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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 2, Slice 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 2, Slice 3
+       "Apollodorus" to "Aral"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: October 8, 2010 [EBook #34047]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 2, SL 3 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) The following typographical error has been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE ARACHNIDA: "The coxal glands do not establish any special
+      connexion between Limulus and Scorpio, since they also occur in the
+      same somite in the lower Crustacea...." 'they' amended from 'thay'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME II, SLICE III
+
+            Apollodorus to Aral
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  APOLLODORUS (Athenian painter)    APPREHENSION
+  APOLLODORUS (Athenian grammarian) APPRENTICESHIP
+  APOLLODORUS (of Carystus)         APPROPRIATION
+  APOLLODORUS (Greek architect)     APPURTENANCES
+  APOLLONIA                         APRAKSIN, THEDOR MATVYEEVICH
+  APOLLONIUS (the Surly)            APRICOT
+  APOLLONIUS (Greek rhetorician)    APRIES
+  APOLLONIUS (the Sophist)          APRIL
+  APOLLONIUS MOLON                  APRIL-FOOLS' DAY
+  APOLLONIUS OF PERGA               A PRIORI
+  APOLLONIUS OF RHODES              APRON
+  APOLLONIUS OF TRALLES             APSARAS
+  APOLLONIUS OF TYANA               APSE
+  APOLLONIUS OF TYRE                APSE and APSIDES
+  APOLLOS                           APSINES
+  APOLLYON                          APT
+  APOLOGETICS                       APTERA
+  APOLOGUE                          APTERAL
+  APOLOGY                           APTIAN
+  APONEUROSIS                       APULEIUS, LUCIUS
+  APOPHTHEGM                        APULIA
+  APOPHYGE                          APURÉ
+  APOPHYLLITE                       APURIMAC (river of Peru)
+  APOPHYSIS                         APURIMAC (department of Peru)
+  APOPLEXY                          APYREXIA
+  APOROSE                          'AQIBA BEN JOSEPH
+  APOSIOPESIS                       AQUAE
+  APOSTASY                          AQUAE CUTILIAE
+  APOSTIL                           AQUAMARINE
+  APOSTLE                           AQUARELLE
+  APOSTLE SPOONS                    AQUARII
+  APOSTOLICAL CONSTITUTIONS         AQUARIUM
+  APOSTOLIC CANONS                  AQUARIUS
+  APOSTOLIC FATHERS                 AQUATINT
+  APOSTOLICI                        AQUAVIVA, CLAUDIO
+  APOSTOLIC MAJESTY                 AQUEDUCT
+  APOSTOLIUS, MICHAEL               AQUILA
+  APOSTROPHE                        AQUILA, CASPAR
+  APOTACTITES                       AQUILA, SERAFINO DELL'
+  APOTHECARY                        AQUILA (city of Italy)
+  APOTHEOSIS                        AQUILA (constellation)
+  APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS             AQUILA ROMANUS
+  APPANAGE                          AQUILEIA
+  APPAREL                           AQUILLIUS, MANIUS
+  APPARITIONS                       AQUINAS, THOMAS
+  APPARITOR                         AQUINO
+  APPEAL                            AQUITAINE
+  APPEARANCE                        ARABESQUE
+  APPENDICITIS                      ARABGIR
+  APPENDICULATA                     ARABIA
+  APPENDINI, FRANCESCO MARIA        ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY
+  APPENZELL (canton of Switzerland) ARABIAN SEA
+  APPENZELL (city of Switzerland)   ARABICI
+  APPERCEPTION                      ARABI PASHA
+  APPERLEY, CHARLES JAMES           ARABISTAN
+  APPERT, BENJAMIN NICOLAS MARIE    ARABS
+  APPIAN                            ARACAJÚ
+  APPIANI, ANDREA                   ARACATY
+  APPIA, VIA                        ARACHNE
+  APPIN                             ARACHNIDA
+  APPLAUSE                          ARAD
+  APPLE                             ARAEOSTYLE
+  APPLEBY                           ARAEOSYSTYLE
+  APPLETON, NATHAN                  ARAGO, DOMINIQUE FRANÇOIS JEAN
+  APPLETON (city of U.S.A.)         ARAGON
+  APPOGGIATURA                      ARAGONITE
+  APPOINTMENT, POWER OF             ARAGUA
+  APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE            ARAGUAYA
+  APPONYI, ALBERT                   ARAKAN
+  APPORTIONMENT                     ARAKCHEEV, ALEKSYEI ANDREEVICH
+  APPORTIONMENT BILL                ARAL
+  APPRAISER
+
+
+
+
+APOLLODORUS, an Athenian painter, who flourished at the end of the 5th
+century B.C. He is said to have introduced great improvements in
+perspective and chiaroscuro. What these were it is impossible to say:
+perspective cannot have been in his day at an advanced stage. Among his
+works were an Odysseus, a priest in prayer, and an Ajax struck by
+lightning.
+
+
+
+
+APOLLODORUS, an Athenian grammarian, pupil of Aristarchus and Panaetius
+the Stoic, who lived about 140 B.C. He was a prolific and versatile
+writer. There is extant under his name a treatise on the gods and the
+heroic age, entitled [Greek: Bibliothaekae], a valuable authority on
+ancient mythology. Modern critics are of opinion that, if genuine, it is
+an abridgment of a larger work by him ([Greek: Peri theon]).
+
+  Edition, with commentary, by Heyne (1803); text by Wagner (1894)
+  (_Mythographi Graeci_, vol. i. Teubner series). Amongst other works by
+  him of which only fragments remain, collected in Müller, _Fragmenta
+  Historicorum Graecorum_, may be mentioned: [Greek: Chronika], a
+  universal history from the fall of Troy to 144 B.C.; [Greek:
+  Periaegaesis], a gazetteer written in iambics; [Greek: Peri Neon], a
+  work on the Homeric catalogue of ships; and a work on etymology
+  ([Greek: Etymologiai]).
+
+
+
+
+APOLLODORUS, of Carystus in Euboea, one of the most important writers of
+the New Attic comedy, who flourished at Athens between 300 and 260 B.C.
+He is to be distinguished from an older Apollodorus of Gela (342-290),
+also a writer of comedy, a contemporary of Menander. He wrote 47
+comedies and obtained the prize five times. Terence borrowed his
+_Hecyra_ and _Phormio_ from the [Greek: Hekyra] and [Greek:
+Epidikazomenos] of Apollodorus.
+
+  Fragments in Koch, _Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta_, ii. (1884); see
+  also Meineke, _Historia Critica Comicorum Graecorum_ (1839).
+
+
+
+
+APOLLODORUS, of Damascus, a famous Greek architect, who flourished
+during the 2nd century A.D. He was a favourite of Trajan, for whom he
+constructed the stone bridge over the Danube (A.D. 104-105). He also
+planned a gymnasium, a college, public baths, the Odeum and the Forum
+Trajanum, within the city of Rome; and the triumphal arches at
+Beneventum and Ancona. The Trajan column in the centre of the Forum is
+celebrated as being the first triumphal monument of the kind. On the
+accession of Hadrian, whom he had offended by ridiculing his
+performances as architect and artist, Apollodorus was banished, and,
+shortly afterwards, being charged with imaginary crimes, put to death
+(Dio Cassius lxix. 4). He also wrote a treatise on _Siege Engines_
+([Greek: Poliorkaetika]), which was dedicated to Hadrian.
+
+
+
+
+APOLLONIA, the name of more than thirty cities of antiquity. The most
+important are the following: (1) An Illyrian city (known as Apollonia
+[Greek: kat Epidamnon] or [Greek: pros Epidamno]) on the right bank of
+the Aous, founded by the Corinthians and Corcyraeans. It soon became a
+place of increasing commercial prosperity, as the most convenient link
+between Brundusium and northern Greece, and as one of the
+starting-points of the Via Egnatia. It was an important military post in
+the wars against Philip and during the civil wars of Pompey and Caesar,
+and towards the close of the Roman republic acquired fame as a seat of
+literature and philosophy. Here Augustus was being educated when the
+death of Caesar called him to Rome. It seems to have sunk with the rise
+of Aulon, and few remains of its ruins are to be found. The monastery of
+Pollina stands on a hill which probably is part of the site of the old
+city. (2) A Thracian city on the Black Sea (afterwards Sozopolis, and
+now Sizeboli), colonized by the Milesians, and famous for its colossal
+statue of Apollo by Calamis, which Lucullus removed to Rome.
+
+
+
+
+APOLLONIUS, surnamed [Greek: ho dyskolos] ("the Surly or Crabbed"), a
+celebrated grammarian of Alexandria, who lived in the reigns of Hadrian
+and Antoninus Pius. He spent the greater part of his life in his native
+city, where he died; he is also said to have visited Rome and attracted
+the attention of Antoninus. He was the founder of scientific grammar and
+is styled by Priscian _grammaticorum princeps_. Four of his works are
+extant: _On Syntax_, ed. Bekker, 1817; and three smaller treatises, on
+_Pronouns_, _Conjunctions_ and _Adverbs_, ed. Schneider, 1878.
+
+  _Grammatici Graeci_, i. in Teubner series; Egger, _Apollonius Dyscole_
+  (1854).
+
+
+
+
+APOLLONIUS, surnamed [Greek: ho malakos] ("the Effeminate"), a Greek
+rhetorician of Alabanda in Caria, who flourished about 120 B.C. After
+studying under Menecles, chief of the Asiatic school of oratory, he
+settled in Rhodes, where he taught rhetoric, among his pupils being Mark
+Antony.
+
+
+
+
+APOLLONIUS, surnamed "the Sophist," of Alexandria, a famous grammarian,
+who probably lived towards the end of the 1st century A.D. He was the
+author of a Homeric lexicon ([Greek: Lexeis Homaerikai]), the only work
+of the kind we possess. His chief authorities were Aristarchus and
+Apion's Homeric glossary.
+
+  Edition by Villoison (1773), I. Bekker (1833); Leyde, _De Apollonii
+  Sophistae Lexico Homerico_ (1885); E.W.B. Nicholson on a newly
+  discovered fragment in _Classical Review_ (Nov. 1897).
+
+
+
+
+APOLLONIUS MOLON (sometimes called simply MOLON), a Greek rhetorician,
+who flourished about 70 B.C. He was a native of Alabanda, a pupil of
+Menecles, and settled at Rhodes. He twice visited Rome as an ambassador
+from Rhodes, and Cicero and Caesar took lessons from him. He endeavoured
+to moderate the florid Asiatic style and cultivated an "Atticizing"
+tendency. He wrote on Homer, and, according to Josephus, violently
+attacked the Jews.
+
+  See C. Müller, _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, iii.; E. Schürer,
+  _History of the Jewish People_, iii. (Eng. tr. 1886).
+
+
+
+
+APOLLONIUS OF PERGA [PERGAEUS], Greek geometer of the Alexandrian
+school, was probably born some twenty-five years later than Archimedes,
+i.e. about 262 B.C. He flourished in the reigns of Ptolemy Euergetes and
+Ptolemy Philopator (247-205 B.C.). His treatise on _Conics_ gained him
+the title of The Great Geometer, and is that by which his fame has been
+transmitted to modern times. All his numerous other treatises have
+perished, save one, and we have only their titles handed down, with
+general indications of their contents, by later writers, especially
+Pappus. After the _Conics_ in eight Books had been written in a first
+edition, Apollonius brought out a second edition, considerably revised
+as regards Books i.-ii., at the instance of one Eudemus of Pergamum;
+the first three books were sent to Eudemus at intervals, as revised,
+and the later books were dedicated (after Eudemus' death) to King
+Attalus I. (241-197 B.C.). Only four Books have survived in Greek; three
+more are extant in Arabic; the eighth has never been found. Although a
+fragment has been found of a Latin translation from the Arabic made in
+the 13th century, it was not until 1661 that a Latin translation of
+Books v.-vii. was available. This was made by Giovanni Alfonso Borelli
+and Abraham Ecchellensis from the free version in Arabic made in 983 by
+Abu 'l-Fath of Ispahan and preserved in a Florence MS. But the best
+Arabic translation is that made as regards Books i.-iv. by Hilal ibn Abi
+Hilal (d. about 883), and as regards Books v.-vii. by Tobit ben Korra
+(836-901). Halley used for his translation an Oxford MS. of this
+translation of Books v.-vii., but the best MS. (Bodl. 943) he only
+referred to in order to correct his translation, and it is still
+unpublished except for a fragment of Book v. published by L. Nix with
+German translation (Drugulin, Leipzig, 1889). Halley added in his
+edition (1710) a restoration of Book viii., in which he was guided by
+the fact that Pappus gives lemmas "to the seventh and eighth books"
+under that one heading, as well as by the statement of Apollonius
+himself that the use of the seventh book was illustrated by the problems
+solved in the eighth.
+
+The degree of originality of the _Conics_ can best be judged from
+Apollonius' own prefaces. Books i.-iv. form an "elementary
+introduction," i.e. contain the essential principles; the rest are
+specialized investigations in particular directions. For Books i.-iv. he
+claims only that the generation of the curves and their fundamental
+properties in Book i. are worked out more fully and generally than they
+were in earlier treatises, and that a number of theorems in Book iii.
+and the greater part of Book iv. are new. That he made the fullest use
+of his predecessors' works, such as Euclid's four Books on Conics, is
+clear from his allusions to Euclid, Conon and Nicoteles. The generality
+of treatment is indeed remarkable; he gives as the fundamental property
+of all the conics the equivalent of the Cartesian equation referred to
+_oblique_ axes (consisting of a diameter and the tangent at its
+extremity) obtained by cutting an oblique circular cone in any manner,
+and the axes appear only as a particular case after he has shown that
+the property of the conic can be expressed in the same form with
+reference to any new diameter and the tangent at its extremity. It is
+clearly the form of the fundamental property (expressed in the
+terminology of the "application of areas") which led him to call the
+curves for the first time by the names _parabola_, _ellipse_,
+_hyperbola_. Books v.-vii. are clearly original. Apollonius' genius
+takes its highest flight in Book v., where he treats of normals as
+minimum and maximum straight lines drawn from given points to the curve
+(independently of tangent properties), discusses how many normals can be
+drawn from particular points, finds their feet by construction, and
+gives propositions determining the centre of curvature at any point and
+leading at once to the Cartesian equation of the evolute of any conic.
+
+The other treatises of Apollonius mentioned by Pappus are --1st, [Greek:
+Logou apotomae], _Cutting off a Ratio_; 2nd, [Greek: Choriou apotomae],
+_Cutting of an Area_; 3rd, [Greek: Dioris menae tomae], _Determinate
+Section_; 4th, [Greek: Epaphai], _Tangencies_; 5th, [Greek: Neuseis],
+_Inclinations_; 6th, [Greek: Topoi epipedoi], _Plane Loci_. Each of
+these was divided into two books, and, with the _Data_, the _Porisms_
+and _Surface-Loci_ of Euclid and the _Conics_ of Apollonius were,
+according to Pappus, included in the body of the ancient analysis.
+
+1st. _De Rationis Sectione_ had for its subject the resolution of the
+following problem: Given two straight lines and a point in each, to draw
+through a third given point a straight line cutting the two fixed lines,
+so that the parts intercepted between the given points in them and the
+points of intersection with this third line may have a given ratio.
+
+2nd. _De Spatii Sectione_ discussed the similar problem which requires
+the rectangle contained by the two intercepts to be equal to a given
+rectangle.
+
+An Arabic version of the first was found towards the end of the 17th
+century in the Bodleian library by Dr Edward Bernard, who began a
+translation of it; Halley finished it and published it along with a
+restoration of the second treatise in 1706.
+
+3rd. _De Sectione Determinata_ resolved the problem: Given two, three or
+four points on a straight line, to find another point on it such that
+its distances from the given points satisfy the condition that the
+square on one or the rectangle contained by two has to the square on the
+remaining one or the rectangle contained by the remaining two, or to the
+rectangle contained by the remaining one and another given straight
+line, a given ratio. Several restorations of the solution have been
+attempted, one by W. Snellius (Leiden, 1698), another by Alex. Anderson
+of Aberdeen, in the supplement to his _Apollonius Redivivus_ (Paris,
+1612), but by far the best is by Robert Simson, _Opera quaedam reliqua_
+(Glasgow, 1776).
+
+4th. _De Tactionibus_ embraced the following general problem: Given
+three things (points, straight lines or circles) in position, to
+describe a circle passing through the given points, and touching the
+given straight lines or circles. The most difficult case, and the most
+interesting from its historical associations, is when the three given
+things are circles. This problem, which is sometimes known as the
+Apollonian Problem, was proposed by Vieta in the 16th century to
+Adrianus Romanus, who gave a solution by means of a hyperbola. Vieta
+thereupon proposed a simpler construction, and restored the whole
+treatise of Apollonius in a small work, which he entitled _Apollonius
+Gallus_ (Paris, 1600). A very full and interesting historical account of
+the problem is given in the preface to a small work of J.W. Camerer,
+entitled _Apollonii Pergaei quae supersunt, ac maxime Lemmata Pappi in
+hos Libras, cum Observationibus, &c_. (Gothae, 1795, 8vo).
+
+5th. _De Inclinationibus_ had for its object to insert a straight line
+of a given length, tending towards a given point, between two given
+(straight or circular) lines. Restorations have been given by Marino
+Ghetaldi, by Hugo d'Omerique (_Geometrical Analysis_, Cadiz, 1698), and
+(the best) by Samuel Horsley (1770).
+
+6th. _De Locis Planis_ is a collection of propositions relating to loci
+which are either straight lines or circles. Pappus gives somewhat full
+particulars of the propositions, and restorations were attempted by P.
+Fermat (_Oeuvres_, i., 1891, pp. 3-51), F. Schooten (Leiden, 1656) and,
+most successfully of all, by R. Simson (Glasgow, 1749).
+
+Other works of Apollonius are referred to by ancient writers, viz. (1)
+[Greek: Peri tou pyriou], _On the Burning-Glass_, where the focal
+properties of the parabola probably found a place; (2) [Greek: Peri tou
+kochliou], _On the Cylindrical Helix_ (mentioned by Proclus); (3) a
+comparison of the dodecahedron and the icosahedron inscribed in the same
+sphere; (4) [Greek: Hae katholou pragmateia], perhaps a work on the
+general principles of mathematics in which were included Apollonius'
+criticisms and suggestions for the improvement of Euclid's _Elements_;
+(5) [Greek: Okutokion] (quick bringing-to-birth), in which, according to
+Eutocius, he showed how to find closer limits for the value of [pi] than
+the 3-1/7 and 3-10/71 of Archimedes; (6) an arithmetical work (as to
+which see PAPPUS) on a system of expressing large numbers in language
+closer to that of common life than that of Archimedes' _Sand-reckoner_,
+and showing how to multiply such large numbers; (7) a great extension of
+the theory of irrationals expounded in Euclid, Book x., from binomial to
+multinomial and from _ordered_ to _unordered_ irrationals (see extracts
+from Pappus' comm. on Eucl. x., preserved in Arabic and published by
+Woepcke, 1856). Lastly, in astronomy he is credited by Ptolemy with an
+explanation of the motion of the planets by a system of epicycles; he
+also made researches in the lunar theory, for which he is said to have
+been called Epsilon ([epsilon]).
+
+  The best editions of the works of Apollonius are the following: (1)
+  _Apollonii Pergaei Conicorum libri quatuor, ex versione Frederici
+  Commandini_ (Bononiae, 1566), fol.; (2) _Apollonii Pergaei Conicorum
+  libri octo, et Sereni Antissensis de Sectione Cylindri et Coni libri
+  duo_ (Oxoniae, 1710), fol. (this is the monumental edition of Edmund
+  Halley); (3) the edition of the first four books of the Conics given
+  in 1675 by Barrow; (4) _Apollonii Pergaei de Sectione, Rationis libri
+  duo: Accedunt ejusdem de Sectione Spatii libri duo Restituti:
+  Praemittitur, &c., Opera et Studio Edmundi Halley_ (Oxoniae, 1706),
+  4to; (5) a German translation of the _Conics_ by H. Balsam (Berlin,
+  1861); (6) the definitive Greek text of Heiberg (_Apollonii Pergaei
+  quae Graece exstant Opera_, Leipzig, 1891-1893); (7) T.L. Heath,
+  _Apollonius, Treatise on Conic Sections_ (Cambridge, 1896); see also
+  H.G. Zeuthen, _Die Lehre van den Kegelschnitten im Altertum_
+  (Copenhagen, 1886 and 1902).     (T. L. H.)
+
+
+
+
+APOLLONIUS OF RHODES (RHODIUS), a Greek epic poet and grammarian, of
+Alexandria, who flourished under the Ptolemies Philopator and Epiphanes
+(222-181 B.C.). He was the pupil of Callimachus, with whom he
+subsequently quarrelled. In his youth he composed the work for which he
+is known--_Argonautica_, an epic in four books on the legend of the
+Argonauts. When he read it at Alexandria, it was rejected through the
+influence of Callimachus and his party. Disgusted with his failure,
+Apollonius withdrew to Rhodes, where he was very successful as a
+rhetorician, and a revised edition of his epic was well received. In
+recognition of his talents the Rhodians bestowed the freedom of their
+city upon him--the origin of his surname. Returning to Alexandria, he
+again recited his poem, this time with general applause. In 196, Ptolemy
+Epiphanes appointed him librarian of the Museum, which office he
+probably held until his death. As to the _Argonautica_, Longinus' (_De
+Sublim_. p. 54, 19) and Quintilian's (_Instit_, x. 1, 54) verdict of
+mediocrity seems hardly deserved; although it lacks the naturalness of
+Homer, it possesses a certain simplicity and contains some beautiful
+passages. There is a valuable collection of scholia. The work, highly
+esteemed by the Romans, was imitated by Virgil (_Aeneid_, iv.), Varro
+Atacinus, and Valerius Flaccus. Marianus (about A.D. 500) paraphrased it
+in iambic trimeters. Apollonius also wrote epigrams; grammatical and
+critical works; and [Greek: Ktiseis] (the foundations of cities).
+
+  _Editio Princeps_ (Florence, 1496); Merkel-Keil (with scholia, 1854);
+  Seaton (1900). English translations: Verse, by Greene (1780); Fawkes
+  (1780); Preston (1811); Way (1901); Prose by Coleridge (1889); see
+  also Couat, _La Poésie alexandrine_; Susemihl, _Geschichte der griech.
+  Lit. in der alexandnnischen Zeit._
+
+
+
+
+APOLLONIUS OF TRALLES (in Caria), a Greek sculptor, who flourished in
+the 2nd century B.C. With his brother Tauriscus, he executed the marble
+group known as the Farnese Bull, representing Zethus and Amphion tying
+the revengeful Dirce to the tail of a wild bull.
+
+  See GREEK ART, pl. i. fig. 51.
+
+
+
+
+APOLLONIUS OF TYANA, a Greek philosopher of the Neo-Pythagorean school,
+born a few years before the Christian era. He studied at Tarsus and in
+the temple of Asclepius at Aegae, where he devoted himself to the
+doctrines of Pythagoras and adopted the ascetic habit of life in its
+fullest sense. He travelled through Asia and visited Nineveh, Babylon
+and India, imbibing the oriental mysticism of magi, Brahmans and
+gymnosophists. The narrative of his travels given by his disciple Damis
+and reproduced by Philostratus is so full of the miraculous that many
+have regarded him as an imaginary character. On his return to Europe he
+was saluted as a magician, and received the greatest reverence from
+priests and people generally. He himself claimed only the power of
+foreseeing the future; yet in Rome it was said that he raised from death
+the body of a noble lady. In the halo of his mysterious power he passed
+through Greece, Italy and Spain. It was said that he was accused of
+treason both by Nero and by Domitian, but escaped by miraculous means.
+Finally he set up a school at Ephesus, where he died, apparently at the
+age of a hundred years. Philostratus keeps up the mystery of his hero's
+life by saying, "Concerning the manner of his death, _if he did die_,
+the accounts are various." The work of Philostratus composed at the
+instance of Julia, wife of Severus, is generally regarded as a religious
+work of fiction. It contains a number of obviously fictitious stories,
+through which, however, it is not impossible to discern the general
+character of the man. In the 3rd century, Hierocles (q.v.) endeavoured
+to prove that the doctrines and the life of Apollonius were more
+valuable than those of Christ, and, in modern times, Voltaire and
+Charles Blount (1654-1693), the English freethinker, have adopted a
+similar standpoint. Apart from this extravagant eulogy, it is absurd to
+regard Apollonius merely as a vulgar charlatan and miracle-monger. If we
+cut away the mass of mere fiction which Philostratus accumulated, we
+have left a highly imaginative, earnest reformer who laboured to infuse
+into the flaccid dialectic of paganism a saner spirit of practical
+morality.
+
+  See L. Dyer, _Studies of the Gods in Greece_ (New York, 1891); A.
+  Chassang, _Le Merveilleux dans l'antiquité_ (1882); D.M. Tredwell,
+  _Sketch of the Life of Apollonius of Tyana_ (New York, 1886); F.C.
+  Baur, _Apollonius von Tyana und Christus_, ed. Ed. Zeller (Leipzig,
+  1876,--an attempt to show that Philostratus's story is merely a pagan
+  counterblast to the New Testament history); J. Jessen, _Apollonius v.
+  Tyana und sein Biograph Philostratos_ (Hamburg, 1885); J. Göttsching,
+  _Apollonius von Tyana_ (Berlin, 1889); J.A. Froude, _Short Studies_,
+  vol. iv.; G.R.S. Mead, _Apollonius of Tyana_ (London, 1901); B.L.
+  Gildersleeve, _Essays and Studies_ (New York, 1890); Philostratus's
+  _Life of Apollonius_ (Eng. trans. New York, 1905); O. de B. Priaulx,
+  _The Indian Travels of Apollonius_ (1873); F.W.G. Campbell, _Apoll. of
+  Tyana_ (1908); see also NEO-PYTHAGOREANISM.
+
+
+
+
+APOLLONIUS OF TYRE, a medieval tale supposed to be derived from a lost
+Greek original. The earliest mention of the story is in the _Carmina_
+(Bk. vi. 8, II. 5-6) of Venantius Fortunatus, in the second half of the
+6th century, and the romance may well date from three centuries earlier.
+It bears a marked resemblance to the _Antheia and Habrokomes_ of
+Xenophon of Ephesus. The story relates that King Antiochus, maintaining
+incestuous relations with his daughter, kept off her suitors by asking
+them a riddle, which they must solve on pain of losing their heads.
+Apollonius of Tyre solved the riddle, which had to do with Antiochus's
+secret. He returned to Tyre, and, to escape the king's vengeance, set
+sail in search of a place of refuge. In Cyrene he married the daughter
+of King Archistrates, and presently, on receiving news of the death of
+Antiochus, departed to take possession of the kingdom of Antioch, of
+which he was, for no clear reason, the heir. On the voyage his wife
+died, or rather seemed to die, in giving birth to a daughter, and the
+sailors demanded that she should be thrown overboard. Apollonius left
+his daughter, named Tarsia, at Tarsus in the care of guardians who
+proved false to their trust. Father, mother, and daughter were only
+reunited after fourteen years' separation and many vicissitudes. The
+earliest Latin MS. of this tale, preserved at Florence, dates from the
+9th or 10th century. The pagan features of the supposed original are by
+no means all destroyed. The ceremonies observed by Tarsia at her nurse's
+grave, and the preparations for the burning of the body of Apollonius's
+wife, are purely pagan. The riddles which Tarsia propounds to her father
+are obviously interpolated. They are taken from the _Enigmata_ of
+Caelius Firmianus Symposius. The many inconsistencies of the story seem
+to be best explained by the supposition (E. Rohde, _Der griechische
+Roman_, 2nd ed., 1900, pp. 435 _et seq_.) that the Antiochus story was
+originally entirely separate from the story of Apollonius's wanderings,
+and was clumsily tacked on by the Latin author. The romance kept its
+form through a vast number of medieval rearrangements, and there is
+little change in its outlines as set forth in the Shakespearian play of
+_Pericles_.
+
+  The Latin tale is preserved in about 100 MSS., and was printed by M.
+  Velser (Augsburg, 1595), by J. Lapaume in _Script. Erot_. (Didot,
+  Paris, 1856), and by A. Riese in the _Bibl. Teubneriana_ (1871, new
+  ed. 1893). The most widespread versions in the middle ages were those
+  of Godfrey of Viterbo in his _Pantheon_ (1185), where it is related as
+  authentic history, and in the _Gesta Romanorum_ (cap. 153), which
+  formed the basis of the German folk-tale by H. Steinhöwel (Augsburg,
+  1471), the Dutch version (Delft, 1493), the French in _Le Violier des
+  histoires romaines_ (Paris, 1521), the English, by Laurence Twine
+  (London, 1576, new ed. 1607), also of the Scandinavian, Czech, and
+  Hungarian tales.
+
+  In England a translation was made as early as the 11th century (ed. B.
+  Thorpe, 1834, and J. Zupitza in _Archiv für neuere Sprachen_, 1896);
+  there is a Middle English metrical version (J.O. Halliwell, _A New
+  Boke about Shakespeare_, 1850), by a poet who says he was vicar of
+  Wimborne; John Gower uses the tale as an example of the seventh deadly
+  sin in the eighth book of his _Confessio Amantis_; Robert Copland
+  translated a prose romance of _Kynge Apollyne of Thyre_ (Wynkyn de
+  Worde, 1510) from the French; _Pericles_ was entered at Stationers'
+  Hall in 1607, and was followed in the next year by George Wilkins's
+  novel, _The Painfull Adventures of Pericles, Prynce of Tyre_ (ed.
+  Tycho Mommsen, Oldenburg, 1857), and George Lillo drew his play
+  _Marina_ (1738) from the piece associated with Shakespeare; _Orendel_,
+  by a Middle High German minnesinger, contains some of the episodes of
+  _Apollonius_; Heinrich von Neustadt wrote a poem of 20,000 lines on
+  _Apollonius von Tyrland_ (c. 1400); the story was well known in
+  Spanish, _Libre de Apolonio_ (verse, c. 1200), and in J. de Timoneda's
+  _Patrañuelo_ (1576); in French much of it was embodied in _Jourdain de
+  Blaives_ (13th cent.), and it also appears in Italian and medieval
+  Greek. See A.H. Smyth, _Shakespeare's Pericles and Apollonius of Tyre_
+  (Philadelphia, 1898); Elimar Klebs, _Die Erzahlung van A. aus Tyrus_
+  (Berlin, 1899); S. Singer, _Apollonius van Tyrus_ (Halle, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+APOLLOS ([Greek: Apollos]; contracted from Apollonius), an Alexandrine
+Jew who after Paul's first visit to Corinth worked there in a similar
+way (1 Cor. iii. 6). He was with Paul at a later date in Ephesus (1 Cor.
+xvi. 12). In 1 Cor. i. 10-12 we read of four parties in the Corinthian
+church, of which two attached themselves to Paul and Apollos
+respectively, using their names, though the "division" can hardly have
+been due to conflicting doctrines. (See PAUL.) From Acts xviii. 24-28 we
+learn that he spoke and taught with power and success. He may have
+captivated his hearers by teaching "wisdom," as P.W. Schmiedel suggests,
+in the allegorical style of Philo, and he was evidently a man of unusual
+magnetic force. There seems to be some contradiction between Acts xviii.
+25 a b and Acts xviii. 25 c, 26 b c; and it has been suggested that
+these latter passages are subsequent accretions. Since Apollos was a
+Christian and "taught exactly," he could hardly have been acquainted
+only with John's baptism or have required to be taught Christianity more
+thoroughly by Aquila and Priscilla. Martin Luther regarded Apollos as
+the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, and many scholars since have
+shared his view.
+
+  Jerome says that Apollos was so dissatisfied with the division at
+  Corinth, that he retired into Crete with Zenas, a doctor of the law;
+  and that the schism having been healed by Paul's letter to the
+  Corinthians, Apollos returned to the city, and became its bishop. Less
+  probable traditions assign to him the bishopric of Duras, or of
+  Iconium in Phrygia, or of Caesarea.
+
+  See the articles in the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_; Herzog-Hauck,
+  _Realencyklopadie_; _The Jewish Encyclopaedia_; Hastings' _Dictionary
+  of the Bible_; and cf. Weizsäcker, _Das apostolische Zeitalter_; A.C.
+  McGiffert, _History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age_.
+
+
+
+
+APOLLYON, the "foul fiend" who assaulted Christian on his pilgrimage
+through the Valley of Humiliation in John Bunyan's great allegory. The
+name (Gr. [Greek: Apollyon]), which means "destroyer" ([Greek:
+apollyein], to destroy), is taken from Rev. ix. 11, where it represents
+the Hebrew word _Abaddon_ (lit. "place of destruction," but here
+personified). The identification with the Asmodeus (q.v.) of Tobit iii.
+8 is erroneous.
+
+
+
+
+APOLOGETICS, in theology, the systematic statement of the grounds which
+Christians allege for belief in (at least) a _supernatural revelation_
+and a _divine redemption_ (cf. e.g. Heb. i. 1-3). The majority of
+apologists in the past have further believed in an _infallible Bible_;
+but they admit this position can only be reached at a late stage in the
+argument. We should note, however, that even a liberal orthodoxy, while
+saying nothing about infallibility, is pledged to the _essential_
+authority of the Bible; it cannot e.g. simply ignore the Old Testament
+with F.E.D. Schleiermacher. Catholic apologetics must further give a
+central position to _Church_ authority, which Roman Catholics explicitly
+define as infallible; but this position too is debated in a late section
+of their system. On the other hand, there may be a Christianity which
+seeks to extricate the "spiritual" from the "supernatural" (Arnold
+Toynbee, characterizing T.H. Green). It would only lead to confusion,
+however, if we called this method "apologetic." Any _single_ effort in
+apologetics may be termed "an apology." More elaborate contrasts have
+been proposed between the two words, but are of little practical
+importance.
+
+I. _The Word itself._--In Greek, [Greek: apologia] is the defendant's
+reply (personally, not through a lawyer) to the speech for the
+prosecution--[Greek: kataegoria]. Sometimes defendants' speeches passed
+into literature, e.g. Plato's splendid version of the _Apology_ of
+Socrates. Thus, in view of persecution or slander, the Christian church
+naturally produced literary "Apologies," The word has never quite lost
+this connotation of standing on the defensive and rebutting criticism;
+e.g. Anselm's _Apologia contra insipientem Gaunilonem_ (c. 1100); or the
+Lutheran _Apology for the Augsburg Confession_ (1531); or J.H. Newman's
+_Apologia pro vita sua_ (1864); or A.B. Bruce's _Apologetics; or
+Christianity Defensively Stated_ (1892). Of course, defence easily
+passes into counterattack, as when early apologists denounce Greek and
+Roman religion. Yet the purpose may be defence even then. And there is
+perhaps a reason of a deeper kind for holding Apologetics to the
+defensive. Christianity is a prophetic religion. Now a prophet does not
+argue; he declares what he feels to be God's will. For himself, he
+rests, like the mystic, upon an immediate vision of truth; but he
+differs from most mystics in having a message for others; and--again
+unlike most mystics--he addresses the hearer's _conscience_, which we
+might call (in one sense) the mystic element in every man--or better,
+perhaps, the prophetic. Can the positive grounds for a prophet's message
+be analysed and stated in terms of argument? If so, apologetics is
+literally a science, and it is pedantry to claim the defensive and
+pretend to throw the _onus probandi_ upon objectors. But, if not, then
+apologetics is a mere auxiliary, and is only "a science" in so far as it
+presents a _conscious_ and _systematic_ plea. Bruce's title, and his
+programme of "succouring distressed faith," imply the latter
+alternative; the moral appeal of Christianity, primary and essential;
+its confirmation by argument, secondary. The view has its difficulties;
+but it is hignly suggestive.
+
+The word [Greek: apologia] is used by Origen (_Contra Cel._ ii. 65, v.
+19) of the general Christian defence. But the introduction of the
+adjective "apologetic" and of the substantive "apologetics" is recent.
+They are serviceable as bracketing together (1) Natural Theology or
+Theism, (2) Christian Evidences--chiefly "miracles" and "prophecy"; or,
+on a more modern view, chiefly the character and personality of Christ.
+The lower usage of Apology (as expression of regret for a fault) has
+tipped many a sarcasm besides George III.'s on the occasion of Bishop
+Watson's book, "I did not know that the Bible needed an apology!"
+
+II. _Apologetics in the Bible._--The Old Testament does not argue in
+support of its beliefs, unless when (chiefly in parts of the Wisdom
+literature) it seeks to rebut moral difficulties (cf. T.K. Cheyne, _Job
+and Solomon_; A.S. Peake, _Problem of Suffering in the Old Testament_,
+1904). The New Testament reflects chiefly controversy with Jews. Great
+emphasis is laid upon alleged fulfilments--striking or fanciful, but
+very generally striking to that age--of Old Testament prophecy (Matt.
+especially; rather differently Ep. to Heb.). The miracles of Jesus are
+also canvassed. Jews do not deny their wonderful character, but
+attribute them to black art (Mark iii. 22 &c., &c.). On the other hand,
+Christians and Jews are pretty well agreed on natural theology; so the
+New Testament tends to take its theism for granted. However, Rom. i. 20
+has had great influence on Christian theology (e.g. Thomas Aquinas) in
+leading it to base theism upon reason or argument. One apologetic
+contention, aimed at Gentile readers, is found among the motives of
+Acts. Christianity is not a lawless but an excellent law-abiding faith.
+So (it is alleged) rulers, both Jewish and Gentile, have often admitted
+(xviii. 14; xix. 37; xxiii. 9; xxvi. 32).
+
+III. _Early Christian._--When we leave the New Testament, apologetics
+becomes conspicuous until the political triumph of Christianity, and
+even somewhat later. The atmosphere is no longer Jewish but fully Greek.
+True there are, as always, Jewish controversialists. Justin Martyr
+writes a _Dialogue with Trypho_; Origen deals with many anti-Christian
+arguments borrowed by Celsus from a certain nameless Jew. Yet Greece was
+the sovereign power in all the world of ancient culture. And so
+Christianity was necessarily Hellenized, necessarily philosophized. One
+result was to bring natural theology into the forefront. A pure
+morality, belief in one God, hopes extending beyond death--these
+appealed to the age; the Church taught them as philosophically true
+_and_ divinely revealed. But, further still, philosophy offered a
+vehicle which could be applied to the contents of Christianity. The
+Platonic or eclectic theism, which adopted the conception of the Logos,
+made a place for Christ in terms of philosophy within the Godhead. (John
+i. 1 may or may not be affected by Philo; it is almost or quite solitary
+in the N.T.) Similarly, the immortality of the soul may be maintained on
+Platonic or quasi-Platonic lines, as by St Athanasius (_Contra Gentes_,
+§ 33)--a writer who repeatedly quotes the Alexandrian Book of Wisdom, in
+which Platonism and the Old Testament had already joined partnership.
+This phase of Platonism, however, was much more slowly adopted. The
+earlier apologists dispute the natural immortality of the soul;
+Athanasius himself, in _De Incarnatione Dei_, §§ 4, 5, tones down the
+teaching of _Wisdom_; and the somewhat eccentric writer Arnobius, a
+layman--from Justin Martyr downwards apologetics has always been largely
+in the hands of laymen--stands for what has recently been called
+"conditional immortality"--eternal life for the righteous, the children
+of God, alone.
+
+Allied with this more empiricist stand-point is the assertion that Greek
+philosophy borrowed from Moses; but in studying the Fathers we
+constantly find that groundless assertion uttered in the same breath
+with the dominant Idealist view, according to which Greek philosophy was
+due to incomplete revelation from the divine Logos.
+
+On purely defensive lines, early apologists rebut charges of cannibalism
+and sexual promiscuity; the Christians had to meet in secret, and the
+gossip of a rotten age drew malignant conclusions. They make counter
+attacks on polytheism as a folly and on the shamefulness of obscene
+myths. Here they are in line with non-Christian writers or
+culture-mockers like Lucian of Samosata; or graver spirits like
+Porphyry, who champions Neo-Platonism as a rival to Christianity, and
+does pioneer work in criticism by attacks on some of the Old Testament
+books. Turning to Christian evidence proper, we are struck with the
+continued prominence of the argument from prophecy. The Old Testament
+was an immense religious asset to the early church. Their enemies had
+nothing like it; and--the N.T. canon being as yet but half formed--the
+Old Testament was pushed into notice by dwelling on this imperfect
+"argument," which grew more extravagant as the partial control exercised
+by Jewish learning disappeared. An argument from miracles is also urged,
+though with more reserve. Formally, every one in that age admitted the
+supernatural. The question was, whose supernatural? And how far did it
+carry you? Miracle could not be to a 3rd century writer what it was to
+W. Paley--a conclusive and well-nigh solitary proof. Other apologies are
+by Aristides (recently recovered in translation), Athenagoras
+("elegant"), Eusebius of Caesarea, Cyril of Alexandria; in Latin by
+Minucius Felix, Tertullian (a masculine spirit and phrase-coiner like T.
+Carlyle, if bitterer still), Lactantius Firmianus, &c., &c.[1]
+
+As Christianity wins the day, a new objection is raised to it. The age
+is full of troubles; Christianity is ruining the empire! Besides notices
+elsewhere, we find the charge specially dealt with by St Augustine and
+his friends. Paulus Orosius argues that the world has always been a vale
+of tears. Salvian contends that not the acceptance of Christianity, but
+the sins of the people are bringing trouble upon them; and he gives ugly
+evidence of the continued prevalence of vice. Most impressive of all was
+Augustine's own contribution in _The City of God_. Powers created by
+worldliness and sin are crumbling, as they well may; "the city of God
+remaineth!" Whether he meant it so or not, the saint's argument became a
+programme and an apologia for the imperializing of the Western Church
+under the leadership of Rome during the middle ages.
+
+IV. _Middle Ages._--From the point of view of apologetics, we may mass
+together the long stretch of history which covers the period between the
+disappearance and the re-appearance of free discussion. When emperors
+became converts, the church, so lately a victim and a pleader for
+liberty, readily learned to persecute. Under such conditions there is
+little scope for apologetics. Force kills argument and drives doubt
+below the smooth surface of a nominal conformity. But there were two
+influences beyond the bounds or beyond the power of the christianized
+empire. The Jew remained, as always, stubbornly unconvinced, and, as
+often, fond of slanders. Many of the principal medieval attempts in
+apologetics are directed chiefly against him, e.g. the _Pugio Fidei_ of
+Raymond Martini (c. 1280), which became one of Pascal's sources (see V.
+below), or Peter Abelard's _Dialogus inter Judaeum Philosophum et
+Christianum_. And the Moslem came on the scenes bringing, as a gift for
+Christendom, fuller knowledge of classical, especially Aristotelian,
+texts. The Jews, less bitterly opposed to Mahommedanism than the
+Christians were, caught fire more rapidly, and in some cases served as
+an intermediate link or channel of communication. These two religions
+anticipated the discussion of the problem of faith and reason in the
+Christian church. According to the great Avicenna and Maimonides, faith
+and the highest reason are sure to coincide (see ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY).
+According to Ghazali, in his _Destruction of Philosophers_, the various
+schools of philosophy cancel each other; reason is bankrupt; faith is
+everything. (So nearly Jehuda Halevi.) According to Averroes, reason
+suffices, and faith, with (what he considers) its dreams of immortality
+and the like, is useful only for the ignorant masses. Christian
+theology, however, strikes out a line of its own. Moslems and Jews were
+applying Aristotelian philosophy to rigorously monotheistic faiths;
+Christianity had been encouraged by Platonism in teaching a trinity of
+divine persons, and Platonism of a certain order long dominated the
+middle ages as part of the Augustinian tradition. In sympathy with this
+Platonism, the medieval church began by assuming the entire mutual
+harmony of faith and reason. Such is the teaching, along different
+lines, alike of St Anselm and of Abelard. But, when increased knowledge
+of Aristotle's texts (and of the commentaries) led to the victory of a
+supposed Aristotelianism over a supposed Platonism, Albertus Magnus, and
+his still more distinguished pupil Thomas Aquinas, mark certain
+doctrines as belonging to faith but not to reason. They adhere to the
+general position with exceptions (in the case of what had been
+considered Platonic doctrines). From the point of view of philosophy,
+this was a compromise. Faith and reason partly agree, partly diverge.
+The tendency of the later middle ages is to add to the number of the
+doctrines with which philosophy cannot deal. Thomas's great rival, Duns
+Scotus, does this to a large extent, at times affirming "two truths."
+The latter position, ascribed by the schoolmen to the Averroists,
+becomes dominant among the later Nominalists, William of Occam and his
+disciples, who withdraw _all_ doctrines of faith from the sphere of
+reason. This was a second and a more audacious compromise. It is not
+exactly an attempt to base Christian faith on rational scepticism. It is
+a consistent policy of harbouring inconsistencies in the same mind. A
+statement may be true in philosophy and false in theology, or vice
+versa. To the standpoint of Aquinas, however, the Church of Rome (at
+least in regard to the basis of doctrine) has more and more returned.
+The councils of Trent and of the Vatican mark the Two Truths hypothesis
+as heretical, when they affirm that there _is_ a natural knowledge of
+God and natural certainty of immortality. Along with this affirmation,
+the Church of Rome (if less decisively) has adopted the limitations of
+the Thomist theory by the condemnation of "Ontologism"; certain
+mysterious doctrines are beyond reason. This cautious compromise
+sanctioned by the Church does not represent the _extremest_ reaction
+against nominalism. Even in the nominalistic epoch we have Raymond of
+Sabunde's _Natural Theology_ (according to the article in Herzog-Hauck,
+not the title of the oldest Paris MS., but found in later MSS. and
+almost all the printed editions) or _Liber Creaturarum_ (c. 1435). The
+book is not what moderns (schooled unconsciously in post-Reformation
+developments of Thomist ideas) expect under the name of natural
+theology. It is an attempt once more to demonstrate _all_ scholastic
+dogmas out of the book of creation or on principles of natural reason.
+At many points it follows Anselm closely, and, of course, very often
+"makes light work" of its task.
+
+The Thomist compromise--or even the more sceptical view of "two
+truths"--has the merit of giving filling _of a kind_ to the formula
+"supernatural revelation"--mysteries inaccessible to reason, beyond
+discovery and beyond comprehension. According to earlier
+views--repeatedly revived in Protestantism--revelation is just
+philosophy over again. Can the choice be fairly stated? If revelation
+is thought of as God's personal word, and redemption as his personal
+deed, is it reasonable to view them either as open to a sort of
+scientific prediction or as capricious and unintelligible? Even in the
+middle ages there were not wanting those--the St Victors,
+Bonaventura--who sought to vindicate mystical if not moral redemption as
+the central thought of Christianity.
+
+V. _Earlier Modern Period._--It will be seen that apologetics by no
+means reissued unchanged from the long period of authority. The
+compromise of Aquinas, though not unchallenged, holds the field and that
+even with Protestants. G.W. Leibnitz devotes an introductory chapter in
+his _Théodicée_, 1710 (as against Pierre Bayle), to faith and reason. He
+is a good enough Lutheran to quote as a "mystery" the Eucharist no less
+than the Trinity, while he insists that truths _above_ are not _against_
+reason. Stated thus baldly, has the distinction any meaning? The more
+celebrated and central thesis of the book--this finite universe, the
+best of all such that are possible--also restates positions of Augustine
+and Aquinas.
+
+Before modern philosophy began its career, there was a great revival of
+ancient philosophy at the Renaissance; sometimes anti-Christian,
+sometimes pro-Christian. The latter furnishes apologies by Marsilio
+Ficino, Agostino Steuco, J.L. Vives.
+
+Early in the modern period occurs the great name of Blaise Pascal
+(1623-1662). A staunch Roman Catholic, but belonging to a school of
+Augustinian enthusiasts (the Jansenists), whom the Church put down as
+heretics, he stands pretty much apart from the general currents. His
+_Pensées_, published posthumously, seems to have been meant for a
+systematic treatise, but it has come to us in fragments. Once again, a
+lay apologist! A layman's work may have the advantage of originality or
+the drawback of imperfect knowledge. Pascal's work exhibits both
+characters. It has the originality of rare genius, but it borrows its
+material (as industrious editors have shown) from very few sources--the
+_Pugio Fidei_, M. de Montaigne, P. Charron. Ideas as well as learning
+are largely Montaigne's. The latter's cheerful man-of-the-world
+scepticism is transfigured in Pascal to a deep distrust of human reason,
+in part, perhaps, from anti-Protestant motives. But this attitude, while
+not without parallels both earlier (Ghazali, Jehuda Halevi) and later
+(H.L. Mansel), has peculiarities in Pascal. It is _fallen_ man whom he
+pursues with his fierce scorn; his view of man's nature--intellect as
+well as character--is to be read in the light of his unflinching
+Augustinianism. Again, Pascal, unlike most apologists, belongs to the
+small company of saintly souls. This philosophical sceptic is full of
+humble joy in salvation, of deep love for the Saviour.
+
+Another French Roman Catholic apologist, P.D. Huet (1630-1721)--within
+the conditions of his age a prodigy of learning (in apologetics see his
+_Demonstratio Evangelica_)--is not uninfluenced by Pascal (_Traité de la
+faiblesse de l'esprit humaine_).
+
+As we might expect, Protestant lands are more busily occupied with
+apologetics. Intolerant reliance upon _force_ presents greater
+difficulties to them; soon it grows quite obsolete. Benedict Spinoza,
+the eminent Jewish pantheist (1632-1677), to whom miracle is impossible,
+revelation a phrase, and who renews pioneer work in Old Testament
+criticism, finds at least a fair measure of liberty and comfort in
+Holland (his birth-land). Bayle, the historical sceptic, lectured and
+published his learned _Dictionnaire_ (1696) at Rotterdam. From Holland,
+earlier, had proceeded an apologetic work by a man of European fame.
+Hugo Grotius's _De Veritate Christianae Religionis_ (1627) is partly the
+medieval tradition:--Oppose Mahommedans and Jews! It is partly
+practical:--Arm Christian sailors against religious danger! But in its
+cool spirit it forecasts the coming age, whose master is John Locke. His
+_Reasonableness of Christianity_ (1695) is the thesis of "a whole
+century" of theologians. And his _Essay on the Human Understanding_
+(1690) is almost a Bible to men of education during the same period; its
+lightest word treasured. Locke does not break with the compromise of
+Aquinas. But he transfers attention from _contents_ to _proof_. Reason
+proves that a revelation has been made-and then submits. Leibnitz has to
+supplement rather than correct Locke on this point.
+
+In such an atmosphere, deism readily uttered its protest against
+mysterious revelation. Deism is, in fact, the Thomist natural theology
+(more clearly distinguished from dogmatic theology than in the middle
+ages, alike by Protestants and by the post-Tridentine Church of Rome)
+now dissolving partnership with dogmatic and starting in business for
+itself. Or it is the doctrine of unfallen man's "natural state"--a
+doctrine intensified in Protestantism--separating itself from the
+theologians' grave doctrine of sin. If Socinianism had challenged
+natural theology--Christ, according to it, was the prophet who first
+revealed the way to eternal life--it had glorified the natural powers of
+man; and the learning of the Arminian divines (friends of Grotius and
+Locke) had helped to modernize Christian apologetics upon rational
+lines. Deism now taught that reason, or "the light of nature," was
+all-sufficient.
+
+Not to dwell upon earlier continental "Deists" (mentioned by Viret as
+quoted first in Bayle's _Dictionary_ and again in the introduction to
+Leland's _View of the Deistical Writers_), Lord Herbert of Cherbury (_De
+Veritate_, 1624; _De Religione Gentilium_, 1645?--according to J.G.
+Walch's _Bibliotheca Theologica_ (1757) not published complete until
+1663) was universally understood as hinting conclusions hostile to
+Christianity (cf. also T. Hobbes, _Leviathan_, 1651, ch. xxxi.; Spinoza,
+_Tractatus Theologico-Politicus_, 1670, ch. xiv.). Professedly,
+Herbert's contention merely is that non-Christians feeling after the
+"supreme God" and the law of righteousness must have a chance of
+salvation. Herbert was also epoch-making for the whole 18th century in
+teaching that _priests_ had _corrupted_ this primitive faith. During the
+18th century deism spread widely, though its leaders were "irrepressible
+men like Toland, men of mediocre culture and ability like Anthony
+Collins, vulgar men like Chubb, irritated and disagreeable men like
+Matthew Tindal, who conformed that he might enjoy his Oxford fellowship
+and wrote anonymously that he might relieve his conscience" (A.M.
+Fairbairn). More distinguished sympathizers are Edward Gibbon, who has
+the deistic spirit, and David Hume, the historian and philosophical
+sceptic, who has at least the letter of the deistic creed (_Dialogues
+Concerning Natural Religion_), and who uses Pascal's appeal to "faith"
+in a spirit of mockery (_Essay on Miracles_). In France the new school
+found powerful speaking-trumpets, especially Voltaire, the idol of his
+age--a great denier and scoffer, but always sincerely a believer in the
+God of reason--and the deeper but wilder spirit of J.J. Rousseau. Others
+in France developed still more startling conclusions from Locke's
+principles, E.B. Condillac's sensationalism--Locke's philosophy purged
+of its more ideal if less logical elements--leading on to materialism in
+J.O. de la Mettrie; and at least one of the Encyclopedists (P.H. von
+Holbach) capped materialism with confessed atheism.
+
+In Germany the parallel movement of "illumination" (H.S. Reimarus; J.S.
+Semler, pioneer in N.T. criticism; and a layman, the great Lessing) took
+the form of "rationalism" within the church--interpreting Bible texts by
+main force in a way which the age thought "enlightened" (H.E.G. Paulus,
+1761-1851, &c.).
+
+Among the innumerable English anti-deistic writers (see W. Law, The
+_Case of Reason_; R. Bentley, or "Phileleutherus Lipsiensis"; &c., &c.),
+three are of chief importance. Nathaniel Lardner (Arian, 1684-1768)
+stands in the front rank of the scholarship of his time, and uses his
+vast knowledge to maintain the genuineness of all books of the New
+Testament and the perfect accuracy of its history. Joseph Butler, a very
+original, careful and honest thinker, lifts controversy with deists from
+details to principles in his _Analogy of Religion both Natural and
+Revealed to the Constitution and Course of Nature_ (1736). This title
+introduces us to a new conception. Deists and orthodox in those days
+agreed in recognizing not merely natural theology but natural
+religion--"essential religion," Butler more than once styles it; the
+expression shows how near he stood intellectually to those he
+criticized. But morally he stood aloof. In part i.--on Natural
+Religion--he defends a moral or punishing Deity against the sentimental
+softness of the age. The God of Nature, whom deists confess does punish
+in time, if they will but look at the facts; why not in eternity?
+"Morality," as others have confessed, is "the nature of things"! Not the
+Being of God is discussed--Butler will not waste words on triflers (as
+he thinks them) who deny that--but God's character. Unfortunately
+(perhaps) Butler prefers to argue on _admitted principles_; holds much
+of his own moral belief in reserve; tries to reduce everything to a
+question of _probable fact_. If this hampers him in part i., the
+situation appears still worse in part ii., which is directly occupied
+with the defence of Christianity. Butler says nothing about
+incomprehensible mysteries, and protests that reason is the only ground
+we have to proceed upon. But by treating the atonement simply as
+revealed (and unexplained) matter of fact--in spite of some partial
+analogies in human experience, a thing essentially anomalous--Butler
+repeats, and applies to the _moral_ contents of Christianity, what
+Aquinas said of its speculative doctrines. (Whether one calls the
+unknowable a revealed mystery or an unexplained and inexplicable fact
+makes little difference.) William Paley (1743-1805) borrows from many
+writers; he borrows Lardner's learning and Butler's "particular evidence
+for Christianity," viz. miracles, prophecy and "history"; and he states
+his points with perfect clearness. No man ever filled a typical position
+more exactly than Paley. Eighteenth-century ethics--Hedonism, with a
+theological background. Empiricist Natural Theology--the argument from
+Design. Christian Evidences--the strong probability of the resurrection
+of Christ and the consequent authority of his teaching. _Horae
+Paulinae_--mutual confirmations of _Acts_ and Epistles; better, though
+one-sided. When such exclusively "external" arguments are urged, the
+contents of Christianity go for next to nothing.
+
+VI. _Later Modern Period._--Towards the end of the 18th century a new
+epoch of reconstruction begins in the thought and life of civilization.
+The leader in speculative philosophy is Immanuel Kant, though he
+includes many agnostic elements, and draws the inference (which some
+things in the letter of Butler might seem to warrant) that the essence
+of Christianity is an ethical theism. While he thus created a new and
+more ethical "rationalism," Kant's many-sided influence, alike in
+philosophy and in theology, worked to further issues. He (and other
+Germans, but not G.W.F. Hegel) was represented in England in a
+fragmentary way by S.T. Coleridge (1772-1834), probably the most typical
+figure of his period--another layman. His general thought was that
+"rationalism" represents an uprising of the lower reason or
+"understanding" against the higher or true "reason." The mysteries of
+theology are its best part--not alien to reason but of its substance,
+the "logos." This is to upset the compromise of Aquinas and go back to a
+Christian platonism. Of course the difficulty revives again: If a
+philosophy, why supernaturally revealed? Thomas Arnold, criticizing
+Edward Hawkins, appeals rather to the atonement as deeper neglected
+truth. So in Scotland, Thomas Erskine and Thomas Chalmers--the latter in
+contradiction to his earlier position--hold that the doctrine of
+salvation, when translated into experience, furnishes "internal
+evidence"--a somewhat broader use of the phrase than when it applies
+merely to evidence of date or authorship drawn from the contents of a
+book. This gives a new and moral filling to the conception of
+"supernatural revelation" The attempt to work out either of the
+reactions against Thomism in new theological systems is pretty much
+confined to Germany. Hegel's theological followers, of every shade and
+party, represent the first, and Schleiermacher's the second.
+Schleiermacher rejects natural religion in favour of the positive
+religions, while the school of A. Ritschl and W. Herrmann reject natural
+theology outright in favour of revelation--a striking external parallel
+to early Socinianism. British and American divines, on the other hand,
+are slow to suspect that a new apologetic principle may mean a new
+system of apologetics, to say nothing of a new dogmatic. Among the
+evangelicals, for the most part, natural theology, far from being
+rejected, is not even modified, and certain doctrines continue to be
+described as incomprehensible mysteries. No Protestant, of course, can
+agree with Roman Catholic theology that (supernatural) faith is an
+obedient assent to church authority and the mysteries it dictates. To
+Protestantism, faith is personal trust. But the principle is hardly ever
+carried out to the end. Mysterious doctrines are ascribed by Protestants
+to _scripture_; so half of revelation is regarded as matter for blind
+assent, if another half is luminous in experience. The movement of
+German philosophy which led from Kant to Hegel has indeed found powerful
+British champions (T.H. Green, J. and E. Caird, &c.), but less churchly
+than Coleridge (or F.D. Maurice or B.F. Westcott), though churchly again
+in J.R. Illingworth and other contributors to _Lux Mundi_ (1890). Before
+this wave of thought, H.L. Mansel tried (1858) to play Pascal's game on
+Kantian principles, developing the sceptical side of Kant's many-faceted
+mind. But as he protested against relying on the human conscience--the
+one element of positive conviction spared by Kant--his ingenuity found
+few admirers except H. Spencer, who claims him as justifying
+anti-Christian agnosticism. Butler's tradition was more directly
+continued by J.H. Newman--with modifications on becoming a Roman
+Catholic in the light of the church's decision in favour of Thomism.
+A.M. Fairbairn (_Catholicism, Roman and Anglican_, ch. v., and
+elsewhere) and E.A. Abbott (_Philomythus_, and elsewhere) suspect Newman
+of a sceptical leaven and extend the criticism to Butler's doctrine of
+"probability." Yet it seems plain that any theology, maintaining
+redemption as historical fact (and not merely ideal), must attach
+religious importance to conclusions which are technically probable
+rather than proven. If we transfer Christian evidence from the
+"historical" to the "philosophical" with H. Rashdall--we surely cut down
+Christianity to the limits of theism. And the _inner_ mind of Butler has
+moral anchorage in the _Analogy_, quite as much as in the _Sermons_. It
+is in part ii. more than in part i. of his masterpiece that the light
+seems to grow dim. Another of the Oxford converts to Rome, W.G. Ward,
+made vigorous contributions to natural theology.
+
+VII. _Contents of Modern Apologetics._--Superficially regarded,
+philosophy ebbs and flows, whatever progress the debate may reveal to
+speculative insight. Old positions re-emerge from forgetfulness, and
+there is always a philosophy to back every "case." More visible dangers
+arise for the apologist in the region of science, historical or
+physical. There the progress of truth, within whatever limits, is
+manifest. _Essays and Reviews_ (1860) was a vehement announcement of
+scientific results--startling English conservatism awake for the first
+time. And in the scientific region the great apologetic classics, like
+Butler, are hopelessly out of date. The modern apologist must do
+ephemeral work--unless it should chance that he proves to be the
+skirmisher, pioneering for a modified dogmatic. He holds a watching
+brief. While he must beware of hasty speech, he has often to plead that
+new knowledge does not really threaten faith; or that it is not
+genuinely established knowledge at all; or else, that faith has mistaken
+its own grounds, and will gain strength by concentrating on its true
+field. The work is not always well done; but the Christian church needs
+it.
+
+1. _Apologetics and Philosophy._--The main part of this subject is
+discussed under THEISM. Some notes may be added on special points, (a)
+Freewill is generally assumed on the Christian side (R.C. Church;
+Scottish philosophy; H. Lotze; J. Martineau; W.G. Ward. Not in a
+libertarian sense; Leibnitz. New and obscure issues raised by Kant). But
+there is no continuous tradition or steady trend of discussion. (b)
+Personal immortality is affirmed as philosophically certain by the
+Church of Rome and many Protestant writers. Others teach "conditional
+immortality." Others base the hope on belief in the resurrection of
+Christ, (c) Theodicy--the tradition of Leibnitz is preserved (on
+libertarian lines) by Martineau (_A Study of Religion_, 1883). See also
+F.R. Tennant's _Origin and Propagation of Sin_ (1902)--sin a
+"bye-product" of a generally good evolution. Others find in the gospel
+of redemption the true theodicy. (d) The problem of Christian apologetic
+has been simplified in the past by the prevalence of the Christian
+ethics and temper even among many non-Christians (e.g. J.S. Mill). But
+hereafter it may not prove possible for the apologist to assume as
+unchallenged the Christian moral outlook. Germans have suspected an
+anti-Christian strain in Goethe; all the world knows of it in E. von
+Hartmann or F. Nietzsche.
+
+2. _Apologetics and Physical Science._--(a) Copernicanism has won its
+battles and the Church of Rome would fain have its error forgotten. The
+admission is now general that the Bible cannot be expected to use the
+language of scientific astronomy. Still, it is not certain that the
+shock of Copernicanism on supernatural Christianity is exhausted. (b)
+Geology has also won its battles, and few now try to harmonize it with
+Genesis. (c) Evolution came down from the clouds when C. Darwin and A.R.
+Wallace succeeded in displacing the naïf conception of special creation
+by belief in the origin of species out of other species through a
+process of natural law. This gave immense vogue to wider and vaguer
+theories of evolutionary process, notably to H. Spencer's grandiose
+cosmic formula in terms of mechanism. Here the apologist has more to
+say. The special Darwinian hypothesis--natural "selection"--may or may
+not be true; it was at least a fruitful suggestion. If true, it need not
+be exhaustive. Again, evolution itself need not apply everywhere. We are
+offered a philosophical rather than a scientific speculation when E.
+Caird (_Evolution of Religion_, 1893) tries to vindicate Christianity as
+the highest working of nature--true just _because_ evolved from lower
+religions. The Christian apologist indeed may himself seek, following
+John Fiske, to philosophize evolution as a restatement of natural
+theology--"one God, one law, one element and one far-off divine
+event"--and as at least pointing _towards_ personal immortality. But if
+evolution is to be the whole truth regarding Christianity, we should
+have to surrender both _supernatural revelation_ and _divine
+redemption_. And these, it may be strongly urged, contain the magic of
+Christianity. Losing them it might sink into a lifeless theory.
+
+As far as pure science goes, the inference from science in favour of
+materialism has visibly lost much of its plausibility, and Protestant
+apologists would probably be prepared to accept in advance all verified
+discoveries as belonging to a different region from that of faith. Roman
+Catholic apologetic prefers to negotiate in detail.
+
+3. _Apologetics and History._--History brings us nearer the heart of the
+Christian position. (a) Old Testament criticism won startling victories
+towards the end of the 19th century. It blots out much supposed
+knowledge, but throws a vivid and interesting light on the reconstrued
+process of history. Most Protestants accept the general scheme of
+criticism; those who hang back make not a few concessions (e.g. J. Orr,
+_Problem of the O.T._, 1906). The Roman Catholic Church again prefers an
+attitude of reserve, (b) New Testament criticism raises even more
+delicate issues. Positively it may be affirmed that the recovered figure
+of the historical Jesus is the greatest asset in the possession of
+modern Christian theology and apologetics. The "Lives" of Christ, Roman
+Catholic and Protestant; "critical" (D.F. Strauss, A. Renan, &c., &c.)
+and "believing," imply this at least. Negatively, "unchallenged
+historical certainties" are becoming few in number, or are disappearing
+altogether, through the industry of modern minds. True, the Tübingen
+criticism of F.C. Baur and his school--important as the first scientific
+attempt to conceive New Testament conditions and literature as a
+whole--has been abandoned. (A. Ritschl's _Entstehung der
+alt-katholischen Kirche_, 2nd edition, 1857, was an especially telling
+reply.) The synoptic gospels are now treated with considerable respect.
+It is no longer suggested in responsible quarters that they are party
+documents sacrificing truth to "tendency." But not all quarters are
+responsible; and in the effort to grasp scientifically, i.e. accurately,
+the amazing facts of Christ and primitive Christianity, every imaginable
+hypothesis is canvassed. Even the Roman Catholic Church produced the
+Abbé Loisy (though he undertakes to play off church certainties against
+historical uncertainties). Hitherto at least the fourth gospel has been
+the touchstone. The authorship of the epistles is in many cases a matter
+of subordinate importance; at least for Protestants or for those
+surrendering Bible infallibility, which Rome can hardly do. (c) New
+Testament history, The apologist must maintain (1) that Jesus of
+Nazareth is a real historical figure--a point well-nigh overlooked by
+Strauss, and denied by some modern advocates of a mythical theory; (2)
+that Jesus is knowable (not one "of whom we really know very little"--B.
+Jowett) in his teaching, example, character, historical personality; and
+that he is full of moral splendour. On the other hand, faith has no
+special interest in claiming that we can compose a biographical study of
+the development of Jesus. Certainly no early writer thought of providing
+material for such use. It is a common opinion in Germany that our
+material is in fact too scanty or too self-contradictory. Yet the
+fascination of the subject will always revive the attempt. If it
+succeeds, there will be a new line of communication along which that
+great personality will tell on men's minds and hearts. If it
+fails--there are other channels; character can be known and trusted even
+when we are baffled by a thing necessarily so full of mystery as the
+development of a personality. Notably, the manifest _non-consciousness
+of personal guilt_ in Jesus suggests to us his sinlessness. (3)
+Apologists maintain that Jesus "claimed" Messiahship. There are
+speculative constructions of gospel history which eliminate that claim;
+and no doubt apologetics could--with more or less difficulty--restate
+its position in a changed form if the paradox of to-day became accepted
+as historical fact to-morrow. The central apologetic thesis is the
+_uniqueness_ of the "only-begotten"; it is here that "the supernatural"
+passes into the substance of Christian faith. But most probably the
+description of Jesus as thus unique will continue to be associated with
+the allegation--He told us so; he claimed Messiahship and "died for the
+claim." (See preface to 5th ed. of _Ecce Homo_.) Nor did so superhuman a
+claim crush him, or deprive his soul of its balance. He imparted to the
+title a grander significance out of the riches of his personality. (4)
+In the light of this the "argument from prophecy" is reconstructed. It
+ceases to lay much stress upon coincidences between Old Testament
+predictions or "types" and events in Christ's career. It becomes the
+assertion; historically, providentially, the expectation of a _unique
+religious figure_ arose--"the" Messiah; and Jesus gave himself to be
+thought of as that great figure. (5) It is also claimed as certain that
+Jesus had marvellous powers of healing. More reserve is being shown
+towards the other or "nature" miracles. These latter, it may be
+remarked, are more unambiguously supernatural. But, if Jesus really
+cured leprosy or really restored the dead to life, we have miracle
+plainly enough in the region of healing. (6) For Jesus' own resurrection
+several lines of evidence are alleged. (i.) All who believe that in any
+sense Christ rose again insist upon the impression which his personality
+made during life. It was _he_ whose resurrection seemed credible! Some
+practically stop here; the apologist proceeds. (ii.) There is the report
+of the empty grave; historically, not easily waved aside. (iii.) We have
+New Testament reports of appearances of the risen Jesus; subjective? the
+mere clothing of the impression made by his personality during life? or
+objective? "telegrams" from heaven (Th. Keim)--"Veridical
+Hallucinations"? or something even more, throwing a ray of light perhaps
+on the state and powers of the happy dead? (iv.) There is the immense
+influence of Jesus Christ in history, _associated with belief in him_ as
+the risen Son of God.
+
+In view of the claims of Jesus, different possibilities arise, (i.) The
+evangelists impute to him a higher claim than he made. This may be
+called the rationalistic solution; with sympathy in Christ's ethical
+teaching, there is relief at minimizing his great claim. So,
+brilliantly, Wellhausen's Gospel commentaries and Introduction. (Mark
+fairly historical; other gospels' fuller account of Christ's teaching
+and claims unreliable.) (ii.) The claim was fraudulent (Reimarus; Renan,
+ed. 1; popular anti-Christian agitation). This is a counsel of despair.
+(iii.) He was an enthusiastic dreamer, expecting the world's end. This
+the apologist will recognize as the most plausible hostile alternative.
+He may feel bound to admit an element of illusion in Christ's vision' of
+the future; but he will contend that the apocalyptic form did not
+destroy the spiritual content of Christ's revelations--nay, that it was
+itself the vehicle of great truths. So he will argue as the essence of
+the matter that (iv.) he who has occupied Christ's place in history, and
+won such reverence from the purest souls, was what he claimed to be, and
+that his many-sidedness comes to focus and harmony when we recognize him
+as the Christ of God and the Saviour of the world.
+
+To a less extent, similar problems and alternatives arise in regard to
+the church:--Catholicism a compromise between Jewish Christianity and
+Pauline or Gentile Christianity (F.C. Baur, &c.); Catholicism the
+Hellenizing of Christianity (A. Ritschl, A. Harnack); the Catholic
+church for good and evil the creation of St Paul (P. Wernle, H. Weinel);
+the church supernaturally guided (R.C. apologetic; in a modified degree
+High Church apologetic); essential--not necessarily exclusive--truth of
+Paulinism, essential error in first principles of Catholicism
+(Protestant apologetic).
+
+  LITERATURE.--Omitting the Christian fathers as remote from the present
+  day, we recognize as works of genius Pascal's _Pensées_ and Butler's
+  _Analogy_, to which we might add J.R. Seeley's _Ecce Homo_ (1865). The
+  philosophical, Platonist, or Idealist line of Christian defence is
+  represented among recent writers by J.R. Illingworth [Anglican], in
+  _Personality, Human and Divine_ (1894), _Divine Immanence_ (1898),
+  _Reason and Revelation_ (1902), who at times seems rather to
+  presuppose the Thomist compromise, and A.M. Fairbairn
+  [Congregationalist], in _Place of Christ in Modern Theology_ (1893),
+  _Philosophy of the Christian Religion_ (1902). The appeal to ethical
+  or Christian experience--"internal evidence"--is found especially in
+  E.A. Abbott [Christianity supernatural and divine, but not
+  miraculous], _Through Nature to Christ_ (1877), _The Kernel and the
+  Husk_ (1886), _The Spirit on the Waters_ (1897), &c., or A.B. Bruce,
+  _Chief End of Revelation_ (1881), _The Miraculous Element in the
+  Gospels_ (1886), _Apologetics_ (1892), and other works; Bruce's
+  posthumous article, "Jesus" in _Encyc. Bib._, was understood by some
+  as exchanging Christian orthodoxy for bare theism, but probably its
+  tone of aloofness is due to the attempt to keep well within the limits
+  of what the author considered pure scientific history. Scholarly and
+  apologetic discussion on the gospels and life of Jesus is further
+  represented by the writings of W. Sanday or (earlier) of J.B.
+  Lightfoot. Much American work of merit on the character of Christ is
+  headed by W. E Channing, and by H. Bushnell (in _Nature and the
+  Supernatural_). For defence of Christ's resurrection, reference may be
+  made to H. Latham's _The Risen Lord_ and R. Mackintosh's _First Primer
+  of Apologetics_. For modification in light of recent scholarship of
+  argument from prophecy, to Riehm's _Messianic Prophecy_, Stanton's
+  _Jewish and Christian Messiah_, and Woods's _Hope of Israel_. Roman
+  Catholic apologetics--of necessity, Thomist--is well represented by
+  Professor Schanz of Tübingen. The whole Ritschl movement is apologetic
+  in spirit; best English account in A.E. Garvie's _Ritschlian Theology_
+  (1899). See also the chief church histories or histories of doctrine
+  (Harnack; Loofs; Hagenbach; Shedd); A.S. Farrar's _Critical History of
+  Free_ (i.e. anti-Christian) _Thought_ (Bampton Lectures, 1862); R.C.
+  Trench's Introduction to _Notes on the Miracles_, and F.W. Macran's
+  _English Apologetic Theology_ (1905). For the 18th century, G.V.
+  Lechler's _Geschichte des englischen Deismus_ (1841); Mark Pattison in
+  _Essays and Reviews_ (1860); Leslie Stephen's _English Thought in 18th
+  Century_ (agnostic); John Hunt, _Religious Thought in England_ (3
+  vols., 1870-1873).     (R. Ma.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] While these writings are of great historical value, they do not,
+    of course, represent the Christian argument as conceived to-day. The
+    Church of Rome prefers medieval or modern statements of its position;
+    Protestantism can use only modern statements.
+
+
+
+
+APOLOGUE (from the Gr. [Greek: apologos], a statement or account), a
+short fable or allegorical story, meant to serve as a pleasant vehicle
+for some moral doctrine or to convey some useful lesson. One of the best
+known is that of Jotham in the Book of Judges (ix. 7-15); others are
+"The City Rat and Field Rat," by Horace, "The Belly and its Members," by
+the patrician Menenius Agrippa in the second book of Livy, and perhaps
+most famous of all, those of Aesop. The term is applied more
+particularly to a story in which the actors or speakers are taken from
+the brute creation or inanimate nature. An apologue is distinguished
+from a fable in that there is always some moral sense present, which
+there need not be in a fable. It is generally dramatic, and has been
+defined as "a satire in action." It differs from a parable in several
+respects. A parable is equally an ingenious tale intended to correct
+manners, but it can be _true_, while an apologue, with its introduction
+of animals and plants, to which it lends our ideas and language and
+emotions, is necessarily devoid of real truth, and even of all
+probability. The parable reaches heights to which the apologue cannot
+aspire, for the points in which brutes and inanimate nature present
+analogies to man are principally those of his lower nature, and the
+lessons taught by the apologue seldom therefore reach beyond prudential
+morality, whereas the parable aims at representing the relations between
+man and God. It finds its framework in the world of nature as it
+actually is, and not in any grotesque parody of it, and it exhibits real
+and not fanciful analogies. The apologue seizes on that which man has in
+common with creatures below him, and the parable on that which he has in
+common with God. Still, in spite of the difference of moral level,
+Martin Luther thought so highly of apologues as counsellors of virtue
+that he edited and revised Aesop and wrote a characteristic preface to
+the volume. The origin of the apologue is extremely ancient and comes
+from the East, which is the natural fatherland of everything connected
+with allegory, metaphor and imagination. Veiled truth was often
+necessary in the East, particularly with the slaves, who dared not
+reveal their minds too openly. It is noteworthy that the two fathers of
+apologue in the West were slaves, namely Aesop and Phaedrus. La Fontaine
+in France; Gay and Dodsley in England; Gellert, Lessing and Hagedorn in
+Germany; Tomas de Iriarte in Spain, and Krilov in Russia, are leading
+modern writers of apologues. Length is not an essential matter in the
+definition of an apologue. Those of La Fontaine are often very short,
+as, for example, "Le Coque et la Perle." On the other hand, in the
+romances of Reynard the Fox we have medieval apologues arranged in
+cycles, and attaining epical dimensions. An Italian fabulist, Corti, is
+said to have developed an apologue of "The Talking Animals" to the bulk
+of twenty-six cantos. La Motte, writing at a time when this species of
+literature was universally admired, attributes its popularity to the
+fact that it _ménage et flatte l'amour-propre_ by inculcating virtue in
+an amusing manner without seeming to dictate or insist. This was the
+ordinary 18th-century view of the matter, but Rousseau contested the
+educational value of instruction given in this indirect form.
+
+  A work by P. Soullé, _La Fontaine et ses devanciers_ (1866), is a
+  history of the apologue from the earliest times until its final
+  triumph in France.
+
+
+
+
+APOLOGY (from Gr. [Greek: apologia], defence), in its usual sense, an
+expression of regret for something which has been wrongfully said or
+done; a withdrawal or retraction of some charge or imputation which is
+false. In an action for libel, the fact that an apology has been
+promptly and fully made is a plea in mitigation of damages. The apology
+should have the same form of publicity as the original charge. If made
+publicly, the proper form is an advertisement in a newspaper; if made
+within the hearing of a few only, a letter of apology, which may be read
+to those who have heard what was said, should be sufficient. By the
+English Libel Act 1843, s. 2, it was enacted that in an action for libel
+contained in a newspaper it is a defence for the defendant to plead that
+the libel was inserted without actual malice and without gross
+negligence, and that before the commencement of the action and at the
+earliest opportunity afterwards he inserted in the newspaper a full
+apology for the libel, or, where the newspaper in which the libel
+appeared was published at intervals exceeding one week, he offered to
+publish the apology in any newspaper selected by the plaintiff. The
+apology must be full and must be printed in as conspicuous a place and
+manner as the libel was.
+
+The word "apology" or "apologia" is also used in the sense of defence or
+vindication, the only meaning of the Greek [Greek: apologia], especially
+of the defence of a doctrine or system, or of religious or other
+beliefs, &c., e.g. Justin Martyr's _Apology_ or J.H. Newman's _Apologia
+pro vita sua_. (See APOLOGETICS.)
+
+
+
+
+APONEUROSIS ([Greek: apo], away, and [Greek: neuron], a sinew), in
+anatomy, a membrane separating muscles from each other.
+
+
+
+
+APOPHTHEGM (from the [Greek: apophthegma]), a short and pointed
+utterance. The usual spelling up to Johnson's day was _apothegm_, which
+Webster and Worcester still prefer; it indicates the pronunciation--i.e.
+"apothem"--better than the other, which, however, is more usual in
+England and follows the derivation. Such sententious remarks as
+"Knowledge is Power" are apophthegms. They become "proverbs" by age and
+acceptance. Plutarch made a famous collection in his _Apophthegmata
+Laconica_.
+
+
+
+
+APOPHYGE (Gr. [Greek: apophugae], a flying off), in architecture, the
+lowest part of the shaft of an Ionic or Corinthian column, or the
+highest member of its base if the column be considered as a whole. The
+apophyge is the inverted cavetto or concave sweep, on the upper edge of
+which the diminishing shaft rests.
+
+
+
+
+APOPHYLLITE, a mineral often classed with the zeolites, since it behaves
+like these when heated before the blowpipe and has the same mode of
+occurrence; it differs, however, from the zeolites proper in containing
+no aluminium. It is a hydrous potassium and calcium silicate,
+H7KCa4(SiO3)8 + 4½(H2O). A small amount of fluorine is often present,
+and it is one of the few minerals in which ammonium has been detected.
+The temperature at which the water is expelled is higher than is usually
+the case with zeolites; none is given off below 200°, and only about
+half at 250°; this is slowly reabsorbed again from moist air, and is
+therefore regarded as water of crystallization, the remainder being
+water of constitution. When heated before the blowpipe, the mineral
+exfoliates, owing to loss of water, and on this account was named
+apophyllite by R.J. Haüy in 1806, from the Greek [Greek: apo], from, and
+[Greek: phullon], a leaf.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Apophyllite always occurs as distinct crystals, which belong to the
+tetragonal system. The form is either a square prism terminated by the
+basal planes (fig. 2), or an acute pyramid (fig. 1). A prominent feature
+of the mineral is its perfect basal cleavage, on which the lustre is
+markedly pearly, presenting, in white crystals, somewhat the appearance
+of the eye of a fish after boiling, hence the old name fish-eye-stone or
+ichthyophthalmite for the mineral. On other surfaces the lustre is
+vitreous. The crystals are usually transparent and colourless, sometimes
+with a greenish or rose-red tint. Opaque white crystals of cubic habit
+have been called albine; xylochlore is an olive-green variety. The
+hardness is 4½, and the specific gravity 2.35.
+
+The optical characters of the mineral are of special interest, and have
+been much studied. The sign of the double refraction may be either
+positive or negative, and some crystals are divided into optically
+biaxial sectors. The variety known as leucocyclite shows, when examined
+in convergent polarized light, a peculiar interference figure, the rings
+being alternately white and violet-black and not coloured as in a normal
+figure seen in white light.
+
+Apophyllite is a mineral of secondary origin, commonly occurring, in
+association with other zeolites, in amygdaloidal cavities in basalt and
+melaphyre. Magnificent groups of greenish and colourless tabular
+crystals, the crystals several inches across, were found, with flesh-red
+stilbite, in the Deccan traps of the Western Gháts, near Bombay, during
+the construction of the Great Indian Peninsular railway. Groups of
+crystals of a beautiful pink colour have been found in the silver veins
+of Andreasberg in the Harz and of Guanaxuato in Mexico. Crystals of
+recent formation have been detected in the Roman remains at the hot
+springs of Plombières in France.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+APOPHYSIS (Gr. [Greek: apophysis], offshoot), a bony protuberance, in
+human physiology; also a botanical term for the swelling of the
+spore-case in certain mosses.
+
+
+
+
+APOPLEXY (Gr. [Greek: apoplaexia], from [Greek: apoplaessein], to strike
+down, to stun), the term employed by Galen to designate the "sudden loss
+of feeling and movement of the whole body, with the exception of
+respiration," to which, after the time of Harvey, was added "and with
+the exception of the circulation." Although the term is occasionally
+employed in medicine with other significations, yet in its general
+acceptation apoplexy may be defined as a sudden loss of consciousness,
+of sensibility, and of movement without any _essential_ modification of
+the respiratory and circulatory functions occasioned by some brain
+disease. It was discovered that the majority of the cases of apoplexy
+were due to cerebral haemorrhage, and what looked like cerebral
+haemorrhage, red softening; and the idea for a long time prevailed that
+apoplexy and cerebral haemorrhage could be employed as synonymous terms,
+and that an individual who, in popular parlance, "had an apoplectic
+stroke," had necessarily suffered from haemorrhage into his brain. A
+small haemorrhage may not, however, cause an apoplectic fit, nor is an
+apoplectic fit always caused by haemorrhage; it may be due to sudden
+blocking of a large vessel by a clot from a distant part (embolism), or
+by a sudden clotting of the blood in the vessel itself (thrombosis).
+Owing to the prevailing idea in former times that cerebral haemorrhage
+and apoplexy were synonymous terms, the word apoplexy was applied to
+haemorrhage into other organs than the brain; thus the terms pulmonary
+apoplexy, retinal apoplexy and splenic apoplexy were used.
+
+The term "apoplexy" is now used in clinical medicine to denote that form
+of coma or deep state of unconsciousness which is due to sudden
+disturbance of the cerebral circulation occasioned by a local cause
+within the cranial cavity, as distinct from the loss of consciousness
+due to sudden failure of the heart's action (syncope) or the coma of
+narcotic or alcoholic poisoning, of _status epilepticus_, of uraemia or
+of head injury.
+
+The sudden coma of sunstroke and heat-stroke might be included, although
+owing to the suddenness with which a person may be struck down, the term
+_heat apoplexy_ is frequently used, and, from an etymological point of
+view, quite justifiably. The older writers use the term _simple
+apoplexy_ for a sudden attack which could not be explained by any
+visible disease. Again, _congestive apoplexy_ was applied to those cases
+of coma where, at the autopsy, nothing was found to account for the coma
+and death except engorgement of the vessels of the brain and its
+membranes. In senile dementia and in general paralysis the brain is
+shrunken and the convolutions atrophied, the increased space in the
+ventricles and between the convolutions being filled up with the
+cerebro-spinal fluid. In these diseases apoplectic states may arise,
+terminating fatally; the excess of fluid found in such cases was
+formerly thought to be the cause of the symptoms, consequently the
+condition was called _serous apoplexy_. Such terms are no longer used,
+owing to the better knowledge of the pathology of brain disease.
+
+Having thus narrowed down the application of the term "apoplexy," we are
+in a position to consider its chief features, and the mechanism by which
+it is produced. Apoplexy may be rapidly fatal, but it is very seldom
+_instantly_ fatal. The onset is usually sudden, and sometimes the
+individual may be struck down in an instant, senseless and motionless,
+"warranting those epithets, which the ancients applied to the victims of
+this disease, of _attoniti_ and _siderati_, as if they were
+thunder-stricken or planet-struck" (Sir Thomas Watson). The attack,
+however, may be less sudden and, not infrequently, attended by a
+convulsion; while occasionally, in the condition termed _ingravescent
+apoplexy_, the coma is gradual in its onset, occupying hours in its
+development. Although unexpected, various warning symptoms, sometimes
+slight, sometimes pronounced, occur in the majority of cases. Such are,
+fulness in the head, headache, giddiness, noises in the ears, mental
+confusion, slight lapses of consciousness, numbness or tingling in the
+limbs. A characteristic apoplectic attack presents the following
+phenomena: the individual falls down suddenly and lies without sense or
+motion, except that his pulse keeps beating and his breathing continues.
+He appears to be in a deep sleep, from which he cannot be roused; the
+breathing is laboured and stertorous, and is accompanied with puffing
+out of the cheeks; the pulse may be beating more strongly than natural,
+and the face is often flushed and turgid. The reflexes are abolished.
+Although apoplexy may occur without paralysis, and paralysis without
+apoplexy, the two, owning the same cause, very frequently co-exist, or
+happen in immediate sequence and connexion; consequently there is in
+most cases definite evidence of paralysis affecting usually one side of
+the body in addition to the coma. Thus the pupils are unequal; there may
+be asymmetry of the face, or the limbs may be more rigid or flaccid on
+one side than on the other. These signs of localized disease enable a
+distinction to be made from the coma of narcotic poisoning and
+alcoholic intoxication. It must be borne in mind that a person smelling
+strongly of liquor and found lying in the street in a comatose state may
+be suffering from apoplexy, and the error of sending a dying man to a
+police cell may be avoided by this knowledge.
+
+If the fit is only moderately severe, the reflexes soon return, and the
+patient may in a few hours show indications of returning consciousness
+by making some movements or opening his eyes when spoken to, although
+later it may be found that he is unable to speak, or may be paralysed or
+mentally afflicted (see PARALYSIS). In severe cases the coma deepens and
+the patient dies, usually from interference with the breathing, or, less
+commonly, from arrest of the heart's action.
+
+The mechanism by which apoplexy is produced has been a matter of much
+dispute; the condition was formerly ascribed to the pressure exerted by
+the clot on the rest of the brain, but there is no increase of
+intracranial pressure in an apoplectic fit occurring as a result of the
+sudden closure of a large vessel by embolism or thrombosis. Suddenness
+of the lesion appears to be, then, the essential element common to all
+cases of apoplexy from organic brain disease. It is the sudden shock to
+the delicate mechanism that produces the unconsciousness; but seeing
+that the coma is usually deeper and more prolonged in cerebral
+haemorrhage than when occasioned by vascular occlusion, and that an
+ingravescent apoplexy coma gradually develops and deepens as the amount
+of haemorrhage increases, we may presume that increase of intracranial
+pressure does play an important part in the degree and intensity of the
+coma caused by the rupture of a vessel. Apoplexy seldom occurs under
+forty years of age, but owing to the fact that disease of the cerebral
+vessels may exist at any age, from causes which are fully explained in
+the article NEUROPATHOLOGY, no period of life is exempt; consequently
+cases of true apoplexy are not wanting even in very young children.
+Recognizing that there are two causes of apoplexy in advanced life, viz.
+(1) sudden rupture of a diseased vessel usually associated with high
+arterial pressure, enlarged, powerfully acting heart and chronic renal
+disease, and (2) the sudden clotting of blood in a large diseased vessel
+favoured by a low arterial pressure due to a weak-acting heart, it is
+obvious that the character of the pulse forms a good guide to the
+diagnosis of the cause, the prevention and warding off of an attack, and
+the treatment of such should it occur.
