" id="fa5m" href="#ft5m"><span class="sp">5</span></a> +which resemble no known eyes so closely as the lateral eyes of +Limulus. The general form and structure of their prosomatic +carapace are in many striking features identical with that of +Limulus. The trilobation of the head and body—due to the +expansion and flattening of the sides or “pleura” of the tegumentary +skeleton—is so closely repeated in the young of Limulus +that the latter has been called “the trilobite stage” of Limulus +(fig. 42 compared with fig. 41). No Crustacean exhibits this +trilobite form. But most important of the evidences presented +by the trilobites of affinity with Limulus, and therefore with the +Arachnida, is the tendency less marked in some, strongly carried +out in others, to form a pygidial or telsonic shield—a fusion of +the posterior somites of the body, which is precisely identical +in character with the metasomatic carapace of Limulus. When +to this is added the fact that a post-anal spine is developed to +a large size in some trilobites (fig. 38), like that of Limulus and +Scorpio, and that lateral spines on the pleura of the somites are +frequent as in Limulus, and that neither metasomatic fusion +of somites nor post-anal spine, nor lateral pleural spines are +found in any Crustacean, nor all three together in any Arthropod +besides the trilobites and Limulus—the claim of the trilobites +to be considered as representing one order of a lower grade +of Arachnida, comparable to the grade Entomostraca of the +Crustacea, seems to be established.</p> + +<p>The fact that the single pair of prae-oral appendages of +trilobites, known only as yet in one genus, is in that particular +case a pair of uni-ramose antennae—does not render the association +of trilobites and Arachnids improbable. Although the +prae-oral pair of appendages in the higher Arachnida is usually +chelate, it is not always so; in spiders it is not so; nor in many Acari. +The bi-ramose structure of the post-oral limbs, demonstrated by +Beecher in the trilobite Triarthrus, is no more inconsistent with +its claim to be a primitive Arachnid than is the foliaceous +modification of the limbs in Phyllopods inconsistent with +their relationship to the Arthrostracous Crustaceans such as +Gammarus and Oniscus.</p> + +<p>Thus, then, it seems that we have in the trilobites the representatives +of the lower phases of the Arachnidan pedigree. The +simple anomomeristic trilobite, with its equi-formal somites +and equi-formal appendages, is one term of the series which +ends in the even more simple but degenerate Acari. Between the +two and at the highest point of the arc, so far as morphological +differentiation is concerned, stands the scorpion; near to it in +the trilobite’s direction (that is, on the ascending side) are +Limulus and the Eurypterines—with a long gap, due to obliteration +of the record, separating them from the trilobite. On the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id="page299"></a>299</span> +other side—tending downwards from the scorpion towards the +Acari—are the Pedipalpi, the spiders, the book-scorpions, the +harvest-men and the water-mites.</p> + +<p>The strange nobody-crabs or Pycnogonids occupy a place on +the ascending half of the arc below the Eurypterines and Limulus. +They are strangely modified and degenerate, but seem to be (as +explained in the systematic review) the remnant of an Arachnidan +group holding the same relation to the scorpions which the +Laemodipoda hold to the Podophthalmate Crustacea.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="pt1">We have now to offer a classification of the Arachnida and +to pass in review the larger groups, with a brief statement of +their structural characteristics.</p> + +<p>In the bibliography at the close of this article (referred to by +leaded arabic numerals in brackets throughout these pages), +the titles of works are given which contain detailed information +as to the genera and species of each order or sub-order, their +geographical distribution and their habits and economy so far +as they have been ascertained. The limits of space do not permit +of a fuller treatment of those matters here.</p> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">Tabular Classification<a name="fa6m" id="fa6m" href="#ft6m"><span class="sp">6</span></a> of the Arachnida.</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="sc">Class</span>. ARACHNIDA.</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> + +<p><i>Grade A. ANOMOMERISTICA.</i></p> +<p class="i2"><b>Sub-Class. TRILOBITAE.</b></p> +<p class="i4">Orders. Not satisfactorily determined.</p> + +<p class="s"><i>Grade B. NOMOMERISTICA.</i></p> +<p class="i2"><b>Sub-Class I. PANTOPODA.</b></p> +<p class="i4"><b>Order 1. Nymphonomorpha.</b></p> +<p class="i4"><b>Order 2. Ascorhynchomorpha.</b></p> +<p class="i4"><b>Order 3. Pycnogonomorpha.</b></p> + +<p class="i2"><b>Sub-Class II. EU-ARACHNIDA.</b></p> +<p class="i6">Grade <i>a</i>. <span class="sc">delobranchia</span>, Lankester (<i>vel</i> <span class="sc">hydropneustea</span>, Pocock).</p> +<p class="i4"><b>Order 1. Xiphosura.</b></p> +<p class="i4"><b>Order 2. Gigantostraca.</b></p> +<p class="i6">Grade <i>b.</i> <span class="sc">embolobranchia</span>, Lankester (<i>vel</i> <span class="sc">aeropneustea</span>, Pocock).</p> +<p class="i10"><i>Section α. Pectinifera.</i></p> +<p class="i4"><b>Order 1. Scorpionidea.</b></p> +<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>a.</i> Apoxypoda.</p> +<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>b.</i> Dionychopoda.</p> +<p class="i10">Section β. Epectinata.</p> +<p class="i4"><b>Order 2. Pedipalpi.</b></p> +<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>a.</i> Uropygi.</p> +<p class="i12">Tribe 1. Urotricha.</p> +<p class="i12">Tribe 2. Tartarides.</p> +<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>b.</i> Amblypygi.</p> +<p class="i4"><b>Order 3. Araneae.</b></p> +<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>a.</i> Mesothelae.</p> +<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>b.</i> Opisthothelae.</p> +<p class="i12">Tribe 1. Mygalomorphae.</p> +<p class="i12">Tribe 2. Arachnomorphae.</p> +<p class="i4"><b>Order 4. Palpigradi (= Microthelyphonidae).</b></p> +<p class="i4"><b>Order 5. Solifugae (= Mycetophorae).</b></p> +<p class="i4"><b>Order 6. Pseudoscorpiones (= Chelonethi).</b></p> +<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>a.</i> Panctenodactyli.</p> +<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>b.</i> Hemirtenodactyli.</p> +<p class="i4"><b>Order 7. Podogona (= Ricinulel).</b></p> +<p class="i4"><b>Order 8. Opiliones.</b></p> +<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>a.</i> Laniatores.</p> +<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>b.</i> Palpatores.</p> +<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>c.</i> Anepignathi.</p> +<p class="i4"><b>Order 9. Rhynchostomi (= Acari).</b></p> +<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>a.</i> Notostigmata.</p> +<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>b.</i> Cryptostigmata.</p> +<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>c.</i> Metastigmata.</p> +<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>d.</i> Prostigmata.</p> +<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>e.</i> Astigmata.</p> +<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>f.</i> Vermiformia.</p> +<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>g.</i> Tetrapoda.</p> + +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Class</span>. ARACHNIDA.—Euarthropoda having two prosthomeres +(somites which have passed from a post-oral to a prae-oral +position), the appendages of the first represented by eyes, +of the second by solitary rami which are rarely antenniform, +more usually chelate. A tendency is exhibited to the formation +of a metasomatic as well as a prosomatic carapace by fusion +of the tergal surfaces of the somites. Intermediate somites +forming a mesosoma occur, but tend to fuse superficially with +the metasomatic carapace or to become co-ordinated with the +somites of the metasoma, whether fused or distinct to form +one region, the opisthosoma (abdomen of authors). In the most +highly developed forms the two anterior divisions (tagmata) +of the body, prosoma and mesosoma, each exhibit six pairs of +limbs, pediform and plate-like respectively, whilst the metasoma +consists of six limbless somites and a post-anal spine. The genital +apertures are placed in the first somite following the prosoma, +excepting where a praegenital somite, usually suppressed, is retained. +Little is known of the form of the appendages in the lowest archaic +Arachnida, but the tendency of those of the prosomatic somites has +been (as in the Crustacea) to pass from a generalized bi-ramose or +multi-ramose form to that of uni-ramose antennae, chelae and walking legs.</p> + +<p>The Arachnida are divisible into two grades of structure—according +to the fixity or non-fixity of the number of somites building up +the body:—</p> + +<p><i>Grade A</i> (<i>of the Arachnida</i>). <i>ANOMOMERISTICA.</i>—Extinct +archaic Arachnida, in which (as in the Entomostracous Crustacea) +the number of well-developed somites may be more or less than +eighteen and may be grouped only as head (prosoma) and trunk or +may be further differentiated. A telsonic tergal shield of greater +or less size is always present, which may be imperfectly divided into +well-marked but immovable tergites indicating incompletely differentiated +somites. The single pair of palpiform appendages in front +of the mouth has been found in one instance to be antenniform, +whilst the numerous post-oral appendages in the same genus were +bi-ramose. The position of the genital apertures is not known. +Compound lateral eyes present; median eyes wanting. The body +and head have the two pleural regions of each somite flattened and +expanded on either side of the true gut-holding body-axis. Hence +the name of the sub-class signifying tri-lobed, a condition realized +also in the Xiphosurous Arachnids. The members of this group, +whilst resembling the lower Crustacea (as all lower groups of a +branching genealogical tree must do), differ from them essentially +in that the head exhibits only one prosthomere (in addition to the +eye-bearing prosthomere) with palpiform appendages (as in all +Arachnida) instead of two. The Anomomeristic Arachnida form a +single sub-class, of which only imperfect fossil remains are known.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:325px; height:1081px" src="images/img300a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 34.—Restoration of <i>Triarthrus +Becki</i>, Green, as determined by Beecher +from specimens obtained from the Utica +Slates (Ordovician), New York. A, dorsal; +B, ventral surface. In the latter the single +pair of antennae springing up from each +side of the camerostome or hypostome or +upper lip-lobe are seen. Four pairs of +appendages besides these are seen to belong +to the cephalic tergum. All the appendages +are pediform and bi-ramose; all have +a prominent gnathobase, and in all the +exopodite carries a comb-like series of +secondary processes.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80"></td></tr></table> + +<p><b>Sub-class (of the Anomomeristica). TRILOBITAE.</b>—The single +sub-class Trilobitae constitutes the grade Anomomeristica. It has +been variously divided into orders by a number of writers. The +greater or less evolution and specialization of the metasomatic +carapace appears to be the most important basis for classification—but +this has not been made use of in the latest attempts at drawing +up a system of the Trilobites. The form of the middle and lateral +regions of the prosomatic shield has been used, and an excessive +importance attached to the demarcation of certain areas in that +structure. Sutures are stated to mark off some of these pieces, but +in the proper sense of that term as applied to the skeletal structures +of the Vertebrata, no sutures exist in the chitinous cuticle of Arthropoda. +That any partial fusion of originally distinct chitinous +plates takes place in the cephalic shield of Trilobites, comparable +to the partial fusion of bony pieces by suture in Vertebrata, is a +suggestion contrary to fact.</p> + +<p>The Trilobites are known only as fossils, mostly Silurian and +prae-Silurian; a few are found in Carboniferous and Permian strata. +As many as two thousand species are known. Genera with small +metasomatic carapace, consisting of three to six fused segments +distinctly marked though not separated by soft membrane, are +<i>Harpes</i>, <i>Paradoxides</i> and <i>Triarthrus</i> (fig. 34). In <i>Calymene</i>, <i>Homalonotus</i> +and <i>Phacops</i> (fig. 38) from six to sixteen segments are clearly +marked by ridges and grooves in the metasomatic tagma, whilst in +<i>Illaenus</i> the shield so formed is large but no somites are marked out +on its surface. In this genus ten free somites (mesosoma) occur +between the prosomatic and metasomatic carapaces. <i>Asaphus</i> +and <i>Megalaspis</i> (fig. 39) are similarly constituted. In <i>Agnostus</i> +(fig. 40) the anterior and posterior carapaces constitute almost the +entire body, the two carapaces being connected by a mid-region of +only two free somites. It has been held that the forms with a small +number of somites marked in the posterior carapace and numerous +free somites between the anterior and posterior carapace, must be +considered as anterior to those in which a great number of posterior +somites are traceable in the metasomatic carapace, and that those +in which the traces of distinct somites in the posterior or metasomatic +carapace are most completely absent must be regarded as +derived from those in which somites are well marked in the posterior +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page300" id="page300"></a>300</span> +carapace and similar in appearance to the free somites. The genus +<i>Agnostus</i>, which belongs to the last category, occurs abundantly in Cambrian strata and is +one of the earliest forms +known. This would +lead to the supposition +that the great development +of metasomatic +carapace is a primitive +and not a late character, +were it not for the fact +that <i>Paradoxides</i> and +<i>Atops</i>, with an inconspicuous +telsonic carapace +and numerous free +somites, are also Cambrian +in age, the latter +indeed anterior in +horizon to <i>Agnostus</i>.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, +it may well be doubted +whether the pygidial or +posterior carapace is +primarily due to a fusion +of the tergites of somites +which were previously +movable and well developed. +The posterior +carapace of the Trilobites +and of <i>Limulus</i> is +probably enough in +origin a telsonic carapace—that +is to say, is +the tergum of the last +segment of the body +which carries the anus. +From the front of this +region new segments are +produced in the first +instance, and are added +during growth to the +existing series. This +telson may enlarge, it +may possibly even become +internally and +sternally developed as +partially separate somites, +and the tergum +may remain without +trace of somite formation, +or, as appears to +be the case in <i>Limulus</i>, +the telson gives rise to +a few well-marked somites +(mesosoma and two +others) and then enlarges +without further +trace of segmentation, +whilst the chitinous +integument which develops +in increasing +thickness on the terga +as growth advances +welds together the unsegmented +telson and +the somites in front of +it, which were previously +marked by +separate tergal thickenings. +It must always be +remembered that we are +liable (especially in the +case of fossilized integuments) +to attach an +unwarranted interpretation +to the mere +discontinuity or continuity +of the thickened +plates of chitinous +cuticle on the back of +an Arthropod. These +plates may fuse, and yet +the somites to which +they belong may remain +distinct, and each have +its pair of appendages +well developed. On the other hand, an unusually large tergal plate, +whether terminal or in the series, is not always due to fusion +of the dorsal plates of once-separate somites, but is often a case +of growth and enlargement of a single somite without formation +of any trace of a new somite. For the literature of Trilobites see +(<b>22*</b>).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:392px; height:222px" src="images/img300b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 35.—<i>Triarthrus Becki</i>, Green. <i>a</i>, Restored thoracic limbs in +transverse section of the animal; <i>b</i>, section across a posterior +somite; <i>c</i>, section across one of the sub-terminal somites.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(After Beecher.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" style="vertical-align: bottom;"><img style="width:163px; height:145px" src="images/img300c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:199px; height:234px" src="images/img300d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 36.—<i>Triarthrus Becki</i>, Green. +Dorsal view of second thoracic leg +with and without setae. <i>en</i>, Inner +ramus; <i>ex</i>, Outer ramus.</td> +<td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 37.—<i>Deiphon Forbesii</i>, +Barr. One of the Cheiruridae. +Silurian Bohemia.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80">(After Beecher.)</td> +<td class="caption80">(From Zittel’s Palaeontology.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" style="vertical-align: bottom;"><img style="width:162px; height:352px" src="images/img300e.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:191px; height:392px" src="images/img300f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 38.—<i>Dalmanites +Kmulurus</i>, Green. One of +the <i>Phacopidae</i>, from the +Silurian, New York.</td> +<td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 39.—<i>Megalaspis extenuatus</i>. +One of the <i>Asaphidae</i> allied to +<i>Illaenus</i>, from the Ordovician of +East Gothland, Sweden.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Zittel.)</td> +<td class="caption80">(From Zittel.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Grade B</i> (<i>of the Aracknida</i>) <i>NOMOMERISTICA.</i>—Arachnida +in which, excluding from consideration the eye-bearing prosthomere, +the somites are primarily (that is to say, in the common +ancestor of the grade) grouped in three regions of six—(<i>a</i>) the +“prosoma” with palpiform appendages, (<i>b</i>) the “mesosoma” with +plate-like appendages, and (<i>c</i>) the “metasoma” with suppressed +appendages. A somite placed between the prosoma and mesosoma +—the prae-genital somite—appears to have belonged originally to +the prosomatic series (which with its ocular prosthomere and palpiform +limbs [Pantopoda], would thus consist of eight somites), but +to have been gradually reduced. In living Arachnids, excepting +the Pantopoda, it is either fused (with loss of its appendages) with +the prosoma (<i>Limulus</i>,<a name="fa7m" id="fa7m" href="#ft7m"><span class="sp">7</span></a> <i>Scorpio</i>), after embryonic appearance, or is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page301" id="page301"></a>301</span> +retained as a rudimentary, separate, detached somite in front of the +mesosoma, or disappears altogether (excalation). The atrophy +and total disappearance of ancestrally well-marked somites frequently +take place (as in all Arthropoda) at the posterior extremity +of the body, whilst excalation of somites may occur at the constricted +areas which often separate adjacent “regions,” though there are +very few instances in +which it has been recognized. +Concentration of +the organ-systems by +fusion of neighbouring +regions (prosoma, mesosoma, +metasoma), previously +distinct, has +frequently occurred, +together with obliteration +of the muscular +and chitinous structures +indicative of distinct +somites. This concentration +and obliteration of +somites, often accompanied +by dislocation +of important segmental +structures (such as appendages +and nerve-ganglia), +may lead to +highly developed specialization +(individuation, +H. Spencer), as in the +Araneae and Opiliones, +and, on the other hand, +may terminate in simplification +and degeneration, +as in the Acari.</p> + +<p> </p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:301px; height:190px" src="images/img301a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="f90"><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 40.—Four stages in +the development of the +trilobite <i>Agnostus nudus</i>. +A, Youngest stage with +no mesosomatic somites; +B and C, stages with two +mesosomatic somites between +the prosomatic and +telsonic carapaces; D, +adult condition, still with +only two free mesosomatic +somites.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Korschelt and Heider.)</td></tr></table> + +<p> </p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="3"><img style="width:315px; height:325px" src="images/img301b.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="caption80"><br /><br />From Korschelt and Heider, after Barrande.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 41.—Five Stages in the development of the trilobite <i>Sao hirsuta</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"> +<p>A, Youngest stage.</p> +<p>B, Older stage with distinct pygidial carapace.</p> +<p>C, Stage with two free mesosomatic somites between the prosomatic and telsonic carapaces.