+
+Anything which tends directly or indirectly to increase arterial
+pressure within the cerebral blood-vessels may bring on an attack of
+cerebral haemorrhage; and although the identification of an apoplectic
+habit of body with a stout build, a short neck and florid complexion is
+now generally discredited, it being admitted that apoplexy occurs as
+frequently in thin and spare persons who present no such peculiarity of
+conformation, yet a plethoric habit of body, occasioned by immoderate
+eating or drinking associated with the gouty diathesis, leads to a
+general arterio-sclerosis and high arterial pressure. All conditions
+which can give rise to a local intracranial or a general bodily increase
+of the arterial pressure, i.e. severe exertion of body and mind, violent
+emotions, much stooping, overheated rooms, exposure to the sun, sudden
+shocks to the body, constipation and straining at stool, may, by
+suddenly increasing the strain on the wall of a diseased vessel, lead to
+its rupture.
+
+The outlook of apoplexy is generally unfavourable in cases where the
+coma is profound; death may take place at different intervals after the
+onset. If the patient, after recovering from the initial coma, suffers
+with continual headache and lapses into a drowsy state, the result is
+likely to be serious; for such a condition probably indicates that an
+inflammatory change has taken place about the clot or in the area of
+softening.
+
+_Treatment._--The patient should be placed in the recumbent position
+with the head and shoulders slightly raised. He should be moved as
+little as possible from the place where the attack occurred. The medical
+man who is summoned will probably give the following directions: an
+ice-bag to be applied to the head; a few grains of calomel or a drop of
+croton oil in butter to be placed on the tongue, or an enema of castor
+oil to be administered. He may find it necessary to draw off the water
+with a catheter. The practice of blood-letting, once so common in this
+disease, is seldom resorted to, although in some cases, where there is
+very high arterial tension and a general state of plethora, it might be
+beneficial. Depletives are not employed where there is evidence of
+failure of the heart's action; indeed the cautious administration of
+stimulants may be necessary, either subcutaneously or by the mouth (if
+there exist a power of swallowing), together with warm applications to
+the surface of the body; a water-bed may be required, and careful
+nursing, is essential to prevent complications, especially the formation
+of bedsores.     (F. W. Mo.)
+
+
+
+
+APOROSE (from Gr. [Greek: ha], without, and [Greek: poros], passage), a
+biological term meaning imperforate, or not porous: there is a group of
+corals called _Aporosa_.
+
+
+
+
+APOSIOPESIS (the Greek for "becoming silent"), a rhetorical device by
+which the speaker or writer stops short and leaves something
+unexpressed, but yet obvious, to be supplied by the imagination. The
+classical example is the threat, "Quos ego----!" of Neptune (in Virgil,
+_Aen._ i. 135).
+
+
+
+
+APOSTASY ([Greek: apostasis], in classical Greek a defection or revolt
+from a military commander), a term generally employed to describe a
+complete renunciation of the Christian faith, or even an exchange of one
+form of it for another, especially if the motive be unworthy. In the
+first centuries of the Christian era, apostasy was most commonly induced
+by persecution, and was indicated by some outward act, such as offering
+incense to a heathen deity or blaspheming the name of Christ.[1] In the
+Roman Catholic Church the word is also applied to the renunciation of
+monastic vows (_apostasis a monachatu_), and to the abandonment of the
+clerical profession for the life of the world (_apostasis a clericatu_).
+Such defection was formerly often punished severely.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The readmission of such apostates to the church was a matter that
+    occasioned serious controversy. The emperor Julian's "Apostasy" is
+    discussed under JULIAN.
+
+
+
+
+APOSTIL, or APOSTILLE (possibly connected with Lat. _appositum_, placed
+near), a marginal note made by a commentator.
+
+
+
+
+APOSTLE ([Greek: apostolos], one sent forth on a mission, an envoy, as
+in Is. xviii. 2; Symmachus, [Greek: apostellein apostolous]; Aquila,
+[Greek: presbentas]), a technical term used in the New Testament and in
+Christian literature generally for a special envoy of Jesus Christ. How
+far it had any similar use in Judaism in Christ's day is uncertain; but
+in the 4th century A.D., at any rate, it denoted responsible envoys from
+the central Jewish authority, especially for the collection of religious
+funds. In its first and simplest Christian form, the idea is present
+already in Mark iii. 14 f., where from the general circle of his
+disciples Jesus "made twelve ('whom he also named apostles,' Luke vi.
+13, but doubtful in Mark), that they should be with him, and that he
+might from time to time send them forth ([Greek: hina apostellae]) to
+preach and to have authority to cast out demons." Later on (vi. 6 ff.),
+in connexion with systematic preaching among the villages of Galilee,
+Jesus begins actually to "send forth" the twelve, two by two; and on
+their return from this mission (vi. 30) they are for the first time
+described as "apostles" or missionary envoys. Matthew (x. 1 ff.) blends
+the calling of the twelve with their actual sending forth, while Luke
+(vi. 13) makes Jesus himself call them "apostles" (for Luke's usage cf.
+xi. 49, "prophets and apostles," where Matthew, xxiii. 34, has "prophets
+and wise men and scribes"). But it is doubtful whether Jesus ever used
+the term for the Twelve, in relation to their temporary missions, any
+more than for the "seventy others" whom he "sent forth" later (Luke x.
+1). Even the Fourth Gospel never so describes them. It simply has "a
+servant is not greater than his lord, neither an apostle (envoy) greater
+than he that sent him" (xiii. 16); and applies the idea of "mission"
+alike to Jesus (cf. Heb. iii. 1, "Jesus, the apostle ... of our
+profession") and to his disciples, generally, as represented by the
+Twelve (xvii. 18, with 3, 6 ff.). But while ideally all Christ's
+disciples were "sent" with the Father's Name in charge, there were
+different degrees in which this applied in practice; and so we find
+"apostle" used in several senses, once it emerges as a technical term.
+
+1. In the Apostolic age itself, "apostle" often denotes simply an
+"envoy," commissioned by Jesus Christ to be a primary witness and
+preacher of the Messianic Kingdom. This wide sense was shown by
+Lightfoot (in his commentary on _Galatians_, 1865) to exist in the New
+Testament, e.g. in 1 Cor. xii. 28 f., Eph. iv. ii, Rom. xvi. 7; and his
+view has since been emphasized[1] by the discovery of the _Teaching of
+the Twelve Apostles_ (see DIDACHE), with its itinerant order of
+"apostles," who, together with "prophets" (cf. Eph. ii. 20, iii. 5) and
+"teachers," constituted a _charismatic_ and seemingly unordained
+ministry of the Word, in some part of the Church (in Syria?) during the
+early sub-apostolic age. Paul is our earliest witness, as just cited;
+also in 1 Cor. xv. 5 ff., where he seems to quote the language of
+Palestinian tradition, in saying that Christ "appeared to Cephas; then
+to the Twelve; then ... to James; then to the apostles one and all
+([Greek: tois apostolois pasin]); and last of all ... to me also." The
+appearance to "_all_ the Apostles" must refer to the final commission
+given by the risen Christ to certain assembled disciples (Acts i. 6 ff.,
+cf. Luke xxiv. 33), including not only the Twelve and the Lord's
+brethren (i. 13 f.), but also some at least of the Seventy. Of this
+wider circle of witnesses, taken from among personal disciples during
+Jesus's earthly ministry, we get a further glimpse in the election of
+one from their number to fill Judas's place among the Twelve (i. 21
+ff.), as the primary official witnesses of Messiah and his resurrection.
+Many of the 120 then present (Acts i. 15), and not only the two set
+forward for final choice, must have been personal disciples, who by the
+recent commission had been made "apostles." Among such we may perhaps
+name Judas Barsabbas and Silas (Acts xv. 22, cf. i. 23), if not also
+Barnabas (1 Cor. ix. 6) and Andronicus and Junia (Rom. xvi. 7).
+
+So far, then, we gather that the original Palestinian type of
+apostleship meant simply (a) personal mission from the risen Christ (cf.
+I Cor. ix. i), following on (b) some preliminary intercourse with Jesus
+in his earthly ministry. It was pre-eminence in the latter qualification
+that gave the Twelve their special status among apostles (Acts i. 26,
+ii. 14, vi. 2; in Acts generally they are simply "the apostles").
+Conversely, it was Paul's lack in this respect which lay at the root of
+his difficulties as an apostle.
+
+  It is possible, though not certain, that even those Judaizing
+  missionaries at Corinth whom Paul styles "false-apostles" or,
+  ironically, "the superlative apostles" (2 Cor. xi. 5, 13; xii. 11),
+  rested part of their claim to superiority over Paul on (b), possibly
+  even as having done service to Christ when on earth (2 Cor. xi. 18,
+  23). There is no sign in 2 Cor. that they laid claim to (a). If this
+  be so, they were "Christ's apostles" only indirectly, "through men"
+  (as some had alleged touching Paul, cf. Gal. i. 1), i.e. as sent forth
+  on mission work by certain Jerusalem leaders with letters of
+  introduction (2 Cor. iii. 1; E. von Dobschutz, _Problems der apost.
+  Zeitalters_, p. 106).
+
+2. _The Twelve._--When Jesus selected an inner circle of disciples for
+continuous training by personal intercourse, his choice of "twelve" had
+direct reference to the tribes of Israel (Matt. xix. 28; Luke xxii. 30).
+This gave them a symbolic or representative character as a closed body
+(cf. Rev. xxi. 14), marking them off as the primary religious authority
+(cf. Acts ii. 42, "the apostles' teaching") among the "disciples" or
+"brethren," when these began to assume the form of a community or
+church. The relationship which other "apostles" had enjoyed with the
+Master had been uncertain; _they_ had been his recognized intimates, and
+that as a body. Naturally, then, they took the lead, collectively--in
+form at least, though really the initiative lay with one or two of their
+own number, Peter in particular. The process of practical
+differentiation from their fellow apostles was furthered by the
+concentration of the Twelve, or at least of its most marked
+representatives, in Jerusalem, for a considerable period (Acts viii. 1,
+cf. xii. 1 ff.; an early tradition specifies twelve years). Other
+apostles soon went forth on their mission to "the cities of Israel" (cf.
+Acts ix. 31), and so exercised but little influence on the central
+policy of the Church. Hence their shadowy existence in the New
+Testament, though the actual wording of Matt. x. 5-42, read in the light
+of the _Didachi_, may help us to conceive their work in its main
+features.
+
+3. _"Pillar" Apostles._--But in fact differentiation between apostles
+existed among the Twelve also. There were "pillars," like Peter and John
+(and his brother James until his death), who really determined matters
+of grave moment, as in the conference with Paul in Gal. ii. 9--a
+conference which laid the basis of the latter's status as an apostle
+even in the eyes of Jewish Christians. Such pre-eminence was but the
+sequel of personal distinctions visible even in the preparatory days of
+discipleship, and it warns us against viewing the primitive facts
+touching apostles in the official light of later times.
+
+Consciousness of such personal pre-eminence has left its marks on the
+lists of the Twelve in the New Testament. Thus (1) Peter, James, John,
+Andrew, always appear as the first four, though the order varies, Mark
+representing relative prominence during Christ's ministry, and Acts
+actual influence in the Apostolic Church (cf. Luke viii. 51, ix. 28).
+(2) The others also stand in groups of four, the first name in each
+being constant, while the order of the rest varies.
+
+The same lesson emerges when we note that one such apostolic "pillar"
+stood outside the Twelve altogether, viz. James, the Lord's brother
+(Gal. ii. 9, cf. i. 19); and further, that "the Lord's brethren" seem to
+have ranked above "apostles" generally, being named between them and
+Peter in 1 Cor. ix. 5. That is, they too were apostles with the addition
+of a certain personal distinction.
+
+4. _Paul, the "Apostle of the Gentiles."_--So far apostles are only of
+the Palestinian type, taken from among actual hearers of the Messiah and
+with a mission primarily to Jews--apostles "of the circumcision" (Gal.
+ii. 7-9). Now, however, emerges a new apostleship, that to the Gentiles;
+and with the change of mission goes also some change in the type of
+missionary or apostle. Of this type Paul was the first, and he remained
+its primary, and in some senses its only, example. Though he could
+claim, on occasion, to satisfy the old test of having seen the risen
+Lord (1 Cor. ix. 1, cf. xv. 8), he himself laid stress not on this, but
+on the revelation within his own soul of Jesus as God's Son, and of the
+Gospel latent therein (Gal. i. 16). This was his divine call as "apostle
+of the Gentiles" (Rom. xi. 13); here lay both his qualification and his
+credentials, once the fruits of the divine inworking were manifest in
+the success of his missionary work (Gal. ii. 8 f.; 1 Cor. xi. 1 f.; 2
+Cor. in. 2 f., xii. 12). But this new criterion of apostleship was
+capable of wider application, one dispensing altogether with vision of
+the risen Lord--which could not even in Paul's case be proved so fully
+as in the case of the original apostles--but appealing to the "signs of
+an apostle" (1 Cor. ix. 2; 2 Cor. xii. 12), the tokens of spiritual gift
+visible in work done, and particularly in the planting of the Gospel in
+fresh fields (2 Cor. x. 14-18). It may be in this wide charismatic sense
+that Paul uses the term in 1 Cor. xii. 28 f., Eph. ii. 20, iii. 5, iv.
+11, and especially in Rom. xvi. 7, "men of mark among the apostles" (cf.
+2 Cor. xi. 13, "pseudo-apostles" masquerading as "apostles of Christ,"
+and perhaps 1 Thess. ii, 6, of himself and Silas). That he used it in
+senses differing with the context is proved by 1 Cor. xv. 9, where he
+styles himself "the least of apostles," although in other connexions he
+claims the very highest rank, co-ordinate even with the Twelve as a body
+(Gal. ii. 7 ff.), in virtue of his distinctive Gospel.
+
+This point of view was not widely shared even in circles appreciative of
+his actual work. To most he seemed but a fruitful worker within lines
+determined by "the twelve apostles of the Lamb" as a body (Rev. xxi.
+14). So we read of "the plant (Church) which the twelve apostles of the
+Beloved shall plant" (_Ascension of Isaiah_, iv. 3); "those who preached
+the Gospel to us (especially Gentiles) ... unto whom He gave authority
+over the Gospel, being twelve for a witness to the tribes" (Barn. viii.
+3, cf. v. 9); and the going forth of the Twelve, after twelve years,
+beyond Palestine "into the world," to give it a chance to hear
+(_Preaching of Peter_, in Clem. Alex. _Strom._ vi. 5.43; 6.48). Later
+on, however, his own claim told on the Church's mind, when his epistles
+were read in church as a collection styled simply "the Apostle."
+
+As the primary medium of the Gentile Gospel (Gal. i. 16, cf. i. 8, ii.
+2) Paul had no peers as an "apostle of the Gentiles" (Rom. xi. 13, cf.
+XV. 15-20, and see 1 Cor. xv. 8, "last of all to me"), unless it were
+Barnabas who shares with him the title "apostle" in Acts xiv. 4,
+14--possibly with reference to the special "work" on which they had
+recently been "sent forth by the Spirit" (xiii. 2, 4). Yet such as
+shared the spiritual gift (_charisma_) of missionary power in sufficient
+degree, were in fact apostles of Christ in the Spirit (1 Cor. xii. 28,
+II). Such a secondary type of apostolate--answering to "apostolic
+missionaries" of later times (cf. the use of [Greek: hierapostolos] in
+this sense by the Orthodox Eastern Church to-day)--would help to account
+for the apostolic claims of the missionaries censured in Rev. ii. 2, as
+also for the "apostles" of the second generation implied in the Didache.
+
+In the _sub-apostolic age_, however, the class of "missionaries"
+enjoying a _charisma_ such as was conceived to convey apostolic
+commission through the Spirit, soon became distinguished from "apostles"
+(cf. Hennas, _Sim._ ix. 15.4, "the apostles and teachers of the message
+of the Son of God," so 25.2; in 17.1 the apostles are reckoned as
+twelve), as the title became more and more confined by usage to the
+original apostles, particularly the Twelve as a body (e.g. _Ascension of
+Isaiah_ and the _Preaching of Peter_), or to them and Paul (e.g. in
+Clement and Ignatius), and as reverence for these latter grew in
+connexion with their story in the Gospels and in Acts.[2] Thus Eusebius
+describes as "evangelists" (cf. Philip the Evangelist in Acts xxi. 8,
+also Eph. iv. 11, 2 Tim. iv. 5) those who "occupied the first rank in
+the succession to the Apostles" in missionary work (_Hist. Eccl._ iii.
+37, cf. v. 10). Yet the wider sense of "apostle" did not at once die out
+even in the third and fourth generations. It lingered on as applied to
+the Seventy[3]--by Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement and Origen--and even to
+Clement of Rome, by Clem. Alex. (? as a "fellow-worker" of Paul, Phil.
+iv. 3); while the adjective "apostolic" was applied to men like Polycarp
+(in his contemporary _Acts of Martyrdom_) and the Phrygian, Alexander,
+martyred at Lyons in A.D. 177 (Eus. v. 1), who was "not without share of
+apostolic _charisma_."
+
+The _authority_ attaching to apostles was essentially spiritual in
+character and in the conditions of its exercise. Anything like autocracy
+among his followers was alien to Jesus's own teaching (Matt, xxiii.
+6-11). All Christians were "brethren," and the basis of pre-eminence
+among them was relative ability for service. But the personal relation
+of the original Palestinian apostles to Jesus himself as Master gave
+them a unique fitness as authorized witnesses, from which flowed
+naturally, by sheer spiritual influence, such special forms of authority
+as they came gradually to exercise in the early Church. "There is no
+trace in Scripture of a formal commission of authority for government
+from Christ Himself" (Hort, _Chr. Eccl._ p. 84) given to apostles, save
+as representing the brethren in their collective action. Even the
+"resolutions" ([Greek: dogmata]) of the Jerusalem conference were not
+set forth by the apostles present simply in their own name, nor as _ipso
+facto_ binding on the conscience of the Antiochene Church. They
+expressed "a claim to deference rather than a right to be obeyed" (Hort,
+_op. cit._ 81-85). Such was the kind of authority attaching to apostles,
+whether collectively or individually. It was not a fixed notion, but
+varied in quantity and quality with the growing maturity of converts.
+This is how Paul, from whom we gather most on the point, conceives the
+matter. The exercise of his spiritual authority is not absolute, lest he
+"lord it over their faith"; consent of conscience or of "faith" is ever
+requisite (2 Cor. i. 24; cf. Rom. xiv. 23). But the principle was
+elastic in application, and would take more patriarchal forms in
+Palestine than in the Greek world. The case was essentially the same as
+on the various mission-fields to-day, where the position of the
+"missionary" is at first one of great spiritual initiative and
+authority, limited only by his own sense of the fitness of things, in
+the light of local usages. So the notion of formal or constitutional
+authority attaching to the apostolate, in its various senses, is an
+anachronism for the apostolic age. The tendency, however, was for their
+authority to be conceived more and more on formal lines, and,
+particularly after their deaths, as absolute.
+
+The authority attaching to apostles as writers, which led gradually to
+the formation of a New Testament Canon--"the Apostles" side by side with
+"the Books" of the Old Testament (so 2 Clement xiv., c. A.D.
+120-140)--is a subject by itself (see BIBLE).
+
+This change of conception helped to further the notion of a certain
+devolution of apostolic powers to successors constituted by act of
+ordination. The earliest idea of an _apostolical succession_ meant
+simply the re-emergence in others of the apostolic spirit of missionary
+enthusiasm. "The first rank in the succession of the apostles" consisted
+of men eminent as disciples of theirs, and so fitted to continue their
+labours (Euseb. iii. 37); and even under Commodus (A.D. 180-193) there
+were "evangelists of the word" possessed of "inspired zeal to emulate
+apostles" (v. 10). Such were perhaps the "apostles" of the _Didache_. Of
+the notion of apostolic succession in ministerial grace conferred by
+ordination, there is little or no trace before Irenaeus. The famous
+passage in Clement of Rome (xliv. 2) refers simply to the succession of
+one set of men to another in an office of apostolic institution. The
+grace that makes Polycarp "an apostolic and prophetic teacher" (_Mart.
+Polyc._ 16) is peculiar to him personally. But Irenaeus holds,
+apparently on _a priori_ grounds, that "elders" who stand in orderly
+succession to the apostolic founders of the true tradition in the
+churches, have, "along with the succession of oversight," also an
+"assured gift of (insight into) truth" by the Father's good pleasure
+("cum episcopatus successione charisma veritatis certum secundum
+placitum Patris acceperunt"), in contrast to heretics who wilfully stand
+outside this approved line of transmission (_adv. Haer._ iv. 26. 2). So
+far, indeed, the succession is not limited to the monarchical episcopate
+as distinct from the presbyteral order to which it belonged (cf.
+"presbyterii ordo, principalis consessio" in the same context, and see
+iii. 14. 2), though the bishops of apostolic churches, as capable of
+being traced individually (iii. 3. 1), are specially appealed to as
+witnesses (cf. iv. 33. 8, v. 19. 2)--as earlier by Hegesippus (Euseb.
+iv. 22). Nor is there mention of sacerdotal grace attaching to the
+succession in apostolic truth.[4] But once the idea of supernatural
+grace going along with office as such (of which we have already a trace
+in the Ignatian bishop, though without the notion of actual apostolic
+succession) arose in connexion with _successio ab apostolis_, the full
+development of the doctrine was but a matter of time.[5]
+
+  LITERATURE.--In England the modern treatment of the subject dates from
+  J.B. Lightfoot's dissertation in his _Commentary on Galatians_, to
+  which Dr F.J.A. Hort's _The Christian Ecclesia_ added elements of
+  value; see also T.M. Lindsay, _The Church and the Ministry_, and
+  articles in Hastings' _Dictionary of the Bible_ and the _Ency.
+  Biblica_; A. Harnack, _Die Lehre der Apostel_, pp. 93 ff., and
+  _Dogmengeschichte_ (3rd ed.), i. 153 ff.; E. Haupt, _Zum Verstandnis
+  d. Apostolats in NT._ (Halle, 1896); and especially H. Monnier, _La
+  Notion de l'apostolat, des origines à Irénée_ (Paris, 1903). The later
+  legends and their sources are examined by T. Schermann, _Propheten-
+  und Apostellegenden_ (Leipzig, 1907).     (J. V. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] By analogy, that is; for the wider sense of "apostle" in the
+    Apostolic age need not be identical with a sub-apostolic use of the
+    term (see below, 4 _fin_.).
+
+  [2] The tendency is already visible in the Lucan writings. An
+    anologous process is seen in the use of "disciple," applicable in the
+    apostolic age to Christians at large, but in the course of the
+    sub-apostolic age restricted to personal "disciples of the Lord" or
+    to martyrs (Papias in Eus. iii. 39, cf. Ignatius, _Ad Eph._ i. 2).
+
+  [3] In the Edessene legend of Abgar, in Eus. i. 12, we read that
+    "Judas, who is also Thomas, sent Thaddaeus as apostle--one of the
+    Seventy," where simply an authoritative envoy of Jesus seems
+    intended. For traces of the wider sense of "apostle" in Gnostic,
+    Marcionite and Montanist circles, see Monnier (as below).
+
+  [4] The above is substantially the view taken by J.B. Lightfoot in
+    his essay on "The Christian Ministry" (_Comm. on Philippians_, 6th
+    ed., pp. 239, 252 f.), and by T.M. Lindsay, _The Church and the
+    Ministry_ (1902), pp. 224-228, 278 ff. Even C. Gore, _The Church and
+    the Ministry_ (1889), pp. 119 ff., while inferring a sacerdotal
+    element in Irenaeus's conception of the episcopate, says: "But it is
+    mainly as preserving the catholic traditions that Irenaeus regards
+    the apostolic succession" (p. 120).
+
+  [5] See Lightfoot's essay for Cyprian's contribution, as also for
+    that of the Clementines, which fix on the twofold position of James
+    at Jerusalem, as apostle and bishop, as bearing on apostolic
+    succession in the episcopate.
+
+
+
+
+APOSTLE SPOONS, a set of spoons, usually of silver or silver gilt, with
+the handles terminating in figures of the apostles, each bearing their
+distinctive emblem. They were common baptismal gifts during the 15th and
+16th centuries, but were dying out by 1666. Often single spoons were
+given, bearing the figure of the patron or name saint of the child. Sets
+of the twelve apostles are not common, and complete sets of thirteen,
+with the figure of our Lord on a larger spoon, are still rarer. The
+Goldsmiths' Company in London has one such set, all by the same maker
+and bearing the hall-mark of 1626, and a set of thirteen was sold at
+Christie's in 1904 for £4900.
+
+  See William Hone, _The Everyday Book_ and _Table Book_ (1831); and
+  W.J. Cripps, _Old English Plate_ (9th ed., 1906).
+
+
+
+
+APOSTOLICAL CONSTITUTIONS ([Greek: Diatagai] _or_ [Greek: Diataxeis ton
+agion apostolon dia Klaementos tou Rhomaion episkopou te kai politou.
+Katholikae didaskalia]), a collection of ecclesiastical regulations in
+eight books, the last of which concludes with the eighty-five _Canons of
+the Holy Apostles_. By their title the Constitutions profess to have
+been drawn up by the apostles, and to have been transmitted to the
+Church by Clement of Rome; sometimes the alleged authors are represented
+as speaking jointly, sometimes singly. From the first they have been
+very variously estimated; the _Canons_, as a rule, more highly than the
+rest of the work. For example, the Trullan Council of Constantinople
+(_quini-sextum_), A.D. 692, accepts the Canons as genuine by its second
+canon, but rejects the Constitutions on the ground that spurious matter
+had been introduced into them by heretics; and whilst the former were
+henceforward used freely in the East, only a few portions of the latter
+found their way into the Greek and oriental law-books. Again, Dionysius
+Exiguus (c. A.D. 500) translated fifty of the Canons into Latin,[1]
+although under the title _Canones qui dicuntur Apostolorum_, and thus
+they passed into other Western collections; whilst the Constitutions as
+a whole remained unknown in the West until they were published in 1563
+by the Jesuit Turrianus. At first received with enthusiasm, their
+authenticity soon came to be impugned; and their true significance was
+largely lost sight of as it began to be realized that they were not what
+they claimed to be. Vain attempts were still made to rehabilitate them,
+and they were, in general, more highly estimated in England than
+elsewhere. The most extravagant estimate of all was that of Whiston, who
+calls them "the most sacred standard of Christianity, equal in authority
+to the Gospels themselves, and superior in authority to the epistles of
+single apostles, some parts of them being our Saviour's own original
+laws delivered to the apostles, and the other parts the public acts of
+the apostles" (Historical preface to _Primitive Christianity Revived_,
+pp. 85-86). Others, however, realized their composite character from the
+first, and by degrees some of the component documents became known.
+Bishop Pearson was able to say that "the eight books of the Apostolic
+Constitutions have been after Epiphanius's time compiled and patched
+together out of the _didascaliae_ or doctrines which went under the
+names of the holy apostles and their disciples or successors" (_Vind.
+Ign._ i. cap. 5); whilst a greater scholar still, Archbishop Usher, had
+already gone much further, and concluded, forestalling the results of
+modern critical methods, that their compiler was none other than the
+compiler of the spurious Ignatian epistles (_Epp. Polyc. et Ign._ p.
+lxiii. f., Oxon. 1644). The Apostolical Constitutions, then, are
+spurious, and they are one of a long series of documents of like
+character. But we have not really gauged their significance by saying
+that they are spurious. They are the last stage and climax of a gradual
+process of compilation and crystallization, so to speak, of unwritten
+church custom; and a short account of this process will show their real
+importance and value.
+
+
+  Origin and real nature.
+
+These documents are the outcome of a tendency which is found in every
+society, religious or secular, at some point in its history. The society
+begins by living in accordance with its fundamental principles. By
+degrees these translate themselves into appropriate action. Difficulties
+are faced and solved as they arise; and when similar circumstances recur
+they will tend to be met in the same way. Thus there grows up by degrees
+a body of what may be called customary law. Plainly, there is no
+particular point of time at which this customary law can be said to have
+begun. To all appearance it is there from the first in solution and
+gradually crystallizes out; and yet it is being continually modified as
+time goes on. Moreover, the time comes when the attempt is made, either
+by private individuals or by the society itself, to put this "customary
+law" into writing. Now when this is done, two tendencies will at once
+show themselves. (a) This "customary law" will at once become more
+definite: the very fact of putting it into writing will involve an
+effort after logical completeness. There will be a tendency on the part
+of the writer to fill up gaps; to state local customs as if they
+obtained universally; to introduce his personal equation, and to add to
+that which is the custom that which, in his opinion, _ought_ to be. (b)
+There will be a strong tendency to fortify that which has been written
+with great names, especially in days when there is no very clear notion
+of literary property. This is done, not always with any deliberate
+consciousness of fraud (although it must be clearly recognized that
+truth is not one of the "natural virtues," and that the sense of the
+obligations of truthfulness was far from strong), but rather to
+emphasize the importance of what was written, and the fact that it was
+no new invention of the writer's. In a non-literary age fame gathers
+about great names; and that which, _ex hypothesi_, has gone on since the
+beginning of things is naturally attributed to the founders of the
+society. Then come interpolations to make this ascription more probable,
+and the prefixing of a title, then or subsequently, which states it as a
+fact. This is precisely the way in which the Apostolical Constitutions
+and other kindred documents have come into being. They are attempts,
+made in various places and at different times, to put into writing the
+order and discipline and character of the Church; in part for private
+instruction and edification, but in part also with a view to actual use;
+frequently even with an actual reference to particular circumstances. In
+this lies their importance, to a degree which is only just being
+adequately realized. They contain evidence of the utmost value as to the
+order of the Church in early days; evidence, however, which needs to be
+sifted with the greatest care, since the personal preferences of the
+writer and the customs of the local church to which he belongs are
+continually mixed up with things which have a wider prevalence. It is
+only by careful investigation, by the method of comparisons, that these
+elements can be disentangled; but as the number of documents of this
+class known to us is continually increasing, their value increases even
+more than proportionately. And whilst their local and fugitive character
+must be fully recognized and allowed for, is it unjustifiable to set
+them aside or leave them out of account as heretical, and therefore
+negligible.
+
+
+  Other collections.
+
+It will be sufficient here to mention shortly the chief collections of
+this kind which came into existence during the first four centuries;
+generally as the work of private individuals, and having, at any rate,
+no more than a local authority of some kind, (a) The earliest known to
+us is the _Didache_ or _Teaching of the Twelve Apostles_, itself
+compiled from earlier materials, and dating from about 120 (see
+DIDACHE). (b) _The Apostolic Church Order_ (_apostolische
+Kirchenordnung_ of German writers); _Ecclesiastical Canons of the Holy
+Apostles_ of one MS.; _Sententiae Apostolorum_ of Pitra: of about 300,
+and emanating probably from Asia Minor. Its earlier part, cc. 1-14,
+depends upon the _Didache_, and the rest of it is a book of discipline
+in which Harnack has attempted to distinguish two older fragments of
+church law (_Texte u. Unters_. ii. 5). (c) The so-called _Canones
+Hippolyti_, probably Alexandrian or Roman, and of the first half of the
+3rd century. It will be observed that these make no claim to apostolic
+authorship; but otherwise their origin is like that of the rest, unless
+indeed, as has been suggested, they represent the work of an actual
+Roman synod, (d) The so-called _Egyptian Church Order_, in Coptic from a
+Greek pre-Nicene original (c. 310). It is part of the Egyptian
+Heptateuch and contains neither communion nor ordination forms, (e) The
+_Ethiopic Church Order_, perhaps twenty years later than (d), and
+forming part of the _Ethiopic Statutes_. (f) The _Verona Latin
+Fragments_, discovered and published by Hauler, portions of a form akin
+to (e), which may be dated c. 340, though possibly earlier. It has a
+preface which refers to a treatise _Concerning Spiritual Gifts_ as
+having immediately preceded it. (g) The recently discovered _Testament
+of the Lord_, which is somewhat later in date (c. 350), and likewise
+depends upon the _Canones Hippolyti_. (h) The so-called _Canons of
+Basil_. This is an Arabic work perhaps based on a Coptic and ultimately
+on a Greek original, embodying with modifications large portions of the
+Canons of Hippolytus. (On the relations between the six last-named, see
+HIPPOLYTUS, CANONS of.)
+
+  Here also may be noticed the _Didascalia Apostolorum_, originally
+  written in Greek, but known through a Syriac version and a fragmentary
+  Latin one published by Hauler. It is of the middle of the 3rd
+  century--in fact, a passage in the Latin translation seems to give us
+  the date A.D. 254. It emanates from Palestine or Syria, and is
+  independent of the documents already mentioned; and upon it the
+  _Constitutions_ themselves very largely depend. It is a mixture of
+  moral and ecclesiastical instruction. The _Sacramentary of Serapion_
+  (c. 350), _The Pilgrimage of Etheria_ (_Silvia_) (c. 385), and _The
+  Catechetical Lectures of Cyril of Jerusalem_ (348) are also of value
+  in this connexion. In the (so-called) _Constitutions through
+  Hippolytus_ we have possibly a preliminary draft of the famous 8th
+  book of the _Apostolical Constitutions_.[2]
+
+
+  Contents.
+
+The Constitutions themselves fall into three main divisions. (i.) The
+first of these consists of books i.-vi., and throughout runs parallel to
+the _Didascalia_. Bickell, indeed, held that this latter was an
+abbreviated form of books i.-vi.; but it is now agreed on all hands that
+the Constitutions are based on the _Didascalia_ and not vice versa.
+(ii.) Then follows book vii., the first thirty-one chapters of which are
+an adaptation of the _Didache_, whilst the rest contain various
+liturgical forms of which the origin is still uncertain, though it has
+been acutely suggested by Achelis, and with great probability, that they
+originated in the schismatical congregation of Lucian at Antioch. (iii.)
+Book viii. is more composite, and falls into three parts. The first two
+chapters, [Greek: peri charismatôn], may be based upon a lost work of St
+Hippolytus, otherwise known only by a reference to it in the preface of
+the _Verona Latin Fragments_; and an examination shows that this is
+highly probable. The next section, cc. 3-27, [Greek: peri cheirotoyioy],
+and cc. 28-46, [Greek: peri kayoyoy], is twofold, and is evidently that
+upon which the writer sets most store. The apostles no longer speak
+jointly, but one by one in an apostolic council, and the section closes
+with a joint decree of them all. They speak of the ordination of bishops
+(the so-called Clementine Liturgy is that which is directed to be used
+at the consecration of a bishop, cc. 5-15), of presbyters, deacons,
+deaconesses, sub-deacons and lectors, and then pass on to confessors,
+virgins, widows and exorcists; after which follows a series of canons on
+various subjects, and liturgical formulae. With regard to this section,
+all that can be said is that it includes materials which are also to be
+found elsewhere--in the _Egyptian Church Order_ and other documents
+already spoken of--and that the precise relation between them is at
+present not determined. The third section consists of the Apostolic
+Canons already referred to, the last and most significant of which
+places the Constitutions and the two epistles of Clement in the canon of
+Scripture, and omits the Apocalypse. They are derived in part from the
+preceding Constitutions, in part from the canons of the councils of
+Antioch, 341, Nicaea, 325, and possibly Laodicaea, 363.
+
+A comparison of the Constitutions with the material upon which they are
+based will illustrate the compiler's method. (a) To begin with the
+_Didascalia_ already mentioned. It is unmethodical and badly digested,
+homiletical in style, and abounding in biblical quotations. There is no
+precise arrangement; but the subjects, following a general introduction,
+are the bishop and his duties, penance, the administration of the
+offerings, the settlement of disputes, the divine service, the order of
+widows, deacons and deaconesses, the poor, behaviour in persecution, and
+so forth. The compiler of the Constitutions finds here material after
+his own heart. He is even more discursive and more homiletical in style;
+he adds fresh citations of the Scriptures, and additional explanations
+and moral reflexions; and all this with so little judgment that he often
+leaves confusion worse confounded (e.g. in ii. 57, where, upon a
+symbolical description of the Church as a sheepfold, he has superimposed
+the further symbolism of a ship). (b) Passing on to books vii. and
+viii., we observe that the compiler's method of necessity changes with
+his new material. In the former book he still makes large additions and
+alterations, but there is less scope for his prolixity than before; and
+in the latter, where he is no longer dealing with generalities, but
+making actual definitions, the Constitutions of necessity become more
+precise and statutory in form. Throughout he adopts and adapts the
+language of his sources as far as possible, "only pruning in the most
+pressing cases," but towards the end he cannot avoid making larger
+alterations from time to time. And his alterations throughout are not
+made aimlessly. Where he finds things which would obviously clash with
+the customs of his own day, he unhesitatingly modifies them. An account
+of the Passion, with a curiously perverted chronology, the object of
+which was to justify the length of the Passion-tide fast, is entirely
+revised for this reason (v. 14); the direction to observe Easter
+according to the Jewish computation is changed into the exact contrary
+for the same reason (v. 17); and where his archetype lapses into
+speaking of a lull in persecution he naïvely informs us that the Romans
+have now given up persecuting and have adopted Christianity (vi. 26),
+forgetting altogether that he is speaking in the character of the
+apostles. Above all, he both magnifies the office of the Christian
+ministry as a whole and alters what is said of it in detail (for
+example, the deaconess loses rank not a little), to make it agree with
+the circumstances of his day in general, and with his own ideas of
+fitness in particular. It is here that his evidence is at once most
+valuable and needs to be used with the greatest care. To give one
+striking example of the value of these documents. The _Canones
+Hippolyti_ (vi. 43) provide that one who has been a confessor for the
+faith may be received as a presbyter by virtue of his confessorship and
+not by the laying on of the bishop's hands; but if he be chosen a
+bishop, he is to be ordained. This provision passes on into the Egyptian
+_Ecclesiastical Canons_ and other kindred documents, and even into the
+_Testamentum Domini_. But the corresponding passage in the Apostolical
+Constitutions (viii. 23) entirely reverses it: "A confessor is not
+ordained, for he is so by choice and patience, and is worthy of great
+honour.... But if there be occasion, he is to be ordained either a
+bishop, priest, or deacon. But if any one of the confessors who is not
+ordained snatches to himself any such dignity upon account of his
+confession, let the same person be deprived and rejected; for he is not
+in such an office, since he has denied the constitution of Christ, and
+is worse than an infidel."
+
+
+  Authorship, place, and date.
+
+Who, then, is the author of the Constitutions, and what can be inferred
+with regard to him? (i.) By separating off the sources which he used
+from his own additions to them, it at once becomes clear that the latter
+are the work of one man: the style is unmistakable, and the method of
+working is the same throughout. The compiler of books i.-vi. is also the
+compiler of books vii., viii. (ii.) As to his theological position,
+different views have been held. Funk suggests Apollinarianism, which is
+the refuge of the destitute; and Achelis inclines in the same direction.
+But the affinities of the author are quite otherwise, the most
+pronounced of them being a strong subordinationist tendency, denial of a
+human soul to Christ, and the like, which suggest not indeed Arianism
+but an inclination towards Arianism. Above all, his polemic is directed
+against the dying heresies of the 3rd century; and he writes with an
+absence of constraint which is not the language of one who lives amidst
+violent controversies or who is conscious of being in a minority. All
+this points to the position of a "conservative" or semi-Arian of the
+East, one who belongs, perhaps, to the circle of Lucian of Antioch and
+writes before the time of Julian. It is hard to think of any other time
+or circumstances in which a man could write like this, (iii.) The
+indications of _time_ have been held to point to a different conclusion.
+On the one hand, the fact that the attempt to rebuild the temple by
+Julian in 363 is not mentioned in vi. 24 points to an earlier date; and
+the fact that the [Greek: kopiatai] are not mentioned amongst the church
+officers points in the same direction, for elsewhere they are first
+mentioned in a rescript of Constantius in A.D. 357. On the other hand,
+in the cycle of feasts occur the names of several which are probably of
+later date--e.g. Christmas and St Stephen, which were introduced at
+Antioch c. A.D. 378 and 379 respectively. Again, Epiphanius (c. A.D.
+374) appears to be unacquainted with it; he still quotes from the
+_Didascalia_, and elaborately explains it away where it is contrary to
+the usages of his own day. But as regards the former point, it is
+possible that the Apostolical Constitutions constantly gave rise to
+these festivals; or, on the other hand, that the two passages were
+subsequently introduced either by the writer himself or by some other
+hand, when the last book of the Constitutions was being used as a
+law-book. And as regards the latter, the fact that Epiphanius does not
+use the Constitutions is no proof that they had not yet been compiled.
+(iv.) As to the region of composition there is no real doubt. It was
+clearly the East, Syria or Palestine. Many indications are against the
+latter, and Syria is strongly suggested by the use of the
+Syro-Macedonian calendar. Moreover, the writer represents the Roman
+Clement as the channel of communication between the apostles and the
+Church. This fact both supplies him with the name by which he is
+commonly known, Pseudo-Clement, and also furnishes corroboration of his
+Syrian birth; since the other spurious writings bearing the name of
+Clement, the _Homilies_ and _Recognitions_, are likewise of Syrian
+origin. Moreover, the spurious Ignatian epistles, which are also Syrian,
+depend throughout upon the Constitutions, (v.) But this is not all. It
+was long ago noticed that Pseudo-Clement bears a very close resemblance
+to Pseudo-Ignatius, the interpolator of the Ignatian Epistles in the
+longer Greek recension. Usher, as we have seen, identified them, and
+modern criticism accepts this identification as a fact (Lagarde,
+Harnack, Funk, Brightman). Lightfoot, indeed, still hesitated (_Ap.
+Fathers_, II. i. 266 n.) on the ground that Pseudo-Ignatius occasionally
+misunderstands the Constitutions, that the two writings give the Roman
+succession differently, and that Pseudo-Clement shows no knowledge of
+the Christological controversies of Nicaea. But as regards the first of
+these, it is rather a case of condensed citation than of
+misinterpretation; the second is explained by the writer's carelessness
+as shown in other passages, and all are solved if a considerable
+interval of time elapsed between the compilation of the Constitutions
+and the spurious Ignatian epistles.
+
+It seems clear then that the compiler was a Syrian, and that he also
+wrote the spurious Ignatian epistles; he was likewise probably a
+semi-Arian of the school of Lucian of Antioch. His date is given by
+Harnack as A.D. 340-360, with a leaning to 340-343; by Lightfoot as the
+latter half of the 4th century; by Brightman, 370-380; by Maclean, 375;
+and by Funk as the beginning of the 5th century.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--W. Ueltzen, _Constitutiones Apostolicae_ (Schwerin,
+  1853); P.A. de Lagarde, _Didascalia Apostolorum Syriace_ (Leipz.,
+  1854); _Constitutiones Apostolorum_ (Leipz. and Lond., 1862); M.D.
+  Gibson, _Didascalia Apost. Syriace_, with Eng. trans. (_Horae
+  Semiticae_, i. and ii., Cambridge, 1903); J.B. Pitra, _Juris
+  Ecclesiastici Graecorum Historia et Monumenta_, i. (Rome, 1864);
+  Hauler, _Didascaliae Apostolorum Fragmenta Ueronensia Latina_,
+  (Leipzig, 1900); Bickell, _Geschichte des Kirchenrechts_, i. (Giessen,
+  1843); F.X. Funk, _Die apostolischen Konstitutionen_ (Rottenb., 1891);
+  A. Harnack, _Geschichte d. altchristl. Litteratur_, i. 515 ff.
+  (Leipz., 1893); F.E. Brightman, _Liturgies Eastern and Western_, I.
+  xvii. ff. (Oxford, 1896); H. Achelis, in Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_,
+  i. 734 f., art. "Apostolische Konstitutionen und Kanones" (Leipz.,
+  1896); A.S. Maclean, _Recent Discoveries illustrating Early Christian
+  Worship_ (Lond., 1904); J. Wordsworth, _The Ministry of Grace_, pp. 18
+  ff; J.P. Arendzen, "The Apostolic Church Order" (Syriac Text, Eng.
+  trans. and notes) in _Journ. of Theol. Studies_, iii. 59. Trans. of
+  _Apost. Constitutions_, book viii., in Ante-Nicene Christian Library.
+       (W. E. Co.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Why he did not go on to give the remaining thirty-five is not
+    clear; they belong to the same date as, and are not inferior to, the
+    first fifty.
+
+  [2] At a later date various collections were made of the documents
+    above mentioned, or some of them, to serve as law-books in different
+    churches--e.g. the Syrian Octateuch, the Egyptian Heptateuch, and the
+    Ethiopic Sinodos. These, however, stand on an entirely different
+    footing, since they are simply collections of existing documents, and
+    no attempt is made to claim apostolic authorship for them.
+
+
+
+
+APOSTOLIC CANONS, a collection of eighty-five rules for the regulation
+of clerical life, appended to the eighth book of the _Apostolical
+Constitutions_ (q.v.). They are couched in brief legislative form though
+on no definite plan, and deal with the vexed questions of ecclesiastical
+discipline as they were raised towards the end of the 4th century. At
+least half of the canons are derived from earlier constitutions, and
+probably not many of them are the actual productions of the compiler,
+whose aim was to gloss over the real nature of the _Constitutions_, and
+secure their incorporation with the Epistles of Clement in the New
+Testament of his day. The _Codex Alexandrinus_ does indeed append the
+Clementine Epistles to its text of the New Testament. The Canons may be
+a little later in date than the preceding _Constitutions_, but they are
+evidently from the same Syrian theological circle.
+
+
+
+
+APOSTOLIC FATHERS, a term used to distinguish those early Christian
+writers who were believed to have been the personal associates of the
+original Apostles. While the title "Fathers" was given from at least the
+beginning of the 4th century to church writers of former days, as being
+the parents of Christian belief and thought for later times, the
+expression "Apostolic Fathers" dates only from the latter part of the
+17th century. The idea of recognizing these "Fathers" as a special group
+exists already in the title "Patres aevi apostolici, sive SS. Patrum qui
+temporibus apostolicis floruerunt ... opera," under which in 1672 J.B.
+Cotelier published at Paris the writings current under the names of
+Barnabas, Clement of Rome, Hermas, Ignatius and Polycarp. But the name
+itself is due to their next editor, Thomas Ittig (1643-1710), in his
+_Bibliotheca Patrum Apostolicorum_ (1699), who, however, included under
+this title only Clement, Ignatius and Polycarp. Here already appears the
+doubt as to how many writers can claim the title, a doubt which has
+continued ever since, and makes the contents of the "Apostolic Fathers"
+differ so much from editor to editor. Thus the Oratorian Andrea Gallandi
+(1700-1779), in re-issuing Cotelier's collection in his _Bibliotheca
+Veterum Patrum_ (1765-1781), included the fragments of Papias and the
+Epistle to Diognetus, to which recent editors have added the citations
+from the "Elders" of Papias's day found in Irenaeus and, since 1883, the
+_Didache_.
+
+The degree of historic claim which these various writings have to rank
+as the works[1] of Apostolic Fathers varies greatly on any definition of
+"apostolic." Originally the epithet was meant to be taken strictly, viz.
+as denoting those whom history could show to have been personally
+connected, or at least coeval, with one or more apostles; and an effort
+was made, as by Cotelier, to distinguish the writings rightly and
+wrongly assigned to such. Thus editions tended to vary with the
+historical views of editors. But the convenience of the category
+"Apostolic Fathers" to express not only those who might possibly have
+had some sort of direct contact with apostles--such as "Barnabas,"
+Clement, Ignatius, Papias, Polycarp--but also those who seemed specially
+to preserve the pure tradition of apostolic doctrine during the
+sub-apostolic age, has led to its general use in a wide and vague sense.
+
+Conventionally, then, the title denotes the group of writings which,
+whether in date or in internal character, are regarded as belonging to
+the main stream of the Church's teaching during the period between the
+Apostles and the Apologists (i.e. to c. A.D. 140). Or to put it more
+exactly, the "Apostolic Fathers" represent, chronologically in the main
+and still more from the religious and theological standpoint, the
+momentous process of transition from the type of teaching in the New
+Testament to that which meets us in the early Catholic Fathers, from the
+last quarter of the 2nd century onwards. The Apologists no doubt show us
+certain fresh factors entering into this development; but on the whole
+the Apostolic Fathers by themselves go a long way to explain the
+transition in question, so far as knowledge of this _saeculum obscurum_
+is within our reach at all. It is true that they do not include the
+whole even of the ecclesiastical literature of the sub-apostolic age,
+not to mention what remains of Gnostic and other minority types. The
+_Preaching and Apocalypse_ of Peter, for instance, are quite typical of
+the same period, and help us to read between the lines of the Apostolic
+Fathers. Yet they do not really add much to what is there already, and
+they have the drawbacks of pseudonymity; they lack concrete and personal
+qualities; they are general expressions of tendencies which we cannot
+well locate or measure, save by means of the Apostolic Fathers
+themselves or of their earliest Catholic successors.
+
+(A) In _external features_ the group is far from homogeneous, a fact
+which has led to their being disintegrated as a group in certain
+histories of early Christian literature (e.g. those of Harnack and
+Krüger), and classed each under its own literary type--so sacrificing to
+outer form, which is quite secondary in primitive Christian writings,
+the more significant fact of religious affinity. Its original members,
+those still best entitled to their name in any strict sense, are
+epistles, and in this respect also most akin to Apostolic writings.
+Indeed Ignatius takes pleasure in saluting his readers "after the
+apostolic stamp" (_ad Troll._ inscr.), while yet disclaiming all desire
+to emulate the apostolic manner in other respects, being fully conscious
+of the gulf between himself and apostles like Peter and Paul in claim to
+authority (_ib._ in. 3, _ad Rom._ iv. 3). The like holds of Polycarp,
+who, in explaining that he writes to exhort the Philippians only at
+their own request, adds, "for neither am I, nor is any other like me,
+able to follow the wisdom of the blessed and glorious Paul" (in. 2).
+Clement's epistle, indeed, conforms more to the elaborate and
+treatise-like form of the Epistle to the Hebrews, on which it draws so
+largely; and the same is true of "Barnabas." But one and all are
+influenced by study of apostolic epistles, and witness to the impression
+which these produced on the men of the next generation. Unconsciously,
+too, they correspond to the apostolic type of writing in another
+respect, viz. their occasional and practical character. They are evoked
+by pressing needs of the hour among some definite body of Christians and
+not by any literary motive.[2] This is a universal trait of primitive
+Christian writings; so that to speak of primitive Christian "literature"
+at all is hardly accurate, and tends to an artificial handling of their
+contents. These sub-apostolic epistles are veritable "human documents,"
+with the personal note running through them. They are after all personal
+expressions of Christianity, in which are discernible also specific
+types of local tradition. To such spontaneous actuality a large part of
+their interest and value is due.
+
+Nor is this pre-literary and vital quality really absent even from the
+writing which is least entitled to a place among "Apostolic Fathers,"
+the Epistle to Diognetus. This beautiful picture of the Christian life
+as a realized ideal, and of Christians as "the soul" of the world, owes
+its inclusion to a double error: first, to the accidental attachment at
+the end of another fragment (§ ii), which opens with the writer's claim
+to stand forth as a teacher as being "a disciple of apostles"; and next,
+to mistaken exegesis of this phrase as implying personal relations with
+apostles, rather than knowledge of their teaching, written or oral.
+Whether in form addressed to Diognetus, the tutor of Marcus Aurelius, as
+a typical cultured observer of Christianity, or to some other eminent
+person of the same name in the locality of its origin, or, as seems more
+likely, to cultured Greeks generally, personified under the significant
+name "Diognetus" ("Heaven-born," of. Acts xvii. 28 along with § iii.
+4)--the epistle is in any case an "open letter" of an essentially
+literary type. Further, its opening seems modelled on the lines of the
+preface to Luke's Gospel, to which, along with Acts, it may owe
+something of its very conception as a reasoned appeal to the lover of
+truth. But while literary in form and conception, its appeal is in
+spirit so personal a testimony to what the Gospel has done for the
+writer and his fellow Christians, that it is akin to the piety of the
+Apostolic Fathers as a group. It is true that it has marked affinities,
+e.g. in its natural theology, with the earliest Apologists, Aristides
+and Justin, even as it is itself in substance an apology addressed not
+to the State, but to thoughtful public opinion. But this only means that
+we cannot draw a hard and fast line between groups of early Christian
+writings at a time when practical religious interests overshadowed all
+others.
+
+If thus related to the Apologists of the middle of the 2nd century, the
+Epistle to Diognetus has also points of contact with one of the most
+practical and least literary writings found among our Apostolic Fathers,
+viz. the homily originally known as the Second Epistle of Clement (for
+this ascription, as for other details, see CLEMENTINE LITERATURE). The
+recovery of its concluding sections in the same MS. which brought the
+_Didache_ to light, proves beyond question that we have here the
+earliest extant sermon preached before a Christian congregation, about
+A.D. 120-140 (so J.B. Lightfoot). Its opening section, recalling to its
+hearers the passing of the mists of idolatry before the revelation in
+Jesus Christ, is markedly similar in tone and tenor to passages in the
+Epistle to Diognetus. Far closer, however, are the affinities between
+the homily and the _Shepherd of Hermas_, "the first Christian allegory,"
+which as a literary whole dates from about A.D. 140, but probably
+represents a more or less prolonged prophetic activity on the part of
+its author, the brother of Pius, the Roman bishop of his day (c.
+139-154). In both the primary theme is repentance, as called for by
+serious sins, after baptism has placed the Christian on his new and
+higher level of responsibility. Thus both are hortatory writings, the
+one argumentative in form, the other prophetic, after the manner of
+later Old Testament prophets whose messages came in visions and
+similitudes. This prophetic and apocalyptic note, which characterizes
+Hermas among the Apostolic Fathers (though there are traces of it also
+in the _Didache_ and in Ignatius, _ad Eph._ xx.), is a genuinely
+primitive trait and goes far to explain the vogue which the _Shepherd_
+enjoyed in the generations immediately succeeding, as also the influence
+of its disciplinary policy, which is its prophetic "burden" (see HERMAS,
+SHEPHERD OF).
+
+We come finally to the anonymous _Teaching of the Twelve Apostles_ and
+Papias's _Exposition of Oracles of the Lord_, so far as this is known to
+us. The former, besides embodying catechetical instruction in Christian
+conduct (the "Two Ways"), which goes back in substance to the early
+apostolic age and is embodied also in "Barnabas," depicts in outline the
+fundamental usages of church life as practised in some conservative
+region (probably within Syria) about the last quarter of the 1st century
+and perhaps even later. The whole is put forth as substantially the
+apostolic teaching (_Didache_) on the subjects in question. This is
+probably a _bona fide_ claim. It expresses the feeling common to the
+Apostolic Fathers and general in the sub-apostolic age, at any rate in
+regions where apostles had once laboured, that local tradition, as held
+by the recognized church leaders, did but continue apostolic doctrine
+and practice. Into later developments of this feeling an increasing
+element of illusion entered, and all other written embodiments of it
+known to us take the form of literary fictions, more or less bold. It is
+in contrast to these that the _Didache_ is justly felt to be genuinely
+primitive and of a piece with the Apostolic Fathers. Thus while its form
+would by analogy tend _per se_ to awaken suspicion, its contents remove
+this feeling; and we may even infer from this surviving early
+formulation of local ecclesiastical tradition, that others of somewhat
+similar character came into being in the sub-apostolic age, but failed
+to survive save as embodied in later local teaching, oral or written,
+very much as if the _Didache_ had perished and its literary offspring
+alone remained (see DIDACHE).
+
+As regards Papias's _Exposition_, which Lightfoot describes as "among
+the earliest forerunners of commentaries, partly explanatory, partly
+illustrative, on portions of the New Testament," we need here only
+remark that, whatever its exact form may have been--as to which the
+extant fragments still leave room for doubt--it was in conception
+expository of the historic meaning of Christ's more ambiguous Sayings,
+viewed in the light of definitely ascertained apostolic traditions
+bearing on the subject. The like is true also of the fragments of the
+Elders preserved in Irenaeus (so far as these do not really come from
+Papias). Both bodies of exposition represent the traditional principle
+at work in the sub-apostolic age, making for the preservation in
+relative purity, over against merely subjective interpretations--those
+of the Gnostics in particular--of the historic or original sense of
+Christ's teaching, just as Ignatius stood for the historicity of the
+facts of His earthly career in their plain, natural sense.
+
+(B) Here the question of external form passes readily over into that of
+the _internal character and spirit_. Indeed much has already been said
+or suggested bearing on these. The relation of these writers to the
+apostolic teaching generally has become pretty evident. It is one of
+absolute loyalty and deference, as to the teaching of inspiration. They
+are conscious, as are we in reading them, that they are not moving on
+the same level of insight as the Apostles; they are sub-apostolic in
+that sense also. Hence there appear constant traces of study of the
+Apostolic writings, so far as these were accessible in the locality of
+each writer at his date of writing (for the details of this subject, and
+its bearing on the history of the Canonical Scriptures of the New
+Testament, see _The New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers_, Oxford,
+1905). As Lightfoot points out (_Apostolic Fathers_, pt. i. vol. i. p.
+7), however, personality, with its variety of temperament and emphasis,
+largely colours the Apostolic Fathers, especially the primary group.
+Clement has all the Roman feeling for duly constituted order and
+discipline; Ignatius has the Syrian or semi-oriental passion of
+devotion, showing itself at once in his mystic love for his Lord and his
+over-strained yearning to become His very "disciple" by drinking the
+like cup of martyrdom; Polycarp is, above all things, steady in his
+allegiance to what had first won his conscience and heart, and his
+"passive and receptive character" comes out in the contents of his
+epistle. Of the rest, whose personalities are less known to us, Papias
+shares Polycarp's qualities and their limitations, the anonymous
+homilist and Hermas are marked by intense moral earnestness, while the
+writer to Diognetus joins to this a profound religious insight. These
+personal traits determine by selective affinity, working under
+conditions given by the special local type of tradition and piety, the
+elements in the Apostolic writings which each was able to assimilate and
+express--though we must allow also for variety in the occasions of
+writing. Thus one New Testament type is echoed in one and another in
+another; or it may be several in turn. The latter is the case in
+Clement, Ignatius and Polycarp; perhaps also in "Barnabas." In Hermas
+there is special affinity to the language and thought of the epistle of
+James, and in the homilist to those of Paul. Yet their very use of the
+same terms or ideas makes us the more aware of "a marked contrast to the
+depth and clearness of conception with which the several Apostolic
+writers place before us different aspects of the Gospel" (Lightfoot).
+While Apostolic phrases are used, the sense behind them is often
+different and less evangelic. They have not caught the Apostolic
+meaning, because they have not penetrated to the full religious
+experience which gave to the words, often words with long and varied
+history both in the Septuagint and in ordinary Greek usage, their
+specific meaning to each apostle and especially to Paul. This phenomenon
+was noted particularly by E. Reuss, in his _Histoire de la théologie
+chrétienne an siècle apostolique_ (3rd ed., 1864). Take for instance
+Clement. Lightfoot, indeed, dwells on the all-round "comprehensiveness"
+with which Clement, as the mouthpiece of the early Roman Church, utters
+in succession phrases or ideas borrowed impartially from Peter and Paul
+and James and the Epistle to Hebrews. He admits, however, that such mere
+co-ordination of the language of Paul and James, for instance, as
+appears in his twice bracketing "faith and hospitality" as grounds of
+acceptance with God (the cases are those of Abraham and Rahab, in chs.
+x. and xii.), is "from a strictly dogmatic point of view" his weakness.
+But the weakness is more than a dogmatic one; it is one of religious
+experience, as the source of spiritual insight. It is not merely that
+"there is no _dogmatic system_ in Clement" or in any other of the
+Apostolic Fathers; that may favour, not hinder, religious insight. There
+is a want of depth in Christian experience, in the power of realizing
+relative spiritual values in the light of the master principle involved
+in the distinctively Christian consciousness, such as could raise
+Clement above a verbal eclecticism, rather than comprehensiveness, in
+the use of Apostolic language. As R.W. Dale remarks, in a note on
+Reuss's too severe words (Eng. trans. ii. 295): "The vital force of the
+Apostolic convictions gave to Apostolic thought a certain organic and
+consistent form." It is lack of this organic quality in the thought, not
+only of Clement but also of the Apostolic Fathers generally--with the
+possible exception of Ignatius, who seems to share the Apostolic
+experience more fully than any other, to which Reuss rightly directs
+attention. In virtue of this defect, due largely to the failure to enter
+into the Apostolic experience of mystic union with Christ, he can
+rightly speak of "an immense retrogression" in theology visible "at the
+end of the century, and in circles where it might have been least
+expected" (ii. p. 294, cf. 541).
+
+In fact the perspective of the Gospel was seriously changed and its most
+distinctive features obscured. This was specially the case with the
+experimental doctrines of grace. Here the central glory of the Cross as
+"the power of God unto salvation" suffered some eclipse, although the
+passion of Christ was felt to be a transcendent act of Divine Grace in
+one way or another. But even more serious was the loss of an adequate
+sense of the contrast between "grace" and "works" as conditions of
+salvation. There was little or no sense of the danger of the _legal
+principle_, as related to human egoism and the instinct to seek
+salvation as a reward for merit. The passages in which these things are
+laid bare by Paul's remorseless analysis of his own experience "under
+Law" seem to have made practically no impression on the Apostolic
+Fathers as a whole. Gentile Christians had not felt the fang of the Law
+as the ex-Pharisee had occasion to feel it. Even if first trained in the
+Hellenistic synagogues of the Dispersion, as was often the case, they
+apprehended the Law on its more helpful and less exacting side, and had
+not been brought "by the Law to die unto the Law," that they might "live
+unto God." The result was too great a continuity between their religious
+conceptions before and after embracing the Gospel. Thus the latter
+seemed to them simply to bring forgiveness of past sins for Christ's
+sake, and then an enhanced moral responsibility to the New Law revealed
+in Him. Hence a new sort of legalism, known to recent writers as
+Moralism, underlies much of the piety of the Apostolic Fathers, though
+Ignatius is quite free from it, while Polycarp and "Barnabas" are less
+under its influence than are the _Didache_, Clement, the Homilist and
+Hermas. It conceives salvation as a "wages" ([Greek: osthos]) to be
+earned or forfeited; and regards certain good works, such as prayer,
+fasting, alms--especially the last--as efficacious to cancel sins. The
+reality of this tendency, particularly at Rome, betrays itself in
+Hermas, who teaches the supererogatory merit of alms gained by the
+self-denial of fasting (_Sim_. v. 3. 3 ff.). Marcion's reaction, too,
+against the Judaic temper in the Church as a whole, in the interests of
+an extravagant Paulinism, while it suggests that Paul's doctrines of
+grace generally were inadequately realized in the sub-apostolic age,
+points also to the prevalence of such moralism in particular.
+
+(C) In attempting a final estimate of the value of the Apostolic Fathers
+for the historian to-day, we may sum up under these heads:
+ecclesiastical, theological, religious. (a) As a mine of materials for
+reconstructing the history of Church institutions, they are invaluable,
+and that largely in virtue of their spontaneous and "esoteric"
+character, with no view to the public generally or to posterity. (b)
+Theologically, as a stage in the history of Christian doctrine, their
+value is as great negatively as positively. Impressive as is their
+witness to the persistence of the Apostolic teaching in its essential
+features, amidst all personal and local variations, perhaps the most
+striking thing about these writings is the degree in which they fail to
+appreciate certain elements of the Apostolic teaching as embodied in the
+New Testament, and those its higher and more distinctively Christian
+elements.[3] This negative aspect has a twofold bearing. Firstly, it
+suggests the supernormal level to which the Apostolic consciousness was
+raised at a bound by the direct influence of the Founder of
+Christianity, and justifies the marking-off of the Apostolic writings as
+a Canon, or body of Christian classics of unique religious authority. To
+this principle Marcion's Pauline Canon is a witness, though in too
+one-sided a spirit. Secondly, it means that the actual development of
+ecclesiastical doctrine began, not from the Apostolic consciousness
+itself, but from a far lower level, that of the inadequate consciousness
+of the sub-apostolic Church, even when face to face with their written
+words. This theological "retrogression" is of much significance for the
+history of dogma, (c) On the other hand, there is great religious and
+moral continuity, beneath even theological discontinuity, in the life
+working below all conscious apprehension of the deeper ideas involved
+(E. von Dobschutz, _Christian Life in the Primitive Church_, 1905).
+There is continuity in character; the Apostolic Fathers strike us as
+truly good men, with a goodness raised to a new type and power. This is
+what the Gospel of Christ aims chiefly at producing as its proper fruit;
+and the Apostolic Fathers would have desired no better record than that
+they were themselves genuine "epistles of Christ."
+
+  LITERATURE.--This is too large to indicate even in outline, but is
+  given fully in the chief modern editions, viz. of Gebhardt, Harnack
+  and Zahn jointly (1875-1877), J.B. Lightfoot (1885-1890) and F.X. Funk
+  (1901); also in O. Bardenhewer, _Gesch. der altkirchlichen Litteratur_
+  (1902), Band i., and in _Neutestamentliche Apokryphen_, with
+  _Handbuch_ thereto, edited by E. Hennecke (Tübingen, 1904). The
+  fullest discussion in English of the teaching of Barnabas, Clement,
+  Ignatius and Polycarp is by J. Donaldson, _The Apostolical Fathers_
+  (1874), which, however, suffers from the imperfect state of the texts
+  when he wrote. The most useful edition for ready reference, containing
+  critical texts (up to date) and good translations, is Lightfoot's
+  one-volume edition, _The Apostolic Fathers_ (London, 1891).
+       (J. V. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Cotelier included the Acts of Martyrdom of Clement, Ignatius and
+    Polycarp; and those of Ignatius and Polycarp are still often printed
+    by editors.
+
+  [2] See G.A. Deissmann, _Bible Studies_, pp. 1-60, for this
+    distinction between the genuine "letter" and the literary "epistle,"
+    as applied to the New Testament in particular.
+
+  [3] One result is their inability to form a true theory of Judaism
+    and of the Old Testament in relation to the Gospel, a matter of great
+    moment for them and for their successors.
+
+
+
+
+APOSTOLICI, APOSTOLIC BRETHREN, or APOSTLES, the names given to various
+Christian heretics, whose common doctrinal feature was an ascetic
+rigidity of morals, which made them reject property and marriage. The
+earliest Apostolici appeared in Phrygia, Cilicia, Pisidia and Pamphylia
+towards the end of the 2nd century or the beginning of the 3rd.
+According to the information given by Epiphanius (_Haer._ 61) about the
+doctrines of these heretics, it is evident that they were connected with
+the Encratites and the Tatianians. They condemned individual property,
+hence the name sometimes given to them of _Apotactites_ or
+_Renuntiatores_. They preserved an absolute chastity and abstained from
+wine and meat. They refused to admit into their sect those Christians
+whom the fear of martyrdom had once restored to paganism. As late as the
+4th century St Basil (_Can_. i and 47) knew some Apostolici. After that
+period they disappeared, either becoming completely extinct, or being
+confounded with other sects (see St Augustine, _Haer._ 40; John of
+Damascus, _Haer._ 61).
+
+Failing a more exact designation, the name of Apostolici has been given
+to certain groups of Latin heretics of the 12th century. It is the
+second of the two sects of Cologne (the first being composed very
+probably of Cathari) that is referred to in the letter addressed in 1146
+by Everwin, provost of Steinfeld, to St Bernard (Mabillon, _Vet. Anal._
+iii. 452). They condemned marriage (save, perhaps, first marriages), the
+eating of meat, baptism of children, veneration of saints, fasting,
+prayers for the dead and belief in purgatory, denied transubstantiation,
+declared the Catholic priesthood worthless, and considered the whole
+church of their time corrupted by the "negotia saecularia" which
+absorbed all its zeal (of. St Bernard, _Serm._ 65 and 66 _in Cantic._).
+They do not seem to have been known as Apostles or Apostolici: St
+Bernard, in fact, asks his hearers: "Quo nomine istos titulove
+censebis?" (_Serm. 66 in Cantic._). Under this designation, too, are
+included the heretics of Perigueux in France, alluded to in the letter
+of a certain monk Heribert (Mabillon, _Vet. Anal._ iii. 467). Heribert
+says merely: "Se dicunt apostolicam vitam ducere." It is possible that
+they were Henricians (see HENRY OF LAUSANNE). During his mission in the
+south-east of France in 1146-1147 St Bernard still met disciples of
+Henry of Lausanne in the environs of Périgueux. The heretics of whom
+Heribert speaks condemned riches, denied the value of the sacraments and
+of good works, ate no meat, drank no wine and rejected the veneration of
+images. Their leader, named Pons, gathered round him nobles, priests,
+monks and nuns.
+
+In the second half of the 13th century appeared in Italy the _Order of
+the Apostles_ or _Apostle Brethren_ (see especially the _Chron._ of Fra
+Salimbene). This was a product of the mystic fermentation which
+proceeded from exalted Franciscanism and from Joachimism (see FRATICELLI
+and JOACHIM). It presents great analogies with groups of the same
+character, e.g. Sachets, Bizocchi, Flagellants, &c. The order of the
+Apostles was founded about 1260 by a young workman from the environs of
+Parma, Gerard Segarelli, who had sought admission unsuccessfully to the
+Franciscan order. To make his life conform to that of Christ, his
+contemporaries say that he had himself circumcised, wrapped in swaddling
+clothes and laid in a cradle, and that he then, clad in a white robe and
+bare-footed, walked through the streets of Parma crying "Penitenz
+agite!" ("Poenitentiam agite!"). He was soon followed by a throng of men
+and women, peasants and mechanics. All had to live in absolute poverty,
+chastity and idleness. They begged, and preached penitence. Opizo,
+bishop of Parma, protected them until they caused trouble in his
+diocese. Their diffusion into several countries of Christendom disturbed
+Pope Honorius IV., who in 1286 ordered them to adhere to an already
+recognized rule. On their refusal, the pope condemned them to banishment
+and Opizo imprisoned Segarelli. The councils of Würzburg (1287) and
+Chichester (1289) took measures against the Apostles of Germany and
+England. But in 1291 the sect reappeared, sensibly increased, and Pope
+Nicholas IV. published anew the bull of Honorius IV. From that day the
+Apostles, regarded as rebels, were persecuted pitilessly. Four were
+burned in 1294, and Segarelli, as a relapsed heretic, went to the stake
+at Parma in 1300.
+
+They had had close relations with the dissident Franciscans, but the
+Spirituals often disavowed them, especially when the sect, which in
+Segarelli's time had had no very precise doctrinal character, became
+with Dolcino frankly heterodox. Dolcino of Novara was brought up at
+Vercelli, and had been an Apostle since 1291. Thrice he fell into the
+hands of the Inquisition, and thrice recanted. But immediately after
+Segarelli's death he wrote an epistle, soon followed by a second, in
+which he declared that the third Joachimite age began with Segarelli and
+that Frederick of Sicily was the expected conqueror (_Hist. Dulcini_ and
+_Addit. ad Hist. Dulcini_ in Muratori, _Scriptores_, vol. ix.). He gave
+himself out as an angel sent from God to elucidate the prophecies. Soon
+he founded an _Apostolic congregation_ at whose head he placed himself.
+Under him were his four lieutenants, his "mystic sister," Margherita di
+Franck, and 4000 disciples. He taught almost the same principles of
+devotion as Segarelli, but the Messianic character which he attributed
+to himself, the announcement of a communistic millennial kingdom, and,
+besides, an aggressive anti-sacerdotalism, gave to Dolcino's sect a
+clearly marked character, analogous only to the theocratic community of
+the Anabaptists of Münster in the 16th century. On the 5th of June 1305
+Pope Clement V., recognizing the impotence of the ordinary methods of
+repression, issued bulls for preaching a crusade against the Dolcinists.
+But four crusades, directed by the bishop of Vercelli, were required to
+reduce the little army of the heresiarch, entrenched in the mountains in
+the neighbourhood of Vercelli. Not till the 23rd of March 1307 were the
+sectaries definitively overcome. The Catholic crusaders seized Dolcino
+in his entrenchments on Mount Rubello, and the pope at once announced
+the happy event to King Philip the Fair. At Vercelli Dolcino suffered a
+horrible punishment. He was torn in pieces with red-hot pincers--the
+torture lasting an entire day--while Margherita was burned at a slow
+fire. Dante mentions Dolcino's name (_Inferno_, c. xxviii.), and his
+memory is not yet completely effaced in the province of Novara. The
+Apostles continued their propaganda in Italy, Languedoc, Spain and
+Germany. In turn they were condemned by the councils of Cologne (1306),
+Treves (1310) and Spoleto (1311). The inquisitor of Languedoc, Bernard
+Gui, persecuted them unremittingly (see Gui's _Practica Inquisitionis_).
+From 1316 to 1323 the condemnations of Apostles increased at Avignon and
+Toulouse. They disappeared, however, at a comparatively late date from
+those regions (council of Lavaur, 1368; council of Narbonne, 1374). In
+Germany two Apostles were burned at Lübeck and Wismar at the beginning
+of the 15th century (1402-1403) by the inquisitor Eylard.
+
+Several controversialists, including Gotti, Krohn and Stockmann, have
+mentioned among the innumerable sects that have sprung from Anabaptism a
+group of individuals whose open-air preaching and rigorous practice of
+poverty gained them the name of Apostolici. These must be carefully
+distinguished from the _Apostoolians_, Mennonites of Frisia, who
+followed the teachings of the pastor Samuel Apostool (1638-beginning of
+18th century). In the Mennonite church they represent the rigid,
+conservative party, as opposed to the Galenists, who inclined towards
+the Arminian latitudinarianism and admitted into their community all
+those who led a virtuous life, whatever their doctrinal tendencies.
+     (P. A.)
+
+
+
+
+APOSTOLIC MAJESTY, a title borne by the kings of Hungary. About A.D.
+1000 it was conferred by Pope Silvester II. upon St Stephen (975-1038),
+the first Christian king of Hungary, in return for his zeal in seeking
+the conversion of the heathen. It was renewed by Pope Clement XIII. in
+1758 in favour of the empress Maria Theresa and her descendants. The
+emperor of Austria bears the title of apostolic king of Hungary.
+
+
+
+
+APOSTOLIUS, MICHAEL (d. c. 1480), a Greek theologian and rhetorician of
+the 15th century. When, in 1453, the Turks conquered Constantinople, his
+native city, he fled to Italy, and there obtained the protection of
+Cardinal Bessarion. But engaging in the great dispute that then raged
+between the upholders of Aristotle and Plato, his zeal for the latter
+led him to speak so contemptuously of the more popular philosopher and
+of his defender, Theodorus Gaza, that he fell under the severe
+displeasure of his patron. He afterwards retired to Crete, where he
+earned a scanty living by teaching and by copying manuscripts. Many of
+his copies are still to be found in the libraries of Europe. One of
+them, the _Icones_ of Philostratus at Bologna, bears the inscription:
+"The king of the poor of this world has written this book for his
+living." Apostolius died about 1480, leaving two sons, Aristobulus
+Apostolius and Arsenius. The latter became bishop of Malvasia
+(Monemvasia) in the Morea.
+
+  Of his numerous works a few have been printed: [Greek: Paroimiai]
+  (Basel, 1538), now exceedingly rare; a collection of proverbs in
+  Greek, of which a fuller edition appeared at Leiden, "Curante
+  Heinsio," in 1619; "Oratio Panegyrica ad Fredericum III." in Freher's
+  _Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum_, vol. ii. (Frankfort, 1624); Georgii
+  Gemisthi Plethonis et Mich. Apostolii _Orationes funebres duae in
+  quibus de Immortalitate Animae exponitur_ (Leipzig, 1793); and a work
+  against the Latin Church and the council of Florence in Le Moine's
+  _Varia Sacra_.
+
+
+
+
+APOSTROPHE (Gr. [Greek: apostrophe], turning away; the final e being
+sounded), the name given to an exclamatory rhetorical figure of speech,
+when a speaker or writer breaks off and addresses some one directly in
+the vocative. The same word (representing, through the French, the Greek
+[Greek: apostrophos prosudia], the accent of elision) means also the
+sign (') for the omission of a letter or letters, e.g. in "don't." In
+physiology, "apostrophe" is used more precisely in connexion with its
+literal meaning of "turning away," e.g. for movement away from the
+light, in the case of the accumulation of chlorophyll-corpuscles on the
+cells of leaves.
+
+
+
+
+APOTACTITES, or APOTACTICI (from Gr. [Greek: apotaktos], set apart), a
+sect of early Christians, who renounced all their worldly possessions.
+(See APOSTOLICI _ad init._)
+
+
+
+
+APOTHECARY (from the Lat. _apothecarius_, a keeper of an _apotheca_, Gr.
+[Greek: apotheke], a store), a word used by Galen to denote the
+repository where his medicines were kept, now obsolete in its original
+sense. An apothecary was one who prepared, sold and prescribed drugs,
+but the preparing and selling of drugs prescribed by others has now
+passed into the hands of duly qualified and authorized persons termed
+"chemists and druggists," while the apothecary, by modern legislation,
+has become a general medical practitioner, and the word itself, when
+used at all, is applied, more particularly in the United States and in
+Scotland, to those who in England are called "pharmaceutical chemists."
+The Apothecaries' Society of London is one of the corporations of that
+city, and both by royal charters and acts of parliament exercises the
+power of granting licences to practise medicine. The members of this
+society do not possess and never have possessed any exclusive power to
+deal in or sell drugs; and until 1868 any person whatever might open
+what is called a chemist's shop, and deal in drugs and poisons. In that
+year, however, the Pharmacy Act was passed, which prohibits any person
+from engaging in this business without being registered.
+
+From early records we learn that the different branches of the medical
+profession were not regularly distinguished till the reign of Henry
+VIII., when separate duties were assigned to them, and peculiar
+privileges were granted to each. In 1518 the physicians of London were
+incorporated, and the barber-surgeons in 1540. But, independently of the
+physicians and the surgeons, there were a great number of irregular
+practitioners, who were more or less molested by their legitimate
+rivals, and it became necessary to pass an act in 1543 for their
+protection and toleration. As many of these practitioners kept shops for
+the sale of medicines, the term "apothecary" was used to designate their
+calling.
+
+In April 1606 James I. incorporated the apothecaries as one of the city
+companies, uniting them with the grocers. On their charter being renewed
+in 1617 they were formed into a separate corporation, under the title of
+the "Apothecaries of the City of London." These apothecaries appear to
+have prescribed medicines in addition to dispensing them, and to have
+claimed an ancient right of acting in this double capacity; and it may
+be mentioned that Henry VIII., after the grant of the charter to the
+College of Physicians, appointed an apothecary to the Princess Mary, who
+was delicate and unhealthy, at a salary of 40 marks a year, "_pro
+meliore cura, et consideratione sanitatis suae_." During the 17th
+century, however, there arose a warm contest between the physicians and
+the apothecaries,--the former accusing the latter of usurping their
+province, and the latter continuing and justifying the usurpation until
+the dispute was finally set at rest by a judgment of the House of Lords
+in 1703 (_Rose v. College of Physicians_, 5 Bro. P. C. 553), when it was
+decided that the duty of the apothecary consisted not only in
+compounding and dispensing, but also in directing and ordering the
+remedies employed in the treatment of disease. In 1722 an act was
+obtained empowering the Apothecaries' Company to visit the shops of all
+apothecaries practising in London, and to destroy such drugs as they
+found unfit for use. In 1748 great additional powers were given to the
+company by an act authorizing them to appoint a board of ten examiners,
+without whose licence no person should be allowed to dispense medicines
+in London, or within a circuit of 7 m. round it. In 1815, however, an
+act of parliament was passed which gave the Apothecaries' Society a new
+position, empowering a board, consisting of twelve of their members, to
+examine and license all apothecaries throughout England and Wales. It
+also enacted that, from the 1st of August of that year, no persons
+except those who were so licensed should have the right to act as
+apothecaries, and it gave the society the power of prosecuting those who
+practised without such licence. But the act expressly exempted from
+prosecution all persons who were then in actual practice, and it
+distinctly excluded from its operation all persons pursuing the calling
+of chemists and druggists. It was also provided that the act should in
+no way interfere with the rights or privileges of the English
+universities, or of the English College of Surgeons or the College of
+Physicians; and indeed a clause imposed severe penalties on any
+apothecaries who should refuse to compound and dispense medicines on the
+order of a physician, legally qualified to act as such. It is therefore
+clear that the act contemplated the creation of a class of practitioners
+who, while having the right to practise medicine, should assist and
+co-operate with the physicians and surgeons.
+
+Before this act came into operation the education of the medical
+practitioners of England and Wales was entirely optional on their own
+part, and although many of them possessed degrees or licences from the
+universities or colleges, the greater number possessed no such
+qualification, and many of them were wholly illiterate and uneducated.
+The court of examiners of the Apothecaries' Society, being empowered to
+enforce the acquisition of a sufficient medical education upon its
+future licentiates, specified from time to time the courses of lectures
+or terms of hospital practice to be attended by medical students before
+their examination, and in the progress of years regular schools of
+medicine were organized throughout England.
+
+As it was found that, notwithstanding the stringent regulations as to
+medical acquirements, the candidates were in many instances deficient in
+preliminary education, the court of examiners instituted, about the year
+1850, a preliminary examination in arts as a necessary and indispensable
+prerequisite to the medical curriculum, and this provision has been so
+expanded that, at the present day, all medical students in the United
+Kingdom are compelled to pass a preliminary examination in arts, unless
+they hold a university degree. An act of parliament, passed in 1858, and
+known as the Medical Act, made very little alteration in the powers
+exercised by the Apothecaries' Society, and indeed it confirmed and in
+some degree amplified them, for whereas by the act of 1815, the
+licentiates of the society were authorized to practise as such only in
+England and Wales, the new measure gave them the same right in Scotland
+and Ireland. The Medical Act 1886 extended the qualifications necessary
+for registration under the medical acts, by making it necessary to pass
+a qualifying examination in medicine, surgery and midwifery. (See
+MEDICAL EDUCATION.)
+
+An act, passed in 1874, related exclusively to the Apothecaries'
+Society, and is termed the Apothecaries' Act Amendment Act. By this
+measure some provisions of the act of 1815, which had become obsolete or
+unsuitable, were repealed, and powers were given to the society to unite
+or co-operate with other medical licensing bodies in granting licences
+to practise. The act of 1815 had made it compulsory on all candidates
+for a licence to have served an apprenticeship of five years to an
+apothecary, and although by the interpretation of the court of examiners
+of the society this term really included the whole period of medical
+study, yet the regulation was felt as a grievance by many members of the
+medical profession. It was accordingly repealed, and no apprenticeship
+is now necessary. The restriction of the choice of examiners to the
+members of the society was also repealed, and the society was given the
+power (which it did not before possess) to strike off from the list of
+its licentiates the names of disreputable persons. The act of 1874 also
+specified that the society was not deprived of any right or obligation
+they may have to admit women to examination, and to enter their names on
+the list of licentiates if they acquit themselves satisfactorily.
+
+The Apothecaries' Society is governed by a master, two wardens and
+twenty-two assistants. The members are divided into THREE grades,
+yeomanry or freemen, the livery, and the court. Women are not, however,
+admitted to the freedom. The hall of the society, situated in Water
+Lane, London, and covering about three-quarters of an acre, was acquired
+in 1633. It was destroyed by the great fire, but was rebuilt about ten
+years later and enlarged in 1786. This is the only property possessed by
+the society. In 1673, the society established a botanic and physic
+garden at Chelsea, and in 1722 Sir Hans Sloane, who had become the
+ground owner, gave it to the society on the condition of presenting
+annually to the Royal Society fifty dried specimens of plants till the
+number should reach 2000. This condition was fulfilled in 1774. Owing to
+the heavy cost of maintenance and other reasons, the "physic garden" was
+handed over in 1902, with the consent of the Charity Commissioners, to a
+committee of management, to be maintained in the interests of botanical
+study and research.
+
+  See C.R.B. Barrett, _The History of the Society of Apothecaries of
+  London_ (1905).
+
+
+
+
+APOTHEOSIS (Gr. [Greek: apotheoûn], to make a god, to deify), literally
+deification. The term properly implies a clear polytheistic conception
+of gods in contrast with men, while it recognizes that some men cross
+the dividing line. It is characteristic of polytheism to blur that line
+in several ways. Thus the ancient Greek religion was especially disposed
+to belief in heroes and demigods. Founders of cities, and even of
+colonies, received worship; the former are, generally speaking, mythical
+personages and, in strictness, heroes. But the worship after death of
+historical persons, such as Lycurgus, or worship of the living as true
+deities, e.g. Lysander and Philip II. of Macedon, occurred sporadically
+even before Alexander's conquests brought Greek life into contact with
+oriental traditions. It was inevitable, too, that ancient monarchies
+should enlist polytheistic conceptions of divine or half-divine men in
+support of the dynasties; "_Seu deos regesve canit deorum Sanguinem_,"
+Horace (_Odes_, iv. 2, 11. 12, 13) writes of Pindar; though the
+reference is to myths, yet the phrase is significant. In the East all
+such traits are exaggerated, a result perhaps rather of the statecraft
+than of the religions of Egypt and Persia. Whatever part vanity or the
+flattery of courtiers may have played with others, or with Alexander, it
+is significant that the dynasties of Alexander's various successors all
+claim divine honours of some sort (see PTOLEMIES, SELEUCID DYNASTY,
+&c.). Theocritus (_Idyll_ 17) hails Ptolemy Philadelphus as a demigod,
+and speaks of his father as seated among the gods along with Alexander.
+Ancestor worship, or reverence for the dead, was a third factor. It may
+work even in Cicero's determination that his daughter should enjoy
+"[Greek: apothéôsis]"--as he writes to Atticus--or receive the "honour"
+of _consecratia_ (fragment of his _De Consolatione_). Lastly, we need
+not speak of mere sycophancy. Yet it was common; Verres was worshipped
+before he was impeached!
+
+The Romans had, up to the end of the Republic, accepted only one
+official apotheosis; the god Quirinus, whatever his original meaning,
+having been identified with Romulus. But the emperor Augustus carried on
+the tradition of ancient statecraft by having Julius Caesar recognized
+as a god (_divus Julius_), the first of a new class of deities proper
+(_divi_). The tradition was steadily followed and was extended to some
+ladies of the imperial family and even to imperial favourites. Worship
+of an emperor during his lifetime, except as the worship of his
+_genius_, was, save in the cases of Caligula and Domitian, confined to
+the provinces. Apotheosis after his death, being in the hands of the
+senate, did not at once cease, even when Christianity was officially
+adopted. The Latin term is _consecratio_, which of course has a variety
+of senses, including simple burial. (Inscription in G. Boissier, _La
+Religion romaine_; Renier, _Inscriptions d'Algiers_, 2510.) The Greek
+term Apotheosis, probably a coinage of the Hellenistic epoch, becomes
+more nearly technical for the deification of dead emperors. But it is
+still used simply for the erection of tombs (clearly so in some Greek
+inscriptions, _Corpus Inscript. Graec._ 2831, 2832, quoted in
+Pauly-Wissowa, _s.v. Apotheosis_). Possibly there is a trace of ancestor
+worship even here; but the two usages have diverged. The squib of the
+philosopher Seneca on the memory of Claudius (d. A.D. 54),
+_Apocolocyntosis_ ("pumpkinification"), is evidence that, as early as
+Seneca's lifetime, apotheosis was in use for the recognition of a
+departed emperor as a god. It also indicates how much contempt might be
+associated with this pretended worship. The people, says Suetonius
+(_Jul. Caes._ c. 88), fully believed in the divinity of Julius Caesar,
+hinting at the same time that this was by no means the case with the
+majority of the apotheoses subsequently decreed by the senate. Yet we
+learn from Capitolinus that Marcus Aurelius was still worshipped as a
+household divinity in the time of Diocletian, and was believed to impart
+revelations in dreams (Vit. M. Ant. c. 18). Antinous, the favourite of
+Hadrian, was adored in Egypt a century after his death (Origen, _Contra
+Celsum_, iii. 36), though, according to Boissier, his worship never had
+official sanction. The ceremonies attendant on an imperial apotheosis
+are very fully described by Herodianus (bk. iv. c. 2) on occasion of the
+obsequies of Severus, which he appears to have witnessed. The most
+significant was the liberation, at the moment of kindling the funeral
+pyre, of an eagle which was supposed to bear the emperor's soul to
+heaven. Sharp-sighted persons had actually beheld the ascension of
+Augustus (Suet. _August_, c. 100), and of Drusilla, sister of Caligula.
+Representations of apotheoses occur on several works of art; the most
+important are the apotheosis of Homer on a relief in the Townley
+collection of the British Museum, that of Titus on the arch of Titus,
+and that of Augustus on a magnificent cameo in the Louvre.