</p> +<p>D, Stace with seven free intermediate somites.</p> +<p>E, Stave with twelve free somites; the telsonic carapace has not increased in size.</p> +<p><i>a</i>, Lateral eye.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, So-called facial “suture” (not really a suture).</p> +<p><i>p</i>, Telsonic carapace.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p> </p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:300px; height:180px" src="images/img301c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="caption"><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 42.—So-called +“trilobite stage” of +<i>Limulus polyphemus</i>. +A, Dorsal; B, ventral +view.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(from Korschelt and Heider, +after Leuckart.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The most important +general change which +has affected the structure +of the nomomeristic +Arachnida in the course +of their historic development +is the transition +from an aquatic to a +terrestrial life. This has +been accompanied by +the conversion of the +lamelliform gill-plates into lamelliform lung-plates, and later the +development from the lung-chambers, and at independent sites, +of tracheae or air-tubes (by adaptation of the vasifactive tissue of +the blood-vessels) similar to those independently developed in +<i>Peripatus</i>, Diplopoda, Hexapoda and Chilopoda. Probably tracheae +have developed independently by the same process in several groups +of tracheate Arachnids. The nomomeristic Arachnids comprise two +sub-classes—one a very small degenerate offshoot from early ancestors; +the other, the great bulk of the class.</p> + +<p><b>Sub-Class I. (of the Nomomeristica). PANTOPODA.</b>—Nomomeristic +Arachnids, in which the somites corresponding to mesosoma +and metasoma have entirely aborted. The seventh, and sometimes +the eighth, leg-bearing somite is present and has its leg-like +appendages fully developed. Monomeniscous eyes with a double (really +triple) cell-layer formed by invagination, as in the Eu-arachnida, +are present The Pantopoda stand in the same relation to <i>Limulus</i> +and <i>Scorpio</i> that <i>Cyamus</i> holds to the thoracostracous Crustacea. +The reduction of the organism to seven leg-bearing somites, of which +the first pair, as in so many Eu-arachnida, are chelate, is a form of +degeneration connected with a peculiar quasi-parasitic habit resembling +that of the crustacean Laemodipoda. The genital pores +are situate at the base of the 7th pair of limbs, and may be repeated +on the 4th, 5th, and 6th. In all known Pantopoda the size of the +body is quite minute as compared with that of the limbs: the alimentary +canal sends a long caecum into each leg (cf. the Araneae) +and the genital products are developed in gonocoels also placed in +the legs.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:454px; height:271px" src="images/img301d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Parker and Harwell’s <i>Text-book of Zoology</i>, after Hoek.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 43.—One of the Nymphonomorphous Pantopoda, <i>Nymphon +hispidum</i>, showing the seven pairs of appendages 1 to 7; <i>ab</i>, the +rudimentary opisthosoma; <i>s</i>, the mouth-bearing proboscis.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The Pantopoda are divided into three orders, the characters of +which are dependent on variation in the presence of the full number +of legs.</p> + +<p><b>Order 1. (of the Pantopoda). Nymphonomorpha,</b> Pocock (nov.) +(fig. 43).—In primitive forms belonging to the family <i>Nymphonidae</i> +the full complement of appendages is retained—the 1st (mandibular), +the 2nd (palpiform), and the 3rd (ovigerous) pairs being well developed in both sexes. In certain derivative forms constituting +the family <i>Pallenidae</i>, however, the appendages of the 2nd pair +are either rudimentary or atrophied altogether.</p> + +<p>Two families: 1. Nymphonidae (genus <i>Nymphon</i>), and 2. Pallenidae +(genus <i>Pallene</i>).</p> + +<p><b>Order 2. Ascorhynchomorpha,</b> Pocock (nov.).—Appendages of +the 2nd and 3rd pairs retained and developed, as in the more primitive +types of Nymphonomorpha; but those of the 1st pair are either +rudimentary, as in the <i>Ascorhynchidae</i>, or atrophied, as in the +<i>Colossendeidae</i>. In the latter a further specialization is shown in +the fusion of the body segments.</p> + +<p>Two families. 1. Ascorhynchidae (genera <i>Ascorhynchus</i> and +<i>Ammothea</i>); 2. Colossendeidae (genera <i>Colossendeis</i> and <i>Discoarachne</i>).</p> + +<p><b>Order 3. Pycnogonomorpha,</b> Pocock (nov.).—Derivative forms in +which the reduction in number of the anterior appendages is carried +farther than in the other orders, reaching its extreme in the <i>Pycnogonidae</i>, +where the 1st and 2nd pairs are absent in both sexes, and the 3rd pair +also are absent in the female. In the <i>Hannoniidae</i>, +however, which resemble the <i>Pycnogonidae</i> in the absence of the +3rd pair in the female and of the 2nd pair in both sexes, the 1st pair +are retained in both sexes.</p> + +<p>Two families: 1. Hannoniidae (genus <i>Hannonia</i>); 2. Pycnogonidae +(genera <i>Pycnogonum</i> and <i>Phoxichilus</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Remarks.</i>—The Pantopoda are not known in the fossil condition. +They are entirely marine, and are not uncommon in the coralline +zone of the sea-coast. The species are few, not more than fifty (23). +Some large species of peculiar genera are taken at great depths. +Their movements are extremely sluggish. They are especially +remarkable for the small size of the body and the extension of +viscera into the legs. Their structure is eminently that of degenerate +forms. Many frequent growths of coralline Algae and hydroid +polyps, upon the juices of which they feed, and in some cases a +species of gall is produced in hydroids by the penetration of the +larval Pantopod into the tissues of the polyp.</p> + +<p><b>Sub-Class II. (of the Nomomeristic Arachnida). EU-ARACHNIDA.</b>—These +start from highly developed and specialized aquatic +branchiferous forms, exhibiting a prosoma with six pediform pairs of +appendages, an intermediate prae-genital somite, a mesosoma of six +somites bearing lamelliform pairs of appendages, and a metasoma +of six somites devoid of appendages, and the last provided with +a post-anal spine. Median eyes are present, which are monomeniscous, +with distinct retinal and corneagenous cell-layers, and +placed centrally on the prosoma. Lateral eyes also may be +present, arranged in lateral groups, and having a single or double +cell-layer beneath the lens. The first pair of limbs is often +chelate or prehensile, rarely antenniform; whilst the second, third +and fourth may also be chelate, or may be simple palps or walking +legs.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page302" id="page302"></a>302</span></p> + +<p>An internal skeletal plate, the so-called “entosternite” of fibro-cartilaginous +tissue, to which many muscles are attached, is placed +between the nerve-cords and the alimentary tract in the prosoma +of the larger forms (<i>Limulus</i>, <i>Scorpio</i>, <i>Mygale</i>). In the same and +other leading forms a pair of much-coiled glandular tubes, the coxal +glands (coelomocoels in origin), is found with a duct opening on the +coxa of the fifth pair of appendages of the prosoma. The vascular +system is highly developed (in the non-degenerate forms); large +arterial branches closely accompany or envelop the chief nerves; +capillaries are well developed. The blood-corpuscles are large amoebiform +cells, and the blood-plasma is coloured blue by haemocyanin.</p> + +<p>The alimentary canal is uncoiled and cylindrical, and gives rise +laterally to large gastric glands, which are more than a single pair +in number (two to six pairs), and may assume the form of simple +caeca. The mouth is minute and the pharynx is always suctorial, +never gizzard-like. The gonadial tubes (gonocoels or gonadial +coelom) are originally reticular and paired, though they may be +reduced to a simpler condition. They open on the first somite of +the mesosoma. In the numerous degenerate forms simplification +occurs by obliteration of the demarcations of somites and the +fusion of body-regions, together with a gradual suppression of the +lamelliferous respiratory organs and the substitution for them of +tracheae, which, in their turn, in the smaller and most reduced +members of the group, may also disappear.</p> + +<p>The Eu-arachnida are divided into two grades with reference to +the condition of the respiratory organs as adapted to aquatic or +terrestrial life.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center">Grade <i>a</i> (of the Eu-arachnida). <span class="sc">delobranchia</span> +(Hydropheustea).</p> + +<p>Mesosomatic segments furnished with large plate-like appendages, +the 1st pair acting as the genital operculum, the remaining pairs +being provided with branchial lamellae fitted for breathing oxygen +dissolved in water. The prae-genital somite partially or wholly +obliterated in the adult. The mouth lying far back, so that the +basal segments of all the prosomatic appendages, excepting those +of the 1st pair, are capable of acting as masticatory organs. Lateral +eyes consisting of a densely packed group of eye-units (“compound” +eyes).</p> + +<p><b>ORDER 1. XIPHOSURA.</b>—The prae-genital somite fuses in the +embryo with the prosoma and disappears (see fig. 19). Not +free-swimming, +none of the prosomatic appendages modified to act as +paddles; segments of the mesosoma and metasoma (= opisthosoma) +not more than ten in number, distinct or coalesced.</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p>Family—Limulidae (<i>Limulus</i>).</p> + <p> ”   *Belinuridae (<i>Belinurus</i>, <i>Aglaspis</i>, <i>Prestwichia</i>).</p> + <p> ”   *Hemiaspidae (<i>Hemiaspis</i>, <i>Bunodes</i>).</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:280px; height:529px" src="images/img302a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="caption"><br /><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 44.—Dorsal view +of <i>Limulus polyphemus</i>, +Latr.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Parker and Haswell, +<i>Text book of Zoology</i> after +Leuckart.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Remarks</i>.-The Xiphosura are marine in habit, frequenting the +shore. They are represented at the present day by the single genus +<i>Limulus</i> (figs. 44 and 45; also figs. 7, 9, 11, to 15 and 20), often +termed the king-crab, which occurs on the American coast of the +Atlantic Ocean, but not on its eastern coasts, and on the Asiatic coast +of the Pacific. The Atlantic species (<i>L. polyphemus</i>) is common on +the coasts of the United States, and is known as the king-crab or +horse-shoe crab. A single specimen was found in the harbour of +Copenhagen in the 18th century, having presumably been carried +over by a ship to which it clung.</p> + +<p>A species of <i>Limulus</i> is found in the Buntersandstein of the +Vosges; <i>L. Walchi</i> is abundant in the Oolitic lithographic slates of +Bavaria.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="3"><img style="width:342px; height:530px" src="images/img302b.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="caption"><br /><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 45.—Ventral +view of <i>Limulus polyphemus</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"> +<p>1 to 6, The six prosomatic +pairs of appendages.</p> + +<p><i>abd</i>, the solid opisthosomatic +carapace.</p> + +<p><i>tels</i>, the post-anal spine +(not the telson as the +lettering would seem +to imply, but only +its post-anal portion).</p> + +<p><i>operc</i>, the fused first +pair of mesosomatic +appendages forming +the genital operculum.</p></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Parker and Haswell, +<i>Text book of Zoology</i>, after +Leuckart.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>The genera <i>Belinurus</i>, <i>Aglaspis</i>, <i>Prestwichia</i>, <i>Hemiaspis</i> and +<i>Bunodes</i> consist of small forms which occur in Palaeozoic rocks. +In none of them are the appendages known, but in the form of the +two carapaces and the presence of free somites they are distinctly +intermediate between <i>Limulus</i> and the Trilobitae. The young form +of <i>Limulus</i> itself (fig. 40) is also similar to a Trilobite so far as its +segmentation and trilobation are concerned. The lateral eyes of +<i>Limulus</i> appear to be identical in structure and position with those +of certain Trilobitae.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:372px; height:589px" src="images/img302c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="f90"><br /><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 46.—<i>Eurypterus +Fischeri</i>, +Eichwald. Silurian +of Rootzikil. +Restoration after +Schmidt. The +dorsal aspect is +presented showing +the prosomatic +shield with paired +compound eyes +and the prosomatic +appendages +II. to VI. The +small first pair of +appendages is concealed +from view +by the carapace, +1 to 12 are the +somites of the +opisthosoma; 13, +the post-anal +spine.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Zittel’s <i>Text-book +of Palaeontology</i>, +The Macmillan Co, +New York, 1896.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><b>Order 2. Gigantostraca</b> (figs. 46, 47).—Free-swimming forms, with +the appendages of the 6th or 5th and 6th pairs flattened or lengthened +to act as oars; segments of mesosoma and metasoma (= opisthosoma), +twelve in number.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page303" id="page303"></a>303</span></p> + +<p class="noind">Appendages of anterior pair very large and chelate.</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>Sub-order Pterygotomorpha, Pterygotidae (<i>Pterygotus</i>).</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">Appendages of anterior pair minute and chelate.</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> + +<p>Sub-order Eurypteromorpha</p> + +<p class="i6">Stylonuridae (<i>Stylonurus</i>).</p> +<p class="i6">Eurypteridae (<i>Eurypterus</i>, <i>Slimonia</i>).</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:447px; height:450px" src="images/img303a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">From Zittel’s <i>Palaeontology</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 47.—<i>Pterygotus osiliensis</i>, Schmidt. Silurian of Rootzikil. +Restoration of the ventral surface, about a third natural size, after +Schmidt.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>a</i>, Camerostome or epistoma.</p> +<p><i>m</i>, Chilarium or metasternite of the prosoma (so-called metastoma).</p> +<p><i>oc</i>, The compound eyes.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>1 to 8, Segments of the sixth prosomatic appendage.</p> +<p>I′ to V′, First five opisthosomatic somites.</p> +<p>7′, Sixth opisthosomatic somite.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2">[Observe the powerful gnathobases of the sixth pair of prosomatic +limbs and the median plates behind <i>m</i>. The dotted line on somite I +indicates the position of the genital operculum which was probably +provided with branchial lamellae.]</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Remarks.</i>—The Gigantostraca are frequently spoken of as “the +Eurypterines.” Not more than thirty species are known. They +became extinct in Palaeozoic times, and are chiefly found in the +Upper Silurian, though extending upwards as far as the Carboniferous. +They may be regarded as “macrourous” Xiphosura; that +is to say, Xiphosura in which the nomomeristic number of eighteen +well-developed somites is present and the posterior ones form a long +tail-like region of the body. There still appears to be some doubt +whether in the sub-order Eurypteromorpha the first pair of prosomatic +appendages (fig. 46) is atrophied, or whether, if present, it has +the form of a pair of tactile palps or of minute chelae. Though there +are indications of lamelliform respiratory appendages on mesosomatic +somites following that bearing the genital operculum, we +cannot be said to have any proper knowledge as to such appendages, +and further evidence with regard to them is much to be desired. +(For literature see Zittel, <b>22*</b>.)</p> + +<p class="pt2 center">Grade <i>b</i> (of the Eu-arachnida). <span class="scs">EMBOLOBRANCHIA</span> +(Aeropneustea).</p> + +<p>In primitive forms the respiratory lamellae of the appendages of +the 3rd, 4th, 5th and eth, or of the 1st and 2nd mesosomatic somites +are sunk beneath the surface of the body, and become adapted to +breathe atmospheric oxygen, forming the leaves of the so-called +lung-books. In specialized forms these pulmonary sacs are wholly +or partly replaced by tracheal tubes. The appendages of the mesosoma +generally suppressed; in the more primitive forms one or two +pairs may be retained as organs subservient to reproduction or silk-spinning. +Mouth situated more forwards than in Delobranchia, no +share in mastication being taken by the basal segments of the 5th +and 6th pairs of prosomatic appendages. Lateral eyes, when present, +represented by separate ocelli.</p> + +<p>The prae-genital somite, after appearing in the embryo, either is +obliterated (<i>Scorpio, Galeodes, Opilio</i>and others) or is retained as +a reduced narrow region of the body, the “waist,” between prosoma +and mesosoma. It is represented by a full-sized tergal plate in the +Pseudo-scorpiones.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:230px; height:470px" src="images/img303b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">Restored after Thorell’s indications +by R.I. Pocock.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 48.—Dorsal view of a +restoration of <i>Palaeophonus +nuncius</i>, Thorell. The Silurian +scorpion from Gothland.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Section α. <i>Pectinifera.</i>—The primitive distinction between the +mesosoma and the metasoma retained, the latter consisting of six +somites and the former of six somites in the adult, each of which +is furnished during growth with a pair of appendages. Including +the prae-genital somite (fig. 16), which is suppressed in the adult, +there are thirteen somites behind the prosoma. The appendages of +the 1st and 2nd mesosomatic somites persisting as the genital operculum +and pectones respectively, those of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and +6th somites (? in <i>Palaeophonus</i>) sinking below the surface during +growth in connexion with the formation +of the four pairs of pulmonary +sacs (see fig. 17). Lateral eyes +monostichous.</p> + +<p><b>Order 1. Scorpiones.</b>—Prosoma +covered by a single dorsal shield, +bearing typically median and lateral +eyes; its sternal elements reduced +to a single plate lodged between or +behind the basal segments of the +5th and 6th pairs of appendages. +Appendages of 1st pair tri-segmented, +chelate; of 2nd pair chelate, with +their basal segments subserving +mastication; of 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th +pairs similar in form and function, +except that in recent and Carboniferous +forms the basal segments of +the 3rd and 4th are provided with +sterno-coxal (maxillary) lobes, those +of the 4th pair meeting in the middle +line and underlying the mouth. The +five posterior somites of the metasoma +constricted to form a “tail,” +the post-anal sclerite persisting as a +weapon of offence and provided with +a pair of poison glands (see figs. 8, +10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 21 and 22).</p> + +<p>Sub-order Apoxypoda.—The 3rd, +4th, 5th and 6th pairs of appendages +short, stout, tapering, the +segments about as wide as long, +except the apical, which is distally +slender, pointed, slightly curved, +and without distinct movable claws.</p> + +<p>Family—Palaeophonidae, <i>Palaeophonus</i> +(figs. 48 and 49).</p> + +<p>Sub-order Dionychopoda.—The 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs of +appendages slender, not evenly tapering, the segments longer than +wide; the apical segment short, distally truncate, and provided with +a pair of movable claws. Basal segments of the 5th and 6th pairs +of appendages abutting against the sternum of the prosoma (see +fig. 10 and figs. 51, 52 and 53).</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p>Family—Pandinidae (<i>Pandinus, Opisthophthalmus, Urodacus</i>).</p> + <p> ”   Vejovidae (<i>Vaejovis, Jurus, Euscorpius, Broteas</i>).</p> + <p> ”   Bothriuridae (<i>Bothriurus, Cercophonius</i>).</p> + <p> ”   Buthidae (<i>Buthus, Centrums</i>).</p> + <p> ”   *Cyclophthalmidae (<i>Cydophthalmus</i>)  Carboniferous.</p> + <p> ”   *Eoscorpiidae (<i>Eoscorpius, Centromachus</i>)  Carboniferous.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:246px; height:431px" src="images/img303c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="f90"><br /><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 49.—Ventral view of +a restoration of <i>Palaeophonus +Hunteri</i>, Pocock, the Silurian +scorpion from Lesmahagow, +Scotland. Restored by R.I. +Pocock. The meeting of the +coxae of all the prosomatic +limbs in front of the pentagonal +sternum; the space for +a genital operculum; the pair +of pectens, and the absence +of any evidence of pulmonary +stigmata are noticeable in this +specimen.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(See Pocock, <i>Quart Jour. Micr. +Sci.</i>, 1901.