+
+In China at the present day many Taoist gods are (or are given out as)
+men deified for service to the state. This again may be statecraft. In
+India, the (still unexplained) rise of the doctrine of transmigration
+hindered belief. Apotheosis can mean nothing to those who hold that a
+man may be reborn as a god, but still needs redemption, and that men on
+earth may win redemption, if they are brave enough. Curiously, Buddhism
+itself is ruled by the ghost or shadowy remainder of belief in
+transmigration--Karma.
+
+Apotheosis may also be used in wider senses. (a) Some (e.g. Herbert
+Spencer) hold that most gods are deified men, and most myths historical
+traditions which have been grotesquely distorted. This theory is known
+as Euhemerism (see EUHEMERUS). It is needless to say that the attitude
+of those holding the Euhemerist theory is at the farthest pole from
+belief in apotheosis. According to the latter, some men may become gods.
+According to the former, all gods are but men; or, some men have been
+erroneously supposed to become gods. The Euhemerist theory mainly
+appeals to ancestor worship--a fact of undoubted importance in the
+history of religion, especially in China and in ancient Rome. In India,
+too, a dead person treated with funeral honours becomes a guardian
+spirit--if neglected, a tormenting demon. But whether the great gods of
+polytheism were really transfigured ancestors is very doubtful. (b)
+Again, there is a tendency to offer something like worship to the
+founders of religions. Thus more than human honour is paid to Zoroaster
+and Buddha and even to the founders of systems not strictly religious,
+e.g. to Confucius and Auguste Comte. It is noticeable that this kind of
+worship is not accorded in rigidly monotheistic systems, e.g. to Moses
+and Mahomet. Nor is it accurate to speak of apotheosis in cases where
+the founder is in his lifetime regarded as the incarnation of a god (cf.
+Ali among Shi'ite Mahommedans; the Bab in Babism; the Druse Hakim). Most
+Christians on this ground repudiate the application of the term to the
+worship of Jesus Christ. Curiously, _Apotheosis_ is used by the Latin
+Christian poet, Prudentius (c. 400), as the title of a poem defending
+orthodox views on the person of Christ and other points of doctrine--the
+affectation of a decadent age. (c) The worship paid to Saints, in those
+Christian churches which admit it, is formally distinguished as _dulia_
+([Greek: douleia]) from true worship or _latria_ ([Greek: latreia]).
+Even the Virgin Mary, though she is styled Mother of God and Queen of
+Heaven, receives only _dulia_ or at most _hyperdulia_.
+     (R. G.; R. Ma.)
+
+
+
+
+APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS, the general name given to a vast system of
+elevations in North America, partly in Canada, but mostly in the United
+States, extending as a zone, from 100 to 300 m. wide, from Newfoundland,
+Gaspé Peninsula and New Brunswick, 1500 m. south-westward to central
+Alabama. The whole system may be divided into three great sections: the
+_Northern_, from Newfoundland to the Hudson river; the _Central_, from
+the Hudson Valley to that of New river (Great Kanawha), in Virginia and
+West Virginia; and the _Southern_, from New river onwards. The northern
+section includes the Shickshock Mountains and Notre Dame Range in
+Quebec, scattered elevations in Maine, the White Mountains and the Green
+Mountains; the central comprises, besides various minor groups, the
+Valley Ridges between the Front of the Allegheny Plateau and the Great
+Appalachian Valley, the New York-New Jersey Highlands and a large
+portion of the Blue Ridge; and the southern consists of the prolongation
+of the Blue Ridge, the Unaka Range, and the Valley Ridges adjoining the
+Cumberland Plateau, with some lesser ranges.
+
+_The Chief Summits._--The Appalachian belt includes, with the ranges
+enumerated above, the plateaus sloping southward to the Atlantic Ocean
+in New England, and south-eastward to the border of the coastal plain
+through the central and southern Atlantic states; and on the north-west,
+the Allegheny and Cumberland plateaus declining toward the Great Lakes
+and the interior plains. A remarkable feature of the belt is the
+longitudinal chain of broad valleys--the Great Appalachian
+Valley--which, in the southerly sections divides the mountain system
+into two subequal portions, but in the northernmost lies west of all the
+ranges possessing typical Appalachian features, and separates them from
+the Adirondack group. The mountain system has no axis of dominating
+altitudes, but in every portion the summits rise to rather uniform
+heights, and, especially in the central section, the various ridges and
+intermontane valleys have the same trend as the system itself. None of
+the summits reaches the region of perpetual snow. Mountains of the Long
+Range in Newfoundland reach heights of nearly 2000 ft. In the
+Shickshocks the higher summits rise to about 4000 ft. elevation. In
+Maine four peaks exceed 3000 ft., including Katahdin (5200 ft.), Mount
+Washington, in the White Mountains (6293 ft.), Adams (5805), Jefferson
+(5725), Clay (5554), Monroe (5390), Madison (5380), Lafayette (5269);
+and a number of summits rise above 4000 ft. In the Green Mountains the
+highest point, Mansfield, is 4364 ft.; Lincoln (4078), Killington
+(4241), Camel Hump (4088); and a number of other heights exceed 3000 ft.
+The Catskills are not properly included in the system. The Blue Ridge,
+rising in southern Pennsylvania and there known as South Mountain,
+attains in that state elevations of about 2000 ft.; southward to the
+Potomac its altitudes diminish, but 30 m. beyond again reach 2000 ft. In
+the Virginia Blue Ridge the following are the highest peaks east of New
+river: Mount Weather (about 1850 ft.), Mary's Rock (3523), Peaks of
+Otter (4001 and 3875), Stony Man (4031), Hawks Bill (4066). In
+Pennsylvania the summits of the Valley Ridges rise generally to about
+2000 ft., and in Maryland Eagle Rock and Dans Rock are conspicuous
+points reaching 3162 ft. and 2882 ft. above the sea. On the same side of
+the Great Valley, south of the Potomac, are the Pinnacle (3007 ft.) and
+Pidgeon Roost (3400 ft.). In the southern section of the Blue Ridge are
+Grandfather Mountain (5964 ft.), with three other summits above 5000,
+and a dozen more above 4000. The Unaka Ranges (including the Black and
+Smoky Mountains) have eighteen peaks higher than 5000 ft., and eight
+surpassing 6000 ft. In the Black Mountains, Mitchell (the culminating
+point of the whole system) attains an altitude of 6711 ft., Balsam Cone,
+6645, Black Brothers, 6690, and 6620, and Hallback, 6403. In the Smoky
+Mountains we have Clingman's Peak (6611), Guyot (6636), Alexander
+(6447), Leconte (6612), Curtis (6588), with several others above 6000
+and many higher than 5000.
+
+In spite of the existence of the Great Appalachian Valley, the master
+streams are transverse to the axis of the system. The main watershed
+follows a tortuous course which crosses the mountainous belt just north
+of New river in Virginia; south of this the rivers head in the Blue
+Ridge, cross the higher Unakas, receive important tributaries from the
+Great Valley, and traversing the Cumberland Plateau in spreading gorges,
+escape by way of the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers to the Ohio and
+Mississippi, and thus to the Gulf of Mexico; in the central section the
+rivers, rising in or beyond the Valley Ridges, flow through great
+gorges (water gaps) to the Great Valley, and by south-easterly courses
+across the Blue Ridge to tidal estuaries penetrating the coastal plain;
+in the northern section the water-parting lies on the inland side of the
+mountainous belt, the main lines of drainage running from north to
+south.
+
+_Geology._--The rocks of the Appalachian belt fall naturally into two
+divisions; ancient (pre-Cambrian) crystallines, including marbles,
+schists, gneisses, granites and other massive igneous rocks, and a great
+succession of Paleozoic sediments. The crystallines are confined to the
+portion of the belt east of the Great Valley where Paleozoic rocks are
+always highly metamorphosed and occur for the most part in limited
+patches, excepting in New England and Canada, where they assume greater
+areal importance, and are besides very generally intruded by granites.
+The Paleozoic sediments, ranging in age from Cambrian to Permian, occupy
+the Great Valley, the Valley Ridges and the plateaus still farther west.
+They are rarely metamorphosed to the point of recrystallization, though
+locally shales are altered to roofing slates, sandstones are indurated,
+limestones slightly marblized, and coals, originally bituminous, are
+changed to anthracite in northern Pennsylvania, and to graphite in Rhode
+Island. Igneous intrusions consist only of unimportant dikes of trap.
+The most striking and uniformly characteristic geologic feature of the
+mountains is their internal structure, consisting of innumerable
+parallel, long and narrow folds, always closely appressed in the eastern
+part of any cross-section (Piedmont Plateau to Great Valley), less so
+along a central zone (Great Valley and Valley Ridges), and increasingly
+open on the west (Allegheny and Cumberland Plateaus). Asymmetry of the
+folds is a marked characteristic in the zones of closer folding, the
+anticlines having long gently inclined easterly limbs, and short, steep
+and even overturned limbs upon the west. The effect of such folds is
+often exaggerated by thrusts, and faulting of this sort is prominent in
+the southern section, where the existence of over-thrusts measured by
+several miles has been established.
+
+What may be termed the ancestral Appalachian system was formed during
+the post-carboniferous revolution, though certain of its elements had
+been previously outlined, and perhaps at different dates. Folding of the
+rocks resulted from the operation of great compressive forces acting
+tangentially to the figure of the earth. Extensive and deep-seated
+crumpling was necessarily accompanied by vertical uplift throughout the
+zone affected, but once at least since their birth the mountains have
+been worn down to a lowland, and the mountains of to-day are the
+combined product of subsequent uplift of a different sort, and
+dissection by erosion. Produced by long-continued subaerial decay and
+erosion, in later Cretaceous times this lowland extended from the
+Atlantic Ocean well toward the interior of North America; since then the
+whole continent has been generally elevated, and by successive steps the
+Appalachian belt has been raised to form a wide but relatively low arch.
+The crosswise courses of the greater rivers result from the rivers being
+older than the mountains, which indeed have been produced by
+circumdenudation. The master streams of the present have inherited their
+channels from the drainage systems of the Cretaceous lowland, and though
+raised athwart the courses of the lowland trunk streams the great arch
+was developed so slowly that these channels could be maintained through
+_pari passu_ deepening. Former tributaries have given place to others
+developed with reference to the distribution of more or less easily
+eroded strata, the present longitudinal valleys being determined by the
+out-crop of soft shales or soluble limestones, and the parallel ridges
+upheld by hard sandstones or schists. Parallelism of mountain ridges and
+intervening valleys is thus attributable to the folding of the rocks,
+but the origin of the interior structure of the mountains is to be kept
+distinct from the origin of the mountains as features of topography.
+
+_Flora and Fauna._--Much of the region is covered with forest yielding
+quantities of valuable timber, especially in Canada and northern New
+England. The most valuable trees for lumber are spruce, white pine,
+hemlock, cedar, white birch, ash, maple and basswood; all excepting pine
+and hemlock and poplar in addition are ground into wood pulp for the
+manufacture of paper. In the central and southern parts of the belt oak
+and hickory constitute valuable hard woods, and certain varieties of the
+former furnish quantities of tan bark. The tulip tree produces a good
+clear lumber known as white wood or poplar, and is also a source of
+pulp. In the south both white and yellow pine abounds. Many flowering
+and fruit-bearing shrubs of the heath family add to the beauty of the
+mountainous districts, rhododendron and kalmia often forming
+impenetrable thickets. Bears, mountain lions (pumas), wild cats (lynx)
+and wolves haunt the more remote fastnesses of the mountains; foxes
+abound; deer are found in many districts and moose in the north.
+
+_Influence on History._--For a century the Appalachians were a barrier
+to the westward expansion of the English colonies; the continuity of the
+system, the bewildering multiplicity of its succeeding ridges, the
+tortuous courses and roughness of its transverse passes, a heavy forest
+and dense undergrowth all conspired to hold the settlers on the
+seaward-sloping plateaus and coastal plains. Only by way of the Hudson
+and Mohawk valleys, and round about the southern termination of the
+system were there easy routes to the interior of the country, and these
+were long closed by hostile aborigines and jealous French or Spanish
+colonists. In eastern Pennsylvania the Great Valley was accessible by
+reason of a broad gateway between the end of South Mountain and the
+Highlands, and here in the Lebanon Valley settled German Moravians,
+whose descendants even now retain the peculiar patois known as
+"Pennsylvania Dutch." These were late comers to the New World forced to
+the frontier to find unclaimed lands. With their followers of both
+German and Scotch-Irish origin, they worked their way southward and soon
+occupied all of the Virginia Valley and the upper reaches of the Great
+Valley tributaries of the Tennessee. By 1755 the obstacle to westward
+expansion had been thus reduced by half; outposts of the English
+colonists had penetrated the Allegheny and Cumberland plateaus,
+threatening French monopoly in the transmontane region, and a conflict
+became inevitable. Making common cause against the French to determine
+the control of the Ohio valley, the unsuspected strength of the
+colonists was revealed, and the successful ending of the French and
+Indian War extended England's territory to the Mississippi. To this
+strength the geographic isolation enforced by the Appalachian mountains
+had been a prime contributor. The confinement of the colonies between an
+ocean and a mountain wall led to the fullest occupation of the coastal
+border of the continent, which was possible under existing conditions of
+agriculture, conducing to a community of purpose, a political and
+commercial solidarity, which would not otherwise have been developed. As
+early as 1700 it was possible to ride from Portland, Maine, to southern
+Virginia, sleeping each night at some considerable village. In contrast
+to this complete industrial occupation, the French territory was held by
+a small and very scattered population, its extent and openness adding
+materially to the difficulties of a disputed tenure. Bearing the brunt
+of this contest as they did, the colonies were undergoing preparation
+for the subsequent struggle with the home government. Unsupported by
+shipping, the American armies fought toward the sea with the mountains
+at their back protecting them against Indians leagued with the British.
+The few settlements beyond the Great Valley were free for self-defence
+because debarred from general participation in the conflict by reason of
+their position.
+
+  See the separate articles on the states, and also the following
+  references:--Topographic maps and Geologic Folios of the United States
+  Geological Survey; Bailey Willis, "The Northern Appalachians," and
+  C.W. Hayes, "The Southern Appalachians," both in _National Geographic
+  Monographs_, vol. i.; and chaps, iii., iv. and v. of Miss E.C.
+  Semple's _American History and its Geographic Conditions_ (Boston,
+  1903).     (A. C. Sp.)
+
+
+
+
+APPANAGE, or APANAGE (a French word from the late Lat. _apanagium_,
+formed from _apanare, i.e. panem porrigere_, to give bread, i.e.
+sustenance), in its original sense, the means of subsistence given by
+parents to their younger children as distinct from the rights secured
+to the eldest born by the custom of primogeniture. In its modern usage
+it is practically confined to the money endowment given to the younger
+children of reigning or mediatized houses in Germany and Austria, which
+reverts to the state or to the head of the family on the extinction of
+the line of the original grantee. In English history the system of
+appanages never played any great part, and the term is now properly
+applied only to the appanages of the crown: the duchy of Cornwall,
+assigned to the king's eldest son at birth, or on his father's accession
+to the crown, and the duchy of Lancaster. In the history of France,
+however, the appanage was a very important factor. The word denotes in
+very early French law the portion of lands or money given by fathers and
+mothers to their sons or daughters on marriage, and usually connotes a
+renunciation by the latter of any future inheritance; or it may denote
+the portion given by the eldest son to his brothers and sisters when he
+was sole inheritor. The word _apanage_ is still employed in this sense
+in French official texts of some _Customs_; but it was in old public law
+that it received its definite meaning and importance. Under the kings of
+the third dynasty, the division of the kingdom among the sons of the
+dead monarch which had characterized the Merovingian and Carolingian
+dynasties, ceased. The eldest son alone succeeded to the crown; but at
+the same time a custom was established by which the king made
+territorial provision suitable to their rank for his other children or
+for his brothers and sisters; custom forbade their being left landless.
+Lands and lordships thus bestowed constituted the appanages, which
+interfered so greatly with the formation of ancient France. While the
+persevering policy of the Capets, which aimed at reuniting the great
+fiefs, duchies, countships, baronies, &c., to the domain of the crown,
+gradually reconstructed for their benefit a territorial sovereignty over
+France, the institution of the appanage periodically subtracted large
+portions from it. Louis XI., in particular, had to struggle against the
+appanaged nobles. The old law, however, never abolished this
+institution. The edict of Moulins (1566) maintained it, as one of the
+exceptions to the inalienability of the crown-lands; only it was then
+decided that daughters of France should be appanaged in money, or that
+if, in default of coin, lands were assigned to them, these lands should
+be redeemable by the crown in perpetuity. The efforts of the kings to
+minimize this evil, and of the old jurisprudence to deal with the
+matter, resulted in two expedients: (1) the reversion of the appanage to
+the crown was secured as far as possible, being declared inalienable and
+transmissible only to male descendants in the male line of the person
+appanaged; (2) originally the person appanaged had possessed all the
+rights of a duke or count--that is to say, in the middle ages nearly all
+the attributes of sovereignty; the more important of these attributes
+were now gradually reserved to the monarch, including public authority
+over the inhabitants of the appanage in all essential matters. However,
+it is evident from the letters of appanage, dated April 1771, in favour
+of the count of Provence, how many functions of public authority an
+appanaged person still held. The Constituent Assembly, by the law dated
+the 22nd of November 1790, decided that in future there should be no
+appanages in real estate, and that younger sons of monarchs, married and
+over twenty-five years of age, should be provided for by yearly grants
+(_rentes apanagères_) from the public funds. The laws of the 13th of
+August and the 21st of December 1790 revoked all the existing appanages,
+except those of the Luxembourg Palace and the Palais Royal. To each
+person hitherto appanaged an annual income of one million _livres_ was
+assigned, and two millions for the brothers of the king. All this came
+to an end with the monarchy. Napoleon, by the _sénatus-consulte_ of the
+30th of January 1810, resolved to create appanages for the emperor's
+princely descendants, such appanages to consist for the most part of
+lands on French soil. The fall of the empire again annulled this
+enactment. The last appanage known in France was that enjoyed by the
+house of Orleans. Having been re-established, or recognized as still
+existing, by the Restoration, it was formally confirmed by the law of
+the 15th of January 1825. On the accession of Louis Philippe it was
+united to the national property by the law of the 2nd of March 1832.
+
+  For appanages in ancient law see the _Essai sur les apanages ou
+  mémoires historiques de leur établissement_, attributed to Du Vaucel,
+  about 1780.     (J. P. E.)
+
+
+
+
+APPAREL (from O. Fr. _aparail_, _aparailler_, mod. _appareil_, from Low
+Lat. _adpariculare_, to make fit or equal), equipment, outfit, things
+furnished for the proper performance of anything, now chiefly used of
+dress. The word is also applied to the "orphreys," i.e. embroidered
+strips or borders, on ecclesiastical vestments.
+
+
+
+
+APPARITIONS. An apparition, strictly speaking, is merely an appearance
+(Lat. _apparere_, to appear), the result of perception exercised on any
+stimulus of any of the senses. But in ordinary usage the word apparition
+denotes a perception (generally through the sense of sight) which
+cannot, as a rule, be shown to be occasioned by an object in external
+nature. We say "as a rule" because many so-called apparitions are merely
+illusions, i.e. misconstructions of the perceptive processes, as when a
+person in a bad light sees a number of small children leading a horse,
+and finds, on nearer approach, that he sees two men carrying bee-hives
+suspended from a pole. Again, Sir Walter Scott's vision of Byron, then
+lately dead, proved to be a misconstruction of certain plaids and cloaks
+hanging in the hall at Abbotsford, or so Sir Walter declared. Had he not
+discovered the physical basis of this illusion (which, while it lasted,
+was an apparition, technically speaking), he and others might have
+thought that it was an apparition in the popular sense of the word, a
+ghost. In popular phraseology a ghost is understood to be a phantasm
+produced in some way by the spirit of a dead person, the impression
+being usually visual, though the ghost, or apparition, may also affect
+the sense of hearing (by words, knocks, whistles, groans and so forth),
+or the sense of touch, or of weight, as in the case of the "incubus." In
+ordinary speech an apparition of a person not known to the percipient to
+be dead is called a wraith, in the Highland phrase, a spirit of the
+living. The terms _ghost_ and _wraith_ involve the hypothesis that the
+false perceptions are caused by spirits, a survival of the archaic
+animistic hypothesis (see ANIMISM), an hypothesis as difficult to prove
+as to disprove. Apparitions, of course, are not confined to
+anthropomorphic phantasms; we hear of phantom coaches (sometimes seen,
+but more frequently heard), of phantom dogs, cats, horses, cattle, deer,
+and even of phantom houses.
+
+Whatever may be the causes of these and other false perceptions,--most
+curious when the impression is shared by several witnesses,--they may
+best be considered under the head of hallucination (q.v.).
+Hallucinations may be pathological, i.e. the result of morbid conditions
+of brain or nerve, of disease, of fever, of insanity, of alcoholism, of
+the abuse of drugs. Again, they may be the result of dissociation, or
+may occur in the borderland of sleep or waking, and in this case they
+partake of the hallucinatory nature of dreams (q.v.). Again,
+hallucinations may, once or twice in a lifetime, come into the
+experience of the sane, the healthy, and, as far as any tests can be
+applied, of the wide-awake. In such instances the apparition (whether it
+take the form of a visual phantasm, of a recognized voice, of a touch,
+or what not) may be coincidental or non-coincidental. The phantasm is
+called coincidental if it represents a known and distant person who is
+later found to have been dying or in some other crisis at the moment of
+the percipient's experience. When the false perception coincides with
+nothing of the sort, it is styled non-coincidental. Coincidental
+apparitions have been explained by the theory of telepathy (q.v.), one
+mind or brain impressing another in some unknown way so as to beget an
+hallucinatory apparition or phantasm. On the evidence, so far as it has
+been collected and analysed, it seems that the mind which, on the
+hypothesis, begets the hallucinations, usually does so without
+_conscious_ effort (see SUBLIMINAL SELF). There are, however, a few
+cases in which the experiment of begetting, in another, an hallucination
+from a distance, is said to have been experimentally and consciously
+made, with success.
+
+If the telepathic theory of coincidental hallucinations be accepted, we
+have still to account for the much more common non-coincidental
+apparitions of the living who do not happen to be in any particular
+crisis. In these instances it cannot be demonstrated that telepathy has
+_not_ been at work, as when a person is seen at a place which he thought
+of visiting, but did not visit. F.W. Myers even upheld a theory of
+psychorhagy, holding that the spirits of some persons have a way of
+manifesting themselves at a distance by a psychic invasion. This
+involves, as he remarked, paleolithic psychology, and the old savage
+doctrine of animism, rather than telepathy (see Myers, _Human
+Personality_). Of belief in coincidental hallucinations or wraiths among
+savages, records are scanty; the belief, however, is found among Maoris
+and Fuegians (see Lang, _Making of Religions_). The perception of
+apparitions of distant but actual scenes and occurrences is usually
+called clairvoyance (q.v.). The belief is also familiar under the name
+of second sight (see SECOND SIGHT), a term of Scots usage, though the
+belief in it, and the facts if accepted, are of world-wide diffusion.
+The apparitions may either represent actual persons and places, or may
+be symbolical, taking the form of phantasmic lights, coffins, skeletons,
+shrouds and so forth. Again, the appearances may either represent
+things, persons and occurrences of the past (see RETROCOGNITION), or of
+the present (clairvoyance), or of the future (see PREMONITION). When the
+apparitions produce themselves in given rooms, houses or localities, and
+are exhibited to various persons at various times, the locality is
+popularly said to be haunted by spirits, that is, of the dead, on the
+animistic hypothesis (see HAUNTINGS). Like the other alleged facts,
+these are of world-wide diffusion, or the belief in them is world-wide,
+and peculiar to no race, age, or period of culture. A haunted place is a
+centre of permanent possibilities of hallucinations, or is believed to
+be so. A distinct species of hauntings are those in which unexplained
+sounds and movements of objects, apparently untouched, occur. The German
+term _Poltergeist_ (q.v.) has been given to the supposed cause of these
+occurrences where the cause is not ascertained to be sportive imposture.
+In the performances of modern spiritualists the Poltergeist appears, as
+it were, to be domesticated, and to come at the call of the medium.
+
+An intermittent kind of ominous haunting attached, not to places, but to
+families, is that of the banshee (Celtic) or family death omen, such as
+the white bird of the Oxenhams, the Airlie drummer, the spectral rider
+of Clan Gilzean, the rappings of the Woodde family. These apparitions,
+with fairies and _djinns_ (the Arab form of fairy), haunt the borderland
+between folk-lore and psychical research.
+
+So far we have been concerned with spontaneous apparitions, or with the
+belief in them. Among induced apparitions may be reckoned the
+materialized forms of spiritual _séances_, which have a material basis
+of veils, false moustaches, wigs and the _corpus vile_ of the medium. It
+is also possible that mere expectancy and suggestion induce
+hallucinatory perceptions among the members of the circle. That
+apparitions of a sort can be induced by hypnotic and posthypnotic
+suggestion is certain enough (see HYPNOTISM). Savages produce
+apparitions in similar ways by suggestion, accompanied by dances,
+fumigations, darkness, fasting, drugs, and whatever can affect the
+imaginations of the onlookers (see MAGIC). Both in savage and civilized
+life, some persons can provoke themselves into beholding apparitions
+usually fantastic, but occasionally coincidental, by sedulously staring
+into any clear deep water, a fragment of rock crystal, a piece of
+polished basalt or obsidian, a mirror, a ring, a sword blade, or a glass
+of sherry (see CRYSTAL GAZING). Indeed any object, a wall, the palm of
+the hand, the shoulder-blade-bone of a sheep, may be, and has been used
+to this end (see DIVINATION).
+
+Almost all known apparitions may accommodate themselves to one or other
+of the categories given, whether they be pathological, coincidental or
+spontaneous, induced, permanently localized, or sporadic.
+
+  See generally, SPIRITUALISM and PSYCHICAL RESEARCH.     (A. L.)
+
+
+
+
+APPARITOR, or APPARATOR (Latin for a servant of a public official, from
+_apparere_, to attend in public), an attendant who executed the orders
+of a Roman magistrate; hence a beadle in a university, a pursuivant or
+herald; particularly, in English ecclesiastical courts, the official who
+serves the processes of the court and causes defendants to appear by
+summons.
+
+
+
+
+APPEAL, in law. In the old English common law the term "appeal" was used
+to describe a process peculiar to English criminal procedure. It was a
+right of prosecution possessed as a personal privilege by a party
+individually aggrieved by a felony, a privilege of which the crown could
+not directly or indirectly deprive him, since he could use it alike when
+the prisoner was tried and acquitted, and when he was convicted and
+pardoned. It was chiefly known in practice as the privilege of the
+nearest relation of a murdered person. When in 1729 (after Colonel
+Oglethorpe's inquiry and report on the London prisons) Banbridge and
+other gaolers were indicted for their treatment of prisoners, but were
+acquitted for deficiency of evidence, appeals for murder were freely
+brought by relatives of deceased prisoners. In the case of Slaughterford
+(1708) the accused was charged with murdering a woman whom he had
+seduced; the evidence was very imperfect, and he was acquitted on
+indictment. But public indignation being aroused by the atrocities
+alleged to have been perpetrated, an appeal was brought, and on
+conviction he was hanged, as his execution was a privilege belonging to
+the prosecutor, of which the crown could not deprive him by a pardon. In
+1818 an appeal was ingeniously met by an offer of battle, since if the
+appellee were an able-bodied man he had the choice between combat or a
+jury (see WAGER). This neutralizing of one obsolete and barbarous
+process by another called the attention of the legislature to the
+subject, and appeal in criminal cases, along with trial by battle, was
+abolished in 1819. The history of this appeal is fully dealt with in
+Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_, 1898.
+
+In its usual modern sense the term appeal is applied to the proceeding
+by which the decision of a court of justice is brought for review before
+another tribunal of higher authority. In Roman jurisprudence it was used
+in this and in other significations; it was sometimes equivalent to
+prosecution, or the calling up of an accused person before a tribunal
+where the accuser appealed to the protection of the magistrate against
+injustice or oppression. The derivation from _appellare_ ("call")
+suggests that its earliest meaning was an urgent outcry or prayer
+against injustice. During the republic the magistrate was generally
+supreme within his sphere, and those who felt themselves outraged by
+injustice threw themselves on popular protection by _provocatio_,
+instead of looking to redress from a higher official authority. Under
+the empire different grades of jurisdiction were established, and the
+ultimate remedy was an appeal to the emperor; thus Paul, when brought
+before Festus, appealed unto Caesar. Such appeals were, however, not
+heard by the emperor in person but by a supreme judge representing him.
+In the _Corpus Juris_ the appeal to the emperor is called
+indiscriminately _appellatio_ and _provocatio_. A considerable portion
+of the 49th book of the _Pandects_ is devoted to appeals; but little of
+the practical operation of the system is to be deduced from the
+propositions there brought together.
+
+During the middle ages full scope was afforded for appeals from the
+lower to the higher authorities in the church. In matters
+ecclesiastical, including those matrimonial, testamentary and other
+departments, which the church ever tried to bring within the operation
+of the canon law, there were various grades of appeal, ending with the
+pope. The claims of the church to engross appeals in matters trenching
+on the temporal rights of princes led to continual conflicts between
+church and state, terminated in England at the reformation by the
+suppression in 1534 of appeals to Rome, which had previously been
+discouraged by legislation of Edward III. and Richard II.
+
+In temporal, as distinct from spiritual matters, it became customary for
+ambitious sovereigns to encourage appeals from the courts of the crown
+vassals to themselves as represented by the supreme judges, and
+Charlemagne usually enjoys the credit of having set the example of this
+system of centralization by establishing _missi dominici_. It is not
+improbable that his claim was suggested or justified by the practice of
+the Roman empire, to the sovereignty whereof he claimed to be
+successor.
+
+_England._--When the royal authority in England grew strong as against
+that of the tenants _in capite_, the king's courts in England were more
+effectively organized, and their net swept wider so as to draw within
+their cognizance matters previously adjudged in courts baron or courts
+leet or in the county court, and they acquired authority to supervise
+and review the decisions of the inferior and local courts, to control
+and limit their claims to exercise jurisdiction, and to transfer causes
+from the local to the royal courts. The machinery by which this process
+was usually effected, under the common law, was not by what is now known
+as appeal, but by the process of _certiorari_ or writs of error or
+prohibition. Recourse was also had against the decisions of the royal
+courts by appeal to the great council of the king, or to parliament as a
+whole. The supremacy of the king's courts over all causes, as well
+ecclesiastical as civil, has been completely established since the reign
+of Henry VIII., and they have effectually asserted the power to regulate
+and keep within their proper jurisdiction all other tribunals within the
+realm. Since that date the organization of judicial tribunals has
+gradually been changed and improved with the object (1) of creating a
+judicial hierarchy independent of executive control; (2) of ensuring
+that all decisions on questions of law shall be co-ordinated and
+rendered systematic by correction of the errors and vagaries of
+subordinate tribunals; and (3) of securing so far as possible uniformity
+in the judicial interpretation and administration of the law, by
+creating a supreme appellate tribunal to whose decisions all other
+tribunals are bound to conform. It would be undesirable to detail at
+length the history of appellate jurisdiction in England, involving as it
+would the discussion in great detail of the history and procedure of
+English law, and it may suffice to indicate the system of appeals as at
+present organized, beginning with the lowest courts.
+
+_Justices of the Peace._--The decisions of justices of the peace sitting
+as courts of summary jurisdiction are subject to review on questions of
+law only by the High Court of Justice. This review is in a sense
+consultative, because it is usually effected by means of a case
+voluntarily stated by the justices at the request of the aggrieved
+party, in which are set forth the facts as determined by the justices,
+the questions of law raised and their decision thereon, as to the
+correctness whereof the opinion of the High Court is invited. The
+procedure is equally open in criminal and civil matters brought before
+the justices. But when the justices decline to state a case for the
+opinion of the High Court, the latter, if review seems desirable, may
+order the justices to state a case. And the High Court has also power to
+control the action of justices by prohibiting them from acting in a case
+beyond their jurisdiction, ordering them to exercise jurisdiction where
+they have improperly declined (_mandamus_), or bringing up for review
+and quashing orders or convictions which they have made in excess of
+jurisdiction, or in cases in which interested or biassed justices have
+adjudicated (_certiorari_). None of these regulative processes exactly
+corresponds to what is popularly known as an appeal, but in effect if
+not in form an appeal is thus given.
+
+There is also another form of appeal, in the fullest sense of the term,
+from the decision of justices sitting as a court of summary jurisdiction
+to the justices of the same county sitting in general or quarter
+sessions, or in the case of a borough to the recorder as judge of the
+borough court of quarter sessions. This form of appeal is in every case
+the creation of statute: and even in text-books it is hardly possible to
+find a really complete list of the matters in respect of which such
+appeal lies. But as regards criminal cases there is an approximately
+general rule, given by § 19 of the Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879, viz.
+that an appeal to quarter sessions lies from the conviction or order of
+a court of summary jurisdiction directing imprisonment without the
+option of a fine as a punishment for an offence, or for failing to do or
+to abstain from doing any act required to be done or left undone other
+than an order for the payment of money, or to find sureties or give
+security or to enter into a recognizance, or a conviction made on a plea
+of guilty or admission of the truth of the matter of complaint.
+
+As a general rule, subject to particular statutory exceptions, appeals
+of this kind are by way of rehearing, i.e. the actor or prosecutor must
+before the appellate tribunal call his witnesses and prove his case just
+as if no previous hearing had taken place before the court appealed from
+(Pritchard, _Quarter Sessions Practice_, 2nd ed., 461). The only limit
+is that the appellant must confine himself to the grounds of appeal
+stated in the notice of appeal given by him.
+
+_Justices in Quarter Sessions._--This tribunal has under the commission
+of the peace and under statute power to refer questions of difficulty
+arising before it for decision to the High Court. The old mode of
+exercising this power was by sending on to assizes indictments raising
+difficult questions which had been presented at quarter sessions. The
+High Court has _ex officio_ power to transfer such indictments where the
+nature of the case and the demands of justice call for such transfer.
+The quarter sessions had also power under statute on trying an
+indictment to refer to the court for crown cases reserved (Crown Cases
+Act 1848), abolished by the Criminal Appeal Act 1907, questions of law
+which had arisen at the trial, and in all civil cases the quarter
+sessions has power of its own volition and subject to no direct
+compulsion to consult the High Court on legal questions of difficulty
+which have arisen. Until 1894 this jurisdiction was regarded as
+consultative only. It was and is exercised by stating the facts, of
+which the court of quarter sessions is the sole judge, and indicating
+the questions of law arising on the facts, and the view of quarter
+sessions thereon, and inviting the opinion of the High Court. Under the
+Judicature Act 1894 cases stated in this way are now treated as
+"appeals" in the popular sense.
+
+_Inferior Courts of purely Civil Jurisdiction._--An appeal also lies as
+a general rule to the High Court from the judgment of a county court or
+of any inferior tribunal having civil jurisdiction.
+
+(a) County Courts. Any party to an action or matter in a county court
+who is dissatisfied with the determination or direction of the judge in
+law or equity, or upon the admission or rejection of any evidence, may
+appeal against the decision in the following cases: (1) if the amount of
+claim or counter-claim in the proceeding exceeds £20; or (2) in all
+equity matters or cases in which an injunction has been given; or (3) in
+actions to recover possession of land where questions of title are
+involved (County Courts Act 1888, § 120). In the case of a claim below
+£20 no appeal lies except by the leave of the county court. The old
+practice of appeal by way of special case as in appeals from justices
+has been abolished, and the present procedure is by notice of motion
+(R.S.C. O. LIX. rr. 10-18).
+
+These appeals are heard in the king's bench division, except in the case
+of appeals from judgments of a county court sitting in the exercise of
+admiralty jurisdiction, which are heard by two or more judges sitting in
+the probate, divorce and admiralty division. The chancery division has
+never sat to hear "appeals" from a county court exercising equity
+jurisdiction; but at times, by _prohibition_ or _certiorari_, has, in
+effect, reviewed or restrained excess of jurisdiction by county courts
+in equity matters.
+
+The decision of the High Court on county court appeals is final unless
+an appeal to the court of appeal is brought by leave of that court or of
+the High Court (Judicature Act 1894, § 1, sub. sect. 5; Judicature Act
+1873, § 45).
+
+(b) Other inferior courts of civil jurisdiction. Appeals from the local
+courts of record which still survive in certain cities, towns and
+districts are in a somewhat anomalous position. The general rule is
+that, unless a statute regulates such appeal, it may be brought in the
+king's bench division of the High Court on notice of motion in any case
+in which, before the Judicature Acts, the court of king's bench could
+have reviewed the decision of the inferior court by writ of error. The
+history of this question is dealt with in _Darlow v. Shuttleworth_,
+1902, 1 K.B. 721.
+
+In the case of the mayor's court of London, under the local and general
+statutes regulating that court, the appeal is usually to the king's
+bench division, but where there is what is termed "error" on the face of
+the proceedings of the mayor's court, the appeal lies direct to the
+court of appeal as successor of the court of exchequer chamber. Appeals
+from the Liverpool court of passage and from the chancery courts of the
+duchies of Lancaster and Durham lie by statute direct to the court of
+appeal.
+
+_High Court of Justice._--Until the Supreme Court of Judicature Acts of
+1873 and 1875 came into operation, the superior courts in England were
+imperfectly co-ordinated both as to jurisdiction and appeals. The effect
+of these acts was to create a Supreme Court of Judicature divided into
+two main branches, the High Court of Justice, which is an appellate
+court with respect to the inferior courts already mentioned, and to
+certain other special courts and persons; and the court of appeal, which
+is mainly concerned with appeals from the High Court of Justice.
+
+The High Court of Justice acts as an appellate court or court of
+consultation with reference to courts of summary jurisdiction or quarter
+sessions and to county courts and other inferior courts of civil
+jurisdiction in the cases already indicated. The three divisions of the
+court are somewhat differently placed with reference to appeals.
+
+In the chancery division (made up, in 1908, of six single judge courts)
+no appeals are heard except from subordinate officials (masters) of the
+court, or an occasional interference by _certiorari_ or _prohibition_
+with a county court.
+
+In the probate, divorce and admiralty division, besides the supervision
+which may be exercised by a single judge over the subordinate officers
+of the court (registrars), divisional courts (of two judges) hear
+appeals from decisions of the county court in admiralty causes, and
+appeals from justices in cases between husband and wife under the
+Summary Jurisdiction (Married Women) Act 1895, as amended by the
+Licensing Act 1902. In the first of these cases the appeal is on law
+only as in the case of other county court appeals; in the second, the
+procedure is by rehearing, or reconsideration of the facts as minuted in
+the court appealed from, and of the law there applied to these facts.
+
+The bulk of the appellate work of the High Court is conducted in the
+king's bench division--which, as successor of the old court of king's
+bench in the duties of _custos morum_ of the realm, still retains
+supervisory power over all inferior courts in all cases in which that
+supervision has not been transferred to the other divisions of the High
+Court or to the court of appeal, or to the court of criminal appeal.
+
+The king's bench division exercises appellate jurisdiction in the
+following cases.
+
+With respect to decisions of justices of the peace sitting at quarter
+sessions, or as a court of summary jurisdiction, except in the case
+above stated, the subject matter of appeal is for the most part of a
+criminal or quasi-criminal character, the civil jurisdiction of justices
+being comparatively limited. The appeal in such cases is as to matters
+of law only, the justices' decision on facts not being subject to
+review.
+
+In the case of the courts above named, the appeal is brought by writ of
+_certiorari_, where the jurisdiction of quarter sessions to give the
+judgment challenged is denied _in toto_, or in some cases by writ of
+_habeas corpus_, where the appellant is in custody under an order of the
+court appealed from (Judicature Act 1894, § 2). The best example of this
+is the right of a fugitive criminal committed for extradition to
+challenge the legality of the decision of the committing magistrate by
+writ of _habeas corpus_. Save in cases of want of jurisdiction or
+refusal to exercise it, no appeal lies from quarter sessions except by
+consent of the court appealed from, which states the facts as
+ascertained by the inferior court, and invites the review of the
+superior court upon the questions of law raised by the facts as found.
+
+Decisions of justices sitting in the exercise of summary jurisdiction
+are subject to review by a special case in which the justices state the
+facts found by them and their decision on the points of law, and invite
+the review of the appellate court on these grounds. Such cases for
+appeal are usually stated by consent of the justices, but in the event
+of their refusal the appellate court may order that a case shall be
+stated.
+
+Decisions of justices in the exercise of summary jurisdiction may also
+be challenged by writ of _certiorari_ as having been wholly outside
+their jurisdiction; and in such proceeding the appellate tribunal may
+review the evidence taken below so far as to ascertain whether the
+justices have by an erroneous finding of fact enabled themselves to
+assume a jurisdiction which upon the true facts they did not possess.
+
+Where the decision appealed from is in a criminal cause or matter the
+decision of the High Court is final. Where it is in a civil matter a
+further appeal also lies to the court of appeal by leave of the High
+Court or of the court of appeal (Judicature Act 1873, § 45).
+
+Appeals in criminal cases tried on indictment, criminal information or
+coroner's inquisition, stand on a different footing from other appeals.
+
+For many years the question of criminal appeal in general had been a
+matter of great controversy. As early as 1844 a bill had been
+unsuccessfully introduced for the purpose of establishing appeal in
+criminal cases, and from that time up to 1906 nearly thirty bills were
+brought forward with the same object, but none succeeded in passing. In
+1892 the question was referred to the council of judges and favourably
+reported upon by them. It may be remarked that England was practically
+the only civilized country in which there was no appeal in criminal
+cases. It is true there was an appeal on questions of law arising at the
+trial. But the procedure was intricate and technical, being either (1)
+by writ of error, issued by the consent of the attorney-general
+(expressed by his _fiat_), to review errors of law appearing in the
+record of the trial, or (2) by special case, stated by the judge
+presiding at the trial, with respect to a question of law raised at the
+trial. These appeals were heard by the king's bench division. Meanwhile
+there had been a considerable development of public opinion in favour of
+the establishment of criminal appeal, a development undoubtedly hastened
+by the report of a committee of inquiry in the case of Adolf Beck
+(1904), showing clearly that the home office was not a satisfactory
+tribunal of final appeal. In 1906 the lord chancellor (Lord Loreburn)
+introduced another criminal appeal bill, which passed the House of
+Lords, but was dropped in the House of Commons after a first reading.
+The next year the act (Criminal Appeal Act 1907), which was ultimately
+carried, was introduced into the House of Commons. By this act a court
+is established consisting of the lord chief justice and eight judges of
+the king's bench division, the jurisdiction of the court for crown cases
+reserved being transferred to the new court. The court to be duly
+constituted must consist of not less than three judges and of an uneven
+number of judges. The court may sit in two or more divisions if the lord
+chief justice so directs. Its sittings are held in London unless special
+directions are given by the lord chief justice that it shall sit at some
+other place. The opinion of the majority of those hearing the case
+determines any question before the court, and judgment is pronounced by
+the president (who is the lord chief justice or senior member present),
+unless in questions of law, when, if it is convenient that separate
+judgments should be pronounced by the members of the court, they may be
+so pronounced. The judgment of the court of criminal appeal is final,
+except where the decision involves a point of law of exceptional public
+importance, and a certificate must be obtained from the attorney-general
+to that effect. The court of criminal appeal is a superior court of
+record. An appeal may be made either against conviction or against
+sentence. A person convicted on indictment may appeal either on a
+question of law alone or of fact alone, or on a question of mixed law
+and fact. On a point of law a prisoner has an unqualified right of
+appeal, on a question of fact or of mixed law and fact there is a right
+of appeal only if leave be obtained from the court of criminal appeal or
+a certificate be granted by the judge who tried the prisoner that it is
+a fit case for appeal. The court is given a wide discretion as to
+whether a conviction may be sustained or set aside. The court may allow
+the appeal if they think that the verdict of the jury should be set
+aside because it is unreasonable, or because it cannot be supported
+having regard to the evidence, or that the judgment should be set aside
+on the ground of a wrong decision on any point of law, or that on any
+ground there was a miscarriage of justice. Power is given to the court
+to dismiss the appeal if they consider that no substantial miscarriage
+of justice has occurred, even though they are of opinion that the point
+raised in the appeal might be decided in favour of the appellant. The
+sentence passed at the trial may be quashed by the appeal court and such
+other sentence (whether more or less severe) warranted in law by the
+verdict substituted. Notice of appeal or notice of application for leave
+to appeal must be given within ten days of the date of conviction; where
+a conviction involves sentence of death or corporal punishment the
+sentence must not be executed until after the expiration of ten days,
+and, if notice of appeal is given, not until after the determination of
+the appeal or the final dismissal of the application for leave to
+appeal. The act gives the court power to order any witnesses who would
+have been compellable witnesses at the trial to attend and be examined
+before the court, and to receive the evidence, if tendered, of any
+witness who is a competent but not compellable witness. If any question
+arises on the appeal involving prolonged examination of documents or
+accounts or any scientific or local investigation, which the court
+thinks cannot be conveniently conducted before it, the matter may be
+referred to a special commissioner appointed by the court, and the court
+may act on the report of that commissioner if it thinks fit. An
+appellant is given the right to be present on the hearing of his appeal,
+if he desires it, except where the appeal is on some ground involving a
+question of law alone, but rules of court may provide for his presence
+in such a case, or the court may give him leave. The act requires
+shorthand notes to be taken of the proceedings at the trial of any
+person, who, if convicted, would have a right to appeal under the act.
+Nothing in the act affects the prerogative of mercy, and the home
+secretary may, if he thinks fit, at any time refer a case to the court
+of criminal appeal.
+
+_The Court of Appeal._--The court of appeal, constituted under the
+Judicature Acts, is one of the two permanent divisions of the Supreme
+Court of Judicature. As now constituted the court consists of _ex
+officio_ members and five ordinary members, styled lords justices of
+appeal. The _ex officio_ members are the lord chancellor, every person
+who has held that office, the lord chief justice, the master of the
+rolls, and the president of the probate, &c., division.
+
+The ordinary business of the court is carried on by the lords justices
+under the presidency of the master of the rolls, who in 1881 ceased to
+be a judge of the High Court (Judicature Act 1881, § 2). The court
+usually sits in two divisions of three judges, but on occasion a third
+court can be formed, with the assistance of the other _ex officio_
+judges, in the absence of the ordinary judges from illness or public
+engagements, or to deal with arrears of business. The quorum for final
+appeals is three, for interlocutory appeals two judges.
+
+The court of appeal has succeeded to the appellate authority exercised
+(1) in the case of equity and bankruptcy matters by the lord chancellor
+and the lords justices of appeal in chancery (Judicature Act 1873, §
+18); (2) in the case of common law matters, by the court of exchequer
+chamber, as a court of error, and the superior courts of common law
+sitting to review the decisions of single judges of these courts sitting
+with or without a jury at first instance in civil actions; (3) in the
+case of divorce or probate causes by the full court of divorce
+(Judicature Act 1881, § 9); (4) in the case of admiralty causes by the
+king in council or the judicial committee of the privy council; (5) in
+the case of applications for new trials in jury actions by the king's
+bench division (Judicature Act 1890, § 1).
+
+The court never had jurisdiction to hear an appeal in any criminal cause
+or matter, but was able to review by writ of error decisions of the
+king's bench division in such cases, unless the court for crown cases
+reserved had dealt with the question under the Crown Cases Act 1848.
+This procedure has been abolished by the Criminal Appeal Act 1907.
+Instances of procedure by writ of error were rare. Those best worth
+notice are the cases of the Tichborne claimant on his conviction of
+perjury, and the case of C. Bradlaugh on the sufficiency of the
+indictment against him for publishing the _Fruits of Philosophy_.
+
+The appellate jurisdiction of the court as now exercised entitles the
+court to hear and determine (1) appeals from every judgment or decree of
+every division of the High Court in all civil cases in which such
+judgment is not declared final by statute; (2) applications for a new
+trial in civil cases tried in the king's bench division by judge and
+jury which, until 1890, were dealt with by two or more judges in that
+division; (3) appeals in matters of civil practice and procedure from
+decisions of a single judge in chambers, which, until 1894, were dealt
+with in a divisional court or by a judge in open court; (4) appeals from
+the chancery courts of Durham (Palatine Court of Durham Act 1889) and
+Lancaster (act of 1890, c. 23) and the Liverpool court of passage
+(_Anderson v. Dean_, 1894, 2 Q.B. 222), and on error in a record of the
+mayor's court of London (_Le Blanche_ v. _Heaton Telegram Co._, 1876, 1
+Ex.D. 408); and from county courts under the Agricultural Holdings Acts
+and Workmen's Compensation Acts; (5) appeals on questions of law from
+decisions of the railway commissioners in England (Railway and Canal
+Traffic Act 1888).
+
+The court of appeal also exercises the lunacy jurisdiction of the lord
+chancellor, but in regard to this the jurisdiction of the court is for
+the most part original and not appellate.
+
+The jurisdiction of the court of appeal is excluded or limited in the
+following cases:--(1) judgments of the High Court--(a) where its
+jurisdiction is consultative only; (b) where there is an appeal to the
+High Court from an inferior court of civil jurisdiction; (c) where there
+is an appeal to the High Court from any court of person, unless in cases
+(b) and (c) leave be obtained of the court by which the order is made,
+or of the court of appeal; (2) orders of the High Court in registration
+and election cases except with the like leave; (3) orders made by
+consent of parties, or as to costs only which by law are left to the
+discretion of the court; (4) certain interlocutory orders mentioned in §
+1 of the Supreme Court of Judicature (Procedure) Act 1894, except by
+leave of the judge appealed from or of the court of appeal (5) orders of
+the admiralty division in cases of prize, the appeal from which lies to
+His Majesty in Council; (6) where the decision of any court whose
+jurisdiction was transferred to the High Court is declared by statute to
+be final; (7) matters which from their nature were not appealable to any
+court before the Judicature Acts, or in which the court of appeal has no
+means of enforcing or executing its judgment. For example, it was held
+in the House of Lords, in _Cox_ v. _Hakes_, 1890, 15 A.C. 506, that no
+appeal lies from the order of a judge discharging a prisoner under a
+writ of _habeas corpus_. "If," said Lord Herschell, "the contention of
+the respondent is to prevail, the statute has effected a grave
+constitutional change"; and later, "if" the High Court "has inherited
+the combined powers of the courts whose functions were transferred to
+it, but none of them had any jurisdiction or authority to review a
+discharge by a competent court under a writ of _habeas corpus_, or to
+enforce the arrest of one thus freed from custody ... it seems to me to
+follow, that however wrong the court of appeal might think a discharge
+to have been, it would have been powerless to order a rearrest, or at
+least to enforce such an order."
+
+The procedure of the court of appeal is regulated by the rules of the
+Supreme Court. A distinction is drawn between appeals from a final
+judgment or order (which, unless the parties consent to a smaller
+quorum, must be heard by three judges) and an appeal from an
+interlocutory order (which may be determined by two judges of the court
+of appeal).
+
+In the case of appeals from a final or interlocutory "judgment," or from
+an order, including applications for a new trial, the appeal must be
+brought within three months from the time when the judgment or order is
+signed, entered or otherwise perfected, or in the case of refusal of an
+application from the date of refusal. The appeal is by notice of motion,
+which except in cases of application for a new trial, need not state
+the grounds of appeal. Fourteen clear days' notice of the motion must be
+given by the appellant to the other party, the respondent.
+
+In the case of appeals from an interlocutory order, or from a final
+order, or from an order made in any matter which is not an action, or
+from an order made in chambers, the appeal must be brought within
+fourteen days by motion, of which four clear days' notice must be given
+by the appellant to all parties directly affected by the appeal.
+Controversies have arisen as to the meaning of the term "interlocutory,"
+which (in the absence of any authoritative definition) the court of
+appeal settles as they arise. The test most generally accepted is that a
+judgment or order is final if, as made, it finally disposes of the
+rights of the parties in a manner equally conclusive between them. The
+court may by special leave allow appeals of either class to be brought
+after the time above limited. The respondent may by proper notice bring
+a cross appeal against any portion of the judgment or order made below
+with which he is dissatisfied. The court has power to order the
+appellant to find security for the costs of an appeal, if special
+circumstances, such as insolvency or poverty or foreign domicile or the
+like, make the giving of security desirable. The court of appeal
+"rehears" the case. Under ordinary circumstances it does not permit a
+new case to be set up inconsistent with the case as presented below; and
+it is content with the judges' notes, or a transcript of the evidence
+given below, and with a note or transcript of the judgment appealed
+from, but has power on special grounds to receive fresh evidence either
+_viva voce_ or on affidavit. The court may call in for its assistance
+assessors who are experts on the matters of fact or science involved in
+the appeal, and usually does so in cases arising out of collisions at
+sea.
+
+The court of appeal may make any order which it deems just as to the
+costs of the whole or any part of an appeal, except possibly in the case
+of certain appeals in matters on the crown side of the High Court, as to
+which some doubt still exists. In practice the costs follow the event,
+unless the court in a particular case makes an order to the contrary.
+
+A decision of the court of appeal is final in appeals from the High
+Court in bankruptcy, unless leave be given to appeal to the House of
+Lords (§ 104, Bankruptcy Act 1883), and in divorce appeals, except where
+the decision either is upon the grant or refusal of a decree for
+dissolution or nullity of marriage, or for a declaration of legitimacy,
+or is upon any question of law on which the court gives leave to appeal
+(Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1881, § 9); but no further appeal to
+the House of Lords lies, even with leave of the court of appeal, on
+appeals from the High Court sitting as a court of appeal from county
+courts in bankruptcy. With these exceptions there is now a right of
+appeal from every order of the court of appeal to the House of Lords.
+
+_The House of Lords._--The House of Lords has for centuries been the
+court of last resort, and is still the final court of appeal from the
+chief courts in the United Kingdom. The origin of the appellate
+jurisdiction of the House of Lords was undoubtedly of that partly feudal
+and partly popular character already alluded to, which made the suitor
+seek from the high court of parliament the justice denied elsewhere in
+the baronial courts or by the king's judges. The lords exercised the
+mixed function of jurymen and judges, and, as in judgments on
+impeachment, might be influenced by private or party considerations,
+debating and dividing on the question before the House. A revolution was
+silently accomplished, however, by which the function of reviewing the
+decisions of the courts fell entirely to the lawyers raised to the
+peerage, while the unprofessional lords only attended to give the
+sanction of a quorum to the proceedings, and the House has always had
+the right to invoke the assistance of the judges of the superior courts
+to advise on the questions of law raised by an appeal. The letters and
+memoirs, so late as Queen Anne's reign, show that party or personal
+influence and persuasion were employed to procure votes on appeals, as
+they have been in later times on railway or other local bills. The last
+instance probably in which a strong division of opinion was manifested
+among the unprofessional lords was the celebrated Douglas cause in 1769,
+when the House was addressed by the dukes of Newcastle and Bedford, but
+was led by the authoritative opinion of Lord Mansfield on the effect of
+the evidence--an opinion which was treated rather as that of a political
+partisan than of a judge. The case of Daniel O'Connell and others,
+brought up on writ of error from the queen's bench in Ireland in 1844,
+may be said to have finally established the precedent that the judgments
+of the House of Lords were to be given solely by the law lords. On that
+occasion there was a difference of opinion among the law lords
+themselves. The judgment of the majority of the House was strongly
+against the political feeling of the government and of the peers as a
+body, while the law lords who carried the decision had been appointed by
+previous governments opposed in politics to the existing cabinet. But
+all these temptations to a party vote by the unprofessional members were
+resisted.
+
+By § 20 of the act of 1873, the appellate jurisdiction of the House of
+Lords (so far as it affects England) was abolished, but this section was
+repealed by the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876. Under that act and an
+amending act of 1887, the appellate business of the House of Lords is
+conducted solely by the law lords, though lay peers may still sit
+(_Bradlaugh_ v. _Clarke_, 1882, 8 App. Cas. 354). No appeal may be heard
+or determined except in the presence of not less than three of the
+following persons:--(1) the lord chancellor; (2) the lords of appeal,
+four of whom are appointed under the act from among persons who hold, or
+have held, high judicial office, or, at the date of appointment, have
+been in practice for not less than fifteen years as barristers in
+England or Ireland, or as advocates in Scotland; (3) such peers of
+parliament as hold, or have held, high judicial office. By "high
+judicial office" is meant the office of lord chancellor of Great Britain
+or Ireland, lord of appeal in ordinary, paid judge of the judicial
+committee or member of that committee, or judge of one of the superior
+courts of Great Britain or Ireland.
+
+An appeal lies to the House of Lords (1) from any order or judgment of
+the court of appeal in England except as above stated; (2) from a
+judgment or order of any court in Scotland or Ireland from which error
+or an appeal to the House of Lords lay by common law or statute
+immediately before the 1st of November 1876. No appeals are heard from
+the decision of courts in criminal cases. The House of Lords has an
+indirect power by standing orders to admit appeals from Scotland or
+Ireland which under former law or practice could not be admitted
+(Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, § 12). The procedure on appeals is
+regulated by standing orders of the House. The proceedings are commenced
+by petition of appeal, which must be lodged with the clerk of the
+parliaments within one year from the date of the last judgment it
+appealed from. Security for costs (£200) must be given by bond or
+lodgment of the money, unless dispensed with by the House on the ground
+of poverty (act of 1893). Each party lodges a printed case signed and
+certified by counsel, containing a resumé of the matters to be discussed
+and of the contentions for or against the allowance of the appeal. The
+hearing is before three or more law lords, who may call in nautical
+assessors in admiralty cases (acts of 1893 and 1894). It is not public
+in the full sense of the term, as persons not concerned in the appeal
+can attend only by consent of the House. The House pronounces the
+judgment which in the opinion of the majority of the law lords should
+have been pronounced below, and has jurisdiction in the case of all
+appeals to give or refuse costs to the successful party. The costs of
+the appeal if given are taxed by the officers of the House. The
+jurisdiction as to costs does not directly arise under any statute (see
+_West Ham Guardians_ v. _Bethnal Green Churchwardens_, 1896, A.C. 477).
+
+_Appeals to the King in Council._--The decisions of ecclesiastical
+courts when acting within the limits of their jurisdiction, and the
+decisions of courts in the king's dominions outside the United Kingdom,
+and of courts in foreign countries set up under the Foreign Jurisdiction
+Acts, cannot be dealt with by the House of Lords or any of the ordinary
+tribunals of any part of the United Kingdom. The power once claimed by
+the court of king's bench in England to control the courts of Ireland
+has lapsed, and its power to intervene in colonial cases is limited to
+the grant of the writ of _habeas corpus_ to a possession in which no
+court exists having power to issue that writ or one of like effect
+(Habeas Corpus Act 1862). As regards all British possessions, the appeal
+to the king in council is in its origin and nature like that of the
+provincials unto Caesar, and flows from the royal prerogative to admit
+appeals. With the growth of the British empire it has been found
+necessary to create a comparatively constant and stable tribunal to
+advise the king in the exercise of this prerogative. For this purpose
+the judicial committee of the privy council was created in 1833. In
+1851, and again in 1870, it was reorganized, and by acts of 1876, 1887
+and 1898 it received its present form. The committee consists of the
+president of the council, and of the following persons, if privy
+councillors--the lord chancellor and ex-chancellors of Great Britain and
+of Ireland, the four lords of appeal in ordinary, the lords justices of
+appeal in England or retired lords justices of appeal in England, and
+persons who hold or have held the office (a) of judge of the High Court
+of Justice or the court of appeal in England or Ireland, or of the court
+of session in Scotland; (b) any person who is or has been chief justice
+or a judge of the Supreme Court of Canada or of a superior court of any
+province of Canada, of any of the Australian states (except Fiji and
+Papua), or of New Zealand or the Cape of Good Hope or Natal. The number
+of persons of this class who may be members at once is limited to five
+(1895, c. 44); (c) provision is also made for the payment of two privy
+councillors who have been judges in India who attend the privy council.
+
+Numerous as are the members of the committee, the quorum is three. One
+or more of the lords of appeal in ordinary usually attend at every
+hearing, but the composition of the committee is very fluctuating.
+Appeals from the British dominions abroad lie in criminal as well as
+civil matters. The right of appeal is regulated as to most possessions
+by order in council, and in some cases is limited by imperial or
+colonial statute. Appeals are on fact as well as on law, but the
+committee rarely if ever disturbs the concurrent judgments on facts of
+two colonial courts. In the case of admiralty appeals from colonial or
+consular courts, naval assessors may be called in. The committee also
+hears (with the aid of ecclesiastical assessors) appeals from
+ecclesiastical courts. The judgment of the committee is in the form of a
+report and advice to the king, which is read by one of the members
+sitting, and no indication is given as to whether the members present
+are unanimous. Effect is given to the advice by orders in council
+dismissing or allowing the appeal, and giving direction as to the
+payment of costs and as to the further proceedings to be taken in the
+colonial courts.
+
+The procedure of the committee is on the same lines as that on appeals
+to the House of Lords; no well-arranged code of practice existed however
+up to the end of 1908, and new rules were then being proposed on the
+subject. The appeal is commenced by a petition of appeal, and by the
+giving of security for costs. In colonial appeals printed cases are
+lodged containing a summary of the contentions of the parties, and with
+this a printed copy of the record of the proceedings and documents used
+in the courts appealed from. The hearing is in the privy council chamber
+and is not public. When an appeal is called on, the counsel and parties
+are summoned into the chamber, and when the arguments are concluded they
+are requested to retire. The appeals to the king in council from
+colonial states having a federal constitution, like Canada and
+Australia, stand in an exceptional position. The act creating the
+Supreme Court of Canada purports to make the decision of that court
+final. But it is still the practice to admit by special leave a
+prerogative appeal from the court, and to entertain appeals from courts
+of the provinces of Canada direct to the king in council, without
+requiring them to go to the Supreme Court. The constitution of the
+Australian Commonwealth contemplates (§ 73) the possibility of
+restricting appeals to the king in council from the supreme courts of
+Australia, and sec. 74 forbids appeals to the king in council except by
+leave of the High Court of Australia from decision of that court on any
+question however arising as to the limits _inter se_ of the
+constitutional powers of the commonwealth and those of any state or
+states, or as to the limits _inter se_ of the constitutional powers of
+any two or more states. The exact effect of these enactments and of
+Australian legislation under § 73 is a matter of controversy.
+
+_Scotland._--In Scotland the ordinary appellate tribunal for decisions
+of inferior courts and of the lords ordinary is the court of session,
+which for appellate purposes sits in two divisions. Appeals from
+inferior tribunals in criminal cases go before the judges of the court
+of session sitting in the High Court of Justiciary. The court of session
+was in its original constitution a committee of parliament for the
+performance of its judicial functions, and an appeal to parliament was
+consequently anomalous. In the reign of Charles II., however, the courts
+grew so intolerably corrupt that a determined effort was made to have
+their judgments overturned, by an appeal which was strictly of the old
+character of a cry for protection against flagrant injustice. It was
+called a "protest for remeid of law," and was inserted as one of the
+national claims in the Petition of Right at the revolution. The treaty
+of union is silent as to appeals, though definitely excluding the right
+of English courts to interfere with Scottish courts or cases. The House
+of Lords has since the Union acted without challenge as the final
+appellate tribunal for Scotland in civil causes; but has always declined
+jurisdiction in Scottish criminal cases.
+
+_Ireland._--The Supreme Court of Judicature (Ireland) Acts have
+remodelled the courts and appellate system of Ireland on the same lines
+as those of England. The High Court of Justice in Ireland now consists
+of two divisions only, the chancery division, which has little or no
+appellate functions, and the king's bench division, which has for
+Ireland substantially the same power of reviewing and correcting the
+decisions of inferior courts as has the corresponding court in England.
+To this there is one exception, that appeals from a county court in
+Ireland may be heard on circuit by a single judge of assize. In Ireland
+there is also a court of appeal, created in 1877, whose jurisdiction and
+procedure follow the same lines as that of the English court of appeal.
+
+_France._--The court of last resort in France for all cases, whether
+civil or criminal (_en matière criminelle, correctionnelle et de
+police_), is the _cour de cassation_, which sits in Paris. It is a court
+of error for the review of all judgments of tribunals of last resort
+(except _juges de paix_ in certain cases), and for the transfer of
+causes from one court to another when justice so demands, and to
+determine conflicts of jurisdiction (Law 1 Dec. 1790). Ordinarily it is
+confined to errors of law and procedure, but where evidence not
+available below is brought before the court, it may send the case back
+for retrial or give the appropriate final judgment, as in the case of
+Dreyfus (1906). It also hears appeals from courts martial.
+
+Next to the _cour de cassation_ are the courts of appeal, which have
+jurisdiction to hear appeals (1) in civil matters from courts of first
+instance, _juges de paix_, and where the amount in dispute exceeds £60
+from commercial courts, _tribunaux de commerce_ (Civil Proc. Code, arts.
+443-475); (2) in criminal matters from _tribunaux correctionnels_ (Com.
+Proc. Code, arts. 202-235). The appeal is both on fact and on law, and
+applies to interlocutory or preparatory as well as to final judgments.
+
+_Spain._--In Spain the jurisdiction and procedure with reference to
+appeals is on the same lines as in France. As regards civil matters it
+is regulated by title 21 of the Civil Procedure Code. The appeal to the
+supreme court is for the most part on questions of law (_por infraccion
+de ley o de doctrina_); but the court has also power to review judgments
+on materials not available at the first hearing (arts. 1796, 1801).
+
+_British India._--In British India complete and systematic provision is
+made for appeals both in civil and in criminal cases by the Procedure
+Codes (Civil of 1882, with subsequent amendments, and Criminal of 1898),
+and also to some extent by the charters of the high courts of Calcutta,
+Bombay and Madras (see Ilbert, _Government of India_, Oxford, 1898, p.
+137). In addition, the decisions of subordinate tribunals may be revised
+by a superior tribunal _proprio motu_, or reviewed in a proper case by
+the tribunal which has given them; and provision is made for the
+consultation of a superior by an inferior tribunal in cases of legal
+difficulty. The policy of admitting so many appeals has been criticized.
+But with an enormous population which has no representative institutions
+it has been deemed wise to provide ample means of correcting judicial
+errors at the instance not only of the aggrieved person but also at the
+instance of the supervising judicial authorities, as a means of ensuring
+regularity and propriety in the conduct of judicial business by
+subordinate judges in out-of-the-way districts.
+
+_Civil Appeals._--(1) Except where otherwise expressly provided by the
+Civil Procedure Code, or by any other law for the time being in force,
+an appeal lies from the whole or part of any decree, whether made _ex
+parte_ or _inter partes_, of a court exercising original jurisdiction
+(Civil Procedure Code, § 540). By "decree" is meant the final expression
+of an adjudication upon a right claimed or defence set up in a civil
+court, when such adjudication, so far as regards the court expressing
+it, decides the suit (§ 2). The appeal is both on facts and on law. The
+procedure on the appeal is prescribed by c. 41 of the Civil Procedure
+Code, and the directions of the code deal even with the language of the
+judgment on appeal and the matters to be stated therein. (2) Decrees
+passed on an appeal to any court in India subordinate to a High Court
+are as a general rule subject to appeal to the High Court on the grounds
+(a) that they are contrary to a specified law, or usage having the force
+of law; (b) that they have failed to determine some material issue of
+law, or usage having the force of law; (c) of substantial error or
+defect in procedure prescribed by the code or other law which might
+possibly have produced error or defect in the decision of the case upon
+the merits (§ 584). The procedure on these appeals is regulated by c. 42
+of the Civil Procedure Code. (3) Appeals from orders which do not fall
+within the definition of decrees are allowed in the cases specified in §
+588 of the code. The procedure with respect to these appeals is on the
+same lines as that on appeals against decrees (§ 590). Provision is made
+(by c. 44) for allowing appeals _in forma pauperis_ after certain
+preliminary inquiries. In the High Courts appeals lie from the decision
+of one judge to two or more judges of the High Court, whose decision has
+effect as a judgment of the full court. Appeals, in civil cases, from
+the courts of India to the king in council are regulated by c. 45 of the
+Civil Procedure Code. The appealable amount is for most cases Rs. 10,000
+or a claim or question as to property of like amount.
+
+Besides the provisions stated as to appeals, Indian courts have power in
+certain contingencies to review their own decisions (§ 623). An inferior
+court may also refer cases of difficulty to the High Court on a
+statement of the facts as found in the referring court and of the
+opinion thereon of that Court (§§ 617-620); and in cases in which no
+appeal lies to the High Court, that court may call for the record of any
+case in which the court below appears to have acted without jurisdiction
+or failed to exercise its jurisdiction, or to have exercised its
+jurisdiction illegally or with material illegality (§ 622).
+
+_Criminal Matters._--Criminal jurisdiction in India is exercised by
+magistrates of the first, second and third class, by sessions courts,
+and the high or chief courts of the presidencies or provinces (Criminal
+Procedure Code of 1898). The higher judges in a district have the power
+of revising those decisions which are not absolutely summary of the
+judges of the classes below them in the same district; i.e. the sessions
+judge can revise the decisions of a first-class magistrate, and the High
+Court those of a sessions judge (§ 435). Inferior tribunals can also
+refer questions of law to the High Court (§§ 432, 433); and where a
+sentence of death is passed, or a sessions judge differs from the jury
+(§ 307), the matter must be referred to the High Court. On matters of
+reference or revision the parties have no right to be heard.
+
+Provision is also made for appeals by c. 31 of the Code. Appeals from
+second- or third-class magistrates are dealt with by the district
+(first-class) magistrate (§ 407). Persons convicted on trial by
+assistant sessions judges or first-class magistrates, except in cases
+where the punishment is very small, have an appeal to the sessions judge
+(§§ 408, 413). A person convicted on trial by the sessions judge has an
+appeal to the High Court (§ 410), but where he has pleaded guilty the
+only point on which appeal is open is the legality or extent of sentence
+(§ 412). Special provision is made as to appeals by persons born in
+Europe (whether British subjects or not) and Americans (§§ 408, 415, and
+c. 33).
+
+In criminal cases there is a right of appeal to the king in council in
+certain cases provided for by the charters of the chartered high courts
+(see Ilbert, _Government of India_, Oxford, 1898, p. 137).
+
+An appeal also lies in certain cases from the courts of British officers
+in feudatory states of India to a high court in India, and from the
+courts of Aden and Zanzibar and British East Africa to the High Court of
+Bombay. Appeals do not lie from the courts of native states to British
+courts in India, though in some cases there is an appeal of a political
+rather than judicial nature from the judicial tribunals of feudatory
+states; e.g. in the case of Kathiawar (_Hemchand Derchand_ v. _Azam
+Sakarlal_; 1906. L.R. A.C. 212).
+
+_Canada._--In Canada each province has the regulation of its own courts
+of justice. In Ontario the judiciary are organized, under the Provincial
+Judicature Acts, in much the same manner as in England; and the review
+of decisions of inferior courts (by appeal or other proceedings based on
+English practice) is in the hands of the High Court of Justice, subject
+to appeal to the provincial court of appeal. In Quebec the highest court
+(king's bench), besides its original jurisdiction, has appellate
+jurisdiction over the superior court (see Quebec Civil Procedure Code,
+art. 1114 _et seq_.). The jurisdiction is exercised by writ of error or
+by appeal, according to the nature of the decision appealed from. The
+judges of the superior court have also, under art. 494, power to review
+before three judges decisions of a judge of that court or of a circuit
+court (arts. 494-504). Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Manitoba and British
+Columbia have supreme courts with appellate authority over decisions of
+single judges of the court and over inferior tribunals in the province.
+Appeals lie from the highest courts of each province, in civil matters,
+to the Supreme Court of Canada, or to the king in council in cases
+falling within the orders in council applying to each province, but in
+criminal matters to the king in council. From the Supreme Court of
+Canada no appeal lies as of right to the king in council (Dominion Act
+1875, 38 Vic. c. 11, § 47), and the royal prerogative of granting
+special leave to appeal is sparingly exercised. The principles on which
+the judicial committee acts in advising for or against the grant of
+special leave in civil case& are stated in _Daily Telegraph Newspaper
+Co._ v. _M'Laughlin_, 1904, L.R. A.C. 776. It is, however, as before,
+quite common for appeals to be brought direct to the privy council from
+the provincial courts without resort to the Dominion court (see Wheeler,
+_Privy Council Law_, p. 955).
+
+_Australia._--Each of the states of the Australian Commonwealth has its
+own supreme court. The Commonwealth parliament constituted in 1903 a
+High Court for Australia, which, besides its original federal
+jurisdiction, is also a court of appeal from the supreme courts of the
+constitutional states, or from any state court from which an appeal lay
+to the king in council at the establishment of the Commonwealth. The
+jurisdiction of the court is defined by the Judiciary Act of 1903, by
+which it is created. The right of appeal is given both as to criminal
+and civil matters.
+
+_South Africa._--In Cape Colony and Natal the appellate courts are the
+supreme courts, subject to further appeal in certain cases to the king
+in council. The superior courts of Cape Colony are empowered to review
+the proceedings of all inferior courts in the colony and its
+dependencies in cases where no appeal lies. There was for a time an
+appeal from the High Court of Orange River Colony to the supreme court
+of the Transvaal, and from that court (whether acting for its own colony
+or on appeal from the Orange Colony), an appeal to the king in council.
+In other colonies the provisions as to appeal follow more or less
+closely the lines of English law and procedure as to appeals, and in all
+cases the ultimate appeal is to the king in council.
+
+_United States._--In the American courts the term "appeal" covers (1) a
+removal of a cause to a higher court for retrial on all the questions of
+law or fact involved, or (2) taking up points of law only by proceedings
+in error, for revision by a higher court. Decrees in admiralty,
+bankruptcy and equity, in the federal courts, are the subjects of an
+appeal; judgments in actions at law, of a writ of error. On an equity
+appeal the evidence taken at the original hearing is reported at length
+to the appellate court, and it has the right to review the conclusions
+of fact reached by the court below and come to different ones. This,
+however, is seldom done, the appeal being almost always decided on
+points of law based upon the conclusions of fact reached in the original
+hearing. In admiralty appeals the conclusions of fact reached by the
+trial court are specially set forth, and are final.
+
+"Appeal" in many of the states is the general term for reviewing any
+judgment of an inferior court on assignments of error. It is also often
+used to signify a mode of reviewing proceedings of municipal bodies,
+affecting the interests of particular persons, e.g. in matters of
+licences or assessments.
+
+In criminal prosecutions an appeal, or writ of error on points of law,
+is almost everywhere allowed by statute to the defendant, and often to
+the state. (_United States_ v. _Sanges_, 144 United States Reports, 310;
+_State_ v. _Lee_, 65 Connecticut Reports, 265.)
+
+By the constitution of the United States the Supreme Court is vested
+with "appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such
+exceptions, and under such regulations, as the Congress shall make."
+This provision is held not to create but only to authorize the creation
+of the jurisdiction. In the words of Chancellor Kent, "If congress had
+not provided any rule to regulate the proceedings in appeal, the court
+could not exercise an appellate jurisdiction: and, if a rule be
+provided, the court could not depart from it." In pursuance of this
+principle, the Supreme Court decided in _Clarke_ v. _Bazadone_ that a
+writ of error did not lie to that court from a court of the United
+States territory north-west of the Ohio, because the act had not
+authorized an appeal or writ of error from such a court (_Commentaries_,
+i. 324). The appellate jurisdiction of the court is now regulated by
+title 13 chap. ii. of the Revised Statutes of the United States (1873),
+§§ 690-710; and by the acts enumerated at p. 901 of the Revised
+Statutes, United States, 1873 to 1891. Under these statutes the Supreme
+Court may entertain appeals from the highest court of a state of the
+Union, but only (1) where the state court has decided against the
+validity of a treaty or statute of the United States, or of an authority
+exercised under the United States; (2) where a state court has affirmed
+the validity of a statute, or of an authority exercised which has been
+challenged on the ground of repugnance to the constitution, laws or
+treaties of the United States; (3) where the state court has decided
+against the existence of a title, right, privilege, or immunity claimed
+or set up under the constitution of, or under any statute, treaty,
+commission or authority of the United States.
+
+The appeal from state courts is by writ of error, i.e. on law only; and
+applies as well in criminal as in civil cases. The Supreme Court will
+not act unless the federal question was raised in the court below
+(_Chicago U.S. Mail Co._ v. _McGuire_, 1904, 196, U.S. 128). The circuit
+court of appeals, established in 1891, deals with appeals from the
+district and circuit courts of the United States, except where other
+provision is made, e.g. where the jurisdiction of the court appealed
+from is in question; in prize causes and convictions of capital crimes
+(U.S. Statutes, 1801, c. 54. § 5); in cases involving the construction
+or application of the constitution; in cases arising in district or
+circuit courts involving the constitutional questions already stated as
+subject of appeal from state courts.
+
+The review by the circuit court of appeals is effected by appeal or by
+writ of error, and its decision is final, with certain exceptions but
+with power to certify cases to the Supreme Court for instructions (1891,
+c. 511, § 6).
+
+The Supreme Court hears appeals from the circuit court of appeals within
+the limits above stated, and appeals from the circuit and district
+courts in cases in which an appeal does not lie to the circuit court of
+appeals, and has power to issue a _certiorari_ to transfer a case from
+the circuit court of Appeals.     (W. F. C.)
+
+
+
+
+APPEARANCE (from Lat. _apparere_, to appear), in law, the coming into
+court of either of the parties to a suit; the formal act by which a
+defendant submits himself to the jurisdiction of the court. The
+defendant in an action in the High Court of England enters his
+appearance to the writ of summons by delivering, either at the central
+office of the Supreme Court, or a district registry, a written
+memorandum either giving his solicitor's name or stating that he defends
+in person. He must also give notice to the plaintiff of his appearance,
+which ought, according to the time limited by the writ, to be within
+eight days after service; a defendant may, however, appear any time
+before judgment. The _Rules of the Supreme Court_, orders xii. and
+xiii., regulate the procedure with respect to the entering of an
+appearance, the giving of notice, the limit of time, the setting aside
+and the general effect of default of appearance. In county courts there
+is no appearance other than the coming into court of the parties to the
+suit. In criminal cases the accused appears in person. In civil cases
+infants appear by their guardians _ad litem_; lunatics by their
+committee; companies by a solicitor; friendly societies by the trustee
+or other officer appointed to sue or be sued on behalf thereof.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDICITIS, the modern medical term for inflammation of that part of
+the intestine which is known as the "appendix." Though not a new
+disease, there can be no doubt that it is far commoner than it used to
+be, though the explanation of this increased frequency is not yet
+forthcoming. Amongst the virulent micro-organisms associated with the
+disease no one specific germ has hitherto been found. It may be remarked
+that the theories that influenza, or the use of preserved foods, may be
+connected with the disease as cause and effect, have supporters.
+Sometimes the disease is due to the impaction of a pin, shot-corn,
+tooth-brush bristle, or fish-bone in the appendix, which has set up
+inflammation and ulceration. In many cases a patch of mortification with
+perforation of the appendix is caused by the presence of a hard faecal
+concretion, or "stercolith," which from its size, shape and appearance
+has been mistaken by a casual observer for a date-stone or cherry-stone.
+
+Apart from the fact of the more frequent occurrence of appendicitis, the
+disease is now better understood and more promptly recognized. It was
+formerly included under the term "perityphlitis"--that is, inflammation
+connected with the caecum or _blind_ portion of the large intestine. But
+in the vast majority of cases the inflammation begins in the appendix,
+not in the intestine proper. It is apt to extend and set up a localized
+peritonitis, which in the worst cases may become general.
+
+Appendicitis is more often met with in the young than the old, and in
+boys rather than girls; and in some families there is a strange
+predisposition towards it. It is often started by a chill, or by
+over-exertion, and sometimes the attack follows a blow or strain, or
+some other direct injury, after which the virulent micro-organisms seize
+on the mucous membrane and involve the appendix in acute inflammation.
+
+The appendix is a narrow tube, about the size of a goose-quill, with an
+average length of 3 in. It terminates in a blunt point, and from its
+worm-like shape is called _vermiformis_. It is an appendage of the large
+intestine, into which it opens, and is regarded as the degenerate relic,
+surviving in man and other mammals, of an earlier form of intestine.
+Foreign bodies passing down the intestinal canal may find their way into
+the appendix and lodge there. Frequently the diseased appendix is found
+blocked by hard faeces or undigested particles of food, such as nuts,
+fibrous vegetable matter, and other imperfectly masticated substances;
+inflammation may occur, however, without the presence of any impacted
+material. The appendix may be twisted, bent, or otherwise strangulated,
+or its orifice may be blocked, so that the tube is distended with mucus
+which can find no outlet; or ulceration of tuberculous or malignant
+origin may occur. Inflammation started in the appendix is liable to
+spread to the peritoneum, and herein lies the gravity of the affection
+and the indication for treatment. The symptoms vary from "indigestion,"
+and slight pain and sickness, which pass off in a few short days, to an
+exceedingly violent illness, which may cause death in a few hours. Pain
+is usually first felt in the belly, low down on the right side or across
+the region of the navel; sometimes, however, it is diffuse, and at other
+times it is scarcely complained of. There is some fever, the temperature
+rising to 101° or 102° F., with nausea, and very likely with vomiting.
+The abdomen is tender to pressure, and the tenderness may be referred to
+the spot mentioned above. Some swelling may also be made out in that
+region. The attack may last for two, three or four days, and then
+subside. There are, however, other cases less well defined, in which the
+mischief pursues a latent course, producing little more than a vague
+abdominal uneasiness, until it suddenly advances into a violent stage.
+In some chronic cases the trouble continues, on and off, for months or
+even for years.
+
+[Illustration: Large Intestine showing Vermiform Appendix (v.a.) and
+Caecum (c)]
+
+On paper it is easy to arrange cases of appendicitis into three
+classes--catarrhal, ulcerative and mortifying--but in actual practice
+this is neither desirable nor possible. Such classification is based
+upon the symptoms, and in appendicitis symptoms may be actually
+misleading. The three conditions to which the surgeon chiefly looks for
+guidance are the aspect of the patient, the rate of his pulse and the
+degree of fever as shown by the thermometer. But in certain cases of
+appendicitis, though the surgeon knows intuitively, or, at least,
+suspects, that the general condition is extremely serious, the patient
+looks fairly well and says that he is not in pain, his pulse-rate being
+but little quickened and his temperature being but slightly above
+normal. Nevertheless, when the surgeon has opened the belly in the
+appendix region, he finds the appendix swollen, perforated and
+mortified, and lying in a stinking abscess, whilst inflammation has
+already spread to the neighbouring coils of intestine. Unfortunately,
+the surgeon can no more tell what he is going to find at his operation
+in some of these cases than he can foretell the course which any
+particular case is going to run.
+
+We may most usefully give here the symptoms as they are likely to be
+found in an ordinary case of appendicitis, and as they may be observed
+by one who is not a member of the medical profession, in a way that may
+prove helpful to him when circumstances have awakened his interest in
+the disease.
+
+The case taken shall be that of a boy at school, for, as already stated,
+boys are more prone to the disease than girls. The boy has had, may be,
+occasional attacks of "indigestion" which have duly passed away under
+the influence of aperient medicines, and, being heated at play, he has
+sat down upon the cold ground. Or he has got wet through or over-tired
+during a long walk or ride. At any rate, his vital powers have been
+suddenly lowered, and the micro-organisms teeming in his bowel have
+seized upon the lining membrane of the appendix. He feels out of sorts,
+and if he manages to eat a meal he very likely vomits it soon after, for
+the whole nervous system of his abdomen is disturbed by the local
+inflammation. The act of vomiting gives slight relief, however, and
+probably he begins to complain of pains in his head as well as in his
+abdomen, and possibly he has an attack of shivering--the result of
+disturbance of his general nervous system. By this time he may be
+attacked with intense pain in the part of his abdomen a little above the
+middle of the right groin, and at that spot there may be a tenderness,
+and a feeling of resistance may be made out by the gentle pressure of
+the finger. In order to relax the pressure upon the tender area he
+probably lies with his right thigh slightly bent. By this time he may
+look ill, his face being slightly flushed, or pale and anxious. If the
+clinical thermometer is placed under his tongue, the index may rise a
+degree or two, perhaps several degrees, above normal, and his pulse may
+be quickened to 90 or 100 beats a minute. Perhaps it is a good deal
+quicker than this. Later, the skin of the lower part of the right side
+of the abdomen may be flushed or reddened.
+
+This clinical picture leaves no room for doubt. The boy has an attack of
+acute septic inflammation of his appendix. Let it be that the symptoms
+have come on quickly, and that the affection is not more than ten or
+twelve hours old; no one can tell precisely what course the disease is
+going to run. It may be that with rest in bed, constant fomentations,
+and absolute starvation, the inflammation will subside; but it is just
+as likely that in spite of this judicious treatment the symptoms will go
+from bad to worse, and that a belated operation will fail to rescue the
+boy from a general peritonitis which may end fatally. But at present, so
+far as one can tell, the disease is still limited to the appendix. And
+what, at this moment, is the best line of treatment? Some practitioners
+would answer--"Let the acute attack settle down, and then, after a week
+or ten days, when everything is quiet, remove the appendix, for
+statistics show that when the operation is done in the quiet interval
+the results are extremely favourable, whilst if it is done in the acute
+stage the outlook is not so bright." This is quite right. But one cannot
+be sure that the "quiet interval" will ever arrive. The case in question
+may be one of those which rapidly go on from bad to worse, and
+mortification and perforation of the appendix having taken place over
+some hard faecal concretion, general peritonitis is inevitable, with
+distension of the bowel and hopeless blood-poisoning. If it were certain
+that the attack of appendicitis would subside and become quiescent, it
+would be wise to wait. But it too often happens that the first attack
+is, indeed, the last. Acute appendicitis is one thing; relapsing
+appendicitis is another. The latter condition is very manageable.
+
+Inasmuch, then, as it is impossible to know what direction the disease
+will take, whether to quiescence or to disaster, it is for the greatest
+good in the greatest number of cases that the inflamed appendix be
+removed by operation whilst the disease is still limited to the
+appendix. It is highly probable that if every available hospital surgeon
+were asked if he had ever had cause to regret having advised early
+operation in a case of appendicitis the answer would be "No"; on the
+other hand, every surgeon would be able to recall cases in which delay
+had been followed by disaster--which an early resort to operation would,
+in all probability, have prevented.
+
+If the disease is going to assume the severe form, all the symptoms, as
+a rule, increase in severity. The facial expression becomes more
+anxious, and the accumulation of gas in the paralysed intestine causes
+an increase in the abdominal distension, so that the patient lies with
+his knees drawn up. The vomiting continues. The pulse quickens to 120 or
+140 a minute, and the temperature rises, perhaps to 104° F. The swelling
+and tenderness increase on the right side of the abdomen, and if the
+abscess does not find escape externally it probably bursts into the
+general peritoneal cavity, and the patient becomes bathed in profuse
+sweat, the result of blood-poisoning. Death is likely to follow within
+two days, the result of blood-poisoning and exhaustion.
+
+_Catarrhal and Relapsing Appendicitis._--Some cases of appendicitis run
+a mild course, giving rise to no worse symptoms, perhaps, than those of
+"indigestion" and nausea, with a feeling of general discomfort in the
+abdomen, and, probably, some local tenderness. The attack may be
+preceded or accompanied by constipation. The administration of a mild
+aperient or an enema, rest, starvation and fomentation will probably put
+matters right again--at any rate for a time.
+
+This form of the disease may be due to the presence of "bolted,"
+unchewed or indigestible food in that part of the large intestine into
+which the appendix opens. And these mild recurrent attacks may sometimes
+be got rid of altogether by having the teeth put in order, and by
+inducing the individual to choose his food with discretion, to chew it
+carefully, to take his meals regularly and to eat slowly.
+
+Obviously, these attacks are very different from those of the acute
+septic form of the disease described above, though there is no telling
+that one of them may not develop into the acute form. Some of the mild
+attacks are due to a kink in the appendix, or to some other condition
+which temporarily prevents the secretions of the appendix from finding
+their way into the large intestine. Others of them are caused by a
+passing catarrhal inflammation of the lining of the appendix and have a
+distant resemblance to a recurring "sore throat."
+
+After undergoing one or two of these mild attacks the patient would be
+well advised to have his appendix removed when it has once more got into
+the "quiet stage." Experience abundantly shows that the operation can
+then be performed with but slight disturbance of the patient, and with
+the smallest possible amount of risk. And until his vulnerable appendix
+has been removed he is never safe.
+
+In the _chronic_ form of the disease though the patient is never
+desperately ill he is never quite well. He has pains and discomfort in
+the abdomen, with slight tenderness and nausea, with "indigestion," as
+he may call it. And as one can never tell when the smouldering
+inflammation may break out into conflagration, he is well advised to
+submit himself to operation without further delay. To carry about a
+diseased appendix is to run the constant risk of being laid up at a time
+most inconvenient, as when travelling or when staying in some place
+where skilled assistance is far distant or absolutely unobtainable. But
+having made up his mind that the appendix had better be removed, the
+patient can choose time, place and surgeon, and, having undergone a
+week's careful training for the ordeal, can safely count on being back
+at work again in a month or six weeks' time.
+
+As regards _treatment_, the greatest safety consists in the prompt
+removal of the inflamed appendix, and statistics show that if the
+operation can be done in the first or second day of even an acute
+attack, the result is generally favourable--that is to say, if the
+appendix can be removed whilst the disease is still shut up within its
+tissues. But in some cases ulceration and perforation, or mortification,
+may have taken place over a hard faecal concretion within the first
+twenty-four or forty-eight hours, and, the septic germs having been let
+loose, peritonitis may have already set in, and operation may be
+followed by disappointment. Still, if the case had been left unoperated
+on, no other result could have been expected. It was not to the
+operation, but to the intensely acute disease that the calamity must be
+attributed.
+
+Nature is marvellously clever in some of these cases in shutting off the
+area of the disease by glueing together the neighbouring coils of
+intestine, the limited local peritonitis causing the tissues to build
+themselves into a wall which securely shuts in the abscess cavity. But
+in other cases she seems helpless, no barrier being formed for limiting
+the area of disturbance. In such a case it is inevitable that
+disappointment must result from the surgeon delaying operation in the
+hope that delimitation might take place. And when at last he makes his
+incision he sees that the disease has had so long a start that his own
+chance of success is but a poor one. In a less severe attack, under the
+influence of rest, starvation and fomentation, and in cases of chronic
+and of relapsing disease, the surgeon may watch and wait and choose his
+own time for operating. But when the symptoms are steadily increasing in
+severity he should urge an immediate incision. When, as often happens,
+the inflammation begins suddenly and severely, and, under the influence
+of treatment, steadily quiets down, the surgeon does well to delay
+operation. But in a fortnight or so, when everything has become once
+more quiet, he will urge the removal of the appendix, for this one
+attack is more than likely to be the forerunner of other attacks if the
+diseased appendix is left.
+
+The most serious cases are those in which the aspect, the pulse, and the
+temperature of the patient fail to give warning of a very advanced state
+of disease. Every surgeon of experience has met with cases in which,
+though there is nothing pointing to the fact that the patient is on the
+brink of a disaster, the operation has shown that the appendix is
+mortified, and that it is surrounded with abundant foul matter. It is
+then that he regrets not having operated a day or two earlier.
+Consequently it is a good rule to operate in all doubtful cases. In
+cases in which one happens to know that previous attacks have passed off
+under palliative treatment, there is no need for immediate operation;
+the quiet interval may be safely waited for. But in cases in which there
+is "no history," and in which the surgeon has nothing to guide him, the
+greatest safety is in prompt operation.
+
+If an attack of acute appendicitis is allowed to take its course
+unoperated on, abscess forms in the peritoneal cavity in the region of
+the appendix, but if already inflammation has happily glued the
+intestines together around that area, the pus is confined within
+definite limits. But as the abscess increases in size the demand for its
+evacuation becomes urgent. The pus, under the influence of a natural
+law, seeks its escape by the path of least resistance; sometimes this is
+into the intestine, and occasionally into the bladder. The most
+satisfactory course which it can take is through the wall of the abdomen
+and out above the right groin. As it is making its way in this direction
+the skin over that part becomes red, swollen, hot and tender, and the
+tissues between it and the skin become swollen and brawny. Rarely is
+_fluctuation_ to be made out until the pus has worked its way close to
+the surface. Later, ulceration takes place in the undermined skin, and
+the stinking contents of the abscess escape, greatly to the relief of
+the patient. But long before this could happen the surgeon should have
+made an incision through the inflamed tissues in order to give nature
+some greatly needed help. For in many cases she allows the pus blindly
+to discover that the course of least resistance is not towards the
+surface of the abdomen but through the inflammatory barrier formed by
+the adherent coils of bowel, and so into the general peritoneal cavity.
+This unfortunate issue may give temporary relief to the patient, so that
+he says that he feels much better, and that his pain has nearly gone.
+But though his temperature may fall, his pulse is apt to quicken--an
+ominous coupling of symptoms; the paralysed bowels become further
+distended, so that the lungs are pressed upon and breathing is
+embarrassed; hiccough comes on; and whether operation is now resorted to
+or not, a fatal end is highly probable. In other cases, the escaping pus
+finds its way up towards the liver and forms an abscess below the base
+of the lungs.
+
+If operation is performed when appendicitis has run on to the formation
+of abscess, and the diseased appendix presents itself, it should of
+course be removed; but if it does not present itself the surgeon should
+abstain from making a determined search for it, as in so doing he may
+break down the barrier which nature has provided, and thus himself
+become the means of spreading a septic peritonitis. Nor should he
+attempt to make clean the foul abscess cavity. All that he should do is
+to provide for efficient drainage. A large proportion of these cases do
+extremely well with incision and drainage, and in the subsequent healing
+of the cavity the wreckage of the appendix either undergoes
+disintegration or is rendered harmless for further anxiety.
+
+In some cases, however, the damaged appendix remains as a smouldering
+ember, ready at any moment to cause further conflagration. This is made
+manifest by lingering pains, and by tenderness and warnings after the
+abscess has healed, and the patient will be well advised to have what is
+left of the appendix removed by operation at a time of quiescence. The
+operation, however, may turn out to be a very difficult one. Sometimes
+the wound by which the abscess has been evacuated, by nature or by art,
+refuses to heal completely, a little discharge of a faecal odour
+continuing to escape. The small wound leads into a faecal fistula, and
+a bent probe passed along it would probably find its way into the bowel.
+The wound is likely to close of itself in due course; but if after many
+weeks of disappointment it still continues to discharge, the surgeon may
+advise an operation for its obliteration.
+
+It occasionally happens that after operation the scar of the wound in
+the abdominal wall yields under the pressure from within, and a bulging
+of the intestines beneath the skin occurs. This is called a _ventral
+hernia_, and if the patient cannot be made comfortable by wearing a
+truss with a large flat pad, an operation may be deemed advisable.
+
+If, in a case of appendicitis, for one reason or another operation is to
+be delayed, what treatment should be resorted to? The patient should be
+put to bed with his knees resting over a pillow, and a large fomentation
+under oil silk should be laid over the lower part of the abdomen. No
+food should be given beyond an occasional sip of hot water. Purgatives
+should not be administered, as this would be to set in movement an
+inflamed piece of bowel. If the case is not acute, a large enema of soap
+and water with turpentine may be given, or, possibly, a dose of castor
+oil by the mouth. As a rule, however, it is unwise to set the bowels in
+vigorous action until the diseased appendix has been removed. No opium
+should be given.
+
+Acute intestinal obstruction, cancer of the intestine, inflammation of
+the ovary, typhoid fever and renal and gallstone colic, are affections
+which are apt to be mistaken for appendicitis. The first of these
+resembles it most closely, and diagnosis is sometimes impossible without
+resort to operation. And it is a fortunate thing that, when error of
+diagnosis has been made, the operation which was designed for dealing
+with an inflamed appendix may be directed with equal advantage to the
+morbid condition which is found on opening the abdomen. In typhoid fever
+the characteristic temperature, the general condition of the patient,
+and the presence of delirium are differentiating signs of importance; in
+renal and gallstone colic the situation and the more paroxysmal
+character of the pain are usually distinctive.     (E. O.*)
+
+
+
+
+APPENDICULATA, a zoological name introduced by E. Ray Lankester (preface
+to the English edition of C. Gegenbaur's _Comparative Anatomy_), and
+employed by the same writer in the 9th edition of this encyclopaedia
+(article "Zoology") to denote the eighth phylum, or major division, of
+coelomate animals. The animals thus associated, the Rotifera, Chaetopoda
+and Arthropoda, are composed of a larger or smaller number of hollow
+rings, each ring possessing typically a pair of hollow lateral
+appendages, moved by intrinsic muscles and penetrated by blood-spaces.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDINI, FRANCESCO MARIA (1768-1837), Italian historian and
+philologist, was born at Poirino, near Turin, on the 4th of November
+1768. Educated at Rome, he took orders and was sent to Ragusa, where he
+was appointed professor of rhetoric. When the French seized Ragusa,
+Napoleon placed Appendini at the head of the Ragusan academy. After the
+Austrian occupation he was appointed principal of a college at Zara,
+where he died in 1837. Appendini's chief work was his _Notizie
+Istorico-critiche sulle Antichità, Storia, e Letteratura dei Ragusci_
+(1802-1803).
+
+
+
+
+APPENZELL, one of the cantons of north-east Switzerland, entirely
+surrounded by the canton of St Gall; both were formed out of the
+dominions of the prince abbots of St Gall, whence the name Appenzell
+(_abbatis cello_). It is an alpine region, particularly in its south
+portion, where rises the Alpstein limestone range (culminating in the
+Säntis, 8216 ft.), though towards the north the surface is composed
+rather of green hills, separating green hollows in which nestle neat
+villages and small towns. It is mainly watered by two streams that
+descend from the Säntis, the Urnasch joining the Sitter (on which is the
+capital, Appenzell), which later flows into the Thur. There are light
+railways from Appenzell to St Gall either (12½ m.) past Gais or (20½ m.)
+past Herisau, as well as lines from St Gall to Trogen (6 m.) and from
+Rorschach to Heiden (4¼ m.). Since 1597 it has been divided, for
+religious reasons, into two half-cantons, which are quite independent of
+each other, and differ in many points.
+
+The north and west portion or _Ausser Rhoden_ has a total area of 93.6
+sq. m. (of which 90.6 are classed as "productive"; forests covering 22.5
+sq. m. and glaciers .038 sq. m.), with a population (in 1900) of 55,281,
+mainly German-speaking, and containing 49,797 Protestants as against
+5418 Romanists. Its political capital is Trogen (q.v.), though the
+largest town is Herisau (q.v.), while Teufen has 4595 inhabitants, and
+Heiden (3745 inhabitants) in the north-east corner is the most
+frequented of the many goats' whey cure resorts for which the entire
+canton is famous (Urnäsch and Gais are also in Ausser Rhoden). This
+half-canton is divided into three administrative districts, comprising
+twenty communes, and is mainly industrial, the manufacture of cotton
+goods, muslins, and embroidery being very flourishing. It sends one
+member (elected by the _Landsgemeinde_) to the federal _Ständerath_ and
+three to the federal _Nationalrath_ (elected by a direct popular vote).
+
+The south or more mountainous portion of Appenzell forms the half-canton
+of Appenzell, _Inner Rhoden_. It has a total area of 66.7 sq. m. (of
+which 62.8 sq. m. are classed as "productive," forests covering 12.8 sq.
+m. and glaciers .38 sq. m.), and a total population of 13,499,
+practically all German-speaking, and all but 833 Romanists. Its
+political capital is Appenzell (q.v.), which is also the largest
+village, while Weissbad (near it) and Gonten are the best-known goats'
+whey cure resorts. Embroidery and muslins are made in this half-canton,
+though wholly at home by the work-people. But it is very largely
+pastoral, containing 168 mountain pastures or "alps," maintaining each
+summer 4000 cows, and of an estimated capital value of 2,682,955 francs
+(the figures for Ausser Rhoden are respectively 100 alps, 2800 cows, and
+1,749,900 francs). Inner Rhoden is extremely conservative, and has the
+reputation of always rejecting any federal _Referendum_. For similar
+reasons it has preserved many old customs and costumes, those of the
+women being very elaborate and picturesque, while the herdsmen have
+retained their festival attire of red waistcoats, embroidered braces and
+canary-coloured shorts. It sends one member (named by the
+_Landsgemeinde_) to the federal _Ständerath_, and one also to the
+federal _Nationalrath_, while it forms but a single administrative
+district, though divided into six communes.
+
+To the outer world the canton of Appenzell is best known by its
+institution of _Landsgemeinden_, or primitive democratic assemblies held
+in the open air, in which every male citizen (not being disqualified)
+over twenty years of age must (under a money penalty) appear personally:
+each half-canton has such an assembly of its own, that of Inner Rhoden
+always meeting at Appenzell, and that of Ausser Rhoden in the odd years
+at Hundwil (near Herisau) and in the even years at Trogen. This
+institution is of immemorial antiquity, and the meetings in either case
+are always held on the last Sunday in April. The _Landsgemeinde_ is the
+supreme legislative authority, and elects both the executive (in Inner
+Rhoden composed of nine members and called _Ständeskommission_, and in
+Ausser Rhoden of seven members and called _Regierungsrath_) and the
+president or _Landammann_; in each half-canton there is also a sort of
+standing committee (composed of the members of the executive and
+representatives from the communes--in Inner Rhoden one member per 250 or
+fraction over 125 of the population, and in Ausser Rhoden one member per
+1000 of the inhabitants) which prepares business for the _Landsgemeinde_
+and decides minor matters; in Inner Rhoden it is named the _Grossrath_
+and in Ausser Rhoden the _Kantonsrath_. As various old-fashioned
+ceremonies are observed at the meetings and the members each appear with
+his girded sword, the sight of a meeting of the _Landsgemeinde_ is most
+striking and interesting. The existing constitution of Inner Rhoden
+dates mainly from 1872, and that of Ausser Rhoden from 1876.
+
+By the middle of the 11th century the abbots of St Gall had established
+their power in the land later called Appenzell, which, too, became
+thoroughly teutonized, its early inhabitants having probably been
+romanized Raetians. But as early as 1377, this portion of the abbots'
+domains formed an alliance with the Swabian free imperial cities and
+adopted a constitution of its own. The repeated attempts of the abbots
+to put down this independence of their rule were defeated in the
+battles of Vögelinsegg (1403), north-west of Trogen, and of the Stoss
+(1405), the pass leading from Gais over to Altstätten in the Rhine
+valley. In 1411 Appenzell was placed under the "protection" of the Swiss
+Confederation, of which, in 1452, it became an "allied member," and in
+1513 a full member. Religious differences broke up the land after the
+Reformation into two portions, each called _Rhoden_, a term that in the
+singular is said to mean a "clearing," and occurs in 1070, long before
+the final separation. From 1798 to 1803 Appenzell, with the other
+domains of the abbot of St Gall, was formed into the canton Säntis of
+the Helvetic Republic, but in 1803, on the creation of the new canton of
+St Gall, shrank back within its former boundaries. The oldest codes of
+the laws and customs of the land date from 1409 and 1585, the original
+MS. of the latter (called the "Silver Book" from its silver clasps)
+being still used in Inner Rhoden when, at the close of the annual
+_Landsgemeinde_, the newly elected _Landammann_ first takes the oath of
+office, and the assembled members then take that of obedience to him, in
+either case with uplifted right hands.
+
+  See also _Appenzellische Jahrbücher_ (3 series from 1854, Trogen); G.
+  Baumberger, "_Juhu-Juuhu_"--_Appenzellerland und Appenzellerleut_
+  (Einsiedeln, 1903); J.G. Ebel, _Schilderung d. Gebirgsvolker d.
+  Schweiz_, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1798); W. Kobelt, _Die Alpwirthschaft im
+  Kant. App. Inner Rhoden_ (Soleure, 1899); I.B. Richman, _Appenzell_
+  (London, 1895); H. Ryffel, _Die schweiz. Landsgemeinden_ (Zürich,
+  1903); J.J. Tobler and A. Strüby, _Die Alpwirthschaft im Kant. App.
+  Ausser Rhoden_ (Soleure, 1900); J.C. Zellweger, _Geschichte d. app.
+  Volkes_ (to 1597), 6 vols in 11 parts (Trogen, 1830-1838); J.C.
+  Zellweger, junior, _Der Kant. App._. (Trogen, 1867); A. Tobler, _Das
+  Volkslied im Appenzellerland_ (Basel, 1906); J.J. Blumer, _Staats- und
+  Rechtsgeschichte d. schweiz. Demokratien_ (3 vols. St Gall,
+  1850-1859).     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+APPENZELL, the political capital of the Inner Rhoden half of the Swiss
+canton of Appenzell. It is built in a smiling green hollow on the left
+bank of the Sitter stream, which is formed by the union of several
+mountain torrents descending from the Säntis. By light railways it is
+12½ m. from St Gall past Gais or 20½ m. past Herisau. Its chief streets
+are paved, but it is rather a large village than a town, though in 1900
+it had 4574 inhabitants, practically all German-speaking and Romanists.
+It has a stately modern parish church (attached to a Gothic choir), a
+small but very ancient chapel of the abbots of St Gall (whose summer
+residence was this village), and two Capuchin convents (one for men,
+founded in 1588, and one for women, founded in 1613). Among the
+archives, kept in the sacristy of the church, are several banners
+captured by the Appenzellers in former days, among them one taken in
+1406 at Imst, near Lanedeck, with the inscription _Hundert Teufel_,
+though popularly this number is multiplied a thousandfold. In the
+principal square the _Landsgemeinde_ (or cantonal democratic assembly)
+is held annually in the open air on the last Sunday in April. The
+inhabitants are largely employed in the production of embroidery, though
+also engaged in various pastoral occupations. About 2½ m. by road
+south-east of Appenzell is Weissbad, a well-known goat's whey cure
+establishment, while 1½ hours above it is the quaint little chapel of
+Wildkirchli, built (1648) in a rock cavern, on the way to the Säntis.
+     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+APPERCEPTION (Lat. _ad_ and _percipere_, perceive), in psychology, a
+term used to describe the presentation of an object on which attention
+is fixed, in relation to the sum of consciousness previous to the
+presentation and the mind as a whole. The word was first used by
+Leibnitz, practically in the sense of the modern Attention (q.v.), by
+which an object is apprehended as "not-self" and yet in relation to the
+self. In Kantian terminology apperception is (1) _transcendental_--the
+perception of an object as involving the consciousness of the pure self
+as subject, and (2) _empirical_,--the cognition of the self in its
+concrete existence. In (1) apperception is almost equivalent to
+self-consciousness; the existence of the ego may be more or less
+prominent, but it is always involved. According to J.F. Herbart (q.v.)
+apperception is that process by which an aggregate or "mass" of
+presentations becomes systematized (_apperceptions-system_) by the
+accretion of new elements, either sense-given or product of the inner
+workings of the mind. He thus emphasizes in apperception the connexion
+with the self as resulting from the sum of antecedent experience. Hence
+in education the teacher should fully acquaint himself with the mental
+development of the pupil, in order that he may make full use of what the
+pupil already knows.
+
+Apperception is thus a general term for all mental processes in which a
+presentation is brought into connexion with an already existent and
+systematized mental conception, and thereby is classified, explained or,
+in a word, understood; e.g. a new scientific phenomenon is explained in
+the light of phenomena already analysed and classified. The whole
+intelligent life of man is, consciously or unconsciously, a process of
+apperception, inasmuch as every act of attention involves the
+appercipient process.
+
+  See Karl Lange, _Ueber Apperception_ (6th ed. revised, Leipzig, 1899;
+  trans. E.E. Brown, Boston, 1893); G.F. Stout, _Analytic Psychology_
+  (London, 1896), bk. ii. ch. viii., and in general text-books of
+  psychology; also PSYCHOLOGY.
+
+
+
+
+APPERLEY, CHARLES JAMES (1777-1843), English sportsman and sporting
+writer, better known as "Nimrod," the pseudonym under which he published
+his works on the chase and the turf, was born at Plasgronow, near
+Wrexham, in Denbighshire, in 1777. Between the years 1805 and 1820 he
+devoted himself to fox-hunting. About 1821 he began to contribute to the
+_Sporting Magazine_, under the pseudonym of "Nimrod," a series of racy
+articles, which helped to double the circulation of the magazine in a
+year or two. The proprietor, Mr Pittman, kept for "Nimrod" a stud of
+hunters, and defrayed all expenses of his tours, besides giving him a
+handsome salary. The death of Mr Pittman, however, led to a law-suit
+with the proprietors of the magazine for money advanced, and Apperley,
+to avoid imprisonment, had to take up his residence near Calais (1830),
+where he supported himself by his writings. He died in London on the
+19th of May 1843. The most important of his works are: _Remarks on the
+Condition of Hunters, the Choice of Horses_, &c. (1831); _The Chase, the
+Turf, and the Road_ (originally written for the _Quarterly Review_),
+(1837); _Memoirs of the Life of the Late John Mytton_ (1837); _Nimrod's
+Northern Tour_ (1838); _Nimrod Abroad_ (1842); _The Horse and the Hound_
+(a reprint from the seventh edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_)
+(1842); _Hunting Reminiscences_ (1843).
+
+
+
+
+APPERT, BENJAMIN NICOLAS MARIE (1797-1847), French philanthropist, was
+born in Paris on the 10th of September 1797. While a young man he
+introduced a system of mutual instruction into the regimental schools of
+the department of the Nord. The success which it obtained induced him to
+publish a _Manual_ setting forth his system. While engaged in teaching
+prisoners at Montaigu, he fell under the suspicion of having connived at
+the escape of two of them, and was thrown into the prison of La Force.
+On his release he resolved to devote the rest of his life to bettering
+the condition of those whose lot he had for a time shared, and he
+travelled much over Europe for the purpose of studying the various
+systems of prison discipline, and wrote several books on the subject.
+After the revolution of 1830 he became secretary to Queen Marie Amélie,
+and organized the measures taken for the relief of the needy. He was
+decorated with the Legion of Honour in 1833.
+
+His brother, FRANÇOIS APPERT (d. 1840), was the inventor of the method
+of preserving food by enclosing it in hermetically sealed tins; he left
+a work entitled _Art de conserver les substances animales et
+végétables_.
+
+
+
+
+APPIAN (Gr. [Greek: Appianos]), of Alexandria, Roman historian,
+flourished during the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. He
+tells us that, after having filled the chief offices in his native
+place, he repaired to Rome, where he practised as an advocate. When
+advanced in years, he obtained, by the good offices of his friend
+Fronto, the dignity of imperial procurator--it is supposed in Egypt. His
+work ([Greek: Rumaika]) in twenty-four books, written in Greek, is
+rather a number of monographs than a connected history. It gives an
+account of various peoples and countries from the earliest times down to
+their incorporation into the Roman empire. Besides a preface, there are
+extant eleven complete books and considerable fragments. In spite of its
+unattractive style, the work is very valuable, especially for the period
+of the civil wars.
+
+  Editio princeps, 1551; Schweighäuser, 1785; Bekker, 1852; Mendelssohn,
+  1878-1905. English translations: by W. B., 1578 (black letter); J.
+  D[avies], 1679; H. White, 1899 (Bohn's Classical Library); bk. i. ed.
+  by J.L. Strachan-Davidson, 1902.
+
+
+
+
+APPIANI, ANDREA (1754-1817), the best fresco painter of his age, was
+born at Milan. He was made pensioned artist to the kingdom of Italy by
+Napoleon, but lost his allowance after the events of 1814 and fell into
+poverty. Correggio was his model, and his best pieces, which are in the
+church of Santa Maria presso San Celso and the royal palace at Milan,
+almost rival those of his great master. He also painted Napoleon and the
+chief personages of his court. Among the most graceful of his
+oil-paintings are his "Venus and Love," and "Rinaldo in the Garden of
+Armida." He is known as "the elder," to distinguish him from his
+great-nephew Andrea Appiani (1817-1865), an historical painter at Rome.
+Other painters of the same name were Niccolo Appiani (fl. 1510) and
+Francesco Appiani (1704-1792).
+
+
+
+
+APPIA, VIA, a high-road leading from Rome to Campania and lower Italy,
+constructed in 312 B.C. by the censor Appius Claudius Caecus. It
+originally ran only as far as Capua, but was successively prolonged to
+Beneventum, Venusia, Tarentum and Brundusium, though at what dates is
+unknown. Probably it was extended as far as Beneventum not long after
+the colonization of this town in 268 B.C., and it seems to have reached
+Venusia before 190 B.C. Horace, in the journey to Brundusium described
+in _Sat_. i. 5, followed the Via Appia as far as Beneventum, but not
+beyond.
+
+The original road was no doubt only gravelled (_glarea strata_); in 298
+B.C. a footpath was laid _saxo quadrato_ from the Porta Capena, by which
+it left Rome, to the temple of Mars, about 1 m. from the gate. Three
+years later, however, the whole road was paved with _silex_ from the
+temple to Bovillae, and in 191 B.C. the first mile from the gate to the
+temple was similarly treated. The distance from Rome to Capua was 132 m.
+For the first few miles the road is flanked by an uninterrupted series
+of tombs and other buildings (see L. Canina, _Via Appia_, Rome, 1853).
+As far as Terracina it ran in an almost entirely straight line, even
+through the Alban Hills, where the gradients are steep. A remarkably
+fine embankment belonging to it still exists at Aricia. At Forum Appii
+it entered the Pomptine Marshes; that this portion (19 m. long, hence
+called Decennovium) belonged to the original road was proved by the
+discovery at Ad Medias (Mesa) of a milestone of about 250 B.C. (Ch.
+Hülsen, in _Römische Mitteilungen_, 1889, 83; 1895, 301). A still older
+road ran along the foot of the Volscian mountains past Cora, Norba and
+Setia; this served as the post road until the end of the 18th century.
+At the time of Strabo and Horace, however, it was the practice to travel
+by canal from Forum Appii to Lucus Feroniae; to Nerva and Trajan were
+due the paving of the road and the repair of the bridges along this
+section. Theodoric in A.D. 486 ordered the execution of similar repairs,
+the success of which is recorded in inscriptions, but in the middle ages
+it was abandoned and impassable, and was only renewed by Pius VI. The
+older road crossed the back of the promontory at the foot of which
+Terracina stands; in imperial times, probably, the rock was cut away
+perpendicularly for a height of 120 ft. to allow the road to pass.
+Beyond Fundi it passed through the mountains to Formiae, the engineering
+of the road being noteworthy; and thence by Minturnae and Sinuessa
+(towns of the Aurunci which had been conquered in 314 B.C.)[1] to Capua.
+The remains of the road in this first portion are particularly striking.
+
+Between Capua and Beneventum, a distance of 32 m., the road passed near
+the defile of Caudium (see CAUDINE FORKS). The modern highroad follows
+the ancient line, and remains of the latter, with the exception of three
+well-preserved bridges, which still serve for the modern highroad, are
+conspicuous by their absence. The portion of the road from Rome to
+Beneventum is described by Sir R. Colt Hoare, _Classical Tour through
+Italy_, 57 seq. (London, 1819). He was accompanied on his journey, made
+in 1789, by the artist Carlo Labruzzi, who executed a series of 226
+drawings, the greater part of which have not been published; they are
+described by T. Ashby in _Mélanges de l'École Française de Rome_ (1903),
+p. 375 seq., and _Atti del Congresso Internazionale per le Scienze
+Storiche_, vol. v. (Rome, 1904), p. 125 seq.
+
+From Beneventum to Brundusium by the Via Appia, through Venusia and
+Tarentum, was 202 m. A shorter route, but more fitted for mule traffic,
+though Horace drove along part of it,[2] ran by Aequum Tuticum, Aecae,
+Herdoniae, Canusium, Barium, and Gnatia (Strabo vi. 282); it was made
+into a main road by Trajan, and took the name Via Traiana. The original
+road, too, adopted in imperial times a more devious but easier route by
+Aeclanum instead of by Trevicum. This was restored by Hadrian for the 15
+m. between Beneventum and Aeclanum. Under Diocletian and Maximian a road
+(the Via Herculia) was constructed from Aequum Tuticum to Pons Aufidi
+near Venusia, where it crossed the Via Appia and went on into Lucania,
+passing through Potentia and Grumentum, and joining the Via Popilia near
+Nerulum. Though it must have lost much of its importance through the
+construction of the Via Traiana, the last portion from Tarentum to
+Brundusium was restored by Constantine about A.D. 315.
+
+  The Via Appia was the most famous of Roman roads; Statius, _Silvae_,
+  ii. 2. 12, calls it _longarum regina viarum_. It was administered
+  under the empire by a curator of praetorian rank, as were the other
+  important roads of Italy. A large number of milestones and other
+  inscriptions relating to its repair at various times are known. See
+  Ch. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, ii. 238 seq.
+  (Stuttgart, 1896).     (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] It is important to note how the Romans followed up every victory
+    with a road.
+
+  [2] From Beneventum he followed the older line of the Via Appia to
+    Trevicum; thence, leaving the main road at Aquilonia, he went to
+    Ausculum ("quod versu dicere non est"), the mod. Ascoli Satriano, by
+    a by-road, for the milestones which have been found there, though
+    they probably belong to the Via Traiana, cannot be in their original
+    position, but must have been transplanted thither (Th. Mommsen in
+    _Corp. Inscrip. Lat._, ix. 1883, No. 6016)--and on to Herdoniae (why
+    Mommsen says that he left Herdoniae on the left, _op. cit._ p. 592,
+    is not clear), where he joined the line of the later Via Traiana.
+
+
+
+
+APPIN, a coast district of Argyllshire, Scotland, bounded W. by Loch
+Linnhe, S. by Loch Creran, E. by the districts of Benderloch and Lorne,
+and N. by Loch Leven. It lies north-east to south-west, and measures 14
+m. in length by 7 m. in breadth. The scenery of the coast is extremely
+beautiful, and inland the country is rugged and mountainous. The
+principal hills are the double peaks of Ben Vair (3362 ft. and 3284 ft.)
+and Creag Ghorm (2372 ft.) in the north, and Fraochie (2883 ft.), Meall
+Ban (2148 ft.) and Ben Mhic na Ceisich (2093 ft.) near the right flank
+of Glen Creran. The chief streams are the Coe and Laroch, flowing into
+Loch Leven, the Duror and Salachan flowing into Loch Linnhe, and the
+lola and Creran flowing into Loch Creran. The leading industries
+comprise slate and granite quarries and lead mining. Ballachulish,
+Duror, Portnacroish, Appin and Port Appin are the principal villages.
+Ballachulish and Port Appin are ports of call for steamers, and the
+Caledonian railway company's branch line from Connel Ferry to
+Ballachulish runs through the coast land and has stations at Creagan,
+Appin, Duror, Kentallen and Ballachulish Ferry. Appin was the country of
+a branch of the Stewarts.
+
+
+
+
+APPLAUSE (Lat. _applaudere_, to strike upon, clap), primarily the
+expression of approval by clapping of hands, &c.; generally any
+expression of approval. The custom of applauding is doubtless as old and
+as widespread as humanity, and the variety of its forms is limited only
+by the capacity for devising means of making a noise. Among civilized
+nations, however, it has at various times been subject to certain
+conventions. Thus the Romans had a set ritual of applause for public
+performances, expressing degrees of approval: snapping the finger and
+thumb, clapping with the flat or hollow palm, waving the flap of the
+toga, for which last the emperor Aurelian substituted a handkerchief
+(_orarium_), distributed to all Roman citizens (see STOLE). In the
+theatre, at the close of the play, the chief actor called out "Valete et
+plaudite!", and the audience, guided by an unofficial choregus, chaunted
+their applause antiphonally. This was often organized and paid for
+(Böttiger, _Über das Applaudieren im Theater bei den Alten_, Leipz.,
+1822). When Christianity became fashionable the customs of the theatre
+were transferred to the churches. Eusebius (_Hist. Eccl._ vii. 30) says
+that Paul of Samosata encouraged the congregation to applaud his
+preaching by waving linen cloths ([Greek: othonais]), and in the 4th and
+5th centuries applause of the rhetoric of popular preachers had become
+an established custom. Though, however, applause may provide a healthy
+stimulus, its abuse has led to attempts at abolishing or restricting it
+even in theatres. The institution of the _claque_, people hired by
+performers to applaud them, has largely discredited the custom, and
+indiscriminate applause has been felt as an intolerable interruption to
+serious performances. The reverential spirit which abolished applause in
+church has tended to spread to the theatre and the concert-room, largely
+under the influence of the quasi-religious atmosphere of the Wagner
+performances at Baireuth. In Germany (e.g. the court theatres at Berlin)
+applause during the performance and "calling before the curtain" have
+been officially forbidden, but even in Germany this is felt to be in
+advance of public opinion. (See also ACCLAMATION and CHEERING.)
+
+
+
+
+APPLE (a common Teut. word, A.S. _aepl, aeppel_, O.H.G. _aphul, aphal,
+apfal_, mod. Ger. _Apfel_), the fruit of _Pyrus Malus_, belonging to the
+sub-order _Pomaceae_, of the natural order _Rosaceae_. It is one of the
+most widely cultivated and best-known and appreciated of fruits
+belonging to temperate climates. In its wild state it is known as the
+crab-apple, and is found generally distributed throughout Europe and
+western Asia, growing in as high a latitude as Trondhjem in Norway. The
+crabs of Siberia belong to different species of _Pyrus_. The apple-tree
+as cultivated is a moderate-sized tree with spreading branches, ovate,
+acutely serrated or crenated leaves, and flowers in corymbs. The fruit
+is too well known to need any description of its external
+characteristics. The apple is successfully cultivated in higher
+latitudes than any other fruit tree, growing up to 65° N., but
+notwithstanding this, its blossoms are more susceptible of injury from
+frost than the flowers of the peach or apricot. It comes into flower
+much later than these trees, and so avoids the night frost which would
+be fatal to its fruit-bearing. The apples which are grown in northern
+regions are, however, small, hard, and crabbed, the best fruit being
+produced in hot summer climates, such as Canada and the United States.
+Besides in Europe and America, the fruit is now cultivated at the Cape
+of Good Hope, in northern India and China, and in Australia and New
+Zealand.
+
+Apples have been cultivated in Great Britain probably since the period
+of the Roman occupation, but the names of many varieties indicate a
+French or Dutch origin of much later date. In 1688 Ray enumerated
+seventy-eight varieties in cultivation in the neighbourhood of London,
+and now it is calculated that about 2000 kinds can be distinguished.
+According to the purposes for which they are suitable, they can be
+classed as--1st, dessert; 2nd, culinary; and 3rd, cider apples. The
+principal dessert apples are the Pippins (_pepins_, seedlings), of which
+there are numerous varieties. As culinary apples, besides Rennets and
+other dessert kinds, Codlins and Biffins are cultivated. In England,
+Herefordshire and Devonshire are famous for the cultivation of apples,
+and in these counties the manufacture of cider (q.v.) is an important
+industry. Cider is also extensively prepared in Normandy and in Holland.
+Verjuice is the fermented juice of crab apples.
+
+A large trade in the importation of apples is carried on in Britain,
+imports coming chiefly from French, Belgian and Dutch growers, and from
+the United States and British North America. Dried and pressed apples
+are imported from France for stewing, under the name of Normandy
+Pippins, and similarly prepared fruits come also from America.
+
+The apple may be propagated by seeds to obtain stocks for grafting, and
+also for the production of new varieties. The established sorts are
+usually increased by grafting, the method called whip-grafting being
+preferred. The stocks should be at least as thick as the finger; and
+should be headed back to where the graft is to be fixed in January,
+unless the weather is frosty, but in any case before vegetation becomes
+active. The scions should be cut about the same time, and laid in firmly
+in a trench, in contact with the moist soil, until required.
+
+The tree will thrive in any good well-drained soil, the best being a
+good mellow calcareous loam, while the less iron there is in the subsoil
+the better. The addition of marl to soils that are not naturally
+calcareous very much improves them. The trees are liable to canker in
+undrained soils or those of a hot sandy nature. Where the soil is not
+naturally rich enough, it should be well manured, but not to the extent
+of encouraging over-luxuriance. It is better to apply manure in the form
+of a compost than to use it in a fresh state or unmixed.
+
+To form an orchard, standard trees should be planted at from 25 to 40
+ft. between the rows, according to the fertility of the soil and other
+considerations. The trees should be selected with clean, straight,
+self-supporting stems, and the head should be shapely and symmetrical,
+with the main branches well balanced. In order to obtain such a stem,
+all the leaves on the first shoot from the graft or bud should be
+encouraged to grow, and in the second season the terminal bud should be
+allowed to develop a further leading shoot, while the lateral shoots
+should be allowed to grow, but so that they do not compete with the
+leader, on which the growth of leaves should be encouraged in order that
+they may give additional strength to the stem below them. The side
+shoots should be removed gradually, so that the diminution of foliage in
+this direction may not exceed the increase made by the new branches and
+shoots of the upper portion. Dwarf pyramids, which occupy less space
+than open dwarfs, if not allowed to grow tall, may be planted at from 10
+to 12 ft. apart. Dwarf bush trees may be planted from 10 to 15 ft.
+apart, according to the variety and the soil. Dwarf bushes on the
+Paradise stock are both ornamental and useful in small gardens, the
+trees being always conveniently under control. These bush trees, which
+must be on the proper stock--the French Paradise--may be planted at
+first 6 ft. apart, with the same distance between the rows, the space
+being afterwards increased, if desired, to 12 ft. apart, by removing
+every alternate row.
+
+"Cordons" are trees trained to a single shoot, the laterals of which are
+kept spurred. They are usually trained horizontally, at about 1½ ft.
+from the ground, and may consist of one stem or of two, the stems in the
+latter case being trained in opposite directions. In cold districts the
+finer sorts of apples may be grown against walls as upright or oblique
+cordons. From these cordon trees very fine fruit may often be obtained.
+The apple may also be grown as an espalier tree, a form which does not
+require much lateral space. The ordinary trained trees for espaliers and
+walls should be planted 20 ft. apart.
+
+The fruit of the apple is produced on spurs which form on the branchlets
+of two years old and upwards, and continue fertile for a series of
+years. The principal pruning should be performed in summer, the young
+shoots if crowded being thinned out, and the superabundant laterals
+shortened by breaking them half through. The general winter pruning of
+the trees may take place any time from the beginning of November to the
+beginning of March, in open weather. The trees are rather subject to the
+attacks of the American blight, the white cottony substance found on the
+bark and developed by an insect (_Eriosoma, mali_), somewhat similar to
+the green-fly of the garden, but not a true aphis. It may be removed by
+scrubbing with a hard brush, by painting the affected spots with any
+bland oil, or by washing them with dilute paraffin and soft soap.
+
+The apple-blossom weevil (_Anthonomus pomorum_), a small reddish-brown
+beetle, often causes serious damage to the flowers. The female bores and
+lays an egg in the unopened bud, and the maggot feeds on the stamens and
+pistil. The weevil hibernates in the crannies of the bark or in the soil
+at the base of the trees, and bandages of tarred doth placed round the
+stem in spring will prevent the female from crawling up.
+
+The codlin moth (_Carpocapsa pomonana_) lays its eggs in May in the
+calyx of the flowers. The young caterpillar, which is white with black
+head and neck, gnaws its way through the fruit, and pierces the rind.
+When nearly full grown it attacks the core, and the fruit soon drops.
+The insect emerges and spins its cocoon in a crack of the bark.
+
+To check this disease the apples which fall before ripening should be
+promptly removed. A loosely made hay-band twisted round the stem about a
+foot from the ground is of use. The grubs will generally choose the
+bands in which to make their cocoon; at the end of the season the bands
+are collected and burned.
+
+The following are a few of the most approved varieties of the apple
+tree, arranged in order of their ripening, with the months in which they
+are in use:--
+
+    Dessert Apples.
+
+  White Juneating.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . July
+  Early Red Margaret.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Aug.
+  Irish Peach .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Aug.
+  Devonshire Quarrenden.  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Aug., Sept.
+  Duchess of Oldenburg .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Aug., Sept.
+  Red Astrachan  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Sept.
+  Kerry Pippin.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Sept., Oct.
+  Peasgood's Nonesuch  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Sept.-Nov.
+  Sam Young.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Oct.-Dec.
+  King of the Pippins  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Oct.-Jan.
+  Cox's Orange Pippin  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Oct.-Feb.
+  Court of Wick  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Oct.-Mar.
+  Blenheim Pippin.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Feb.
+  Sykehouse Russet  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Feb.
+  Fearn's Pippin .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Mar.
+  Mannington's Pearmain.  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Mar.
+  Margil.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Mar.
+  Ribston Pippin .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Mar.
+  Golden Pippin  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Jan.
+  Reinette de Canada.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Apr.
+  Ashmead's Kernel  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Apr.
+  White Winter Calville (grown under glass) . Dec.-Mar.
+  Braddick's Nonpareil .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Dec.-Apr.
+  Court-pendû Plat  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Dec.-Apr.
+  Northern Spy.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Dec.-May
+  Cornish Gilliflower  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Dec.-May
+  Scarlet Nonpareil .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Jan.-Mar.
+  Cockle's Pippin.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Jan.-Apr.
+  Lamb Abbey Pearmain  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Jan.-May
+  Old Nonpareil  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Jan.-May
+  Duke of Devonshire.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Feb.-May
+  Sturmer Pippin .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Feb.-June
+
+    Kitchen Apples.
+
+  Keswick Codlin .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Aug.-Sept.
+  Lord Suffield  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Aug.-Sept.
+  Manks Codlin.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Aug.-Oct.
+  Ecklinville Seedling .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Aug.-Nov.
+  Stirling Castle.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Aug.-Nov.
+  New Hawthornden.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Sept.-Oct.
+  Stone's Seedling  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Sept.-Nov.
+  Emperor Alexander .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Sept.-Dec.
+  Waltham Abbey Seedling  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Sept.-Jan.
+  Cellini  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Oct., Nov.
+  Gravenstein .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Oct.-Dec.
+  Hawthornden .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Oct.-Dec.
+  Baumann's Red Winter Reinette .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Mar.
+  Mère de Ménage .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Oct.-Mar.
+  Beauty of Kent .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Oct.-Feb.
+  Yorkshire Greening.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Oct.-Feb.
+  Gloria Mundi.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Jan.
+  Blenheim Pippin.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Feb.
+  Tower of Glammis  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Feb.
+  Warner's King  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Mar.
+  Alfriston.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Apr.
+  Northern Greening .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Apr.
+  Reinette de Canada.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Apr.
+  Bess Pool.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-May
+  Winter Queening.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-May
+  Lane's Prince Albert .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Oct.-May
+  Norfolk Beaufin.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-July
+
+Apples for table use should have a sweet juicy pulp and rich aromatic
+flavour, while those suitable for cooking should possess the property of
+forming a uniform soft pulpy mass when boiled or baked. In their
+uncooked state they are not very digestible, but when cooked they form a
+very safe and useful food, exercising a gentle laxative influence.
+
+According to Hutchison their composition is as follows:--
+
+  +-------+-------+---------+--------+--------+------+--------+------+
+  |       |Water. | Proteid.| Ether  | Carbo- | Ash. | Cellu- |Acids.|
+  |       |       |         |Extract.|hydrate.|      |  lose. |      |
+  |       +-------+---------+--------|--------|------+--------+------+
+  | Fresh | 82.5  |   0.4   |  0.5   |  12.5  | 0.4  |  2.7   | 1.0  |
+  | Dried | 36.2  |   1.4   |  3.0   |  49.1  | 1.8  |  4.9   | 3.6  |
+  +-------+-------+---------+--------+--------+------+--------+------+
+
+Many exotic fruits, having nothing in common with the apple; are known
+by that name, e.g. the Balsam apple, _Momordica Balsamina_; the custard
+apple (q.v.), _Anona reticulata_; the egg apple, _Solanum esculentum_;
+the rose apple, various species of _Eugenia_; the pineapple (q.v.),
+_Ananas sativus_; the star apple, _Chrysophyllum Cainito_; and the
+apples of Sodom, _Solanum sodomeum_.     (A. B. R.)
+
+
+
+
+APPLEBY, a market town and municipal borough, and the county town of
+Westmorland, England, in the Appleby parliamentary division, 276 m.
+N.N.W. from London, on the Midland and a branch of the North Eastern
+railways. Pop. (1901) 1764. It is picturesquely placed in the valley of
+the Eden, which is richly wooded, and flanked on the north-east by spurs
+of Milburn Forest and Dufton and other fells, which rise up to 2600 ft.
+On a hill above the town stands the castle, retaining a fine Norman keep
+and surrounded by a double moat, now partly laid out as gardens. The
+remainder of the castle was rebuilt as a mansion in the 17th century. It
+was held for the royalists in the civil wars by Sir Philip Musgrave, and
+was the residence of Anne, countess of Pembroke, the last of the family
+of Clifford, which had great estates in this part of England. St Ann's
+hospital for thirteen poor women (1654) was of her foundation. The
+grammar school (1453) was refounded by Queen Elizabeth. The modern
+incorporation dates from 1885, with a mayor, four aldermen and twelve
+councillors. Area, 1876 acres.
+
+Appleby is not mentioned in any Saxon records, but after the Conquest it
+rose to importance as the head of the barony of Appleby which extended
+over the eastern portion of the present county of Westmorland. This
+barony formed part of the province of Carlisle granted by Henry I. to
+Ranulf Meschin, who erected the castle at Appleby and made it his place
+of residence. Appleby is a borough by prescription, and the old charter
+of incorporation, granted in the first year of James II., was very
+shortly abandoned. In 1292 we find the mayor and commonalty claiming the
+right to elect a coroner and to have tolls of markets and fairs. In 1685
+the governing body comprised a mayor, aldermen, a town clerk, burgesses
+of the common council, a coroner and subordinate officers. An undated
+charter from Henry II. conceding to the burgesses the customs of York,
+Was confirmed in 1 John, 16 Henry III., 14 Edward I., and 5 Edward III.
+John granted the borough to the burgesses for a fee-farm rent. The
+impoverishment caused by the Scottish raids led to its seizure by Edward
+II. for arrears of payment, but Edward III. restored it on the same
+terms as before. Henry VIII. reduced the fee-farm rent from 20 marks to
+2 marks, after an inquisition which found that Appleby was burnt by the
+Scots in 1388 and that part of it still lay in ruins. The town, however,
+never seems to have regained its prosperity, and 16th and 17th century
+writers speak of it as a poor and insignificant village. Appleby
+returned two members to parliament from 1295 until disfranchised by the
+Reform Act of 1832. The market and the St Lawrence fair are held by
+prescription. James I. granted an additional fair on the second Thursday
+in April. In the early 18th century Appleby was celebrated for the best
+corn-market in the country.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Westmorland_; W. Hewitson, _Appleby
+  Charters_ (Cumberl. and Westm. Antiq. and Archaeol. Soc.,
+  Transactions, xi. 279-285; Kendal, 1891).
+
+
+
+
+APPLETON, NATHAN (1770-1861) American merchant and politician, was born
+in New Ipswich, New Hampshire, on the 6th of October 1779. He was
+educated in the New Ipswich Academy, and in 1794 entered mercantile life
+in Boston, in the employment of his brother, Samuel (1766-1853), a
+successful and benevolent man of business, with whom he was in
+partnership from 1800 to 1809. He co-operated with Francis C. Lowell
+and others in introducing the power-loom and the manufacture of cotton
+on a large scale into the United States, a factory being established at
+Waltham, Massachusetts, in 1814, and another in 1822 at Lowell,
+Massachusetts, of which city he was one of the founders. He was a member
+of the general court of Massachusetts in 1816, 1821, 1822, 1824 and
+1827, and in 1831-1833 and 1842 of the national House of
+Representatives, in which he was prominent as an advocate of protective
+duties. He died in Boston on the 14th of July 1861.
+
+His son, THOMAS GOLD APPLETON (1812-1884), who graduated at Harvard in
+1831, had some reputation as a writer, an artist and a patron of the
+fine arts, but was better known for his witticisms, one of which, the
+oft-quoted "Good Americans, when they die, go to Paris," is sometimes
+attributed to Oliver Wendell Holmes. He published some poems and, in
+prose, _Nile Journal_ (1876), _Syrian Sunshine_ (1877), _Windfalls_
+(1878), and _Chequer-Work_ (1879).
+
+  See the memoir of Nathan Appleton by Robert C. Winthrop (Boston,
+  1861); and Susan Hale's _Life and Letters of Thomas Gold Appleton_
+  (New York, 1885).
+
+
+
+
+APPLETON, a city and the county-seat of Outagamie county, Wisconsin,
+U.S.A., on the lower Fox river, about 90 m. N. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890)
+11,869; (1900) 15,085, of whom 3605 were foreign-born; (1910, census)
+16,773. It is served by the Chicago & North-Western, and the Chicago,
+Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by steamboats on the Fox river, by
+means of which it meets lake transportation at De Pere and Green Bay.
+Appleton was one of the first cities in the United States to have an
+electric street railway line in operation; and electric street railways
+now traverse the entire Fox river valley as far as Fond du Lac on the
+south and Green Bay on the north. The city is attractively laid out on
+high bluffs above the river. It has several beautiful parks, two
+hospitals, a number of fine churches and school buildings, and a public
+library. The city is the seat of Lawrence college (changed from
+university in 1908), an interdenominational (originally a Methodist
+Episcopal) co-educational institution, founded in 1847 as the Lawrence
+Institute of Wisconsin and named in honour of Amos Adams Lawrence
+(1814-1886) of Boston, son of Amos Lawrence, and giver of $10,000 for
+the founding of the Institute. The college comprises an academy, a
+college of liberal arts, a school of expression, a school of commerce,
+schools of music and of art, and a school of correspondence; and in
+1907-1908 had 33 instructors, 575 students and a library of 24,400
+volumes. The Fox river furnishes about 10,000 h.p., which is largely
+utilized for the manufacture of paper (of which Appleton is one of the
+largest producers in the United States), wood-pulp, sulphite fibre,
+machinery, wire screens, woollen goods, knit goods, furniture, dyes and
+flour. The total value of factory products in 1905 was $6,672,457, an
+increase of 72.8% over the product value of 1900. Appleton was first
+permanently settled in 1833, and was named in honour of Samuel Appleton
+of Massachusetts, who owned part of the original town plot. It was
+incorporated as a village in 1853, and received in 1857 a city charter,
+which was revised in 1887 and in 1905.
+
+
+
+
+APPOGGIATURA (from Ital. _appoggiare_, to lean upon), a musical term for
+a melodic ornament, a grace-note prefixed to a principal note and
+printed in small character. The effect is to suspend the principal note,
+by taking away the time-value of the _appoggiatura_ prefixed to it.
+There are two kinds, the long _appoggiatura_, now usually printed as
+played, and the short, where the suspension of the principal note is
+scarcely perceptible; this is often called _acciatura_, a word properly
+applied to an ornament now obsolete, in which a principal note in a
+melody is struck together with the note immediately below, the lower
+note being at once released and the other held on.
+
+
+
+
+APPOINTMENT, POWER OF, in English law, an authority reserved by or
+limited to a person, to dispose, either wholly or partially, of real or
+personal property, either for his own benefit or for that of others.
+Thus if A settle property upon trustees to such uses as B shall by deed
+or will appoint and in default of and until such appointment to the use
+of C and his heirs, B, though he has no interest in the property, can at
+any time appoint the property to any one he pleases, including himself,
+and C's interest which has hitherto been vested in him will be divested.
+In the above case A is said to be the donor, B the donee, and the
+persons in whose favour the appointment is exercised are called the
+appointees. Such powers are either general or limited. A general power
+is one which the appointor may exercise in favour of any person he
+pleases. It is obvious that such a power is very nearly equivalent to
+ownership, and consequently property which is the subject of a general
+power has been made to share the liabilities of ownership. By the
+Judgments Act 1838 all hereditaments over which a judgment debtor has
+such a power may be seized by the sheriff under a writ of _elegit_, and
+by the Bankruptcy Act 1883 similar property will vest in the trustees of
+a bankrupt. By the Finance Act 1894 property of which the deceased had a
+general power of appointment is subject to the payment of estate duty,
+even though the power has not been exercised. A limited power is one
+which can only be exercised in favour of certain specified persons or
+classes; such a power is frequently inserted in marriage settlements in
+which after life estates to the husband and wife a power is given to
+appoint among the children of the marriage. In such a case no
+appointment to any one but children of the marriage is valid. Formerly
+it was held that the intention of the donor of such a power was that
+each of the class which are the objects of the power should take some
+part of the fund, and from this arose the equitable doctrine of illusory
+appointments, by which the courts of equity set aside an appointment
+which was good at law on the ground that a merely nominal share had been
+appointed to one of the objects. The great difficulty of deciding what
+was a nominal or illusory share caused the passing of the Illusory
+Appointments Act of 1830, whereby it was enacted that no appointment
+should be set aside merely on the ground that a share appointed was
+illusory. It was still necessary, however, that some share should be
+appointed to each object, and consequently it was possible in the
+popular phrase to be "cut off with a shilling," but now by the Powers
+Amendment Act 1874 the appointor is no longer obliged to appoint a share
+to each object of the power.
+
+It is a general rule that every circumstance required by the instrument
+creating the power to accompany the execution of it must be strictly
+observed. Thus it might be required that the appointment should be by an
+instrument witnessed by four witnesses, or that the consent in writing
+of some third party should be signified. The general rule, however, has
+been modified both by statute and by the rules of equity. By the Wills
+Act 1837 a will made pursuant to the requirements of that statute shall
+be a valid execution of a power of appointment by will, notwithstanding
+that some additional form or solemnity shall have been required by the
+instrument creating the power, and by the Wills Act 1861 a will made out
+of the United Kingdom by a British subject according to the forms
+required by the law of the place where the will was made shall, as
+regards personal estate, be held to be well executed and admitted to
+probate; consequently it has been held that an appointment made by such
+a will is a valid exercise of the power. As regards appointments by deed
+the Law of Property Amendment Act 1859 enacts that a deed attested by
+two witnesses shall, so far as execution and attestation go, be a valid
+exercise of a power to appoint by deed. The courts of equity also will
+interfere in some cases of defective execution in order to carry out the
+intentions of the settlor. The principle upon which the court acts is
+obscure, but the rule has been thus stated:--"Whenever a man having
+power over an estate, whether ownership or not, in discharge of moral or
+natural relations, shows an intention to execute such power, the court
+will operate upon the conscience of the heir (or of the persons entitled
+in default) to make him perfect this intention." Equity, however, only
+relieves against defects not of the essence of the power, such as the
+absence of seal or execution by will instead of deed, but where the
+defect is of the essence of the power, as where a consent is not
+obtained, equity will not assist, nor will it relieve where a power to
+appoint by will is purported to be exercised by deed. A power of
+appointment if exercised must be exercised bona fide, otherwise it will
+be void as fraudulent; thus it has been frequently decided that where a
+father, having a limited power of appointment among his children,
+appoints the whole fund to an infant child, who is in no need of the
+appointment and who is ill, in the expectation of the death of the child
+whereby the fund will come to him as next of kin, such appointment is
+void as a fraud upon the power. Where an execution is partly fraudulent
+and partly valid the court will, if possible, separate the two and only
+revoke that which is fraudulent; if, however, the two parts are not
+separable the whole is void. The same rule is applied in cases of
+excessive execution where the power is exercised in favour of persons
+some of whom are and some of whom are not objects of the power. The
+doctrine of _Election_ (q.v.) applies to appointments under powers, but
+there must be a gift of free and disposable property to the persons
+entitled in default of appointment.
+
+The appointment must in law be read into the instrument creating the
+power in lieu of the power itself. Thus an appointor under a limited
+power cannot appoint to any person to whom the donor could not have
+appointed by reason of the rule against perpetuities, but this is not so
+in the case of a general power, for there the appointor is virtually
+owner of the property appointed. In applying this rule to appointments a
+distinction arises between powers created by deed and will, for a deed
+speaks from the date of its execution but a will from the death of the
+testator, and so limitations bad when the will was made may have become
+good when it comes into operation. Since the Conveyancing Act 1881 all
+powers may be released by the donees thereof, unless the power is
+coupled with a trust in respect of which there is a duty cast on the
+donee to exercise it; and this is so even though the donee gets a
+benefit by such release as one entitled in default of appointment, for
+this is not a fraud upon the power.     (E. S. M. B.)
+
+
+
+
+APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE, a village of Appomattox county, Virginia,
+U.S.A., 25 m. E. of Lynchburg, in the S. part of the state. It is served
+by the Norfolk & Western railway. The village was the scene of the
+surrender of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia under General
+Robert E. Lee to the Federal forces under Lieutenant-General U.S. Grant
+on Sunday the 9th of April 1865. The terms were: "the officers to give
+their individual paroles not to take up arms against the government of
+the United States until properly exchanged, and each company or
+regimental commander to sign a like parole for the men of their
+commands," ... neither "side arms of the officers nor their private
+horses or baggage" to be surrendered; and, as many privates in the
+Confederate Army owned horses and mules, all horses and mules claimed by
+men in the Confederate Army to be left in their possession.
+
+
+
+
+APPONYI, ALBERT, COUNT (1846-   ), Hungarian statesman, the most
+distinguished member of an ancient noble family, dating back to the 13th
+century, and son of the chancellor Gyorgy Apponyi (1808-1899) and the
+accomplished and saintly Countess Julia Sztáray, was born at Pesth on
+the 29th of May 1846. Educated at the Jesuit seminary at Kalksburg and
+at the universities of Vienna and Pesth, a long foreign tour completed
+his curriculum, and at Paris he made the acquaintance of Montalembert, a
+kindred spirit, whose influence on the young Apponyi was permanent. He
+entered parliament in 1872 as a liberal Catholic, attaching himself at
+first to the Deák party; but the feudal and ultramontane traditions of
+his family circle profoundly modified, though they could never destroy,
+his popular ideals. On the break up of the Deák party he attached
+himself to the conservative group which followed Baron Pál Senynyey
+(1824-1888) and eventually became its leader. Until 1905 Count Albert
+was constantly in opposition, but in May of that year he consented to
+take office in the second Wekerle ministry. A lofty and magnetic orator,
+his speeches were published at Budapest in 1896; and he is the author of
+an interesting dissertation, _Esthetics and Politics, the Artist and the
+Statesman_ (Hung.) (Budapest, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+APPORTIONMENT (Fr. _apportionement;_ Med. Lat. _apportionamentum;_
+derived from Lat. portio, share), distribution or allotment in proper
+shares; a term used in law in a variety of senses, (1) Sometimes it is
+employed roughly and with no technical meaning to indicate the
+distribution of a benefit (e.g. salvage or damages under the Fatal
+Accidents Act 1846, § 2), or liability (e.g. general average
+contributions, or tithe rent-charge), or the incidence of a duty (e.g.
+obligations as to the maintenance of highways). (2) In its strict legal
+interpretation apportionment falls into two classes, "apportionment in
+respect of estate" and "apportionment in respect of time."
+
+1. _Apportionment in respect of Estate_ may result either from the act
+of the parties or from the operation of law. Where a lessee is evicted
+from, or surrenders or forfeits possession of part of the property
+leased to him, he becomes liable at common law to pay only a rent
+apportioned to the value of the interest which he still retains. So
+where the person entitled to the reversion of an estate assigns part of
+it, the right to an apportioned part of the rent incident to the whole
+reversion passes to his assignee. The lessee is not bound, however, by
+an apportionment of rent made upon the grant of part of the reversion
+unless it is made either with his consent or by the verdict of a jury.
+The assignee of the reversion of part of demised premises could not, at
+common law, re-enter for breach of a condition, inasmuch as a condition
+of re-entry in a lease could not at common law be apportioned. But this
+has now been altered by statute both in England (Law of Property
+Amendment Act 1859, § 3; Conveyancing Act 1881, § 12) and in many of the
+British colonies (e.g. Ontario, Rev. Stats., 1897, c. 170, § 9;
+Barbados, No. 12 of 1891, § 9). In the cases just mentioned there is
+apportionment in respect of estate by act of the parties.
+
+  _Apportionment by operation of law_ may be brought about where by act
+  of law a lease becomes inoperative as regards its subject-matter, or
+  by the "act of God" (as, for instance, where part of an estate is
+  submerged by the encroachments of the sea). To the same category
+  belongs the apportionment of rent which takes place under various
+  statutes (e.g. the Lands Clauses Consolidation Act 1845, § 119, when
+  land is required for public purposes; the Agricultural Holdings Act
+  1883, § 41, in the case of a tenant from year to year receiving notice
+  to quit part of a holding; and the Irish Land Act 1903, § 61,
+  apportionment of quit and crown rents).
+
+_2. Apportionment in respect of Time._--At common law, there was no
+apportionment of rent in respect of time. Such apportionment was,
+however, in ceftain cases allowed in England by the Distress for Rent
+Act 1737, and the Apportionment Act 1834, and is now allowed generally
+under the Apportionment Act 1870. Under that statute (§ 2) all rents,
+annuities, dividends and other periodical payments in the nature of
+income are to be considered as accruing from day to day and to be
+apportionable in respect of time accordingly. It is provided, however,
+that the apportioned part of such rents, &c., shall only be payable or
+recoverable in the case of a continuing payment, when the entire portion
+of which it forms part itself becomes payable, and, in the case of a
+payment determined by re-entry, death or otherwise, only when the next
+entire portion would have been payable if it had not so determined (§
+3). Persons entitled to apportioned parts of rent have the same remedies
+for recovering them when payable as they would have had in respect of
+the entire rent; but a lessee is not to be liable for any apportioned
+part specifically. The rent is recoverable by the heir or other person
+who would, but for the apportionment, be entitled to the entire rent,
+and he holds it subject to distribution (§ 4). The Apportionment Act
+1870 extends to payments not made under any instrument in writing (§ 2),
+but not to annual sums made payable in policies of insurance (§ 6).
+Apportionment under the act can be excluded by express stipulation.
+
+The apportionment created by this statute is "apportionment in respect
+of time." The cases to which it applies are mainly cases of either (A)
+apportionment of rent due under leases where at a time between the dates
+fixed for payment the lessor or lessee dies, or some other alteration in
+the position of parties occurs; or (B) apportionment of income between
+the representatives of a limited owner and the remainder-man when the
+limited interest determines at a time between the date when such income
+became due.
+
+  (A) With regard to the former of these classes, it may be noticed that
+  although apportioned rent becomes payable only when the whole rent is
+  due, the landlord, in the case of the bankruptcy of an ordinary
+  tenant, may prove for a proportionate part of the rent up to the date
+  of the receiving order (Bankruptcy Act 1883, Sched. ii. r. 19); and
+  that a similar rule holds good in the winding up of a company (_in re
+  South Kensington Co-operative Stores_, 1881, 17 Ch.D. 161); and
+  further that the act of 1870 applies to the liability to pay, as well
+  as to the right to receive, rent (_in re Wilson_, 1893, 62 L.J.Q.B.
+  628, 632). Accordingly where an assignment of a lease is made between
+  two half-yearly rent-days, the assignee is not liable to pay the full
+  amount of the half-year's rent falling due on the rent-day next after
+  the date of the assignment, but only an apportioned part of that
+  half-year's rent, computed from the last mentioned date (_Glass_ v.
+  _Patterson_, 1902, 2 Ir.R. 660).
+
+  (B) With regard to the apportionment of income, the only points
+  requiring notice here are that all dividends payable by public
+  companies are apportionable, whether paid at fixed periods or not,
+  unless the payment is, in effect, a payment of capital (§ 5).
+
+The Apportionment Act 1870 extends to Scotland and Ireland. It has been
+followed in many of the British colonies (e.g. Ontario, Rev. Stats.,
+1897, c. 170, §§ 4-8; New Zealand, No. 4 of 1886; Tasmania, No. 8 of
+1871; Barbados, No. 12 of 1891, §§ 9-12). Similar legislation has been
+adopted in many of the states of the American Union, where, as in
+England, rent was not, at common law, apportionable as to time (Kent,
+_Comm_. iii. 469-472).
+
+An _equitable apportionment_, apart from statute law, arises where
+property is bequeathed on trust to pay the income to a tenant for life
+and the reversion to others, and the realization of the property in the
+form of a fund capable of producing income is postponed for the benefit
+of the estate. In such cases there is an ultimate apportionment between
+the persons entitled to the income and those entitled to the capital of
+the accumulations for the period of such postponement. The rule followed
+is this: the proceeds, when realized, are apportionable between capital
+and income by ascertaining the sum which, put out and accumulated at 3%
+_per annum_ from the day of the testator's death (with yearly rents and
+deducting income tax) would have produced at the day of receipt the sum
+actually received. The sum so ascertained should be treated as capital
+and the residue as income. (_In re Earl of Chesterfield's Trusts_, 1883,
+24 Ch.D. 643; _In re Goodenough_, 1895, 2 Ch. 537; _Rowlls_ v. _Bebb_,
+1900, 2 Ch. 107.)
+
+  In addition to the authorities cited in the text, see Stroud, _Jud.
+  Dict._ (2nd ed., London, 1903), s.v. "Apportion"; Bouvier, _Law Dict._
+  (London and Boston, 1897), s.v. "Apportionment"; _Ruling Cases_
+  (London, 1895), tit. "Apportionment"; Fawcett, _Landlord and Tenant_
+  (London, 1905), pp. 238 et seq.; Foa, _Landlord and Tenant_ (3rd ed.,
+  London, 1901), pp. 112 et seq.     (A. W. R.)
+
+
+
+
+APPORTIONMENT BILL, an act passed by the Congress of the United States
+after each decennial census to determine the number of members which
+each state shall send to the House of Representatives. The ratio of
+representation fixed by the original constitution was 1 to 30,000 of the
+free population, and the number of the members of the first House was
+65. As the House would, at this ratio, have become unmanageably large,
+the ratio, which is first settled by Congress before apportionment, has
+been raised after each census, as will be seen from the accompanying
+table.
+
+  +-----------------+-------------------+------+---------+-----------+
+  |                 |       Census      |  Apportionment |   Whole   |
+  |     Under       +------+------------+------+---------+ Number of |
+  |                 | Year | Population | Year |   Ratio | Represe-  |
+  |                 |      |            |      |         | ntatives  |
+  +-----------------+------+------------+------+---------+-----------+
+  | Constitution    |  ··  |     ··     | 1789 |  30,000 |     65    |
+  | First Census    | 1790 |  3,929,214 | 1793 |  33,000 |    105    |
+  | Second Census   | 1800 |  5,308,483 | 1803 |  33,000 |    141    |
+  | Third Census    | 1810 |  7,239,881 | 1813 |  35,000 |    181    |
+  | Fourth Census   | 1820 |  9,633,822 | 1823 |  40,000 |    213    |
+  | Fifth Census    | 1830 | 12,866,020 | 1833 |  47,700 |    240    |
+  | Sixth Census    | 1840 | 17,069,453 | 1843 |  70,680 |    223    |
+  | Seventh Census  | 1850 | 23,191,876 | 1853 |  93,423 |    234    |
+  | Eighth Census   | 1860 | 31,443,321 | 1863 | 127,381 |    241    |
+  | Ninth Census    | 1870 | 38,558,371 | 1873 | 131,425 |    292    |
+  | Tenth Census    | 1880 | 50,155,783 | 1883 | 151,911 |    325    |
+  | Eleventh Census | 1890 | 62,622,250 | 1893 | 173,901 |    356    |
+  | Twelfth Census  | 1900 | 75,568,686 | 1903 | 194,182 |    386    |
+  +-----------------+------+------------+------+---------+-----------+
+
+The same term is applied to the acts passed by the state legislatures
+for correcting and redistributing the representation of the counties.
+Such acts are usually passed at decennial intervals, more often after
+the federal census, but the dates may vary in different states. The
+state representatives are usually apportioned among the several counties
+according to population and not by geographical position. The electoral
+districts so formed are expected to be equal in proportion to the number
+of inhabitants; but this method has led to much abuse in the past,
+through the making of unequal districts for partisan purposes. (See
+GERRYMANDER.)
+
+If a state has received an increase in the number of its representatives
+and its legislature does not pass an apportionment bill before the next
+congressional election, the votes of the whole state elect the
+additional members on a general ticket and they are called
+"congressmen-at-large."
+
+
+
+
+APPRAISER (from Lat. _appretiare_, to value), one who sets a value upon
+property, real or personal. In England the business of an appraiser is
+usually combined with that of an auctioneer, while the word itself has
+given place, to a great extent, to that of "valuer." (See the articles
+AUCTIONS AND AUCTIONEERS, and VALUATION AND VALUERS.)
+
+In the United States appraiser is a term often used to describe a person
+specially appointed by a judicial or quasi-judicial authority to put a
+valuation on property, e.g. on the items of an inventory of the estate
+of a deceased person or on land taken for public purposes by the right
+of eminent domain. Appraisers of imported goods and boards of general
+appraisers have extensive functions in administering the customs laws of
+the United States. Merchant appraisers are sometimes appointed
+temporarily under the revenue laws to value where there is no resident
+appraiser without holding the office of appraiser (U.S. Rev. Stats. §
+2609).
+
+
+
+
+APPREHENSION (Lat. _ad_, to; _prehendere_, to seize), in psychology, a
+term applied to a mode of consciousness in which nothing is affirmed or
+denied of the object in question, but the mind is merely aware of
+("seizes") it. "Judgment" (says Reid, ed. Hamilton, i. p. 414) "is an
+act of the mind specifically different from simple apprehension or the
+bare conception of a thing"; and again, "Simple apprehension or
+conception can neither be true nor false." This distinction provides for
+the large class of mental acts in which we are simply aware of or "take
+in" a number of familiar objects, about which we in general make no
+judgment unless our attention is suddenly called by a new feature. Or
+again two alternatives may be apprehended without any resultant judgment
+as to their respective merits. Similarly G.F. Stout points out that
+while we have a very vivid idea of a character or an incident in a work
+of fiction, we can hardly be said in any real sense to have any belief
+or to make any judgment as to its existence or truth. With this mental
+state may be compared the purely aesthetic contemplation of music,
+wherein apart from, say, a false note, the faculty of judgment is for
+the time inoperative. To these examples may be added the fact that one
+can fully understand an argument in all its bearings without in any way
+judging its validity.
+
+Without going into the question fully, it may be pointed out that the
+distinction between judgment and apprehension is relative. In every kind
+of thought there is judgment of some sort in a greater or less degree of
+prominence. Judgment and thought are in fact psychologically
+distinguishable merely as different, though correlative, activities of
+consciousness. Professor Stout further investigates the phenomena of
+apprehension, and comes to the conclusion that "it is possible to
+distinguish and identify a whole without apprehending any of its
+constituent details." On the other hand, if the attention focuses
+itself for a time on the apprehended object, there is an expectation
+that such details will as it were emerge into consciousness. Hence he
+describes such apprehension as "implicit," and in so far as the implicit
+apprehension determines the order of such emergence he describes it as
+"schematic." A good example of this process is the use of formulae in
+calculations; ordinarily the formula is used without question; if
+attention is fixed upon it, the steps by which it is shown to be
+universally applicable emerge and the "schema" is complete in detail.
+
+With this result may be compared Kant's theory of apprehension as a
+synthetic act (the "synthesis of apprehension") by which the sensory
+elements of a perception are subjected to the formal conditions of time
+and space.
+
+  See G.F. Stout, _Analytic Psychology_ (London, 1896); F. Brentano,
+  _Psychologie_ (bk. ii. ch. vii.), and _Vom Ursprung sittlicher
+  Erkenntnis_; B. Titchener, _Outlines of Psychology_ (New York, 1902),
+  and text-books of psychology. Also PSYCHOLOGY.
+
+
+
+
+APPRENTICESHIP (from Fr. _apprendre_, to learn), a contract whereby one
+person, called the master, binds himself to teach, and another, called
+the apprentice, undertakes to learn, some trade or profession, the
+apprentice serving his master for a certain time.
+
+Roman law is silent on the subject on this contract, nor does it seem to
+have had any connexion with the division of the Roman citizens into
+tribes or colleges. So far as can be seen it arose in the middle ages,
+and formed an integral part of the system of trade gilds and
+corporations by which skilled labourers of all kinds sought protection
+against the feudal lords, and the maintenance of those exclusive
+privileges with which in the interests of the public they were favoured.
+In those times it was believed that neither arts nor sciences would
+flourish unless such only were allowed to practise them as had given
+proofs of reasonable proficiency and were formed into bodies corporate,
+with certain powers of self-government and the exclusive monopoly of
+their respective arts within certain localities; and the medieval
+_universitas_ (corporation)--whether of smiths and tailors or of
+scholars--included both such as were entitled to practise and teach and
+such as were in course of learning. The former were the masters, the
+latter the apprentices. Hence the term _apprentice_ was applied
+indifferently to such as were being taught a trade or a learned
+profession, and even to undergraduates or scholars who were qualifying
+themselves for the degree of doctor or master in the liberal arts. When
+barristers were first appointed by Edward I. of England they were styled
+_apprenticii ad legem_--the serjeants-at-law being _servientes ad
+legem_; and these two terms corresponded respectively to the trade names
+of apprentices and journeymen. During the middle ages the term of
+apprenticeship was seven years, and this period was thought no more than
+sufficient to instruct the learner in his profession, craft or mystery
+under a properly qualified master, teacher or doctor--for these names
+were synonymous--and to reimburse the latter by service for the training
+received. After this the apprentice became himself a master and a member
+of the corporation, with full rights to practise the business and to
+teach others in his turn; so also it would seem that undergraduates had
+to pass through a curriculum of seven years before they could attain the
+degree of doctor or master in the liberal arts. On the continent of
+Europe these rules were observed with considerable rigour, both in the
+learned professions and in those which we now designate as trades. In
+England they made their way more slowly and did not receive much
+countenance, there being always a jealousy of anything savouring of
+interference with the freedom of trade. Nevertheless the formation of
+gilds and companies of tradesmen in England dates probably from the 12th
+century, and the institution of apprenticeships cannot be of much later
+date. In 1388 and 1405 it is noticed in acts of parliament. By various
+subsequent statutes provisions were made for the regulation of the
+institution, and from them it appears that seven years was its ordinary
+and normal term in the absence of special arrangement. By a statute of
+1562 this was made the law of the land, and it was enacted that no
+person should exercise any "trade or mystery" without having served a
+seven years' apprenticeship. In no place did the apprentices become so
+formidable by their numbers and organization as in London. During the
+Great Rebellion they took an active part as a political body, and were
+conspicuous after the Restoration by being frequently engaged in
+tumults. It was probably owing to this circumstance, quite as much as to
+economic considerations of freedom of trade, that the act of Elizabeth
+never found much favour with the courts of law. Soon after the Great
+Rebellion we find the apprentice laws strongly reprobated by the judges,
+who endeavoured, on the theory that the act of Elizabeth could apply to
+no trades which were not in existence at its date, to limit its
+operation as far as possible. Such limitation of the act gave rise to
+many absurd anomalies and inconsistencies, e.g. that a coachmaker could
+not make his own wheels but must buy them of a wheelwright, while the
+latter might make both wheels and coaches, because coach-making was not
+a trade in England when the act of Elizabeth was passed. For the like
+reason the great textile and metal manufactures which arose at
+Manchester and Birmingham were held exempt from the operation of the
+statute. Concurrently with the dislike to the apprentice laws which such
+anomalies generated, the doctrines of Adam Smith, that all monopolies or
+restrictions on the freedom of trade were injurious to the public
+interest, had gradually been making their way, and notwithstanding much
+opposition an act was passed in 1814 by which the statute of Elizabeth,
+in so far as it enacts that no person shall engage in any trade without
+a seven years' apprenticeship, was wholly repealed. The effect of this
+act was to give every person the fullest right to exercise any
+occupation or calling of a mechanical or trading kind for which he
+deemed himself qualified.
+
+Apprenticeship, therefore, which was formerly a compulsory, now became a
+voluntary contract. In the case of the learned professions the
+principles and theories which gave birth to corporations with
+monopolies, and required apprenticeship or its equivalents,
+have--contrary to what has taken place in trade--been not only
+maintained but intensified; that is to say, not only have such bodies
+retained and even extended in some cases their exclusive privileges, but
+in general no one is allowed to practise in such professions unless his
+capabilities have been tested and approved by public authority. Thus no
+man is allowed to practise law or medicine in any of their branches who
+has not undergone the appropriate training by attendance at a university
+or by apprenticeship--sometimes by both combined--and passed certain
+examinations. Entrance to the church is guarded by similar checks. In
+such instances the old principle--now generally abandoned in trade--of
+granting a monopoly to those possessing a certain standard of
+qualification is maintained in greater vigour than ever.
+
+In some kinds of manufacture the old conditions have been modified by
+the subdivisions of labour or by the introduction of machinery, which
+have reduced the amount of skill which formerly was requisite, and thus
+they have passed out of the category of the higher skilled handicrafts,
+as only a very slight or short training is necessary to make an
+efficient worker; but a large number of the higher skilled trades remain
+which require a long period of training at the bench, and a careful
+inquiry into this subject has shown that in nearly all of such trades
+there is a scarcity of skilled workers, which is due to the falling off
+in the number of apprenticeships. Many persons qualified to form an
+opinion deplore that something in the nature of the old standard of
+qualification is not still applied to those trades, and consider that
+the only method of restoring a high standard of skill is by
+apprenticeship. The decay of apprenticeship in these trades is due, not
+to any inherent defect in the system, nor to its having been superseded
+by any other form of technical education, but to difficulties,
+especially in London and some other large towns, which place it beyond
+the reach of that class of persons who have the greatest need of it.
+Among these difficulties are:--first, insufficient organization, and
+secondly, want of funds to pay premiums where such are required. These
+difficulties are accentuated in London and some other large towns, but
+in many other districts apprenticeship is actively proceeded with.
+Efforts are being made, notably by the National Institution of
+Apprenticeship, to meet these difficulties. The Charity Commissioners in
+their report for 1905 recognized the value of this institution, and
+stated that they would in future enable the trustees of charity
+endowments for apprenticeship to avail themselves of the practical
+co-operation of the institution. The modern trade unions, on the other
+hand, have done nothing to assist in restoring apprenticeship to its
+proper place; on the contrary, they have hampered it by restrictions
+which they have imposed, limiting the number of apprentices who may be
+taken. The result of fewer apprentices has been not only to lower the
+standard of skill in the higher trades, but to reduce the productive
+capacity of the artisans. The altered conditions now attending
+apprenticeship are, mainly, that the apprentice does not live with the
+master, and that the term is generally five years instead of a longer
+period; but the principle remains precisely the same, and the fact that
+it is applied more and more largely in Austria, Germany and other
+countries is an evidence of its necessity.
+
+The contract of apprenticeship is generally created by indenture, but
+any writing properly expressed and attested will do. The full
+consideration must be set out, and the instrument, whether a premium is
+paid or not, must be duly stamped, except in the case of parish
+apprentices and apprentices to the sea service (see SEAMEN, LAWS
+RELATING TO). Where a charity or institution intervenes, it retains
+control over the indentures until the end of the term of apprenticeship,
+when the indenture should be cancelled and given up to the apprentice.
+Any one who is capable of making a contract can take an apprentice, and
+the law does not limit the number which may be taken by any master. Any
+person of legal capacity can bind himself as an apprentice, provided he
+is over seven years of age, though, as he is by the common law exempt
+from all liability _ex contractu_, it is usual for the apprentice's
+relations or friends to become bound for his service and good conduct
+during the period of his apprenticeship. The consent of the apprentice,
+however, must be expressed by his executing the indenture. No child
+under nine can be bound as a parish apprentice. The master must teach
+the apprentice the agreed trade or trades; should the master exercise
+two trades (which he has agreed to teach) and give up one, it would be
+good ground for dissolving the contract by the apprentice. An apprentice
+is not bound to work on Sundays, but he may be required to work on bank
+holidays. He cannot become a volunteer (soldier) without his master's
+consent. It is usual in the indenture to state whether the apprentice is
+to be paid wages or otherwise. If the contract is to pay wages, no
+deduction can be made owing to illness or accident, unless it has been
+so provided for in the indentures. Nor is the apprentice liable for
+breakages or similar faults. The master has been supposed to have a
+right to administer moderate corporal punishment, though he may not
+delegate it. But this right is really obsolete. According to old custom
+a master provided proper food for his apprentices, and medical
+attendance when required; but the modern practice is for apprentices to
+reside with their parents or friends who maintain them. A master cannot
+assign indentures without the approval of the apprentice or such parties
+as are named in the contract for this purpose, even if he should
+transfer his business. The contract of apprenticeship may be dissolved
+by (1) efflux of time; (2) by death (if the master dies, some part of
+the premium is usually returnable, but if the apprentice dies no part is
+returnable); (3) by consent; (4) in case of grave misconduct; (5) under
+the Bankruptcy Act 1883, providing for discharge of the indentures of
+apprenticeship and for payment on account of premium. Disputes between
+master and apprentice, in cases where no premium has been paid, or where
+the premium does not exceed £25, are dealt with by courts of summary
+jurisdiction. Apprentices bound according to the "custom of London," who
+are infants above the age of fourteen years and under twenty-one and
+unmarried, are responsible upon covenants contained in indentures
+executed by them just as if they were of full age. The term of
+apprenticeship is usually not less than four years. Apprentices by the
+custom of London in agreements made at the Guildhall are subject to the
+jurisdiction of the chamberlain of London.
+
+Parish apprentices are those bound out by guardians of the poor in
+England. By the Poor Relief Act 1601, overseers of the poor were
+empowered, with the consent of two justices, to put out poor children as
+apprentices "where they shall be convenient." Owing to the
+disinclination to receive such apprentices it became necessary to make
+the reception compulsory (1696), but this compulsion to receive them was
+abolished in 1844. Many statutes have been passed from time to time
+regulating the apprenticing of parish children, but it is now under the
+control of the Local Government Board, which issues rules specifying
+fully the manner in which such children are to be bound, assigned and
+maintained.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--See E. Austin, _Law Relating to Apprentices_ (1890);
+  Addison, _On Contracts_ (1905). For the state of apprenticeship in
+  European countries, and, more particularly in France, see
+  _Apprentissage, enquête et documents_ (Paris, 1904, Conseil Supérieur
+  du Travail, Ministère du Commerce, de l'Industrie, des Postes et des
+  Télégraphes, session de 1902). See also the literature issued by the
+  National Institution of Apprenticeship, London.     (J. S. B.)
+
+
+
+
+APPROPRIATION (from Lat. _appropriare_, to set aside), the act of
+setting apart and applying to a particular use to the exclusion of all
+other. In ecclesiastical law, appropriation is the perpetual annexation
+of an ecclesiastical benefice to the use of some spiritual corporation,
+either aggregate or sole. In the middle ages in England the custom grew
+up of the monasteries reserving to their own use the greater part of the
+tithes of their appropriated benefices, leaving only a small portion to
+their vicars in the parishes. On the dissolution of the monasteries
+these "great tithes" were often granted, with the monastic lands, to
+laymen, whose successors, known as "lay impropriators" or "lay rectors,"
+still hold them, the system being known as _impropriation_.
+Appropriation may be severed and the church become disappropriate, by
+the presentation of a clerk, properly instituted and inducted, or by the
+dissolution of the corporation possessing the benefice.
+
+In the law of debtor and creditor, appropriation of payments is the
+application of a particular payment for the purpose of paying a
+particular debt. When a creditor has two debts due to him from the same
+debtor on distinct accounts, the general law as to the appropriation of
+payments made by the debtor is that the debtor is entitled to apply the
+payments to such account as he thinks fit; _solvitur in modum
+solventis_. In default of appropriation by the debtor the creditor is
+entitled to determine the application of the sums paid, and may
+appropriate them even to the discharge of debts barred by the Statute of
+Limitations. In default of appropriation by either debtor or creditor,
+the law implies an appropriation of the earlier payments to the earlier
+debts.
+
+In constitutional law, appropriation is the assignment of money for a
+special purpose. In the United Kingdom an Appropriation Bill is a bill
+passed at the end of each session of parliament, enumerating the money
+grants made during the session, and appropriating the various sums, as
+voted by committee of supply, to the various purposes for which it is to
+be applied. The United States constitution (art. I. § 9) says: "No money
+shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations
+made by law." Bills for appropriating money originate in the House of
+Representatives, but may be amended in the Senate.
+
+
+
+
+APPURTENANCES (from late Lat. _appertinentia_, from _appertinere_, to
+appertain), a legal term for what belongs to and goes with something
+else, the accessories or things usually conjoined with the substantive
+matter in question.
+
+
+
+
+APRAKSIN, THEDOR MATVYEEVICH (1671-1728), Russian soldier, began life as
+one of the pages of Tsar Theodore III., after whose death he served the
+little tsar Peter in the same capacity. The playfellowship of the two
+lads resulted in a lifelong friendship. In his twenty-first year
+Apraksin was appointed governor of Archangel, then the most important
+commercially of all the Russian provinces, and built ships capable of
+weathering storms, to the great delight of the tsar. He won his
+colonelcy at the siege of Azov (1696). In 1700 he was appointed chief of
+the admiralty, in which post (from 1700 to 1706) his unusual technical
+ability was of great service. While Peter was combating Charles XII.,
+Apraksin was constructing fleets, building fortresses and havens
+(Taganrog). In 1707 he was transferred to Moscow. In 1708 he was
+appointed commander-in-chief in Ingria, to defend the new capital
+against the Swedes, whom he utterly routed, besides capturing Viborg in
+Carelia. He held the chief command in the Black Sea during the campaign
+of the Pruth (1711), and in 1713 materially assisted the conquest of
+Finland by his operations from the side of the sea. In 1710-1720 he
+personally conducted the descents upon Sweden, ravaging that country
+mercilessly, and thus extorting the peace of Nystad, whereby she
+surrendered the best part of her Baltic provinces to Russia. For these
+great services he was made a senator and admiral-general of the empire.
+His last expedition was to Reval in 1726, to cover the town from an
+anticipated attack by the English government, with whom the relations of
+Russia at the beginning of the reign of Catharine I. were strained
+almost to breaking-point. Though frequently threatened with terrible
+penalties by Peter the Great for his incurable vice of peculation,
+Apraksin, nevertheless, contrived to save his head, though not his
+pocket, chiefly through the mediation of the good-natured empress,
+Catharine, who remained his friend to the last, and whom he assisted to
+place on the throne on the death of Peter. Apraksin was the most genial
+and kind-hearted of all Peter's pupils. He is said to have never made an
+enemy. He died on the 10th of November 1728.
+
+  See R. Nisbet Bain, _The Pupils of Peter the Great_ (London, 1897).
+       (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+APRICOT (from the Lat. _praecox_, or _praecoquus_, ripened early,
+_coquere_, to cook, or ripen; the English form, formerly "apricock" and
+"abrecox," comes through the Fr. _abricot_, from the Span.
+_albaricoque_, which was an adaptation of the Arabic _al-burquk_, itself
+a rendering of the late Gr. [Greek: prekokkia] or [Greek: praikokion],
+adapted from the Latin; the derivation from _in aprico cactus_ is a mere
+guess), the fruit of _Prunus armeniaca_, also called _Armeniaca
+vulgaris_. Under the former name it is regarded as a species of the
+genus to which the plums belong, the latter establishes it as a distinct
+genus of the natural order _Rosaceae_. The apricot is, like the plum, a
+stone fruit, cultivated generally throughout temperate regions, and used
+chiefly in the form of preserves and in tarts. The tree has long been
+cultivated in _Armenia_ (hence the name _Armeniaca_); it is a native of
+north China and other parts of temperate Asia. It flowers very early in
+the season, and is a hardy tree, but the fruit will scarcely ripen in
+Britain unless the tree is trained against a wall. A great number of
+varieties of the apricot, as of most cultivated fruits, are
+distinguished by cultivators. The kernels of several varieties are
+edible, and in Egypt those of the Musch-Musch variety form a
+considerable article of commerce. The French liqueur _Eau de noyaux_ is
+prepared from bitter apricot kernels. Large quantities of fruit are
+imported from France into the United Kingdom.
+
+The apricot is propagated by budding on the mussel or common plum stock.
+The tree succeeds in good well-drained loamy soil, rather light than
+heavy. It is usually grown as a wall tree, the east and west aspects
+being preferred to the south, which induces mealiness in the fruit,
+though in Scotland the best aspects are necessary. The most usual and
+best mode of training is the fan method. The fruit is produced on shoots
+of the preceding year, and on small close spurs formed on the
+two-year-old wood. The trees should be planted about 20 ft. apart. The
+summer pruning should begin early in June, at which period all the
+irregular foreright and useless shoots are pinched off; and, shortly
+afterwards, those which remain are fastened to the wall. At the winter
+pruning all branches not duly furnished with spurs and fruit buds are
+removed. The young bearing shoots are moderately pruned at the points,
+care being, however, taken to leave a terminal shoot or leader to each
+branch. The most common error in the pruning of apricots is laying in
+the bearing shoots too thickly; the branches naturally diverge in fan
+training, and when they extend so as to be about 15 in. apart, a fresh
+branch should be laid in, to be again subdivided as required. The
+blossoms of the apricot open early in spring, but are more hardy than
+those of the peach; the same means of protection when necessary may be
+employed for both. If the fruit sets too numerously, it is thinned out
+in June and in the beginning of July, the later thinnings being used for
+tarts. In the south of England, where the soil is suitable, the hardier
+sorts of apricot, as the Breda and Brussels, bear well as standard trees
+in favourable seasons. In such cases the trees may be planted from 20 to
+25 ft. apart.