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Remarks on the Order Scorpiones.</i>—The Scorpion is one of the +great animals of ancient lore and tradition. It and the crab are +the only two invertebrates which had impressed the minds of early +men sufficiently to be raised to the dignity of astronomical representation. +It is all the more remarkable that the scorpion proves to be +the oldest animal form of high elaboration which has persisted to +the present day. In the Upper Silurian two specimens of a scorpion +have been found (figs. 48, 49), one in Gothland and one in Scotland, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page304" id="page304"></a>304</span> +which would be recognized at once as true scorpions by a child or a +savage. The Silurian scorpion <i>Palaeophonus</i>, differs, so far as obvious +points are concerned, from a modern scorpion only in the thickness +of its legs and in their terminating in strong spike-like joints, instead +of being slight and provided with a pair of terminal claws. The legs +of the modern scorpion (fig. 10; fig. 51) are those of a terrestrial +Arthropod, such as a beetle; whilst those of the Silurian scorpion +are the legs of an aquatic Arthropod, such as a crab or lobster. It +is probable that the Silurian scorpion was an aquatic animal, and +that its respiratory lamellae were still projecting from the surface +of the body to serve as branchiae. No trace of “stigmata,” the +orifices of the lung-chambers of modern scorpions, can be found in +the Scottish specimen of <i>Palaeophonus</i>, which presents the ventral +surface of the animal to view. On the other hand, no trace of respiratory +appendages excepting the pectens can be detected in the +specimen (see fig. 49).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:299px; height:446px" src="images/img304a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="f90"><br /><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 50.—Comparison of +the sixth prosomatic limb +of a recent scorpion (B), of +Palaeophonus (C), and of +Limulus (A), showing their +agreement in the number +of segments; in the existence +of a movable spine, +Sp, at the distal border of +the fifth segment; in the +correspondence of the two +claws at the free end of the +limb of Scorpio with two +spines similarly placed in +Limulus; and, lastly, in +the correspondence of the +three talon-like spines carried +on the distal margin +of segment six of recent +scorpions with the four +larger but similarly situated +spines on the leg of Limulus; +<i>s</i>, groove dividing the ankylosed +segments 4 and 5 of +the Limulus leg into two.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(After Pocock, <i>Q. J. Mic. Sci.</i>, 1901.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:449px; height:314px" src="images/img304b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From Lankester, <i>Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool</i>. vol. xvi., 1881.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 51.—Drawing from life of the desert scorpion, <i>Buthusaustralis</i>, +Lin., from Biskra, N. Africa.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Fossil scorpions of the modern type are found in the Coal Measures. +At the present day scorpions of various genera are found in all the +warm regions of the world. In Europe they occur as far north as +Bavaria and the south of France. The largest species measure 9 in. +from the front of the head to the end of the sting, and occur in +tropical India and Africa. Between 200 and 300 species are known. +The scorpions use their large chelae for seizing prey and for fighting +with one another. They never use the sting when (as frequently +happens) they attack another scorpion, because, as was ascertained +by A.G. Bourne (<b>24</b>), the poison exuded by the sting has no injurious +effect on another scorpion nor on the scorpion itself. The +stories of a scorpion stinging itself to death when placed in a circle +of burning coals are due to erroneous observation. When placed in +such a position the scorpion faints and becomes inert. It is found +(Bourne, <b>24</b>) that some species of scorpion faint at a temperature +of 40° Cent. They recover on being removed to cooler conditions. +A scorpion having seized its prey (usually a large insect, or small +reptile or mammal) with the large chelae brings its tail over its head, +and deliberately punctures the struggling victim twice with its sting +(fig. 52). The poison of the sting is similar to snake-poison +(Calmette), and rapidly paralyses animals which are not immune +to it. It is probably only sickly adults or young children of the +human race who can be actually killed by a scorpion’s sting. When +the scorpion has paralysed its prey in this way, the two short chelicerae +are brought into play (fig. 53). By the crushing action of their +pincers, and an alternate backward and forward movement, they +bring the soft blood-holding tissues of the victim close to the +minute pin-hole aperture which is the scorpion’s mouth. The +muscles acting on the bulb-like pharynx now set up a pumping +action (see Huxley, <b>26</b>); and the juices—but no solid +matter, excepting such as is reduced to +powder—are sucked into the scorpion’s +alimentary canal. A scorpion appears to +prefer for its food another scorpion, and +will suck out the juices of an individual as +large as itself. When this has taken +place, the gorged scorpion becomes +distended and tense in the mesosomatic +region. It is certain that the absorbed +juices do not occupy the alimentary +canal alone, but pass also into its caecal +off-sets which are the ducts of the +gastric glands (see fig. 33).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:246px; height:130px" src="images/img304c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:185px; height:338px" src="images/img304d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80">From Lankester, <i>Journ. Linn. Soc.</i></td> +<td class="caption80">From Lankester, <i>Journ. Linn. Soc.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 52.—Drawing from life of the +Italian scorpion <i>Euscorpius italicus</i>, +Herbst, holding a blue-bottle fly with its +left chela, and carefully piercing it between +head and thorax with its sting. +Two insertions of the sting are effected +and the fly is instantly paralysed by the +poison so introduced into its body.</td> +<td class="f90" style="vertical-align: top;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 53.—The same +scorpion carrying the +now paralysed fly held +in its chelicerae, the +chelae liberated for +attack and defence. +Drawn from life.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>All Arachnida, including <i>Limulus</i>, feed by suctorial action in +essentially the same way as <i>Scorpio</i>.</p> + +<p>Scorpions of various species have been observed to make a hissing +noise when disturbed, or even when not disturbed. The sound is +produced by stridulating organs developed on the basal joints of +the limbs, which differ in position and character in different genera +(see Pocock, <b>27</b>). Scorpions copulate with the ventral surfaces in +contact. The eggs are fertilized, practically in the ovary, and develop +<i>in situ</i>. The young are born fully formed and are carried by +the mother on her back. As many as thirty have been counted in +a brood. For information as to the embryology of scorpions, the +reader is referred to the works named in the bibliography below. +Scorpions do not possess spinning organs nor form either snares or +nests, so far as is known. But some species inhabiting sandy deserts +form extensive burrows. The fifth pair of prosomatic appendages +is used by these scorpions when burrowing, to kick back the sand as +the burrow is excavated by the great chelae.</p> + +<p>References to works dealing with the taxonomy and geographical +distribution of scorpions are given at the end of this article (<b>28</b>).</p> + +<p>Section β. <i>Epectinata.</i>—The primitive distinction between the +mesosoma and the metasoma wholly or almost wholly obliterated, +the two regions uniting to form an opisthosoma, which never consists +of more than twelve somites and never bears appendages or breathing-organs +behind the 4th somite. The breathing-organs of the +opisthosoma, when present, represented by two pairs of stigmata, +opening either upon the 1st and 2nd (Pedipalpi) or the 2nd and 3rd +somites (Solifugae, Pseudo-scorpiones), or by a single pair upon the +3rd (? 2nd) somite (Opiliones) of the opisthosoma, there being rarely +an additional stigma on the 4th (some Solifugae). The appendages +of the 2nd somite of the opisthosoma absent, rarely minute and bud-like +(some Amblypygi), never pectiniform. A prae-genital somite +is often present either in a reduced condition forming a waist (Pedipalpi, +Araneae, Palpigradi) or as a full-sized tergal plate (Pseudo-scorpiones); +in some it is entirely atrophied (Solifugae, Holosomata, +and Rhynchostomi). Lateral eyes when present diplostichous.</p> + +<p><i>Remarks.</i>—The Epectinate Arachnids do not stand so close to the +aquatic ancestors of the Embolobranchia as do the Pectiniferous +scorpions. At the same time we are not justified in supposing that +the scorpions stand in any way as an intermediate grade between +any of the existing Epectinata and the Delobranchia. It is probable +that the Pedipalpi, Araneae, and Podogona have been separately +evolved as distinct lines of descent from the ancient aquatic Arachnida. +The Holosomata and Rhynchostomi are probably offshoots +from the stem of the Araneae, and it is not unlikely (in view of the +structure of the prosomatic somites of the Tartarides) that the +Solifugae are connected in origin with the Pedipalpi. The appearance +of tracheae in place of lung-sacs cannot be regarded as a starting-point +for a new line of descent comprising all the tracheate forms; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page305" id="page305"></a>305</span> +tracheae seem to have developed independently in different lines of +descent. On the whole, the Epectinata are highly specialized and +degenerate forms, though there are few, if any, animals which +surpass the spiders in rapidity of movement, deadliness of attack +and constructive instincts.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:403px; height:482px" src="images/img305a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">From Lankester, <i>Q. J. Mic. Sci.</i> N.S. <i>vol</i>. xxi., 1881.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 54.—<i>Thelyphonus</i>, one of the Pedipalpi.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>A, Ventral view.</p> +<p>I, Chelicera (detached).</p> +<p>II, Chelae.</p> +<p>III, Palpiform limb.</p> +<p>IV to VI, The walking legs.</p> +<p><i>stc</i>, Sterno-coxal process (gnathobase) of the chelae.</p> +<p><i>st</i><span class="sp">1</span>, Anterior sternal plate of the prosoma.</p> +<p><i>st</i><span class="sp">2</span>, Posterior sternal plate of the prosoma.</p> +<p><i>pregen</i>, Position of the prae-genital somite (not seen).</p> +<p><i>l, l</i>, Position of the two pulmonary sacs of the right side.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>1 to 11, Somites of the opisthosoma (mesosoma plus metasoma).</p> +<p><i>msg</i>, Stigmata of the tergo-sternal muscles.</p> +<p><i>an</i>, Anus.</p> +<p>B, Dorsal view of the opisthosoma of the same.</p> +<p><i>pregen</i>, The prae-genital somite.</p> +<p><i>p</i>, The tergal stigmata of the tergo-sternal muscles.</p> +<p><i>paf</i>, Post-anal segmented filament corresponding to the + post-anal spine of Limulus.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt1"><b>Order 2. Pedipalpi</b> (figs. 54 to 59).—Appendages of 1st pair +bisegmented, without poison gland; of 2nd pair prehensile, their +basal segments underlying the proboscis, and furnished with sterno-coxal +(maxillary) process, the apical segment tipped with a single +movable or immovable claw; appendages of 3rd pair different from +the remainder, tactile in function, with at least the apical segment +many-jointed and clawless. The ventral surface of the prosoma +bears prosternal, metasternal and usually mesosternal chitine-plates +(fig. 55). A narrow prae-genital somite is present between +opisthosoma and prosoma (figs. 55, 57). Opisthosoma consisting +of eleven somites, almost wholly without visible appendages. Intromittent +organ of male beneath the genital operculum (= sternum +of the 1st somite of opisthosoma).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:202px; height:224px" src="images/img305b.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="f90"><br /><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 55.—<i>Thelyphonus +sp</i>. Ventral view of the +anterior portion of the +body to show the three +prosomatic sternal plates +<i>a, b, c</i>, and the rudimentary +sternal element of the prae-genital +somite; <i>opisth</i> 1, +first somite of the opisthosoma.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">From a drawing made by +Pickard—Cambridge, under the +direction of R.I. Pocock.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Note.</i>—The possibility of another interpretation of the anterior +somites of the mesosoma and the prae-genital somite must be borne +in mind. Possibly, though not probably, the somites carrying the +two lung-sacs correspond to the first two lung-bearing somites of +<i>Scorpio</i>, and it is the genital opening which has shifted. The same +caution applies in the case of the Araneae. Excalation of one or of +two anterior mesosomatic somites, besides the prae-genital somite, +would then have to be supposed to have occurred also.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 450px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:346px; height:223px" src="images/img305e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Fig. 56—<i>Thelyphonus assamensis</i> ♂. Ventral +surface of the anterior region of the opisthosoma, +the first somite being pushed upwards and forwards +so as to expose the subjacent structures. +<i>opistho</i> 1, First somite of the opisthosoma; +<i>opistho</i> 2, second do.; <i>g</i>, genital aperture; +<i>l</i>, edges of the lamellae of the lung-books; <i>m</i>, +stigmata of tergo-sternal muscles.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(Original drawing by Pocock.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Sub-order <i>a.</i> Uropygi.—Prosoma longer than wide, its sternal +area very narrow, furnished with a large prosternal and metasternal +plate, and often with a small mesosternal sclerite. Appendages of +2nd pair with their basal segments united in the middle line and +incapable of lateral +movement; appendages +of 3rd pair with +only the apical segment +many-jointed. +Opisthosoma without +trace of appendages; +its posterior +somites narrowed to +form a movable tail +for the support of +the post-anal +sclerite, which has +no poison glands.</p> + +<p>Tribe 1. Urotricha.—Dorsal +area +of prosoma covered +with a single shield +(? two in <i>Geralinura</i>), +bearing median +and lateral eyes. +Post-anal sclerite +modified as a long, +many-jointed feeler. +Appendages of 2nd pair folding in a horizontal plane, completely +chelate, the claw immovably united to the sixth segment. +Respiratory organs present in the form of pulmonary sacs.</p> + +<p>Family—Thelyphonidae (<i>Thelyphonus</i> (fig. 54), <i>Hypoctonus</i>, +*<i>Geralinura</i>).</p> + +<p>Tribe 2. Tartarides.—Small degenerate forms with the dorsal +area of the prosoma furnished with two shields, a larger in front +covering the anterior four somites, and a smaller behind covering +the 5th and 6th somites; the latter generally subdivided into a +right and left portion. There is also a pair of narrow tergal sclerites +interposed between the anterior and posterior shields. Eyes evanescent +or absent. Appendages of 2nd pair folding in a vertical plane, +not chelate, the claw long and movable. Post-anal sclerite short +and undivided. No distinct respiratory stigmata behind the sterna +of the 1st and 2nd somites of the opisthosoma.</p> + +<p>Family-Hubbardiidae (<i>Schizomus</i>, <i>Hubbardia</i>) (figs. 57-59).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:197px; height:304px" src="images/img305c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:169px; height:300px" src="images/img305d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 57.—<i>Schizomus crassicaudatus</i>, +one of the Tartarid +Pedipalpi. Ventral view of a +female with the appendages cut +short near the base.</td> +<td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 58.—<i>Schizomus crassicaudatus</i>, +a Tartarid Pedipalp. +Dorsal view of a male with the +appendages cut short.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90"><br /><p><i>a</i>, Prosternum of prosoma.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Metasternum of prosoma.</p> +<p><i>prae-gen</i>, The prae-genital somite.</p> +<p>I <i>opisth</i>, First somite of the opisthosoma.</p> +<p>II <i>opisth</i>, Eleventh somite of the opisthosoma.</p> +<p><i>pa</i>, Post-anal lobe of the female (compare the jointed filament + in <i>Thelyphonus</i>, fig. 54).</p></td> + +<td class="f90"><br /><p>I to VI. The prosomatic appendages.</p> +<p><i>a</i>, Anterior plate.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Posterior plate of the prosomatic carapace.</p> +<p><i>prae-gen</i>, Tergum of the prae-genital somite.</p> +<p>11, The eleventh somite of the opisthosoma.</p> +<p><i>pa</i>, Post-anal lobe of the male—a conical body with narrow basal stalk.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80">(Original drawing by Pickard-Cambridge, directed by Pocock.)</td> +<td class="caption80">(Original as preceding.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Sub-order <i>b</i>. Amblypygi.—Prosoma wider than long, covered +above by a single shield bearing median and lateral eyes, which +have diplostichous ommatea. Sternal area broad, with prosternal, +two mesosternal, and metasternal plates, the prosternum projecting +forwards beneath the coxae of the 2nd pair of appendages. Appendages +of 2nd pair folding in a horizontal plane; their basal segments +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page306" id="page306"></a>306</span> +freely movable; claw free or fused; basal segments of 4th and 5th +pairs widely separated by the sternal area; appendages of 3rd pair +with all the segments except the proximal three, forming a many-jointed +flagellum. Opisthosoma without post-anal sclerite and +posterior caudal elongation: with frequently a pair of small lobate +appendages on the sternum of the 3rd somite. Respiratory organs, +as in Urotricha.</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p>Family—Phrynichidae (<i>Phrynichus</i>, <i>Damon</i>).</p> + <p> ”   Admetidae (<i>Admetus</i>, <i>Heterophrynus</i>).</p> + <p> ”   Charontidae (<i>Charon</i>, <i>Sarax</i>).</p> + <p>(Family ?)—*<i>Graeophonus</i>.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:299px; height:128px" src="images/img306a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 59.—<i>Schizomus crassicaudatus</i>, one of the Pedipalpi. Lateral +view of a male. II to VI, the prosomatic appendages, the first being +concealed (see fig. 58); 5, the fifth, and 11, the eleventh tergites of +the opisthosoma; <i>pa</i>, the conical post-anal lobe.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(Original as preceding.)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt1"><i>Remarks.</i>—The Pedipalpi are confined to the tropics and warmer +temperate regions of both hemispheres. Fossil forms occur in the +Carboniferous. The small forms known as <i>Schizomus</i> and <i>Hubbardia</i> +are of special interest from a morphological point of view. +The Pedipalpi have no poison glands. (Reference to literature +(<b>29</b>).)</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:473px; height:544px" src="images/img306b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 60.—<i>Liphistius desultor</i>, Schiödte, one of the Araneae Mesothelae. +Dorsal view. I to VI, the prosomatic appendages; 4, 5, 6, +the fourth, fifth and sixth tergites of the opisthosoma. Between +the bases of the sixth pair of limbs and behind the prosomatic carapace +is seen the tergite of the small prae-genital somite.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(Original by Pickard-Cambridge and Pocock.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><b>Order 3. Araneae</b> (figs. 60 to 64.).—Prosoma covered with a single +shield and typically furnished with median and lateral eyes of +diplostichous structure, as in the Amblypygi. The sternal surface +wide, continuously chitinized, but with prosternal and metasternal +elements generally distinguishable at the anterior and posterior +ends respectively of the large mesosternurm. Prosternum underlying +the proboscis. Appendages of 1st pair have two segments, as in +Pedipalpi, but are furnished with poison gland, and are retroverts. +Appendages of 2nd pair not underlying the mouth, but freely movable +and, except in primitive forms, furnished with a maxillary lobe; the +rest of the limb like the legs, tipped with a single claw and quite unmodified +(except in ♂). Remaining pairs of appendages similar in +form and function, each tipped with two or three claws. Opisthosoma +when segmented showing the same number of somites as in the +Pedipalpi; usually unsegmented, the prae-genital somite constricted +to form the waist; the appendages of its 3rd and 4th somites retained +as spinning mammillae. Respiratory organs (see fig. 63, <i>stg</i>), as +in the Amblypygi, or with the posterior pair, rarely the anterior pair +as well, replaced by tracheal tubes. Intromittent organ of male in +the apical segment of the 2nd prosomatic appendage.