+
+The ripening of the fruit of the apricot is accelerated by culture under
+glass, the trees being either planted out like peaches or grown in pots
+on the orchard-house system. They must be very gently excited, since
+they naturally bloom when the spring temperature is comparatively low.
+At first a maximum of 40° only must be permitted; after two or three
+weeks it may be raised to 45°, and later on to 50° and 55°, and thus
+continued till the trees are in flower, air being freely admitted, and
+the minimum or night temperature ranging from 40° to 45°. After the
+fruit is set the temperature should be gradually raised, being kept
+higher in clear weather than in dull. When the fruit has stoned, the
+temperature may be raised to 60° or 65° by day and 60° by night; and for
+ripening off it may be allowed to reach 70° or 80° by sun heat.
+
+The Moorpark is one of the best and most useful sorts in cultivation,
+and should be planted for all general purposes; the Peach is a very
+similar variety, not quite identical; and the Hemskerk is also similar,
+but hardier. The Large Early, which ripens in the end of July and
+beginning of August, and the Kaisha, a sweet-kernelled variety, which
+ripens in the middle of August, are also to be recommended. For standard
+trees in favourable localities the Breda and Brussels may be added.
+
+
+
+
+APRIES ([Greek: Apries]), the name by which Herodotus (ii. 161) and
+Diodorus (i. 68) designate _Uehabre'_, [Greek: Onaphres]
+(Pharaoh-Hophra), the fourth king (counting from Psammetichus I.) of the
+twenty-sixth Egyptian dynasty. He reigned from 589 to 570 B.C. See EGYPT
+and AMASIS.
+
+
+
+
+APRIL, the second month of the ancient Roman, and the fourth of the
+modern calendar, containing thirty days. The derivation of the name is
+uncertain. The traditional etymology from Lat. _aperire_, "to open," in
+allusion to its being the season when trees and flowers begin to "open,"
+is supported by comparison with the modern Greek use of [Greek: anoixis]
+(opening) for spring. This seems very possible, though, as all the Roman
+months were named in honour of divinities, and as April was sacred to
+Venus, the _Festum Veneris et Fortunae Virilis_ being held on the first
+day, it has been suggested that Aprilis was originally her month
+Aphrilis, from her Greek name Aphrodite. Jacob Grimm suggests the name
+of a hypothetical god or hero, _Aper_ or _Aprus_. On the fourth and the
+five following days, games (_Ludi Megalenses_) were celebrated in honour
+of Cybele; on the fifth there was the _Festum Fortunae Publicae_; on the
+tenth (?) games in the circus, and on the nineteenth equestrian combats,
+in honour of Ceres; on the twenty-first--which was regarded as the
+birthday of Rome--the _Vinalia urbana_, when the wine of the previous
+autumn was first tasted; on the twenty-fifth, the _Robigalia_, for the
+averting of mildew; and on the twenty-eighth and four following days,
+the riotous _Floralia_. The Anglo-Saxons called April _Oster-monath_ or
+_Eostur-monath_, the period sacred to _Eostre_ or _Ostara_, the pagan
+Saxon goddess of spring, from whose name is derived the modern Easter.
+St George's day is the twenty-third of the month; and St Mark's Eve,
+with its superstition that the ghosts of those who are doomed to die
+within the year will be seen to pass into the church, falls on the
+twenty-fourth. In China the symbolical ploughing of the earth by the
+emperor and princes of the blood takes place in their third month, which
+frequently corresponds to our April; and in Japan the feast of Dolls is
+celebrated in the same month. The "days of April" (_journées d'avril_)
+is a name appropriated in French history to a series of insurrections at
+Lyons, Paris and elsewhere, against the government of Louis Philippe in
+1834, which led to violent repressive measures, and to a famous trial
+known as the _procès d'avril_.
+
+  See Chambers's _Book of Days_; Grimm's _Geschichte der deutschen
+  Sprache_. Cap. "Monate"; also APRIL-FOOLS' DAY.
+
+
+
+
+APRIL-FOOLS' DAY, or ALL-FOOLS' DAY, the name given to the 1st of April
+in allusion to the custom of playing practical jokes on friends and
+neighbours on that day, or sending them on fools' errands. The origin of
+this custom has been much disputed, and many ludicrous solutions have
+been suggested, e.g. that it is a farcical commemoration of Christ being
+sent from Annas to Caiaphas, from Caiaphas to Pilate, from Pilate to
+Herod, and from Herod back again to Pilate, the crucifixion having taken
+place about the 1st of April. What seems certain is that it is in some
+way or other a relic of those once universal festivities held at the
+vernal equinox, which, beginning on old New Year's day, the 25th of
+March, ended on the 1st of April. This view gains support from the fact
+that the exact counterpart of April-fooling is found to have been an
+immemorial custom in India. The festival of the spring equinox is there
+termed the feast of Huli, the last day of which is the 31st of March,
+upon which the chief amusement is the befooling of people by sending
+them on fruitless errands. It has been plausibly suggested that Europe
+derived its April-fooling from the French. They were the first nation to
+adopt the reformed calendar, Charles IX. in 1564 decreeing that the year
+should begin with the 1st of January. Thus the New Year's gifts and
+visits of felicitation which had been the feature of the 1st of April
+became associated with the first day of January, and those who disliked
+the change were fair butts for those wits who amused themselves by
+sending mock presents and paying calls of pretended ceremony on the 1st
+of April. Though the 1st of April appears to have been anciently
+observed in Great Britain as a general festival, it was apparently not
+until the beginning of the 18th century that the making of April-fools
+was a common custom. In Scotland the custom was known as "hunting the
+gowk," i.e. the cuckoo, and April-fools were "April-gowks," the cuckoo
+being there, as it is in most lands, a term of contempt. In France the
+person befooled is known as _poisson d'avril_. This has been explained
+from the association of ideas arising from the fact that in April the
+sun quits the zodiacal sign of the fish. A far more natural explanation
+would seem to be that the April fish would be a young fish and therefore
+easily caught.
+
+
+
+
+A PRIORI (Lat. a, from, _prior, prius_, that which is before, precedes),
+(1) a phrase used popularly of a judgment based on general
+considerations in the absence of particular evidence; (2) a logical term
+first used, apparently, by Albert of Saxony (14th century), though the
+theory which it denotes is as old as Aristotle. In the order of human
+knowledge the particular facts of experience come first and are the
+basis of generalized laws or causes (the Scholastic _notiora nobis_);
+but in the order of nature the latter rank first as the self-existent,
+fundamental truths of existence (_notiora naturae_). Thus to Aristotle
+the _a priori_ argument is from law or cause to effect, as opposed to
+what we call _a posteriori_ (_posterior_, subsequent, derived), from
+effect to cause. Since Kant the two phrases have become purely
+adjectival (instead of adverbial) with a technical controversial sense,
+closely allied to the Aristotelian, in relation to knowledge and
+judgments generally. _A priori_ is applied to judgments which are
+regarded as independent of experience, and belonging to the essence of
+thought; _a posteriori_ to those which are derived from particular
+observations. The distinction is analogous to that between analysis and
+synthesis, deduction and induction (but there may be a synthesis of _a
+priori_ judgments, cf. Kant's "Synthetic Judgment _a priori_"). Round
+this distinction a rather barren controversy has raged, and almost all
+modern philosophers have labelled themselves either "Intuitionalist" (_a
+priori_) or "Empiricist" (_a posteriori_) according to the view they
+take of knowledge. In fact, however, the rival schools are generally
+arguing at cross purposes; there is a knowledge based on particulars,
+and also a knowledge of laws or causes. But the two work in different
+spheres, and are complementary. The observation of isolated particulars
+gives not necessity, but merely strong probability; necessity is purely
+intellectual or "transcendental." If the empiricist denies the
+intellectual element in scientific knowledge, he must not claim absolute
+validity for his conclusions; but he may hold against the intuitionalist
+that absolute laws are impossible to the human intellect. On the other
+hand, pure _a priori_ knowledge can be nothing more than form without
+content (e.g. formal logic, the laws of thought). The simple fact at the
+bottom of the controversy is that in all empirical knowledge there is an
+intellectual element, without which there is no correlation of empirical
+data, and every judgment, however simple, postulates a correlation of
+some sort if only that between the predicate and its contradictory.
+
+
+
+
+APRON (a corruption arising from a wrong division of "a napron" into "an
+apron," from the Fr. _naperon, napperon_, a diminutive of _nappe_, Lat.
+_mappa_, a napkin), an article of costume used to protect the front of
+the clothes. It forms part of the ceremonial dress of Freemasons. The
+"apron" worn by church dignitaries is a shortened cassock (q.v.). The
+word has many technical uses, as for the protecting slope in front of
+the sill of dock-gates, or at the foot of weirs.
+
+
+
+
+APSARAS, in Hindu mythology, a female spirit of the clouds and waters.
+In the Rig-Veda there is one Apsaras, wife of Gandharva; in the later
+scriptures there are many Apsaras who act as the handmaidens of Indra
+and dance before his throne. They are able to change their form, and
+specially rule over the fortunes of gaming. One of their duties is to
+guide to paradise the heroes who fall in battle, whose wives they then
+become. They are distinguished as _daivika_ ("divine") or _laukika_
+("worldly").
+
+
+
+
+APSE (Gr. [Greek: apsis], a fastening, especially the felloe of a wheel;
+Lat. _absis_), in architecture, a semicircular recess covered with a
+hemispherical vault. The term is applied also to the termination to the
+choir, transept or aisle of any church which is either semicircular or
+polygonal in plan, whether vaulted or covered with a timber roof; a
+church is said to be "apsidal" when it terminates in an apse.
+
+The earliest example of an apse is found in the temple of Mars Ultor at
+Rome (2 B.C.), and it formed afterwards the favourite feature
+terminating the rear of any temple, and one which gave importance to the
+statue of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated. Its use by the
+Romans was not confined to the temples, as it is found in the palaces on
+the Palatine Hill, the great Thermae (Baths) and other monuments. In the
+civil basilicas the apse was screened off by columns, and constituted
+the court of justice. In the Ulpian (Trajan's) Basilica the apses at
+each end were of such great dimensions as to come better under the
+definition of hemicycles (q.v.). In these apses the floor was raised,
+and had an altar placed in the centre of its chord, where sacrifices
+were made prior to the sittings. The only other two Roman basilicas in
+which the semicircular apse can still be traced are that commenced by
+Maxentius and completed by Constantine at Rome and the basilica at Trier
+(Trèves).
+
+In the earliest Christian basilica, St Peter's at Rome, built 330 A.D.,
+the apse, 57 ft. in diameter, raised above the confessio or crypt, was
+placed at the west end of the church. This orientation was originally
+followed in the churches of St Paul and St Lawrence (S. Lorenzo fuori le
+Mura), both outside the walls of Rome, and is found in most of the
+churches at Rome. On the other hand, in the Byzantine church, the apse
+was built at the east end of the church.
+
+During the reign of Justin the Second (A.D. 565-574), owing to a change
+in the liturgy, two more apses were added, one on each side of the
+central apse. These in the Greek Church were provided not to hold altars
+but for ceremonial purposes. One of the earliest examples is found in
+the church of St Nicholas at Myra of the 6th century, and the basilica
+erected in the great court of the temple at Baalbek shows the triple
+apse. The earliest example in Rome is found in the church of Sta Maria
+in Cosmedin (772-795), built probably by Greek craftsmen, who had been
+exiled by the Iconoclasts. Other triapsal choirs are found in the
+cathedral of Parenzo (542 A.D.), in St Mark's, Venice, in Sta Fosca and
+the Duomo at Torcello, and in numerous examples throughout Italy and
+Germany. In central Syria there is one example only, at Kalat Seman,
+where the side apses were a later addition.
+
+There is one important distinction to be drawn between the Byzantine and
+the Latin apses; they are both semicircular internally, but externally
+the former are nearly always polygonal. It follows, therefore, that in
+those churches in Italy where the apse is polygonal externally, it is a
+sign of direct Byzantine influence. This is found in St Mark's, Venice;
+Sta Fosca, Torcello; Murano; nearly all the churches at Ravenna; and in
+the Crusaders' churches throughout Syria.
+
+In the Coptic church in Egypt we find other characteristics; in the
+churches of the Red and White Monasteries, attributed to St Helena, an
+unusual depth is given to the apse, in the walls of which niches are
+sunk; in the church of St John at Antinoë there are no fewer than seven.
+Similar niches are found in the apses of St Mark's, Venice, built in
+A.D. 828, it is said in imitation of St Mark's in Alexandria, to receive
+the relics of St Mark brought over from there.
+
+[Illustration: Apse of the White Monastery.]
+
+In a large number of the apses in the Coptic churches the seats round
+the apse with the bishop's throne in the centre are still preserved; of
+these the best examples are at Abu Sargah, Al 'Adra and Abu-s-Sifain.
+Unfortunately there are no remains of the fittings in the tribunes of
+the ancient Roman basilicas, but those in St Peter's at Rome, which were
+probably copied from them, are recorded in drawings, there being two or
+three rows of stone seats with the papal throne in the centre. It is
+possible also that some may still exist in the other early Christian
+basilicas at Rome, but there have been so many changes that it is not
+possible to trace them. In the cathedral of Parenzo in Istria (A.D.
+532-535), the hemicycle of marble seats for the clergy with the
+episcopal chair in the centre still exists. A similar arrangement is
+found in the apse of the church of the 6th century attached to the
+church of St Helena in the island of Paros, where there are eight steep
+grades of semicircular stone seats with the bishop's chair in the
+centre. The aspect of the interior of this apse has in consequence very
+much the appearance of a Roman theatre. A third example, better known,
+exists at Torcello, with six concentric seats rising one above the
+other, and in the centre the episcopal chair with a flight of thirteen
+steps down in front of it.
+
+In the basilica at Bethlehem, the east end of which was reconstructed
+probably in the 5th century, apses of similar dimensions to the eastern
+apse were built at the north and south end of the transept. The same
+disposition is found in the Coptic churches of the Red and White
+Monasteries just referred to, in the church of St Elias at Salonica (c.
+1012), the cathedral of Echmiadzin in Armenia, at Vatopedi, Mt. Athos,
+and some other Byzantine churches. An early example in France exists in
+the church of Germigny-des-Prés on the Loire (806; rebuilt 1868), where
+the three apses are horseshoe on plan, and the same is found in the
+church at Oberzell in the island of Reichenau, Lake of Constance, except
+that the eastern apse there is square. Small examples also are found at
+Querqueville and at St Wandrille near Caudebec, both in Normandy, but
+the finest development takes place in the church of St Maria im Capitol
+at Cologne, where the aisles are carried round both the northern and
+southern apses. The same feature exists in the cathedral of Tournai in
+Belgium and the churches at Cambrai, Soissons and Valenciennes (the last
+destroyed at the Revolution) in France, and also in the cathedrals of
+Como and of Pisa in Italy. Without aisles, there are examples in the
+churches of the Apostles and of St Martin at Cologne; St Quirinus at
+Neuss; at Roermond; St Cross, Breslau; the cathedral of Bonn; and, at a
+later date, in the Marienkirche at Trier; S. Elizabeth at Marburg; the
+church of Sta Maria-del-Fiore at Florence; and the cathedral of Parma.
+
+In consequence of a change made in the orientation of apses in the 6th
+or 7th century, others were subsequently added at the west end of
+existing churches, and this is considered to have been the case at
+Canterbury; but in the German churches sometimes apses were built from
+the first at both ends, such as are shown on the manuscript plan of St
+Gall, of the 9th century. Western apses exist at Gernrode; Drübeck;
+Huyseburg; the Obermünster of Regensburg; St Godehard in Hildesheim; the
+cathedrals of Worms and Trier; the Abbey church of Laach; the Minster at
+Bonn; and in St Pietro-in-Grado near Pisa.
+
+The triapsal churches, to which we have referred, are those in which the
+side apses form the termination of the side aisles; but where there are
+transepts, the aisles are sometimes not continued beyond them, and the
+expansion of the transept to north and south gives more ample space for
+apses; of these there are many examples, as in the Abbey church of Laach
+in Germany; at Romsey; Christchurch, Hants; Gloucester, Ely, Norwich and
+Canterbury cathedrals, in England; and at St Georges de Boscherville in
+France; sometimes there being space for two apses on each side.
+
+In the beginning of the 13th century in France, the apses became
+radiating chapels outside the choir aisle, henceforth known as the
+chevet. These radiating chapels would seem to have been suggested in
+Norwich and Canterbury cathedrals, but the feature is essentially a
+French one and in England is found only in Westminster Abbey, into which
+it was introduced by Henry III., to whom the chevets of Amiens, Beauvais
+and Reims were probably well known.     (R. P. S.)
+
+
+
+
+APSE and APSIDES, in mechanics, either of the two points of an orbit
+which are nearest to and farthest from the centre of motion. They are
+called the lower or nearer, and the higher or more distant apsides
+respectively. The "line of apsides" is that which joins them, forming
+the major axis of the orbit.
+
+
+
+
+APSINES of Gadara, a Greek rhetorician, who flourished during the 3rd
+century A.D. After studying at Smyrna, he taught at Athens, and gained
+such a reputation that he was raised to the consulship by the emperor
+Maximinus (235-238). He was the friend of Philostratus, the author of
+the _Lives of the Sophists_, who speaks of his wonderful memory and
+accuracy. Two rhetorical treatises by him are extant: [Greek: technae
+raetorikae], a handbook of rhetoric greatly interpolated, a considerable
+portion being taken from the _Rhetoric_ of Longinus; and a smaller work,
+[Greek: perhi eschaematismenon problaematon], on Propositions maintained
+figuratively.
+
+  Editions by Bake, 1849; Spengel-Hammer in _Rhetores Graeci_, ii.
+  (1894): see also Hammer, _De Apsine Rhetore_ (1876); Volkmann,
+  _Rhetorik der Griechen und Romer_ (1885).
+
+
+
+
+APT, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of Vaucluse, on
+the left bank of the Coulon, 41 m. E. of Avignon by rail. Pop. (1906)
+4990. The town was formerly surrounded by massive ancient walls, but
+these have now been for the most part replaced by boulevards; many of
+its streets are narrow and irregular. The chief object of interest is
+the church of Sainte-Anne (once the cathedral), the building of which
+was begun about the year 1056 on the site of a much older edifice, but
+not completed until the latter half of the 17th century. Many Roman
+remains have been found in and near the town. A fine bridge, the Pont
+Julien, spanning the Coulon below the town, dates from the 2nd or 3rd
+century. A tribunal of first instance and a communal college are the
+chief public institutions. The chief manufactures are silk,
+confectionery and earthenware; and there is besides a considerable trade
+in fruit, grain and cattle. Apt was at one time the chief town of the
+Vulgientes, a Gallic tribe; it was destroyed by the Romans about 125
+B.C. and restored by Julius Caesar, who conferred upon it the title
+_Apta Julia_; it was much injured by the Lombards and the Saracens, but
+its fortifications were rebuilt by the counts of Provence. The
+bishopric, founded in the 3rd century, was suppressed in 1790.
+
+
+
+
+APTERA (Greek for "wingless"), a term in zoological classification
+applied by Linnaeus to various groups of wingless arthropods, including
+some of the insects, the centipedes, the millipedes, the Arachnida
+(scorpions, spiders, &c.) and the Crustacea. In modern zoology the term
+has become restricted to the lowest order of the class Hexapoda or true
+insects. This order includes the bristle-tails and the springtails.
+
+[Illustration: From _Knowledge_
+
+FIG. 1.--A typical Thysanuran (_Machilus maritima_). Female, ventral
+view.
+
+  ii.-x., Appendages on 2nd to 10th abdominal segments. The eversible
+    sacs on the abdominal segments are shown, some protruded and some
+    retracted.
+  Ovp, Ovipositor.
+  Mn, Mandible, and Mxl, maxillula, dissected out of head.]
+
+Many wingless insects--such as lice, fleas and certain earwigs and
+cockroaches--are placed in various orders together with winged insects
+to which they show evident relationships. In such cases the absence of
+wings must be regarded as secondary--due to a parasitic or other special
+manner of life. But the bristle-tails and springtails, which form the
+modern order Aptera, are all without any trace of wings, and, on account
+of several remarkable archaic characters which they exhibit, there is
+reason for believing that they are primitively wingless--that they
+represent an early offshoot which sprang from the ancestral stock of the
+Hexapoda before organs of flight had been acquired by the class.
+
+_Characters._--In addition to the complete absence of wings and of
+metamorphosis, the Aptera are characterized by peculiar elongate
+mandibles (figs. 1, Mn.; 2, 4), with toothed apex and sub-apical
+grinding surface, like those of certain Crustacea; by the presence
+between the mandibles and maxillae of a pair of appendages (superlinguae
+or maxillulae), fig. 1, Mxl., which are absent or vestigial in all other
+insects; and, in most genera, by the presence in the adult of abdominal
+appendages used for locomotion, these latter varying in number from one
+to nine pairs. Among peculiarities of the internal organs the segmental
+arrangement of the ovaries in most members of the order is noteworthy.
+Many Aptera are covered with flattened scales like those of moths.
+
+_Classification._--The Aptera are divided into two divergent sub-orders,
+the _Thysanura_ (q.v.) or bristle-tails, and the _Collembola_ or
+springtails.
+
+_Thysanura._--The bristle-tails have an abdomen of eleven segments, the
+tenth usually carrying a pair of long many-jointed tail-feelers (cerci,
+fig. 1, x.); sometimes a median, jointed tail-appendage is also present.
+To these feelers the popular name is due. There may also be abdominal
+appendages--in the form of simple unjointed stylets (fig. 1, ii.-ix.),
+accompanied by paired eversible sacs, probably respiratory in
+function--on eight (or fewer) other abdominal segments. The head of a
+bristle-tail carries a pair of compound eyes and a pair of elongate
+many-jointed feelers.
+
+The air-tube system is developed in varying degree in different
+bristle-tails, the number of pairs of spiracles being three
+(_Campodea_), nine (_Machilis_), ten (_Lepisma_), or eleven (_Japyx_).
+
+Four families of Thysanura are usually recognized. In the _Machilidae_
+and _Lepismidae_ (these two families are known as the Ectotrophi) the
+maxillae are like those of typical biting insects, and there is a median
+tail-bristle in addition to the paired cerci; while in the _Campodeidae_
+and _Japygidae_ (which form the group Entotrophi) the jaws are
+apparently sunk in the head, through a deep inpushing at the mouth, and
+there is no median tail-bristle. The cerci in _Japyx_ are not, as usual,
+jointed feelers, but strong, curved appendages forming a forceps as in
+earwigs.
+
+[Illustration: From Carpenter, _Proc. R. Dub. Soc._, vol. xi.
+
+FIG. 2.--Structure of Collembola.
+
+  1. _Isotoma hibernica_. Side view.
+  2.        "             Ocelli and post-antennal organ of right side.
+  3.        "             Tip of terminal antennal segment with antennal
+                            organ.
+  4.        "             Mandible.
+  5.        "             Tip of left dens with mucro. Outer view.
+  6.        "             Hind-foot with claws. × 240.
+  7. _Entomobrya anomala_. Catch.]
+
+_Collembola._--In springtails, or _Collembola_, the jaws are sunk into
+the head, as in the entotrophous Thysanura; the head carries a pair of
+feelers with not more than six (usually four) segments, and there are
+eight (or fewer) distinct simple eyes on each side of the head (fig. 2,
+1, 2). These are in some genera like the single elements (_ommatidia_)
+of a compound insect eye, in others like simple ocelli. The abdomen
+consists of six segments only. The first of these usually carries a
+ventral tube, furnished with paired eversible sacs which assist the
+insects in walking on smooth surfaces, and perhaps serve also as organs
+for breathing. From the researches of V. Willem it appears that the
+viscid fluid which causes the adherence of the ventral tube is secreted
+by a pair of glands in the head whose ducts open into a superficial
+groove leading from the second maxillae backward to the tube on the
+first abdominal segment. The third abdominal segment usually carries a
+pair of short appendages whose basal segments are fused together; this
+is the "catch" (fig. 2, 7), whose function is to hold in place the
+"spring," which is formed by the fourth pair of abdominal
+appendages--also with fused basal segments. In most Collembola the
+spring appears to belong to the fifth abdominal somite, but Willem, by
+study of the muscles, has shown that it really belongs to the fourth.
+The fused basal segments of the appendages form the "manubrium" of the
+spring, which carries the two "dentes" (usually elongate and flexible),
+each with a "mucro" at its tip (fig. 2, 5). The fifth abdominal segment
+is the genital, and the sixth the anal somite.
+
+The spring serves the Collembola which possess it as an efficient
+leaping-organ (see SPRINGTAIL). But in some genera it is greatly reduced
+and in many quite vestigial.
+
+Most springtails are without air-tubes, and breathe through the general
+cuticle of the body. But in one family (_Sminthuridae_) a spiracle,
+opening on either side between the head and the prothorax, leads to a
+branching system of air-tubes. The _Sminthuridae_ are further
+characterized by the globular abdomen, which shows but little external
+trace of segmentation, and by the well-developed spring.
+
+In the _Entomobryidae_ the body is elongate and clearly segmented, but
+the dorsal region (tergum) of the prothorax is much reduced and the head
+downwardly directed; the spring is well developed. In the _Achorutidae_
+the head is forwardly directed, the tergum of the prothorax conspicuous,
+and the spring small or vestigial.
+
+In many genera of springtails a curious post-antennal organ, consisting
+of sensory structures (often complex in form) surrounded by a firm ring,
+is to be noticed on the cuticle of the head between the eyes and the
+feelers. It may be of use as an organ of smell. Other sensory organs
+occur on the third and fourth antennal segments in the _Achorutidae_ and
+_Entomobryidae_ (fig. 2, 3).
+
+_Distribution and Habits._--The Aptera are probably the most widely
+distributed of all insects. Among the bristle-tails we find the genus
+_Machilis_, represented in Europe (including the Faeroe Islands) and in
+Chile; while _Campodea_ lives high on the mountains and in the deepest
+caves. The springtails have even a wider distribution. The genus
+_Isotoma_, for example, has some of its numerous species in regions so
+remote as Alaska, Franz Josef Land, the Sandwich Islands, the South
+Orkneys, Graham Land, Kerguelen and South Victoria Land. As it is
+unlikely that these delicate insects could be transported across
+sea-channels, their wide and discontinuous range suggests both their
+great antiquity and the former existence of continental tracts over
+which they may have travelled to their present stations.
+
+Springtails and bristle-tails live in damp concealed places--under
+stones or tree-bark, in moss, and in the decaying vegetable or animal
+matter which serves as food for most of them. Some species, however, eat
+fresh plant-tissues. A species of bristle-tail (_Machilis maritima_) and
+quite a number of springtails haunt the sea-coast at or below high-water
+mark. In such localities many thousands of individuals may sometimes be
+found associated together. The insect fauna of limestone caves both in
+Europe and North America is largely composed of Aptera, especially
+Collembola.
+
+_Geological History._--A supposed Thysanuran from the Silurian of New
+Brunswick has been described by G.F. Matthew, and another genus from the
+French Carboniferous by C. Brongniart. Not till the Tertiary do we find
+remains of Aptera in any quantity, species both of living and extinct
+genera being represented in the amber.
+
+_Development._--The embryonic development of several genera of Aptera,
+which has been carefully studied, will be more suitably described in
+comparison with that of other insects than here (see HEXAPODA).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The modern study of the Aptera may be said to date from
+  the classical memoirs of T. Tullberg, "Sveriges Podurider," in _Kongl.
+  Svensk Vetensk. Akad. Handl._ x., 1872, and Sir J. Lubbock (Lord
+  Avebury), "Monograph of the Collembola and Thysanura," _Ray Society_,
+  1873. In these, full references to the older literature will be found.
+  Subsequently our knowledge of the Thysanura has been markedly advanced
+  by J.T. Oudemans, _Bijdrage tot de Kennis den Thysanura en Collembola_
+  (Amsterdam, 1888); B. Grassi, who published between 1885 and 1889 a
+  series of memoirs entitled "I progenitori dei Miriapodi e degli
+  Insetti," in the _Atti Accad. di Scienz. Nat. Catania_, and the
+  _Memor. R. Accad. dei Lincei_; and V. Willem, whose "Recherches sur
+  les Collemboles et les Thysanoures," in _Mem. Cour. Acad. Roy.
+  Belgique_, lviii., 1900, are indispensable to the student. In addition
+  to this work of Willem, valuable anatomical papers on Collembola have
+  been published by H.J. Hansen (_Zool. Anz._ xvi., 1893), J.W. Folsom
+  (_Bull. Mus. Comp. Anat. Harv._ xxxv., 1899), C. Börner (_Zool. Anz._
+  xxiii., 1900), and K. Absolon (_Zool. Anz._ xxiii. and xxiv., 1900,
+  1901), the two latter writers having paid especial attention to the
+  peculiar post-antennal and antennal sense-organs of springtails.
+  Absolon has also written on the Collembola of caves. These writers,
+  with H. Schött, C. Schäffer and others, have published many systematic
+  papers on Collembola, as has F. Silvestri on Thysanura. British
+  species are mentioned in Lubbock's monograph; for recent additions see
+  G.H. Carpenter and W. Evans (_Proc. R. Phys. Soc. Edinb._ xiv., 1899,
+  and xv., 1903).     (G. H. C.)
+
+
+
+
+APTERAL (from the Gr. [Greek: apteros], wingless, [Greek: a-], privative
+and [Greek: pteros], a wing), an architectural term applied to
+amphiprostyle temples which have no columns on the sides; in the Ionic
+temple on the Acropolis at Athens known as Nike Apteros, the adjective
+is used, not as applying to the goddess of victory but to the absence of
+any peristyle on the sides.
+
+
+
+
+APTIAN (Fr. _Aptien_, from Apt in Vaucluse, France), in geology, the
+term introduced in 1843 by A. d'Orbigny (_Pal. France Crét._ ii.) for
+the upper stage of the Lower Cretaceous rocks. In England it comprises
+the Lower Greensand and part of the Speeton beds; in France it is
+divided into two sub-stages, the lower, "Bedoulian," of Bedoule in
+Provence, with _Hoplites deshayesei_ and _Ancyloceras Matheroni_; and an
+upper, "Gargasian," from Gargas near Apt, with _Hoplites furcatus_
+(_Dufrenoyi_) and _Phylloceras Guettardi_. To this stage belong the
+_Toucasia_ limestone and _Orbitolina_ marls of Spain; the
+_Schrattenkalk_ (part) of the Alpine and Carpathian regions; and the
+_Terebrirostra_ limestone of the same area. Parts of the Flysch of the
+eastern Alps, the Biancone of Lombardy, and _argile scagliose_ of
+Emilia, are of Aptian age; so also are the "Trinity Beds" of North
+America. Deposits of bauxite occur in the Aptian hippurite limestone at
+Les Baux near Aries, and in the Pyrenees. The Aptian rocks are generally
+clays, marls and green glauconitic sands with occasional limestones.
+(See GREENSAND and CRETACEOUS.)
+
+
+
+
+APULEIUS, LUCIUS, Platonic philosopher and rhetorician, was born at
+Madaura in Numidia about A.D. 125. As the son of one of the principal
+officials, he received an excellent education, first at Carthage and
+subsequently at Athens. After leaving Athens he undertook a long course
+of travel, especially in the East, principally with the view of
+obtaining initiation into religious mysteries. Having practised for some
+time as an advocate at Rome, he returned to Africa. On a journey to
+Alexandria he fell sick at Oea (Tripoli), where he made the acquaintance
+of a rich widow, Aemilia Pudentilla, whom he subsequently married. The
+members of her family disapproved of the marriage, and indicted Apuleius
+on a charge of having gained her affections by magical arts. He easily
+established his innocence, and his spirited, highly entertaining, but
+inordinately long defence (_Apologia_ or _De Magia_) before the
+proconsul Claudius Maximus is our principal authority for his biography.
+From allusions in his subsequent writings, and the mention of him by St.
+Augustine, we gather that the remainder of his prosperous life was
+devoted to literature and philosophy. At Carthage he was elected
+provincial priest of the imperial cult, in which capacity he occupied a
+prominent position in the provincial council, had the duty of collecting
+and managing the funds for the temples of the cult, and the
+superintendence of the games in the amphitheatre. He lectured on
+philosophy and rhetoric, like the Greek sophists, apparently with
+success, since statues were erected in his honour at Carthage and
+elsewhere. The year of his death is not known.
+
+The work on which the fame of Apuleius principally rests has little
+claim to originality. The _Metamorphoses_ or _Golden Ass_ (the latter
+title seems not to be the author's own, but to have been bestowed in
+compliment, just as the _Libri Rerum Quotidianarum_ of Gaius were called
+_Aurei_) was founded on a narrative in the _Metamorphoses_ of Lucius of
+Patrae, a work extant in the time of Photius. From Photius's account
+(impugned, however, by Wieland and Courier), this book would seem to
+have consisted of a collection of marvellous stories, related in an
+inartistic fashion, and in perfect good faith. The literary capabilities
+of this particular narrative attracted the attention of Apuleius's
+contemporary, Lucian, who proceeded to work it up in his own manner,
+adhering, as Photius seems to indicate, very closely to the original,
+but giving it a comic and satiric turn. Apuleius followed this
+rifacimento, making it, however, the groundwork of an elaborate romance,
+interspersed with numerous episodes, of which the beautiful story of
+Cupid and Psyche is the most celebrated, and altering the _dénouement_
+to suit the religious revival of which he was an apostle.
+
+The adventures of the youthful hero in the form of an ass are much the
+same in both romances, but in Apuleius he is restored to human shape by
+the aid of Isis, into whose mysteries he is initiated, and finally
+becomes her priestess. The book is a remarkable illustration of the
+contemporary reaction against a period of scepticism, of the general
+appetite for miracle and magic, and of the influx of oriental and
+Egyptian ideas into the old theology. It is also composed with a
+well-marked literary aim, defined by Kretzschmann as the emulation of
+the Greek sophists, and the transplantation of their _tours de force_
+into the Latin language. Nothing, indeed, is more characteristic of
+Apuleius than his versatility, unless it be his ostentation and
+self-confidence in the display of it. The dignified, the ludicrous, the
+voluptuous, the horrible, succeed each other with bewildering rapidity;
+fancy and feeling are everywhere apparent, but not less so affectation,
+meretricious ornament, and that effort to say everything finely which
+prevents anything being said well. The Latinity has a strong African
+colouring, and is crammed with obsolete words, agreeably to the taste of
+the time. When these defects are mitigated or overlooked, the _Golden
+Ass_ will be pronounced a most successful work, invaluable as an
+illustration of ancient manners, and full of entertainment from
+beginning to end. The most famous and poetically beautiful portion is
+the episode of Cupid and Psyche, adapted from a popular legend of which
+traces are found in most fairy mythologies, which explains the seeming
+incongruity of its being placed in the mouth of an old hag. The
+allegorical purport he has infused into it is his own, and entirely in
+the spirit of the Platonic philosophy. Don Quixote's adventure with the
+wine-skins, and Gil Blas's captivity among the robbers, are palpably
+borrowed from Apuleius; and several of the humorous episodes, probably
+current as popular stories long before his time, reappear in Boccaccio.
+
+Of Apuleius's other writings, the _Apology_ has been already mentioned.
+The _Florida_ (probably meaning simply "anthology," without any
+reference to style) consists of a collection of excerpts from his
+declamations, ingenious but highly affected, and in general perfect
+examples of the sophistical art of saying nothing with emphasis. They
+deal with the most varied subjects, and are intended to exemplify the
+author's versatility. The pleasing little tract _On the God of Socrates_
+expounds the Platonic doctrine of beneficent daemons, an intermediate
+class between gods and men. Two books on Plato (_De Platone et Ejus
+Dogmate_) treat of his life, and his physical and ethical philosophy; a
+third, treating of logic, is generally considered spurious. The _De
+Mundo_ is an adaptation of the [Greek: Peri kosmou] wrongly attributed
+to Aristotle. Apuleius informs us that he had also composed numerous
+poems in almost all possible styles, and several works on natural
+history, some in Greek. In the preparation of these he seems to have
+attended more closely to actual anatomical research than was customary
+with ancient naturalists. Some other works--dealing with theology, the
+properties of herbs, medical remedies and physiognomy, are wrongly
+attributed to him.
+
+The character of Apuleius, as delineated by himself, is attractive; he
+appears vehement and passionate, but devoid of rancour; enterprising,
+munificent, genial and an enthusiast for the beautiful and good. His
+vanity and love of display are conspicuous, but are extenuated by a
+genuine thirst for knowledge and a surprising versatility of
+attainments. He prided himself on his proficiency in both Greek and
+Latin. His place in letters is accidentally more important than his
+genius strictly entitles him to hold. He is the only extant example in
+Latin literature of an accomplished sophist in the good sense of the
+term. The loss of other ancient romances has secured him a peculiar
+influence on modern fiction; while his chronological position in a
+transitional period renders him at once the evening star of the
+Platonic, and the morning star of the Neo-Platonic philosophy.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Complete works: Editio princeps, ed. Andreas (1469);
+  Oudendorp (1786-1823); Hildebrand (1842); Helm (1905 et seq.); P.
+  Thomas (vol. iii. 1908). _Metamorphoses_, Eyssenhardt (1869), van der
+  Vliet (1897). _Psyche et Cupido_, Jahn-Michaelis (1883); Beck (1902).
+  _Apologia_, I. Casaubon (1594); Krüger (1864); (with the _Florida_),
+  van der Vliet (1900). _Florida_, Krüger (1883). _De Deo Socratis_,
+  Buckley (1844), Lütjohann (1878). _De Platone et ejus Dogmate_,
+  Goldbacher (1876) (including _De Mundo_ and _De Deo Socratis_). For
+  the relation between Lucian's [Greek: Ovos] and the _Metamorphoses_ of
+  Apuleius, see Rohde, _Über Lucians Schrift [Greek: Loukios]_ (1869),
+  and Burger, _De Lucio Patrensi_ (1887). On the style of Apuleius
+  consult Kretzschmann, _De Latinitate L. Apulei_ (1865), and Koziol,
+  _Der Stil des A._ (1872). There is a complete English translation of
+  the works of Apuleius in Bohn's Classical Library. The translations
+  and imitations of the _Golden Ass_ in modern languages are numerous:
+  in English, by Adlington, 1566 and later eds. (reissued in the Tudor
+  translations and Temple Classics), Taylor (1822) (including the
+  philosophical works), Head (1851). Of the Cupid and Psyche episode
+  there are recent translations by Robert Bridges (1895) (in verse),
+  Stuttaford (1903); and it is beautifully introduced by Walter Pater
+  into his _Marius the Epicurean_. This episode has afforded the subject
+  of a drama to Thomas Heywood, and of narrative poems to Shakerley
+  Marmion, Mrs. Tighe, and William Morris (in the _Earthly Paradise_).
+
+
+
+
+APULIA (sometimes APPULIA in manuscripts but never in inscriptions), the
+district inhabited in ancient times by the Apuli. Strictly a Samnite
+tribe (see SAMNITES) settled round Mount Garganus on the east coast of
+Italy (Strabo vi. 3. 11), the Apuli mingled with the Iapygian tribes of
+that part of the coast (Dauni, Peucetii, Poediculi) who, like the
+Messapii, had come from Illyria, so that the name Apulia reached down to
+the border of the ancient Calabria. Almost the only monument of Samnite
+speech from the district is the famous _Tabula Bantina_ from Bantia, a
+small city just inside the Peucetian part of Apulia, on the Lucanian
+border. This inscription is one of the latest and in some ways the most
+important monument of Oscan, though showing what appear to be some
+southern peculiarities (see OSCA LINGUA). Its date is almost certainly
+between 118 and 90 B.C., and it shows that Latin had not even then
+spread over the district (cf. LUCANIA). Far older than this are some
+coins from Ausculum and Teate (later known as Teanum Apulum), of which
+the earliest belong to the 4th century B.C. Roman or Latin colonies were
+few, Luceria (planted 314 B.C.) in the north and Brundisium (soon after
+268) being the chief. (See R.S. Conway, _Italic Dialects_, xxviii.-xxx.
+pp. 15 f.; and Mommsen's introduction to the opening sections of
+_C.I.L._ ix.)     (R. S. C.)
+
+The wars of the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C. brought a great part of the
+pastures of the Apulian plain into the hands of the Roman state, and a
+tax was paid on every head of cattle and every sheep, at first to the
+tax farmer and later to the imperial procurator. It was under the Romans
+that the system of migration for the flocks reached its full
+development, and the practice is still continued; the sheep-tracks
+(_tratturi_), 350 ft. wide, leading from the mountains of the Abruzzi to
+the plain of Apulia date in the main at least from the Roman period, and
+are mentioned in inscriptions. The plain, however, which once served as
+winter grazing ground for a million sheep, now gives pasture to about
+one-half of that number.[1] The shepherds, who were slaves, often gave
+considerable trouble; we hear that some 7000 of them, who had made the
+whole country unsafe, were condemned to death in 185 B.C. (Livy xxxix.
+29). Sheep-farming on a large scale was no doubt detrimental to the
+interests of the towns. We hear of repeated risings, for the last time
+in the Social War. Even in the 4th century B.C. the then chief town of
+Apulia, Teate or Teanum Apulum (see above), suffered in this way.
+Luceria subsequently took its place, largely owing to its military
+importance; but under the Empire it was succeeded by Canusium.
+
+The road system of Apulia, which touched all the important towns,
+consisted of three main lines, the Via Appia (see APPIA, VIA), the Via
+Traiana, and the coast road, running more or less parallel in an
+east-south-east direction. The first (the southernmost), coming east
+from Beneventum, entered Apulia at the Pons Aufidi, and ran through
+Venusia to Tarentum, and thence, turning north-east, to Brundusium. The
+second, coming north-east from Beneventum, turned east at Aecae, and ran
+through Herdoniae, Canusium, Butuntum, Barium and Gnathia (Gnatia) to
+Brundusium. There was also a short cut from Butuntum to Gnathia through
+Caelia, keeping inland. The third parallel line ran to the north of the
+Via Traiana, in continuation of the road along the north-east coast of
+Picenum and Samnium; it entered Apulia near Larinum (whence a branch ran
+south to Bovianum Undecimanorum), and thence, keeping in the plain to
+the south of the Mons Garganus, rejoined the coast at Sipontum, where it
+received a branch road from the Via Traiana at Aecae, passing through
+Luceria and Arpi. It then passed through Barduli (where it was joined by
+a road from Canusium by way of Cannae) to Barium, where it joined the
+Via Traiana. From Barium a road probably ran direct to Caelia, and
+thence south-south-east to join the Via Appia some 25 m. north-west of
+Tarentum.
+
+Barium was an important harbour, though less so than Brundusium and
+Tarentum, which, however, belonged to Calabria in the Roman sense.
+Apulia, with Calabria, formed the second region of Augustus, though we
+once find Calabria treated as a part of the third region, Lucania
+(_C.I.L._ ix. 2213). The Hannibalic and later wars had, Strabo tells us,
+destroyed the former prosperity of the country; in imperial times we
+hear little or nothing of it. Both were governed by a _corrector_ from
+the time of Constantine onwards, but in 668 the Lombards conquered
+Calabria and Apulia, and it was then that the former name was
+transferred to Bruttium, the meaning of the latter being extended to
+include Calabria also. In the 10th century the greater part of this
+territory was recovered by the Byzantine emperors, whose governor was
+called [Greek: Katapanos], a name which, under the corrupt form
+Capitanata, belonged to the province of Foggia till 1861. It was
+conquered by the Normans under William Bras-de-fer, who took the title
+of _comes Apuliae_ in 1042; it was raised to a dukedom with Calabria by
+Robert Guiscard in 1059, and united to the Sicilian monarchy in 1127.
+Many of the important towns possess fine Romanesque cathedrals,
+constructed under the Normans and the Hohenstaufen rulers. It shared the
+subsequent fate of Sicily, becoming a part of the kingdom of the Two
+Sicilies in 1734, and being united with Italy in 1861.
+
+
+  Modern Apulia.
+
+Modern Apulia comprises the three provinces of Foggia, Bari and Lecce
+(the latter corresponding roughly with the ancient Calabria, which,
+however, extended somewhat farther north inland), and is often known as
+Le Puglie; it stretches from Monte Gargano to the south-east extremity
+of Italy, with an area of 7376 sq. m.; it is bounded on the north and
+east by the Adriatic, on the south-east by the Gulf of Taranto, on the
+south by Basilicata and on the west by Campania and the Abruzzi. The
+three provinces correspond to the three natural divisions into which it
+falls. That of Foggia, though it has mountains on the west and
+south-west boundary, and the Monte Gargano at its north-east extremity,
+is in the main a great plain called the Tavoliere (chessboard) di
+Puglia, with considerable lagoons on its north and east coast. That of
+Bari, east-south-east of Foggia and divided from it by the Ofanto
+(Aufidus), the only considerable river of Apulia, 104 m. long, is a
+hilly district with a coast strip along which are the majority of the
+towns--the lack of villages is especially noticeable; in the
+_circondario_ of Barletta, the north-east portion of the province, there
+are only eleven communes, with a total population of 335,934. That of
+Lecce, to the east-south-east again, is a low flat limestone terrace.
+
+The industries of Apulia are mainly pastoral or agricultural. Besides
+sheep, a considerable number of horses, cattle and swine are bred; while
+despite the lack of water, which is the great need of modern Apulia (in
+1906 arrangements were made for a great aqueduct, to supply the three
+provinces from the headwaters of the Sele), cultivation is actively
+carried on, especially in the province of Bari, where grain, wine,
+olives, almonds, lemons, oranges, tobacco, &c., are produced in
+abundance, and the export of olive oil is attaining considerable
+importance. The salt works of Margherita di Savoia produce large
+quantities of salt, and nitre is extracted near Molfetta.
+
+Railway communications are fairly good, the main line from Bologna to
+Brindisi passing through the whole length of Apulia, by way of Foggia
+and Bari, and having branches from Foggia (the main railway centre of
+Apulia) to Benevento and Caserta, to Manfredonia, to Lucera and to
+Rocchetta S. Antonio (and thence to either Avellino, Potenza or Gioia
+del Colle), from Ofantino to Margherita di Savoia, from Barletta to
+Spinazzola (between Rocchetta S. Antonio and Gioia del Colle), from Bari
+to Putignano, and via Gioia del Colle to Taranto, and from Brindisi to
+Taranto, and to Lecce and Otranto; besides which, there is a steam
+tramway from Barletta to Bari via Andria.
+
+The most important harbours of Apulia are Brindisi, Bari, Taranto,
+Barletta, Molfetta and Gallipoli. The export of olive oil to foreign
+countries from the province of Lecce in 1905 amounted to 1048 tons, as
+against 3395 in 1901; but that to home ports increased from 7077 to 9025
+tons in the same period. The production of wine was 358,953 tons in 1905
+as against 203,995 tons in 1901 (an exceptionally bad year) and 284,156
+tons in 1902. Of this 211,872 tons were forwarded by rail and sea, in
+the proportion of five to two respectively, the rest being used for home
+consumption and as a reserve. The cultivation of oriental tobacco is
+extending in the province (see _Consular Report_, No. 3672, July 1906).
+
+The population of the province of Foggia was 425,450 (1901) as against
+322,755 in 1871, the chief towns being Foggia (53,151), Cerignola
+(34,195), S. Severo (30,040), Monte S. Angelo (21,870), S. Marco in
+Lamis (17,309), Lucera (17,515); that of Bari, 827,698 (1901) as against
+604,540 in 1871, the chief towns being Bari (77,478), Andria (49,569),
+Barletta (42,022), Corato (41,573), Molfetta (40,135), Trani (31,800),
+Bisceglie (30,885), Bitonto (30,617), Canosa (24,169), Ruvo (23,776),
+Terlizzi (23,232), Altamura(22,729), Monopoli (22,545), Gioia del Colle
+(21,721); that of Lecce, 706,520 (1901) as against 493,594 in 1871, the
+chief towns being Taranto (60,733), Lecce (32,687), Brindisi (25,317),
+Martina Franca (25,007), Ostuni (22,997), Francavilla Fontana (20,422),
+Ceglie Messapica (16,867), Nardo (14,387), Galatina (14,071), Gallipoli
+(13,552), Manduria (13,113).     (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The migration was made compulsory by Alphonso I. in 1442, and
+    remained so until 1865. Since that time the _tratturi_ have been to
+    some extent absorbed by private proprietors.
+
+
+
+
+APURÉ, a river of western Venezuela, formed by the confluence of the
+Sarare and Uribante at 6° 45' N. lat. and 71° W. long., and flowing
+eastward across the Venezuelan _llanos_ to a junction with the Orinoco
+at about 7° 40' N. lat. and 66° 45' W. long. Its drainage area includes
+the slopes of both the Colombian and Venezuelan Andes. It has a sluggish
+course across the _llanos_ for about 300 m., and is navigable throughout
+its length. Its principal tributaries are the Caparro, Portuguesa and
+Guarico on the north, and the Caucagua on the south. Its lateral
+channels on the south mingle with those of the Arauca for many miles,
+forming an extensive district subject to annual inundations.
+
+
+
+
+APURIMAC, a river of central Peru, rising in the Laguna de Villafra in
+the western Cordilleras, 7 m. from Caylloma, a village in the department
+of Arequipa, and less than 100 m. from the Pacific coast. It flows first
+north-easterly, then north-westerly past Cuzco to the mouth of the
+Perené tributary, thence east and north to its junction with the Ucayali
+at 10° 41' S. lat., and 73° 34' W. long. It is known as the Apurimac
+only down to the mouth of the Mantaro tributary, 11° 45' S. lat. and
+1325 ft. above sea-level. Thence to the mouth of the Perene (984 ft.) it
+is known as the Ené, and from that point to its junction with the
+Ucayali (859 ft.) as the Tambo.
+
+
+
+
+APURIMAC, an interior department of southern Peru, bounded N. by the
+department of Ayacucho, E. by Cuzco, S. and W. by Cuzco and Ayacucho.
+Area, 8187 sq. m.; pop. (1896) 177,387. The department was created in
+1873 and comprises five provinces. Its physical features and productions
+are very similar to those of Ayacucho (q.v.), with the exception that
+sugar-cane is cultivated with noteworthy success in the low valley of
+the province of Abancay. The capital, Abancay, 110 m. south-west of
+Cuzco, which is only a village in size but is rich in historical
+associations and Andahuaylas, in the north-west part of the department,
+are its principal towns.
+
+
+
+
+APYREXIA (Gr. [Greek: apyrexia], from [Greek: a-], privative, [Greek:
+pyressein], to be in a fever, [Greek: pyr], fire, fever), in pathology,
+the normal interval or period of intermission in a fever.
+
+
+
+
+'AQIBA BEN JOSEPH (c. 50-132), Jewish Palestinian rabbi, of the circle
+known as _tana_ (q.v.). It is almost impossible to separate the true
+from the false in the numerous traditions respecting his life. He became
+the chief teacher in the rabbinical school of Jaffa, where, it is said,
+he had 24,000 scholars. Whatever their number, it seems certain that
+among them was the celebrated Rabbi Meir, and that through him and
+others 'Aqiba exerted a great influence on the development of the
+doctrines embodied in the Mishnah. He sided with Bar Cochebas in the
+last Jewish revolt against Rome, recognized him as the Messiah, and
+acted as his sword-bearer. Being taken prisoner by the Romans under
+Julius Severus, he was flayed alive with circumstances of great cruelty,
+and met his fate, according to tradition, with marvellous steadfastness
+and composure. He is said by some to have been a hundred and twenty
+years old at the time of his death. He is one of the ten Jewish martyrs
+whose names occur in a penitential prayer still used in the synagogue
+service. 'Aqiba was among the first to systematize the Jewish tradition,
+and he paved the way for the compilation of the Mishnah. From his school
+emanated the Greek translation of the scriptures by Aquila.
+
+
+
+
+AQUAE (Lat. for "waters"), a name given by the Romans to sites where
+mineral springs issued from the earth. Over a hundred can be identified,
+some declaring by their modern names their ancient use: Aix-les-Bains in
+Savoy (_Aquae Sabaudicae_), Aix-en-Provence (_Aquae Sextiae_),
+Aix-la-Chapelle or Aachen (_Aquae Grani_), &c. Only two occur in
+Britain: _Aquae Sulis_--less correctly _Aquae Solis_--at Bath in
+Somerset, which was famous, and Buxton (called _Aquae_ simply), which
+seems to have been far less important. Aquae Sulis was occupied by the
+Romans almost as soon as they entered the island in A.D. 43, and
+flourished till the end of the Roman period. It was frequented by
+soldiers quartered in Britain, by the Britons, and by visitors from
+north Gaul, and its name was known in Italy, though patients probably
+seldom travelled so far. Like most mineral springs known to the
+ancients, it was under the protection of a local deity, the Celtic Sul,
+whom the Romans equated with their Minerva. Stately remains of its baths
+and temple have been found at various times, especially in 1790 and
+1878-1895, and may still be seen there.
+
+
+
+
+AQUAE CUTILIAE, a mineral spring in Italy, near the modern Cittaducale,
+9 m. E. of Rieti. The lake near it was supposed by classical writers to
+be the central point of Italy, and was renowned for its floating
+islands, which, as in other cases, were formed from the partial
+petrification of plants by the mineral substances contained in the
+water. Considerable remains of baths may still be seen there--they were
+apparently resorted to by both Vespasian and Titus in their last
+illnesses, for both died there.
+
+
+
+
+AQUAMARINE (Lat. _aqua marina_, "water of the sea"), a transparent
+variety of beryl (q.v.), having a delicate blue or bluish-green colour,
+suggestive of the tint of sea-water. It occurs at most localities which
+yield ordinary beryl, some of the finest coming from Russia. The
+gem-gravels of Ceylon contain aquamarine. Clear yellow beryl, such as
+occurs in Brazil, is sometimes called aquamarine chrysolite. When
+corundum presents the bluish tint of typical aquamarine, it is often
+termed Oriental aquamarine.
+
+
+
+
+AQUARELLE (from Ital. _acquarella_, water-colour), a form of painting
+with thin water-colour or ink.
+
+
+
+
+AQUARII, a name given to the Christians who substituted water for wine
+in the Eucharist. They were not a sect, for we find the practice widely
+in vogue at an early time, even among the orthodox. In Greek they were
+called _Hydroparastatae_, or those who offer water. Theodosius, in his
+persecuting edict of 382, classes them as a special sect with the
+Manicheans, who also eschewed wine. See EUCHARIST.
+
+
+
+
+AQUARIUM (plural _aquaria_), the name given to a receptacle for a marine
+flora and fauna. Until comparatively recently, aquaria were little more
+than domestic toys, or show-places of a popular character, but they have
+now not only assumed a profound scientific importance for the convenient
+study of anatomical and physiological problems in marine botany and
+zoology, but have also attained an economic value, as offering the best
+opportunities for that study of the habits and environment of marketable
+food-fish without which no steps for the improvement of sea-fisheries
+can be safely taken. The numerous "zoological stations" which have
+sprung up, chiefly in Europe and the United States, but also in the
+British colonies and Japan, often endeavour to unite these two aims, and
+have in many cases become centres of experimental work in problems
+relating to fisheries, as well as in less directly practical subjects.
+Of these stations, the oldest and the most important is that at Naples,
+which, though designed for purely scientific objects, also encourages
+popular study by means of a public aquarium. The following account
+(1902) of this station by Dr W. Giesbrecht, a member of the staff, will
+serve to show the methods and aims, and the complex and expensive
+equipment, of a modern aquarium:--
+
+"The zoological station at Naples is an institution for the advancement
+of biological science--that is, of comparative anatomy, zoology, botany,
+physiology. It serves this end by providing the biologist with the
+various objects of his study and the necessary appliances; it is not a
+teaching institution. The station was founded by Dr Anton Dohrn, and
+opened in the spring of 1874; it is the oldest and largest of all
+biological stations, of which there are now about thirty in existence.
+Its two buildings are situated near the seashore in the western town
+park (Villa Nazionale) of Naples. The older and larger one, 33 metres
+long, 24 m. deep, 16 m. high, contains on the ground floor the aquarium,
+which is open to the public. On the first floor there is, facing south,
+the principal library, ornamented with fresco paintings, and, facing
+north, a large hall containing twelve working tables, several smaller
+rooms and the secretarial offices. On the second floor is the
+physiological laboratory, and on the third floor the small library, a
+hall with several working tables, and the dark rooms used in developing
+photographs. The ground floor of the smaller building, which was
+finished in 1887, contains the rooms in which the animals are delivered,
+sorted and preserved, and the fishing tackle kept, together with the
+workshop of the engineer; on the first and second floors are workrooms,
+amongst others the botanical laboratory; on the third floor are
+store-rooms. In the basement of both buildings, which is continued
+underneath the court, there are sea-water cisterns and filters, engines
+and store-rooms. The materials for study which the station offers to the
+biologist are specimens of marine animals and plants which abound in the
+western part of the Mediterranean, and especially in the Gulf of Naples.
+To obtain these, two screw-steamers and several rowing boats are
+required, which are moored in the harbour of Mergellina, situated close
+by. The larger steamer, 'Johannes Müller' (15 m. long, 2½ m. wide, 1 m.
+draught), which can steam eight to ten English miles per hour, is
+provided with a steam dredge working to a depth of eighty fathoms. From
+the small steamer, 'Frank Balfour,' and the rowing boats, the fishing is
+done by means of tow-nets. Besides these there are fishermen and others
+who daily supply living material for study. The plankton (small floating
+animals) is distributed in the morning, other animals as required. The
+animals brought in by the fishermen are at once distributed amongst the
+biologists, whereas the material brought up by the dredges is placed in
+flat revolving wooden vessels, so as to give the smaller animals time to
+come out of their hiding-places. The students who work in the station
+have the first claim on specimens of plants and animals; but specimens
+are also supplied to museums, laboratories and schools, and to
+individuals engaged in original research elsewhere. Up to the present
+time about 4000 such parcels have been despatched, and not infrequently
+live specimens of animals are sent to distant places. This side of the
+work has been of very great value to science. The principal appliances
+for study with which the station provides the biologist are workrooms
+furnished with the apparatus and chemicals necessary for anatomical
+research and physiological experiments and tanks. Every student receives
+a tank for his own special use. The large tanks of the principal
+aquarium are also at his disposal for purposes of observation and
+experiment if necessary.
+
+"The water in the tanks is kept fresh by continual circulation, and is
+thus charged with the oxygen necessary to the life of the organisms. It
+is not pumped into the tanks directly from the sea, but from three large
+cisterns (containing 300 cubic metres), to which it again returns from
+the tanks. The water wasted or evaporated during this process is
+replaced by new water pumped into the cisterns directly from the sea.
+The water flows from the large cisterns into a smaller cistern, from
+which it is distributed by means of an electric pump through vulcanite
+or lead pipes to the various tanks. The water with which the tanks on
+the upper floors are filled is first pumped into large wooden tanks
+placed beneath the roof, thence it flows, under almost constant
+pressure, into the tanks. The water circulated in this manner contains
+by far the largest number of such animals as are capable of living in
+captivity in good condition. Some of them even increase at an
+undesirable rate, and it sometimes happens that young Mytilus or Ciona
+stop up the pipes; in laying these, therefore, due regard must be had to
+the arrangements for cleaning. For the cultivation of very delicate
+animals it is necessary to keep the water absolutely free from harmful
+bacteria; for this purpose large sand-filters have lately been placed in
+the system, through which the water passes after leaving the cisterns.
+Each of the smaller cisterns, which are fixed in the workrooms, consist
+of two water-tanks, placed one above the other; their frames are of
+wrought iron and the walls generally of glass. Vessels containing minute
+animals can be placed between these two tanks, receiving their water
+through a siphon from the upper tank; the water afterwards flows away
+into the lower tank.
+
+"The twenty-six tanks of the public aquarium (the largest of which
+contains 112 cubic metres of water) have stone walls, the front portion
+alone being made of glass. As the tanks hold a very large number of
+animals in proportion to the quantity of water, they require to be well
+aerated. The pipes through which the water is conducted are therefore
+placed above the surface of the water, and the fresh supply is driven
+through them under strong pressure. A large quantity of air in the form
+of fine bubbles is thus taken to the bottom of the tank and distributed
+through the entire mass of water. Should the organisms which it is
+desired to keep alive be very minute, there is a danger of their being
+washed away by the circulating water. To obviate this, either the water
+which flows away is passed through a strainer, or the water is not
+changed at all, air being driven through it by means of an apparatus put
+into motion by the drinking-water supply.
+
+"The library contains about 9000 volumes, which students use with the
+help of a slip catalogue, arranged according to authors. The station has
+published at intervals since 1879 two periodicals treating of the
+organisms of the Mediterranean. One is _Fauna und Flora des Golfes van
+Neapel_, the other _Mittheilungen aus der zoologischen Station zu
+Neapel_. The former consists of monographs in which special groups of
+animals and plants are most exhaustively treated and the Mediterranean
+species portrayed according to life in natural colours; up to the
+present time twenty-one zoological and five botanical monographs have
+appeared, making altogether 1200 4to sheets with about 400 plates. Of
+the Mittheilungen, which contain smaller articles on organisms of the
+Mediterranean, fourteen volumes in 8vo have been published. The station
+also publishes a _Zoologischer Jahresbericht_, which at first treated of
+the entire field of zoology, but since 1886 has been confined
+principally to comparative anatomy and ontogeny; it appears eight to
+nine months after the end of the year reported. The _Guide to the
+Aquarium_, with its descriptions and numerous pictures, is meant to give
+the lay visitor an idea of the marine animal world.
+
+"There are about forty officials, amongst them six zoologists, one
+physiologist, one secretary, two draughtsmen, one engineer. The station
+is a private institution, open to biologists of all nations under the
+following conditions: there are agreements with the governments of
+Austria, Baden, Bavaria, Belgium, Hamburg, Holland, Hesse, Italy,
+Prussia, Russia, Saxony, Switzerland, Hungary, Württemberg, the province
+of Naples, and the universities of Cambridge, Oxford, Strassburg,
+Columbia College (New York), and the British Association for the
+Advancement of Science, the Smithsonian Institution, and a society of
+women in the United States of North America (formerly also with
+Bulgaria, Rumania, Spain, the Academy of Sciences in Berlin, Williams
+College, University of Pennsylvania), by virtue of which the governments
+and corporate bodies named have the right, on payment of £100 per annum,
+to send a worker to the station; this places at his disposal a 'table'
+or workplace, furnished with all the necessary appliances and materials
+as set down in the agreement. At present there are agreements for
+thirty-three tables, and since the foundation of the station nearly 1200
+biologists have worked there. The current expenses are paid out of the
+table-rents, the entrance fees to the public aquarium, and an annual
+subvention paid by the German empire."
+
+In England a station on similar lines, but on a smaller scale, is
+maintained at Plymouth by the Marine Biological Association of the
+United Kingdom, with the help of subsidies from the government and the
+Fishmongers' Company.
+
+Little difficulty is experienced in maintaining, breeding and rearing
+fresh-water animals in captivity, but for many various reasons it is
+only by unremitting attention and foresight that most marine animals can
+be kept even alive in aquaria, and very few indeed can be maintained in
+a condition healthy enough to breed. Much experience, however, has been
+gained of late years at considerable expense, both in England and
+abroad. In starting a marine aquarium of whatever size, it should be
+obvious that the first consideration must be a supply of the purest
+possible water, as free as may be, not only from land-drainage and
+sewage, but also from such suspended matters as chalk, fine sand or mud.
+This is most ideally and economically secured by placing the station a
+few feet above high-water mark, in as sheltered a position as possible,
+on a rocky coast, pumping from the sea to a large reservoir above the
+station, and allowing the water to circulate gently thence through the
+tanks by gravity (Banyuls). At an inland aquarium (Berlin, Hamburg),
+given pure water in the first instance, excellent if less complete
+results may nevertheless, be obtained. The next consideration is the
+method by which oxygen is to be supplied to the organisms in the
+aquarium. Of the two methods hitherto in use, that of pumping a jet of
+air into tanks otherwise stagnant or nearly so (Brighton), while
+supplying sufficient oxygen, has so many other disadvantages, that it
+has not been employed regularly in any of the more modern aquaria. It
+is, however, still useful in aerating quite small bodies of water in
+which hardy and minute organisms can be isolated and kept under control.
+In the other method, now in general use, a fine jet of water under
+pressure falls on to the surface of the tank; this carries down with it
+a more than sufficient air-supply, analysis showing in some cases a
+higher percentage of oxygen in aquarium water than in the open sea.
+
+The water supply is best effected by gravity from reservoirs placed
+above the tanks, but may be also achieved by direct pumping from low
+reservoirs or from the sea to the tanks. Provided that an unlimited
+supply of pure water can be obtained cheaply, the overflow from the
+tanks is best run to waste; but in aquaria less fortunately placed, it
+returns to a storage low-level reservoir, from which it is again pumped,
+thus circulating round and round (Naples, Plymouth). The storage
+reservoirs should be in all cases very large in comparison with the bulk
+of water in circulation; if practicable, they should be excavated in
+rock, and lined with the best cement. Thera is no reason why they should
+not be shallow, exposed to light and air, and cultivated as rock-pools
+by the introduction of seaweeds and small animals, but they must then be
+screened from rain, cold and dust. The pumps used in circulation will be
+less likely to kill minute animals if of the plunger or ram type, rather
+than rotary, and should be of gun-metal or one of the new bronze-alloys
+which take a patina in salt water. For the circulating pipes many
+materials have been tried. Vulcanite is not only expensive and brittle,
+but has other disadvantages; common iron pipes, coated internally with
+cement or asphalt or glazed internally, with all unions and joints
+cemented, have been used with more or less success. Probably best of all
+is common lead piping, the joints being served with red-lead; water
+should be circulated through such pipes till they become coated with
+insoluble carbonate, for some time before animals are put into the
+tanks. For small installations glass may be used, the joints being made
+with marine glue or other suitable cement.
+
+In building the tanks themselves, regard must be had to their special
+purposes. If intended for show-tanks for popular admiration, or for the
+study of large animals, they must be large with a plate-glass front; for
+ordinary scientific work small tanks with all sides opaque are
+preferable from every point of view. According to their character, size
+and position, fixed tanks may be of brickwork, masonry or rock, coated
+in each case with cement; asphalting the sides offers no particular
+advantages, and often gives rise to great trouble and expense. All
+materials, and especially the cements, must be of the finest quality
+procurable. For smaller and movable tanks, slate slabs bolted or screwed
+together have some disadvantages, notably those of expense, weight and
+brittleness, but are often used. Better, cheaper and lighter, if less
+permanent, are tanks of wood bolted together, pitched internally. Glass
+bell-jars, useful in particular cases, should generally have their sides
+darkened, except when required for observation. Provision should always
+be made for cleaning every part of the tanks, pipes and reservoirs; all
+rock-work in tanks should therefore be removable. As regards the
+lighting of fixed tanks, it should always be directly from above. In all
+tanks with glass sides, whether large or small, as much light as
+possible should be kept from entering through the glass; otherwise, with
+a side-light, many animals become restless, and wear themselves out
+against the glass, affected by even so little light as comes through an
+opposite tank.
+
+In cases where distance from the sea or other causes make it
+impracticable to allow the overflow from the tanks to run to waste,
+special precautions must be taken to keep the water pure. Chemically
+speaking, the chief character of the water in an aquarium circulation,
+when compared with that of the open sea, lies in the excessive quantity
+of nitrogen present in various forms, and the reduced alkalinity; these
+two being probably connected. The excess of nitrogen is referable to
+dead animals, to waste food and to the excreta of the living organisms.
+The first two of these sources of contamination may be reduced by care
+and cleanliness, and by the maintenance of a flow of water sufficient to
+prevent the excessive accumulation of sediment in the tanks. The
+following experiment shows the rapid rise of nitrogen if unchecked. A
+tank with a considerable fauna was isolated from the general circulation
+and aerated by four air-jets, except during hours 124-166 of the
+experiment; column I. shows per 100,000 the nitrogen estimated as
+ammonia, column II. the total inorganic nitrogen:--
+
+                                         I.    II.
+  Sea-water at source of original
+    supply                             0.001  0.003
+  Aquarium water in tank at
+    commencement of experiment         0.012  0.400
+  After  22½ hours                     0.020    ··
+    "    75    "                       0.025  1.200
+    "    93    "                       0.019    ··
+    "   121½   "                       0.012    ··
+    "   141    "                       0.015  2.200
+    "   165    "                       0.025    ··
+    "   169    "                       0.025    ··
+    "   189    "                       0.012    ··
+
+During this time the alkalinity was reduced to the equivalent of 30 mg.
+CaCO3 per litre, ocean water having an alkalinity equivalent to 50-55
+mg. per litre. It has been suggested that the organic nitrogen becomes
+oxidized into nitrous, then into nitric acid, which lowers the carbonate
+values. A great deal of reduction of this nitrogenous contamination can
+be effected by filtration, a method first introduced successfully at
+Hamburg, where a most thriving aquarium has been maintained by the local
+Zoological Society for many years on the circulation principle, new
+water being added only to compensate for waste and evaporation. The
+filters consist of open double boxes, the inner having a bottom of
+perforated slate on which rests rough gravel; on the latter is fine
+gravel, then coarse, and finally fine sand. Filtration may be either
+upwards or downwards through the inner box to the outer. Such filters,
+intercalated between tanks and reservoir, have been shown by analysis to
+stop a very large proportion of nitrogenous matter. It is doubtful
+whether aquarium water will not always show an excess of nitrogenous
+compounds, but they must be kept down in every way possible. In small
+tanks, well lighted, seaweeds can be got to flourish in a way that has
+not been found practicable in large tanks with a circulation; these,
+with Lamellibranchs and small Crustacea as scavengers, will be found
+useful in this connexion. Slight or occasional circulation should be
+employed here also, to remove the film of dust and other matters, which
+otherwise covers the surface of the water and prevents due oxygenation.
+
+In such small tanks for domestic use the fauna must be practically
+limited to bottom-living animals, but for purposes of research it is
+often desired to keep alive larval and other surface-swimming animals
+(plankton). In this case a further difficulty is presented, that of
+helping to suspend the animals in the water, and thus to avoid the
+exhaustion and death which soon follow their unaided efforts to keep off
+the bottom; this duty is effected in nature by specific gravity, tide
+and surface current. In order to deal with this difficulty a simple but
+efficient apparatus has been devised by Mr E.T. Browne; a "plunger,"
+generally a glass plate or filter funnel, moves slowly up and down in a
+bell-jar or other small tank, with a period of rest between each stroke;
+the motive power is obtained through a simple bucket-and-siphon
+arrangement worked by the overflow from other tanks. This apparatus
+(first used at the Plymouth Laboratory of the Marine Biological
+Association in 1897, and since introduced into similar institutions), by
+causing slight eddies in the water, keeps the floating fauna in
+suspension, and has proved very successful in rearing larvae and in
+similar work.     (G. H. Fo.)
+
+
+
+
+AQUARIUS (the "Water-bearer" or "Cup-bearer"), in astronomy, the
+eleventh sign of the zodiac (q.v.), situated between Capricornus and
+Pisces. Its symbol is [symbol], representing part of a stream of water,
+probably in allusion to the fact that when the sun is in this part of
+the heavens (January, February) the weather is rainy. It is also a
+constellation mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd
+century B.C.); Ptolemy catalogued forty-five stars, Tycho Brahe
+forty-one, Hevelius forty-seven. [Zeta] _Aquarii_ is a well-defined
+binary, having both components of the fourth magnitude; it is probably
+of long period.
+
+
+
+
+AQUATINT (Lat. _aqua_, water, and _tincta_, dyed), a kind of etching
+(q.v.) which imitates washes with a brush. There are many ways of
+preparing a plate for aquatint, the following being recommended by P.G.
+Hamerton. Have three different solutions of rosin in rectified alcohol,
+making them of various degrees of strength, but always thin enough to be
+quite fluid, the weakest solution being almost colourless. First pour
+the strongest solution on the plate. When it dries it will produce a
+granulation; and you may now bite as in ordinary etching for your darker
+tones, stopping out what the acid is not to operate upon, or you may use
+a brush charged with acid, perchloride of iron being a very good mordant
+for the purpose. After cleaning the plate, you proceed with the weaker
+solutions in the same way, the weakest giving the finest granulation for
+skies, distances, &c. The process requires a good deal of stopping-out,
+and some burnishing, scraping, &c., at last. Aquatint may be effectively
+used in combination with line etching, and still more harmoniously with
+soft ground etching in which the line imitates that of the lead pencil.
+
+
+
+
+AQUAVIVA, CLAUDIO (1542-1615), fifth general of the Jesuits, the
+youngest son of the duke d'Altri, was born at Naples. He joined the
+Jesuits at Rome in 1567, and his high administrative gifts marked him
+out for the highest posts. He was soon nominated provincial of Naples
+and then of Rome; and during this office he offered to join the Jesuit
+mission to England that set out under Robert Parsons (q.v.) in the
+spring of 1580. The following year, being then only thirty-seven years
+old, he was elected, by a large majority, general of the society in
+succession to Mercurian, to the great surprise of Gregory XIII.; but the
+extraordinary political ability he displayed, and the vast increase that
+came to the Society during his long generalate, abundantly justified the
+votes of the electors. He, together with Lainez, may be regarded as the
+real founder of the Society as it is known to history. A born ruler, he
+secured all authority in his own hands, and insisted that those who
+prided themselves on their obedience should act up to the profession. In
+his first letter "On the happy increase of the Society" (25th of July
+1581), he treats of the necessary qualifications for superiors, and
+points out that government should be directed not by the maxims of human
+wisdom but by those of supernatural prudence. He successfully quelled a
+revolt among the Spanish Jesuits, which was supported by Philip II., and
+he made use in this matter of Parsons. A more difficult task was the
+management of Sixtus V., who was hostile to the Society. By consummate
+tact and boldness Aquaviva succeeded in playing the king against the
+pope, and Sixtus against Philip. For prudential reasons, he silenced
+Mariana, whose doctrine on tyrannicide had produced deep indignation in
+France; and he also appears to have discountenanced the action of the
+French Jesuits in favour of the League, and was thus able to secure
+solid advantages when Henry IV. overcame the confederacy. To him is due
+the Jesuit system of education in the book _Ratio atque institutio
+studiorum_ (Rome, 1586). But the Dominicans denounced it to the
+Inquisition, and it was condemned both in Spain and in Rome, on account
+of some opinions concerning the Thomist doctrines of the divine physical
+premotion in secondary causes and predestination. The incriminated
+chapters were withdrawn in the edition of 1591. In the fierce disputes
+that arose between the Jesuit theologians and the Dominicans on the
+subject of grace, Aquaviva managed, under Clement VIII. and Paul V., to
+save his party from a condemnation that at one time seemed probable. He
+died at Rome on the 31st of January 1615, leaving the Society numbering
+13,000 members in 550 houses and 15 provinces. The subsequent influence
+exercised by the Jesuits, in their golden age, was largely due to the
+far-seeing policy of Aquaviva, who is undoubtedly the greatest general
+that has governed the Society.     (E. Tn.)
+
+
+
+
+AQUEDUCT (Lat. _aqua_, water, and _ducere_, to lead; Gr. [Greek:
+hydragogeion], [Greek: hydragogion], [Greek: hyponomos]), a term
+properly including artificial works of every kind by means of which
+water is conveyed from one place to another, but generally used in a
+more limited sense. It is, in fact, rarely employed except in cases
+where the work is of considerable magnitude and importance, and where
+the water flows naturally by gravitation. The most important purpose for
+which aqueducts are constructed is that of conveying pure water, from
+sources more or less distant, to large masses of population. Aqueducts
+are either below ground, on the surface, or raised on walls either solid
+or pierced with arches; to the last the term is often confined in
+popular language. The choice of method naturally depends on the contour
+of the country.
+
+
+  Phoenician.
+
+I. _Ancient Aqueducts._--In Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria--flat countries
+traversed by big rivers and subject to floods--water was supplied by
+means of open canals with large basins. In Persia devices of all kinds
+were adopted according to the nature of the country. In relation to the
+achievements of Greece and Rome, the Phoenicians are the most important
+among pre-classical engineers. In Cyprus water was supplied to temples
+by rock-cut subterranean conduits carried across intervening valleys in
+siphons. Such conduits have been found near Citium, Amathus, &c.
+(Cesnola, _Cyprus_, pp. 187, 341). In Syria the most striking of
+Phoenician waterworks is the well of Ras-el-Ain near Tyre, which
+consisted of four strong octagonal towers through which rises to a
+height of 18 to 20 ft. the water from four deep artesian wells. The
+water thus accumulated was carried off in conduits to reservoirs near
+the shore, and thence in vessels or skins to the island. The aqueduct
+across to the island is, of course, of Roman work.
+
+
+  Jerusalem.
+
+It is not possible in all cases to find a satisfactory date for the
+numerous conduits which have supplied Jerusalem; some probably go back
+to the times of the kings of Judah. The principal reservoir consists of
+the three Pools of Solomon which supplied the old aqueduct; the highest
+is about 20 ft. above the middle one and 40 above the lowest. These
+pools collected the water from Ain Saleh and other springs, and sent it
+to the city by two conduits. The higher of these--probably the
+older--was partly a rock-cut canal, partly carried on masonry; the
+siphon-pipe system was adopted across the lower ground near Rachel's
+Tomb, where the pipe (15 in. wide) is formed of large pierced stones
+embedded in rubble masonry. The lower conduit is still complete; it
+winds so much as to be altogether some 20 m. long. Near the
+Birket-es-Sultan it passes over the valley of Hinnom on nine low arches
+and reaches the city on the hill above the Tyropeon valley. It enters
+the Haram enclosure at the Gate of the Chain (Bâb es-Silsila), outside
+which is a basin 84 ft. by 42 by 24 deep. It is interesting to note in
+the case of the underground tunnel which brought water from the Virgin's
+Fountain to the pool of Siloam, that the two boring parties had no
+certain means of keeping the line; there is evidence that they had to
+make shafts to discover their position, and that ultimately the parties
+almost passed one another. Though the direct distance is 1100 ft., the
+length of the conduit is over 1700 ft. Perrot and Chipiez incline to
+attribute the Pools of Solomon to the Asmonaeans, followed by Roman
+governors, whereas the earlier tunnels of the Kedron and Tyropeon valley
+may be Punic-Jewish (see also _Palest. Explor. Fund Mem._, "Jerusalem,"
+pp. 346-365). Besides these conduits excavation has discovered traces of
+many other cisterns, tunnels and conduits of various kinds. Many of them
+point to periods of great prosperity and engineering enterprise which
+gave to the city a water-supply far superior to that which exists at
+present.
+
+  See the publications of the Palestine Exploration Fund; A.S. Murray's
+  _Handbook to Syria and Palestine_ (1903), pp. 63-67; Perrot and
+  Chipiez, _History of Art in Sardinia, Judaea, &c._ (Eng. trans.,
+  1890), pp. 321 ff.; other authorities quoted under JERUSALEM.
+
+
+  Greek
+
+The earliest attempts in Europe to solve the problems of water-supply
+were made by the Greeks, who perhaps derived their ideas from the
+Phoenicians. It has generally been held, partly on the strength of a
+passage in Strabo (v. 3. 8, p. 235), and partly owing to the comparative
+unimportance of the remains discovered, that the Greek works were
+altogether inferior to the Roman. Research in the Greek towns of Asia
+Minor, together with a juster appreciation of the remains as a whole,
+must be held to modify this view. Among the earliest examples of Greek
+work are the tunnels or _emissaria_ which drained Lake Copais in
+Boeotia; these, though not strictly aqueducts, were undoubtedly the
+precursors of such works, consisting as they did of subterranean tunnels
+([Greek: hyponomoi]) with vertical shafts ([Greek: phreatiai]), sixteen
+of which are still recognizable, the deepest being about 150 ft. They
+may be compared with that described by Polybius as conveying water from
+Taurus to Hecatompylos, and with numerous other remains in Asia Minor,
+Syria, Phoenicia and Palmyra. Popular legend ascribed them to Cadmus,
+just as Argos referred the irrigation of its lands to Danaüs. They are
+undoubtedly of great antiquity.
+
+The insufficiency of water, supplied by natural springs and cisterns
+hewn in the rock, which in an early age had satisfied the small
+communities of Greece, had become a pressing public question by the time
+of the Tyrants, of whom Polycrates of Samos and Peisistratus of Athens
+were distinguished for their wisdom and enterprise in this respect. The
+former obtained the services of Eupalinus, an engineer celebrated for
+the skill with which he had carried out the works for the water-supply
+of Megara (see _Athen. Mittheil._ xxv., 1900, 23) under the direction of
+the Tyrant Theagenes (c. 625 B.C.). At Samos the difficulty lay in a
+hill which rose between the town and the water source. Through this hill
+Eupalinus cut a tunnel 8 ft. broad, 8 ft. high and 4200 ft. long,
+building within the tunnel a channel 3 ft. broad and 11 ells deep. The
+water, flowing by an accurately reckoned declivity, and all along open
+to the fresh air, was received at the lower end by a conduit of masonry,
+and so led into the town, where it supplied fountains, pipes, baths,
+cloacae, &c., and ultimately passed into the harbour (Herod, iii. 60).
+In Athens, under the rule of the Peisistratids (c. 560-510 B.C.), a
+similarly extensive, if less difficult, series of works was completed to
+bring water from the neighbouring hills to supplement the inadequate
+supply from the springs. From Hymettus were two conduits passing under
+the bed of the Ilissus, most of the course being cut in the rock.
+Pentelicus, richer in water, supplied another conduit, which can still
+be traced from the modern village of Chalandri by the air shafts built
+several feet above the ground, and at a distance apart of 130-160 ft.;
+the diameter of these shafts is 4-5 ft., and the number of them still
+preserved is about sixty. Tributary channels conveyed into the main
+stream the waters of the district through which it passed. Outside
+Athens, those two conduits met in a large reservoir, from which the
+water was distributed by a ramification of underground channels
+throughout the city. These latter channels vary in form, being partly
+round, partly square, and generally walled with stone; the chief one is
+sufficiently large for two men to pass in it. The precise location of
+the reservoir depends on the value of Dr Wilhelm Dörpfeld's theory as to
+the site of the Enneacrunus of Thucydides and Pausanias (see ATHENS:
+_Topography and Antiquity_). Dörpfeld places it south-west of the
+Acropolis, where there is a cistern connected with an aqueduct which
+passed under the theatre of Dionysus and on towards the Ilissus (see map
+under ATHENS). Others have placed it south of the Olympieum in the
+Ilissus bed. Beside these works water was brought from Pentelicus in an
+underground conduit begun by the emperor Hadrian and completed by
+Antoninus Pius. This aqueduct is still in use, having been repaired in
+1869.
+
+In Sicily, the works by which Empedocles, it is said, brought the water
+into the town of Selinus, are no longer visible; but it is probable
+that, like those of Syracuse, they consisted chiefly of tunnels and
+pipes laid under the ground. Syracuse was supplied by two aqueducts, one
+of which the Athenians destroyed (Thuc. vi. 100). One was fed by an
+affluent (the mod. Buttigliara) of the Anapus (mod. Anapo); it carried
+the water up to the top of Epipolae, where the channel was open, and
+thence down to the city and finally into the harbour. The other also
+ascends to the top of Epipolae, skirts the city on the north, and then
+proceeds along the coast. Its course is marked by rectangular shafts
+(_spiragli_) at the bottom of which water is still visible.
+
+An example of what appears to have been the earliest form of aqueduct in
+Greece was discovered in the island of Cos beside the fountain Burinna
+(mod. Fountain of Hippocrates) on Mount Oromedon. It consists of a
+bell-shaped chamber, built underground in the hill-side, to receive the
+water of the spring and keep it cool; a shaft from the top of the
+chamber supplied fresh air. From this reservoir the water was led by a
+subterranean channel, 114 ft. long and 6½ ft. high.     (J. M. M.)
+
+
+  Roman.
+
+In comparing Greek and Roman aqueducts, many writers have enlarged on
+the greatness of the latter as an example of Roman contempt for natural
+obstacles, or even of Roman ignorance of the laws of nature. Now, in the
+first place, the Romans were not unacquainted with the law that water
+finds its own level (see Pliny, _Hist. Nat._ xxxi. 57, "subit
+altitudinem exortus sui"), and took full advantage of it in the
+construction of lofty fountains and the supplying of the upper floors of
+houses. That they built aqueducts across valleys in preference to
+carrying pipes underground was due simply to economy. Pipes had to be
+made of lead which was weak, or of bronze which was expensive; and the
+Romans were not sufficiently expert in the casting of large pipes which
+would stand a very great pressure to employ them for the whole course of
+a great aqueduct. Secondly, the water was so extremely hard that it was
+important that the channels should be readily accessible for repair as
+well as for the detection of leakage.[1] Moreover, as we shall see, the
+Roman aqueducts did not, in fact, preserve a straight line regardless of
+the configuration of the country. A striking example is the aqueduct of
+Nemausus (Nîmes), the springs of which are some 10 m. from the town,
+though the actual distance traversed is about 25. Other devices, such as
+changing the level and then modifying the slope, and siphon arrangements
+of various kinds, were adopted (as in the aqueduct at Aspendus).
+
+Sextus Julius Frontinus, appointed _curator aquarum_ in A.D. 97,
+mentions in his treatise _de aquaeductibus urbis Romae_ (on the
+aqueducts of the city of Rome) nine aqueducts as being in use in his
+time (the lengths of the aqueducts as given here follow his
+measurements). These are: (1) AQUA APPIA, which took its rise between
+the 6th and 7th milestones of the Via Collatina, and measured from its
+source to the Porta Trigemina 11 Roman miles, of which all but about 300
+ft. were below ground. It appears to have been the first important
+enterprise of the kind at Rome, and was the work of the censor Appius
+Claudius Caecus, from whom it derived its name. The date of its
+construction was 312 B.C. (2) ANIO VETUS, constructed in 272-269 B.C. by
+the censor Manius Curius Dentatus. From its source near Tivoli, on the
+left side of the Anio, it flowed some 43 m.,[2] of which only 1100 ft.
+was above ground. At the distance of 2 m. from Rome (Frontinus, i. 21),
+it parted into two courses, one of which led to the _horti Asiniani_,
+and was thence distributed; while the other (_rectus ductus_) led by the
+temple of Spes to the Porta Esquilina. (3) AQUA MARCIA, reconstructed in
+1869-1870 under the name of Acqua Pia or Marcia-Pia after Pius IX.
+(though from Tivoli to Rome the modern aqueduct takes an entirely
+different course), rising on the left side of the Via Valeria near the
+36th milestone. It traversed 61¾ m., of which 54¼ were underground, and
+for the remaining distance was carried partly on substructions and
+partly on arches. It was the work of the praetor Quintus Marcius Rex
+(144-140 B.C.), not of Ancus Marcius, the fourth king of Rome, as Pliny
+(_N.H._ xxxi. 3) fancied, and took its name from its constructor. Its
+waters were celebrated for their coolness and excellent quality. Its
+volume was largely increased by Augustus, who added to it the Aqua
+Augusta; and it was repaired and restored by Titus, Septimus Severus,
+Caracalla and Diocletian. (4) AQUA TEPULA, from its source (now known as
+Sorgente Preziosa) in the district of Tusculum, to Rome, was some 11 m.
+in length. The first portion of its course must have been almost
+entirely subterranean and is not now traceable. For the last 6½ m. it
+ran on the same series of arches that carried the Aqua Marcia, but at a
+higher level. It was the work of the censors Cn. Servilius Caepio and L.
+Cassius Longinus, and was completed in the year 125 B.C. Its water is
+warm (about 63° Fahr.) and not of the best quality. (5) The AQUA JULIA,
+from a source 2 m. from that of the Tepula, joined its course at the
+10th milestone of the Via Latina. The combined stream, after a distance
+of 4 m., was received in a reservoir, and then once more divided into
+two channels. The entire length of the Julia was 15½ m. It was
+constructed in the year 33 B.C. by M. Vipsanius Agrippa, who also built
+the (6) AQUA VIRGO which, from its origin at a copious spring in a marsh
+on the Via Collatina, measured 14 m. in length; it was conveyed in a
+channel, partly under and partly above ground. It was begun in the year
+33 B.C. and was celebrated for the excellence of its waters. It was
+restored to use by Pius V. in 1570. (7) AQUA ALSIETINA or AUGUSTA, the
+source of which is the Lacus Alsietinus (mod. Lago di Martignano), to
+the north of Rome, was over 22 m. in length, of which 358 paces were on
+arches. It was the work of Augustus, probably with the object of
+furnishing water for his _naumachia_ (a basin for sham sea-fights), and
+not for drinking purposes. Its course is unknown, as no remains of it
+exist, but an inscription relating to it is given in _Notizie d. Scant_
+(1887), p. 182. (8, 9) The AQUA CLAUDIA and ANIO NOVUS were two
+aqueducts begun by Caligula in A.D. 38 and completed by Claudius in A.D.