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:184px; height:284px" src="images/img306c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="f90"><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 61.—<i>Liphistius desultor</i>. Ventral +view with the prosomatic appendages cut +short excepting the chelicerae (1) whose +sharp retroverts are seen. Between the +bases of the prosomatic limbs an anterior +and a posterior sternal plate (black) are +seen. 1, The sternum of the first opisthosomatic +or genital somite covering the +genital aperture and the first pair of lung-sacs. +In front of it the narrow waist is +formed by the soft sternal area of the +praegenital somite; 2, the sternite of the +second opisthosomatic somite covering +the posterior pair of lung-sacs; 3 and 4, +the spinning appendages (limbs) of the +opisthosoma; <i>a</i>, inner, <i>b</i>, outer ramus of +the appendage; 11, sternite of the eleventh +somite of the opisthosoma: in front of it +other rudimentary sternites; <i>an</i>, anus.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(Original as above.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Sub-order <i>a</i>. Mesothelae (see figs. 60 to 62).—Opisthosoma distinctly +segmented, furnished with 11 tergal plates, as in the Amblypygi; +the ventral surface of the 1st and 2nd somites with large +sternal plates, covering the genital aperture and the two pairs of +pulmonary sacs, the sternal plates from the 6th to the 11th somites +represented by integumental ridges, weakly chitinized in the middle. +The two pairs of spinning appendages retain their primitive position +in the middle of the lower surface of the opisthosoma far in advance +of the anus on the 3rd and 4th somites, each appendage consisting +of a stout, many-jointed outer branch and a slender, unsegmented +inner branch. Prosoma as in the Mygalomorphae, except that the +mesosternal area is long and narrow.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Family—Liphistiidae (<i>Liphistius</i>, *<i>Arthrolycosa</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p>Sub-order <i>b</i>. Opisthothelae (see fig. 63).—Opisthosoma without +trace of separate terga and sterna, the segmentation merely represented +posteriorly by slight integumental folds and the sterna of the +1st and 2nd somites by the opercular plates of the pulmonary sacs. +The spinning appendages migrate to the posterior end of the opisthosoma +and take up a position close to the anus; the inner branches +of the anterior pair either atrophy or are represented homogenetically +by a plate, the cribellum, or by an undivided membranous lobe, the +colulus.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:319px; height:163px" src="images/img306d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 62.—<i>Liphistius desultor</i>. Lateral +view.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p>I to VI, Appendages of the prosoma cut off at the base.</p> +<p><i>o</i>, Ocular tubercle.</p> +<p><i>prae-gen</i>, The prae-genital somite.</p> +<p>1 and 2, Sternites of the first and second opisthosomatic somites.</p> +<p>3 and 4, Appendages of the third and fourth opisthosomatic somites, which are the + spinning organs, and in this genus occupy their primitive position instead of migrating + to the anal region as in other spiders.</p> +<p>5, Tergite of the fifth opisthosomatic somite.</p> +<p>11, Eleventh opisthosomatic somite; <i>an</i>, Anus.</p></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(Original.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Tribe 1. Mygalomorphae.—The plane of the articulation of the +appendages of the 1st pair to the prosoma (the retrovert) vertical, +the basal segment projecting +straight forwards +at its proximal end, the +distal segment or fang +closing backwards in a +direction subparallel to +the long axis of the body. +Two pairs of pulmonary +sacs.</p> + +<p>Families—Theraphosidae +(<i>Avicularia</i>, <i>Poecilotheria</i>). Barychelidae +(<i>Barychelus</i>, <i>Plagiobothrus</i>). Dipluridae +(<i>Diplura</i>, <i>Macrothele</i>). +Ctenizidae (<i>Cteniza</i>, <i>Nemesia</i>). +Atypidae (<i>Atypus</i>, <i>Calommata</i>).</p> + +<p>Tribe 2. Arachnomorpnae.—The plane of +the articulation of the +appendages of the 1st +pair to the prosoma +horizontal, the basal +segment projecting vertically +downwards, at +least at its proximal +end, the distal segment +or fang closing inwards +nearly or quite at right +angles to the long axis of the body. The posterior pulmonary sacs +(except in <i>Hypochilus</i>) replaced by tracheal tubes; the anterior and +posterior pairs replaced by tracheal tubes in the Caponiidae.</p> + +<p>Principal families—Hypochilidae (<i>Hypochilus</i>). Dysderidae (<i>Dysdera</i>, +<i>Segestria</i>). Caponiidae (<i>Caponia</i>, <i>Nops</i>). Filistatidae (<i>Filistata</i>). +Uloboridae (<i>Uloborus</i>, <i>Dinopis</i>). Argiapidae (<i>Nephila</i>, +<i>Gasteracantha</i>). Pholcidae (<i>Pholcus</i>, <i>Artema</i>). Agelenidae (<i>Tegenuria</i>). +Lycosidae (<i>Lycosa</i>). Clubionidae (<i>Clubiona</i>, <i>Olios</i>, <i>Sparassus</i>) +Gnaphosidae (<i>Gnaphosa</i>, <i>Hemiclaea</i>). Thomisidae (<i>Thomisus</i>). +Attidae (<i>Salticus</i>). Urocteidae (<i>Uroctea</i>). Eresidae (<i>Eresus</i>).</p> + +<p><i>Remarks on the Araneae.</i>—The Spiders are the most numerous +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id="page307"></a>307</span> +and diversified group of the Arachnida; about 2000 species are +known. No noteworthy fossil spiders are known; the best-preserved +are in amber of Oligocene age. <i>Protolycosa</i> and <i>Arthrolycosa</i> +occur in the Carboniferous. Morphologically, the spiders are remarkable +for the concentration and specialization of their structure, +which is accompanied with high physiological efficiency. The larger +species of Bird’s Nest Spiders (<i>Avicularia</i>), the opisthosoma of which +is as large as a bantam’s egg, undoubtedly attack young birds, and +M’Cook gives an account of the capture in its web by an ordinary +house spider of a small mouse. The “retrovert” or bent-back +first pair of appendages is provided with a poison gland opening on +the fang or terminal segment. Spiders form at least two kinds of +constructions—snares for the capture of prey and nests for the +preservation of the young. The latter are only formed by the female, +which is a larger and more powerful animal than the male. Like +the scorpions the spiders have a special tendency to cannibalism, +and accordingly the male, in approaching the female for the purpose +of fertilizing her, is liable to be fallen upon and sucked dry by the +object of his attentions. The sperm is removed by the male from +the genital aperture into a special receptacle on the terminal segment +of the 2nd prosomatic appendage. Thus held out at some distance +from the body, it is cautiously advanced by the male spider to the +genital aperture of the female.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="3"><img style="width:295px; height:501px" src="images/img307a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="caption"><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 63.—Ventral view of +a male mygalomorphous spider.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"><p>I to VI, The six pairs of prosomatic appendages.</p> +<p><i>a</i>, Copulatory apparatus of the second appendage.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Process of the fifth joint of the third appendage.</p> +<p>M, Mouth.</p> +<p><i>pro</i>, Prosternite of the prosoma.</p> +<p><i>mes</i>, Mesosternite of the prosoma: observe the contact + of the coxae of the sixth pair of limbs behind it; + compare <i>Liphistius</i> (fig. 61) where this does not occur.</p> +<p><i>stg</i>, Lung aperture.</p> +<p><i>gn</i>, Genital aperture.</p> +<p><i>a</i>, Anus with a pair of backwardly migrated spinning + appendages on each side of it; compare the position + of these appendages in <i>Liphistius</i> (fig. 61).</p></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Lankester, “Limulus an Arachnid.”)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:368px; height:163px" src="images/img307b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 64.—<i>Liphistius desultor</i>. Under side of the uplifted genital +or first opisthosomatic somite of the female; <i>g</i>, genital aperture; +<i>p</i>, pitted plate, probably a gland for the secretion of adhesive material +for the eggs; <i>l</i>, the edges of the lamellae of the lung-books of the +first pair.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(Original drawing by Pocock.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>For an account of the courtship and dancing of spiders, of their +webs and floating lines, the reader is referred to the works of +M‛Cook (<b>30</b>) and the Peckhams (<b>31</b>), whilst an excellent account of +the nests of trap-door spiders is given by Moggridge (<b>32</b>). References +to systematic works will also be found at the end of this article (<b>33</b>).</p> + +<p><b>Order 4. Palpigradi = Microthelyphonidae</b> (see fig. 65).—Prosoma +covered above by three plates, a larger representing the dorsal elements +of the first four somites, and two smaller representing the +dorsal elements of the 5th and 6th.</p> + +<p>Its ventral surface provided with one prosternal, two mesosternal +and one metasternal plate. Appendages of 1st pair consisting of +three segments, completely chelate, without poison gland; of 2nd +pair slender, leg-like, tipped with three claws, the basal segment +without sterno-coxal process taking no share in mastication, and +widely separated from its fellow of the opposite side; 3rd, 4th, 5th +and 6th appendages similar in form to the 2nd and to each other.</p> + +<p>Proboscis free, not supported from below by either the prosternum +or the basal segments of the appendages of the 2nd pair.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:344px; height:547px" src="images/img307c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 65.—<i>Koenenia mirabilis</i>, Grassi, one of the Palpigradi.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>A, Ventral view of prosoma and anterior region of opisthosoma +with the appendages cut off near the base; <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>, +prosternites; <i>c</i>, mesosternite; and <i>d</i>, metasternite of the +prosoma; <i>f</i>, ventral surface of the prae-genital somite; +<i>g</i>, sternite of the genital somite (first opisthosomatic somite).</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>B, Dorsal view. I to VI, prosomatic appendages; 1 <i>opisth</i>, +genital somite (first opisthosomatic somite).</p> +<p>C, Lateral view, I to VI, prosomatic appendages; <i>a, b, c</i>, +the three tergal plates of the prosoma; <i>prae-gen</i>, the prae-genital +somite; 1 to 10, the ten somites of the opisthosoma.</p> +<p>D, Chelicera.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(Original drawing by Pocock and Pickard-Cambridge, after Hansen and Sörensen.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Opisthosoma consisting of only ten somites, which have no tergal +and sternal elements, the prae-genital somite contracted to form a +“waist,” as in the Pedipalpi; the last three narrowed to form a +caudal support for the many-jointed flagelliform telson, as in the +Urotricha. Respiratory organs atrophied.</p> + +<div class="list"> +<p>Family—Koeneniidae (<i>Koenenia</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Remarks.</i>—An extremely remarkable minute form originally +described by Grassi (<b>34</b>) from Sicily, and since further described by +Hansen (<b>35</b>). Recently the genus has been found in Texas, U.S.A. +Only one genus of the order is known.</p> + +<p><b>Order 5. Solifugae = Mycetophorae</b> (see figs. 66 to 69).—Dorsal +area of prosoma covered with three distinct plates, two smaller +representing the terga of the 5th and 6th somites, and a larger +representing those of the anterior four somites, although the reduced +terga of the 3rd and 4th are traceable behind the larger plate. The +latter bears a pair of median eyes and obsolete lateral eyes on each +side. Sternal elements of prosoma almost entirely absent, traces +of a prosternum and metasternum alone remaining. Rostrum free, +not supported by either the prosternum or the basal segments of the +appendages. Appendages of 1st pair large, chelate, bisegmented, +articulated to the sides of the head-shield; appendages of 2nd pair +simple, pediform, with protrusible (? suctorial) organ, and no claws +at the tip; their basal segments united in the middle line and furnished +with sterno-coxal process. Remaining pairs of appendages +with their basal segments immovably fixed to the sternal surface, +similar in form, the posterior three pairs furnished with two claws +supported on long stalks; the basal segments of the 6th pair bearing +five pairs of tactile sensory organs or malleoli. The prae-genital +somite is suppressed. Opisthosoma composed of ten somites. +Respiratory organs tracheal, opening upon the ventral surface of +the 2nd and 3rd, and sometimes also of the 4th somite of the opisthosoma. +A supplementary pair of tracheae opening behind the basal +segment of the 4th appendage of the prosoma.</p> + +<p>(? Intromittent organ of male lodged on the dorsal side of the +1st pair of prosomatic appendages.)</p> + +<p>Families—Hexisopodidae (<i>Hexisopus</i>). Solpugidae (<i>Solpuga</i>, +<i>Rhagodes</i>). Galeodidae (<i>Galeodes</i>).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id="page308"></a>308</span></p> + +<p><i>Remarks.</i>—These most strange-looking Arachnids occur in warmer +temperate, and tropical regions of Asia, Africa and America. Their +anatomy has not been studied, as yet, by means of freshly-killed +material, and is imperfectly known, though the presence of the coxal +glands was determined by Macleod in 1884. The proportionately +enormous chelae (chelicerae) of the first pair of appendages are not +provided with poison glands; their bite is not venomous.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="3"><img style="width:291px; height:495px" src="images/img308a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="caption"><br /><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 66.—<i>Galeodes sp.</i>, +one of the Solifugae. Ventral view to show legs and somites.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"> +<p>I to VI, The six leg-bearing somites of the prosoma.</p> +<p><i>opisth</i> 1, First or genital somite of the opisthosoma.</p> +<p><i>ge</i>, Site of the genital aperture.</p> +<p><i>st</i>, Thoracic tracheal aperture.</p> +<p><i>l</i><span class="sp">2</span>, Anterior tracheal aperture of the opisthosoma in somite 2 of the opisthosoma.</p> +<p><i>l</i><span class="sp">3</span>, Tracheal aperture in somite 3 of the opisthosoma.</p> +<p><i>a</i>, Anus.</p></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(From Lankester, “Limulus an Arachnid.”)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:193px; height:409px" src="images/img308b.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:206px; height:450px" src="images/img308c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 67.—<i>Galeodes sp.</i>, one +of the Solifugae. Ventral view with the appendages cut off at the base.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 68.—<i>Galeodes sp.</i>, one of the +Solifugae. Dorsal view.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90"><p>I to VI, Prosomatic appendages.</p> +<p><i>s</i>, Prosomatic stigma or aperture of the tracheal system.</p> +<p>1, First opisthosomatic sternite covering the genital aperture <i>g</i>.</p> +<p>2, Second opisthosomatic sternite covering the second pair of tracheal apertures <i>sp1</i>.</p> +<p><i>sp2</i>, The third pair of tracheal apertures.</p> +<p>10, The tenth opisthosomatic somite.</p> +<p><i>an</i>, The anal aperture.</p></td> +<td class="f90"> +<p>I to VI, Bases of the prosomatic appendages.</p> +<p><i>o</i>, Eyes.</p> +<p><i>a</i>, Lateral region of the cephalic plate + to which the first pair of appendages are articulated.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Cephalic plate with median eye.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Dorsal element of somites bearing third and fourth pairs of appendages.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Second plate of the prosoma with fifth pair of appendages.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Third or hindermost plate of the prosoma beneath which the sixth pair of legs is articulated.</p> +<p>1, 2, 9, 10, First, second, ninth and tenth somites of the opisthosoma.</p> +<p><i>an</i>, Anus.</p> +</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80">(Original by Pickard-Cambridge and Pocock.)</td> +<td class="caption80">(Original.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Galeodes</i> has been made the means of a comparison between the +structure of the Arachnida and Hexapod insects by Haeckel and +other writers, and it was at one time suggested that there was a +genetic affinity between the two groups—through <i>Galeodes</i>, or +extinct forms similar to it. The segmentation of the prosoma and +the form of the appendages bear a homoplastic similarity to the +head, pro-, meso-, and meta-thorax of a Hexapod with mandibles, +maxillary palps and three pairs of walking legs; while the opisthosoma +agrees in form and number of somites with the abdomen of +a Hexapod, and the tracheal stigmata present certain agreements +in the two cases. Reference to literature (<b>36</b>).</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:372px; height:126px" src="images/img308d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 69.—<i>Galeodes sp.</i>, one of the Solifugae.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>I to VI, The six prosomatic limbs cut short.</p> +<p><i>o</i>, The eyes.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, Demarcated areae of the cephalic or first prosomatic plate + corresponding respectively to appendages I, II, III, and to appendage IV (see fig. 68).</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Second plate of the prosoma-carrying appendage V.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>e</i>, Third plate of the prosoma-carrying appendage VI. The prae-genital somite is absent.</p> +<p>1, First somite of the opisthosoma.</p> +<p>2, Second do.</p> +<p>S, Prosomatic tracheal aperture between legs IV and V.</p> +<p>S′ and S″, Opisthosomatic tracheal apertures.</p> +<p>10, Tenth opisthosomatic somite.</p> +<p><i>an</i>, Anus.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(Original.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:213px; height:360px" src="images/img308e.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:220px; height:360px" src="images/img308f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 70.—<i>Garypus litoralis</i>, one +of the Pseudoscorpiones. Ventral view.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 71.—<i>Garypus litoralis</i>, +one of the Pseudoscorpiones. Dorsal view.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90"> +<p>I to VI, Prosomatic appendages.</p> +<p><i>o</i>, Sterno-coxal process of the basal segment of the second appendage.</p> +<p>1, Sternite of the genital or first opisthosomatic somite; the prae-genital somite, + though represented by a tergum, has no separate ternal plate.</p> +<p>2 and 3, Sternites of the second and third somites of the opisthosoma, each showing a tracheal stigma.</p> +<p>10 and 11, Sternites of the tenth and eleventh somites of the opisthosoma.</p> +<p><i>an</i>, Anus.</p></td> +<td class="f90"> +<p>I to VI, The prosomatic appendages.</p> +<p><i>o</i>, Eyes.</p> +<p><i>prae-gen</i>, Prae-genital somite.</p> +<p>1, Tergite of the genital or first opisthosomatic somite.</p> +<p>10, Tergite of the tenthsomite of the opisthosoma.</p> +<p>11, The evanescent eleventh somite of the opisthosoma.</p> +<p><i>an</i>, Anus.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80">(Original by Pocock and Pickard-Cambridge.)</td> +<td class="caption80">(Original.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><b>Order 6. Pseudoscorpiones = Chelonethi,</b> also called Chernetidia +(see figs. 70, 71, 72).—Prosoma covered by a single dorsal shield, at +most furnished with one or two diplostichous lateral eyes; sternal +elements obliterated or almost obliterated. Appendages of the 1st +pair bisegmented completely chelate, furnished with peculiar organs, +the <i>serrula</i> and the <i>lamina</i>. Appendages of 2nd pair very large and +completely chelate, their basal segments meeting in the middle line, +as in the Uropygi, and provided in front with membranous lip-like +processes underlying the proboscis. Appendages of the 3rd, 4th, +5th and 6th pairs similar in form and function, tipped with two +claws, their basal segments in contact in the median ventral line. +The prae-genital somite wide, not constricted, with large tergal plate, +but with its sternal plate small or inconspicuous. Opisthosoma +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id="page309"></a>309</span> +composed, at least in many cases, of eleven somites, the 11th +somite very small, often hidden within the both. Respiratory +organs in the form of tracheal tubes opening by a pair of stigmata +in the 2nd and 3rd somites of the opisthosoma. Intromittent organ +of male beneath sternum of the 1st somite of the opisthosoma.</p> + +<p>Sub-order <i>a</i>. Panctenodactyli.—Dorsal plate of prosoma (carapace) +narrowed in front; the appendages of the 1st pair small, much +narrower, taken together, than the posterior border of the carapace. +Serrula on movable digit of appendages of 1st pair fixed throughout +its length, and broader at its proximal than at its distal end; the +immovable digit with an external process.</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p>Family—Cheliferidae (<i>Chelifer</i> (figs. 70, 71, 72), <i>Chiridium</i>).</p> + <p> ”   Garypidae (<i>Garypus</i>).</p> +</div> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:318px; height:131px" src="images/img309a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 72.—<i>Garypus litoralis</i>, +one of the Pseudoscorpiones. Lateral view.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>I to VI, of the six prosomatic appendages.</p> +<p><i>o</i>, Eyes.</p> +<p><i>prae-gen</i>, Tergite of the prae-genital somite.</p> +<p>1, Genital or first opisthosomatic somite.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>2, 3, 10, The second, third and tenth somites of the opisthosoma.</p> +<p>11, The minute eleventh somite;</p> +<p><i>an</i>, the anus.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(Original.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>Sub-order <i>b</i>. Hemictenodactyli.—Dorsal plate of prosoma scarcely +narrowed in front; the appendages of the 1st pair large, not much +narrower, taken together, than the posterior border of the carapace. +The serrula or the movable digit free at its distal end, narrowed at +the base; no external lamina on the immovable digit.</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p>Family—Obisiidae (<i>Obisium, Pseudobisium</i>).</p> + <p> ”   Chthoniidae (<i>Chthonius, Tridenchthonius</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Remarks.</i>—The book-scorpions—so called because they were, in +old times, found not unfrequently in libraries—are found in rotten +wood and under stones. The similarity of the form of their appendages +to those of the scorpions suggests that they are a degenerate +group derived from the latter, but the large size of the prae-genital +somite in them would indicate a connexion with forms preceding the +scorpions. Reference to literature (<b>37</b>).</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:341px; height:230px" src="images/img309b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 73.—<i>Cryptostemma Karschii</i>, +one of the Podogona. Dorsal view of male.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>III to VI, The third, fourth, fifth and sixth appendages of the prosoma.</p> +<p><i>a</i>, Movable (hinged) sclerite (so-called hood) overhanging the first pair of appendages.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Fused terga of the prosoma followed by the opisthosoma of four visible somites.</p> +</td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>an</i>, Orifice within which the caudal segments are withdrawn.</p> +<p>E, Extremity of the fifth appendage of the male modified to subserve copulation.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(Original drawing by Pocock and Pickard-Cambridge.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><b>Order 7. Podogona = Ricinulei</b> (see figs. 73 to 76).—Dorsal area +of prosoma furnished with two shields, a larger behind representing, +probably, the tergal elements of the somites, and a smaller in +front, which is freely articulated to the former and folds over the +appendages of the 1st pair. Ventral area without distinct sternal +plates. Appendages of 1st pair, bisegmented, completely chelate. +Appendages of 2nd pair, with their basal segments uniting in the +middle line below the mouth, weakly chelate at apex. Appendages +of 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs similar in form; their basal segments +in contact in the middle line and immovably welded, except those +of the 3rd pair, which have been pushed aside so that the bases of +the 2nd and 4th pairs are in contact with each other. A movable +membranous joint between the prosoma and the opisthosoma, the +generative aperture opening upon the ventral side of the membrane. +Prae-genital somite suppressed; the opisthosma consisting of nine +segments, whereof the first and second are almost suppressed and +concealed within the joint between the prosoma and the opisthosoma; +the following four large and manifest, and the remaining +three minute and forming a slender generally-retracted tail like that +of <i>Thelyphonus</i>. Respiratory organs tracheal, opening by a pair of +spiracles in the prosoma above the base of the fifth appendage on +each side. Intromittent organ of male placed at the distal end of +the appendage of the 5th pair.</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p>Family—Cryptostemmidae (<i>Cryptostemma, Poliochera</i>), Carboniferous.</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:208px; height:163px" src="images/img309c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="f90"><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 74.—<i>Cryptostemma Karschii</i>, +anterior aspect of the prosoma with +the “hood” removed. I to IV, first +to fourth appendages of the prosoma; +<i>a</i>, basal segment of the second pair +of appendages meeting its fellow in +the middle line (see fig. 75).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(Original drawing by Pocock and +Pickard-Cambridge.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Remarks on the Podogona.</i>—The name given to this small but +remarkable group has reference to the position of the male intromittent +organ (fig. 73, <span class="scs">E</span>). They are small degenerate animals +with a relatively firm integument. Not more than four species and +twice that number of specimens are known. They have been found +in West Africa and South America. A fact of special interest in +regard to them is that the genus Poliochera, from the Coal Measures, +appears to be a member of the same group. The name Cryptostemma, +given to the first-known genus of the order, described by +Guérin-Méneville, refers to the supposed +concealment of the eyes by the movable +cephalic sclerite. Reference to literature +(<b>38</b>).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="3"><img style="width:191px; height:245px" src="images/img309d.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="caption"><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 75.—<i>Cryptostemma Karschii</i>, one of the Podogona. Ventral view.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"> +<p>I to VI, The six pairs of appendages of the prosoma, the last three cut short.</p> +<p>1, 2, 3, 4, The four somites of the opisthosoma.</p> +<p><i>a</i>. Visible hood overhanging the first pair of appendages.</p> +<p><i>b</i>, Position of the genital orifice.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Part of 3rd appendage.</p> +<p><i>d</i>, Fourth segment of 2nd appendage. Observe that the basal segment + of appendage III does <i>not</i> meet its fellow in the middle line.</p></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(Original drawing by Pocock and Pickard-Cambridge.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:131px; height:149px" src="images/img309e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 76.—<i>Cryptostemma Karschii</i>. Extremity of the fifth +pair of appendages of the female for comparison with that of the male E in fig. 73.</td></tr></table> + +<p><b>Order 8. Opilione</b> (see fig. 77).—Dorsal +area of prosoma covered by a single shield +usually bearing a pair of eyes. Sternal +elements much reduced. Appendages of +1st pair large, three segmented and +completely chelate; of 2nd pair either +simple and pediform, or prehensile and +subchelate; of remaining four pairs, +similar in form, ambulatory in function; +the basal segment of the 2nd, 3rd and +sometimes of the 4th pairs of appendages +furnished with sterno-coxal (maxillary) +lobe. Opisthosoma confluent throughout +its breadth with the prosoma, with the +dorsal plate of which its anterior tergal +plates are more or less fused; at most ten opisthosomatic somites +traceable; the generative aperture thrust far forwards between +the basal segments of the 6th appendages. Prae-genital somite +suppressed. Respiratory organs tracheal, opening by a pair of stigmata +situated immediately behind the basal segments of the 6th +pair of appendages on what is probably the sternum of the 2nd +opisthosomatic somite and also in some cases upon the 5th segment +of the legs.</p> + +<p>Intromittent organ of male lying within the genital orifice.</p> + +<p>Sub-order <i>a</i>. Laniatores.—Orifice of foetid glands opening above +the coxa of the 4th appendage, not raised upon a tubercle. Orifice +of coxal gland situated just behind that of the foetid gland. Sternal +plate of prosoma long and narrow, with a distinct prosternal element +underlying the mouth. Coxae of 4th, 5th and 6th appendages +immovable. Appendages of 2nd pair, strong, usually prehensile +and spiny. Genital orifice covered by an operculum.</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p>Families—Gonoleptidae (<i>Gonoleptes, Goniasoma</i>).</p> + <p>      Biantidae (<i>Biantes</i>).</p> + <p>      Oncopodidae (<i>Oncopus, Pelitnus</i>).</p> + <p>      Trioenonychidae (<i>Trioenonyx, Acumontia</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p>Sub-order <i>b</i>. Palpatores.—Orifice of foetid glands opening above +the coxa of the 3rd appendage, not raised upon a tubercle. Orifice +of coxal gland situated between the coxae of the 5th and 6th appendages. +Sternal plate of prosoma usually short and wide, rarely longer +than broad; with a larger or smaller prosternal element underlying +the mouth. Coxae of 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th appendages movable +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page310" id="page310"></a>310</span> +or immovable. Appendages of 2nd pair weak, pediform not prehensile. +Genital orifice covered by an operculum.</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p>Families—Phalangiidae (<i>Phalangium, Gagrella</i>).</p> + <p>      Ischyropsalidae (<i>Ischyropsalis, Taracus</i>).</p> + <p>      Nemastomidae (<i>Nemastoma</i>).</p> + <p>      Trogulidae (<i>Trogulus, Anelasmocephalus</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p>Sub-order <i>c. Cyphophthalmi</i> (<i>Anepignathi</i>).—Orifice of foetid +glands opening on a tubercle situated near the lateral border of the +carapace above the base of the 5th appendage. Orifice of coxal +gland probably situated at base of coxa of 5th appendage; sternal +plate of prosema minute or absent; no prosternal element underlying +the mouth. Coxae of 5th and 6th, and usually also of 4th +appendages immovable. Appendages of 2nd pair weak, pediform, +not prehensile. Genital orifice not covered by an operculum.</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p>Families—Sironidae (<i>Siro, Pettalus</i>).</p> + <p>      Stylocellidae (<i>Stylocellus</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Remarks on the Opiliones.</i>—These include the harvest-men, sometimes +called also daddy-long-legs, with round undivided bodies and +very long, easily-detached legs. The intromittent organs of the +male are remarkable for their complexity and elaboration. The +confluence of the regions of the body and the dislocation of apertures +from their typical position are results of degeneration. The Opiliones +seem to lead on from the Spiders to the Mites. Reference to literature +(<b>39</b>).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:324px; height:390px" src="images/img310a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="caption"><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 77.—<i>Stylocellus +sumatranus</i>, one of the +Opiliones; after Thorell. +Enlarged.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"> +<p>A, Dorsal view; I to VI, the six prosomatic appendages.</p> + +<p>B, Ventral view of the prosoma and of the first +somite of the opisthosoma, with the appendages +I to VI cut off at the base; <i>a</i>, tracheal +stigma; <i>mx</i>, maxillary processes of the coxae of +the 3rd pair of appendages; <i>g</i>, genital aperture.</p> + +<p>C, Ventral surface of the prosoma and opisthosoma; +<i>a</i>, tracheal stigma; <i>b</i>, last somite.</p> + +<p>D, Lateral view of the 1st and 2nd pair of appendages.</p> + +<p>E, Lateral view of the whole body and two 1st appendages, showing +the fusion of the dorsal elements of the prosoma into a single +plate, and of those of the opisthosoma into an imperfectly segmented +plate continuous with that of the prosoma.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt1">Apparently related to the Opiliones are two extinct groups, the +Anthracomarti and Phalangiotarbi, which are not known to have +survived the Carboniferous period. In the Anthracomarti the +opisthosoma was movably articulated to the prosoma, and consisted +of from eight to ten segments furnished with movable lateral plates, +the anal segment being overlapped dorsally by a laminate expansion +of the preceding segment. The carapace of the prosoma was +unsegmented and often bore a pair of eyes. The appendages of the +2nd pair were slender and pediform; those of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and +6th pairs were similar in form and ambulatory in function with +their basal segments arranged round a sternal area as in the order +Araneae. The best-known genera were <i>Anthracomartus</i> and +<i>Eophognus</i>.</p> + +<p>In the Phalangiotarbi the appendages resembled those of the +Anthracomarti, except that the basal segments of the last four pairs +were usually approximated in the middle line leaving a long and +narrow sternal area between; and the carapace of the prosoma was +unsegmented. The prosoma and opisthosoma were broadly confluent +and probably immovably welded together. The opisthosoma +consisted of eight or nine segments, whereof the anterior five or six +were very short in the dorsal region, and the posterior three +exceptionally large with the anal orifice terminal.</p> + +<p>Several genera have been established, the best-characterized +being <i>Geraphognus</i> and <i>Architarbus</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Order 9. Rhynchostomi = Acari</b> (see fig. 78).—Degenerate Arachnids +resembling the Opiliones in many structural points, but chiefly +distinguishable from them by the following features:—The basal +segments of the appendages of the 2nd pair are united in the middle +line behind the mouth, those of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs are +widely separated and not provided with sterno-coxal (maxillary) +lobes, and take no share in mastication; the respiratory stigmata, +when present, belong to the prosoma, and the primitive +segmentation of the opisthosoma has entirely or almost entirely +disappeared.</p> + +<p>Sub-order <i>a</i>. <i>Notostigmata.</i>—Opisthosoma consisting of ten +segments defined by integumental grooves, each of the anterior four +of these furnished with a single pair of dorsally-placed spiracles or +tracheal stigmata.</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p>Family—Opilioacaridae (<i>Opilioacarus</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p>Sub-order <i>b</i>. <i>Cryptostigmata.</i>—Integument hard, strengthened +by a continuously chitinized dorsal and ventral sclerite. Tracheae +typically opening by stigmata situated in the articular sockets +(acetabula) of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs of appendages.</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p>Family—Oribatidae (<i>Oribata, Nothrus, Hoplophora</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p>Sub-order <i>c</i>. <i>Metastigmata.</i>—Integument mostly like that of the +Cryptostigmata. Tracheae opening by a pair of stigmata situated +above and behind the base of the 4th or 5th or 6th pair of appendages.</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p>Families—Gamasidae (<i>Gamasus, Pteroptus</i>).</p> + <p>      Argasidae (<i>Argas, Ornithodoros</i>).</p> + <p>      Ixodidae (<i>Ixodes, Rhipicephalus</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p>Sub-order <i>d</i>. <i>Prostigmata.</i>—Integument soft, strengthened by +special sclerites, those on the ventral surface of the prosoma apparently +representing the basal segments of the legs embedded in the +skin. Tracheae, except in the aquatic species in which they are +atrophied, opening by a pair of stigmata situated close to or above +the base of the appendages of the 1st pair (mandibles).</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p>Families—Trombidiidae (<i>Trombidium, Tetranychus</i>).</p> + <p>      Hydrachnidae (<i>Hydrachna, Atax</i>).</p> + <p>      Halacaridae (<i>Halacarus, Leptognathus</i>).</p> + <p>      Bdellidae (<i>Bdella, Eupodes</i>).</p> +</div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:453px; height:355px" src="images/img310b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 78.—<i>Holothyrus nitidissimus</i>, one of the Acari; after Thorell.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"> +<p>A, Lateral view with appendages III to VI removed; 1, plate +covering the whole dorsal area, representing the fused tergal +sclerites of the prosoma and opisthosoma; 2, similarly-formed +ventral plate; 3, tracheal stigma.</p> + +<p>B, Dorsal view of the same animal; II to VI, 2nd to 6th pairs of +appendages. The 1st pair of appendages both in this and in C +are retracted.</p> + +<p>C, Ventral view of the same; II to VI as in B; <i>a</i>, genital orifice; +<i>b</i>, anus; <i>c</i>, united basal segments of the second pair of appendages; +<i>d</i>, basal segment of the 6th prosomatic appendage of the +right side. The rest of the appendage, as also of app. Ill, IV +and V, has been cut away.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt1">Sub-order <i>e</i>. <i>Astigmata.</i>—Degenerate, mostly parasitic forms +approaching the Prostigmata in the development of integumental +sclerites and the softness of the skin, but with the respiratory system +absent.</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p>Families—Tyroglyphidae (<i>Tyroglyphus, Rhizoglyphus</i>).</p> + <p>      Sarcoptidae (<i>Sarcoptes, Analges</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p>Sub-order <i>f</i>. <i>Vermiformia.</i>—Degenerate atracheate parasitic forms +with the body produced posteriorly into an annulated caudal +prolongation, and the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs of appendages short +and only three-jointed.</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p>Family—Demodicidae (<i>Demodex</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p>Sub-order <i>g</i>. <i>Tetrapoda.</i>—Degenerate atracheate gall-mites in which +the body is produced posteriorly and annulated, as in <i>Demodex</i>, but in +which the appendages of the 3rd and 4th pairs are long and normally +segmented and those of the 5th and 6th pairs entirely absent.</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p>Family—Eriophyidae (<i>Eriophyes, Phyllocoptes</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Remarks on the Rhynchostomi.</i>—The Acari include a number of +forms which are of importance and special interest on account of +their parasitic habits. The ticks (<i>Ixodes</i>) are not only injurious +as blood-suckers, but are now credited with carrying the germs +of Texas cattle-fever, just as mosquitoes carry those of malaria. +The itch-insect (<i>Sarcoptes scabiei</i>) is a well-known human parasite, +so minute that it was not discovered until the end of the 18th century, +and “the itch” was treated medicinally as a rash. The female +burrows in the epidermis much as the female trap-door spider burrows +in turf in order to make a nest in which to rear her young. The male +does not burrow, but wanders freely on the surface of the skin. +<i>Demodex folliculorum</i> is also a common parasite of the sebaceous +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id="page311"></a>311</span> +glands of the skin of the face in man, and is frequent in the skin +of the dog. Many Acari are parasitic on marine and freshwater +molluscs, and others are found on the feathers of birds and the hair +of mammals. Others have a special faculty of consuming dry, +powdery vegetable and animal refuse, and are liable to multiply +in manufactured products of this nature, such as mouldy cheese. +A species of Acarus is recorded as infesting a store of powdered +strychnine and feeding on that drug, so poisonous to larger organisms. +Reference to literature (<b>40</b>).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span> cited by numbers in the text.—<b>1</b>. Strauss-Dürckheim +(as reported by MM. Riester and Sanson in an appendix to the sixth +volume of the French translation of Meckel’s <i>Anatomy</i>, 1829); <b>2</b>. +Lankester, “Limulus an Arachnid,” <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. xxi. +N.S., 1881; <b>3</b>. <i>Idem</i>, “On the Skeletotrophic Tissues of Limulus, +Scorpio and Mygale,” <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. xxiv. N.S., 1884; +<b>4</b>. <i>Idem. Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> vol. xi., 1883; <b>5</b>. Lankester and A.G. Bourne, +“Eyes of Limulus and Scorpio,” <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. xxiii. +N.S., Jan. 1883; <b>6</b>. Milne-Edwards, A., “Recherches sur l’anatomie +des Limules,” <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> 5th Series, <i>Zoologie</i>, vol. xvii., 1873; +<b>7</b>. Owen, Richard, “Anatomy of the King-Crab,” <i>Trans. Linn. Soc. +Lond.</i>, vol. xxviii., 1872; <b>8</b>. Kishinouye, “Development of <i>Limulus +longispina</i>,” <i>Journal of the Science College of Japan</i>, vol. v., 1892; +<b>9</b>. Brauer, “Development of Scorpion,” <i>Zeitschrift für wiss. Zoologie</i>, +vol. lix., 1895; <b>10</b>. Hansen, H.J., “Organs and Characters in +Different Orders of Arachnida,” <i>Entomol. Meddel.</i> vol. iv. pp. 137-149; +<b>11</b>. Watase, “On the Morphology of the Compound Eyes of +Arthropods,” <i>Studies from the Biolog. Lab. Johns Hopkins University</i>, +vol. iv. pp 287-334; <b>12</b>. Newport, George, “Nervous and Circulatory +Systems in Myriapoda and Macrourous Arachnids,” <i>Phil. +Trans. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1843; <b>13</b>. Lankester, “Coxal Glands of Limulus, +Scorpio and Mygale,” <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. xxiv. N.S., 1884; +<b>13<span class="scs">A</span></b>. W. Patten and A.P. Hazen, “Development of the Coxal Glands +of Limulus,” <i>Journ. of Morphology</i>, vol. xvi., 1900; 13B. Bernard, +“Coxal Glands of Scorpio,” <i>Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. xii., 1893, +p. 55; <b>14</b>. Benham, “Testis of Limulus,” <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i>, 1882; +<b>15</b>. Lankester, “Mobility of the Spermatozoa of Limulus,” <i>Quart. +Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. xviii. N.S., 1878; <b>16</b>. Korschelt and Heider, +<i>Entwickelungsgeschichte</i> (Jena, 1892), <i>ibique citata</i>; <b>17</b>. Laurie, M., +“The Embryology of a Scorpion,” <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. xxxi. +N.S., 1890, and “On Development of <i>Scorpio fulvipes</i>,” <i>ibid.</i> vol. +xxxii., 1891; <b>18</b>. Lankester (Homoplasy and Homogeny), “On +the Use of the term Homology in Modern Zoology,” <i>Ann. and Mag. +Nat. Hist.</i>, 1870; <b>19</b>. <i>Idem</i>, “Degeneration, a Chapter in Darwinism,” +1878, reprinted in the <i>Advancement of Science</i> (Macmillan, 1890); +<b>20</b>. <i>Idem</i>, “Limulus an Arachnid,” <i>Q. J. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. xxi. N.S.; +<b>21</b>. Claus, “Degeneration of the Acari and Classification of Arthropoda,” +<i>Anzeiger d. k. k. Akad. Wissen. Wien</i>, 1885; see also <i>Ann. and +Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> (5) vol. xvii., 1886, p. 364, and vol. xix. p. 225; +<b>22</b>. Lindstrom, G., “Researches on the Visual Organs of the Trilobites,” +<i>K. Svenska Vet. Akad. Handl.</i> xxxiv. No. 8, pp. 1-86, Pls. i.-vi., +1901; <b>22*</b>. Zittel, American edition of his <i>Palaeontology</i> (the Macmillan +Co., New York), where ample references to the literature of +Trilobitae and Eurypteridae will be found; also references to +literature of fossil Scorpions and Spiders; <b>23</b>. Hoek, “Report on the +Pycnogonida,” <i>Challenger Expedition Reports</i>, 1881; Meinert, +“Pycnogonida of the Danish Ingolf Expedition,” vol. iii., 1899; +Morgan, “Embryology and Phylogeny of the Pycnogonids,” <i>Biol. +Lab. Baltimore</i>, vol. v., 1891; <b>24</b>. Bourne, A.G., “The Reputed +Suicide of the Scorpion,” <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> vol. xlii. pp. 17-22; <b>25</b>. +Lankester, “Notes on some Habits of Scorpions,” <i>Journ. Linn. Soc. +Zool.</i> vol. xvi. p. 455, 1882; <b>26</b>. Huxley, “Pharynx of Scorpion,” +<i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. viii. (old series), 1860, p. 250; <b>27</b>. +Pocock, “How and Why Scorpions hiss,” <i>Natural Science</i>, vol. ix., +1896; cf. <i>idem</i>, “Stridulating Organs of Spiders,” <i>Ann. and Mag. +Nat. Hist.</i> (6), xvi. pp. 230-233; <b>28</b>. Kraepelin, <i>Das Thierreich +(Scorpiones et Pedipalpi</i>) (Berlin, 1899); Peters, “Eine neue Eintheilung +der Skorpione,” <i>Man. Akad. Wiss. Berlin</i>, 1861; Pocock, +“Classification of Scorpions,” <i>Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> (6) xii., +1893; Thorell and Lindstrom, “On a Silurian Scorpion,” <i>Kongl. +Svens. Vet. Akad. Handl.</i> xxi. No. 9, 1885; <b>29</b>. Cambridge, O.P., +“A New Family (Tartarides) and Genus of Thelyphonidea,” <i>Ann. +and Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> (4) x., 1872, p. 413; Cook, “Hubbardia, a New +Genus of Pedipalpi,” <i>Proc. Entom. Soc. Washington</i>, vol. iv., 1899; +Thorell, “Tartarides, &c.” <i>Ann. Mus. Genova</i>, vol. xxvii., 1889; +<b>30</b>. M Cook, <i>American Spiders and their Spinning Work</i> (3 vols.; +Philadelphia, 1889-1893); <b>31</b>. Peckham, “On Sexual Selection in +Spiders,” <i>Occasional Papers Nat. Hist. Soc. Wisconsin</i>, vol. i. pp. +1-113, 1889; <b>32</b>. Moggridge, <i>Harvesting Ants and Trap-Door Spiders</i> +(1873); <b>33</b>. Bertkau, Ph., <i>Arch. f. Naturgesch.</i> vol. xlviii. pp. 316-362; +<i>Idem</i>, same journal, 1875, p. 235, and 1878, p. 351; Cambridge, +O.P., “Araneidea” in <i>Biologia Centr. Americana</i>, vols. i. and ii. +(London, 1899); Keyserling, <i>Spinnen Amerikas</i> (Nuremberg, 1880-1892); +Pocock, “Liphistius and the Classification of Spiders,” +<i>Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> (6) x., 1892; Simon, <i>Hist. nat. des +Araignées</i>, vols. i. and ii., 1892, 1897; Wagner, “L’Industrie des +Araneína,” <i>Mem. Acad. St-Pétersbourg</i>; <i>Idem</i>, “La Mue des +Araignées,” <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> vol. vi.; <b>34</b>. Grassi, G.B. “Intorno +ad un nuovo Aracnide artrogastro (<i>Koenenia mirabilis</i>) &c.” <i>Boll. +Soc. Ent. Ital.</i> vol. xviii., 1886; <b>35</b>. H.J. Hansen and Sörensen, +“The Order Palpigradi, Thorell (<i>Koenenia</i>), and its Relationships +with other Arachnida,” <i>Ent. Tidskr.</i> vol. xviii. pp. 233-240, 1898; +Kraepelin, <i>Das Thierreich</i> (Berlin, 1901); <b>36</b>. Bernard. “Compar. +Morphol. of the Galeodidae,” <i>Trans. Linn. Soc. Zool.</i> vol. vi., 1896, +<i>ibique citata</i>; Dufour, “Galeodes,” <i>Mém. prés. Acad. Sci. Paris</i>, +vol. xvii., 1862; Kraepelin, <i>Das Thierreich</i> (Berlin, 1901); Pocock, +“Taxonomy of Solifugae,” <i>Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. xx.; +<b>37</b>. Balzan, “Voyage au Vénézuela (Pseudoscorpiones),” <i>Ann. Soc. +Entom. France</i>, 1891, pp. 497-522; <b>38</b>. Guérin-Méneville, <i>Rev. Zool.</i>, +1838, p. II; Karsch, “Ueber Cryptostemma Guer.” <i>Berliner entom. +Zeitschrift</i>, xxxviii. pp. 25-32, 1892; Thorell, “On an apparently +new Arachnid belonging to the family <i>Cryptostemmidae</i>,” <i>Westv. +Bihang Svenska Vet. Akad. Handligar</i>, vol. xvii. No. 9, 1892; <b>39</b>. +Hansen and Sorensen, <i>On Two Orders of Arachnida</i> (Cambridge, +1904); Sörensen, “<i>Opiliones laniatores</i>,” <i>Nat. Tidskr.</i> (3) vol. xiv., +1884; Thorell, “Opilioni,” <i>Ann. Mus. Genova</i>, vol. viii., 1876; +<b>40</b>. Berlese, “Acari, &c., in Italia reperta” (Padova, 1892); Canestrini, +<i>Acarofauna Italiana</i> (Padova, 1885); Canestrini and Kramer, +“Demodicidae and Sarcoptidae” in <i>Das Thierreich</i> (Berlin, 1899); +Michael, “British Oribatidae,” <i>Ray Soc.</i>; <i>Idem</i>, “Oribatidae” in +<i>Das Thierreich</i> (Berlin, 1898); <i>Idem</i>, “Progress and Present State +of Knowledge of Acari,” <i>Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc.</i>, 1894; Nalepa, +“Phytoptidae,” <i>Das Thierreich</i> (Berlin, 1898); Trouessart, “Classification +des Acariens,” <i>Rev. Sci. Nat. de l’ouest.</i> p. 289, 1892; Wagner, +<i>Embryonal Entwick, von Ixodes</i> (St Petersburg, 1803); <b>41</b>. Bertkau, +Ph., “Coxaldrusen der Arachniden,” <i>Sitzb. Niederl. Gesellsch.</i>, 1885; +<b>42</b>. Patten, W., “Brain and Sense Organs of Limulus,” <i>Quart. Journ. +Mic. Sci.</i> vol. xxxv., 1894; see also his “Origin of Vertebrates from +Arachnids,” <i>ibid.</i> vol. xxxi.</p> + +<p>Authorities not cited by numbers in the text:—</p> + +<p><b>Lung-books:</b>—Berteaux, “Le Poumon des Arachnides,” <i>La +Cellule</i>, vol. v. 1891; Jawarowski, “Die Entwick. d. sogen. Lunge +bei der Arachniden,” <i>Zeitsch. wiss. Zool.</i> vol. lviii., 1894; Macleod, +“Recherches sur la structure et la signification de l’appareil respiratoire +des Arachnides,” <i>Arch. d. Biologie.</i> vol. v., 1884; Schneider, +A., “Mélanges arachnologiques,” in <i>Tablettes zoologiques</i>, vol. ii. +p. 135, 1892; Simmons, “Development of Lung in Spiders,” +<i>Amer. Journ. Science</i>, vol. xlviii., 1894. <b>Coxal Glands:</b>—Bertkau, +“Ueber die Coxaldrusen der Arachniden,” <i>Sitzb. d. Niederl. Gesellsch.</i>, +1885; Loman, “Altes und neues über das Nephridium (die Coxaldrüse) +der Arachniden,” <i>Bÿd. tot de Dierkunde</i>, vol. xiv., 1887; +Macleod, “Glande coxale chez les Galéodes,” <i>Bull. Acad. Belg.</i> (3) +vol. viii., 1884; Pelseneer, “On the Coxal Glands of Mygale,” <i>Proc. +Zool. Soc.</i>, 1885; Tower, “The External Opening of the brick-red +Glands of Limulus,” <i>Zool. Anzeiger</i>, vol. xviii. p. 471, 1895. +<b>Ento-sternite:</b>—Schimkewitsch, “Bau und Entwick. des Endosternites der +Arachniden,” <i>Zool. Jahrb.</i>, Anal. Abtheil., vol. viii., 1894. <b>Embryology:</b>—Balfour, +“Development of the Araneina,” <i>Q. J. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. xx., +1880; Kingsley, “The Embryology of Limulus,” <i>Journ. Morphology</i>, +vols. vii. and viii.; Kishinouye, “Development of Araneina,” <i>Journ. +Coll. Sci. Univ. of Japan</i>, vol. iv., 1890; Locy, “Development of +Agelena,” <i>Bull. Mus. Harvard</i>, vol. xii., 1885; Metchnikoff, “Embryologie +d. Scorpion,” <i>Zeit. wiss. Zool.</i> vol. xxi., 1871; <i>Idem</i>, +“Embryol. Chelifer,” <i>Zeit. wiss. Zool.</i> vol. xxi., 1871; Schimkewitsch, +“Développement des Araignées,” <i>Archives d. Biologie</i>, vol. vi. +1887. <b>Sense organs:</b>—Bertkau, “Sinnesorgane der Spinnen,” +<i>Arch. f. mikros. Anat.</i> vol. xxvii. p. 589, 1886; Graber, “Unicorneale +Tracheaten Auge,” <i>Arch. f. mikr. Anat.</i> vol. xvii., 1879; +Grenacher, <i>Gehörorgane der Arthropoden</i> (Göttingen, 1879); Kishinouye, +“Lateral Eyes of Spiders,” <i>Zool. Anz.</i> vol. xiv. p. 381, 1891; +Purcell, “Phalangiden Augen,” <i>Zool. Anzeiger</i>, vol. xv. p. 461.</p> + +<p><b>General works on Arachnida:</b>—Blanchard, “Les Arachnides” in +<i>L’Organisation du regne animal</i>; Gaubert, “Recherches sur les +Arachnides,” <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> (7) vol. xiii., 1892; Koch, C., <i>Die +Arachniden</i> (16 vols., Nuremberg, 1831-1848); Koch, Keyserling +and Sörensen, <i>Die Arachniden Australiens</i> (Nuremberg, 1871-1890); +Pocock, <i>Arachnida of British India</i> (London, 1900); <i>Idem</i>, “On +African Arachnida,” in <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> and <i>Ann. and Mag. Nat. +Hist.</i>, 1897-1900; Simon, <i>Les Arachnides de la France</i> (7 vols., +Paris, 1874-1881); Thorell, “Arachnida from the Oriental Region,” +<i>Ann. Mus. Genova</i>, 1877-1899.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. R. L.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arthropoda</a></span> for the use of the term “prosthomere.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft2m" id="ft2m" href="#fa2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See fig. 12 in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arthropoda</a></span>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3m" id="ft3m" href="#fa3m"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Though ten is the prevailing number of +retinula cells and rhabdomeres in the lateral eye of Limulus, +Watase states that they may be as few as nine and as many as eighteen.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4m" id="ft4m" href="#fa4m"><span class="fn">4</span></a> A great deal of superfluous hypothesis has lately been put forward +in the name of “the principle of convergence of characters” by a +certain school of palaeontologists. The horse is supposed by these +writers to have originated by separate lines of descent in the Old +World and the New, from five-toed ancestors! And the important +consequences following from the demonstration of the identity in +structure of Limulus and Scorpio are evaded by arbitrary and +even phantastic invocations of a mysterious transcendental force +which brings about “convergence” irrespective of heredity and +selection. Morphology becomes a farce when such assumptions are +made.</p> +<div class="author">(E. R. L.)</div> + +<p><a name="ft5m" id="ft5m" href="#fa5m"><span class="fn">5</span></a> A pair of round tubercles on the labram (camerostome or hypostoma) +of several species of Trilobites has been described and held to +be a pair of eyes (<b>22</b>). Sense-organs in a similar position were +discovered in Limulus by Patten (<b>42</b>) in 1894.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6m" id="ft6m" href="#fa6m"><span class="fn">6</span></a> The writer is indebted to R.I. Pocock, assistant in the Natural +History departments of the British Museum, for valuable assistance +in the preparation of this article and for the classification and definition +of the groups of Eu-arachnida here given. The general +scheme and some of the details have been brought by the writer into +agreement with the views maintained in this article. Pocock accepts +those views in all essential points and has, as a special student of +the Arachnida, given to them valuable expansion and confirmation. +The writer also desires to express his thanks to Messrs. Macmillan +& Co. for permission to use figs. 22, 43, 44 and 45, which are taken from +Parker and Haswell’s <i>Text-book of Zoology</i>; and to Messrs. Swan +Sonnenschein & Co. for the loan of several figures from the translations +published by them of the admirable treatise on <i>Embryology</i> +by Professors Korschelt and Heider; also to the publishers of the +treatise on <i>Palaeontology</i> by Professor Zittel, Herr Oldenbourg and +The Macmillan Co., New York, for several cuts of extinct forms.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7m" id="ft7m" href="#fa7m"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Pocock suggests that the area marked vii. in the outline figure +of the dorsal view of <i>Limulus</i> (fig. 7) may be the tergum of the +suppressed prae-genital somite. Embryological evidence must settle +whether this is so or not.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARAD,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ó-Arad</span>, a town of Hungary, capital of the county +of the same name, 159 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) +53,903. It is situated on the right bank of the river Maros, and +consists of the inner town and five suburbs. Arad is a modern-built +town, and contains many handsome private and public buildings, +including a cathedral. It is the seat of a Greek-Orthodox +bishop, and possesses a Greek-Orthodox theological seminary, +two training schools for teachers—one Hungarian, and the other +Rumanian—and a conservatoire for music. The town played +an important part in the Hungarian revolution of 1848-49, +and possesses a museum containing relics of this war of independence. +One of the public squares contains a martyrs’ +monument, erected in memory of the thirteen Hungarian +generals shot here on the 6th of October 1849, by order of the +Austrian general Haynau. It consists of a colossal figure of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id="page312"></a>312</span> +Hungary, with four allegorical groups, and medallions of the +executed generals. Arad is an important railway junction, +and has become the largest industrial and commercial centre +of south-eastern Hungary. Its principal industries are: distilling, +milling, machinery-making, leather-working and saw-milling. +A large trade is carried on in grain, flour, alcohol, +cattle and wood. Arad was a fortified place, and was captured +by the Turks during the wars of the 17th century, and kept by +them till the end of that century. The new fortress, built in +1763, although small, was formidable, and played a great role +during the Hungarian struggle for independence in 1849. +Bravely defended by the Austrian general Berger until the +1st of July 1849, it was then captured by the Hungarian rebels, +who made it their headquarters during the latter part of the +insurrection. It was from it that Kossuth issued his famous +proclamation (11th August 1849), and it was here that he handed +over the supreme military and civil power to Görgei. The +fortress was recaptured shortly after the surrender of Görgei +to the Russians at Világos. The fortress is now used as an +ammunition depot.</p> + +<p>The town of Uj-Arad, <i>i.e.</i> New Arad (pop. 6124), situated on +the opposite bank of the Maros, is practically a suburb of Arad, +with which it is connected by a bridge. The town was founded +during the Turkish wars of the 17th century. The works erected +by the Turks for the capture of the fortress of Arad formed +the nucleus of the new town.</p> + +<p>Világos, the town where the famous capitulation of Görgei +to the Russians took place on the 13th of August 1849, lies +21 m. by rail north-east of Arad.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARAEOSTYLE<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="araios">ἀραιός</span>, weak or widely spaced, and <span class="grk" title="stylos">στῦλος</span>, +column), an architectural term for the intercolumniation (<i>q.v.</i>) +given to those temples where the columns had only timber +architraves to carry.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARAEOSYSTYLE<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="araios">ἀραιός</span>, widely spaced, and <span class="grk" title="systylos">σύστυλος</span>, +with columns set close together), an architectural term applied to +a colonnade, in which the intercolumniation (<i>q.v.</i>) is alternately +wide and narrow, as in the case of the western porch of St Paul’s +cathedral and the east front of the Louvre by Perrault.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARAGO, DOMINIQUE FRANÇOIS JEAN<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1786-1853), French +physicist, was born on the 26th of February 1786, at Estagel, a +small village near Perpignan, in the department of the eastern +Pyrenees. He was the eldest of four brothers. Jean (1788-1836) +emigrated to America and became a general in the Mexican +army. Jacques Étienne Victor (1799-1855) took part in L.C. +de S. de Freycinet’s exploring voyage in the “Uranie” from +1817 to 1821, and on his return to France devoted himself to +journalism and the drama. The fourth brother, Étienne Vincent +(1802-1892), is said to have collaborated with H. de Balzac in the +<i>Héritière de Birague</i>, and from 1822 to 1847 wrote a great number +of light dramatic pieces, mostly in collaboration. A strong +republican, he was obliged to leave France in 1849, but returned +after the amnesty of 1859. In 1879 he was nominated director +of the Luxembourg museum.</p> + +<p>Showing decided military tastes François Arago was sent to +the municipal college of Perpignan, where he began to study +mathematics in preparation for the entrance examination of +the polytechnic school. Within two years and a half he had +mastered all the subjects prescribed for examination, and a +great deal more, and, on going up for examination at Toulouse, +he astounded his examiner by his knowledge of Lagrange. +Towards the close of 1803 he entered the polytechnic school, +with the artillery service as the aim of his ambition, and in 1804, +through the advice and recommendation of S.D. Poisson, he +received the appointment of secretary to the Observatory of +Paris. He now became acquainted with Laplace, and through +his influence was commissioned, with J.B. Biot, to complete +the meridional measurements which had been begun by J.B.J. +Delambre, and interrupted since the death of P.F.A. Méchain +(1744-1804). The two left Paris in 1806 and began operations +among the mountains of Spain, but Biot returned to Paris +after they had determined the latitude of Formentera, the +southernmost point to which they were to carry the survey, +leaving Arago to make the geodetical connexion of Majorca +with Ivica and with Formentera.</p> + +<p>The adventures and difficulties of the latter were now only +beginning. The political ferment caused by the entrance of +the French into Spain extended to these islands, and the ignorant +populace began to suspect that Arago’s movements and his +blazing fires on the top of Mount Galatzo were telegraphic +signals to the invading army. Ultimately they became so infuriated +that he was obliged to cause himself to be incarcerated +in the fortress of Belver in June 1808. On the 28th of July he +managed to escape from the island in a fishing-boat, and after +an adventurous voyage he reached Algiers on the 3rd of August. +Thence he procured a passage in a vessel bound for Marseilles, +but on the 16th of August, just as the vessel was nearing Marseilles, +it fell into the hands of a Spanish corsair. With the rest +of the crew, Arago was taken to Rosas, and imprisoned first in +a windmill, and afterwards in the fortress of that seaport, until +the town fell into the hands of the French, when the prisoners +were transferred to Palamos. After fully three months’ imprisonment +they were released on the demand of the dey of Algiers, +and again set sail for Marseilles on the 28th of November, but +when within sight of their port they were driven back by a +northerly wind to Bougie on the coast of Africa. Transport +to Algiers by sea from this place would have occasioned a weary +stay of three months; Arago, therefore, set out for it by land +under conduct of a Mahommedan priest, and reached it on +Christmas day. After six months’ stay in Algiers he once again, +on the 21st of June 1809, set sail for Marseilles, where he had to +undergo a monotonous and inhospitable quarantine in the +lazaretto, before his difficulties were over. The first letter he +received, while in the lazaretto, was from A. von Humboldt; +and this was the origin of a connexion which, in Arago’s words, +“lasted over forty years without a single cloud ever having +troubled it.”