+52. The springs of the former belonged to the same group as those of the
+Marcia, and were situated near the 38th milestone of the Via
+Sublacensis, not far from its divergence from the Via Valeria, while the
+original intake of the latter from the river Anio was 4 m. farther along
+the same road. As the water was thick it was collected in a purifying
+tank, and 4 m. below, a branch stream, the Rivus Herculaneus, was added
+to it. According to Frontinus, over 10 m. of the course of the Claudia
+and nearly 9½ of that of the Anio Novus were above ground. Seven miles
+out of Rome they united and ran from that point into Rome, following a
+natural isthmus formed by a lava stream from the Alban volcano, upon a
+line of arches, which still forms one of the most conspicuous features
+of the Campagna. The original inscription of Claudius (A.D. 52) on the
+Porta Maggiore, by which the Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus crossed the Via
+Praenestina and the Via Labicana, gives the length of the Aqua Claudia
+as 45 m., and that of the Anio Novus as 62 m. Frontinus, on the other
+hand, gives 46.406 m. (i.e. about 43 English miles) and 58.700 m. (i.e.
+about 54 English miles). Albertini (_Mélanges de l'École Française_,
+1906, 305) explains the difference as due to the fact that Frontinus was
+calculating the length of the Claudia from the farthest spring, the Fons
+Albudinus, and that of the Anio Novus from the new intake constructed by
+Trajan in one of the three lakes constructed by Nero for the adornment
+of his villa above Subiaco. Two other inscriptions on the Porta Maggiore
+record restorations by Vespasian in A.D. 70, and by Titus in A.D. 80.
+That the aqueducts should be spoken of as _vetustate dilapsi_ so soon
+after their construction is not a little surprising, and may be
+attributed either to hasty construction in order to complete them by a
+fixed date, or to jobbery by the imperial freedmen who under Claudius
+were especially powerful, or to the fact that a line of arches intended
+originally in all probability for the Aqua Claudia alone was made to
+carry the Anio Novus as well.
+
+The size of the channels (_specus_) of the principal aqueducts varies
+considerably at different points of their course. The Anio Novus has the
+largest of them all, measuring 3 to 4 ft. wide and 9 ft. high to the top
+of the roof, which is pointed. They are lined with hard cement (_opus
+signinum_) containing fragments of broken brick. Those aqueducts of
+which the most conspicuous remains exist in the neighbourhood of Rome
+are the four from the upper valley of the Anio, the two which took their
+supply and their name from the river itself, and the Marcia and the
+Claudia, which originated from the same group of springs, in the floor
+of the Anio valley 6 m. below Subiaco. Those of the Anio Vetus, which
+travelled at a considerably lower level than the other three, are the
+least conspicuous, while the Claudia and Anio Novus as a rule kept close
+together, the latter at the highest level of all. The ruins of bridges
+and substructions in the Anio valley down to Tivoli, though
+comparatively little known, are of great importance. In all the
+aqueducts the original construction of the bridges was in _opus
+quadratum_ (masonry), while the substructions are in brick-faced
+concrete; but the bridges are as a rule strengthened (and often several
+times) with reinforcing walls of concrete faced with _opus reticulatum_
+or brickwork. Below Tivoli, where the Anio leaves its narrow valley, the
+aqueducts sweep round towards the Alban hills, and pass through some
+very difficult country between Tivoli and Gallicano, alternately
+crossing ravines, some of which are as much as 300 ft. deep, and
+tunnelling through hills.[3]
+
+The engineering skill displayed is remarkable, and one wonders what
+instruments were employed--probably the so-called _chorobates_, an
+improvement upon the ordinary water-level (Vitruvius viii. 6), though
+this would be slow and complicated. The optical properties of glass
+lenses were, however, unknown to the ancients, and the _dioptra_, or
+angle measure, was considered by Vitruvius less trustworthy than the
+_chorobates_ for the planning of aqueducts (cf. E. Hultsch, _s.v_. in
+Pauly-Wissowa, _Real-encyclopädie_). The aqueducts as a rule were
+carried on separate bridges, though all four united at the Ponte Lupo, a
+huge structure, which after the addition of all the four, and with the
+inclusion of all the later strengthening walls that were found necessary
+in course of time, measures 105 ft. in height, 508 in length, and 46 in
+thickness at the bottom, without including the buttresses. From
+Gallicano onwards the course of these four aqueducts follows the lower
+slopes of the Alban Hills. Previous writers on the subject have been
+unable to determine their course, which is largely subterranean; but it
+can be followed step by step with the indications given by the presence
+of the calcareous deposit which was thrown out at the _putei_ or shafts
+(which were, as a rule, placed at intervals of 240 ft., as were the
+_cippi_) when the _specus_ was cleaned; and remains of bridges, though
+less important, owing to the less difficult character of the country,
+are not entirely absent (cf. the works by T. Ashby cited in
+bibliography).[4] Near the 7th milestone of the Via Latina at Le
+Capanelle, the Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus emerge from their underground
+course, and run into Rome upon the long series of arches already
+mentioned, passing over the Porta Maggiore. The Claudia sent off an
+important branch from the Porta Maggiore over the Caclian to the
+Palatine, but the main aqueduct soon reached its termination. A mile
+farther on the Aqua Marcia also, owing to the gradual slope of the
+ground towards Rome, begins to be supported on arches, which were also
+used to carry the Aqua Tepula and the Aqua Julia (of the two latter,
+before their junction with the Marcia, no remains exist above ground,
+but inscribed _cippi_ of the last named and its underground channel have
+been found at Le Capanelle, and _cippi_ also close to its springs, which
+are a little way above Grottaferrata at Gli Squarciarelli). The Anio
+Vetus followed the same line, but kept underground (as was natural at
+the early period at which it was constructed) until the immediate
+neighbourhood of Rome, near the locality known as "ad Spem veterem"
+(from a temple of Spes, of which no remains are known) close to the
+Porta Maggiore. At this point, besides the aqueducts named, the Aqua
+Appia, as we are told by Frontinus, entered the city, and received an
+important branch, the Appia Augusta. No remains of either have been
+discovered outside the city.
+
+The Aqua Alexandrina must also have entered the city here, though its
+channel, which lay at some depth below ground, has not been discovered.
+Considerable remains of its brick aqueducts exist in the district
+between the Via Praenestina and the Via Labicana.
+
+Of the two aqueducts on the right bank of the Tiber, the Alsietina, as
+we have said, has no remains at all, while those of the Traiana are not
+of great importance. The line of the aqueducts was marked by _cippi_,
+inscribed (in the case of the Anio Vetus, Marcia, Tepula, Julia and
+Virgo--those of the Claudia and Anio Novus are uninscribed, and those of
+the Traiana are differently worded) with the name of the aqueduct, the
+distance from the next _cippus_ (generally 240 ft.) and the number,
+counting from Rome (not from the springs). These boundary stones were
+erected in pairs, to mark off the strip of land 30 ft. in width reserved
+for the aqueduct, and for the road or path which generally followed it.
+The shafts (_putei_) often stood, but not necessarily, at the same
+points as the _cippi_.
+
+To these nine must be added the two following, constructed after
+Frontinus's time: (10) AQUA TRAIANA, from springs to the north-west of
+the Lacus Sabatinus (Lago di Bracciano), constructed by Trajan in A.D.
+109, about 36½ English miles in length. It was restored by Paul V. in
+1611, who made use of and largely transformed the remains of the ancient
+aqueduct; he allowed some of the inferior water of the lake to flow into
+the channel, and it is thus no longer used for drinking. (11) AQUA
+ALEXANDRINA, rising about 14 English miles from Rome, between the Via
+Praenestina and the Via Labicana, the work of Alexander Severus (A.D.
+226). The springs now supply the modern Acqua Felice, constructed by
+Sixtus V. in 1585, but the course of the latter is mainly subterranean
+and not identical with that of the former.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+  _Photo, Altnari._
+  AQUA CLAUDIA, ROME.
+
+  _Photo, Neurdein._
+  PONT DU CARD, NÎMES (NEMAUSUS).]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+  _Photo, Laureat y Cia._
+  ROMAN AQUEDUCT AT SEGOVIA.
+
+  AQUEDUCT OF ROQUEFAVOUR, MARSEILLES.
+  Early nineteenth century.
+
+  _Photo, Brogi._
+  PISCINA MIRABILIS AT BAIAE.
+
+  _Photo, Dr T. Ashby._
+  AQUA MARCIA, ROME.]
+
+It is agreed that these eleven are all that were constructed. Procopius
+speaks of fourteen (and the Regionary catalogues mention others), but
+this number includes branch conduits. All the aqueducts ended in the
+city in huge _castella_ or reservoirs for the purpose of distribution.
+Vitruvius recommends the division of these into three parts--one for the
+supply of fountains, &c., one for the public baths and one for private
+consumers. In the Piazza Vittorio Emmanuele at Rome there are still to
+be seen the remains of a large ornamental fountain built probably for
+the Aqua Julia by Domitian or Alexander Severus (Jordan-Hülsen,
+_Topographie_, i. 3350). Besides these main _castella_ there were also
+many minor _castella_ in various parts of the city for sub-distribution.
+To allow the water to purify itself before being distributed in the
+city, filtering and settling tanks (_piscinae limariae_) were built
+outside the walls. These _piscinae_ were covered in with a vaulted roof,
+and were sometimes on a very large scale, as in the example still
+preserved at Fermo, which consists of two stories, each having three
+oblong basins communicating with each other; or the Piscina Mirabilis at
+Baiae, which is covered in by a vaulted roof, supported on forty-eight
+pillars and perforated to permit the escape of foul air. Two stairs lead
+by forty steps to the bottom of the reservoir. In the middle of the
+basin is a sinking to collect the deposit of the water. The walls and
+pillars are coated with a stucco so hard as to resist a tool.
+
+The oversight of aqueducts was placed, in the times of the republic,
+under the aediles, who were not, however, the constructors of them; of
+the four aqueducts built during this period, three are the work of
+censors, one (the Marcia) of a praetor. Under the empire this task
+devolved on special officials styled _Curatores Aquarum_, instituted by
+Augustus, who, as he himself says, "rivos aquarum omnium refecit"
+(inscription on the arch by which the Aqua Marcia crossed the Via
+Tiburtina).     (T. As.)
+
+Among the aqueducts outside Italy, constructed in Roman times and
+existing still, the most remarkable are: (1) the aqueduct at Nîmes
+(Nemausus), erected probably by Vipsanius Agrippa in the time of
+Augustus, which rose to 160 ft. The Pont du Card, as this aqueduct is
+now called, consists of three tiers of arches across the valley of the
+river Gardon. In the lowest tier are six arches, of which one has a span
+of 75 ft., the others each 60 ft. In the second tier are eleven arches,
+each with a span of 75 ft. In the third tier are thirty-five smaller
+arches which carried the _specus_. As a bridge, the Pont du Gard has no
+rival for lightness and boldness of design among the existing remains of
+works of this class carried out in Roman times. (2) The aqueduct bridges
+at Segovia (Merckel, _Ingenieurtechnik_, pp. 566-568), Tarragona
+(_ibid._ 565-566), and Merida in Spain, the former being 2400 ft. long,
+with 109 arches of fine masonry, in two tiers, and reaching the height
+of 102 ft. The bridge at Tarragona is 876 ft. long and 83 ft. high. (3)
+At Mainz are the ruins of an aqueduct 7000 yds. long, about half of
+which is carried on from 500 to 600 pillars (_Archaeological Journal_,
+xlvii., 1890, pp. 211-214). This aqueduct was built by the XIVth legion
+and was for the use of the camp, not for the townspeople. For the
+similar aqueduct at Luynes see _Arch. Journ._ xlv. (1888), pp. 235-237.
+Similar witnesses of Roman occupation are to be seen in Dacia, Africa
+(see especially under CARTHAGE), Greece and Asia Minor. (4) The aqueduct
+at Jouy-aux-Arches, near Metz, which originally extended across the
+Moselle, here very broad, conveyed to the city an abundance of excellent
+water from Gorze. From a large reservoir at the source of the aqueduct
+the water passed along subterranean channels built of hewn stone, and
+sufficiently spacious for a man to walk in them upright. Similar
+channels received the water after it had crossed the Moselle by this
+bridge, at the distance of about 6 m. from Metz, and conveyed it to the
+city. The bridge consisted of only one row of arches nearly 60 ft. high.
+The middle arches have given way under the force of the water, but the
+others are still perfectly solid. This aqueduct is probably to be
+attributed to the latter half of the 4th century A.D. It is for the use
+of the town; hence its size. (5) One of the principal bridges of the
+aqueduct of Antioch in Syria is 700 ft. long, and at the deepest point
+200 ft. high. The lower part consists almost entirely of solid wall, and
+the upper part of a series of arches with very massive pillars. The
+masonry and design are rude. The water supply was drawn from several
+springs at a place called Beit el-Ma (anc. Daphne) about 4 or 5 m. from
+Antioch. From these separate springs the water was conducted by channels
+of hewn stone into a main channel, similarly constructed, which
+traversed the rest of the distance, being carried across streams and
+valleys by means of arches or bridges. (6) At the village of Moris,
+about an hour's distance north-west from the town of Mytilene, is the
+bridge of an aqueduct, carried by massive pillars built of large hewn
+blocks of grey marble, and connected by means of three rows of arches,
+of which the uppermost is of brick. The bridge extended about 500 ft. in
+length, and at the deepest point was from 70 to 80 ft. high. Judged by
+the masonry and the graceful design, it has been thought to be a work of
+the age of Augustus. Remains of this aqueduct are to be seen at Larisson
+Lamarousia, an hour's distance from Moris, and at St Demetri, two hours
+and a half from Ayasos, on the road to Vasilika.
+
+
+  Asia Minor.
+
+The whole subject of the ancient and medieval aqueducts of Asia Minor
+has been considered in great detail by G. Weber ("Wasserleitungen in
+kleinasiatischen Städten," in the _Jahrbuch des kaiserl. deutsch.
+archäolog. Instit._ xix., 1904; see also earlier articles in _Jahrbuch_,
+1892, 1899). The aqueducts examined are those at Pergamum, Laodicea and
+Smyrna (in the earlier articles), and those at Metropolis (Ionia),
+Tralles (Aidin), Antioch-on-Maeander, Aphrodisias, Trapezopolis,
+Hierapolis, Apamea Cibotus and Antioch in Pisidia. In most of these
+cases it is difficult or even impossible to decide whether the work is
+Hellenistic or Roman; to the Romans Weber inclines to attribute, e.g.
+those at Metropolis, Tralles (perhaps), Aphrodisias; to the Greeks, e.g.
+those at Antioch-on-Maeander and Antioch in Pisidia. Since, therefore, a
+detailed description of these remains does not provide material for any
+satisfactory generalizations as to the distinctive features of
+Hellenistic and Roman work, it will be sufficient here to mention a few
+of the more interesting discoveries.
+
+In the case of Metropolis, the aqueduct in the valley of the Astraeus
+consisted of an arcade about 13 to 16 ft. high. Nearer to the town in
+the hills there are distinct traces of a canal with brick walls. It is
+clear that the water could not have served more than the lower parts of
+the town, the acropolis of which is nearly 200 ft. above the level of
+the conduit. In the case of Tralles the water was supplied by a high
+pressure conduit and distributed from the acropolis, where there are the
+remains of a basin (13 ft. by 10) arched over with brick. The ancient
+aqueduct is to be distinguished from a later, probably Byzantine, canal
+conduit, the course of which avoids the deeper depressions, crossed by
+the old aqueduct. Of the Antioch-on-Maeander aqueduct only a few
+clay-pipes remain, and the same is true of the aqueduct which was built
+by Carminius in the 2nd century A.D. to supply the community when
+reinforced by the amalgamation of Plarasa and Tauropolis; two of its
+basins are still distinguishable, but the two water-towers which are
+still standing belong to a later Byzantine structure. Trapezopolis was
+supplied from Mt. Salbacus (Baba Dagh): some twenty stone-pipes have
+been found built into a low wall which varies from 3¼ to about 5 ft.
+wide. Of the pillars which carried the conduit-pipe to Antioch in
+Pisidia, nineteen are still standing. Each arch consists of eleven
+keystones; no cement was used. The conduit, which was high-pressure,
+ends in a distributing tower and reservoir.     (J. M. M.)
+
+II. _Medieval._--The aqueduct near Spoleto, which now serves also as a
+bridge, is deserving of notice as an early instance of the use of the
+pointed arch, belonging as it does to the 7th or 8th century. It has
+ten arches, remarkable for the elegance of their design and the airy
+lightness of their proportions, each over 66 ft. in span, and about 300
+ft. in height.
+
+
+  Constantinople.
+
+The aqueduct of Pyrgos, near Constantinople, is a remarkable example of
+works of this class carried out in the later times of the Roman empire,
+and consisted of two branches. From this circumstance it was called Egri
+Kemer ("the Crooked Aqueduct"), to distinguish it from the Long
+Aqueduct, situated near the source of the waters. One of the branches
+extends 670 ft. in length, and is 106 ft. in height at the deepest part.
+It is composed of three tiers of arches, those in each row increasing in
+width from the bottom to the top--an arrangement very properly
+introduced with the view of saving materials without diminishing the
+strength of the work. The two upper rows consisted of arches of
+semicircles, the lower of Gothic arches; and this circumstance leads to
+the belief that the date of the structure is about the 10th century. The
+breadth of the building at the base was 21 ft., and it diminished with a
+regular batter on each side to the top, where it was only 11 ft. The
+base also was protected by strong buttresses or counterforts, erected
+against each of the pillars. The other branch of the aqueduct was 300
+ft. long, and consisted of twelve semicircular arches. This aqueduct
+serves to convey to Constantinople the waters of the valley of Belgrad,
+one of the principal sources from which the city is supplied. These are
+situated on the heights of Mount Haemus, the extremity of the Balkan
+Mountains, which overhangs the Black Sea. The water rises about 15 m.
+from the city, and between 3 and 4 m. west of the village of Belgrad, in
+three sources, which run in three deep and very confined valleys. These
+unite a little below the village, and then are collected into a large
+reservoir. After flowing a mile or two from this reservoir, the waters
+are augmented by two other streams, and conveyed by a channel of stone
+to the Crooked Aqueduct. From this they are conveyed to another which is
+the Long Aqueduct; and then, with various accessions, into a third,
+termed the Aqueduct of Justinian. From this they enter a vaulted
+conduit, which skirts the hills on the left side of the valley, and
+crosses a broad valley 2 m. below the Aqueduct of Justinian, by means of
+an aqueduct, with two tiers of arches of a very beautiful construction.
+The conduit then proceeds onward in a circuitous route, till it reaches
+the reservoir of Egri Kapu, situated just without and on the walls of
+the city. From this the water is conducted to the various quarters of
+the city, and also to the reservoir of St Sophia, which supplies the
+seraglio of the grand signior. The Long Aqueduct (Usun Kemer) is more
+imposing by its extent than the Crooked one, but is far inferior in the
+regularity of design and disposition of the materials. It is evidently a
+work of the Turks. It consists of two tiers of arches, the lower being
+forty-eight in number, and the upper fifty. The whole length was about
+2200 ft., and the height 80 ft. The aqueduct of Justinian (Muallak Kemer
+or "Hanging Aqueduct") is without doubt one of the finest monuments
+which remain to us of the middle ages. It consists of two tiers of large
+pointed arches, pierced transversely. Those of the lower story have 55
+ft. of span, the upper ones 40 ft. The piers are supported by strong
+buttresses, and at different heights they have little arches passing
+through them laterally, which relieve the deadness of the solid pillar.
+The length of this aqueduct is 720 ft. and the height 108 ft. This
+aqueduct has been attributed both to Constantine I. and to Justinian,
+the latter being perhaps the more probable.
+
+Besides the waters of Belgrad, Constantinople was supplied from several
+other principal sources, one of which took its rise on the heights of
+the same mountains, 3 or 4 m. east of Belgrad. This was conveyed in a
+similar manner by an arched channel elevated, when it was necessary, on
+aqueduct bridges, till it reached the northern parts of the city. It was
+in the course of this aqueduct that the contrivance of the _souterasi_
+or hydraulic obelisks, described by Andréossy (on his voyage to the
+Black Sea, the account of the Thracian Bosporus), was constructed, which
+excited some attention, as being an improvement on the method of
+conducting water by aqueduct bridges. "The souterasi," says Andréossy,
+"are masses of masonry, having generally the form of a truncated pyramid
+or an Egyptian obelisk. To form a conduit with souterasi, we choose
+sources of water, the level of which is several feet higher than the
+reservoir by which it is to be distributed over the city. We bring the
+water from its sources in subterranean canals, slightly declining until
+we come to the borders of a valley or broken ground. We there raise on
+each side a souterasi, to which we adapt vertically leaden pipes of
+determinate diameters, placed parallel to the two opposite sides of the
+building. These pipes are disjoined at the upper part of the obelisk,
+which forms a sort of basin, with which the pipes are connected. The one
+permits the water to rise to the level from whence it had descended; by
+the other, the water descends from this level to the foot of the
+souterasi, where it enters another canal underground, which conducts it
+to a second and to a third souterasi, where it rises and again descends,
+as at the last station. Here a reservoir receives it and distributes it
+in different directions by orifices of which the discharge is known."
+Again he says, "it requires but little attention to perceive that this
+system of conducting tubes is nothing but a series of siphons open at
+their upper part, and communicating with each other. The expense of a
+conduit by souterasi is estimated at only one-fifth of that of an
+aqueduct with arcades." There seems to be really no advantage in these
+pyramids, further than as they serve the purpose of discharging the air
+which collects in the pipes. They are in themselves an evident
+obstruction, and the water would flow more freely without any
+interruption of the kind. In regard to the leaden pipes, again, they
+would have required, with so little head pressure as is stated, to be
+used of very extraordinary dimensions to pass the same quantity of water
+as was discharged along the arched conduits (see also works quoted under
+CONSTANTINOPLE). The other principal source from which Constantinople is
+supplied, is from the high grounds 6 or 8 m. west of the town, from
+which it is conducted by conduits and arches, in the same manner as the
+others. The supply drawn from all these sources, as detailed by
+Andréossy, amounted to 400,000 cubic ft. per day.
+     (A. S. M.; J. M. M.)
+
+
+  Aqueducts and water supply.
+
+III. _Modern Construction._--Where towns are favourably situated the
+aqueduct may be very short and its cost bear a relatively small
+proportion to the total outlay upon a scheme of water supply, but where
+distant sources have to be relied upon the cost of the aqueduct becomes
+one of the most important features in the scheme, and the quantity of
+water obtainable must be considerable to justify the outlay. Hence it is
+that only very large towns can undertake the responsibility for this
+expenditure. In Great Britain it has in all large schemes become a
+condition that, when a town is permitted to go outside its own
+watershed, it shall, subject to a priority of a certain number of
+gallons per day per head of its own inhabitants, allow local
+authorities, any part of whose district is within a certain number of
+miles of the aqueduct, to take a supply on reasonable terms. The first
+case in which this principle was adopted on a large scale was the
+Thirlmere scheme sanctioned by parliament in 1879, for augmenting the
+supply of Manchester. The previous supply was derived from a source only
+about 15 m. distant, and the cost of the aqueduct, chiefly cast-iron
+pipes, was insignificant compared with the cost of the impounding
+reservoirs. But Thirlmere is 96 m. distant from the service reservoir
+near Manchester, and the cost of the aqueduct was more than 90% of the
+total cost. As a supply of about 50,000,000 gallons a day is available
+the outlay was justifiable, and the water is in fact very cheaply
+obtained. Liverpool derives a supply of about 40,000,000 gallons a day
+from the river Vyrnwy in North Wales, 68 m. distant, and Birmingham has
+constructed works for impounding water in Radnorshire, and conveying it
+a distance of 74 m., the supply being about 75,000,000 gallons a day. In
+the year 1899 an act of parliament was passed authorizing the towns of
+Derby, Leicester, Sheffield and Nottingham, jointly to obtain a supply
+of water from the head waters of the river Derwent in Derbyshire.
+Leicester is 60 m. distant from this source, and its share of the supply
+is about 10,000,000 gallons a day. For more than half the distance,
+however, the aqueduct is common to Derby and Nottingham, which together
+are entitled to about 16,000,000 gallons a day, and the expense to
+Leicester is correspondingly reduced. These are the most important cases
+of long aqueducts in England, and all are subsequent to 1879. It is
+obvious, therefore, how greatly the design and construction of the
+aqueduct have grown in importance, and what care must be Exercised in
+order that the supply upon which such large populations depend may not
+be interrupted, and that the country through which such large volumes of
+water are conveyed may not be flooded in consequence of the failure of
+any of the works.
+
+
+  Construction.
+
+Practically only two types of aqueduct are used in England. The one is
+built of concrete, brickwork, &c., the other of cast-iron (or, in
+special circumstances, steel) pipes. In the former type the water
+surface coincides with the hydraulic gradient, and the conditions are
+those of an artificial river; the aqueduct must therefore be carefully
+graded throughout, so that the fall available between source and
+termination may be economically distributed. This condition requires
+that the ground in which the work is built shall be at the proper
+elevation; if at any point this is not the case, the aqueduct must be
+carried on a substructure built up to the required level. Such large
+structures are, however, extremely expensive, and require elaborate
+devices for maintaining water-tightness against the expansion and
+contraction of the masonry due to changes of temperature. They are now
+only used where their length is very short, as in cases where mountain
+streams have to be crossed, and even these short lengths are avoided by
+some engineers, who arrange that the aqueduct shall pass, wherever
+practicable, under the streams. Where wide valleys interrupt the course
+of the built aqueduct, or where the absence of high ground prevents the
+adoption of that type at any part of the route, the cast-iron pipes
+hereafter referred to are used.
+
+
+  Masonry aqueducts.
+
+The built aqueduct may be either in tunnel, or cut-and-cover, the latter
+term denoting the process of cutting the trench, building the floor,
+side-walls, and roof, and covering with earth, the surface of the ground
+being restored as before. For works conveying water for domestic supply,
+the aqueduct is in these days, in England, always covered. Where, as is
+usually the case, the water is derived from a tract of mountainous
+country, the tunnel work is sometimes very heavy. In the case of the
+Thirlmere aqueduct, out of the first 13 m. the length of the tunnelled
+portions is 8 m., the longest tunnel being 3 m. in length. Conditions of
+time, and the character of the rock, usually require the use of
+machinery for driving, at any rate in the case of the longer tunnels.
+For the comparatively small tunnels required for aqueducts, two
+percussion drilling machines are usually mounted on a carriage, the
+motive power being derived from compressed air sent up the tunnel in
+pipes. The holes when driven are charged with explosives and fired. In
+the Thirlmere tunnels, driven through very hard Lower Silurian strata,
+the progress was about 13 yds. a week at each face, work being carried
+on continuously day and night for six days a week. Where the character
+of the country through which the aqueduct passes is much the same as
+that from which the supply is derived, the tunnels need not be lined
+with concrete, &c., more than is absolutely necessary for retaining the
+water and supporting weak places in the rock; the floor, however, is
+nearly always so treated. The lining, whether in tunnel or
+cut-and-cover, may be either of concrete, or brickwork, or of concrete
+faced with brickwork. To ensure the impermeability of work constructed
+with these materials is in practice somewhat difficult, and no matter
+how much care is taken by those supervising the workmen, and even by the
+workmen themselves, it is impossible to guarantee entire freedom from
+trouble in this respect. With a wall only about 15 in. thick, any
+neglect is certain to make the work permeable; frequently the labourers
+do not distribute the broken stone and fine material of the concrete
+uniformly, and no matter how excellent the design, the quality of
+materials, &c., a leak is sure to occur at such places (unless, indeed,
+the pressure of the outside water is superior and an inflow occurs). A
+further cause of trouble lies in the water which flows from the strata
+on to the concrete, and washes away some of the cement upon which the
+work depends for its watertightness, before it has time to set. For this
+reason it is advisable to put in the floor before, and not after, the
+sidewalls and arch have been built, otherwise the only outlet for the
+water in the strata is through the ground on which the floor has to be
+laid. Each length of about 20 ft. should be completely constructed
+before the next is begun, the water then having an easy exit at the
+leading end. Manholes, by which the aqueduct can be entered, are usually
+placed in the roof at convenient intervals; thus, in the case of the
+Thirlmere aqueduct, they occur at every quarter of a mile.
+
+
+  Timber aqueducts.
+
+In some parts of America aqueducts are frequently constructed of wood,
+being then termed flumes. These are probably more extensively used in
+California than in any other part of the world, for conveying large
+quantities of water which is required for hydraulic mining, for
+irrigation, for the supply of towns and for transporting timber. The
+flumes are frequently carried along precipitous mountain slopes, and
+across valleys, supported on trestles. In Fresno county, California,
+there is a flume 52 m. in length for transporting timber from the Sierra
+Nevada Mountains to the plain below; it has a rectangular V-shaped
+section, 3 ft. 7 in. wide at the top, and 21 in. deep vertically. The
+boards which form the sides are 1¼ in. thick, and some of the
+trestlework is 130 ft. high. The steepest grade occurs where there is a
+fall of 730 ft. in a length of 3000 ft. About 9,000,000 ft. of timber
+were used in the construction. At San Diego there is a flume 35 m. long
+for irrigation and domestic supply, the capacity being 50 ft. per
+second; it has 315 trestle bridges (the longest of which is that across
+Los Coches Creek, 1794 ft. in length and 65 ft. in height) and 8
+tunnels, and the cost was $900,000. The great bench flume of the
+Highline canal, Colorado, is 2640 ft. in length, 28 ft. wide, and 7 ft.
+deep; the gradient is 5.28 ft. per mile, and the discharge 1184 ft. per
+second.
+
+
+  Aqueduct in iron piping.
+
+As previously stated, the type of aqueduct built of concrete, &c., can
+only be adopted where the ground is sufficiently elevated to carry it,
+and where the quantity of water to be conveyed makes it more economical
+than piping. Where the falling contour is interrupted by valleys too
+wide for a masonry structure above the surface of the ground, the
+detached portions of the built aqueduct must be connected by rows of
+pipes laid beneath, and following the main undulations of, the surface.
+In such cases the built aqueduct terminates in a chamber of sufficient
+size to enclose the mouths of the several pipes, which, thus charged,
+carry the water under the valley up to a corresponding chamber on the
+farther hillside from which the built aqueduct again carries on the
+supply. These connecting pipes are sometimes called siphons, although
+they have nothing whatever to do with the principle of a siphon, the
+water simply flowing into the pipe at one end and out at the other under
+the influence of gravity, and the pressure of the atmosphere being no
+element in the case. The pipes are almost always made of cast-iron,
+except in such cases as the lower part of some siphons, where the
+pressure is very great, or where they are for use abroad, when
+considerations of weight are of importance, and when they are made of
+rolled steel with riveted or welded seams. It is frequently necessary to
+lay them in deep cuttings, in which case cast-iron is much better
+adapted for sustaining a heavy weight of earth than the thinner steel,
+though the latter is more adapted to resist internal pressure. Mr D.
+Clarke (_Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ vol. xxxviii. p. 93) gives some
+particulars of a riveted steel pipe 24 m. long, 33 to 42 in. diameter,
+varying in thickness from 0.22 in. to 0.375 in. After a length of 9 m.
+had been laid, and the trench refilled, it was found that the crown of
+the pipe had been flattened by an amount varying from ½ in. to 4 in.
+Steel pipes suffer more from corrosion than those made of cast-iron, and
+as the metal attacked is much thinner the strength is more seriously
+reduced. These considerations have prevented any general change from
+cast-iron to steel.
+
+  Mr. Clemens Herschel has made some interesting remarks (_Proc. Inst.
+  C.E._ vol. cxv. p. 162) as to the circumstances in which steel pipes
+  have been found preferable to cast-iron. He says that it had been
+  demonstrated by practice that cast-iron cannot compete with
+  wrought-iron or steel pipes in the states west of the Rocky Mountains,
+  on the Pacific slope. This is due to the absence of coal and iron ore
+  in these states, and to the weight of the imported cast-iron pipes
+  compared with steel pipes of equal capacity and strength. The works of
+  the East Jersey Water Company for the supply of Newark, N.J., include
+  a riveted steel conduit 48 in. in diameter and 21 m. long. This
+  conduit is designed to resist only the pressure due to the hydraulic
+  gradient, in contradistinction to that which would be due to the
+  hydrostatic head, this arrangement saving 40% in the weight and cost
+  of the pipes. For the supply of Rochester, N.Y., there is a riveted
+  steel conduit 36 in. in diameter and 20 m. long; and for Allegheny
+  City, Pennsylvania, there is a steel conduit 5 ft. in diameter and
+  nearly 10 m. long. The works for bringing the water from La Vigne and
+  Verneuil to Paris include a steel main 5 ft. in diameter between St.
+  Cloud and Paris.
+
+  Cast-iron pipes rarely exceed 48 in. in diameter, and even this
+  diameter is only practicable where the pressure of the water is low.
+  In the Thirlmere aqueduct the greatest pressure is nearly 180 lb. on
+  the square inch, the pipes where this occurs being 40 in. in diameter
+  and 1¾ in. thick. These large pipes, which are usually made in lengths
+  of 12 ft., are generally cast with a socket at one end for receiving
+  the spigot end of the next pipe, the annular space being run with
+  lead, which is prevented from flowing into the interior of the pipe by
+  a spring ring subsequently removed; the surface of the lead is then
+  caulked all round the outside of the pipe. A wrought-iron ring is
+  sometimes shrunk on the outer rim of the socket, previously turned to
+  receive it, in order to strengthen it against the wedging action of
+  the caulking tool. Sometimes the pipes are cast as plain tubes and
+  joined with double collars, which are run with lead as in the last
+  case. The reason for adopting the latter type is that the stresses set
+  up in the thicker metal of the socket by unequal cooling are thereby
+  avoided, a very usual place for pipes to crack under pressure being at
+  the back of the socket. The method of turning and boring a portion,
+  slightly tapered, of spigot and socket so as to ensure a watertight
+  junction by close annular metallic contact, is not suitable for large
+  pipes, though very convenient for smaller diameters in even ground.
+  Spherical joints are sometimes used where a line of main has to be
+  laid under a large river or estuary, and where, therefore, the pipes
+  must be jointed before being lowered into the previously dredged
+  trench. This was the case at the Willamette river, Portland, Oregon,
+  where a length of 2000 ft. was required. The pipes are of cast-iron 28
+  in. in diameter, 1½ in. thick, and 17 ft. long. The spigots were
+  turned to a spherical surface of 20 in. radius outside, the inside of
+  the sockets being of a radius 3/8 in. greater. After the insertion of
+  the spigot into the socket, a ring, 3 in. deep, turned inside to
+  correspond with the socket, was bolted to the latter, the annular
+  space then being run with lead. These pipes were laid on an inclined
+  cradle, one end of which rested on the bed of the river and the other
+  on a barge where the jointing was done; as the pipes were jointed the
+  barge was carefully advanced, thus trailing the pipes into the trench
+  (_Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ vol. xxxiii. p. 257). As may be conjectured
+  from the pressure which they have to stand, very great care has to be
+  taken in the manufacture and handling of cast-iron pipes of large
+  diameter, a care which must be unfailing from the time of casting
+  until they are jointed in their final position in the ground. They are
+  cast vertically, socket downwards, so that the densest metal may be at
+  the weakest part, and it is advisable to allow an extra head of metal
+  of about 12 in., which is subsequently cut off in a lathe. An
+  inspector representing the purchaser watches every detail of the
+  manufacture, and if, after being measured in every part and weighed,
+  they are found satisfactory they are proved with internal fluid
+  pressure, oil being preferable to water for this purpose. While under
+  pressure, they are rapped from end to end with a hand hammer of about
+  5 lb. in weight, in order to discover defects. The wrought-iron rings
+  are then, if required, shrunk on to the sockets, and the pipes, after
+  being made hot in a stove, are dipped vertically in a composition of
+  pitch and oil, in order to preserve them from corrosion. All these
+  operations are performed under cover. A record should be kept of the
+  history of the pipe from the time it is cast to the time it is laid
+  and jointed in the ground, giving the date, number, diameter, length,
+  thickness, and proof pressure, with the name of the pipe-jointer whose
+  work closes the record. Such a history sometimes enables the cause
+  (which is often very obscure) of a burst in a pipe to be ascertained,
+  the position of every pipe being recorded.
+
+  Cast-iron pipes, even when dipped in the composition referred to,
+  suffer considerably from corrosion caused by the water, especially
+  soft water, flowing through them. One pipe may be found in as good a
+  condition as when made, while the next may be covered with nodules of
+  rust. The effect of the rust is twofold; it reduces the area of the
+  pipe, and also, in consequence of the resistance offered by the rough
+  surface, retards the velocity of the water. These two results,
+  expecially the latter, may seriously diminish the capability of
+  discharge, and they should always be allowed for in deciding the
+  diameter. Automatic scrapers are sometimes used with good results, but
+  it is better to be independent of them as long as possible. In one
+  case the discharge of pipes, 40 in. in diameter, was found after a
+  period of about twelve years to have diminished at the rate of about
+  1% per year; in another case, where the water was soft and where the
+  pipes were 40 in. in diameter, the discharge was diminished by 7% in
+  ten years. An account of the state of two cast-iron mains supplying
+  Boston with water is given in the _Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ vol. xxxv. p.
+  241. These pipes, which were laid in 1877, are 48 in. in diameter and
+  1800 ft. long. When they were examined in 1894-1895, it was estimated
+  that the tubercles of rust covered nearly one-third of the interior
+  surfaces, the bottom of the pipe being more encrusted than the sides
+  and top. They had central points of attachment to the iron, at which
+  no doubt the coating was defective, and from them the tubercles spread
+  over the surface of the surrounding coating. In this case they were
+  removed by hand, and the coating of the pipes was not injured in the
+  process. Cast-iron pipes must not be laid in contact with cinders from
+  a blast furnace with which roads are sometimes made, because these
+  corrode the metal. Mr Russell Aitken (_Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. cxv. p.
+  93) found in India that cast-iron pipes buried in the soil rapidly
+  corroded, owing to the presence of nitric acid secreted by bacteria
+  which attacked the iron. The large cast-iron pipes conveying the water
+  from the Tansa reservoir to Bombay are laid above the surface of the
+  ground. Cast-iron pipes of these large diameters have not been in
+  existence sufficiently long to enable their life to be predicted. A
+  main, 40 in. in diameter, conveying soft water, after being in
+  existence fifty years at Manchester, was apparently as good as ever.
+  In 1867 Mr J.B. Francis found that no apparent deterioration had taken
+  place in a cast-iron main, 8 in. diameter, which was laid in the year
+  1828, a period of thirty-nine years (_Trans. Soc. Am. C.E._ vol. i. p.
+  26). These two instances are probably not exceptional.
+
+
+  Methods of laying.
+
+Pipes in England are usually laid with not less than 2 ft. 6 in. of
+cover, in order that the water may not be frozen in a severe winter.
+Where they are laid in deep cutting they should be partly surrounded
+with concrete, so that they may not be fractured by the weight of earth
+above them. Angles are turned by means of special bend pipes, the curves
+being made of as large a radius as convenient. In the case of the
+Thirlmere aqueduct, double socketed castings about 12 in. long
+(exclusive of the sockets) were used, the sockets being inclined to each
+other at the required angle. They were made to various angles, and for
+any particular curve several would be used connected by straight pipes 3
+ft. long. As special castings are nearly double the price of the regular
+pipes, the cost was much diminished by making them as short as possible,
+while a curve, made up of the slight angles used, offered practically no
+more impediment to the flow of water in consequence of its polygonal
+form, than would be the case had special bend pipes been used. In all
+cases of curves on a line of pipes under internal fluid pressure, there
+exists a resultant force tending to displace the pipes. When the curve
+is in a horizontal plane and the pipes are buried in the ground, the
+side of the pipe trench offers sufficient resistance to this force.
+Where, however, the pipes are above ground, or when the curve is in a
+vertical plane, it is necessary to anchor them in position. In the case
+of the Tansa aqueduct to Bombay, there is a curve of 500 ft. radius near
+Bassein Creek. At this point the hydrostatic head is about 250 ft., and
+the engineer, Mr Clerke, mentions that a tendency to an outward movement
+of the line of pipes was observed. At the siphon under Kurla Creek the
+curves on the approaches as originally laid down were sharp, the
+hydrostatic head being there about 210 ft.; here the outward movement
+was so marked that it was considered advisable to realign the approaches
+with easier curves (_Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. cxv. p. 34). In the case of
+the Thirlmere aqueduct the greatest hydrostatic pressure, 410 ft.,
+occurs at the bridge over the river Lune, where the pipes are 40 in. in
+diameter, and in descending from the bridge make reverse angles of 31½°.
+The displacing force at each of these angles amounts to 54 tons, and as
+the design includes five lines of pipes, it is obvious that the
+anchoring arrangements must be very efficient. The steel straps used for
+anchoring these and all other bends were curved to fit as closely as
+possible the castings to be anchored. Naturally the metal was not in
+perfect contact, but when the pipes were charged the disappearance of
+all the slight inequalities showed that the straps were fulfilling their
+intended purpose. At every summit on a line of pipes one or more valves
+must be placed in order to allow the escape of air, and they must also
+be provided on long level stretches, and at changes of gradient where
+the depth of the point of change below the hydraulic gradient is less
+than that at both sides, causing what may be called a virtual summit.
+It is better to have too many than too few, as accumulations of air may
+cause an enormous diminution in the quantity of water delivered. In all
+depressions discharge valves should be placed for emptying the pipes
+when desired, and for letting off the sediment which accumulates at such
+points. Automatic valves are frequently placed at suitable distances for
+cutting off the supply in case of a burst. At the inlet mouth of the
+pipe they may depend for their action on the sudden lowering of the
+water (due to a burst in the pipe) in the chamber from which they draw
+their supply, causing a float to sink and set the closing arrangement in
+motion. Those on the line of main are started by the increased velocity
+in the water, caused by the burst on the pipe at a lower level. The
+water, when thus accelerated, is able to move a disk hung in the pipe at
+the end of a lever and weighted so as to resist the normal velocity;
+this lever releases a catch, and a door is then gradually revolved by
+weights until it entirely closes the pipe. Reflux valves on the
+ascending leg of a siphon prevent water from flowing back in case of a
+burst below them; they have doors hung on hinges, opening only in the
+normal direction of flow. Due allowance must be made, in the amount of
+head allotted to a pipe, for any head which may be absorbed by such
+mechanical arrangements as those described where they offer opposition
+to the flow of the water. These large mains require most careful and
+gradual filling with water, and constant attention must be given to the
+air-valves to see that the gutta-percha balls do not wedge themselves in
+the openings. A large mass of water, having a considerable velocity, may
+cause a great many bursts by water-ramming, due to the admission of the
+water at too great a speed. In places where iron is absent and timber
+plentiful, as in some parts of America, pipes, even of large diameter
+and in the most important cases, are sometimes made of wooden staves
+hooped with iron. A description of two of these will be found below.
+
+
+    Thirlmere.
+
+  The _Thirlmere Aqueduct_ is capable of conveying 50,000,000 gallons a
+  day from Thirlmere, in the English lake district, to Manchester. The
+  total length of 96 m. is made up of 14 m. of tunnels, 37 m. of
+  cut-and-cover, and 45 m. of cast-iron pipes, five rows of the latter
+  being required. The tunnels where lined, and the cut-and-cover, are
+  formed of concrete, and are 7 ft. in height and width, the usual
+  thickness of the concrete being 15 in. The inclination is 20 in. per
+  mile. The floor is flat from side to side, and the side-walls are 5
+  ft. high to the springing of the arch, which has a rise of 2 ft. The
+  water from the lake is received in a circular well 65 ft. deep and 40
+  ft. in diameter, at the bottom of which there is a ring of wire-gauze
+  strainers. Wherever the concrete aqueduct is intersected by valleys,
+  cast-iron pipes are laid; in the first instance only two of the five
+  rows 40 in. in diameter were laid, the city not requiring its supply
+  to be augmented by more than 20,000,000 gallons a day, but in 1907 it
+  was decided to lay a third line. All the elaborate arrangements
+  described above for stopping the water in case of a burst have been
+  employed, and have perfectly fulfilled their duties in the few cases
+  in which they have been called into action. The water is received in a
+  service reservoir at Prestwich, near Manchester, from which it is
+  supplied to the city. The supply from this source was begun in 1894.
+  The total cost of the complete scheme may be taken at about
+  £5,000,000, of which rather under £3,000,000 had been spent up to the
+  date of the opening, at which time only one line of pipes had been
+  laid.
+
+
+    Vyrnwy.
+
+  The _Vyrnwy Aqueduct_ was sanctioned by parliament in 1880 for the
+  supply of Liverpool from North Wales, the quantity of water obtainable
+  being at least 40,000,000 gallons a day. A tower built in the
+  artificial lake from which the supply is derived, contains the inlet
+  and arrangements for straining the water. The aqueduct is 68 m. in
+  length, and for nearly the whole distance will consist of three lines
+  of cast-iron pipes, two of which, varying in diameter from 42 in. to
+  39 in., are now in use. As the total fall between Vyrnwy and the
+  termination at Prescot reservoirs is about 550 ft., arrangements had
+  to be made to ensure that no part of the aqueduct be subjected to a
+  greater pressure than is required for the actual discharge. Balancing
+  reservoirs have therefore been constructed at five points on the line,
+  advantage being taken of high ground where available, so that the
+  total pressure is broken up into sections. At one of these points,
+  where the ground level is 110 ft. below the hydraulic gradient, a
+  circular tower is built, making a most imposing architectural feature
+  in the landscape. At the crossing of the river Weaver, 100 ft. wide
+  and 15 ft. deep, the three pipes, here made of steel, were connected
+  together laterally, floated into position, and sunk into a dredged
+  trench prepared to receive them. Under the river Mersey the pipes are
+  carried in a tunnel, from which, during construction, the water was
+  excluded by compressed air.
+
+
+    Denver.
+
+  _Denver Aqueduct._--The supply to Denver City, initiated by the
+  Citizens Water Company in 1889, is derived from the Platte river,
+  rising in the Rocky Mountains. The first aqueduct constructed is
+  rather over 20 m. in length, of which a length of 16½ m. is made of
+  wooden stave pipe, 30 in. in diameter. The maximum pressure is that
+  due to 185 ft. of water; the average cost of the wooden pipe was
+  $1.36½ per foot, and the capability of discharge 8,400,000 gallons a
+  day. Within a year of the completion of the first conduit, it became
+  evident that another of still greater capacity was required. This was
+  completed in April 1893; it is 34 in. in diameter and will deliver
+  16,000,000 gallons a day. By increasing the head upon the first pipe,
+  the combined discharge is 30,000,000 gallons a day. An incident in
+  obtaining a temporary supply, without waiting for the completion of
+  the second pipe, was the construction of two wooden pipes, 13 in. in
+  diameter, crossing a stream with a span of 104 ft., and having no
+  support other than that derived from their arched form. One end of the
+  arch is 24½ ft. above the other end, and, when filled with water, the
+  deflection with eight men on it was only 7/8 of an inch. A somewhat
+  similar arch, 60 ft. span, occurs on the 34-in. pipe where it crosses
+  a canal. Schuyler points out (_Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ vol. xxxi. p.
+  148) that the fact that the entire water supply of a city of 150,000
+  inhabitants is conveyed in wooden mains, is so radical a departure
+  from all precedents, that it is deserving of more than a passing
+  notice. He says that it is manifestly and unreservedly successful, and
+  has achieved an enormous saving in cost. The sum saved by the use of
+  wooden, in preference to cast-iron pipes, is estimated at $1,100,000.
+  It is perhaps necessary to state that the pipe is buried in the ground
+  in the same way as metal pipes. The edges of the staves are dressed to
+  the radius with a minute tongue 1/16 in. high on one edge of each
+  stave, but with no corresponding groove in the next stave; its object
+  is to ensure a close joint when the bands are tightened up. Leaks
+  seldom or never occur along the longitudinal seams, but the end
+  shrinkage caused troublesome joint leaks. The shrinkage in California
+  redwood, which had seasoned 60 to 90 days before milling, was
+  frequently as much as 3 in. in the 20 staves that formed the 34-in.
+  pipe, and the space so formed had to be filled by a special closing
+  stave. Metallic tongues, ¾ in. deep, are inserted at the ends of
+  abutting staves, in a straight saw cut. The bands, which are of mild
+  steel, have a head at one end and a nut and washer at the other; the
+  ends are brought together on a wrought-iron shoe, against which the
+  nut and washer set. The staves forming the lower half of the pipe are
+  placed on an outside, and the top staves on an inside, mould. While
+  the bands are being adjusted the pipe is rounded out to bring the
+  staves out full, and the staves are carefully driven home on to the
+  abutting staves. The spacing of the bands depends on circumstances,
+  but is about 150 bands per 100 ft. With low heads the limit of spacing
+  was fixed at 17 in. The outer surface of the pipe, when charged, shows
+  moisture oozing slightly over the entire surface. This condition
+  Schuyler considers an ideal one for perfect preservation, and the
+  staves were kept as thin as possible to ensure its occurrence. Samples
+  taken from pipes in use from three to nine years are quite sound, and
+  it is concluded that the wood will last as long as cast-iron if the
+  pipe is kept constantly charged. The bands are the only perishable
+  portion, and their life is taken at from fifteen to twenty years.
+  Other portions of the second conduit for a length of nearly 3 m. were
+  formed of concrete piping, 38 in. diameter, formed on a mould in the
+  trench, the thickness being 2½ to 3 in. So successful an instance of
+  the use of wooden piping on a large scale is sure to lead to a large
+  development of this type of aqueduct in districts where timber is
+  plentiful and iron absent.
+
+
+    Pioneer, Utah.
+
+  _Pioneer Aqueduct, Utah._--The construction of the Pioneer Aqueduct,
+  Utah, was begun in 1896 by the Pioneer Electric Power Company, near
+  the city of Ogden, 35 m. north of Salt Lake City. The storage
+  reservoir, from which it draws its water, will coyer an area of 2000
+  acres, and contain about 15,000 million gallons of water. The aqueduct
+  is a pipe 6 ft. in diameter, and of a total length of 6 m.; for a
+  distance of rather more than 5 m. it is formed of wooden staves, the
+  remainder, where the head exceeds 117 ft., being of steel. It is laid
+  in a trench and covered to a depth of 3 ft. The greatest pressure on
+  the steel pipe is 200 lb. per sq. in., and the thickness varies from
+  3/8 to 11/16 in. The pipe was constructed according to the usual
+  practice of marine boiler-work for high pressures, and each section,
+  about 9 ft. long, was dipped in asphalt for an hour. These sections
+  were supported on timber blocking, placed from 5 to 9 ft. apart, and
+  consisting of three to six pieces of 6 × 6 in. timbers laid one on the
+  top of the other; they were then riveted together in the ordinary way.
+  The wooden stave-pipe is of the type successfully used in the Western
+  States for many years, but its diameter is believed to be unequalled
+  for any but short lengths. There were thirty-two staves in the circle,
+  2 in. in thickness, and about 20 ft. long, hooped with round steel
+  rods 5/8 in. in diameter, each hoop being in two pieces. The pipe is
+  supported at intervals of 8 ft. by sills 6 × 8 in. and 8 ft. long. The
+  flow through it is 250 cubic ft. per second.
+
+
+    Santa Ana.
+
+  The _Santa Ana Canal_ was constructed for irrigation purposes in
+  California, and is designed to carry 240 cub. ft. of water per second
+  (_Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ vol. xxxiii. p. 99). The cross section of the
+  flumes shows an elliptical bottom and straight sides consisting of
+  wooden staves held together by iron and steel ribs. The width and
+  depth are each 5 ft. 6 in., the intended depth of water being 5 ft.
+  The staves are held by T-iron supports resting on wooden sills spaced
+  8 ft. apart, and are compressed together by a framework. They were
+  caulked with oakum, on the top of which, to a third of the total
+  depth, hot asphalt was run. The use of nails was altogether avoided
+  except in parts of the framework, it being noticed that decay usually
+  starts at nail-holes. It was found possible to make the flume
+  absolutely watertight, and in case of repair being necessary at any
+  part the framework is easily taken to pieces so that new staves can be
+  inserted. The water in the flume has a velocity of 9.6 ft. per second.
+  The Warm Springs, Deep, and Morton cañons on the line are crossed by
+  wooden stave pipes 52 in. in diameter, bound with round steel rods,
+  and laid above the surface of the ground. The work is planned for two
+  rows of pipes, each capable of carrying 123 cub. ft. per second; of
+  these one so far has been laid. The lengths of the pipes at each of
+  the three cañons are 551, 964 and 756 ft. respectively, and the
+  maximum head at any place is 160 ft. The pipes are not painted, and it
+  has been suggested that they would suffer in their exposed position in
+  case of a bush fire, a contingency to which, of course, flumes are
+  also liable.
+
+
+    New York.
+
+  _Aqueducts of New York._--There are three aqueducts in New York--the
+  Old Croton Aqueduct (1837-1843), the Bronx River Conduit (1880-1885),
+  and the New Croton Aqueduct (1884-1893), discharging respectively 95,
+  28, and 302 million U.S. gallons a day; their combined delivery is
+  therefore 425 million gallons a day. The Old Croton Aqueduct is about
+  41 m. in length, and was constructed as a masonry conduit, except at
+  the Harlem and Manhattan valleys, where two lines of 36-in. pipe were
+  used. The inclination of the former is at the rate of about 13 in. per
+  mile. The area of the cross-section is 53.34 sq. ft., the height is 8½
+  ft., and the greatest width 7 ft. 5 in.; the roof is semicircular, the
+  floor segmental, and the sides have a batter on the face of ½ in. per
+  foot. The sides and invert are of concrete, faced with 4 in. of
+  brickwork, the roof being entirely of brickwork. There is a bridge
+  over the Harlem river 1450 ft. in length, consisting of fifteen
+  semicircular arches; its soffit is 100 ft. above high water, and its
+  cost was $963,427. The construction of the New Croton Aqueduct was
+  begun in 1885, and the works were sufficiently advanced by the 15th of
+  July 1890 to allow the supply to be begun. The lengths of the various
+  parts of the aqueduct are as follows:--
+
+                                             Miles.
+  Tunnel                                     29.75
+  Cut-and-cover                               1.12
+  Cast-iron pipes, 48 in. diameter, 8 rows.   2.38
+                                             -----
+      Croton Inlet to Central Park.          33.25
+                                             =====
+
+  The length of tunnel under pressure (circular form) is 7.17 m., and
+  that not under pressure (horse-shoe form) 23.70 m. The maximum
+  pressure in the former is 55 lb. per sq. in. The width and height of
+  the horse-shoe form are each 13 ft. 7 in., and the diameter of the
+  circular form (with the exception of two short lengths) is 12 ft. 3
+  in. The reason for constructing the aqueduct in tunnel for so long a
+  distance was the enhanced value of the low-lying ground near the old
+  aqueduct. The tunnel deviates from a straight line only for the
+  purpose of intersecting a few transverse valleys at which it could be
+  emptied. For 25 m. the gradient is 0.7 foot per mile; the tunnel is
+  then depressed below the hydraulic gradient, the maximum depth being
+  at the Harlem river, where it is 300 ft. below high water. The depth
+  of the tunnel varies from 50 to 500 ft. from the surface of the
+  ground. Forty-two shafts were sunk to facilitate driving, and in four
+  cases where the surface of the ground is below the hydraulic gradient
+  these are closed by watertight covers. The whole of the tunnel is
+  lined with brickwork from 1 to 2 ft. in thickness, the voids behind
+  the lining being filled with rubble-in-mortar. The entry to the old
+  and new aqueducts is controlled by a gatehouse of elaborate and
+  massive design, and the pipes which take up the supply at the end of
+  the tunnel are also commanded by a gate-house. The aqueduct, where it
+  passes under the Harlem river, is worthy of special notice. As it
+  approaches the river it has a considerable fall, and eventually ends
+  in a vertical shaft 12 ft. 3 in. in diameter (where the water has a
+  fall of 174 ft.), from the bottom of which, at a depth of 300 ft.
+  below high-water level, the tunnel under the river starts. The latter
+  is circular in form, the diameter being 10 ft. 6 in., and the length
+  is 1300 ft.; it terminates at the bottom of another vertical shaft
+  also 12 ft. 3 in. in diameter. The depth of this shaft, measured from
+  the floor of the lower tunnel to that of the upper tunnel leading away
+  from it, is 321 ft.; it is continued up to the surface of the ground,
+  though closed by double watertight covers a little above the level of
+  the upper tunnel. Adjoining this shaft is another shaft of equal
+  diameter, by means of which the water can be pumped out, and there is
+  also a communication with the river above high-water level, so that
+  the higher parts can be emptied by gravitation. The cost of the Old
+  Croton Aqueduct was $11,500,000; that of the new aqueduct is not far
+  short of $20,000,000.
+
+
+    Nadrai.
+
+  The _Nadrai Aqueduct Bridge_, in India, opened at the end of 1889, is
+  the largest structure of its kind in existence. It was built to carry
+  the water of the Lower Ganges canal over the Kali Naddi, in connexion
+  with the irrigation canals of the north-west provinces. In the year
+  1888-1889 this canal had 564 m. of main line, with 2050 m. of minor
+  distributaries, and irrigated 519,022 acres of crops. The new bridge
+  replaces one of much smaller size (five spans of 35 ft.), which was
+  completely destroyed by a high flood in July 1885. It gives the river
+  a waterway of 21,000 sq. ft., and the canal a waterway of 1040 sq.
+  ft., the latter representing a discharge of 4100 cub. ft. per second.
+  Its length is 1310 ft., and it is carried on fifteen arches having a
+  span of 60 ft. The width between the faces of the arches is 149 ft.
+  The foundations below the river-bed have a depth of 52 ft., and the
+  total height of the structure is 88 ft. It cost 44½ lakhs of rupees,
+  and occupied four years in building. The foundations consist of 268
+  circular brick cylinders, and the fifteen spans are arranged in three
+  groups, divided by abutment piers; the latter are founded on a double
+  row of 12-ft. cylinders, and the intermediate piers on a single row of
+  20-ft. cylinders, all the cylinders being hearted with hydraulic lime
+  concrete filled in with skips. This aqueduct-bridge has a very fine
+  appearance, owing to its massive proportions and design. (E. P. H.*)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For ancient aqueducts in general: Curt Merckel, _Die
+  Ingenieurtechnik im Alterthum_ (Berlin, 1899); ch. vi. contains a very
+  full account from the earliest Assyrian aqueducts onwards, with
+  illustrations, measurements and an excellent bibliography. For Greek
+  aqueducts see E. Curtius, "Über städtische Wasserbauten der Hellenen,"
+  in _Archaeologische Zeitung_ (1847); G. Weber (as above); papers in
+  _Athen. Mittheil._ (Samos), 1877, (Enneacrunus) 1892, 1893, 1894,
+  1905, and articles on ATHENS, PERGAMUM, &c. For Roman aqueducts: R.
+  Lanciani, "I Commentari di Frontino intorno le acque e gli
+  acquedotti," in _Memorie dei Lincei_, serie iii. vol. iv. (Rome,
+  1880), 215 sqq., and separately; C. Herschel, _The Two Books on the
+  Water Supply of the City of Rome of Sextus Julius Frontinus_ (Boston,
+  1899); T. Ashby in _Classical Review_ (1902), 336, and articles in
+  _The Builder_; cf. also the maps to T. Ashby's "Classical Topography
+  of the Roman Campagna," in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, i.,
+  in., iv. (in progress).
+
+  For modern aqueducts, see Rickman's _Life of Telford_ (1838);
+  Schramke's _New York Croton Aqueduct; Second Annual Report of the
+  Department of Public Works of the City of New York in 1872; Report of
+  the Aqueduct Commissioners_ (1887-1895), and _The Water Supply of the
+  City of New York_ (1896), by Wegmann; _Mémoires sur les eaux de
+  Paris_, presentés par le Préfet de la Seine au Conseil Municipal (1854
+  and 1858); _Recherches statistiques sur les sources du bassin de la
+  Seine_, par M. Belgrand, Ingénieur en chef des ponts et chaussées
+  (1854); "Descriptions of Mechanical Arrangements of the Manchester
+  Waterworks," by John Frederic Bateman, F.R.S., Engineer-in-chief, from
+  the _Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
+  Engineers_ (1866); _The Glasgow Waterworks_, by James M. Gale, Member
+  Inst. C.E. (1863 and 1864); _The Report of the Royal Commission on
+  Water Supply, and the Minutes of Evidence_ (1867 and 1868). For
+  accounts of other aqueducts, see the Transactions of the Societies of
+  Engineers in the different countries, and the Engineering Journals.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] There have been found at Caerwent, in Monmouthshire, clear traces
+    of wooden pipes (internal diameter about 2 in.) which must have
+    carried drinking-water, and almost certainly a pressure supply from
+    the surrounding hills. Some patches of lead also have been found
+    obviously nailed on to the pipes at points where they had burst (see
+    _Archaeologia_, 1908).
+
+  [2] This distance will not agree with the length given on some of the
+    _cippi_ (Lanciani, _Bull. Com._, 1899, 38).
+
+  [3] The course of the Aqua Claudia was considerably shortened by the
+    cutting of a tunnel 3 m. long under the Monte Affliano in the time of
+    Domitian (T. Ashby, in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, iii,
+    133).
+
+  [4] About 3 m. south-east of this point the presence of large
+    quantities of deposit and a sudden fall in the level of the channels
+    seems to indicate the existence of settling tanks, of which no actual
+    traces can be seen.
+
+
+
+
+AQUILA [Greek: Akulas], (1) a Jew from Rome, who with his wife Prisca or
+Priscilla had settled in Corinth, where Paul stayed with them (Acts
+xviii. 2,3). They became Christians and fellow-workers with Paul, to
+whom they seem to have shown their devotion in some special way (Rom.
+xvi. 3, 4). (2) A native of Pontus, celebrated for a very literal and
+accurate translation of the Old Testament into Greek. Epiphanius (_De
+Pond. et Mens._ c. 15) preserves a tradition that he was a kinsman of
+the emperor Hadrian, who employed him in rebuilding Jerusalem (Aelia
+Capitolina, q.v.), and that he was converted to Christianity, but, on
+being reproved for practising pagan astrology, apostatized to Judaism.
+He is said also to have been a disciple of Rabbi 'Aqiba (d. A.D. 132),
+and seems to be referred to in Jewish writings as [Hebrew: akiles].
+Aquila's version is said to have been used in place of the Septuagint in
+the synagogues. The Christians generally disliked it, alleging without
+due grounds that it rendered the Messianic passages incorrectly, but
+Jerome and Origen speak in its praise. Origen incorporated it in his
+_Hexapla_.
+
+  It was thought that this was the only copy extant, but in 1897
+  fragments of two codices were brought to the Cambridge University
+  Library. These have been published--the fragments containing 1 Kings
+  xx. 7-17; 2 Kings xxiii. 12-27 by F.C. Burkitt in 1897, those
+  containing parts of Psalms xc.-ciii. by C. Taylor in 1899. See F.C.
+  Burkitt's article in the _Jewish Encyclopaedia_.
+
+
+
+
+AQUILA, CASPAR [KASPAR ADLER] (1488-1560), German reformer, was born at
+Augsburg on the 7th of August 1488, educated there and at Ulm (1502), in
+Italy (he met Erasmus in Rome), at Bern (1508), Leipzig (1510) and
+Wittenberg (1513). According to his son, he entered the ministry in
+August 1514, at Bern. He was for some time a military chaplain. In 1516
+he became pastor of Jenga, near Augsburg. Openly proclaiming his
+adhesion to Luther's doctrine, he was imprisoned for half a year (1520
+or 1522) at Dillingen, by order of the bishop of Augsburg; a death
+sentence was commuted to banishment through the influence of Isabella,
+wife of Christian II. of Denmark and sister of Charles V. Returning to
+Wittenberg he met Luther, acted as tutor to the sons of Franz von
+Sickingen at Ebernburg, taught Hebrew at Wittenberg, and aided Luther in
+his version of the Old Testament. The dates and particulars of his
+career are uncertain till 1527, when he became pastor at Saalfeld, and
+in 1528, superintendent. His vehement opposition to the Augsburg Interim
+(1548) led him to take temporary shelter at Rudolstadt with Catherine,
+countess of Schwarzburg. In 1550 he was appointed dean of the
+Collegiatstift in Schmalkalden. Here he had a controversy with Andreas
+Osiander. Restored to Saalfeld, not without opposition, in 1552, he
+remained there, still engaged in controversy, till his death on the 12th
+of November 1560. He was twice married, and left four sons. He published
+numerous sermons, a few Old Testament expositions and some controversial
+tracts.
+
+  See G. Kawerau, in A. Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1896); _Allgemeine
+  deutsche Biog._ (1875); Lives by J. Avenarius (1718); J.G. Hillinger
+  (1731); Chr. Schlegel (1737); Fr. Gensler (1816).
+
+
+
+
+AQUILA, SERAFINO DELL' (1466-1500), Italian poet and improvisatore, was
+born in 1466 at the town of Aquila, from which he took his name, and
+died in the year 1500. He spent several years at the courts of Cardinal
+Sforza and Ferdinand, duke of Calabria; but his principal patrons were
+the Borgias at Rome, from whom he received many favours. Aquila seems to
+have aimed at an imitation of Dante and Petrarch; and his poems, which
+were extravagantly praised during the author's lifetime, are
+occasionally of considerable merit. His reputation was in great measure
+due to his remarkable skill as an improvisatore and musician. His works
+were printed at Venice in 1502, and there have been several subsequent
+editions.
+
+
+
+
+AQUILA, a city of the Abruzzi, Italy, the capital of the province of
+Aquila, and the seat of an archbishop, 2360 ft. above sea-level, 50 m.
+directly N.E. of Rome, and 145 m. by rail. Pop. (1901) town, 18,494;
+commune, 21,261. It lies on a hill in the wide valley of the Aterno,
+surrounded by mountains on all sides, the Gran Sasso d'Italia being
+conspicuous on the north-east. It is a favourite summer resort of the
+Italians, but is cold and windy in winter. In the highest part of the
+town is the massive citadel, erected by the Spanish viceroy Don Pedro de
+Toledo in 1534. The church of S. Bernardino di Siena (1472) has a fine
+Renaissance façade by Nicolò Filotesio (commonly called Cola dell'
+Amatrice), and contains the monumental tomb of the saint, decorated with
+beautiful sculptures, and executed by Silvestro Ariscola in 1480. The
+church of S. Maria di Collemaggio, just outside the town, has a very
+fine Romanesque façade of simple design (1270-1280) in red and white
+marble, with three finely decorated portals and a rose-window above
+each. The two side doors are also fine. The interior contains the
+mausoleum of Pope Celestine V. (d. 1296) erected in 1517. Many smaller
+churches in the town have similar façades (S. Giusta, S. Silvestro,
+&c.). The town also contains some fine palaces: the municipality has a
+museum, with a collection of Roman inscriptions and some illuminated
+service books. The Palazzi Dragonetti and Persichetti contain private
+collections of pictures. Outside the town is the _Fontana delle
+novantanove cannelle_, a fountain with ninety-nine jets distributed
+along three walls, constructed in 1272. Aquila has some trade in lace
+and saffron, and possesses other smaller industries. It was a university
+town in the middle ages, but most of its chairs have now been
+suppressed.
+
+Aquila was founded by Conrad, son of the emperor Frederick II., about
+1250, as a bulwark against the power of the papacy. It was destroyed by
+Manfred in 1259, but soon rebuilt by Charles I. of Anjou. Its walls were
+completed in 1316; and it maintained itself as an almost independent
+republic until it was subdued in 1521 by the Spaniards, who had become
+masters of the kingdom of Naples in 1503. It was twice sacked by the
+French in 1799.
+
+  See V. Bindi, _Monumenti storici ed artistici degli Abruzzi_ (Naples,
+  1889), pp. 771 seq.
+
+
+
+
+AQUILA, in astronomy, the "Eagle," sometimes named the "Vulture," a
+constellation of the northern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th
+cent. B.C.) and Aratus (3rd cent. B.C.). Ptolemy catalogued nineteen
+stars jointly in this constellation and in the constellation _Antinous_,
+which was named in the reign of the emperor Hadrian (A.D. 117-138), but
+sometimes, and wrongly, attributed to Tycho Brahe, who catalogued twelve
+stars in Aquila and seven in Antinous; Hevelius determined twenty-three
+stars in the first, and nineteen in the second. The most brilliant star
+of this constellation, [alpha]-_Aquilae_ or Altair, has a parallax of
+0.23", and consequently is about eight times as bright as the sun;
+[eta]-_Aquilae_ is a short-period variable, while _Nova Aquilae_ is a
+"temporary" or "new" star, discovered by Mrs Fleming of Harvard in 1899.
+
+
+
+
+AQUILA ROMANUS, a Latin grammarian who flourished in the second half of
+the 3rd century A.D. He was the author of an extant treatise _De Figuris
+Sententiarum et Elocutionis_, written as an instalment of a complete
+rhetorical handbook for the use of a young and eager correspondent.
+While recommending Demosthenes and Cicero as models, he takes his own
+examples almost exclusively from Cicero. His treatise is really adapted
+from that by Alexander, son of Numenius, as is expressly stated by
+Julius Rufinianus, who brought out a supplementary treatise, augmented
+by material from other sources. Aquila's style is harsh and careless,
+and the Latin is inferior.
+
+  Halm, _Rhetores Latini minores_ (1863); Wensch, _De Aquila Romano_
+  (1861).
+
+
+
+
+AQUILEIA, an ancient town of Italy, at the head of the Adriatic at the
+edge of the lagoons, about 6 m. from the sea, on the river Natiso (mod.
+Natisone), the course of which has changed somewhat since Roman times.
+It was founded by the Romans in 181 B.C. as a frontier fortress on the
+north-east, not far from the site where, two years before, Gaulish
+invaders had attempted to settle. The colony was led by two men of
+consular and one of praetorian rank, and 3000 _pedites_ formed the bulk
+of the settlers. It was probably connected by road with Bononia in 175
+B.C.; and subsequently with Genua in 148 B.C. by the Via Postumia, which
+ran through Cremona, Bedriacum and Altinum, joining the first-mentioned
+road at Concordia, while the construction of the Via Popilia from
+Ariminum to Ad Portum near Altinum in 132 B.C. improved the
+communications still further. In 169 B.C., 1500 more families were
+settled there as a reinforcement to the garrison. The discovery of the
+goldfields near the modern Klagenfurt in 150 B.C. (Strabo iv. 208)
+brought it into notice, and it soon became a place of importance, not
+only owing to its strategic position, but as a centre of trade,
+especially in agricultural products. It also had, in later times at
+least, considerable brickfields. It was originally a Latin colony, but
+became a _municipium_ probably in 90 B.C. The customs boundary of Italy
+was close by in Cicero's day. It was plundered by the Iapydes under
+Augustus, but, in the period of peace which followed, was able to
+develop its resources. Augustus visited it during the Pannonian wars in
+12-10 B.C. and it was the birthplace of Tiberius's son by Julia, in the
+latter year. It was the starting-point of several important roads
+leading to the north-eastern portion of the empire--the road (Via Iulia
+Augusta) by Iulium Carnicum to Veldidena (mod. Wilten, near Innsbruck),
+from which branched off the road into Noricum, leading by Virunum
+(Klagenfurt) to Lauricum (Lorch) on the Danube, the road into Pannonia,
+leading to Emona (Laibach)[1] and Sirmium (Mitrowitz), the road to
+Tarsatica (near Fiume) and Siscia (Sissek), and that to Tergeste
+(Trieste) and the Istrian coast.
+
+In the war against the Marcomanni in A.D. 167, the town was hard
+pressed; the fortifications had fallen into disrepair during the long
+peace. In A.D. 238, when the town took the side of the senate against
+the emperor Maximinus, they were hastily restored, and proved of
+sufficient strength to resist for several months, until Maximinus
+himself was assassinated. The 4th century marks, however, the greatest
+importance of Aquileia; it became a naval station and, probably, the
+seat of the _corrector Venetiarum et Histriae_; a mint was established
+here, the coins of which are very numerous, and the bishop obtained the
+rank of patriarch. An imperial palace was constructed here, in which the
+emperors after the time of Diocletian frequently resided; and the city
+often played a part in the struggles between the rulers of the 4th
+century. At the end of the century, Ausonius enumerated it as the ninth
+among the great cities of the world, placing Rome, Mediolanum and Capua
+before it, and called it "moenibus et portu celeberrima." In A.D. 452,
+however, it was destroyed by Attila, though it continued to exist until
+the Lombard invasion of A.D. 568. After this the patriarchate was
+transferred to Grado. In 606 the diocese was divided into two parts, and
+the patriarchate of Aquileia, protected by the Lombards, was revived,
+that of Grado being protected by the exarch of Ravenna and later by the
+doges of Venice. In 1027 and 1044 Patriarch Poppo of Aquileia entered
+and sacked Grado, and, though the pope reconfirmed the patriarch of the
+latter in his dignities, the town never recovered, though it continued
+to be the seat of the patriarchate until its formal transference to
+Venice in 1450. The seat of the patriarchate of Aquileia had been
+transferred to Udine in 1238, but returned in 1420 when Venice annexed
+the territory of Udine. It was finally suppressed in 1751, and the sees
+of Udine and Gorizia (Görz) established in its stead. Its buildings
+served as stone quarries for centuries, and no edifices of the Roman
+period remain above ground. Excavations have revealed one street and the
+north-west angle of the town walls, while the local museum contains over
+2000 inscriptions, besides statues and other antiquities. The cathedral,
+a flat-roofed basilica, was erected by Patriarch Poppo in 1031 on the
+site of an earlier church, and rebuilt about 1379 in the Gothic style by
+Patriarch Marquad. The narthex and baptistery belong to an earlier
+period. Of the palace of the patriarchs only two isolated columns remain
+standing. The modern village (pop. 2300) is rendered unhealthy by
+rice-fields.
+
+  See T.W. Jackson, _Dalmatia, Istria and the Quarnero_ (Oxford, 1887),
+  iii. 377 seq.; H. Maionica, _Aquileia zur Romerzeit_ (Görz, 1881),
+  _Fundkarte van Aquileia_ (Görz, 1893), "Inschriften in Grado" (Roman
+  inscriptions removed thither from Aquileia) in _Jahreshefte des
+  Österr. Arch. Instituts_, i. (1898), Beiblatt, 83, 125. (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] This road is described in detail by O. Cuntz in _Jahreshefte des
+    Österr. Arch. Inst._ v. (1902), Beiblatt, pp. 139 seq.
+
+
+
+
+AQUILLIUS, MANIUS, Roman general, consul in 101 B.C. He successfully put
+down a revolt of the slaves under Athenion in Sicily. After his return,
+being accused of extortion, he was acquitted on account of his military
+services, although there was little doubt of his guilt. In 88 he acted
+as legate against Mithradates the Great, by whom he was defeated and
+taken prisoner. Mithradates treated him with great cruelty, and is said
+to have put him to death by pouring molten gold down his throat.
+
+  Diodorus Siculus xxxvi. 3; Appian, _Mithrid_. ii. 17. 21; Vell.
+  Paterculus ii. 18; Cicero, _Verres_, iii. 54, _De Officiis_, ii. 14,
+  _Tusc_. v. 5.
+
+
+
+
+AQUINAS, THOMAS [THOMAS OF AQUIN or AQUINO], (c. 1227-1274), scholastic
+philosopher, known as _Doctor Angelicus, Doctor Universalis_, was of
+noble descent, and nearly allied to several of the royal houses of
+Europe. He was born in 1225 or 1227, at Roccasecca, the castle of his
+father Landulf, count of Aquino, in the territories of Naples. Having
+received his elementary education at the monastery of Monte Cassino, he
+studied for six years at the university of Naples, leaving it in his
+sixteenth year. While there he probably came under the influence of the
+Dominicans, who were doing their utmost to enlist within their ranks the
+ablest young scholars of the age, for in spite of the opposition of his
+family, which was overcome only by the intervention of Pope Innocent
+IV., he assumed the habit of St Dominic in his seventeenth year.
+
+His superiors, seeing his great aptitude for theological study, sent him
+to the Dominican school in Cologne, where Albertus Magnus was lecturing
+on philosophy and theology. In 1245 Albertus was called to Paris, and
+there Aquinas followed him, and remained with him for three years, at
+the end of which he graduated as bachelor of theology. In 1248 he
+returned to Cologne with Albertus, and was appointed second lecturer and
+_magister studentium_. This year may be taken as the beginning of his
+literary activity and public life. Before he left Paris he had thrown
+himself with ardour into the controversy raging between the university
+and the Friar-Preachers respecting the liberty of teaching, resisting
+both by speeches and pamphlets the authorities of the university; and
+when the dispute was referred to the pope, the youthful Aquinas was
+chosen to defend his order, which he did with such success as to
+overcome the arguments of Guillaume de St Amour, the champion of the
+university, and one of the most celebrated men of the day. In 1257,
+along with his friend Bonaventura, he was created doctor of theology,
+and began to give courses of lectures upon this subject in Paris, and
+also in Rome and other towns in Italy. From this time onwards his life
+was one of incessant toil; he was continually engaged in the active
+service of his order, was frequently travelling upon long and tedious
+journeys, and was constantly consulted on affairs of state by the
+reigning pontiff.
+
+In 1263 we find him at the chapter of the Dominican order held in
+London. In 1268 he was lecturing now in Rome and now in Bologna, all the
+while engaged in the public business of the church. In 1271 he was again
+in Paris, lecturing to the students, managing the affairs of the church
+and consulted by the king, Louis VIII., his kinsman, on affairs of
+state. In 1272 the commands of the chief of his order and the request of
+King Charles brought him back to the professor's chair at Naples. All
+this time he was preaching every day, writing homilies, disputations,
+lectures, and finding time to work hard at his great work the _Summa
+Theologiae_. Such rewards as the church could bestow had been offered to
+him. He refused the archbishopric of Naples and the abbacy of Monte
+Cassino. In January 1274 he was summoned by Pope Gregory X. to attend
+the council convened at Lyons, to investigate and if possible settle the
+differences between the Greek and Latin churches. Though suffering from
+illness, he at once set out on the journey; finding his strength failing
+on the way, he was carried to the Cistercian monastery of Fossa Nuova,
+in the diocese of Terracina, where, after a lingering illness of seven
+weeks, he died on the 7th of March 1274, Dante (_Purg_. xx. 69) asserts
+that he was poisoned by order of Charles of Anjou. Villani (ix. 218)
+quotes the belief, and the _Anonimo Fiorentino_ describes the crime and
+its motive. But Muratori, reproducing the account given by one of
+Thomas's friends, gives no hint of foul play. Aquinas was canonized in
+1323 by Pope John XXII., and in 1567 Pius V. ranked the festival of St
+Thomas with those of the four great Latin fathers, Ambrose, Augustine,
+Jerome and Gregory. No theologian save Augustine has had an equal
+influence on the theological thought and language of the Western Church,
+a fact which was strongly emphasized by Leo XIII. (q.v.) in his
+_Encyclical_ of August 4, 1879, which directed the clergy to take the
+teachings of Aquinas as the basis of their theological position. In 1880
+he was declared patron of all Roman Catholic educational establishments.
+In a monastery at Naples, near the cathedral of St Januarius, is still
+shown a cell in which he is said to have lived.
+
+The writings of Thomas are of great importance for philosophy as well as
+for theology, for by nature and education he is the spirit of
+scholasticism incarnate. The principles on which his system rested were
+these. He held that there were two sources of knowledge--the mysteries
+of Christian faith and the truths of human reason. The distinction
+between these two was made emphatic by Aquinas, who is at pains,
+especially in his treatise _Contra Gentiles_, to make it plain that each
+is a distinct fountain of knowledge, but that revelation is the more
+important of the two. Revelation is a source of knowledge, rather than
+the manifestation in the world of a divine life, and its chief
+characteristic is that it presents men with mysteries, which are to be
+believed even when they cannot be understood. Revelation is not
+Scripture alone, for Scripture taken by itself does not correspond
+exactly with his description; nor is it church tradition alone, for
+church tradition must so far rest on Scripture. Revelation is a divine
+source of knowledge, of which Scripture and church tradition are the
+channels; and he who would rightly understand theology must familiarize
+himself with Scripture, the teachings of the fathers, and the decisions
+of councils, in such a way as to be able to make part of himself, as it
+were, those channels along which this divine knowledge flowed. Aquinas's
+conception of reason is in some way parallel with his conception of
+revelation. Reason is in his idea not the individual reason, but the
+fountain of natural truth, whose chief channels are the various systems
+of heathen philosophy, and more especially the thoughts of Plato and the
+methods of Aristotle. Reason and revelation are separate sources of
+knowledge; and man can put himself in possession of each, because he can
+bring himself into relation to the church on the one hand, and the
+system of philosophy, or more strictly Aristotle, on the other. The
+conception will be made clearer when it is remembered that Aquinas,
+taught by the mysterious author of the writings of the pseudo-Dionysius,
+who so marvellously influenced medieval writers, sometimes spoke of a
+natural revelation, or of reason as a source of truths in themselves
+mysterious, and was always accustomed to say that reason as well as
+revelation contained two kinds of knowledge. The first kind lay quite
+beyond the power of man to receive it, the second was within man's
+reach. In reason, as in revelation, man can only attain to the lower
+kind of knowledge; there is a higher kind which we may not hope to
+reach.
+
+But while reason and revelation are two distinct sources of truths, the
+truths are not contradictory; for in the last resort they rest on _one_
+absolute truth--they come from the one source of knowledge, God, the
+Absolute One. Hence arises the compatibility of philosophy and theology
+which was the fundamental axiom of scholasticism, and the possibility of
+a Summa Theologiae, which is a Summa Philosophiae as well. All the many
+writings of Thomas are preparatory to his great work the _Summa
+Theologiae_, and show us the progress of his mind training for this his
+life work. In the _Summa Catholicae Fidei contra Gentiles_ he shows how
+a Christian theology is the sum and crown of all science. This work is
+in its design apologetic, and is meant to bring within the range of
+Christian thought all that is of value in Mahommedan science. He
+carefully establishes the necessity of revelation as a source of
+knowledge, not merely because it aids us in comprehending in a somewhat
+better way the truths already furnished by reason, as some of the
+Arabian philosophers and Maimonides had acknowledged, but because it is
+the absolute source of our knowledge of the mysteries of the Christian
+faith; and then he lays down the relations to be observed between reason
+and revelation, between philosophy and theology. This work, _Contra
+Gentiles_, may be taken as an elaborate exposition of the method of
+Aquinas. That method, however, implied a careful study and comprehension
+of the results which accrued to man from reason and revelation, and a
+thorough grasp of all that had been done by man in relation to those two
+sources of human knowledge; and so, in his preliminary writings, Thomas
+proceeds to master the two provinces. The results of revelation he found
+in the Holy Scriptures and in the writings of the fathers and the great
+theologians of the church; and his method was to proceed backwards. He
+began with Peter of Lombardy (who had reduced to theological order, in
+his famous book on the _Sentences_, the various authoritative statements
+of the church upon doctrine) in his _In Quatuor Sententiarum P. Lombardi
+libros_. Then came his deliverances upon undecided points in theology,
+in his _XII. Quodlibeta Disputata_, and his _Quaestiones Disputatae_.
+His _Catena Aurea_ next appeared, which, under the form of a commentary
+on the Gospels, was really an exhaustive summary of the theological
+teaching of the greatest of the church fathers. This side of his
+preparation was finished by a close study of Scripture, the results of
+which are contained in his commentaries, _In omnes Epistolas Dim
+Apostoli Expositio_, his _Super Isaiam et Jeremiam_, and his _In
+Psalmos_. Turning now to the other side, we have evidence, not only from
+tradition but from his writings, that he was acquainted with Plato and
+the mystical Platonists; but he had the sagacity to perceive that
+Aristotle was _the_ great representative of philosophy, and that his
+writings contained the best results and method which the natural reason
+had as yet attained to. Accordingly Aquinas prepared himself on this
+side by commentaries on Aristotle's _De Interpretatione_, on his
+_Posterior Analytics_, on the _Metaphysics_, the _Physics_, the _De
+Anima_, and on Aristotle's other psychological and physical writings,
+each commentary having for its aim to lay hold of the material and grasp
+the method contained and employed in each treatise. Fortified by this
+exhaustive preparation, Aquinas began his _Summa Theologiae_, which he
+intended to be the sum of all known learning, arranged according to the
+best method, and subordinate to the dictates of the church. Practically
+it came to be the theological dicta of the church, explained according
+to the philosophy of Aristotle and his Arabian commentators. The _Summa_
+is divided into three great parts, which shortly may be said to treat of
+God, Man and the God-Man. The first and the second parts are wholly the
+work of Aquinas, but of the third part only the first ninety quaestiones
+are his; the rest of it was finished in accordance with his designs. The
+first book, after a short introduction upon the nature of theology as
+understood by Aquinas, proceeds in 119 questions to discuss the nature,
+attributes and relations of God; and this is not done as in a modern
+work on theology, but the questions raised in the physics of Aristotle
+find a place alongside of the statements of Scripture, while all
+subjects in any way related to the central theme are brought into the
+discourse. The second part is divided into two, which are quoted as
+_Prima Secundae_ and _Secunda Secundae_. This second part has often been
+described as ethic, but this is scarcely true. The subject is man,
+treated as Aristotle does, according to his [Greek: telos], and so
+Aquinas discusses all the ethical, psychological and theological
+questions which arise; but any theological discussion upon man must be
+mainly ethical, and so a great proportion of the first part, and almost
+the whole of the second, has to do with ethical questions. In his
+ethical discussions (a full account of which is given under ETHICS)
+Aquinas distinguishes theological from natural virtues and vices; the
+theological virtues are faith, hope and charity; the natural, justice,
+prudence and the like. The theological virtues are founded on faith, in
+opposition to the natural, which are founded on reason; and as faith
+with Aquinas is always belief in a proposition, not trust in a personal
+Saviour, conformably with his idea that revelation is a new knowledge
+rather than a new life, the relation of unbelief to virtue is very
+strictly and narrowly laid down and enforced. The third part of the
+_Summa_ is also divided into two parts, but by accident rather than by
+design. Aquinas died ere he had finished his great work, and what has
+been added to complete the scheme is appended as a _Supplementum Tertiae
+Partis_. In this third part Aquinas discusses the person, office and
+work of Christ, and had begun to discuss the sacraments, when death put
+an end to his labours.
+
+The purely philosophical theories of Aquinas are explained in the
+article SCHOLASTICISM. In connexion with the problem of universals, he
+held that the diversity of individuals depends on the quantitative
+division of matter (_materia signata_), and in this way he attracted the
+criticism of the Scotists, who pointed out that this very matter is
+individual and determinate, and, therefore, itself requires explanation.
+In general, Aquinas maintained in different senses the real existence of
+universals _ante rem_, _in re_ and _post rem_.
+
+  The best modern edition of the works of Aquinas is that prepared at
+  the expense of Leo XIII. (Rome, 1882-1903). The Abbé Migne published a
+  very useful edition of the _Summa Theologiae_, in four 8vo vols., as
+  an appendix to his _Patrologiae Cursus Completus_; English editions,
+  J. Rickaby (London, 1872), J.M. Ashley (London, 1888). See _Acta
+  Sanct_., vii. Martii; A. Touron, _La Vie de St Thomas d'Aquin, avec un
+  exposé de sa doctrine et de ses ouvrages_ (Paris, 1737); Karl Werner,
+  _Der Heilige Thomas van Aquino_ (1858); and R.B. Vaughan, _St Thomas
+  of Aquin, his Life and Labours_ (London, 1872): other lives by P.
+  Cavanagh (London, 1890); E. Desmousseaux de Giuré (Paris, 1888); M.
+  Didot (Louvain, 1894). For the philosophy of Aquinas, see Albert
+  Stöckl, _Geschichte der Philosophie des Mittelalters_, ii.; B.
+  Hauréau, _De la philosophie scolastique_, vol. ii.; J. Frohschammer,
+  _Die Philos. d. Th. van A_. (Leipzig, 1889); K. Prantl, _Geschichte d.
+  Logik_, vol. iii.; C.M. Schneider, _Natur, Vernunft, Gott_
+  (Regensburg, 1883), _Das Wissen Gottes nach d. Lehre des Th. v. A_. (4
+  vols. Regensburg, 1884-1886), _Die socialistische Staatsidee
+  beleuchtet durch Th. v. A_. (Paderborn, 1894); A. Harnack, _Hist, of
+  Dogma_ (trans. Wm. Gilchrist, London, 1899); Ueberweg's _History of
+  Philosophy_, vol. i. See also H.C. O'Neill, _New Things and Old in St
+  Thomas Aquinas_ (1909), with biography.     (T. M. L.; J. M. M.)
+
+
+
+
+AQUINO, a town and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, in the province of
+Caserta; it is 56 m. N.W. by rail from the town of Caserta, and 7½ m.
+N.W. of Cassino. Pop. (1901) 2672. The modern town, close to the
+ancient, is unimportant, though the canons of the cathedral have the
+privilege of wearing the mitre and _cappa magna_ at great festivals. It
+is close to the site of the ancient Aquinum, a _municipium_ in the time
+of Cicero, and made a colony by the Triumviri, the birthplace of Juvenal
+and of the emperor Pescennius Niger. The Via Latina traversed it; one of
+the gates through which it passed, now called Porta S. Lorenzo, is still
+well preserved, and there are remains within the walls (portions of
+which, built of large blocks of limestone, still remain) of two (so
+called) temples, a basilica and an amphitheatre (see R. Delbrück in
+_Röm. Mitteilungen_, 1903, p. 143). Outside, on the south is a
+well-preserved triumphal arch with composite capitals, and close to it
+the 11th-century basilica of S. Maria Libera, a handsome building in the
+Romanesque style, but now roofless. Several Roman inscriptions are built
+into it, and many others that have been found indicate the ancient
+importance of the place, which, though it does not appear in early
+history, is vouched for by Cicero and Strabo.[1] A colony was planted
+here by the Triumviri. St Thomas Aquinas was born in the castle of
+Roccasecca, 5 m. N.
+
+  See E. Grossi, _Aquinum_ (Rome, 1907).     (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] According to H. Nissen, _Ital. Landeskunde_ (Berlin, 1902), ii.
+    665, a road ran from here to Minturnae; but no traces of it are to be
+    seen.
+
+
+
+
+AQUITAINE, the name of an ancient province in France, the extent of
+which has varied considerably from time to time. About the time of
+Julius Caesar the name _Aquitania_ was given to that part of Gaul lying
+between the Pyrenees and the Garonne, and its inhabitants were a race,
+or races, distinct from the Celts. The name Aquitania is probably a form
+of Auscetani, which in its turn is a lengthened form of Ausces, and is
+thus cognate with the words Basque and Wasconia, i.e. Gascony. Although
+many of the tribes of Aquitania submitted to Julius Caesar, it was not
+until about 28 B.C. that the district was brought under the Roman yoke.
+In keeping with the Roman policy of denationalization, the term
+Aquitania was extended, and under Augustus it included the whole of Gaul
+south and west of the Loire and the Allier, and thus ceased to possess
+ethnographical importance. In the 3rd century A.D. this larger Aquitania
+was divided into three parts: _Aquitania Prima_, the eastern part of the
+district between the Loire and the Garonne; _Aquitania Secunda_, the
+western part of the same district; and _Aquitania Tertia_, or
+_Novempopulana_, the region between the Garonne and the Pyrenees, or the
+original Aquitania. The seats of government were respectively Bourges,
+Bordeaux and Eauze; the province contained twenty-six cities, and was in
+the diocese of Vienne. Like the rest of Gaul, Aquitania absorbed a large
+measure of Roman civilization, and this continued to distinguish the
+district down to a late period. In the 5th century the Visigoths
+established themselves in Aquitania Secunda, and also in parts of
+Aquitania Prima and Novempopulana, but after the defeat of their king
+Alaric II. by the Franks under Clovis in 507, they were supplanted by
+their conquerors. Clovis and his successors extended their authority
+nominally to the Pyrenees, but, as Guizot has remarked, "the conquest of
+Aquitania by Clovis left it almost as alien to the people and king of
+Franks as it had formerly been." Subsequently during the Merovingian
+period it was contended for by the feeble rulers of the various Frankish
+kingdoms, and was frequently partitioned among them; but the Aquitanians
+had little difficulty in effectually resisting this authority, although
+they did not establish themselves as a separate kingdom. About 628,
+indeed, they gathered around Charibert, or Haribert, a brother of the
+Frankish king, Dagobert I., in the hope of national independence; but
+after his death in 630 they returned to their former condition. But this
+effort, although a failure, brought about a certain measure of concord
+between the two principal races inhabiting the district, and so prepared
+the way for the stubborn resistance which, subsequently, the Aquitanians
+were able to offer to the Franks.
+
+The first line of dukes began about 660 with one Felix, who, like his
+successor, Lupus, probably owned allegiance to the Frankish kings, and
+whose seat of government was Toulouse. About the end of the 7th century
+an adventurer named Odo, or Eudes, made himself master of this region.
+Attacked by the Saracens he inflicted on them a crushing defeat, but
+when they reappeared, he was obliged to invoke the aid of Charles
+Martel, who, as the price of his support, claimed and received the
+homage of his ally. Odo was succeeded by his son Hunald, who after
+carrying on a war against the Franks under Pippin the Short, retired to
+a convent, leaving both the kingdom and the conflict to Waifer, or
+Guaifer. For some years Waifer strenuously carried on an unequal
+struggle with the Franks, but he was assassinated in 768, and with him
+perished the national independence, although not the national
+individuality, of the Aquitanians. In 781 Charlemagne bestowed Aquitaine
+upon his young son, Louis, and as Louis was generally described as a
+king, Aquitaine is referred to during the Carolingian period as a
+kingdom, and not as a duchy. When Louis succeeded Charlemagne as emperor
+in 814, he granted Aquitaine to his son Pippin, on whose death in 838
+the Aquitanians chose his son Pippin II. (d. 865) as their king. The
+emperor Louis I., however, opposed this arrangement and gave the kingdom
+to his youngest son Charles, afterwards the emperor Charles the Bald.
+Now followed a time of confusion and conflict which resulted eventually
+in the success of Charles, although from 845 to 852 Pippin was in
+possession of the kingdom. In 852 Pippin was imprisoned by Charles the
+Bald, who soon afterwards gave to the Aquitanians his own son Charles as
+their king. On the death of the younger Charles in 866, his brother
+Louis the Stammerer succeeded to the kingdom, and when, in 877, Louis
+became king of the Franks, Aquitaine was united to the Frankish crown.
+
+A new period now begins in the history of Aquitaine. By a treaty made in
+845 between Charles the Bald and Pippin II. the kingdom had been
+diminished by the loss of Poitou, Saintonge and Angoumois, which had
+been given to Rainulf I., count of Poitiers. Somewhat earlier than this
+date the title of duke of the Aquitanians had been revived, and this was
+now borne by Rainulf, although it was also claimed by the counts of
+Toulouse. The new duchy of Aquitaine, comprising the three districts
+already mentioned, remained in the hands of Rainulf's successors, in
+spite of some trouble with their Frankish overlords, until 893 when
+Count Rainulf II. was poisoned by order of King Charles III. the Simple.
+Charles then bestowed the duchy upon William the Pious, count of
+Auvergne, the founder of the abbey of Cluny, who was succeeded in 918 by
+his nephew, Count William II., who died in 926. A succession of dukes
+followed, one of whom, William IV., fought against Hugh Capet, king of
+France, and another of whom, William V., called the Great, was able
+considerably to strengthen and extend his authority, although he failed
+in his attempt to secure the Lombard crown. William's duchy almost
+reached the limits of the Roman Aquitania Prima and Secunda, but did not
+stretch south of the Garonne, a district which was in the possession of
+the Gascons. William died in 1030, and the names of William VI. (d.
+1038), Odo or Eudes (d. 1039), who joined Gascony to his duchy, William
+VII. and William VIII. bring us down to William IX. (d. 1127), who
+succeeded in 1087, and made himself famous as a crusader and a
+troubadour. William X. (d. 1137) married his daughter Eleanor to Louis
+VII., king of France, and Aquitaine went as her dowry. When Eleanor was
+divorced from Louis and was married in 1152 to Henry II. of England the
+duchy passed to her new husband, who, having suppressed a revolt there,
+gave it to his son Richard. When Richard died in 1199, it reverted to
+Eleanor, and on her death five years later, was united to the English
+crown and henceforward followed the fortunes of the English possessions
+in France. Aquitaine as it came to the English kings stretched as of old
+from the Loire to the Pyrenees, but its extent was curtailed on the
+south-east by the wide lands of the counts of Toulouse. The name
+Guienne, a corruption of Aquitaine, seems to have come into use about
+the 10th century, and the subsequent history of Aquitaine is merged in
+that of Gascony (q.v.) and Guienne (q.v.).
+
+  See E. Desjardins, _Géographie historique el administrative de la
+  Gaule romaine_ (Paris, 1876, 93); A. Luchaire, _Les Origines
+  linguistiques de l'Aquitaine_ (Paris, 1877); A. Longnon, _Géographie
+  de la Gaule au VI^e siècle_ (Paris, 1876); A. Perroud, _Les Origines
+  du premier duché d'Aquitaine_ (Paris, 1881); and E. Mabille, _Le
+  Royaume d'Aquitaine et ses marches sous les Carlovingiens_ (Paris,
+  1870).
+
+
+
+
+ARABESQUE, a word meaning simply "Arabian," but technically used for a
+certain form of decorative design in flowing lines intertwined; hence
+comes the more metaphorical use of this word, whether in nature or in
+morals, indicating a fantastic or complicated interweaving of lines
+against a background. In decorative design the term is historically a
+misnomer. It is applied to the grotesque decoration derived from Roman
+remains of the early time of the empire, not to any style derived from
+Arabian or Moorish work. Arabesque and Moresque are really distinct; the
+latter is from the Arabian style of ornament, developed by the Byzantine
+Greeks for their new masters, after the conquests of the followers of
+Mahomet; and the former is a term pretty well restricted to varieties of
+cinquecento decoration, which have nothing in common with any Arabian
+examples in their details, but are a development derived from Greek and
+Roman grotesque designs, such as we find them in the remains of ancient
+palaces at Rome, and in ancient houses at Pompeii. These were reproduced
+by Raphael and his pupils in the decoration of some of the corridors of
+the Loggie of the Vatican at Rome: grotesque is thus a better name for
+these decorations than Arabesque. This technical Arabesque, therefore,
+is much more ancient than any Arabian or Moorish decoration, and has
+really nothing in common with it except the mere symmetrical principles
+of its arrangement. Pliny and Vitruvius give us no name for the
+extravagant decorative wall-painting in vogue in their time, to which
+the early Italian revivers of it seem to have given the designation of
+grotesque, because it, was first discovered in the arched or underground
+chambers (_grotte_) of Roman ruins--as in the golden house of Nero, or
+the baths of Titus. What really took place in the Italian revival was in
+some measure a supplanting of the Arabesque for the classical grotesque,
+still retaining the original Arabian designation, while the genuine
+Arabian art, the Saracenic, was distinguished as Moresque or Moorish. So
+it is now the original Arabesque that is called by its specific names of
+Saracenic, Moorish and Alhambresque, while the term Arabesque is applied
+exclusively to the style developed from the debased classical grotesque
+of the Roman empire.
+
+There is still much of the genuine Saracenic element in Renaissance
+Arabesques, especially in that selected for book-borders and for
+silver-work, the details of which consist largely of the conventional
+Saracenic foliations. But the Arabesque developed in the Italian
+cinquecento work repudiated all the original Arabian elements and
+devices, and limited itself to the manipulating of the classical
+elements, of which the most prominent feature is ever the floriated or
+foliated scroll; and it is in this cinquecento decoration, whether in
+sculpture or in painting, that _Arabesque_ has been perfected.
+
+In the Saracenic, as the elder sister of the two styles, which was
+ingeniously developed by the Byzantine Greek artists for their Arabian
+masters in the early times of Mahommedan conquest, every natural object
+was proscribed; the artists were, therefore, reduced to making
+symmetrical designs from forms which should have no positive meaning;
+yet the Byzantine Greeks, who were Christians, managed to work even
+their own ecclesiastical symbols, in a disguised manner, into their
+tracery and diapers; as the lily, for instance. The cross was not so
+introduced; this, of course, was inadmissible; but neither was the
+crescent ever introduced into any of this early work in Damascus or
+Cairo. The crescent was itself not a Mahommedan device till after the
+conquest of Constantinople in 1453 A.D. The crescent, as the new moon,
+was the symbol of Byzantium; and it was only after that capital of the
+Eastern empire fell into the hands of the Turks that this symbol was
+adopted by them. The crescent and the cross became antagonist standards,
+therefore, first in the 15th century. And the crescent is not an element
+of original Moorish decoration.
+
+The Alhambra diapers and original Majolica (Majorca) ware afford
+admirable specimens of genuine Saracenic or Moorish decoration. A
+conventional floriage is common in these diapers; tracery also is a
+great feature in this work, in geometrical combinations, whether
+rectilinear or curvilinear; and the designs are rich in colour; idolatry
+was in the reproduction of natural forms, not in the fanciful
+combination of natural colours. These curves and angles, therefore, or
+interlacings, chiefly in stucco, constitute the prominent elements of an
+Arabian ornamental design, combining also Arabic inscriptions; composed
+of a mass of foliation or floral forms conventionally disguised, as the
+exclusion of all natural images was the fundamental principle of the
+style in its purity. The Alhambra displays almost endless specimens of
+this peculiar work, all in relief, highly coloured, and profusely
+enriched with gold. The mosque of Tulun, in Cairo, A.D. 876, the known
+work of a Greek, affords the completest example of this art in its early
+time; and Sicily contains many remains of this same exquisite Saracenic
+decoration.
+
+Such is the genuine Arabesque of the Arabs, but a very different style
+of design is implied by the Arabesque of the cinquecento, a purely
+classical ornamentation. This owes its origin to the excavation and
+recovery of ancient monuments, and was developed chiefly by the
+sculptors of the north, and the painters of central Italy; by the
+Lombardi of Venice, by Agostino Busti of Milan, by Bramante of Urbino,
+by Raphael, by Giulio Romano, and others of nearly equal merit. Very
+beautiful examples in sculpture of this cinquecento Arabesque are found
+in the churches of Venice, Verona and Brescia; in painting, the most
+complete specimens are those of the Vatican Loggie, and the Villa Madama
+at Rome and the ducal palaces at Mantua. The Vatican Arabesques, chiefly
+executed for Raphael by Giulio Romano, Gian Francesco Penni, and
+Giovanni da Udine, though beautiful as works of painting, are often very
+extravagant in their composition, ludicrous and sometimes aesthetically
+offensive; as are also many of the decorations of Pompeii. The main
+features of these designs are balanced scrolls in panels; or standards
+variously composed, but symmetrically scrolled on either side, and on
+the tendrils of these scrolls are suspended or placed birds and animals,
+human figures and chimeras, of any or all kinds, or indeed any objects
+that may take the fancy of the artist. The most perfect specimens of
+cinquecento Arabesque are certainly found in sculpture. As specimens of
+exquisite work may be mentioned the Martinengo tomb, in the church of
+the Padri Riformati at Brescia, and the façade of the church of Santa
+Maria del Miracoli there, by the Lombardi; and many of the carvings of
+the Château de Gaillon, France--all of which fairly illustrate the
+beauties and capabilities of the style.
+
+  See also Wornum, _Analysis of Ornament_ (1874).     (R. N. W.)
+
+
+
+
+ARABGIR, or ARABKIR (Byz. _Arabraces_), a town of Turkey in Asia in the
+Mamuret el-Aziz or Kharput vilayet, situated near the confluence of the
+eastern and western Euphrates, but some miles from the right bank of the
+combined streams. Pop. about 20,000, of which the larger half is
+Mussulman. It is connected with Sivas by a _chaussée_, prolonged to the
+Euphrates. The inhabitants are enterprising and prosperous, many of them
+leaving their native city to push their fortunes elsewhere, while of
+those that remain the greater part is employed in the manufacture of
+silk and cotton goods, or in the production of fruit. The present town
+was built at a comparatively recent date; but about 2 m. north-east is
+the old town, now called Eski-Shehr, given (c. 1021) to Senekherim of
+Armenia by the emperor Basil II. It contains the ruins of a castle and
+of several Seljuk mosques. The Armenian population suffered severely
+during the massacres of 1895.     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+ARABIA, a peninsula in the south-west of Asia, lying between 34° 30' and
+12° 45' N., and 32° 30' and 60° E., is bounded W. by the Red Sea, S. by
+the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean, and E. by the Gulf of Oman and
+the Persian Gulf. Its northern or land boundary is more difficult to
+define; most authorities, however, agree in taking it from El Arish on
+the Mediterranean, along the southern border of Palestine, between the
+Dead Sea and the Gulf of Akaba, then bending northwards along the Syrian
+border nearly to Tadmur, thence eastwards to the edge of the Euphrates
+valley near Anah, and thence south-east to the mouth of the Shat el Arab
+at the head of the Persian Gulf,--the boundary so defined includes the
+northern desert, which belongs geographically to Arabia rather than to
+Syria; while on the same grounds lower Mesopotamia and Irak, although
+occupied by an Arab population, are excluded.
+
+In shape, the peninsula forms a rough trapezium, with its greatest
+length from north-west to south-east. The length of its western side
+from Port Said to Aden is 1500 m.; its base from the Straits of
+Bab-el-Mandeb (or Bab al Mandab) to Ras el Had is 1300 m., its northern
+side from Port Said to the Euphrates 600 m.; its total area
+approximately 1,200,000 sq. m.
+
+
+GEOGRAPHY
+
+_General Features._--In general terms Arabia may be described as a
+plateau sloping gently from south-west to north-east, and attaining its
+greatest elevation in the extreme south-west. The western escarpment of
+the plateau rises steeply from the Red Sea littoral to a height of from
+4000 to 8000 ft., leaving a narrow belt of lowland rarely exceeding 30
+m. in width between the shore and the foot-hills. On the north-east and
+east the plateau shelves gradually to the Euphrates and the Persian
+Gulf; only in the extreme east is this general easterly slope arrested
+by the lofty range of Jebel Akhdar, which from Ras Musandan to Ras el
+Had borders the coast of Oman.
+
+Its chief characteristic is the bareness and aridity of its surface;
+one-third of the whole desert, and of the remainder only a small
+proportion is suited to settled life, owing to its scanty water-supply
+and uncertain rainfall. Its mountains are insufficient in elevation and
+extent to attract their full share of the monsoon rains, which fall so
+abundantly on the Abyssinian highlands on the other side of the Red Sea;
+for this reason Arabia has neither lakes nor forests to control the
+water-supply and prevent its too rapid dissipation, and the rivers are
+mere torrent beds sweeping down occasionally in heavy floods, but
+otherwise dry.
+
+The country falls naturally into three main divisions, a northern, a
+central and a southern; the first includes the area between the Midian
+coast on the west and the head of the Persian Gulf on the east, a desert
+tract throughout, stony in the north, sandy in the south, but furnishing
+at certain seasons excellent pasturage; its population is almost
+entirely nomad and pastoral. The central zone includes Hejaz (or Hijaz),
+Nejd and El Hasa; much of it is a dry, stony or sandy steppe, with few
+wells or watering-places, and only occupied by nomad tribes; but the
+great wadis which intersect it contain many fertile stretches of
+alluvial soil, where cultivation is possible and which support a
+considerable settled population, with several large towns and numerous
+villages.
+
+The third or southern division contains the highland plateaus of Asir
+and Yemen in the west, and J. Akhdar in the east, which with a temperate
+climate, due to their great elevation and their proximity to the sea,
+deserve, if any part of Arabia does, the name of Arabia Felix--the
+population is settled and agricultural, and the soil, wherever the
+rainfall is sufficient, is productive. The Batina coast of Oman,
+irrigated by the mountain streams of J. Akhdar, is perhaps the most
+fertile district in the peninsula; Hadramut, too, contains many large
+and prosperous villages, and the torrents from the Yemen highlands
+fertilize several oases in the Tehama (or Tihama) or lowlands of the
+western and southern coast. These favourable conditions of soil and
+climate, however, extend only a comparatively short distance into the
+interior, by far the larger part of which is covered by the great
+southern desert, the Dahna, or Ruba el Khali, empty as its name implies,
+and uninhabitable.
+
+_Exploration._--Before entering on a detailed description of the several
+provinces of Arabia, our sources of information will be briefly
+indicated. Except in the neighbourhood of Aden, no regular surveys
+exist, and professional work is limited to the marine surveys of the
+Indian government and the admiralty, which, while laying down the coast
+line with fair accuracy, give little or no topographical information
+inland. For the mapping of the whole vast interior, except in rare
+cases, no data exist beyond the itineraries of explorers, travelling as
+a rule under conditions which precluded the use of even the simplest
+surveying instruments. These journeys, naturally following the most
+frequented routes, often cover the same ground, while immense tracts,
+owing to their difficulty of access, remain unvisited by any European.
+
+The region most thoroughly explored is Yemen, in the south-west corner
+of the peninsula, where the labours of a succession of travellers from
+Niebuhr in 1761 to E. Glaser and R. Manzoni in 1887 have led to a fairly
+complete knowledge of all that part of the province west of the capital
+Sana; while in 1902-1904 the operations of the Anglo-Turkish boundary
+commission permitted the execution of a systematic topographical survey
+of the British protectorate from the Red Sea to the Wadi Bana, 30 m.
+east of Aden. North of Yemen up to the Hejaz border the only authority
+is that of E.F. Jomard's map, published in 1839, based on the
+information given by the French officers employed with Ibrahim Pasha's
+army in Asir from 1824 to 1827, and of J. Halévy in Nejran. On the south
+coast expeditions have penetrated but a short distance, the most notable
+exceptions being those of L. Hirsch and J.T. Bent in 1887 to the
+Hadramut valley. S.B. Miles, J.R. Wellsted, and S.M. Zwemer have
+explored Oman in the extreme east; but the interior south of a line
+drawn from Taif to El Katr on the Persian Gulf is still virgin ground.
+In northern Arabia the Syrian desert and the great Nafud (Nefud) have
+been crossed by several travellers, though a large area remains
+unexplored in the north-east between Kasim and the gulf. In the centre,
+the journeys of W. Palgrave, C. Doughty, W. Blunt and C. Huber have done
+much to elucidate the main physical features of the country. Lastly, in
+the north-west the Sinai peninsula has been thoroughly explored, and the
+list of travellers who have visited the Holy Cities and traversed the
+main pilgrim routes through Hejaz is a fairly long one, though, owing to
+the difficulties peculiar to that region, the hydrography of southern
+Hejaz is still incompletely known.
+
+
+  Modern Exploration in Yemen.
+
+The story of modern exploration begins with the despatch of C. Niebuhr's
+mission by the Danish government in 1761. After a year spent in Egypt
+and the Sinai peninsula the party reached Jidda towards the end of 1762,
+and after a short stay sailed on to Lohaia in the north of Yemen, the
+exploration of which formed the principal object of the expedition;
+thence, travelling through the Tehama or lowlands, Niebuhr and his
+companions visited the towns of Bet el Fakih, Zubed and Mokha, then the
+great port for the coffee trade of Yemen. Continuing eastward they
+crossed the mountainous region and reached the highlands of Yemen at
+Uden, a small town and the centre of a district celebrated for its
+coffee. Thence proceeding eastwards to higher altitudes where coffee
+plantations give way to fields of wheat and barley, they reached the
+town of Jibla situated among a group of mountains exceeding 10,000 ft.
+above sea-level; and turning southwards to Taiz descended again to the
+Tehama via Hes and Zubed to Mokha. The mission, reduced in numbers by
+the death of its archaeologist, von Haven, again visited Taiz in June
+1763, where after some delay permission was obtained to visit Sana, the
+capital of the province and the residence of the ruling sovereign or
+imam. The route lay by Jibla, passing the foot of the lofty Jebel Sorak,
+where, in spite of illness, Forskal, the botanist of the party, was able
+to make a last excursion; a few days later he died at Yarim. The mission
+continued its march, passing Dhamar, the seat of a university of the
+Zedi sect, then frequented by 500 students. Thence four marches,
+generally over a stony plateau dominated by bare, sterile mountains,
+brought them to Sana, where they received a cordial welcome from the
+imam, el Mahdi Abbas.
+
+The aspect of the city must have been nearly the same as at present;
+Niebuhr describes the _enceinte_ flanked by towers, the citadel at the
+foot of J. Nukum which rises 1000 ft. above the valley, the fortress and
+palace of the imams, now replaced by the Turkish military hospital, the
+suburb of Bir el Azab with its scattered houses and gardens, the Jews'
+quarter and the village of Rauda, a few miles to the north in a fertile,
+irrigated plain which Niebuhr compares to that of Damascus. After a stay
+of ten days at Sana the mission set out again for Mokha, travelling by
+what is now the main route from the capital to Hodeda, through the rich
+coffee-bearing district of J. Haraz, and thence southward to Mokha,
+where they embarked for India. During the next year three other members
+of the party died, leaving Niebuhr the sole survivor. Returning to
+Arabia a year later, he visited Oman and the shores of the Persian Gulf,
+and travelling from Basra through Syria and Palestine he reached Denmark
+in 1764 after four years' absence.
+
+The period was perhaps specially favourable for a scientific mission of
+the sort. The outburst of fanaticism which convulsed Arabia twenty years
+later had not then reached Yemen, and Europeans, as such, were not
+exposed to any special danger. The travellers were thus able to move
+freely and to pursue their scientific enquiries without hindrance from
+either people or ruler. The results published in 1772 gave for the first
+time a comprehensive description not only of Yemen but of all Arabia;
+while the parts actually visited by Niebuhr were described with a
+fulness and accuracy of detail which left little or nothing for his
+successors to discover.
+
+
+  Asir.
+
+  Jauf and Marib.
+
+C.G. Ehrenberg and W.F. Hemprich in 1825 visited the Tehama and the
+islands off the coast, and in 1836 P.E. Botta made an important journey
+in southern Yemen with a view to botanical research, but the next
+advance in geographical knowledge in south Arabia was due to the French
+officers, M.O. Tamisier, Chedufau and Mary, belonging to the Egyptian
+army in Asir; another Frenchman, L. Arnaud, formerly in the Egyptian
+service, was the first to visit the southern Jauf and to report on the
+rock-cut inscriptions and ruins of Marib, though it was not till 1869
+that a competent archaeologist, J. Halévy, was able to carry out any
+complete exploration there. Starting from Sana, Halévy went
+north-eastward to El Madid, a town of 5000 inhabitants and the capital
+of the small district of Nihm; thence crossing a plateau, where he saw
+the ruins of numerous crenellated towers, he reached the village of
+Mijzar at the foot of J. Yam, on the borders of Jauf, a vast sandy
+plain, extending eastwards to El Jail and El Hazm, where Halévy made his
+most important discoveries of Sabaean inscriptions: here he explored
+Main, the ancient capital of the Minaeans, Kamna on the banks of the W.
+Kharid, the ancient Caminacum, and Kharibat el Beda, the Nesca of Pliny,
+where the Sabaean army was defeated by the Romans under Aelius Gallus in
+24 B.C. From El Jail Halévy travelled northward, passing the oasis of
+Khab, and skirting the great desert, reached the fertile district of
+Nejran, where he found a colony of Jews, with whom he spent several
+weeks in the oasis of Makhlaf. An hour's march to the east he discovered
+at the village of Medinat el Mahud the ruins of the Nagra metropolis of
+Ptolemy. In June 1870 he at last reached the goal of his journey, Marib;
+here he explored the ruins of Medinat an Nahas (so called from its
+numerous inscriptions engraved on brass plates), and two hours to the
+east he found the famous dam constructed by the Himyarites across the W.
+Shibwan, on which the water-supply of their capital depended.
+
+One other explorer has since visited Marib, the Austrian archaeologist,
+E. Glaser (1855-1908), who achieved more for science in Yemen than any
+traveller since Niebuhr. Under Turkish protection, he visited the
+territory of the Hashid and Bakil tribes north-east of Sana, and though
+their hostile attitude compelled him to return after reaching their
+first important town, Khamr, he had time to reconnoitre the plateau
+lying between the two great wadis Kharid and Hirran, formerly covered
+with Himyaritic towns and villages; and to trace the course of these
+wadis to their junction at El Ish in the Dhu Husen country, and thence
+onward to the Jauf. In 1889 he succeeded, again under Turkish escort, in
+reaching Marib, where he obtained, during a stay of thirty days, a large
+number of new Himyaritic inscriptions. He was unable, however, to
+proceed farther east than his predecessors, and the problem of the Jauf
+drainage and its possible connexion with the upper part of the Hadramut
+valley still remains unsolved.
+
+
+  Exploration in Hadramut.
+
+The earliest attempt to penetrate into the interior from the south coast
+was made in 1835 when Lieuts. C. Cruttenden and J.R. Wellsted of the
+"Palinurus," employed on the marine survey of the Arabian coast, visited
+the ruins of Nakb (el Hajar) in the W. Mefat. The Himyaritic
+inscriptions found there and at Husn Ghurab near Mukalla, were the first
+records discovered of ancient Arabian civilization in Hadramut. Neither
+of these officers was able to follow up their discoveries, but in 1843
+Adolph von Wrede landed at Mukalla and, adopting the character of a
+pilgrim to the shrine of the prophet Hud, made his way northward across
+the high plateau into the W. Duwan, one of the main southern tributaries
+of the Hadramut valley, and pushed on to the edge of the great southern
+desert; on his return to the W. Duwan his disguise was detected and he
+was obliged to return to Mukalla. Though he did not actually enter the
+main Hadramut valley, which lay to the east of his track, his journey
+established the existence of this populous and fertile district which
+had been reported to the officers of the "Palinurus" as lying between
+the coast range and the great desert to the north. This was at last
+visited in 1893 by L. Hirsch under the protection of the sultan of
+Mukalla, the head of the Kaiti family, and practically ruler of all
+Hadramut, with the exception of the towns of Saiyun and Tarim, which
+belong to the Kathiri tribe. Starting like von Wrede from Mukalla,
+Hirsch first visited the W. Duwan and found ancient ruins and
+inscriptions near the village of Hajren; thence he proceeded
+north-eastward to Hauta in the main valley, where he was hospitably
+received by the Kaiti sultan, and sent on to his deputy at Shibam. Here
+he procured a Kathiri escort and pushed on through Saiyun to Tarim, the
+former capital. After a very brief stay, however, he was compelled by
+the hostility of the people to return in haste to Shibam, from which he
+travelled by the W. bin Ali and W. Adim back to Mukalla. J. Theodore
+Bent and his wife followed in the same track a few months later with a
+well-equipped party including a surveyor, Imam Sharif, lent by the
+Indian government, who made a very valuable survey of the country passed
+through. Both parties visited many sites where Himyaritic remains and
+inscriptions were found, but the hostile attitude of the natives, more
+particularly of the Seyyids, the religious hierarchy of Hadramut,
+prevented any adequate examination, and much of archaeological interest
+undoubtedly remains for future travellers to discover.
+
+
+  Exploration in Oman.
+
+In Oman, where the conditions are more favourable, explorers have
+penetrated only a short distance from the coast. Niebuhr did not go
+inland from Muscat; the operations by a British Indian force on the
+Pirate coast in 1810 gave no opportunities for visiting the interior,
+and it was not till 1835 that J.R. Wellsted, who had already tried to
+penetrate into Hadramut from the south, landed at Muscat with the idea
+of reaching it from the north-east. Sailing thence to Sur near Ras el
+Had, he travelled southward through the country of the Bani bu Ali to
+the borders of the desert, then turning north-west up the Wadi Betha
+through a fertile, well-watered country, running up to the southern
+slopes of J. Akhdar, inhabited by a friendly people who seem to have
+welcomed him everywhere, he visited Ibra, Semed and Nizwa at the
+southern foot of the mountains. Owing to the disturbed state of the
+country, due to the presence of raiding parties from Nejd, Wellsted was
+unable to carry out his original intention of exploring the country to
+the west, and after an excursion along the Batina coast to Sohar he
+returned to India.
+
+In 1876 Colonel S.B. Miles, who had already done much to advance
+geographical interests in south Arabia, continued Wellsted's work in
+Oman; starting from Sohar on the Batina coast he crossed the dividing
+range into the Dhahira, and reached Birema, one of its principal oases.
+His investigations show that the Dhahira contains many settlements, with
+an industrious agricultural population, and that the unexplored tract
+extending 250 m. west to the peninsula of El Katr is a desolate gravelly
+steppe, shelving gradually down to the salt marshes which border the
+shores of the gulf.
+
+
+  Exploration in Hejaz.
+
+Leaving southern Arabia, we now come to the centre and north. The first
+explorer to enter the sacred Hejaz with a definite scientific object was
+the Spaniard, Badia y Leblich, who, under the name of Ali Bey and
+claiming to be the last representative of the Abbasid Caliphs, arrived
+at Jidda in 1807, and performed the pilgrimage to Mecca. Besides giving
+to the world the first accurate description of the holy city and the Haj
+ceremonies, he was the first to fix the position of Mecca by
+astronomical observations, and to describe the physical character of its
+surroundings. But the true pioneer of exploration in Hejaz was J.L.
+Burckhardt, who had already won a reputation as the discoverer of Petra,
+and whose experience of travel in Arab lands and knowledge of Arab life
+qualified him to pass as a Moslem, even in the headquarters of Islam.
+Burckhardt landed in Jidda in July 1814, when Mehemet Ali had already
+driven the Wahhabi invaders out of Hejaz, and was preparing for his
+farther advance against their stronghold in Nejd. He first visited Taif
+at the invitation of the pasha, thence he proceeded to Mecca, where he
+spent three months studying every detail of the topography of the holy
+places, and going through all the ceremonies incumbent on a Moslem
+pilgrim. In January 1815 he travelled to Medina by the western or coast
+route, and arrived there safely but broken in health by the hardships of
+the journey. His illness did not, however, prevent his seeing and
+recording everything of interest in Medina with the same care as at
+Mecca, though it compelled him to cut short the further journey he had
+proposed to himself, and to return by Yambu and the sea to Cairo, where
+he died only two years later.
+
+His striking successor, Sir Richard Burton, covered nearly the same
+ground thirty-eight years afterwards. He, too, travelling as a Moslem
+pilgrim, noted the whole ritual of the pilgrimage with the same keen
+observation as Burckhardt, and while amplifying somewhat the latter's
+description of Medina, confirms the accuracy of his work there and at
+Mecca in almost every detail. Burton's topographical descriptions are
+fuller, and his march to Mecca from Medina by the eastern route led him
+over ground not traversed by any other explorer in Hejaz: this route
+leads at first south-east from Medina, and then south across the lava
+beds of the Harra, keeping throughout its length on the high plateau
+which forms the borderland between Hejaz and Nejd. His original
+intention had been after visiting Mecca to find his way across the
+peninsula to Oman, but the time at his disposal (as an Indian officer on
+leave) was insufficient for so extended a journey; and his further
+contributions to Arabian geography were not made until twenty-five years
+later, when he was deputed by the Egyptian government to examine the
+reported gold deposits of Midian. Traces of ancient workings were found
+in several places, but the ores did not contain gold in paying
+quantities. Interesting archaeological discoveries were made, and a
+valuable topographical survey was carried out, covering the whole Midian
+coast from the head of the Gulf of Akaba to the mouth of the Wadi Hamd,
+and including both the Tehama range and the Hisma valley behind it;
+while the importance of the W. Hamd and the extent of the area drained
+by its tributaries was for the first time brought to light.
+
+
+  Exploration in Nejd.
+
+Burckhardt had hoped in 1815 that the advance of the Egyptian expedition
+would have given him the opportunity to see something of Nejd, but he
+had already left Arabia before the overthrow of the Wahhabi power by
+Ibrahim Pasha had opened Nejd to travellers from Hejaz, and though
+several European officers accompanied the expedition, none of them left
+any record of his experience. It is, however, to the Egyptian conquest
+that the first visit of a British traveller to Nejd is due. The Indian
+government, wishing to enter into relations with Ibrahim Pasha, as _de
+facto_ ruler of Nejd and El Hasa, with a view to putting down piracy in
+the Persian Gulf, which was seriously affecting Indian trade, sent a
+small mission under Captain G.F. Sadlier to congratulate the pasha on
+the success of the Egyptian arms, and no doubt with the ulterior object
+of obtaining a first-hand report on the real situation. On his arrival
+at Hofuf, Sadlier found that Ibrahim had already left Deraiya, but still
+hoping to intercept him before quitting Nejd, he followed up the
+retreating Egyptians through Yemama, and Wushm to Ras in Kasim, where he
+caught up the main body of Ibrahim's army, though the pasha himself had
+gone on to Medina. Sadlier hesitated about going farther, but he was
+unable to obtain a safe conduct to Basra, or to return by the way he had
+come, and was compelled reluctantly to accompany the army to Medina.
+Here he at last met Ibrahim, but though courteously received, the
+interview had no results, and Sadlier soon after left for Yambu, whence
+he embarked for Jidda, and after another fruitless attempt to treat with
+Ibrahim, sailed for India. If the political results of the mission were
+_nil_, the value to geographical science was immense; for though no
+geographer himself, Sadlier's route across Arabia made it possible for
+the first time to locate the principal places in something like their
+proper relative positions; incidentally, too, it showed the
+practicability of a considerable body of regular troops crossing the
+deserts of Nejd even in the months of July and August.
+
+Sadlier's route had left Jebel Shammar to one side; his successor, G.A.
+Wallin, was to make that the objective of his journey. Commissioned by
+Mehemet Ali to inform him about the situation in Nejd brought about by
+the rising power of Abdallah Ibn Rashid, Wallin left Cairo in April
+1845, and crossing the pilgrim road at Ma'an, pushed on across the
+Syrian desert to the Wadi Sirhan and the Jauf oasis, where he halted
+during the hot summer months. From the wells of Shakik he crossed the
+waterless Nafud in four days to Jubba, and after a halt there in the
+nomad camps, he moved on to Hail, already a thriving town, and the
+capital of the Shammar state whose limits included all northern Arabia
+from Kasim to the Syrian border. After a stay in Hail, where he had
+every opportunity of observing the character of the country and its
+inhabitants, and the hospitality and patriarchal, if sometimes stern,
+justice of its chief, he travelled on to Medina and Mecca, and returned
+thence to Cairo to report to his patron. Early in 1848 he again returned
+to Arabia, avoiding the long desert journey by landing at Muwela, thence
+striking inland to Tebuk on the pilgrim road, and re-entering Shammar
+territory at the oasis of Tema, he again visited Hail; and after
+spending a month there travelled northwards to Kerbela and Bagdad.
+
+
+  Palgrave's journey to Nejd.
+
+The effects of the Egyptian invasion had passed away, and central Arabia
+had settled down again under its native rulers when W.G. Palgrave made
+his adventurous journey through Nejd, and published the remarkable
+narrative which has taken its place as the classic of Arabian
+exploration. Like Burton he was once an officer in the Indian army, but
+for some time before his journey he had been connected with the Jesuit
+mission in Syria. By training and temperament he was better qualified to
+appreciate and describe the social life of the people than their
+physical surroundings, and if the results of his great journey are
+disappointing to the geographer, his account of the society of the oasis
+towns, and of the remarkable men who were then ruling in Hail and Riad,
+must always possess an absorbing interest as a portrait of Arab life in
+its freest development.
+
+Following Wallin's route across the desert by Ma'an and Jauf, Palgrave
+and his companion, a Syrian Christian, reached Hail in July 1862; here
+they were hospitably entertained by the amir Talal, nephew of the
+founder of the Ibn Rashid dynasty, and after some stay passed on with
+his countenance through Kasim to southern Nejd. Palgrave says little of
+the desert part of the journey or of its Bedouin inhabitants, but much
+of the fertility of the oases and of the civility of the townsmen; and
+like other travellers in Nejd he speaks with enthusiasm of its bright,
+exhilarating climate. At Riad, Fesal, who had been in power since the
+Egyptian retirement, was still reigning; and the religious tyranny of
+Wahhabism prevailed, in marked contrast to the liberal régime of Talal
+in Jebel Shammar. Still, Palgrave and his companions, though known as
+Christians, spent nearly two months in the capital without molestation,
+making short excursions in the neighbourhood, the most important of
+which was to El Kharfa in Aflaj, the most southerly district of Nejd.
+Leaving Riad, they passed through Yemama, and across a strip of sandy
+desert to El Hasa where Palgrave found himself in more congenial
+surroundings. Finally, a voyage to the Oman coast and a brief stay there
+brought his adventures in Arabia to a successful ending.
+
+
+  Doughty.
+
+Charles Doughty, the next Englishman to visit northern Arabia, though he
+covered little new ground, saw more of the desert life, and has
+described it more minutely and faithfully than any other explorer.
+Travelling down from Damascus in 1875 with the Haj caravan, he stopped
+at El Hajr, one of the pilgrim stations, with the intention of awaiting
+the return of the caravan and in the meantime of exploring the rock-cut
+tombs of Medain Salih and El Ala. Having successfully completed his
+investigations and sent copies of inscriptions and drawings of the tombs
+to Renan in Paris, he determined to push on farther into the desert.
+Under the protection of a sheikh of the Fukara Bedouin he wandered over
+the whole of the borderland between Hejaz and Nejd. Visiting Tema, where
+among other ancient remains he discovered the famous inscribed stone,
+afterwards acquired by Huber for the Louvre. Next summer he went on to
+Hail and thence back to Khaibar, where the negro governor and townsmen,
+less tolerant than his former Bedouin hosts, ill-treated him and even
+threatened his life. Returning to Hail in the absence of the amir, he
+was expelled by the governor; he succeeded, however, in finding
+protection at Aneza, where he spent several months, and eventually after
+many hardships and perils found his way to the coast at Jidda.
+
+Three years later Mr Wilfrid and Lady Anne Blunt made their expedition
+to J. Shammar. In their previous travels in Syria they had gained the
+confidence and friendship of a young sheikh whose family, though long
+settled at Tadmur, came originally from Nejd, and who was anxious to
+renew the connexion with his kinsmen by seeking a bride among them. In
+his company the Blunts set out from Damascus, and travelled across the
+Syrian desert by the Wadi Sirhan to Jauf. Here the sheikh found some of
+his relations and the matrimonial alliance was soon arranged; but though
+the object of the journey had been attained, the Blunts were anxious to
+visit Hail and make the acquaintance of the amir Ibn Rashid, of whose
+might and generosity they daily heard from their hosts in Jauf. The long
+stretch of waterless desert between Jauf and J. Shammar was crossed
+without difficulty, and the party was welcomed by the amir and
+hospitably entertained for a month, after which they travelled
+northwards in company with the Persian pilgrim caravan returning to
+Kerbela and Bagdad.
+
+
+  Huber.
+
+In 1883 the French traveller, C. Huber, accompanied by the
+archaeologist, J. Euting, followed the same route from Damascus to Hail.
+The narrative of the last named forms a valuable supplement to that
+published by the Blunts, and together with Doughty's, furnishes as
+complete a picture as could be wished for of the social and political
+life of J. Shammar, and of the general nature of the country. Huber's
+journal, published after his death from his original notes, contains a
+mass of topographical and archaeological detail of the greatest
+scientific value: his routes and observations form, in fact, the first
+and only scientific data for the construction of the map of northern
+Arabia. To archaeology also his services were of equal importance, for,
+besides copying numerous inscriptions in the district between Hail and
+Tema, he succeeded in gaining possession of the since famous Tema stone,
+which ranks with the Moabite stone among the most valuable of Semitic
+inscriptions. From Hail Huber followed nearly in Doughty's track to
+Aneza and thence across central Nejd to Mecca and Jidda, where he
+despatched his notes and copies of inscriptions. A month later, in July
+1884, he was murdered by his guides a few marches north of Jidda, on his
+way back to Hail.
+
+One other traveller visited Hail during the lifetime of the amir
+Mahommed--Baron E. Nolde--who arrived there in 1893, not long after the
+amir had by his victory over the combined forces of Riad and Kasim
+brought the whole of Nejd under his dominion. Nolde crossed the Nafud to
+Haiyania by a more direct track than that from Shakik to Jubba. The amir
+was away from his capital settling the affairs of his newly acquired
+territory; Nolde therefore, after a short halt at Hail, journeyed on to
+Ibn Rashid's camp somewhere in the neighbourhood of Shakra. Here he was
+on new ground, but unfortunately he gives little or no description of
+his route thither, or of his journey northwards by the Persian pilgrim
+road, already traversed by Huber in 1881. His narrative thus, while
+containing much of general interest on the climate and on the animal
+life of northern Arabia, its horses and camels in particular, adds
+little to those of his predecessors as regards topographical detail.
+
+
+  General results of exploration.
+
+If the journeys detailed above be traced on the map they will be found
+to cover the northern half of the peninsula above the line Mecca-Hofuf,
+with a network of routes, which, though sometimes separated by wide
+intervals, are still close enough to ensure that no important
+geographical feature can have been overlooked, especially in a country
+whose general character varies so little over wide areas. In the
+southern half, on the other hand, except in Nejran and Jauf, no European
+traveller has penetrated 100 m. in a direct line from the coast. The
+vast extent of the Dahna, or great southern desert, covering perhaps
+250,000 sq. m., accounts for about a third of this area, but some of the
+most favoured districts in Arabia--Asir and northern Yemen--remain
+unexplored, and the hydrography of the Dawasir basin offers some
+interesting problems, while a great field remains for the archaeologist
+in the seat of the old Sabaean kingdom from Jauf to the Hadramut valley.
+
+
+    Sinai Peninsula.
+
+  _Topographical Details._--Beginning from the north-west, the Sinai
+  peninsula belongs to Egypt, though geographically part of Arabia. It
+  is bounded on the E. by a line drawn from Ar Rafa, a few miles E. of
+  El Arish on the Mediterranean, to the head of the Gulf of Akaba; and
+  on the W. by the Suez Canal; its length from El Arish to its most
+  southern point is 240 m., and its breadth from Suez to Akaba is nearly
+  160 m. The greater part drains to the Mediterranean, from which the
+  land rises gradually to the summit of the Tih plateau. The deep
+  depression of Wadi Feran separates the Tih from the higher mass of
+  Sinai (q.v.), in which J. Katherine attains a height of 8500 ft.;
+  except in W. Feran there is little cultivable land, the greater part
+  consisting of bare, rocky hills and sandy valleys, sparsely covered
+  with tamarisk and acacia bushes. The Egyptian pilgrim road crosses the
+  peninsula from Suez to Akaba, passing the post of An Nakhl, with a
+  reservoir and a little cultivation, about half way; a steep descent
+  leads down from the edge of the Tih plateau to Akaba.
+
+
+    Syrian desert.
+
+  The rest of the northern borderland is covered by the Syrian desert,
+  extending from the borders of Palestine to the edge of the Euphrates
+  valley. This tract, known as the Hamad, is a gravelly plain unbroken
+  by any considerable range of hills or any continuous watercourse
+  except the Wadi Hauran, which in rainy seasons forms a succession of
+  pools from J. Hauran to the Euphrates. Its general slope is to the
+  north-east from the volcanic plateau of the Harra south of J. Hauran
+  to the edge of the Euphrates valley. The Wadi Sirhan, a broad
+  depression some 500 ft. below the average level of the Hamad, crosses
+  it from north-east to south-west between Hauran and Jauf; it has a
+  nearly uniform height above sea-level of 1850 ft., and appears to be
+  the bed of an inland sea rather than a true watercourse. Water is
+  found in it a few feet below the surface, and a little cultivation is
+  carried on at the small oases of Kaf and Ithri, whence salt produced
+  in the neighbouring salt lakes is exported. The W. Sirhan is
+  continuous with the depression known as the Jauf, situated on the
+  northern edge of the Nefud or Nafud, and the halfway station between
+  Damascus and Hail; and it is possible that this depression continues
+  eastward towards the Euphrates along a line a little north of the
+  thirtieth parallel, where wells and pasturages are known to exist.
+  Jauf is a small town consisting, at the time of the Blunts' visit in
+  1879, of not more than 500 houses. The town with its gardens,
+  surrounded by a mud wall, covers a space of 2 m. in length by half a
+  mile in width; the basin in which it lies is barely 3 m. across, and
+  except for the palm gardens and a few patches of corn, it is a dead
+  flat of white sand, closed in by high sandstone cliffs, beyond which
+  lies the open desert. The oases of Sakaka and Kara are situated in a
+  similar basin 15 m. to the east; the former a town of 10,000
+  inhabitants and somewhat larger than Jauf according to Huber.
+
+
+    The Nafud.
+
+  A short distance south of Jauf the character of the desert changes
+  abruptly from a level black expanse of gravel to the red sands of the
+  Nafud. The northern edge of this great desert follows very nearly the
+  line of the thirtieth parallel, along which it extends east and west
+  for a length of some 400 m.; its breadth from north to south is 200 m.
+  Though almost waterless, it is in fact better wooded and richer in
+  pasture than any part of the Hamad; the sand-hills are dotted with
+  _ghada_, a species of tamarisk, and other bushes, and several grasses
+  and succulent plants --among them the _adar_, on which sheep are said
+  to feed for a month without requiring water--are found in abundance in
+  good seasons. In the spring months, when their camels are in milk, the
+  Bedouins care nothing for water, and wander far into the Nafud with
+  their flocks in search of the green pasture which springs up
+  everywhere after the winter rains. A few wells exist actually in the
+  Nafud in the district called El Hajra, near its north-eastern border,
+  and along its southern border, between J. Shammar and Tema, there are
+  numerous wells and artificial as well as natural reservoirs resorted
+  to by the nomad tribes.
+
+  Owing to the great extent of the Nafud desert, the formation of
+  sand-dunes is exemplified on a proportionate scale. In many places
+  longitudinal dunes are found exceeding a day's journey in length, the
+  valleys between which take three or four hours to cross; but the most
+  striking feature of the Nafud are the high crescent-shaped sand-hills,
+  known locally as _falk_ or _falj_, described by Blunt and Huber, who
+  devoted some time to their investigation. The falks enclose a deep
+  hollow (known as _ka'r_), the floor of which is often hard soil bare
+  of sand, and from which the inner slopes of the falk rise as steeply
+  as the sand will lie (about 50°). On the summit of the falk there is
+  generally a mound known as _tas_ or _barkhus_ composed of white sand
+  which stands out conspicuously against the deep red of the surrounding
+  deserts; the exterior slopes are comparatively gentle. The falks are
+  singularly uniform in shape, but vary greatly in size; the largest
+  were estimated by Huber and Euting at 1¼ m. across and 330 ft. deep.
+  They run in strings irregularly from east to west, corresponding in
+  this with their individual direction, the convex face of the falk
+  being towards the west, i.e. the direction of the prevailing wind, and
+  the cusps to leeward. In the south of the Nafud, where Huber found the
+  prevailing wind to be from the south, the falks are turned in that
+  direction. Though perhaps subject to slight changes in the course of
+  years, there is no doubt that these dunes are practically permanent
+  features; the more prominent ones serve as landmarks and have
+  well-known distinctive names. The character of the vegetation which
+  clothes their slopes shows that even superficial changes must be
+  slight. The general level of the Nafud was found by Huber's
+  observations to be about 3000 ft. above sea-level; the highest point
+  on the Jauf-Hail route is at Falk Alam, the rocky peaks of which rise
+  200 or 300 ft. above the surface of the sand. Other peaks cropping out
+  of the Nafud are Jebel Tawil, near the wells of Shakik, and J. Abrak
+  Rada, a long black ridge in the middle of the desert.
+
+
+    The Harra.
+
+  The high plateau which from. J. Hauran southward forms the main
+  watershed of the peninsula is covered in places by deep beds of lava,
+  which from their hardness have preserved the underlying sandstones
+  from degradation, and now stand up considerably above the general
+  level. These tracts are known as _harra_; the most remarkable is the
+  Harrat El Awerid, west of the Haj route from Tebuk to El Ala, a
+  mountain mass 100 m. in length with an average height of over 5000
+  ft., and the highest summit of which, J. Anaz, exceeds 7000 ft. The
+  harra east of Khaibar is also of considerable extent, and the same
+  formation is found all along the Hejaz border from Medina to the Jebel
+  el Kura, east of Mecca. The surface of the harra is extremely broken,
+  forming a labyrinth of lava crags and blocks of every size; the whole
+  region is sterile and almost waterless, and compared with the Nafud it
+  produces little vegetation; but it is resorted to by the Bedouin in
+  the spring and summer months when the air is always fresh and cool. In
+  winter it is cold and snow often lies for some time.
+
+
+    Hejaz.
+
+  Hejaz, if we except the Taif district in the south, which is properly
+  a part of the Yemen plateau, forms a well-marked physical division,
+  lying on the western slope of the peninsula, where that slope is at
+  its widest, between the Harra and the Red Sea. A high range of granite
+  hills, known as the Tehama range, the highest point of which, J. Shar,
+  in Midian, exceeds 6500 ft., divides it longitudinally into a narrow
+  littoral and a broader upland zone 2000 or 3000 ft. above the sea.
+  Both are generally bare and unproductive, the uplands, however,
+  contain the fertile valleys of Khaibar and Medina, draining to the
+  Wadi Hamd, the principal river system of western Arabia; and the Wadi
+  Jadid or Es Safra, rising in the Harra between Medina and Es Safina,
+  which contain several settlements, of which the principal produce is
+  dates. The quartz reefs which crop out in the granite ranges of the
+  Tehama contain traces of gold. These and the ancient copper workings
+  were investigated by Burton in 1877. The richer veins had evidently
+  been long ago worked out, and nothing of sufficient value to justify
+  further outlay was discovered. The coast-line is fringed with small
+  islets and shoals and reefs, which make navigation dangerous. The only
+  ports of importance are Yambu and Jidda, which serve respectively
+  Medina and Mecca; they depend entirely on the pilgrim traffic to the
+  holy cities, without which they could not exist.
+
+
+    Nejd.
+
+  The great central province of Nejd occupies all inner Arabia between
+  the Nafud and the southern desert. Its northern part forms the basin
+  of the Wadi Rumma, which, rising in the Khaibar harra, runs
+  north-eastward across the whole width of Nejd, till it is lost in the
+  sands of the eastern Nafud, north of Aneza. The greater portion of
+  this region is an open steppe, sandy in places and in others dotted
+  with low volcanic hills, but with occasional ground water and in
+  favourable seasons furnishing support for a considerable pastoral
+  population. Its elevation varies from about 5000 ft. in the west to
+  2500 ft. in the east. In Jebel Shammar, Kasim and Wushm, where the
+  water in the wadi beds rises nearly to the ground level, numerous
+  fertile oases are found with thriving villages and towns.
+
+  Jebel Shammar, from which the northern district of Nejd takes its
+  name, is a double range of mountains some 20 m. apart, rising sharply
+  out of the desert in bare, granite cliffs. J. Aja, the western and
+  higher of the two ranges, has a length of about 100 m. from north-east
+  to south-west, where it merges into the high plateau extending from
+  and continuous with the Khaibar harra. The highest point, J. Kara,
+  near its north-eastern extremity, is about 4600 ft. above sea-level,
+  or 1600 ft. above the town of Hail, which, like most of the larger
+  villages, lies along the wadi bed at the foot of J. Aja. The town,
+  which has risen with the fortunes of the Ibn Rashid family to be the
+  capital of Upper Nejd, is at the mouth of the valley between the twin
+  ranges, about 2 m. from the foot of J. Aja, and contained at the time
+  of Nolde's visit in 1893 about 12,000 inhabitants.
+
+  The principal tributaries of the W. Rumma converge in lower Kasim, and
+  at Aneza Doughty says its bed is 3 m. wide from bank to bank. Forty
+  years before his visit a flood is said to have occurred, which passed
+  down the river till it was blocked by sand-drifts at Thuwerat, 50 m.
+  lower down, and for two years a lake stood nearly 100 m. long, crowded
+  by waterfowl not known before in that desert country. Below this its
+  course has not been followed by any European traveller, but it may be
+  inferred from the line of watering-places on the road to Kuwet, that
+  it runs out to the Persian Gulf in that neighbourhood.
+
+  East of Kasim the land rises gradually to the high plateau culminating
+  in the ranges of Jebel Tuwek and J. Arid. The general direction of
+  these hills is from north-west to south-east. On the west they rise
+  somewhat steeply, exposing high cliffs of white limestone, which
+  perhaps gave Palgrave the impression that the range is of greater
+  absolute height than is actually the case. J. Tuwek in any case forms
+  an important geographical feature in eastern Nejd, interrupting by a
+  transverse barrier 200 m. in length the general north-easterly slope
+  of the peninusla, and separating the basin of the W. Rumma from that
+  of the other great river system of central Arabia, the Wadi Dawasir.
+  The districts of Suder and Wushm lie on its northern side, Arid in the
+  centre, and Aflaj, Harik and Yemama on its south, in the basin of the
+  W. Dawasir; the whole of this hilly region of eastern Nejd is,
+  perhaps, rather a rolling down country than truly mountainous, in
+  which high pastures alternate with deep fertile valleys, supporting
+  numerous villages with a large agricultural population. The W. Hanifa
+  is its principal watercourse; its course is marked by an almost
+  continuous series of palm groves and settlements, among which Deraiya
+  the former, and Riad the present, capital of the Ibn Saud kingdom are
+  the most extensive. Its lower course is uncertain, but it probably
+  continues in a south-east direction to the districts of El Harik and
+  Yemama when, joined by the drainage from Aflaj and the W. Dawasir, it
+  runs eastward till it disappears in the belt of sandy desert 100 m. in
+  width that forms the eastern boundary of Nejd, to reappear in the
+  copious springs that fertilize El Hasa and the Bahrein littoral.
+
+
+    Unexplored region of S. Nejd.
+
+  As regards the unexplored southern region, Palgrave's informants in
+  Aflaj, the most southerly district visited by him, stated that a day's
+  march south of that place the Yemen road enters the W. Dawasir, up
+  which it runs for ten days, perhaps 200 m., to El Kura, a thinly
+  peopled district on the borders of Asir; this accords with the
+  information of the French officers of the Egyptian army in that
+  district, and with that of Halévy, who makes all the drainage from
+  Nejran northward run to the same great wadi. Whether there be any
+  second line of drainage in southern Nejd skirting the edge of the
+  great desert and following the depression of the W. Yabrin must remain
+  a matter of conjecture. Colonel Miles concluded, from his enquiries,
+  that the low salt swamp, extending inland for some distance from Khor
+  ed Duwan, in the bay east of El Katr, was the outlet of an extensive
+  drainage system which may well be continuous with the W. Yabrin and
+  extend far into the interior, if not to Nejran itself.
+
+
+    El Hasa.
+
+  East of Nejd a strip of sandy desert 50 m. in width extends almost
+  continuously from the great Nafud to the Dahna. East of this again a
+  succession of stony ridges running parallel to the coast has to be
+  crossed before El Hasa is reached. This province, which skirts the
+  Persian Gulf from the mouth of the Euphrates to the frontiers of Oman,
+  is low and hot; its shores are flat, and with the exception of Kuwet
+  at the north-west corner of the gulf, it possesses no deep water
+  port. North of Katif it is desert and only inhabited by nomads; at
+  Katif, however, and throughout the district to the south bordering on
+  the Gulf of Bahrein there are ample supplies of underground water,
+  welling up in abundant springs often at a high temperature, and
+  bringing fertility to an extensive district of which El Hofuf, a town
+  of 15,000 to 20,000 inhabitants, is the most important centre.
+
+
+    South-western Arabia.
+
+  South-western Arabia, from the twenty-first parallel down to the Gulf
+  of Aden, including the Taif district of Hejaz, Asir and Yemen, forms
+  one province geographically. Throughout its length it consists of
+  three zones, a narrow coastal strip, rarely exceeding 20 m. in width,
+  a central mountainous tract, embracing the great chain which runs
+  parallel to the coast from near Taif to within 50 m. of Aden, and an
+  inner plateau falling gradually to the north-east till it merges in
+  the Nejd steppes or the sands of the great desert.
+
+  The lowland strip or Tehama consists partly of a gravelly plain, the
+  _Khabt_, covered sparsely with acacia and other desert shrubs and
+  trees, and furnishing pasturage for large flocks of goats and camels;
+  and partly of sterile wastes of sand like the _Ramla_, which extends
+  on either side of Aden almost from the seashore to the foot of the
+  hills. The Tehama is, however, by no means all desert, the mountain
+  torrents where they debouch into the plain have formed considerable
+  tracts of alluvial soil of the highest degree of fertility producing
+  in that warm equable climate two and even three crops in the year. The
+  flood-water is controlled by a system of dams and channels constructed
+  so as to utilize every drop, and the extent of cultivation is limited
+  more by the supply of water available than by the amount of suitable
+  soil. These districts support a large settled population and several
+  considerable towns, of which Bet el Fakih and Zubed in the western and
+  Lahej in the southern Tehama, with 4000 to 6000 inhabitants, are the
+  most important. There are signs that this coastal strip was until a
+  geologically recent period below sea-level; and that the coast-line is
+  still receding is evidenced by the history of the town of Muza, once a
+  flourishing port, now 20 m. inland; while Bet el Fakih and Zubed, once
+  important centres of the coffee trade, have lost their position
+  through the silting up of the ports which formerly served them.
+
+  The jebel or mountain-land is, however, the typical Yemen, the _Arabia
+  Felix_ of the ancients. Deep valleys winding through the barren
+  foothills lead gradually up to the higher mountains, and as the track
+  ascends the scenery and vegetation change their character; the trees
+  which line the banks of the wadi are overgrown with creepers, and the
+  running stream is dammed at frequent intervals, and led off in
+  artificial channels to irrigate the fields on either side; the steeper
+  parts of the road are paved with large stones, substantially built
+  villages, with their masonry towers or _dars_, crowning every height,
+  replace the collection of mud walls and brushwood huts of the low
+  country; while tier above tier, terraced fields cover the hill slopes
+  and attest the industry of the inhabitants and the fertility of their
+  mountains. On the main route from Hodeda to Sana the first coffee
+  plantations are reached at Usil, at an altitude of 4300 ft., and
+  throughout the western slopes of the range up to an altitude of 7000
+  ft. it is the most important crop. Jebel Haraz, of which Manakha, a
+  small town of 3000 inhabitants is the chief place, is described by
+  Glaser as one vast coffee garden. Here the traveller ascending from
+  the coast sees the first example of the jebel or highland towns, with
+  their high three-storeyed houses, built of quarried stone, their
+  narrow façades pierced with small windows with whitewashed borders and
+  ornamented with varied arabesque patterns; each dar has the appearance
+  of a small castle complete in itself, and the general effect is rather
+  that of a cluster of separate forts than of a town occupied by a
+  united community.
+
+  The scenery in this mountain region is of the most varied description;
+  bare precipitous hill-sides seamed with dry, rocky watercourses give
+  place with almost startling rapidity to fertile slopes, terraced
+  literally for thousands of feet. General Haig in describing them says:
+  "One can hardly realize the enormous labour, toil and perseverance
+  that these represent; the terrace walls are usually 5 to 8 ft. in
+  height, but towards the top of the mountains they are sometimes as
+  much as 15 or 18 ft.; they are built entirely of rough stone without
+  mortar, and I reckon that on an average each wall retains not more
+  than twice its own height in breadth, and I do not think I saw a
+  single break in them unrepaired."
+
+  The highest summits as determined by actual survey are between 10,000
+  and 11,000 ft. above sea-level. J. Sabur, a conspicuous mass in the
+  extreme south, is 9900 ft., with a fall to the Taiz valley of 5000
+  ft.; farther north several points in the mountains above Ibb and Yarim
+  attain a height of 10,500 ft., and J. Hadur, near the Sana-Hodeda
+  road, exceeds 10,000 ft. From the crest of the range there is a short
+  drop of 2000 or 3000 ft. to the broad open valleys which form the
+  principal feature of the inner plateau. The town of Yarim lies near
+  its southern extremity at an altitude of about 8000 ft.; within a
+  short distance are the sources of the W. Yakla, W. Bana and W. Zubed,
+  running respectively east and south and west. The first named is a dry
+  watercourse ultimately joining the basin of the W. Hadramut; the two
+  others run for a long distance through fertile valleys and, like many
+  of the wadis on the seaward side of the range, have perennial streams
+  down to within a few miles of the sea. Sana, the capital of Yemen,
+  lies in a broad valley 7300 ft. above sea-level, sloping northwards to
+  the W. Kharid which, with the Ghail Hirran, the sources of which are
+  on the eastern slopes of J. Hadur, run north-eastward to the Jauf
+  depression. The Arhab district, through which these two great wadis
+  run, was formerly the centre of the Himyar kingdom; cultivation is now
+  only to be found in the lower parts on the borders of the
+  watercourses, all above being naked rock from which every particle of
+  soil has been denuded. In the higher parts there are fine plains where
+  Glaser found numerous Himyaritic remains, and which he considers were
+  undoubtedly cultivated formerly, but they have long fallen out of
+  cultivation owing to denudation and desiccation--the impoverishment of
+  the country from these causes is increasing. Eastward the plateau
+  becomes still more sterile, and its elevation probably falls more
+  rapidly till it reaches the level of the Jauf and Nejran valleys on
+  the borders of the desert. The water-parting between central and
+  southern Arabia seems to be somewhere to the south of Nejran, which,
+  according to Halévy, drains northward to the W. Dawasir, while the
+  Jauf is either an isolated depression, or perhaps forms part of the
+  Hadramut basin.
+
+
+    Asir.
+
+  Farther north, in Asir, the plateau is more mountainous and contains
+  many fertile valleys. Of these may be mentioned Khamis Mishet and the
+  Wadi Shahran rising among the high summits of the maritime chain, and
+  the principal affluents of the Wadi Besha; the latter is a broad
+  well-watered valley, with numerous scattered hamlets, four days'
+  journey (perhaps 80 m.) from the crest of the range. Still farther
+  north is the Wadi Taraba and its branches running down from the
+  highland district of Zahran. The lower valleys produce dates in
+  abundance, and at higher elevations wheat, barley, millets and
+  excellent fruit are grown, while juniper forests are said to cover the
+  mountain slopes. In Yemen this tree was probably more common formerly;
+  the place-name Arar, signifying juniper, is still often found where
+  the tree no longer exists.
+
+
+    Coast of Yemen.
+
+    Hadramut.
+
+  The western coast of Yemen, like that of Hejaz, is studded with shoals
+  and islands, of which Perim in the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, Kamaran,
+  the Turkish quarantine post, 40 m. north of Hodeda, and the Farsan
+  group, off the Abu Arish coast, are the principal. Hodeda is the only
+  port of any importance since the days of steamships began; the other
+  ports, Mokha, Lohaia and Kanfuda merely share in the coasting trade.
+  The south coast is free from the shoals that imperil the navigation of
+  the Red Sea, and in Aden it possesses the only safe natural harbour on
+  the route between Suez and India. Several isolated volcanic hills crop
+  out on the shore line between Aden and the straits; the most
+  remarkable are J. Kharaz, 2500 ft., and J. Shamshan, 1700 ft., at the
+  base of which Aden itself is built. In both of these the crater form
+  is very clearly marked. A low maritime plain, similar to the Tehama of
+  the western coast, extends for some 200 m. east of the Straits of
+  Bab-el-Mandeb, backed by mountains rising to 7000 ft. or more; farther
+  east the elevation of the highland decreases steadily, and in the
+  Hadramut, north of Mukalla, does not much exceed 4000 ft. The mountain
+  chain, too, is less distinctly marked, and becomes little more than
+  the seaward escarpment of the plateau which intervenes between the
+  coast and the Hadramut valley. This valley runs nearly east and west
+  for a distance of 500 m. from the eastern slopes of the Yemen
+  highlands to its mouth on the Mahra coast near Sihut. The greater part
+  of it is desert, but a short stretch lying between the 48th and 50th
+  meridians is well watered and exceptionally fertile. This begins a
+  little to the east of Shabwa, the ancient capital, now half buried in
+  the advancing sand, and for a distance of over 70 m. a succession of
+  villages and towns surrounded by fields and date groves extends along
+  the main valley and into the tributaries which join it from the south.
+  Shibam, Saiyun and Tarim are towns of 6000 or more inhabitants, and
+  Hajren and Haura in the W. Duwan are among the larger villages.
+  Himyaritic remains have been found here and in the W. Mefat which
+  enters the Gulf of Aden near Balhaf. A few small fishing villages or
+  ports are scattered along the coast, but except Mukalla and Shihr none
+  is of any importance.
+
+  The Gara coast was visited by the Bents, who went inland from Dhafar,
+  one of the centres of the old frankincense trade, to the crest of the
+  plateau. The narrow coastal strip seems to be moderately fertile, and
+  the hills which in places come down to the seashore are covered with
+  trees, among which the frankincense and other gum-bearing trees are
+  found. On the plateau, which has an altitude of 4000 ft., there is
+  good pasturage; inland the country slopes gently to a broad valley
+  beyond which the view was bounded by the level horizon of the desert.
+
+
+    Oman.
+
+  Oman (q.v.) includes all the south-eastern corner of the peninsula.
+  Its chief feature is the lofty range of J. Akhdar, 10,000 ft. above
+  sea-level. Like the great range of western Arabia, it runs parallel to
+  the coast; it differs, however, from the western range in that its
+  fall on the landward side is as abrupt and nearly as great as on its
+  seaward side. Its northern extremity, Ras Musandan, rises
+  precipitously from the straits of Hormuz; farther south the range
+  curves inland somewhat, leaving a narrow but fertile strip, known as
+  the Batina coast, between it and the sea, and containing several
+  populous towns and villages of which Sohar, Barka and Sib are the
+  chief. Muscat, the capital of the province and the principal port on
+  the coast, is surrounded on three sides by bare, rocky hills, and has
+  the reputation of being the hottest place in Arabia. Zwemer says the
+  fertility of the highland region of J. Akhdar is wonderful and is in
+  striking contrast to the barrenness of so much of the coast; water
+  issues in perennial springs from many rocky clefts, and is carefully
+  husbanded by the ingenuity of the people; underground channels, known
+  here as _faluj_, precisely similar to the _kanat_ or _karez_ of Persia
+  and Afghanistan, are also largely used. The principal villages on the
+  eastern slopes are Rustak, Nakhl and Semail in the well-watered valley
+  of the same name; on the western slopes are Tanuf and Nizwa, lying
+  immediately below the highest summit of the range; Semed, Ibra and
+  Bidiya in the W. Betha are all well-built villages with palm-groves
+  and irrigated fields. In the north-west the Dhahira district sloping
+  towards the Jewasimi coast is more steppe-like in character; but there
+  two oases of great fertility are found, of which Birema, visited by
+  both Miles and Zwemer, supports a population of 15,000. West of Abu
+  Dhabi a low flat steppe with no settled inhabitants extends up to the
+  Katr peninsula, merging on the north into the saline marshes which
+  border the Persian Gulf, and on the south into the desert.
+
+
+    The southern desert.
+
+  The great desert known as the Dahna or the Rub'a el Khali ("the empty
+  quarter") is believed to cover all the interior of southern Arabia
+  from the borders of Yemen in the west to those of Oman in the east.
+  Halévy in Nejran, Von Wrede in Hadramut, and Wellsted in Oman reached
+  its edge, though none of them actually entered it, and the guides
+  accompanying them all concurred in describing it as uninhabitable and
+  uncrossed by any track. Its northern fringe is no doubt frequented by
+  the Bedouin tribes of southern Nejd after the rains, when its sands,
+  like those of the northern desert, produce herbage; but towards the
+  east, according to Burckhardt's information, it is quite without
+  vegetation even in the winter and spring. The farthest habitable spot
+  to the south of Nejd is the Wadi Yabrin, which L. Pelly heard of from
+  the Ahl Murra Bedouins as once a fertile district, and which still
+  produces dates, though, owing to malaria, it is now deserted; thence
+  southward to the Hadramut valley no communication is known to exist.
+
+  [_Geology._--The geological structure of Arabia is very similar to
+  that of Egypt. The oldest rocks consist of granite and schist,
+  penetrated by intrusive dykes, and upon this foundation rest the
+  flat-lying sedimentary deposits, beginning with a sandstone like the
+  Nubian sandstone of Egypt. In the northern part of Arabia the
+  crystalline rocks form a broad area extending from the peninsula of
+  Sinai eastwards to Hail and southwards at least as far as Mecca.
+  Towards the north the crystalline floor is overlaid by the great
+  sandstone series which covers nearly the whole of the country north of
+  Hail. Upon the sandstone rest a few scattered outliers of limestone,
+  probably of Cretaceous age, the largest of which occur near Jauf and
+  east of Bureda. Over both sandstone and granite great sheets of lava
+  have been poured, and these, protecting the softer beds beneath from
+  further denudation, now stand up as the high plateaus and hills called
+  _harra_. Volcanic cones still exist in large numbers, and the sheets
+  of lava appear as fresh as any recent flows of Etna or Vesuvius.
+  Arabian manuscripts describe an eruption on the harra near Medina in
+  A.D. 1256. In the south of Arabia the crystalline floor appears at
+  intervals along the southern coast and on the shores of the Gulf of
+  Oman. At Marbat the granite is overlaid by sandstone, presumably the
+  Nubian sandstone: this is followed by marls containing Cenomanian
+  fossils; and these are overlaid by Upper Cretaceous limestones, upon
+  which rest isolated patches of _Alveolina_ limestone. Generally,
+  however, the Cretaceous beds do not appear, and the greater part of
+  southern Arabia seems to be formed of _Alveolina_ and nummulite
+  limestones of Tertiary age. An extinct volcano occurs at Aden, and
+  volcanic rocks are found at other places near the Straits of
+  Bab-el-Mandeb. Throughout the whole of Arabia, so far as is known, the
+  sedimentary beds show no signs of any but the most gentle folding.
+  Faulting, however, is by no means absent, and some of the faults are
+  of considerable magnitude. The Gulf of Akaba is a strip of country
+  which has been let down between two parallel faults, and several
+  similar faulted troughs occur in the Sinai peninsula. The Red Sea
+  itself is a great trough bounded by faults along each side.]
+
+  _Climate._--Owing to its low latitude and generally arid surface,
+  Arabia is on the whole one of the hottest regions of the earth; this
+  is especially the case along the coasts of the Persian Gulf and the
+  southern half of the Red Sea, where the moist heat throughout the year
+  is almost intolerable to Europeans. In the interior of northern and
+  central Arabia, however, where the average level of the country
+  exceeds 3000 ft., the fiery heat of the summer days is followed by
+  cool nights, and the winter climate is fresh and invigorating; while
+  in the highlands of Asir and Yemen in the south-west, and of Oman in
+  the east, the summer heat is never excessive, and the winters are,
+  comparatively speaking, cold.
+
+  In the northern desert the temperature is subject to extreme
+  variations. Nolde states that on the 1st of February 1893 in the
+  desert north of Hail the thermometer fell from 78° a little before
+  sunset to 18° a quarter of an hour after. The midday temperatures
+  recorded by Huber at Hail during January and the first half of
+  February average about 65° F., and water froze on several nights; at
+  Medina the winters are cold and night frosts of frequent occurrence,
+  and these conditions prevail over all the western part of the Nejd
+  plateau. In the east where the elevation is lower the climate is
+  warmer. In the elevated highland district which extends from Taif to
+  within 50 m. of Aden, the summer heat is tempered by the monsoon
+  winds, and the seasonal variation of temperature is less marked. From
+  observations made at Sana by Manzoni, Deflers and Glaser, the mean
+  temperature for the year of that city at an altitude of 7300 ft. and
+  in 15° 22' N. appears to be 60° F.; for July the mean maximum was 77°,
+  mean minimum 54°; for January the figures were 62°and 40°
+  respectively, the lowest recorded temperature in 1878 was 26.6° on the
+  26th of January. At Aden at the sea-level the mean temperature for the
+  year is 83°; the highest observed temperature in 1904 was 97.3°, the
+  lowest 67.4°.
+
+  The rainfall throughout northern and central Arabia is chiefly in the
+  winter months between October and April, and is scanty and irregular.
+  Doughty states that in 1876 rain to wet the ground had not fallen for
+  three years at Medain Salih; in that year showers fell on the 29th of
+  December and on two days in January and again in March. After a very
+  hot summer the bright weather changed to clouded skies on the 2nd of
+  October, rain fell tempestuously the same evening, and there were
+  showery days and nights till the 14th. The autumn rains fell that year
+  abundantly in the Nafud towards Jauf, but very little in the basin of
+  the W. Hamd (on the western slope). Doughty adds that the Nejd
+  highlands between Kasim and Mecca are watered yearly by seasonable
+  rains, which at Taif are expected about the end of August and last
+  commonly from four to six weeks. This appears to be about the northern
+  limit reached by the south-west monsoon, which from June to September
+  brings a fairly abundant rainfall to the Yemen highlands, though the
+  Tehama remains almost entirely rainless. The rainfall is heaviest
+  along the western fringe of the plateau, and penetrates inland in
+  decreasing quantity over a zone which perhaps extends to 100 m. in
+  width. In good seasons it is sufficient for the cultivation of the
+  summer crop of millet, and for the supply of the perennial streams and
+  springs, on which the irrigation of the winter crops of wheat and
+  barley depend. The amount measured at Dhala at the extreme south of
+  the plateau at an elevation of 4800 ft. was in 1902 as follows:--June,
+  4.0 in.; July, 5.5; August, 5.8; September, 1.9. Only slight showers
+  were recorded in the other months of the year. At higher elevations
+  the rainfall is no doubt heavier; Manzoni mentions that at Sana there
+  was constant rain throughout August and September 1878, and that the
+  thermometer during August did not reach 65°. In the Tehama occasional
+  showers fall during the winter months; at Aden the average rainfall
+  for the year is 2.97 in., but during 1904 only 0.5 in. was recorded.
+  Snow falls on the Harra and on the Tehama range in northern Arabia,
+  and Nolde records a fall of snow which lay on the Nafud on the 1st of
+  February 1893. It also falls on J. Akhdar in Oman, but is very rarely
+  known on the Yemen mountains, probably because the precipitation
+  during the winter months is so slight.
+
+  The prevailing winds in northern Arabia as far as is known are from
+  the west; along the southern coast they are from the east; at Sana
+  there is generally a light breeze from the north-north-west from 9 to
+  11 A.M., from noon till 4 P.M. a steady and often strong wind blows
+  from the south-south-east, which dies away later. The climate is
+  extremely dry, but this is compensated for by the heavy mists which
+  sweep up from the plains during the rainless months and exercise a
+  most beneficial effect in the coffee-growing districts. This
+  phenomenon is known as the sukhemani or amama. In the morning the
+  Tehama, as seen from the mountain tops, appears buried in a sea of
+  white cloud; towards noon the clouds drift up the mountain slopes and
+  cover the summits with wreaths of light mist charged with moisture
+  which condenses on the trees and vegetation; in the afternoon they
+  disappear, and the evenings are generally clear and still.
+
+  _Fauna._--The wild animals of Arabia are all of the desert-loving
+  type: antelopes and gazelles are found in small numbers throughout the
+  peninsula; the latter are similar to the _chikara_ or ravine deer of
+  India. The larger antelopes, so common on the African side of the Gulf
+  of Aden, are not found, except one variety, the _Oryx beatrix_ (called
+  by the Arabs, wild cow), which is an inhabitant of the Nafud between
+  Tema and Hail; it is about the size of a donkey, white, and with long
+  straight horns. Hares are numerous both in the desert and in
+  cultivated tracts. In the Yemen mountains the _wal_, a wild goat with
+  massive horns, similar to the Kashmir ibex, is found; monkeys also
+  abound. Among smaller animals the jerboa and other descriptions of
+  rat, and the _wabar_ or cony are common; lizards and snakes are
+  numerous, most of the latter being venomous. Hyenas, wolves and
+  panthers are found in most parts of the country, and in the mountains
+  the leopard and wild cat. Of birds the ostrich is found in the Nafud
+  and in the W. Dawasir. Among game birds the bustard, guinea fowl, sand
+  grouse (_kata_), blue rock, green pigeon, partridge, including a large
+  chikor (_akb_) and a small species similar to the Punjab sisi; quail
+  and several kinds of duck and snipe are met with. In the cultivated
+  parts of Yemen and Tehama small birds are very numerous, so also are
+  birds of prey, vultures, kites and hawks.
+
+  Insects of all sorts abound; scorpions, centipedes, spiders, and an
+  ugly but harmless millipede known in Yemen as _hablub_ are very common
+  in summer. Ants and beetles too are very numerous, and anthills are
+  prominent features in many places. Locusts appear in great swarms and
+  do much damage; fires are lighted at night to attract them, and large
+  quantities are caught and eaten by the poorer people. Bees are kept,
+  and in Yemen and Hadramut the honey is exceptionally good.
+
+
+    Camel.
+
+  Of domesticated animals the camel is far the most useful to the Arab.
+  Owing to its endurance of thirst the long desert journeys which
+  separate the populous centres are made practicable, and in the spring
+  months, when green forage is plentiful in the desert, the Bedouins
+  pitch their camps for long periods far from any water, and not only
+  men but horses subsist on camel's milk. The Arabian camel belongs to
+  the one-humped species, though there are many varieties differing in
+  appearance as much as the thoroughbred race-horse from the English
+  cart-horse. The ordinary load for a pack camel is about 400 lb., and
+  in hot weather good camels will march 20 to 25 m. daily and only
+  require water every third or fourth day: in cool weather, with ample
+  green fodder they can go twenty-five days or more without drinking. A
+  good _dalul_ or riding camel will carry his rider 100 m. a day for a
+  week on end. Nolde gives an instance from his own experience of a
+  camel rider covering 62 m. in seven hours. The pure-bred riding camel
+  is only found in perfection in inner Arabia; for some unexplained
+  reason when taken out of their own country or north of the 30th degree
+  they rapidly degenerate.
+
+
+    Horse.
+
+  The horse does not occupy the important position in the Bedouin
+  economy that is popularly supposed. In Nejd the number of horses is,
+  comparatively speaking, very small; the want of water in the Nafud
+  where alone forage is obtainable, and the absence of forage in the
+  neighbourhood of the towns makes horse-breeding on a large scale
+  impracticable there. Horses are in fact only kept by the principal
+  sheiks, and by far the larger proportion of those now in Nejd are the
+  property of the amir and his family. These are kept most of the year
+  in the Nafud, five or ten days' march from Hail, where they find their
+  own food on the desert herbage. When a raid is in contemplation, they
+  are brought in and given a little barley for a few weeks. Reared in
+  this way they are capable of marvellous endurance, marching during a
+  raid twenty hours a day for eight or ten days together. As a rule,
+  they are only mounted at the moment of attack, or in pursuit. Water
+  and forage have to be carried for them on camels.
+
+  The great majority of the horses that come into the market as Arabs,
+  are bred in the northern desert and in Mesopotamia, by the various
+  sections of the Aneza and Shammar tribes, who emigrated from Nejd
+  generations ago, taking with them the original Nejd stock. In size and
+  appearance, and in everything but endurance, these northern horses are
+  admittedly superior to the true Nejdi. A few of the latter are
+  collected by dealers in the nomad camps and exported chiefly from
+  Kuwet. The amir Mahommed Ibn Rashid used to send down about one
+  hundred young horses yearly.
+
+  Asses of excellent quality are bred all over the country; they are
+  much used as mounts by the richer townsmen. Except in the settled
+  districts horned cattle are not numerous; they are similar to the
+  Indian humped cattle, but are greatly superior in milking qualities.
+  The great wealth of the Arabs is in their flocks of sheep and goats;
+  they are led out to pasture soon after sunrise, and in the hotter
+  months drink every second day. In the spring when the succulent
+  _ashub_ and _adar_ grow plentifully in the desert, they go for weeks
+  without drinking. They are milked once a day about sunset by the women
+  (the men milk the camels), and a large proportion of the milk is made
+  into _samn_, clarified butter, or _marisi_, dried curd. The wool is
+  not of much value, and is spun by the women and woven into rugs, and
+  made up into saddlebags or into the black Bedouin tents.
+
+  _Flora._--The flora of Arabia has been investigated by P. Forskal, the
+  botanist of Niebuhr's mission, P.E. Botta, G. Schweinfurth and A.
+  Deflers, to whose publications the technical reader is referred. Its
+  general type approaches more closely to the African than to that of
+  southern Asia. In the higher regions the principal trees are various
+  species of fig, tamarind, carob and numerous kinds of cactiform
+  _Euphorbia_, of which one, the _Euphorbia arborea_, grows to a height
+  of 20 ft. Of Coniferae the juniper is found on the higher slopes of J.
+  Sabur near Taiz, where Botta describes it as forming an extensive
+  forest and growing to a large size; it is also found in the range
+  overlooking the W. Madin, 50 m. W. of Aden. Considerable forests are
+  said to exist in Asir, and Burton found a few fine specimens which he
+  regarded as the remains of an old forest, on the Tehama range in
+  Midian. On the rocky hill-sides in Yemen the _Adenium Obesum_ is
+  worthy of notice, with its enormous bulb-like stems and brilliant red
+  flowers. Some fine aloes or agaves are also found. In the cultivated
+  upland valleys all over Arabia the _Zisyphus jujuba_, called by some
+  travellers lotus, grows to a large tree; its thorny branches are
+  clipped yearly and used to fence the cornfields among which it grows.
+  In the broad sandy wadi beds the tamarisk (_athl_) is everywhere
+  found; its wood is used for making domestic implements of all sorts.
+  Among fruit trees the vine, apricot, peach, apple, quince, fig and
+  banana are cultivated in the highlands, and in the lower country the
+  date palm flourishes, particularly throughout the central zone of
+  Arabia, in Hejaz, Nejd and El Hasa, where it is the prime article of
+  food. A hundred kinds of date are said to grow at Medina, of which the
+  _birni_ is considered the most wholesome; the _halwa_ and the _jalebi_
+  are the most delicately flavoured and sell at very high rates; the
+  _khulas_ of El Hasa is also much esteemed.
+
+  Of cereals the common millets, _dhura_ and _dukhn_, are grown in all
+  parts of the country as the summer crop, and in the hot irrigated
+  Tehama districts three crops are reaped in the year; in the highlands
+  maize, wheat and barley are grown to a limited extent as the winter
+  crop, ripening at the end of March or in April. Among vegetables the
+  common kinds grown include radishes, pumpkins, cucumbers, melons,
+  potatoes, onions and leeks. Roses are grown in some places for the
+  manufacture of _atr_, or attar of roses; mignonette, jasmine, thyme,
+  lavender and other aromatic plants are favourites in Yemen, when the
+  Arabs often stick a bunch in their head-dress.
+
+
+    Coffee.
+
+  Of the products special to Arabia coffee comes first; it is nowhere
+  found wild, and is believed to have been introduced from Abyssinia in
+  the 6th century A.D. It thrives on the seaward slopes of the western
+  range in the zone of the tropical rains, at altitudes between 4000 and
+  7000 ft. The principal centres of production are the upper valleys of
+  the W. Surdad, between Kaukaban and Manakha, and particularly on J.
+  Haraz; in the Wadi Zubed west of Uden; in Hajaria on the slopes of J.
+  Sabur, and in the Yafa district north-east of Aden. It is planted in
+  terraces on the mountain slopes; shady trees, such as tamarind and
+  fig, are planted in the border as a protection from the sun, and the
+  terraces are irrigated by channels led from a neighbouring rivulet or
+  spring. The plants are raised from seedlings, and when six or seven
+  weeks old they are transplanted in rows 4 to 6 ft. apart; they require
+  watering twice a month, and bear in two to four years. The berries are
+  dried in the sun and sent down to Hodeda or Aden, where they are
+  subjected to a process for separating the husk from the bean; the
+  result is about 50% of cleaned berries, _bun safi_, which is exported,
+  and a residue of husk or _kishr_, from which the Yemenis make their
+  favourite beverage.
+
+  Another plant universally used as a stimulant in Southern Arabia is
+  _khat_ (_Catha edulis_). The best is grown on J. Sabur and the
+  mountainous country round Taiz. It is a small bush propagated from
+  cuttings which are left to grow for three years; the leaves are then
+  stripped, except a few buds which develop next year into young shoots,
+  these being cut and sold in bunches under the name of _khat mubarak_;
+  next year on the branches cut back new shoots grow; these are sold as
+  _khat malhani_, or second-year kat, which commands the highest price.
+  The bush is then left for three years, when the process is repeated.
+  The leaves and young shoots are chewed; they have stimulating
+  properties, comparable with those of the coca of Peru.
+
+  The aromatic gums for which Arabia was famed in ancient times are
+  still produced, though the trade is a very small one. The tree from
+  which myrrh is extracted grows in many places, but the industry is
+  chiefly carried on at Suda, 60 m. north-north-east of Sana.
+  Longitudinal slits are made in the bark, and the gum is caught in cups
+  fixed beneath. The balsam of Mecca is produced in the same way,
+  chiefly in the mountains near the W. Safra between Yambu and Medina.
+
+  The stony plains which cover so large a part of the country are often
+  covered with acacia jungle, and in the dry water-courses a kind of
+  wild palm, the _dom_, abounds, from the leaves of which baskets and
+  mats are woven. Brushwood and rough pasturage of some sort is found
+  almost everywhere, except in the neighbourhood of the larger
+  settlements, where forage and firewood have to be brought in from long
+  distances. The Nafud sands, too, are tufted in many places with bushes
+  or small trees, and after the winter rains they produce excellent
+  pasture.