</p> + +<p>Through all these vicissitudes Arago had succeeded in preserving +the records of his survey; and his first act on his return +home was to deposit them in the Bureau des Longitudes at +Paris. As a reward for his adventurous conduct in the cause +of science, he was in September 1809 elected a member of the +Academy of Sciences, in room of J.B.L. Lalande, at the remarkably +early age of twenty-three, and before the close of +the same year he was chosen by the council of the polytechnic +school to succeed G. Monge in the chair of analytical geometry. +About the same time he was named by the emperor one of the +astronomers of the Royal Observatory, which was accordingly +his residence till his death, and it was in this capacity that he +delivered his remarkably successful series of popular lectures +on astronomy, which were continued from 1812 to 1845.</p> + +<p>In 1816, along with Gay-Lussac, he started the <i>Annales de +chimie et de physique</i>, and in 1818 or 1819 he proceeded along +with Biot to execute geodetic operations on the coasts of France, +England and Scotland. They measured the length of the +seconds-pendulum at Leith, and in Unst, one of the Shetland +isles, the results of the observations being published in 1821, +along with those made in Spain. Arago was elected a member +of the Board of Longitude immediately afterwards, and contributed +to each of its <i>Annuals</i>, for about twenty-two years, +important scientific notices on astronomy and meteorology +and occasionally on civil engineering, as well as interesting +memoirs of members of the Academy.</p> + +<p>In 1830, Arago, who always professed liberal opinions of the +extreme republican type, was elected a member of the chamber +of deputies for the Lower Seine, and he employed his splendid +gifts of eloquence and scientific knowledge in all questions connected +with public education, the rewards of inventors, and the +encouragement of the mechanical and practical sciences. Many +of the most creditable national enterprises, dating from this +period, are due to his advocacy—such as the reward to L.J.M. +Daguerre for the invention of photography, the grant for +the publication of the works of P. Fermat and Laplace, +the acquisition of the museum of Cluny, the development +of railways and electric telegraphs, the improvement of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313"></a>313</span> +navigation of the Seine, and the boring of the artesian wells at +Grenelle.</p> + +<p>In the year 1830 also he was appointed director of the Observatory, and +as a member of the chamber of deputies he was able to obtain grants of +money for rebuilding it in part, and for the addition of magnificent +instruments. In the same year, too, he was chosen perpetual secretary of +the Academy of Sciences, in room of J.B.J. Fourier. Arago threw his +whole soul into its service, and by his faculty of making friends he +gained at once for it and for himself a world-wide reputation. As +perpetual secretary it fell to him to pronounce historical <i>éloges</i> on +deceased members; and for this duty his rapidity and facility of +thought, his happy piquancy of style, and his extensive knowledge +peculiarly adapted him.</p> + +<p>In 1834 he again visited England, to attend the meeting of the British +Association at Edinburgh. From this time till 1848 he led a life of +comparative quiet—not the quiet of inactivity, however, for his +incessant labours within the Academy and the Observatory produced a +multitude of contributions to all departments of physical science,—but +on the fall of Louis Philippe he left his laboratory to join in forming +the provisional government. He was entrusted with the discharge of two +important functions, that had never before been united in one person, +viz. the ministry of war and of marine; and in the latter capacity he +effected some salutary reforms, such as the improvement of rations in +the navy and the abolition of flogging. He also abolished political +oaths of all kinds, and, against an array of moneyed interests, +succeeded in procuring the abolition of negro slavery in the French +colonies.</p> + +<p>In the beginning of May 1852, when the government of Louis Napoleon +required an oath of allegiance from all its functionaries, Arago +peremptorily refused, and sent in his resignation of his post as +astronomer at the Bureau des Longitudes. This, however, the prince +president, to his credit, declined to accept, and made “an exception in +favour of a <i>savant</i> whose works had thrown lustre on France, and whose +existence his government would regret to embitter.” But the tenure of +office thus granted did not prove of long duration. Arago was now on his +death-bed, under a complication of diseases, induced, no doubt, by the +hardships and labours of his earlier years. In the summer of 1853 he was +advised by his physicians to try the effect of his native air, and he +accordingly set out for the eastern Pyrenees. But the change was +unavailing, and after a lingering illness, in which he suffered first +from diabetes, then from Bright’s disease, complicated by dropsy, he +died in Paris on the 2nd of October 1853.</p> + +<p>Arago’s fame as an experimenter and discoverer rests mainly on his +contributions to magnetism and still more to optics. He found that a +magnetic needle, made to oscillate over nonferruginous surfaces, such as +water, glass, copper, &c., falls more rapidly in the extent of its +oscillations according as it is more or less approached to the surface. +This discovery, which gained him the Copley medal of the Royal Society +in 1825, was followed by another, that a rotating plate of copper tends +to communicate its motion to a magnetic needle suspended over it +(“magnetism of rotation”). Arago is also fairly entitled to be regarded +as having proved the long-suspected connexion between the aurora +borealis and the variations of the magnetic elements.</p> + +<p>In optics we owe to him not only important optical discoveries of his +own, but the credit of stimulating the genius of A.J. Fresnel, with +whose history, as well as with that of E.L. Malus and of Thomas Young, +this part of his life is closely interwoven. Shortly after the beginning +of the 19th century the labours of these three philosophers were shaping +the modern doctrine of the undulatory theory of light. Fresnel’s +arguments in favour of that theory found little favour with Laplace, +Poisson and Biot, the champions of the emission theory; but they were +ardently espoused by Humboldt and by Arago, who had been appointed by +the Academy to report on the paper. This was the foundation of an +intimate friendship between Arago and Fresnel, and of a determination to +carry on together further researches in this subject, which led to the +enunciation of the fundamental laws of the polarization of light known +by their names (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Polarization</a></span>). As a result of this work Arago +constructed a <i>polariscope</i>, which he used for some interesting +observations on the polarization of the light of the sky. To him is also +due the discovery of the power of <i>rotatory polarization</i> exhibited by +quartz, and last of all, among his many contributions to the support of +the undulatory hypothesis, comes the <i>experimentum crucis</i> which he +proposed to carry out for comparing directly the velocity of light in +air and in water or glass. On the emission theory the velocity should be +accelerated by an increase of density in the medium; on the wave theory, +it should be retarded. In 1838 he communicated to the Academy the +details of his apparatus, which utilized the revolving mirrors employed +by Sir C. Wheatstone in 1835 for measuring the velocity of the electric +discharge; but owing to the great care required in the carrying out of +the project, and to the interruption to his labours caused by the +revolution of 1848, it was the spring of 1850 before he was ready to put +his idea to the test; and then his eyesight suddenly gave way. Before +his death, however, the retardation of light in denser media was +demonstrated by the experiments of H.L. Fizeau and J.B.L. Foucault, +which, with improvements in detail, were based on the plan proposed by +him.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Arago’s <i>Œuvres</i> were published after his death under the direction of +J.A. Barral, in 17 vols., 8vo, 1854-1862; also separately his +<i>Astronomie populaire</i>, in 4 vols.; <i>Notices biographiques</i>, in 3 vols.; +<i>Notices scientifiques</i>, in 5 vols.; <i>Voyages scientifiques</i>, in 1 vol.; +<i>Mémoires scientifiques</i>, in 2 vols.; <i>Mélanges</i>, in 1 vol.; and <i>Tables +analytiques et documents importants</i> (with portrait), in 1 vol. English +translations of the following portions of his works have +appeared:—<i>Treatise on Comets</i>, by C. Gold, C.B. (London, 1833); also +translated by Smyth and Grant (London, 1861); <i>Hist. éloge of James +Watt</i>, by James Muirhead (London, 1839); also translated, with notes, by +Lord Brougham; <i>Popular Lectures on Astronomy</i>, by Walter Kelly and Rev. +L. Tomlinson (London, 1854); also translated by Dr W.H. Smyth and Prof. +R. Grant, 2 vols. (London, 1855); <i>Arago’s Autobiography</i>, translated by +the Rev. Baden Powell (London, 1855, 1858); <i>Arago’s Meteorological +Essays</i>, with introduction by Humboldt, translated under the +superintendence of Colonel Sabine (London, 1855), and <i>Arago’s +Biographies of Scientific Men</i>, translated by Smyth, Powell and Grant, +8vo (London, 1857).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARAGON,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Arragon</span> (in Span. <i>Aragón</i>), a captaincy-general, and +formerly a kingdom of Spain; bounded on the N. by the Pyrenees, which +separate it from France, on the E. by Catalonia and Valencia, S. by +Valencia, and W. by the two Castiles and Navarre. Pop. (1900) 912,711; +area, 18,294 sq. m. Aragon was divided in 1833 into the provinces of +Huesca, Teruel and Saragossa; an account of its modern condition is +therefore given under these names, which have not, however, superseded +the older designation in popular usage.</p> + +<p>Aragon consists of a central plain, edged by mountain ranges. On the +south, east and west, these ranges, though wild and rugged, are of no +great elevation, but on the north the Pyrenees attain their greatest +altitude in the peaks of Aneto (11,168 ft.) and Monte Perdido (10,998 +ft.)—also known as Las Tres Sorores, and, in French, as Mont Perdu. The +central pass over the Pyrenees is the Port de Canfranc, on the line +between Saragossa and Pau. Aragon is divided by the river Ebro (<i>q.v.</i>), +which flows through it in a south-easterly direction, into two nearly +equal parts, known as Trans-ibero and Cis-ibero. The Ebro is the +principal river, and receives from the north, in its passage through the +province, the Arba, the Gallego and the united waters of the Cinca, +Esera, Noguera Ribagorzana, Noguera Pallaresa and Segre—the last three +belonging to Catalonia. From the south it receives the Jalon and Jiloca +(or <i>Xalon</i> and <i>Xiloca</i>) and the Guadalope. The Imperial Canal of +Aragon, which was begun by the emperor Charles V. in 1529, but remained +unfinished for nearly two hundred years, extends from Tudela to El Burgo +de Ebro, a distance of 80 m.; it has a depth of 9 ft., and an average +breadth of 69, and is navigable for vessels of about 80 tons. The Royal +Canal of Tauste, which lies along the north side of the Ebro, was cut +for purposes of irrigation, and gives fertility to the district. Two +leagues north-north-east of Albarracin is the remarkable fountain called +Cella, 3700 ft. above the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page314" id="page314"></a>314</span> +sea, which forms the source of the Jiloca; and between this river +and the Sierra Molina is an extensive lake called Gallocanta, +covering about 6000 acres. The climate is characterized by +extreme heat in the summer and cold in the winter; among the +mountains the snowfall is heavy, and thunderstorms are frequent, +but there is comparatively little rain.</p> + +<p>Within a recent geological period, central Aragon was +undoubtedly submerged by the sea, and the parched chalky soil +remains saturated with salt, while many of the smaller streams +run brackish. As the mountains of Valencia and Catalonia +effectually bar out the fertilizing moisture of the sea-winds, +much of the province is a sheer wilderness, stony, ash-coloured, +scarred with dry watercourses, and destitute of any vegetation +except thin grass and heaths. In contrast with the splendid +fertility of Valencia or the south of France, the landscape of +this region, like the rest of central Spain, seems almost a continuation +of the north African desert area. There are, however, +extensive oak, pine and beech forests in the highlands, and many +beautiful oases in the deeply sunk valleys, and along the rivers, +especially beside the Ebro, which is, therefore, often called the +“Nile of Aragon.” In such oases the flora is exceedingly rich. +Wheat, maize, rice, oil, flax and hemp, of fine quality, are grown +in considerable quantities; as well as saffron, madder, liquorice, +sumach, and a variety of fruits. Merino wool is one of the chief +products.</p> + +<p>In purity of race the Aragonese are probably equal to the +Castilians, to whom, rather than to the Catalans or Valencians, +they are also allied in character. The dress of the women is less +distinctive than that of the men, who wear a picturesque black +and white costume, with knee-breeches, a brilliantly coloured +sash, black hempen sandals, and a handkerchief wound round +the head.</p> + +<p>Three counties—Sobrarbe, situated near the headwaters of +the Cinca, Aragon, to the west, and Ribagorza or Ribagorça, +to the east—are indicated by tradition and the earliest chronicles +as the cradle of the Aragonese monarchy. These districts were +never wholly subdued when the Moors overran the country +(711-713). Sobrarbe especially was for a time the headquarters +of the Christian defence in eastern Spain. About 1035, +Sancho III. the Great, ruler of the newly established kingdom +of Navarre, which included the three counties above mentioned, +bequeathed them to Gonzalez and Ramiro, his sons. Ramiro +soon rid himself of his rival, and welded Sobrarbe, Ribagorza +and Aragon into a single kingdom, which thenceforward grew +rapidly in size and power and shared with Castile the chief part +in the struggle against the Moors. The history of this period, +which was terminated by the union of Castile and Aragon under +Ferdinand and Isabella in 1479, is given, along with a full account +of the very interesting constitution of Aragon, under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spain</a></span> +(<i>q.v.</i>). At the height of its power under James I. (1213-1276), +the kingdom included Valencia, Catalonia, the Balearic Islands +and the considerable territory of Montpellier in France; while +Peter III. (1276-1285) added Sicily to his dominions.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The literature relating to Aragon is very extensive. See, in +addition to the works cited in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spain</a></span> (section <i>History</i>), +“Les Archives d’Aragon et de Navarre,” by L. Cadier, in <i>Bibliothèque +de l’École des Chartes</i>, 49 (Paris, 1888). Among the more important +original authorities, the following may be selected:—for general +history, <i>Anales de la corona de Aragón</i>, by G. Çurita, 3rd ed. in 7 +folio volumes (Saragossa, 1668-1671; 1st ed. 1562-1580);—for +ecclesiastical history, <i>Teatro histórico de las iglesias de Aragón</i> +(Pamplona, 1770-1807); for economic history, <i>História de la +economia politica de Aragón</i>, by I.J. de Asso y del Rio (Saragossa, +1798). For the constitution and laws of Aragon, see <i>Orígines del +Justicia de Aragón</i>, &c., by J. Ribera Tarrago (Saragossa, 1897), and +<i>Instituciones y reyes de Aragón</i>, by V. Balaguér (Madrid, 1896). The +topography, inhabitants, art, products, &c., of the kingdom are +described in a volume of the series <i>España</i> entitled <i>Aragón</i>, by J.M. +Quadrado (Barcelona, 1886).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARAGONITE,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> one of the mineral forms of calcium carbonate +(CaCO<span class="su">3</span>), the other form being the more common mineral calcite. +It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, and the crystals are +either prismatic or acicular in habit. Simple crystals are, however, +rare; twinning on the prism planes (<i>M</i> in the figures) +being a characteristic feature of the mineral (fig. 1). This +twinning is usually often repeated on the same plane (fig. 2), +and gives rise to striations on the terminal faces (<i>k</i>) of the +crystals; often, also, three crystals are twinned together on +two of the prism planes of one of them, producing an apparently +hexagonal prism. The mineral is colourless, white or yellowish, +transparent or translucent, has a vitreous lustre, and, in fact, is +not unlike calcite in general appearance. It may, however, +always be readily distinguished from calcite by the absence of +any marked cleavage, and by its greater hardness (H. = 3½ − 4) +and specific gravity (2.93); further, it is optically biaxial, whilst +calcite is uniaxial. It is brittle and has a subconchoidal fracture; +on a fractured surface the lustre is decidedly resinous in character.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:285px; height:216px" src="images/img314.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The mineral was first found, as reddish twinned crystals with +the form of six-sided prisms, at Molina in Aragon, Spain, where +it occurs with gypsum and +small crystals of ferruginous +quartz in a red clay. It is +from this locality that the +mineral takes its name, +which was originally spelt +arragonite. Fine groups of +crystals of the same habit +are found in the sulphur +deposits of Girgenti in +Sicily; also at Herrengrund +near Neusohl in +Hungary. At many other +localities the mineral takes the form of radiating groups of +acicular crystals, such as those from the haematite mines of +west Cumberland: beautiful feathery forms have been found +in a limestone cave in the Transvaal. Fibrous forms are also +common. A peculiar coralloidal variety known as <i>flosferri</i> +(“flower of iron”) consists of radially arranged fibres: +magnificent snow-white specimens of this variety have long +been known from the iron mines of Eisenetz in Styria. The +calcareous secretions of many groups of invertebrate animals +consist of aragonite (calcite is also common); pearls may be +specially cited as an example.</p> + +<p>Aragonite is a member of the isomorphous group of minerals +comprising witherite (BaCO<span class="su">3</span>), strontianite (SrCO<span class="su">3</span>), cerussite +(PbCO<span class="su">3</span>) and bromlite ((Ba, Ca)CO<span class="su">3</span>); and crystals of aragonite +sometimes contain small amounts of strontium or lead. A +variety known as tarnowitzite, from Tarnowitz in Silesia, +contains about 5% of lead carbonate.</p> + +<p>Aragonite is the more unstable of the two modifications of +calcium carbonate. A crystal of aragonite when heated becomes +converted into a granular aggregate of calcite individuals: +altered crystals of this kind (paramorphs) are not infrequently +met with in nature, whilst in fossil shells the original nacreous +layer of aragonite has invariably been altered to calcite. From +a solution of calcium carbonate in water containing carbon +dioxide crystals of calcite are deposited at the ordinary temperature, +but from a warm solution aragonite crystallizes +out. The thermal springs of Carlsbad deposit spherical +concretions of aragonite, forming masses known as pisolite or +<i>Sprudelstein</i>.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARAGUA,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> one of the smaller states of Venezuela under the +redivision of 1904, lying principally within the parallel ranges +of the Venezuelan Cordillera, and comprising some of the most +fertile and healthful valleys of the republic. It is bounded E. +by the Federal District and Maturin, S. by Guárico and W. by +Zamora and Carabobo. Pop. (1905, est.) 152,364. Aragua +has a short coast-line on the Caribbean west of the Federal +District, but has no port of consequence. Cattle, swine and goats +are raised, and the state produces coffee, sugar, cacao, beans, +cereals and cheese. The climate of the higher valleys is subtropical, +the mean annual temperature ranging from 74° to 80° F. +The capital, La Victoria (pop. 7800), is situated in the fertile +Aragua valley, 1558 ft. above sea-level and 36 m. south-west of +Carácas. Other important towns are Barbacoas (pop. 13,109) on +the left bank of the Guarico in a highly fertile region, Ciudad +de Cura and Maracay (pop. 7500), 56 m. west-south-west of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page315" id="page315"></a>315</span> +Carácas near the north-east shore of Lake Valencia. The last +two towns are on the railway between Carácas and Valencia.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARAGUAYA,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> <span class="sc">Araguay</span> or <span class="sc">Araguia</span>, a river of Brazil and +principal affluent of the Tocantins, rising in the Serra do Cayapó, +where it is known as the Rio Grande, and flowing in a north by +east direction to a junction with the Tocantins at Sao Joao do +Araguaya, or Sao Joao das Duas Barras. Its upper course forms +the boundary line between Goyaz and Matto Grosso. The river +divides into two branches at about 13° 20′ S. lat., and unites again +at 10° 30′, forming the large island of Santa Anna or Bananal. +The eastern branch, called the Furo, is the one used by boats, +as the main channel is obstructed by rapids. Its principal +affluent is the Rio das Mortes, which rises in the Serra de Sao +Jeronymo, near Cuyabá, Matto Grosso, and is utilized by +boatmen going to Pará. Of other affluents, the Bonito, Garças, +Cristallino and Tapirapé on the west, and the Pitombas, Claro, +Vermelho, Tucupá and Chavante on the east, nothing definite is +known as the country is still largely unexplored. The Araguaya +has a course of 1080 m., considerable stretches of which are +navigable for small river steamers, but as the river below Santa +Anna Island is interrupted by reefs and rapids in two places—one +having a fall of 85 ft. in 18 m., and the other a fall of 50 ft. +in 12 m.—it affords no practicable outlet for the products of +the state. It was explored in part by Henri Coudreau in 1897.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Coudreau’s <i>Voyage au Tocantins-Araguaya</i> (Paris, 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARAKAN,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> a division of Lower Burma. It consists of a strip +of country running along the eastern seaboard of the Bay of +Bengal, from the Naaf estuary, on the borders of Chittagong, +to Cape Negrais. Length from northern extremity to Cape +Negrais, about 400 m.; greatest breadth in the northern part, +90 m., gradually diminishing towards the south, as it is hemmed +in by the Arakan Yoma mountains, until, in the extreme south, +it tapers away to a narrow strip not more than 15 m. across. +The coast is studded with islands, the most important of which +are Cheduba, Ramree and Shahpura. The division has its headquarters +at Akyab and consists of four districts—namely, Akyab, +Northern Arakan Hill Tracts, Sandoway and Kyaukpyu, +formerly called Ramree. Its area is 18,540 sq. m. The population +at the time of the British occupation in 1826 did not exceed +100,000. In 1831 it amounted to 173,000; in 1839 to 248,000, +and in 1901 to 762,102.</p> + +<p>The principal rivers of Arakan are—(1) the Naaf estuary, in +the north, which forms the boundary between the division and +Chittagong; (2) the Myu river, an arm of the sea, running a +course almost parallel with the coast for about 50 m.; (3) the +Koladaing river, rising near the Blue mountain, in the extreme +north-east, and falling into the Bay of Bengal a few miles south +of the Myu river, navigable by vessels of from 300 to 400 tons +burden for a distance of 40 m. inland; and (4) the Lemyu river, +a considerable stream falling into the bay a few miles south of +the Koladaing. Farther to the south, owing to the nearness +of the range which bounds Arakan on the east, the rivers are of +but little importance. These are the Talak and the Aeng, +navigable by boats; and the Sandoway, the Taungup and the +Gwa streams, the latter of which alone has any importance, +owing to its mouth forming a good port of call or haven for +vessels of from 9 to 10 ft. draught. There are several passes over +the Yoma mountains, the easiest being that called the Aeng +route, leading from the village of that name into Upper Burma. +The staple crop of the province is rice, along with cotton, tobacco, +sugar, hemp and indigo. The forests produce abundance of +excellent oak and teak timber.</p> + +<p>The natives of Arakan trace their history as far back as +2666 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and give a lineal succession of 227 native princes down +to modern times. According to them, their empire had at one +period far wider limits, and extended over Ava, part of China, +and a portion of Bengal. This extension of their empire is not, +however, corroborated by known facts in history. At different +times the Moguls and Pegus carried their arms into the heart of +the country. The Portuguese, during the era of their greatness +in Asia, gained a temporary establishment in Arakan; but in +1782 the province was finally conquered by the Burmese, from +which period until its cession to the British in 1826, under the +treaty of Yandaboo, its history forms part of that of Burma. +The old city of Arakan, formerly the capital of the province, is +situated on an inferior branch of the Koladaing river. Its +remoteness from the ports and harbours of the country, combined +with the extreme unhealthiness of its situation, have led +to its gradual decay subsequently to the formation of the comparatively +recent settlement of Akyab, which place is now the +chief town of the province. The old city (now Myohaung) lies 50 +m. north-east of Akyab. The Maghs, who form nearly the whole +population of the province, follow the Buddhist doctrines, which +are universally professed throughout Burma. The priests are +selected from all classes of men, and one of their chief employments +is the education of children. Instruction is consequently +widely diffused, and few persons, it is said, can be found in the +province who are unable to read. The qualifications for entering +into the priestly order are good conduct and a fair measure of +learning—such conduct at least as is good according to Buddhist +tenets, and such learning as is esteemed among their votaries.</p> + +<p>The Arakanese are of Burmese origin, but separated from the +parent stock by the Arakan Yoma mountains, and they have +a dialect and customs of their own. Though conquered by the +Burmese, they have remained distinct from their conquerors.</p> + +<p>The Northern Arakan Hill Tracts district is under a superintendent, +who is usually a police officer, with headquarters +at Paletwa. The area of the Hill Tracts is 5233 sq. m.; pop. +(1901) 20,682.</p> +<div class="author">(J. G. Sc.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARAKCHEEV, ALEKSYEI ANDREEVICH,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1769-1834), +Russian soldier and statesman, was descended from an +ancient family of Great Novgorod. From his mother, Elizabeth +Vitlitsaya, he inherited most of his characteristics, an insatiable +love of work, an almost pedantic love of order and the most +rigorous sense of duty. In 1788 he entered the corps of noble +cadets in the artillery and engineering department, where his +ability, especially in mathematics, soon attracted attention. +In July 1791 he was made an adjutant on the staff of Count +N.I. Saltuikov, who (September 1792) recommended him to +the cesarevich Paul Petrovich as the artillery officer most capable +of reorganizing the army corps maintained by the prince at +Gatchina. Arakcheev speedily won the entire confidence of +Paul by his scrupulous zeal and undeniable technical ability. +His inexorable discipline (magnified into cruelty by later legends) +soon made the Gatchina corps a model for the rest of the +Russian army. On the accession of Paul to the throne Arakcheev +was promptly summoned to St Petersburg, appointed +military commandant in the capital, and major-general in the +grenadier battalion of the Preobrazhenskoe Guard. On the +12th of December 1796, he received the ribbon of St Anne and +a rich estate at Gruzina in the government of Novgorod, the +only substantial gift ever accepted by him during the whole of +his career. At the coronation (5th of April 1797) Paul created +him a baron, and he was subsequently made quartermaster-general +and colonel of the whole Preobrazhenskoe Guard. It +was to Arakcheev that Paul entrusted the reorganization of the +army, which during the latter days of Catherine had fallen into +a state of disorder and demoralization. Arakcheev remorselessly +applied the iron Gatchina discipline to the whole of the imperial +forces, beginning with the Guards. He soon became generally +detested by the army, but pursued his course unflinchingly +and introduced many indispensable hygienic reforms. “Clean +barracks are healthy barracks,” was his motto. Nevertheless, +the opposition of the officers proved too strong for him, and on +the 18th of March 1798 he was dismissed from all his appointments. +Arakcheev’s first disgrace only lasted six months. On +the 11th of August he was received back into favour, speedily +reinstated in all his former offices, and on the 5th of May 1799 +was created a count, the emperor himself selecting the motto: +“Devoted, not servile.” Five months later he was again in +disgrace, the emperor dismissing him on the strength of a +denunciation subsequently proved to be false. It was a fatal +step on Paul’s part, for everything goes to prove that he would +never have been assassinated had Arakcheev continued by his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page316" id="page316"></a>316</span> +side. During the earlier years of Alexander, Arakcheev was +completely overlooked. Only on the 27th of April 1803, was +the count recalled to St Petersburg, and employed as inspector-general +of the artillery. His wise and thorough reorganization +of the whole department contributed essentially to the victories +of the Russians during the Napoleonic wars. All critics agree, +indeed, that the Arakcheev administration was the golden era +of the Russian artillery. The activity of the inexhaustible +inspector knew no bounds, and he neglected nothing which +could possibly improve this arm. His principal reforms were +the subdivision of the artillery divisions into separate independent +units, the formation of artillery brigades, the establishment +of a committee of instruction (1808), and the publishing +of an <i>Artillery Journal</i>. At Austerlitz he had the satisfaction +of witnessing the actual results of his artillery reforms. The +commissariat scandals which came to light after the peace of +Tilsit convinced the emperor that nothing short of the stern and +incorruptible energy of Arakcheev could reach the sources of +the evil, and in January 1808 he was appointed inspector-general +and war minister. When, on the outbreak of the Swedish war +of 1809, the emperor ordered the army to take advantage of an +unusually severe frost and cross the ice of the Gulf of Finland, +it was only the presence of Arakcheev that compelled an unwilling +general and a semi-mutinous army to begin a campaign +which ended in the conquest of Finland. On the institution of +the “Imperial Council” (1st of January 1810), Arakcheev was +made a member of the council of ministers and a senator, while +still retaining the war office. Subsequently Alexander was +alienated from him owing to the intrigues of the count’s enemies, +who hated him for his severity and regarded him as a dangerous +reactionary. The alienation was not, however, for long. It is +true, Arakcheev took no active part in the war of 1812, but +all the correspondence and despatches relating to it passed +through his hands, and he was the emperor’s inseparable companion +during the whole course of it. At Paris (31st of March +1814) Alexander, with his own hand, wrote the <i>ukaz</i> appointing +him a field-marshal, but he refused the dignity, accepting, +instead, a miniature portrait of his master. From this time +Alexander’s confidence in Arakcheev steadily increased, and +the emperor imparted to him, first of all, his many projects of +reform, especially his project of military colonies, the carrying +out of the details of which was committed to Arakcheev (1824). +The failure of the scheme was due not to any fault of the count, +but to the inefficiency and insubordination of the district +officers. In Alexander’s last years Arakcheev was not merely +his chief counsellor, but his dearest friend, to whom he submitted +all his projects for consideration and revision. The most interesting +of these projects was the plan for the emancipation of the +peasantry (1818). On the accession of Nicholas I., Arakcheev, +thoroughly broken in health, gradually restricted his immense +sphere of activity, and on the 26th of April 1826, resigned all his +offices and retired to Carlsbad. The 50,000 roubles presented +to him by the emperor as a parting gift he at once handed to +the Pavlovsk Institute for the education of the daughters of +poor gentlemen. His last days he spent on his estate at Gruzina, +carefully collecting all his memorials of Alexander, whose memory +he most piously cherished. He also set aside 25,000 roubles for +the author of the best biography of his imperial friend. Arakcheev +died on the 21st of April 1834, with his eyes fixed to the +last on the late emperor’s portrait. “I have now done everything,” +he said, “so I can go and make my report to the emperor +Alexander.” In 1806 he had married Natalia Khomutova, but +they lived apart, and he had no children by her.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Vasily Ratch, <i>Memorials of Count Arakcheev</i> (Rus.) (St Petersburg, +1864); Mikhail Ivanovich Semevsky, <i>Count Arakcheev and +the Military Colonies</i> (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1871); Theodor Schiemann, +<i>Gesch. Russland’s unter Kaiser Nikolaus I.</i>, vol. i., <i>Alexander +I.</i>, &c. (Berlin, 1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">ARAL,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> a lake or inland sea in the west of Asia, situated +between lat. 43° 30′ and 46° 51′ N., and long. 58° 13′ and +61° 56′ E. It was known to the ancient Arab and Persian +geographers as the Sea of Khwārizm or Kharezm, from the neighbouring +district of the Chorasmians, and derives its present name +from the Kirghiz designation of Aral-denghiz, or Sea of Islands. +In virtue of its area (26,233 sq. m.) it is the fourth largest inland +sea of the world. It has nearly the same length as width, +namely about 170 m., if its northern gulf (Kichkineh-denghiz) +is left out of account. Its depth is insignificant, the maximum +being 220 ft. in a depression in the north-west, and the mean +depth only 50 ft., so that notwithstanding its area it contains +only eleven times as much water as the Lake of Geneva. Its +altitude is 242½ ft. above the Caspian, <i>i.e.</i> about 155 ft. above +the ocean. The lake is surrounded on the north by steppes; on +the west by the rocky plateau of Ust-Urt, which separates it from +the Caspian; on the south by the alluvial district of Khiva; and +on the east by the Kyzyl-kum, or Red Sand Desert. On the north +the shores are comparatively low, and the coast-line is broken by +a number of irregular bays, of which the most important are +those of Sary-chaganak and Paskevich. On the west an almost +unbroken wall of rock extends from Chernychev Bay southwards, +rising towards the middle to 500 ft. The southern coast +is occupied by the delta of the Oxus (Jīhūn, Amu-darya), one +of the arms of which, the Laudan, forms a swamp, 80 m. long +and 20 broad, before it discharges into the sea. The only +other tributary of any size that the sea receives is the Jaxartes +(Sihun, Syr-darya) which enters towards the northern extremity +of the east coast, and is suspected to be shifting its embouchure +more and more to the north. This river, as well as the Amu, +conveys vast quantities of sediment into the lake; the delta +of the Syr-darya increased by 13¾ sq. m. between 1847 and 1900. +The eastern coast is fringed with multitudes of small islands, +and other islands, some of considerable size, are situated in the +open towards the north and west. Kug-Aral, the largest, lies +opposite the mouth of the Syr-darya, cutting off the Kichkineh-denghiz +or Little Sea. The next largest island is the Nikolai, +nearly in the middle. Navigation is dangerous owing to the +frequency and violence of the storms, and the almost total +absence of shelter. The north-east wind is the most prevalent, +and sometimes blows for months together. The only other +craft, except the steamships of the Russians, that venture on +the waters, are the flat-bottomed boats of the Kirghiz.</p> + +<p>In regard to the period of the formation of the Aral there were +formerly two theories. According to Sir H.C. Rawlinson +(<i>Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc.</i>, March 1867) the disturbances which +produced the present lake took place in the course of the middle +ages; while Sir Roderick Murchison contended (<i>Journ. of Roy. +Geog. Soc.</i>, 1867, p. cxliv. &c.) that the Caspian and Aral existed +as separate seas before and during all the historic period, and +that the main course of the rivers Jaxartes and Oxus was determined +in a prehistoric era. The former based his opinion largely +on historical evidence, and the latter trusted principally to +geological data. There is no doubt that in recent historical +times Lake Aral had a much greater extension than it has at the +present time, and that its area is now diminishing. This is, of +course, due to the excess of evaporation over the amount of +water supplied by its two feeders, the Amu-darya and the Syr-darya, +both of which are seriously drawn upon for irrigation in +all the oases they flow through. Old shore lines and other +indications point to the level of the lake having once been 50 ft. +above the existing level. Nevertheless the general desiccation +is subject to temporary fluctuations, which appear to correspond +to the periods recently suggested by Eduard Brückner +(b. 1862); for, whereas the lake diminished and shrank during +1850-1880, since the latter year it has been rising again. Islands +which were formerly connected with the shore are now some +distance away from it and entirely surrounded by water. Moreover, +on a graduated level, put down in 1874, there was a permanent +rise of nearly 4 ft. by 1901. The temperature at the +bottom was found (1900-1902) by Emil Berg to be 33.8° Fahr., +while that of the surface varied from 44.5° to 80.5° between +May and September; the mean surface temperature for July +was 75°. The salinity of the water is much less than that of +the ocean, containing only 1.05% of salt, and the lake freezes +every year for a great distance from its shores. The opinion +that Lake Aral periodically disappeared, which was for a long +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page317" id="page317"></a>317</span> +time countenanced by Western geographers, loses more and +more probability now that it is evident that at a relatively +recent period the Caspian Sea extended much farther eastward +than it does now, and that Lake Aral communicated with it +through the Sary-kamysh depression. The present writer is +even inclined to think that, besides this southern communication +with the Caspian, Lake Aral may have been, even in historical +times, connected with the Mortvyi Kultuk (Tsarevich) Gulf of +the Caspian, discharging part of its water into that sea through +a depression of the Ust-Urt plateau, which is marked by a chain +of lakes (Chumyshty, Asmantai). In this case it might have +been easily confounded with a gulf of the Caspian (as by Jenkinson). +That the level of Lake Aral was much higher in post-Pliocene +times is proved by the discovery of shells of its characteristic +species of <i>Pecten</i> and <i>Mytilus</i> in the Kara-kum Desert, +33 m. south of the lake and at an altitude of 70 ft. above its +present level, and perhaps even up to 200 ft. (by Syevertsov).</p> + +<p>The fish of Lake Aral belong to fresh-water species, and in +some of its rapid tributaries the interesting <i>Scaphirhynchus</i>, +which represents a survival from the Tertiary epoch, is found. +The fishing is very productive, the fish being exported to Turkestan, +Merv and Russia. The shores of the lake are uninhabited; +the nearest settlements are Kazala, 55 m. east, on the Syr, and +Chimbai and Kungrad in the delta of the Amu.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Makshéev’s “Description of Lake Aral,” and +Kaulbars’ “Delta of the Amu,” in <i>Zapiski of Russ. Geogr. Soc.</i>, +1st series, v., and new series, ix.; <i>Grimm’s Studies of the Aral-Caspian +Expedition</i>; Nikolsky’s “Fishing in Lake Aral,” in <i>Izvestia, +Russ. Geogr. Soc.</i>, 1887; Prof. Mushketov, <i>Turkestan</i>, vol. i. (1886), +which contains bibliographical references; Rösler, <i>Die Aralseefrage</i> +(1873); Wood, <i>The Shores of the Aral Lake</i> (1876); and Berg in +<i>Izvestia, Turkestan Branch of Russian Geog. Soc.</i> (vol. iii., Tashkent, 1902).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. A. K.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 2, Slice 3, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 2, SL 3 *** + +***** This file should be named 34047-h.htm or 34047-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/4/0/4/34047/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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