+
+_Population._--The people, according to their own traditions, are
+derived from two stocks, the pure Arabs, descended from Kahtan or
+Joktan, fourth in descent from Shem; and the Mustarab or naturalized
+Arabs, from Ishmael. The former are represented at the present day by
+the inhabitants of Yemen, Hadramut and Oman, in general a settled
+agricultural population; the latter by those of Hejaz, Nejd, El Hasa,
+the Syrian desert and Mesopotamia, consisting of the Bedouin or pastoral
+tribes (see ARABS and BEDOUINS). This distinction between the
+characteristics of the two races is only true in a general sense, for a
+considerable population of true Bedouin origin has settled down to
+agricultural life in the oases of Hejaz and Nejd, while in southern
+Arabia the tribes dwelling on the fringe of the great desert have to a
+certain extent adopted the nomad life.
+
+Both among the nomad and settled Arabs the organization is essentially
+tribal. The affairs of the tribe are administered by the sheiks, or
+heads of clans and families; the position of sheik in itself gives no
+real governing power, his word and counsel carry weight, but his
+influence depends on his own personal qualities. All matters affecting
+the community are discussed in the _majlis_ or assembly, to which any
+tribesman has access; here, too, are brought the tribesmen's causes;
+both sides plead and judgment is given impartially, the loser is fined
+so many head of small cattle or camels, which he must pay or go into
+exile. Murder can be expiated by the payment of _diya_ or blood-money,
+if the kinsmen of the murdered man consent; they may, however, claim the
+life of the murderer, and long and troublesome blood feuds often ensue,
+involving the relatives of both sides for generations.
+
+Apart from the tribesmen there is in Hejaz and south Arabia a
+privileged, religious class, the Sharifs or Seyyids, who claim descent
+from Mahomet through his daughter Fatima. Until the Egyptian invasion in
+1814 the Sharifs of Mecca were the recognized rulers of Hejaz, and
+though the Turks have attempted to suppress their importance, the Sharif
+still executes justice according to the Mahommedan law in the holy
+cities, though, nominally, as a Turkish official. In Yemen and Hadramut
+many villages are occupied exclusively by this religious hierarchy, who
+are known as Ashraf, Sada or Kudha (i.e. Sharifs, Seyyids or Kadhis);
+the religious affairs of the tribes are left in their hands; they do
+not, however, interfere in tribal matters generally, or join in
+fighting.
+
+Below these two classes, which may be looked on as the priestly and the
+military castes, there is, especially in the settled districts, a large
+population of artisans and labourers, besides negro slaves and their
+descendants, slave or free. The population of Khaibar consists almost
+entirely of the latter, and in Hail Huber estimates the pure Arab
+inhabitants at only one-third of the whole. In the desert, too, there is
+a widely scattered tribe, the Salubi, which from its name (_Salib_,
+cross) is conjectured to be of early Christian origin; they are great
+hunters, killing ostriches and gazelles; the Arabs despise them as an
+inferior race, but do not harm them; they pay a small tax to the tribe
+under whose protection they live, and render service as labourers, for
+which they receive in the spring milk and cheese; at the date harvest
+they get wages in kind; with this, and the produce of the chase, they
+manage to exist in the desert without agriculture or flocks.
+
+
+  The Jews in Arabia.
+
+In southern Arabia the Jews form a large element in the town population.
+According to one authority their presence in Yemen dates from the time
+of Solomon, others say from the capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezzar.
+Manzoni estimated their number in Sana in 1878 at 1700 out of a total
+population of 20,000; at Aden they are a numerous and wealthy community,
+with agents in most of the towns of Yemen. Even in remote Nejran,
+Halévy, himself a Jew, found a considerable colony of his
+co-religionists. They wear a distinctive garb and are not allowed to
+carry arms or live in the same quarter as Moslems. Another foreign
+element of considerable strength in the coast towns of Muscat, Aden and
+Jidda, is the British Indian trading class; many families of Indian
+origin also have settled at Mecca, having originally come as pilgrims.
+
+Estimates of the population of Arabia vary enormously, and the figures
+given in the following table can only be regarded as a very rough
+approximation:--
+
+  Hejaz                       300,000
+  Yemen and Asir            1,800,000
+  Nejd                      1,000,000
+  Hadramut                    150,000
+  Oman                      1,000,000
+  El Hasa                     300,000
+  Syrian desert and border    275,000
+                            ---------
+                            4,825,000
+
+_Communications._--The principal land routes in Arabia are those leading
+to the holy cities. In the present day the Syrian pilgrim route, or Darb
+el Haj, from Damascus to Medina and Mecca is the most used. The annual
+pilgrim caravan or haj, numbering some 6000 people with 10,000 pack
+animals, is escorted by a few Turkish irregulars known as _agel_; small
+fortified posts have been established at the regular halting-places some
+30 m. apart, each furnished with a well and reservoir, and for the
+further protection of the haj, payments are made to the Bedouin tribes
+through whose territories the route passes. The road is a mere camel
+track across the desert, the chief places passed are Ma'an on the Syrian
+border, a station on the old Sabaean trade route to Petra, and Medain
+Salih, the site of the rock-cut tombs and inscriptions first brought to
+notice by Doughty. From Medina the route usually followed descends the
+W. Safra to Badr Hunen, whence it keeps near the coast passing Rabigh
+and Khulesa to Mecca. The total distance, 1300 m., is covered in forty
+days.
+
+The Egyptian pilgrim route from Cairo, across the Sinai peninsula and
+down the Midian coast to El Wijh, joins the Syrian route at Badr Hunen.
+It also was formerly provided with stations and reservoirs, but owing to
+the greater facilities of the sea journey from Suez to Jidda it is now
+little used. Another important route is that taken by the Persian or
+Shia pilgrims from Bagdad and Kerbela across the desert, by the wells of
+Lina, to Bureda in Kasim; thence across the steppes of western Nejd till
+it crosses the Hejaz border at the Ria Mecca, 50 m. north-east of the
+city. It lies almost entirely in the territory of the amir Ibn Rashid of
+J. Shammar, who derives a considerable revenue from the pilgrimage. The
+old reservoirs on this route attributed to Zubeda, wife of Harun al
+Rashid, were destroyed during the Wahhabi raids early in the 19th
+century, and have not been repaired. The Yemen pilgrim route, known as
+the Haj el Kabsi, led from Sada through Asir to Taif and Mecca, but it
+is no longer used.
+
+The principal trade routes are those leading from Damascus to Jauf and
+across the Nafud to Hail. Other important routes leading to Nejd are
+those from Kuwet to Hail, and from El Hasa to Riad respectively. In the
+west and south the principal routes, other than those already mentioned,
+are from Yambu to Medina, from Jidda to Mecca, Hodeda to Sana, Aden to
+Sana, and from Mukalla to the Hadramut valley. Railway construction has
+begun in Arabia, and in 1908 the Hejaz line, intended to connect
+Damascus with Mecca, had reached Medina, 500 m. south of Ma'an. This
+line is of great strategical importance, as strengthening the Turkish
+hold on the Red Sea provinces. But the principal means of commercial
+communication for a country like Arabia must always be by sea. Bahrein,
+Kuwet and Muscat are in steam communication with India, and the Persian
+Gulf ports; all the great lines of steamships call at Aden on their way
+between Suez and the East, and regular services are maintained between
+Suez, Jidda, Hodeda and Aden, as well as to the ports on the African
+coast, while native coasting craft trade to the smaller ports on the Red
+Sea and Indian Ocean.
+
+  _Commerce._--The total value of the trade of Aden for 1904 amounted to
+  over £6,000,000. The imports to Jidda in the same year were
+  £1,405,000, largely consisting of rice, wheat and other food stuffs
+  from India; the exports, which have dwindled away in late years,
+  amounted in 1904 to only £25,000. To balance the exports and imports
+  specie was exported in the three years 1902-1904 amounting to
+  £2,319,000; a large proportion of this was perhaps provided by cash
+  brought into the country by pilgrims.
+
+  The pilgrim traffic increased largely in 1904 as compared with
+  previous years; 74,600 persons landed at Jidda, 18,000 of whom were
+  from British India, 13,000 from Java and the Straits Settlements, and
+  the remainder from Turkish territory, Egypt and other countries: 235
+  out of a total of 334 steamships engaged in this traffic were British.
+
+  The trade of Hodeda, which contributes by far the largest share to
+  that of Turkish Yemen, fell off considerably during the period from
+  1901-1905, chiefly owing to the disturbed state of the country. In the
+  latter year the imports amounted to £467,000, and the exports to
+  £451,000; coffee, the mainstay of Yemen trade, shows a serious decline
+  from £302,000 in 1902 to £229,000 in 1904; this is attributable partly
+  to the great increase of production in other countries, but mainly to
+  the insecurity of the trade routes and the exorbitant transit dues
+  levied by the Turkish administration.
+
+  Oman, through its chief port Muscat, had a total trade of about
+  £550,000, two-thirds of which is due to imports and one-third to
+  exports. The chief items of imports are arms and ammunition, rice,
+  coffee and piece goods; the staple export is dates, which in a good
+  year accounts for nearly half the total; much of the trade is in the
+  hands of British Indians, and of the shipping 92% is British.
+
+  The principal trade centre of the Arabian side of the Persian Gulf is
+  Bahrein; the total volume of trade of which amounted in 1904 to
+  £1,900,000, nearly equally divided between imports and exports; rice,
+  piece goods, &c., form the bulk of the former, while pearls are the
+  most valuable part of the latter.     (R. A. W.)
+
+
+ANTIQUITIES
+
+Arabia cannot be said to be "destitute of antiquities," but the material
+for the study of these is still very incomplete. The difficulties in
+the way of travelling in Arabia with a view to scientific investigation
+are such that little or nothing is being done, and the systematic work
+which has given such good results in Egypt, Palestine and
+Babylonia-Assyria is unknown in Arabia. Yet the passing notes of
+travellers from the time of Carsten Niebuhr show that antiquities are to
+be found.
+
+_Prehistoric Remains._--Since prehistoric remains must be studied where
+they are found, the difficulty in the way of exploration makes itself
+severely felt. That such remains exist seems clear from the casual
+remarks of travellers. Thus Palgrave (_Central and Eastern Arabia_, vol.
+i. ch. 6) speaks of part of a circle of roughly shaped stones taken from
+the adjacent limestone mountains in the Nejd. Eight or nine of these
+stones still exist, some of them 15 ft. high. Two of them, 10 to 12 ft.
+apart, still bear their horizontal lintel. They are all without
+ornament. Palgrave compares them with the remains at Stonehenge and
+Karnak. Doughty (_Arabia Deserta_, vol. ii.), travelling in north-west
+Arabia, saw stones of granite in a row and "flagstones set edgewise"
+(though he does not regard these as religious), also "round heaps,
+perhaps barrows," and "dry-built round chambers," which may be ancient
+tombs. J.T. Bent (_Southern Arabia_, pp. 24 ff.) explored one of several
+mounds in Bahrein. It proved to be a tomb, and the remains in it are
+said to be Phoenician.
+
+_Castles and Walls._--In the south of Arabia, where an advanced
+civilization existed for centuries before the Christian era, the ruins
+of castles and city-walls are still in existence, and have been
+mentioned, though not examined carefully, by several travellers. In
+Yemen and Hadramut especially these ruins abound, and in some cases
+inscriptions seem to be still _in situ_. Great castles are often
+mentioned in early Arabian literature. One in the neighbourhood of San'a
+was described as one of the wonders of the world by Qazwini (_Athar
+ul-Bilad_, p. 33, ed. Wüstenfeld, Göttingen, 1847, cf. _Journal of the
+German Oriental Society_, vol. 7, pp. 472, 476, and for other castles
+vol. 10, pp. 20 ff.). The ruins of the city of Ma'rib, the old Sabaean
+capital, have been visited by Arnaud, Halévy and Glaser, but call for
+further description, as Arnaud confined himself to a description of the
+dike (see below), while Halévy and Glaser were interested chiefly in the
+inscriptions.
+
+_Wells and Dikes._--From the earliest times the conservation of water
+has been one of the serious cares of the Arabs. All over the country
+wells are to be found, and the masonry of some of them is undoubtedly
+ancient. Inscriptions are still found in some of these in the south. The
+famous well Zemzem at Mecca is said to belong to the early times, when
+the eastern traffic passed from the south to the north-west of Arabia
+through the Hejaz, and to have been rediscovered shortly before the time
+of Mahomet. Among the most famous remains of Ma'rib are those of a great
+dike reminding one of the restored tanks familiar to visitors at Aden.
+These remains were first described by Arnaud (_Journal asiatique_,
+January 1874, with plan). Their importance was afterwards emphasized by
+Glaser's publication of two long inscriptions concerning their
+restoration in the 5th and 6th centuries A.D. ("Zwei Inschriften über
+den Dammbruch von Marib," in the _Mitteilungen der Vorderasiatischen
+Gesellschaft_, Berlin, 1897). Another dike about 150 yds. long was seen
+by W.B. Harris at Hîrran in Yemen. Above it was a series of three tanks
+(_A Journey through the Yemen_, p. 279, London, 1893).
+
+_Stones and Bronzes._--The 19th century has brought to the museums of
+Europe (especially to London, Paris, Berlin and Vienna) a number of
+inscriptions in the languages of Minea and Saba, and a few in those of
+Hadramut and Katabania (Qatta-bania). These inscriptions are generally
+on limestone or marble or on tablets of bronze, and vary from a few
+inches to some feet in length and height. In some cases the originals
+have been brought to Europe, in other cases only squeezes of the
+inscriptions. The characters employed are apparently derived from the
+Phoenician (cf. Lidzbarski's _Ephemeris_, vol. i. pp. 109 ff.). The
+languages employed have been the subject of much study (cf. F. Hommel's
+_Süd-arabische Chrestomathie_, Munich, 1893), but the archaeological
+value of these remains has not been so fully treated. Very many of them
+are votive inscriptions and contain little more than the names of gods
+and princes or private men. A few are historical, but being (with few
+and late exceptions) undated, have given rise to much controversy among
+scholars. Their range seems to be from about 800 B.C. (or 1500 B.C.
+according to E. Glaser) to the 6th century A.D. Few are still _in situ_,
+the majority having been taken from their original positions and built
+into houses, mosques or wells of more recent date. Among these remains
+are altars, and bases for statues of gods or for golden images of
+animals dedicated to gods. The earlier stones are devoid of
+ornamentation, but the later stones and bronzes are sometimes ornamented
+with designs of leaves, flowers, ox-heads, men and women. Some bear
+figures of the conventionalized sacred tree with worshippers, similar to
+Babylonian designs. Besides these there are gravestones, stelae with
+human heads, fragments of limestone, architectural designs as well as
+bronze castings of camels, horses, mice, serpents, &c. (cf. D.H.
+Müller's _Südarabische Alterthümer im Kunsthistorischen Museum_, Vienna,
+1899, with plates).
+
+_Seals, Weights and Coins._--The Vienna Museum possesses a small number
+of seals and gems. The seals are inscribed with Sabaean writing and are
+of bronze, copper, silver and stone. The gems of onyx, carnelian and
+agate are later and bear various figures, and in some cases Arabic
+inscriptions. One or two weights are also in existence. A number of
+coins have been brought to the British Museum from Aden, San'a and
+Ma'rib. Others were purchased by G. Schlumberger in Constantinople;
+others have been brought to Europe by Glaser, and are now in the Vienna
+Museum. These are imitations of Greek models, while the inscriptions are
+in Sabaean characters (cf. B.V. Head, in the _Numismatic Chronicle_,
+1878, pp. 273-284; G. Schlumberger, _Le Trêsor de San'a_, Paris, 1880;
+D.H. Müller, _op. cit._ pp. 65 ff. and plates).
+
+  For the problem of Arabic antiquities in Rhodesia see RHODESIA and
+  ZIMBABWE.     (G. W. T.)
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+_Introduction._--Arabia is a land of Semites, and is supposed by some
+scholars to have been the original home of the Semitic peoples. Although
+this cannot be said to be proved, the studies, linguistic and
+archaeological, of Semitic scholars have shown it to be probable. The
+dispersion from Arabia is easy to imagine. The migration into Babylonia
+was simple, as there are no natural boundaries to separate it from
+north-east Arabia, and similar migrations have taken place in historic
+times. That of the Aramaeans at an early period is likewise free from
+any natural hindrance. The connexion with Palestine has always been
+close; and the Abyssinian settlement is probably as late as the
+beginning of the Christian era. Of these migrations, however, history
+knows nothing, nor are they expressed in literature. Arabian literature
+has its own version of prehistoric times, but it is entirely legendary
+and apocryphal. It was, and still is, the custom of Arabian historians
+to begin with the creation of the world and tell the history from then
+to the time of which they are writing. Consequently even the more sober
+histories contain a mass of fables about early days. Many of these,
+taken in part from Jewish and Christian sources, find a place in the
+Koran. Of all these stories current at the time of Mahomet, the only
+ones of any value are the accounts of the "days of the Arabs," i.e.
+accounts of some famous inter-tribal battles in Arabia.
+
+_Authorities._--Until recently the Arab traditions were practically the
+only source for the pre-Islamic history of Arabia. The Old Testament
+references to Arabs were obscure. The classical accounts of the invasion
+of Aelius Callus in 26 B.C. threw little light on the state of Arabia at
+the time, still less on its past history. The Greek writers from
+Theophrastus in the 4th century B.C. to Ptolemy in the 2nd century A.D.
+mention many names of Arabian peoples and describe the situation of
+their cities, but contribute little to their history, and that little
+could not be controlled. The same applies to the information of Pliny in
+his _Natural History_. In the 19th century the discovery and
+decipherment of the Assyrian inscriptions gave a slight glance into the
+relations between Arabs and Assyrians from the 8th century B.C. But the
+great contribution of the century to the early history of Arabia was the
+collecting and translating of numerous early Arabian inscriptions (cf.
+section _Antiquities_ above), which have done service both by their own
+indication of a great civilization in Arabia for nearly (or more than) a
+thousand years before the Christian era, and by the new stimulus which
+they gave to the study and appreciation of the materials in the Assyrian
+inscriptions, the Old Testament, and the Greek and Roman writers. At the
+same time the facts that the inscriptions are undated until a late
+period, that few are historical in their contents, and for the most part
+yield only names of gods and rulers and domestic and religious details,
+and that our collection is still very incomplete, have led to much
+serious disagreement among scholars as to the reconstruction of the
+history of Arabia in the pre-Christian centuries.
+
+All scholars, however, are agreed that the inscriptions reach as far
+back as the 9th century B.C. (some say to the 16th) and prove the
+existence of at least four civilized kingdoms during these centuries.
+These are the kingdoms of Ma'in (Minaean), of Saba (Sabaean), of
+Hadramaut (Hadramut) and of Katabania (Katabanu). Of the two latter
+little is known. That of Hadramut had kings from the time of the
+Minaeans to about A.D. 300, when it was conquered by Ethiopia. The
+limits of the kingdom of Katabania are not known, but it has its own
+inscriptions.
+
+As to the Sabaean kingdom there is fair agreement among scholars. The
+inscriptions go back to 800 B.C. or earlier, and the same applies to the
+kingdom. A queen of this people (the "Queen of Sheba") is said (1 Kings
+x.) to have visited Solomon about 950 B.C. There is, however, no mention
+of such a queen in the inscriptions. An Assyrian inscription mentions
+Ith'amara the Sabaean who paid tribute to Sargon in 715 B.C. At this
+time the Sabaeans must have been in north Arabia unless the inscription
+refers to a northern colony of the southern Sabaeans. The former opinion
+is held by E. Glaser, who thinks that in the 9th and 8th centuries they
+moved down along the west coast to the south, where they conquered the
+Minaeans (see below). The Sabaean rule is generally divided into periods
+indicated by the titles given to their rulers. In the first of these
+ruled the Makarib, who seem to have been priest-kings. Their first
+capital was at Sirwah. Ten such rulers are mentioned in the
+inscriptions. Their rule extended from the 9th to the 6th century. The
+second period begins about 550 B.C. The rulers are known as "kings of
+Saba." Their capital was Ma'rib. The names of seventeen of these kings
+are known from the inscriptions. Their sway lasted until about 115 B.C.,
+when they were succeeded by the Himyarites. During this period they were
+engaged in constant strife with the neighbouring kingdoms of Hadramut
+and Katabania. The great prosperity of south-west Arabia at this time
+was due in large measure to the fact that the trade from India with
+Egypt came there by sea and then went by land up the west coast. This
+trade, however, was lost during this period, as the Ptolemies
+established an overland route from India to Alexandria. The connexion of
+Saba with the north, where the Nabataeans (q.v.) had existed from about
+200 B.C., was now broken. The decay that followed caused a number of
+Sabaeans to migrate to other parts of Arabia.
+
+The Minaean kingdom extended over the south Arabian Jauf, its chief
+cities being Karnau, Ma'in and Yathil. Some twenty-five kings are known
+from the inscriptions; of these twenty are known to be related to one
+another. Their history must thus cover several centuries. As
+inscriptions in the Minaean language are found in al-'Ula in north
+Arabia, it is probable that they had colonies in that district. With
+regard to their date opinion is very much divided; some, with E. Glaser
+and F. Hommel, maintaining that their kingdom existed prior to that of
+Saba, probably from about 1500 B.C. or earlier until the Sabaeans came
+from their home in the north and conquered them in the 9th century.
+Other scholars think, with D.H. Müller, partly on palaeographical
+grounds (cf. M. Lidzbarski's _Ephemeris_, vol. i. pp. 109 seq., Giessen,
+1902), that none of the inscriptions are earlier than about 800 B.C. and
+that the Minaean kingdom existed side by side with the Sabaean. It is
+curious that the Sabaean inscriptions contain no mention of the
+Minaeans, though this may be due to the fact that very few of the
+inscriptions are historical in content.
+
+About 115 B.C. the power over south Arabia passed from the Sabaeans to
+the Himyarites, a people from the extreme south-west of Arabia; and
+about this time the kingdom of Katabania came to an end. The title taken
+by the new rulers was "king of Saba and Raidan." Twenty-six kings of
+this period are known from the inscriptions, some of which are dated. In
+this period the Romans made their one attempt at direct interference in
+the affairs of Arabia. The invasion under Aelius Gallus was an absolute
+failure, the expedition being betrayed by the guides and lost in the
+sands of the desert. During the latter part of this time the
+Abyssinians, who had earlier migrated from Arabia to the opposite coast
+of Africa, began to flow back to the south of Arabia, where they seem to
+have settled gradually and increased in importance until about A.D. 300,
+when they became strong enough to overturn the Himyarite kings and
+establish a dynasty of their own. The title assumed by them was "king of
+Saba, Raidan, Hadramut and Yemen." The Himyarites were, however, still
+active, and after a struggle succeeded in establishing a Jewish Sabaean
+kingdom, having previously accepted Judaism as their religion. Their
+best-known king was Dhu Nuwas. The struggle between them and the
+Abyssinians now became one of Judaism against Christianity. The
+persecution of the Christians was very severe (see E. Glaser's _Die
+Abyssinier in Arabien und Afrika_, Munich, 1895, and F.M.E. Pereira's
+_Historia dos Martyres de Nagran_, Lisbon, 1899). Apparently for this
+reason Christian Abyssinia was supported from Byzantium in its attempts
+to regain power. These attempts were crowned with success in 525. Of the
+Christian Abyssinian kings in Arabia tradition tells of four, one only
+of whom is mentioned in inscriptions. The famous expedition of Abraha,
+the Abyssinian viceroy, against Mecca, took place in 570. Five years
+later the Persians, who had been called in by the opponents of
+Christianity, succeeded in taking over the rule and in appointing
+governors over Yemen. (See further ETHIOPIA: _The Axumite Kingdom_.)
+
+_Hira, Ghassan and Kinda._--Before passing to the time of Mahomet it is
+necessary to take account of three other Arabian powers, those of Hira,
+Ghassan and Kinda.
+
+
+  Hira.
+
+The kingdom of Hira (Hira) was established in the boundary land between
+the Euphrates and the Arabian desert, a district renowned for its good
+air and extraordinary fertility. The chief town was Hira, a few miles
+south of the site of the later town of Kufa. The inhabitants of this
+land are said in Tabari's history to have been of three classes:--(1)
+The Tanukh (Tnuhs), who lived in tents and were made up of Arabs from
+the Tehama and Nejd, who had united in Bahrein to form a new tribe, and
+who migrated from there to Hira, probably at the beginning or middle of
+the 3rd century A.D., when the Arsacid power was growing weak. The
+Arabian historians relate their conflict with Zenobia. (2) The 'Ibad or
+'Ibadites, who dwelt in the town of Hira in houses and so led a settled
+life. These were Christians, whose ecclesiastical language was Syriac,
+though the language of intercourse was Arabic. A Christian bishop of
+Hira is known to have attended a synod in 410. In the 5th century they
+became Nestorians. (3) Refugees of various tribes, who came into the
+land but did not belong to the Tanukh or the 'Ibad. There is no
+trustworthy information as to the earlier chiefs of this people. The
+dynasty of the Lakhmids, famed in Arabian history and literature, arose
+towards the end of the 3rd century and lasted until about 602. The names
+of twenty kings are given by Hisham al-Kalbi in Tabari's history.
+Although so many of their subjects were Christian, the Lakhmids remained
+heathen until Nu'man, the last of the dynasty. The kingdom of Hira was
+never really independent, but always stood in a relation of dependence
+on Persia, probably receiving pay from it and employing Persian
+soldiers. At the height of its power it was able to render valuable aid
+to its suzerain. Much of its time was spent in wars with Rome and
+Ghassan. Its revenues were derived from the Bedouins of the surrounding
+lands as well as from its own subjects at home. About 602 the Lakhmid
+dynasty fell, and the Persian Chosroes (Khosrau) II. appointed as
+governor an Arab of the tribe of Tai. Shortly after it came into
+relation with Islam.
+
+  See G. Rothstein's _Die Dynastie der Lakhmiden in al-Hira_ (Berlin,
+  1899); Th. Nöldeke's _Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der
+  Sassaniden_ (Leiden, 1879).
+
+[Illustration: ARABIA]
+
+
+  Ghassan.
+
+In the beginning of the 6th century A.D. a dynasty known as the Jafnids,
+enter into the history alike of the Roman and Persian empires. They
+ruled over the tribe of Ghassan in the extreme north-west of Arabia,
+east of the Jordan, from near Petra in the south to the neighbourhood of
+Rosafa in the north-east. Of their origin little is known except that
+they came from the south. A part of the same tribe inhabited Yathrib
+(Medina) at the time of Mahomet. The first certain prince of the Jafnid
+house was Harith ibn Jabala, who, according to the chronicle of John
+Malalas, conquered Mondhir (Mundhir) of Hira in 528. In the following
+year, according to Procopius, Justinian perceived the value of the
+Ghassanids as an outpost of the Roman empire, and as opponents of the
+Persian dependants of Hira, and recognized Harith as king of the Arabs
+and patrician of the Roman empire. He was thus constantly engaged in
+battles against Hira. In 541 he fought under Belisarius in Mesopotamia.
+After his death about 569 or 570 the friendly relations with the West
+continued, but about 583 there was a breach. The Ghassanid kingdom split
+into sections each with its own prince. Some passed under the sway of
+Persia, others preserved their freedom at the expense of their
+neighbours. At this point their history ceases to be mentioned in the
+Western chronicles. There are references to the Ghassanid Nu'man in the
+poems of Nabigha. Arabian tradition tells of their prince Jabala ibn
+Aiham who accepted Islam, after fighting against it, but finding it too
+democratic, returned to Christianity and exile in the Roman empire. As
+Islam advanced, some of the Ghassanids retreated to Cappadocia, others
+accepted the new faith.
+
+  See Th. Noldeke, _Die ghassanischen Fürsten aus dent Hause Gafna's_
+  (Berlin, 1887).
+
+
+  Kinda.
+
+In the last decade of the 5th century a new power arose in central
+Arabia. This was the tribe of Kinda under the sway of the family of Aqil
+ul Murar, who came from the south. They seem to have stood in much the
+same relation to the rulers of Yemen, as the people of Hira to the
+Persians and the Ghassanids to Rome. Abraha in his invasion of the Hejaz
+was accompanied by chiefs of Kinda. Details of their history are not
+known, but they seem to have gained power at one time even over the
+Lakhmids of Hira; and to have ruled over Bahrein as well as Yemama until
+the battle of Shi'b ul Jabala, when they lost this province to Hira. The
+poet Amru'ul Qais was a member of the princely family of Kinda.
+
+
+  Other parts of Arabia.
+
+Outside the territory of the powers mentioned above, Arabia in the 6th
+century was in a state of political chaos. Bahrein, inhabited chiefly by
+the Bani'Abd Qais and the Bani Bakr, was largely subject to Persian
+influence near its coast, and a Persian governor, Sebocht, resided in
+Hajar, its chief town. In Oman the Arabs, who were chiefly engaged in
+fishing and seafaring, were Azdites mixed with Persians. The ruling
+dynasty of Julanda in their capital Suhar lasted on till the Abbasid
+period. No Persian officials are mentioned in this country; whether
+Persians exercised authority over it is doubtful. On the west coast of
+Arabia the influence of the kingdom of Yemen was felt in varying degree
+according to the strength of the rulers of that land. Apart from this
+influence the Hejaz was simply a collection of cities each with its own
+government, while outside the cities the various tribes governed
+themselves and fought continual battles with one another.
+
+_Time of Mahomet._--Thus at the time of Mahomet's advent the country was
+peopled by various tribes, some more or less settled under the
+governments of south Arabia, Kinda, Hira and Ghassan, these in turn
+depending on Abyssinia, Persia and Rome (i.e. Byzantium); others as in
+the Hejaz were ruled in smaller communities by members of leading
+families, while in various parts of the peninsula were wandering Arabs
+still maintaining the traditions of old family and tribal rule, forming
+no state, sometimes passing, as suited them, under the influence and
+protection of one or another of the greater powers. To these may be
+added a certain number of Jewish tribes and families deriving their
+origin partly from migrations from Palestine, partly from converts among
+the Arabs themselves. Mahomet appealed at once to religion and
+patriotism, or rather created a feeling for both. For Mahomet as a
+religious teacher and for the details of his career see MAHOMET. It is
+enough here to outline his actions in so far as he attempted to create a
+united, and then a conquering, Arabia. Though the external conquests of
+the Arabs belong more properly to the period of the caliphate, yet they
+were the natural outcome of the prophet's ideas. His idea of Arabia for
+the Arabians could only be realized by summoning the great kings of the
+surrounding nations to recognize Islam; otherwise Abyssinia, Persia and
+Rome (Byzantium) would continue their former endeavours to influence and
+control the affairs of the peninsula. Tradition tells that a few years
+before his death he did actually send letters to the emperor Heraclius,
+to the negus of Abyssinia, the king of Persia, and Cyrus, patriarch of
+Alexandria, the "Mukaukis" of Egypt, summoning them to accept Islam and
+threatening them with punishment in case of refusal. But the task of
+carrying out these threats fell to the lot of his successors; the work
+of the prophet was to be the subjugating and uniting of Arabia. This
+work, scarcely begun in Mecca, was really started after the migration to
+Medina by the formation of a party of men--the _Muhajirun_ (Refugees or
+Emigrants) and the _Ansar_ (Helpers or Defenders)--who accepted Mahomet
+as their religious leader. As the necessity of overcoming his enemies
+became urgent, this party became military. A few successes in battle
+attracted to him men who were interested in fighting and who were
+willing to accept his religion as a condition of membership of his
+party, which soon began to assume a national form. Mahomet early found
+an excuse for attacking the Jews, who were naturally in the way of his
+schemes. The Bani Nadir were expelled, the Bani Quraiza slaughtered. By
+the time he had successfully stormed the rich Jewish town of Khaibar, he
+had found that it was better to allow industrious Jews to remain in
+Arabia as payers of tribute than to expel or kill them: this policy he
+followed afterwards. The capture of Mecca (630) was not only an evidence
+of his growing power, which induced Arabs throughout the peninsula to
+join him, but gave him a valuable centre of pilgrimage, in which he was
+able by a politic adoption of some of the heathen Arabian ceremonies
+into his own rites to win men over the more easily to his own cause. At
+his death in 623 Mahomet left Arabia practically unified. It is true
+that rival prophets were leading rebellions in various parts of Arabia,
+that the tax-collectors were not always paid, and that the warriors of
+the land were much distressed for want of work owing to the brotherhood
+of Arabs proclaimed by Mahomet. The tribes were a seething mass of
+restlessness, their old feuds ready to break out again. But they had
+realized that they had common interests. The power of the foreigner in
+Arabia was broken. Islam promised rich booty for those who fought and
+won, paradise for those who fell.
+
+_Early Caliphs_.[1] 1. _Conquest._--One task of the early caliphs was to
+find an outlet for the restless fighting spirit. Abu Bekr (632-634), the
+first of these caliphs, was a man of simple life and profound faith. He
+understood the intention of Mahomet as to foreign nations, and set
+himself resolutely to carry it out in the face of much difficulty. Hence
+as soon as he assumed office he sent out the army already chosen to
+advance against the Romans in the north. The successful reduction of the
+rebels in Arabia enabled him in his first year to send his great general
+Khalid with his Arab warriors first against Persians, then against
+Romans. His early death prevented him from seeing the fruits of his
+policy. Under the second caliph Omar (634-644) the Persians were
+defeated at Kadesiya (Kadessia), and Irak was completely subdued and the
+new cities of Kufa and Basra were founded (635). In the same year
+Damascus fell into the hands of the Arabs under Abu 'Ubaida. In 636
+Jerusalem fell and received a visit from the caliph. Three years later
+the fateful step was taken of appointing Moawiya (Mu'awiyya) governor of
+Syria. In 640 'Amr-ibn-el-Ass (Amr ibn al-'As) invaded Egypt and the
+following year took Alexandria and founded Fostat (which later became
+Cairo). The victory at Nehavend in 641 over the Persians, the flight of
+the last Sassanid king and the capture of Rei or Rai (class. Rhagae) in
+643 meant the entire subjugation of Persia and crowned the conquests of
+Omar's caliphate. The reign of the third caliph Othman (644-656) was
+marked by the beginning of that internal strife which was to ruin
+Arabia; but the foreign conquests continued. In the north the Moslem
+arms reached Armenia and Asia Minor; on the west they were successful as
+far as Carthage on the north coast of Africa. After the murder of
+Othman, 'Ali (656-661) became caliph, but Moawiya, governor of Syria,
+soon rebelled on the pretext of avenging the death of Othman. After the
+battle of Siffin (657) arbitration was resorted to for the settlement of
+the rival claims. By a trick 'Ali was deposed (658), and the Omayyad
+dynasty was established with its capital at Damascus.
+
+
+  Institution of navy.
+
+During these early years the Arabs had not only made conquests by land,
+but had found an outlet for their energy at sea. In 640 Omar sent a
+fleet of boats across the Red Sea to protect the Moslems on the
+Abyssinian coast. The boats were wrecked. Omar was so terrified by this
+that when Moawiya applied to him for permission to use ships for an
+attack on the islands of the Levant, he resolutely refused. Othman was
+less careful, and allowed a fleet from Africa to help in the conquests
+of the Levant and Asia Minor. In 649 he sanctioned the establishment of
+a maritime service, on condition that it should be voluntary. Abu Qais,
+appointed admiral, showed its usefulness by the capture of Cyprus. In
+652 Abu Sarh with a fleet from Egypt won a naval battle over the
+Byzantine fleet near Alexandria.
+
+2. _Internal Affairs._--In the meantime what had become of Arabia and
+its unification? The first task of Abu Bekr had been to reduce those
+rebels who threatened to destroy that unity even before it was fully
+established. This he did by the aid of the great general Khalid. First
+he swept down on the Bani Hanifa in Yemama, who with their rival prophet
+Mosailama (Mosailima) and 40,000 men were in arms. The battle of Yemama
+(633) was fierce and decisive. Mosailama was slain. The Bani Hanifa
+returned to Islam. Bahrein was influenced by this battle, and the
+rebellion there, which was threatening, was crushed. Oman was
+reconquered by Huddhaifa, who became its governor. Ikrima settled Mahra.
+Muhajir, with the help of Ikrima, succeeded with difficulty, but
+thoroughly, in defeating Amr ibn Ma'dikarib and Qais ibn 'Abd Yaghuth in
+Yemen and Ashath ibn Qais in Hadramut. The Hejaz and Tehama were cleared
+of the plundering nomads by 'Attab and Tahir. At the end of the first
+year of his caliphate Abu Bekr saw Arabia united under Islam. The new
+national feeling demanded that all Arabs should be free men, so the
+caliph ordained that all Arab slaves should be freed on easy terms. The
+solidarity of Arabia survived the first foreign conquests. It was not
+intended that Arabs should settle in the conquered lands except as
+armies of occupation. Thus it was at first forbidden that Arabs should
+buy or possess land in these countries. Kufa was to be only a military
+camp, as was Fostat in Egypt. The taxes with the booty from conquests
+were to be sent to Arabia for distribution among the Moslems. Omar tried
+to prevent the advance of conquests lest Arabia should suffer. "I would
+rather the safety of my people than thousands of spoil and further
+conquest." But men could not be prevented from pouring out from their
+homes in search of new conquests and more booty. Many of those who went
+forth did not return. They acquired property and rank in the new lands.
+Kufa attracted chiefly men of south Arabia, Basra those of the north.
+Both became great cities, each with a population of 150,000 to 200,000
+Arabians. Yet so long as the caliphs lived in Medina, the capital of
+Arabia was the capital of the expanding Arabian empire. To it was
+brought a large share of the booty. The caliphs were chosen there, and
+there the rules for the administration were framed. Thence went out the
+governors to their provinces. Omar was the great organizer of Arabian
+affairs. He compiled the Koran, instituted the civil list, regulated the
+military organization. He, too, desired that Mahomet's wish should be
+carried out and that Arabia should be purely Moslem. To this end he
+expelled the Christians from Nejran and gave them lands in Syria and
+Irak, where they were allowed to live in peace on payment of tribute.
+The Jews, too, were shortly after expelled from Khaibar. The secondary
+position that Arabia was beginning to assume in the Arabian empire is
+clearly marked in the progress of events during the caliphate of Othman.
+In his appointments to governorships and other offices, as well as in
+his distribution of spoil, Othman showed a marked preference for the
+members of his own tribe the Koreish (Quraish) and the members of his
+own family the Bani Omayya (Umayya). The other Arab tribes became
+increasingly jealous of the Koreish, while among the Koreish themselves
+the Hashimite family came to hate the Omayyad, which now had much power,
+although it had been among the last to accept Islam and never was very
+strict in its religious duties. But the quarrels which led to the murder
+of Othman were fomented not so much in Arabia as in Kufa and Basra and
+Fostat. In these cities the rival parties were composed of the most
+energetic fighting men, who were brought into the most intimate contact
+with one another, and who kept up their quarrels from the home land. In
+Kufa a number of the Koreish had settled, and their arrogance became
+insupportable. The governors of all these towns were of Othman's own
+family. After some years of growing dissatisfaction deputies from these
+places came to Medina, and the result was the murder of the caliph.
+Syria alone remained loyal to the house of Omayya, and Othman had been
+advised to take refuge there, but had refused. Arabia itself counted for
+little in the strife. Yet its prestige was not altogether lost. After
+the murder the rebels were unwilling to return home until a new caliph
+had been chosen in the capital. The Egyptian rebels managed to gain most
+influence, and, in accordance with their desire, 'Ali was appointed
+caliph by the citizens of Medina. But Medina itself was being corrupted
+by the constant influx of captives, who, employed at first as servants,
+soon became powerful enough to dictate to their masters. In the struggle
+that ensued upon the election of 'Ali, Arabia was involved. Ayesha,
+Talha and Zobair, who were strong in Mecca, succeeded in obtaining
+possession of Basra, but were defeated in 656 at the battle of the Camel
+(see ALI). In the south of Arabia 'Ali succeeded in establishing his own
+governor in Yemen, though the government treasure was carried off to
+Mecca. But the centre of strife was not to be Arabia. When 'Ali left
+Medina to secure Basra, he abandoned it as the capital of the Arabian
+empire. With the success of Moawiya Damascus became the capital of the
+caliphate (658) and Arabia became a mere province, though always of
+importance because of its possession of the two sacred cities Mecca and
+Medina. Both these cities were secured by Moawiya in 660, and at the
+same time Yemen was punished for its adherence to 'Ali. The final blow
+to any political pretensions of Medina was dealt by the caliph when he
+had his son Yazid declared as his successor, thus taking away any claim
+on the part of the citizens of Medina to elect to the caliphate.
+
+_The Omayyads._--The early years of the Omayyads were years of constant
+strife in Arabia. The Kharijites who had opposed 'Ali on the ground that
+he had no right to allow the appeal to arbitration, were defeated at
+Nahrawan or Nahrwan (658), but those who escaped became fierce
+propagandists against the Koreish, some claiming that the caliph should
+be chosen by the Faithful from any tribe of the Arabs, some that there
+should be no caliph at all, that God alone was their ruler and that the
+government should be carried on by a council. They broke up into many
+sects, and were long a disturbing political force in Arabia as
+elsewhere. On the death of 'Ali his house was represented by his two
+sons Hasan and Hosain (Husain). Hasan soon made peace with Moawiya. On
+the accession of Yazid, Hosain refused homage and raised an army, but
+was slain at Kerbela (680). 'Abdallah ibn Zobair (of the house of
+Hashim) immediately stepped forward in Mecca as the avenger of 'Ali's
+family and the champion of religion. The two sacred cities supported
+him. Medina was besieged and sacked by the troops of Yazid (682) and
+Mecca was besieged the following year. The siege was raised in the third
+month on the news of the death of Yazid, but not before the Ka'ba had
+been destroyed. 'Abdallah remained in Mecca recognized as caliph in
+Arabia, and soon after in Egypt and even a part of Syria. He defeated
+the troops of Merwan I., but could not win the support of the
+Kharijites. In 691 Abdalmalik ('Abdul-Malik) determined to crush his
+rival and sent his general Hajjaj against Mecca. The siege was begun in
+March 692, and in October the city was taken and 'Abdallah slain.
+Abdalmalik was now supreme in Arabia and throughout the Moslem world.
+During the remaining years of the Omayyad dynasty (i.e. until 750)
+little is heard of Arabia in history. The conquests of Islam in Spain on
+the one side and India on the other had little or no effect on it. It
+was merely a province.
+
+_The 'Abbasids._--The accession of Abul 'Abbas (of the house of Hashim)
+and the transference of the capital of the caliphate from Damascus to
+Kufa, then Anbar and soon after (in 760) to Bagdad meant still further
+degradation to Arabia and Arabs. From the beginning the 'Abbasids
+depended for help on Persians and Turks, and the chief offices of state
+were frequently filled with foreigners. In one thing only the Arabs
+conquered to the end; that was in their language. The study of Arabic
+was taken up by lexicographers, grammarians and poets (mostly of foreign
+origin) with a zeal rarely shown elsewhere. The old Arabian war spirit
+was dying. Although the Arabians, as a rule, were in favour of the
+Omayyad family, they could not affect the succession of the 'Abbasids.
+They returned more and more to their old inter-tribal disputes. They
+formed now not only a mere branch of the empire of the caliphate, but a
+branch deriving little life from and giving less to the main stock. In
+762 there was a rebellion in favour of a descendant of 'Ali, but it was
+put down with great severity by the army of the caliph Mansur. A more
+local 'Alyite revolt in Mecca and Medina was crushed in 785. In the
+contest between the two sons of Harun al Rashid all Arabia sided with
+Mamun (812). In 845-846 the lawless raids of Bedouin tribes compelled
+the caliph Wathiq to send his Turkish general Bogha, who was more
+successful in the north than in the centre and south of Arabia in
+restoring peace.
+
+_The Carmathians._--Towards the close of the 9th century Arabia was
+disturbed by the rise of a new movement which during the next hundred
+years dominated the peninsula, and at its close left it shattered never
+to be united again. In the year 880 Yemen was listening to the
+propaganda of the new sect of the Carmathians (q.v.) or followers of
+Hamdan Qarmat. Four years later these had become a public force. In 900
+'Abu Sa'id al-Jannabi, who had been sent to Bahrein by Hamdan, had
+secured a large part of this province and had won the city of Katif
+(Ketif) which contained many Jews and Persians. The Arabs who lived more
+inland were mostly Bedouin who found the obligations of Islam irksome,
+and do not seem to have made a very vigorous opposition to the
+Carmathians who took Hajar the capital of Bahrein in 903. From this they
+made successful attacks on Yemama (Yamama), and attempts only partially
+successful at first at Oman. In 906 the court at Bagdad learned that
+these sectaries had gained almost all Yemen and were threatening Mecca
+and Medina. Abu Sa'id was assassinated (913) in his palace at Lahsa
+(which in 926 was fortified and became the Carmathian capital of
+Bahrein). His son Sa'id succeeded him, but proved too weak and was
+deposed and succeeded by his brother Abu Tahir. His success was constant
+and the caliphate was brought very low by him. In Arabia he subjugated
+Oman, and swooping down on the west in 929 he horrified the Moslem world
+by capturing Mecca and carrying off the sacred black stone to Bahrein.
+The Fatimite caliph 'Obaidallah (see FATIMITES), to whom Abu Tahir
+professed allegiance, publicly wrote to him to restore the stone, but
+there is some reason to believe that he secretly encouraged him to
+retain it. In 939, however, the stone was restored and pilgrimages to
+the holy cities were allowed to pass unmolested on payment of a tax. So
+long as Abu Tahir lived the Carmathians controlled Arabia. After his
+death, however, they quarrelled with the Fatimite rulers of Egypt (969)
+and began to lose their influence. In 985 they were completely defeated
+in Irak, and soon after lost control of the pilgrimages. Oman recovered
+its independence. Three years later Katif, at that time their chief
+city, was besieged and taken by a Bedouin sheik, and subsequently their
+political power in Arabia came to an end. It was significant that their
+power fell into the hands of Bedouins. Arabia was now completely
+disorganized, and was only nominally subject to the caliphate. The
+attempt of Mahomet to unify Arabia had failed. The country was once more
+split up into small governments, more or less independent, and groups of
+wandering tribes carrying on their petty feuds. Of the history of these
+during the next few centuries little is known, except in the case of the
+Hejaz. Here the presence of the sacred cities led writers to record
+their annals (cf. F. Wüstenfeld's _Die Chroniken der Stadt Mekka_, 4
+vols., Leipzig, 1857-1861). The two cities were governed by Arabian
+nobles (_sherifs_), often at feud with one another, recognizing formally
+the overlordship of the caliph at Bagdad or the caliph of Egypt. Thus in
+966 the name of the caliph Moti was banished from the prayers at Mecca,
+and an 'Alyite took possession of the government of the city and
+recognized the Egyptian caliph as his master. About a century later
+(1075-1094) the 'Abbasid caliph was again recognized as spiritual head
+owing to the success in arms of his protector, the Seljuk Malik-Shah.
+With the fall of the Bagdad caliphate all attempts at control from that
+quarter came to an end. After the visit of the Sultaft Bibars (1269)
+Mecca was governed by an amir dependent on Egypt. Outside the two cities
+anarchy prevailed, and the pilgrimage was frequently unsafe owing to
+marauding Bedouins. In 1517 the Osmanli Turkish sultan Selim conquered
+Egypt, and having received the right of succession to the caliphate was
+solemnly presented by the sherif of Mecca with the keys of the city, and
+recognized as the spiritual head of Islam and ruler of the Hejaz. At the
+same time Yemen, which since the 9th century had been in the power of a
+number of small dynasties ruling in Zubed, San'a, Sa'da and Aden, passed
+into the hands of the Turk.
+
+  For the history of Yemen during this period cf. H.C. Kay, _Omarah's
+  History of Yaman_ (London, 1892), and S. Lane-Poole, _The Mahommedan
+  Dynasties_, pp. 87-103 (Westminster, 1894). Little more than a century
+  later (1630), a Yemen noble Khasim succeeded in expelling the Turk and
+  establishing a native imamate, which lasted until 1871. For
+  descriptions of it in the 18th century cf. C. Niebuhr's accounts of
+  his travels in Arabia in 1761.
+
+_Oman._--Since the separation from the caliphate (before 1000 A.D.) Oman
+had remained independent. For more than a century it was governed by
+five elected imams, who were chosen from the tribe of al-Azd and
+generally lived at Nizwa. After them the Bani Nebhan gained the upper
+hand and established a succession of kings (_maliks_) who governed from
+1154 to 1406. During this time the country was twice invaded by
+Persians. The "kings of Hormuz" claimed authority over the coast land
+until the beginning of the 16th century. In 1435 the people rose against
+the tyranny of the Bani Nebhan and restored the imamate of the tribe
+al-Azd. In 1508 the Portuguese under Albuquerque seized most of the east
+coast of Oman. In 1624 a new dynasty arose in the interior, when Nasir
+ibn Murshid of the Yariba (Ya'aruba) tribe (originally from Yemen) was
+elected imam and established his capital at Rustak. He was able to
+subdue the petty princes of the country, and the Portuguese were
+compelled to give up several towns and pay tribute for their residence
+at Muscat. About 1651 the Portuguese were finally expelled from this
+city, and about 1698 from the Omanite settlements on the east coast of
+Africa.
+
+  For the history of Oman from 661 to 1856 cf. G.P. Badger, _History of
+  the Imams and Seyyids of Oman by Salil-ibn-Razik_ (London, Hakluyt
+  Society, 1871).     (G. W. T.)
+
+_Wahhabi Movement._--Modern Arabian history begins with that of the
+Wahhabi movement in the middle of the 18th century. Its originator,
+Mahommed Ibn Abdul Wahhab, was born (1691) at Ayana in Nejd, and after
+studying in Basra and Damascus, and making the pilgrimage to Mecca
+returned to his native country and settled down at Huremala near
+Deraiya. The abuses and corruptions which had overgrown the practice of
+orthodox Islam had deeply impressed him, and he set to work to combat
+them, and to inculcate on all good Moslems a return to the pure
+simplicity of their original faith. In 1742 Mahommed Ibn Saud, sheik of
+Deraiya, accepted his doctrines, and enforced them by his sword with
+such effect that before his death in 1765 the whole of eastern Nejd and
+El Hasa was converted to the faith of Abdul Wahhab, and accepted the
+political supremacy of Ibn Saud. His son and successor, Abdul Aziz, in a
+rapid series of successful campaigns, extended his dominion and that of
+the reformed faith far beyond the limits of Nejd. His attacks on the
+pilgrim caravans, begun in 1783 and constantly repeated, startled the
+Mahommedan world,[2] and compelled the attention of the sultan, as the
+nominal protector of the faithful. In 1798 a Turkish force was sent from
+Bagdad into El Hasa, but was compelled to retreat without accomplishing
+anything, and its discomfiture added much to the renown of the Wahhabi
+power. In 1801 Saud, son of the amir Abdul Aziz, led an expedition to
+the Euphrates, and on the festival of Bairam, the 20th of April, stormed
+Kerbela, put the defenders to the sword, destroyed the sacred tomb,
+scattered the sacred relics and returned laden with the treasures,
+accumulated during centuries in the sanctuary of the Shia faith. Mecca
+itself was taken; plundering was forbidden, but the tombs of the saints
+and all objects of veneration were ruthlessly destroyed, and all
+ceremonies which seemed in the eye of the stern puritan conqueror to
+suggest the taint of idolatry were forbidden.
+
+On the 14th of October 1802 the amir Abdul Aziz, at the age of
+eighty-two years, was murdered by a Shia fanatic when at prayers in the
+mosque of Deraiya, and Saud, who had for many years led the Wahhabi
+armies, became the reigning amir. In 1804 Medina was taken and with its
+fall all resistance ceased. The Wahhabi empire had now attained its
+zenith, a settled government was established able to enforce law and
+order in the desert and in the towns, and a spirit of Arabian
+nationality had grown up which bade fair to extend the Wahhabi dominion
+over all the Arab race. It already, however, bore within it the germ of
+decay; the accumulation of treasure in the capital had led to a
+corruption of the simple manners of the earlier times; the exhaustion of
+the tribes through the heavy blood tax had roused discontent among them;
+the plundering of the holy places, the attacks on the pilgrim caravans
+under the escort of Turkish soldiers, and finally, in 1810, the
+desecration of the tomb of Mahomet and the removal of its costly
+treasures, raised a cry of dismay throughout the Mahommedan world, and
+made it clear even to the Turkish sultan that unless the Wahhabi power
+were crushed his claims to the caliphate were at an end.
+
+But Turkey was herself fully occupied by affairs in Europe, and to
+Mehemet Ali, then pasha of Egypt, was deputed the task of bringing the
+Wahhabis into subjection. In October 1811 an expedition consisting of
+10,000 men under Tusun Pasha, the pasha's son, a youth of sixteen,
+landed in Hejaz without opposition. Saud with his main forces had
+started northwards to attack Bagdad, but returning at once he met and
+defeated Tusun with great loss and compelled him to retire. Medina and
+subsequently Mecca were eventually taken by the Egyptians, but in spite
+of continual reinforcements they could do little more than hold their
+own in Hejaz. In 1813 Mehemet Ali was compelled to take the field
+himself with fresh troops, but was unable to achieve any decisive
+success, and in 1814 Tusun was again defeated beyond Taif. In May 1814
+Saud died, and his son, Abdallah, attempted to negotiate, but Mehemet
+Ali refused all overtures, and in January 1815 advanced into Nejd,
+defeated the Wahhabi army and occupied Ras, then the chief town in
+Kasim. Terms of peace were made, but on the retirement of the Egyptians
+Abdallah refused to carry out the conditions agreed on, which included
+the return of the jewels plundered by his father, and another campaign
+had to be fought before his submission was obtained. Ibrahim Pasha
+replaced Tusun in command, and on reaching Arabia in September 1816 his
+first aim was to gain over the great Bedouin tribes holding the roads
+between Hejaz and his objective in Nejd; having thus secured his line of
+advance he pushed on boldly and defeated Abdallah at Wiya, where he put
+to death all prisoners taken; thence rapidly advancing, with contingents
+of the friendly Harb and Muter tribes in support of his regular troops,
+he laid siege to Ras; this place, however, held out and after a four
+months' siege he was compelled to give up the attack. Leaving it on one
+side he pushed on eastwards, took Aneza after six days' bombardment and
+occupied Bureda. Here he waited two months for reinforcements, and with
+his Bedouin contingent, strengthened by the adhesion of the Ateba and
+Bani Khalid tribes, advanced on Shakra in Wushm, which fell in January
+1818 after a regular siege. After destroying Huremala and massacring its
+inhabitants, he arrived before Deraiya on the 14th of April 1818. For
+six months the siege went on with varying fortune, but at last the
+courage and determination of Ibrahim triumphed, and on the 9th of
+September, after a heroic resistance, Abdallah, with a remnant of four
+hundred men, was compelled to surrender. The Wahhabi leader was soon
+after sent to Constantinople, where, in spite of Mehemet Ali's
+intercession, he and the companions who had followed him in his
+captivity were condemned to death, and after being paraded through the
+city with ignominy for three days were finally beheaded.
+
+Deraiya was razed to the ground and the principal towns of Nejd were
+compelled to admit Egyptian garrisons; but though the Arabs saw
+themselves powerless to stand before disciplined troops, the Egyptians,
+on the other hand, had to confess that without useless sacrifices they
+could not retain their hold on the interior.
+
+In 1824 Turki, son of the unfortunate Abdallah, headed a rising which
+resulted in the re-establishment of the Wahhabi state with Riad as its
+new capital; and during the next ten years he consolidated his power,
+paying tribute to and under the nominal suzerainty of Egypt till his
+murder in 1834. His son, Fesal, succeeded him, but in 1836 on his
+refusal to pay tribute an Egyptian force was sent to depose him and he
+was taken prisoner and sent to Cairo, while a rival claimant, Khalid,
+was established as amir in Riad. Mehemet Ali and his son Ibrahim Pasha
+were, however, now committed to their conflict with Turkey for Syria and
+Asia Minor, and had no troops to spare for the thankless task of holding
+the Arabian deserts; the garrisons were gradually withdrawn, and in 1842
+Fesal, who had escaped from his prison at Cairo reappeared and was
+everywhere recognized as amir. The few remaining Egyptian troops were
+ejected from Riad, and with them all semblance of Egyptian or Turkish
+rule disappeared from central Arabia.
+
+For a time it looked as if the supremacy of the Wahhabi empire was to be
+renewed; El Hasa, Harik, Kasim and Asir returned to their allegiance,
+but over Oman and Yemen Fesal never re-established his dominion, and the
+Bahrein sheiks with British support kept their independence.
+
+
+  Ibn Rashid.
+
+A rival state had, however, arisen, under Abdallah Ibn Rashid in Jebel
+Shammar. Driven into exile owing to a feud between his family and the
+Ibn Ali, the leading family of the Shammar, Abdallah came to Riad in
+1830, and was favourably received by the amir Turki. In 1834 he was with
+Fesal on an expedition against El Hasa when news came of the amir's
+murder by his cousin Masharah. By Abdallah's advice the expedition was
+abandoned; Fesal hastened back with all his forces to Riad, and invested
+the citadel where Masharah had taken refuge, but failed to gain
+possession of it, until Abdallah with two companions found his way into
+the palace, killed Masharah, and placed Fesal on the throne of his
+father. As a reward for his services Abdallah was appointed governor of
+Jebel Shammar, and had already established himself in Hail when the
+Egyptian expedition of 1836 removed Fesal temporarily from Nejd. During
+the exile of the latter he steadily consolidated his power, extending
+his influence more especially over the desert tribes, till on Fesal's
+return in 1842 he had created a state subject only in name to that of
+which Riad was the capital.
+
+On the death of Abdallah in 1843, his son Talal succeeded. He set
+himself to work to establish law and order throughout the state, to
+arrange its finances, and to encourage the settlement in Hail of
+artificers and merchants from abroad; the building of the citadel and
+palace commenced by Mehemet Ali, and continued by Abdallah Ibn Rashid,
+was completed by Talal. The town walls were strengthened, new wells dug,
+gardens planted, mosques and schools built. His uncle Obed, to whom
+equally with Abdallah is due the foundation of the Ibn Rashid dynasty,
+laboured to extend the Shammar boundaries. Khaibar, Tema and Jauf became
+tributary to Hail.
+
+Though tolerant in religion Talal was careful to avoid the suspicion of
+lukewarmness towards the Wahhabi formulas. Luxury in clothing and the
+use of tobacco were prohibited; attendance at the mosque was enforced:
+any doubt as to his orthodoxy was silenced by the amount and regularity
+of the tribute sent by him to Riad. Equally guarded was his attitude to
+the Turkish authorities; it is not improbable that Talal had also
+entered into relations with the viceroy of Egypt to ensure his position
+in case of a collision with the Porte. During his twenty years' reign
+Jebel Shammar became a model state, where justice and security ruled in
+a manner before unheard of. Fesal may well have watched with jealous
+anxiety the growing strength of his neighbour's state as compared with
+his own, where all progress was arrested by the deadening tyranny of
+religious fanaticism.
+
+
+  The amir Mahommed.
+
+On the 11th of March 1868 Talal, smitten with an incurable malady, fell
+by his own hand and was succeeded by his brother Matab; after a brief
+reign he was murdered by his nephews, the elder of whom, Bandar, became
+amir. Mahommed, the third son of the amir Abdallah, was at the time
+absent; with a view of getting his uncle into his power, Bandar invited
+him to return to Hail, and on his arrival went out to meet him
+accompanied by Hamud, son of Obed, and a small following. Warned by a
+hurried sign by Hamud that his life was in danger, Mahommed at once
+attacked Bandar, stabbed him and took possession of the citadel; a
+general massacre of all members of the house of Ibn Rashid followed, and
+next day Mahommed appeared with his cousin Hamud in the market-place of
+Hail, and announced his assumption of the amirship. A strong and capable
+ruler, he soon established his authority over all northern and western
+Nejd, and in 1872 the opportunity arrived for his intervention in the
+east. In that year Abdallah, who had succeeded Fesal in Riad in 1867,
+was deposed, but with the assistance of Mahommed was reinstated; two
+years later, however, he was again deposed and forced to seek refuge at
+Hail, from which place he appealed for assistance to the Turkish
+authorities at Bagdad. Midhat Pasha, then governor-general, seized the
+occasion of asserting Turkish dominion on the Persian Gulf coast, and in
+1875, in spite of British protests, occupied El Hasa and established a
+new province under the title of Nejd, with its headquarters at Hofuf, of
+which Abdallah was appointed governor. This was an event of some
+importance, as it constituted the first Turkish claim to the sovereignty
+over Nejd abandoned by Egypt thirty-three years earlier. The Turks did
+not support their client by advancing into Nejd itself, and he and his
+rivals were left to fight out their battles among themselves. Turkey was
+indeed too much occupied by the war with Russia to pay much attention to
+Arab affairs, though a few years later she attempted to occupy Bahrein
+by a _coup de main_, which was only frustrated by the action of a
+British gunboat.
+
+Owing to the dissensions among the ruling family of Riad, the towns of
+eastern Nejd gradually reverted to their former condition of
+independence, but menaced in turn by the growing power of Hail, they
+formed a coalition under the leadership of Zamil, sheik of Aneza, and in
+the spring of 1891, Aneza, Bureda, Shakra, Ras and Riad assembled their
+contingents to contest with Ibn Rashid the supremacy in Nejd. The latter
+had besides 20,000 of his own south Shammar tribesmen, the whole
+strength of the Harb Bedouins, some 10,000 men, and an additional
+support of 1000 mounted men from his kinsmen, the northern Shammar from
+the Euphrates, while the Muter and Ateba tribes took part with the
+allies. The total strength of each side amounted to about 30,000 men.
+Zamil's forces held a strong position between Aneza and Bureda, and for
+over a month desultory fighting went on; finally an attack was made
+against the defenders' centre, covered by 20,000 camel riders; the men
+of Aneza broke and the whole allied forces fled in disorder; Zamil and
+his eldest son were killed, as were also two of the Ibn Saud family,
+while the remainder were taken prisoners. Aneza and Bureda surrendered
+the same day, and shortly after Ras, Shakra and Riad tendered their
+submission.
+
+This victory placed the whole of northern and central Arabia under the
+supremacy of Mahommed Ibn Rashid, which he held undisputed during the
+rest of his life.
+
+
+  Recent history.
+
+On his death in 1897 his nephew Abdul-Aziz, son of the murdered amir
+Matab, succeeded; during his reign a new element has been introduced
+into Nejd politics by the rising importance of Kuwet (Koweit) and the
+attempts of Turkey to obtain possession of its important harbour. In
+1901 a quarrel arose between Sheik Mubarak of Kuwet and the amir of Hail
+whose cause was supported by Turkey. A force was equipped at Basra under
+Ahmad Feizi Pasha with the intention of occupying Kuwet; Mubarak
+thereupon appealed to Great Britain and action was taken which prevented
+the Turkish designs from being carried out. Kuwet was not formally
+placed under British protection, but it was officially announced by the
+government on the 5th of May 1903 "that the establishment of a naval
+base or fortified port in the Persian Gulf by any other power would be
+regarded as a very grave menace to British interests which would
+certainly be resisted with all the means at its disposal."
+
+In the meantime Sheik Mubarak had found useful allies in the Muntafik
+Arabs from the lower Euphrates, and the Wahhabis of Riad; the latter
+under the amir Ibn Saud marched against Ibn Rashid, who at the
+instigation of the Porte had again threatened Kuwet (Koweit), compelled
+him to retire to his own territory and took possession of the towns of
+Bureda and Aneza. Sheik Mubarak and his allies continued their advance,
+defeated Ibn Rashid in two engagements on the 22nd of July and the 26th
+of September 1904, and drove him back on his capital, Hail. The Porte
+now made another effort to assist its protégé; two columns were
+despatched from Medina and Basra respectively, to relieve Hail, and
+drive out the Wahhabis. Ahmad Feizi Pasha, in command of the Basra
+column, 4200 strong, crossed the desert and reached the wells of Lina,
+200 m. from Hail, on the 5th of March 1905; here, however, he received
+orders to halt and negotiate before proceeding farther. The Turkish
+government realized by this time the strength of the hostile
+combination, and in view of the serious state of affairs in Yemen,
+hesitated to undertake another campaign in the deserts of Nejd.
+Arrangements were accordingly made with the Wahhabis, and on the 10th of
+April Ahmad Feizi Pasha left Lina, ostensibly with the object of
+protecting the pilgrim road, and joined the Medina column by the end of
+the month. Bureda and Aneza were occupied without opposition, the
+rebellious sheiks amnestied by the sultan and loaded with gifts, and
+formal peace was made between the rival factions.
+
+
+  History of European influence.
+
+  British intervention in Oman.
+
+European influence was not felt in Arabia until the arrival of the
+Portuguese in the eastern seas, following on the discovery of the Cape
+route. In 1506 Hormuz was taken by Albuquerque, and Muscat and the coast
+of Oman (q.v.) were occupied by the Portuguese till 1650. In 1516 their
+fleets appeared in the Red Sea and an unsuccessful attempt was made
+against Jidda; but the effective occupation of Yemen by the Turks in the
+next few years frustrated any designs the Portuguese may have had in
+S.W. Arabia. Even in Oman their hold on the country was limited to
+Muscat and the adjacent ports, while the interior was ruled by the old
+Yariba (Ya-'aruba) dynasty from their capital at Rustak. The Persian
+occupation, which followed that of the Portuguese, came to an end in the
+middle of the 18th century, when Ahmad Ibn Said expelled the invaders
+and in 1759 established the Ghafari dynasty which still reigns in Oman.
+He was succeeded by his son, who in 1798 made a treaty with the East
+India Company with the object of excluding the French from Oman, and the
+connexion with Great Britain was further strengthened during the long
+reign of his grandson Sultan Said, 1804-1856. During the earlier years
+of his reign he was constantly at war with the Wahhabi empire, to which
+Oman became for a time tributary. The piracies committed by the Jawasimi
+Arabs in the gulf compelled the intervention of England, and in 1810
+their strongholds were destroyed by a British-Indian expedition. The
+overthrow of the Wahhabis in 1817 restored Sultan Said to independence;
+he equipped and armed on Western models a fleet built in Indian ports,
+and took possession of Sokotra and Zanzibar, as well as the Persian
+coast north of the straits of Hormuz as far east as Gwadur, while by his
+liberal policy at home Sohar, Barka and Muscat became prosperous
+commercial ports.
+
+On his death in 1856 the kingdom was divided, Majid, a younger son,
+taking Zanzibar, while the two elder sons contested the succession to
+Oman. The eldest, Thuweni, with British support, finally obtained the
+throne, and in 1862 an engagement was entered into by the French and
+English governments respecting the independence of the sultans of Oman.
+He was assassinated in 1866, and his successor, Seyyid Turki, reigned
+till 1888. On his death several claimants disputed the succession;
+ultimately his son Fesal was recognized by the British government, and
+was granted a subsidy from British-Indian revenues, in consideration of
+which he engaged not to cede any of his territory without the consent of
+the British government; similar engagements have been entered into by
+the tribes who occupy the south coast from the borders of Oman westward
+to the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb.
+
+
+  British sphere of influence.
+
+The opening of the overland route to India again brought the west coast
+of Arabia into importance. Aden was occupied by the British in 1839. The
+Hejaz coast and some of the Yemen ports were still held by Mehemet Ali,
+as viceroy of Egypt, but on his final withdrawal from Arabia in 1845,
+Hejaz came under direct Turkish rule, and the conquest of Yemen in 1872
+placed the whole Red Sea littoral (with the exception of the Midian
+coast, ceded by Egypt on the accession of Abbas Hilmi Pasha) under
+Ottoman administration. The island of Perim at the southern entrance of
+the Red Sea has been a British possession since 1857, while the
+promontory of Shekh Said on the Arabian side of the strait is in Turkish
+occupation. In order to define the limits between Turkish territory and
+that of the independent Arab tribes in political relations with Great
+Britain, a joint commission of British and Turkish officers in 1902-1905
+laid down a boundary line from Shekh Said to a point on the river Bana,
+12 m. north-east of the small town of Kataba, from which it is continued
+in a north-easterly direction up to the great desert. This delimitation
+places the whole of southern Arabia, east of this line, within the
+British sphere of influence, which thus includes the district
+surrounding Aden (q.v.), the Hadramut and Oman with its dependencies.
+
+
+  Turkish rule.
+
+The provinces of Hejaz and Yemen are each administered by a Turkish
+governor-general, with headquarters at Taif and Sana respectively; the
+country is nominally divided up into divisions and districts under minor
+officials, but Turkish rule has never been acquiesced in by the
+inhabitants, and beyond the larger towns, all of which are held by
+strong garrisons, Turkish authority hardly exists. The powerful Bedouin
+tribes of Hejaz have always asserted their independence, and are only
+kept quiet by the large money payments made them by the sultan on the
+occasion of the annual pilgrimage to the holy cities. A large part of
+Asir and northern Yemen has never been visited by Turkish troops, and
+such revenues as are collected, mainly from vexatious customs and
+transit duties, are quite insufficient to meet the salaries of the
+officials, while the troops, ill-fed and their pay indefinitely in
+arrears, live on the country as best they can.
+
+
+  Yemen revolt.
+
+A serious revolt broke out in Yemen in 1892. A Turkish detachment
+collecting taxes in the Bani Merwan lands north of Hodeda was destroyed
+by a body of Arabs. This reverse set all Yemen aflame; under the
+leadership of the imam, who had, since the Turkish occupation, lived in
+retirement at Sada, 120 m. north of the capital, the powerful tribes
+between Asir and Sana advanced southwards, occupied the principal towns
+and besieged the few Turkish fortified posts that still held out. In
+many cases the garrisons, Arab troops from Syria, went over to the
+insurgents. Meanwhile, reinforcements under General Ahmad Feizi Pasha
+reached Hodeda, Manakha was retaken, Sana relieved, and by the end of
+January 1893 the country with the exception of the northern mountainous
+districts was reconquered.
+
+A state of intermittent rebellion, however, continued, and in 1904 a
+general revolt took place with which the normal garrison of Yemen, the
+7th army corps, was quite unable to cope. The military posts were
+everywhere besieged, and Sana, the capital, was cut off from all
+communication with the coast. During February 1905 reinforcements were
+sent up which raised the garrison of Sana to a strength of eight
+battalions, and in March a further reinforcement of about the same
+strength arrived, and fought its way into the capital with the loss of
+almost all its guns and train. The position was then desperate,
+wholesale desertion and starvation had decimated the garrison, and three
+weeks later Ali Riza Pasha, the Turkish commander, was compelled to
+surrender. The fall of Sana made a deep impression at Constantinople,
+every effort was made to hasten out reinforcements, the veteran Ahmad
+Feizi Pasha was nominated to the supreme command, and Anatolian troops
+in place of the unreliable Syrian element were detailed. The scale of
+the operations may be judged from the fact that the total number of
+troops mobilized up to the beginning of July 1905 amounted to 126
+battalions, 8 squadrons and 15 batteries; the rebel leader Mahommed
+Yahiya had at this time a following of 50,000.
+
+By the end of June, Ahmad Feizi Pasha was in a position to advance on
+Manakha, where he organized an efficient transport, rallied the
+scattered remnants of Ali Riza's army, and with the newly arrived troops
+had by the middle of July a force of some 40 battalions available for
+the advance on Sana. He left Manakha on the 17th of July, and after
+almost daily fighting reached Sana on the 30th of August; on the 31st he
+entered the city without serious opposition, the insurgents having
+retreated northward.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--D.G. Hogarth, _Penetration of Arabia_ (London, 1904); C.
+  Niebuhr, _Travels and Description of Arabia_ (Amsterdam, 1774); A.
+  Zehme, _Arabien und die Araber seit Hundert Jahren_ (Halle, 1875);
+  J.L. Burckhardt, _Travels in Arabia_ (London, 1829); R.F. Burton,
+  _Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Meccah_ (London, 1855), _Midian
+  revisited_ (1879); W.G. Palgrave, _Central and Eastern Arabia_
+  (London, 1865); C. Doughty, _Arabia Deserta_ (Cambridge, 1888), and an
+  abridgment, containing mainly the personal narrative, under the title
+  of _Wanderings in Arabia_ (London, 1908); L. van den Berg, _Le
+  Hadramut et les colonies arabes_, &c. (Batavia, 1885); C. Huber,
+  _Journal d'un voyage en Arabie_ (Paris, 1891); J. Euting, _Reise in
+  inner Arabien_ (Leiden, 1896); E. Nolde, _Reise nach inner Arabien_
+  (Brunswick, 1895); L. Hirsch, _Reise in Sud Arabien_ (Leiden, 1897);
+  J.T. Bent, _Southern Arabia_ (1895); R. Manzoni, _Il Yemen_ (Rome,
+  1884); A. Deflers, _Voyage en Yémen_ (Paris, 1889); J. Halévy,
+  _Journal Asiatique_ (1872); Lady Anne Blunt, _Pilgrimage to Nejd_
+  (London, 1881); E. Glaser, _Petermann's Mitt._ (1886, 1888 and 1889);
+  W.B. Harris, _Journey through Yemen_ (Edinburgh, 1893); J.R. Wellsted,
+  _Travels in Arabia_ (London, 1838); Capt. F.M. Hunter, _Aden_ (London,
+  1877). Consult also _Proc. R.G.S._ and _Geogr. Journal_. For geology
+  see H.J. Carter, "Memoir on the Geology of the South-East Coast of
+  Arabia," _Journ. Bombay Branch Roy. Asiat. Soc._ vol. iv. pp. 21-96
+  (1852); Doughty's _Arabia Deserta_; W.F. Hume, _The Rift Valleys and
+  Geology of Eastern Sinai_ (London, 1901). For ancient geography of
+  Arabia:--A. Sprenger, _Alte Geographie Arabiens_ (Berne, 1875); E.H.
+  Bunbury, _History of Ancient Geography_ (London, 1883); D.H. Müller,
+  _Hamdani's Geographie_ (Leiden, 1884); E. Glaser, _Geschichte und
+  Geographie Arabiens_ (Berlin, 1890).     (R. A. W.)
+
+
+LITERATURE
+
+The literature of Arabia has its origin in the songs, improvisations,
+recitations and stories of the pre-Mahommedan Arabs. Of written
+literature in those days there was, so far as we know, none. But where
+books failed memory was strong and the power of retaining things heard
+was not confined to a professional class. At every festive meeting many
+could contribute a poem or a story, many could even improvise the one or
+the other. When members of different tribes met in peace (as at the fair
+of 'Ukaz) the most skilful reciters strove to maintain the honour of
+their own people, and a ready improviser was held in high esteem. The
+smartest epigrams, the fairest similes, the keenest satires, spoken or
+sung on such occasions, were treasured in the memory of the hearers and
+carried by them to their homes. But the experience of all peoples in
+that memory requires to be helped by form. Sentences became balanced and
+were made clear by some sort of definite ending. The simplest form of
+this in Arabian literature is the _saj'_ or rhymed prose, in which the
+sentences are usually (though not always) short and end in a rhyme or
+assonance. Mahomet used this form in many parts of the Koran (e.g.
+_Sura_, 81). The next step was the introduction of metre into the body
+of the sentence and the restriction of the passages to a definite
+length. This in its simplest form gave rise to the _rajaz_ verses, where
+each half-line ends in the same rhyme and consists of three feet of the
+measure /u - u -. Other metres were introduced later until sixteen
+altogether were recognized. In all forms the rhyme is the same
+throughout the poem, and is confined to the second half of the line
+except in the first line where the two halves rhyme. While, however,
+these measures were in early use, they were not systematically analysed
+or their rules enunciated until the time of Khalil ibn Ahmad in the 8th
+century. Two other features of Arabian poetry are probably connected
+with the necessity for aiding the memory. The first of these is the
+requirement that each line should have a complete sense in itself; this
+produces a certain jerkiness, and often led among the Arabs to
+displacement in the order of the lines in a long poem. The other
+feature, peculiar to the long poem (_qasida_, elegy), is that, whatever
+its real object, whatever its metre, it has a regular scheme in the
+arrangement of its material. It begins with a description of the old
+camping-ground, before which the poet calls on his companion to stop,
+while he bewails the traces of those who have left for other places.
+Then he tells of his love and how he had suffered from it, how he had
+journeyed through the desert (this part often contains some of the most
+famous descriptions and praises of animals) until his beast became thin
+and worn-out. Then at last comes the real subject of the poem, usually
+the panegyric of some man of influence or wealth to whom the poet has
+come in hope of reward and before whom he recites the poem.
+
+_Poetry._--The influence of the poet in pre-Mahommedan days was very
+great. As his name, _ash-Sha'ir_, "the knowing man," indicates, he was
+supposed to have more than natural knowledge and power. Panegyric and
+satire (_hija'_) were his chief instruments. The praise of the tribe in
+well-chosen verses ennobled it throughout the land, a biting satire was
+enough to destroy its reputation (cf. I. Goldziher's _Abhandlungen zur
+arabischen Philologie_, i. pp. 1-105). Before Mahomet the ethics of the
+Arabs were summed up in _muruwwa_ (custom). Hospitality, generosity,
+personal bravery were the subjects of praise; meanness and cowardice
+those of satire. The existence of poetry among the northern Arabs was
+known to the Greeks even in the 4th century (cf. St Nilos in Migne's
+_Patrologia Graeca_, vol. 79, col. 648, and Sozomen's _Ecclesiastical
+History_, bk. 6, ch. 38). Women as well as men composed and recited
+poems before the days of the Prophet (cf. L. Cheikho's _Poetesses of the
+Jahiliyya_, in Arabic, Beirut, 1897).
+
+The transmission of early Arabic poetry has been very imperfect. Many of
+the reciters were slain in battle, and it was not till the 8th to the
+10th centuries and even later that the earliest collections of these
+poems were made. Many have to be recovered from grammars, dictionaries,
+&c., where single lines or groups of lines are quoted to illustrate the
+proper use of words, phrases or idioms. Moreover, many a reciter was not
+content to declaim the genuine verses of ancient poets, but interpolated
+some of his own composition, and the change of religion introduced by
+Islam led to the mutilation of many verses to suit the doctrines of the
+new creed.[3]
+
+The language of the poems, as of all the best Arabian literature, was
+that of the desert Arabs of central Arabia; and to use it aright was the
+ambition of poets and scholars even in the Abbasid period. For the man
+of the towns its vocabulary was too copious to be easily understood, and
+in the age of linguistic studies many commentaries were written to
+explain words and idioms.
+
+Of the pre-Mahommedan poets the most famous were the six whose poems
+were collected by Asma'i about the beginning of the 9th century (ed. W.
+Ahlwardt, _The Diwans of the Six Ancient Arabic Poets_, London, 1870).
+Single poems of four of these--Amru-ul-Qais, Tarafa, Zuhair and
+'Antara--appear in the Mo'allakat (q.v.). The other two were Nabigha
+(q.v.) and 'Alqama (q.v.). But besides these there were many others
+whose names were famous; such as Ta'abbata Sharran, a popular hero who
+recites his own adventures with great gusto; his companion Shanfara,
+whose fame rests on a fine poem which has been translated into French by
+de Sacy (in his _Chrestomathie Arabe_) and into English by G. Hughes
+(London, 1896); Aus ibn Hajar of the Bani Tamin, famous for his
+descriptions of weapons and hunting scenes (ed. R. Geyer, Vienna, 1892);
+Hatim Ta'i, renowned for his open-handed generosity as well as for his
+poetry (ed. F. Schulthess, Leipzig, 1897, with German translation); and
+'Urwa ibn ul-Ward of the tribe of 'Abs, rival of Hatim in generosity as
+well as in poetry (ed. Th. Nöldeke, Göttingen, 1863). Among these early
+poets are found one Jew of repute, Samau'al (Samuel) ibn Adiya (cf. Th.
+Nöldeke's _Beiträge_, pp. 52-86; art. _s.v._ "Samuel ibn Adiya" in
+_Jewish Encyc._ and authorities there quoted), and some Christians such
+as 'Adi'ibn Zaid of Hira, who sang alike of the pleasures of drink and
+of death (ed. by Louis Cheikho in his _Les Poètes arabes chrétiens_, pp.
+439-474, Beirut, 1890; in this work many Arabian poets are considered to
+be Christian without sufficient reason). One poet, a younger
+contemporary of Mahomet, has attracted much attention because his poems
+were religious and he was a monotheist. This is Umayya ibn Abi-s-Salt, a
+Meccan who did not accept Islam and died in 630. His poems are discussed
+by F. Schulthess in the _Orientalische Studien_ dedicated by Th.
+Nöldeke, Giessen, 1906, and his relation to Mahomet by E. Power (in the
+_Mélanges de la faculté orientale de l'université Saint-Joseph_, Beirut,
+1906). Mahomet's relation to the poets generally was one of antagonism
+because of their influence over the Arabs and their devotion to the old
+religion and customs. Ka'b ibn Zuhair, however, first condemned to
+death, then pardoned, later won great favour for himself by writing a
+panegyric of the Prophet (ed. G. Freytag, Halle, 1823). Another poet,
+A'sha (q.v.), followed his example. Labid (q.v.) and Hassan ibn Thabit
+(q.v.) were also contemporary. Among the poetesses of the time Khansa
+(q.v.) is supreme. In the scarcity of poets at this time two others
+deserve mention; Abu Mihjan, who made peace with Islam in 630 but was
+exiled for his love of wine, which he celebrated in his verse (ed. L.
+Abel, Leiden, 1887; cf. C. Landberg's _Primeurs arabes_, 1, Leiden,
+1886), and Jarwal ibn Aus, known as al-Hutai'a, a wandering poet whose
+keen satires led to his imprisonment by Omar (Poems, ed. by I. Goldziher
+in the _Journal of the German Oriental Society_, vols. 46 and 47).
+
+Had the simplicity and religious severity of the first four caliphs
+continued in their successors, the fate of poetry would have been hard.
+Probably little but religious poetry would have been allowed. But the
+Omayyads (with one exception) were not religious men and, while
+preserving the outward forms of Islam, allowed full liberty to the
+pre-Islamic customs of the Arabs and the beliefs and practices of
+Christians. At the same time the circumstances of the poet's life were
+altered. Poetry depended on patronage, and that was to be had now
+chiefly in the court of the caliph and the residences of his governors.
+Hence the centre of attraction was now the city with its interests, not
+the desert. Yet the old forms of poetry were kept. The _qasida_ still
+required the long introduction (see above), which was entirely occupied
+with the affairs of the desert. Thus poetry became more and more
+artificial, until in the Abbasid period poets arose who felt themselves
+strong enough to give up the worn-out forms and adopt others more
+suitable. The names of three great poets adorn the Omayyad period:
+Akhtal, Farazdaq and Jarir were contemporaries (see separate articles).
+The first was a Christian of the tribe of Taghlib, whose Christianity
+enabled him to write many verses which would have been impossible to a
+professing Moslem. Protected by the caliph he employed the old weapons
+of satire to support them against the "Helpers" and to exalt his own
+tribe against the Qaisites. Farazdaq of the Bani Tamim, a good Moslem
+but loose in morals, lived chiefly in Medina and Kufa, and was renowned
+for his command of language. Jarir of another branch of the Bani Tamim
+lived in Irak and courted the favour of Hajjaj, its governor. His
+satires were so effective that he is said to have crushed forty-three
+rivals. His great efforts were against Farazdaq, who was supported by
+Akhtal (cf. _The Naka'id of Jarir and al-Farazdaq_, ed. A.A. Bevan,
+Leiden, 1906 foll.). Among many minor poets one woman is conspicuous.
+Laila ul-Akhyaliyya (d. 706) was married to a stranger. On the death of
+her lover in battle, she wrote numerous elegies bewailing him, and so
+became famous and devoted the rest of her life to the writing of verse.
+Two poets of the Koreish attained celebrity in Arabia itself at this
+time. Qais ur-Ruqayyat was the poet of 'Abdallah ibn uz-Zubair (Abdallah
+ibn Zobair) and helped him until circumstances went against him, when he
+made his peace with the caliph. His poems are chiefly panegyrics and
+love songs (ed. N. Rhodonakis, Vienna, 1902). 'Umar ibn Abi Rabi'a (c.
+643-719) was a wealthy man, who lived a life of ease in his native town
+of Mecca, and devoted himself to intrigues and writing love songs (ed.
+P. Schwarz, Leipzig, 1901-1902). His poems were very popular throughout
+Arabia. As a dweller in the town he was independent of the old forms of
+poetry, which controlled all others, but his influence among poets was
+not great enough to perpetuate the new style. One other short-lived
+movement of the Omayyad period should be mentioned. The _rajaz_ poems
+(see above) had been a subordinate class generally used for
+improvisations in pre-Mahommedan times. In the 7th and 8th centuries,
+however, a group of poets employed them more seriously. The most
+celebrated of these were 'Ajjaj and his son Ru'ba of the Bani Tamim
+(editions by W. Ahlwardt, Berlin, 1903; German trans. of Ru'ba's poems
+by Ahlwardt, Berlin, 1904).
+
+With the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, a new epoch in Arabian
+poetry began. The stereotyped beginning of the _qasida_ had been
+recognized as antiquated and out of place in city life even in the
+Omayyad period (cf. Goldziher, _Abhandlungen_, i. 144 ff). This form had
+been ridiculed but now it lost its hold altogether, and was only
+employed occasionally by way of direct imitation of the antique. The
+rise of Persian influence made itself felt in much the same way as the
+Norman influence in England by bringing a newer refinement into poetry.
+Tribal feuds are no longer the main incentives to verse. Individual
+experiences of life and matters of human interest become more usual
+subjects. Cynicism, often followed by religion in a poet's later life,
+is common. The tumultuous mixture of interests and passions to be found
+in a city like Bagdad are the subjects of a poet's verse. One of the
+earliest of these poets, Muti' ibn Ayas, shows the new depth of personal
+feeling and refinement of expression. Bashshar ibn Burd (d. 783), a
+blind poet of Persian descent, shows the ascendancy of Persian influence
+as he openly rails at the Arabs and makes clear his own leaning to the
+Persian religion. In the 8th century Abu Nuwas (q.v.) is the greatest
+poet of his time. His language has the purity of the desert, his morals
+are those of the city, his universalism is that of the man of the world.
+Abu-l-'Atahiya (q.v.), his contemporary, is fluent, simple and often
+didactic. Muslim ibn ul-Walid (ed. de Goeje, Leiden, 1875), also
+contemporary, is more conservative of old forms and given to panegyric
+and satire. In the 9th century two of the best-known poets--Abu Tammam
+(q.v.) and Buhturi (q.v.) --were renowned for their knowledge of old
+poetry (see HAMASA) and were influenced by it in their own verse. On the
+other hand Ibn ul-Mo'tazz (son of the caliph) was the writer of
+brilliant occasional verse, free of all imitation. In the 10th century
+the centre of interest is in the court of Saif ud-Daula (addaula) at
+Aleppo. Here in Motanabbi (q.v.) the claims of modern poetry not only to
+equal but to excel the ancient were put forward and in part at any rate
+recognized. Abu Firas (932-968) was a member of the family of Saif
+ud-Daula, a soldier whose poems have all the charm that comes from the
+fact that the writer has lived through the events he narrates (ed. by R.
+Dvorák, Leiden, 1895). Many Arabian writers count Motanabbi the last of
+the great poets. Yet Abu-l-'Ala ul-Ma'arri (q.v.) was original alike in
+his use of rhymes and in the philosophical nature of his poems. Ibn
+Farid (q.v.) is the greatest of the mystic poets, and Busiri (q.v.)
+wrote the most famous poem extant in praise of the Prophet. In the
+provinces of the caliphate there were many poets, who, however, seldom
+produced original work. Spain, however, produced Ibn 'Abdun (d. 1126),
+famous for the grace and finish of his style (ed. with commentary of Ibn
+Badrun by R.P.A. Dozy, Leiden, 1846). The Sicilian Ibn Hamdis
+(1048-1132) spent the last fifty years of his life in Spain (_Diwan_,
+ed. Moaçada, Palermo, 1883; _Canzoniere_, ed. Schiaparelli, Rome, 1897).
+It was also apparently in this country that the strophe form was first
+used in Arabic poems (cf. M. Hartmann's _Das arabische Strophengedicht_,
+Weimar, 1897), and Ibn Quzman (12th century), a wandering singer, here
+first used the language of everyday life in the form of verse known as
+_Zajal_.
+
+_Anthologies._--As supplemental to the account of poetry may be
+mentioned here some of the chief collections of ancient verse, sometimes
+made for the sake of the poems themselves, sometimes to give a _locus
+classicus_ for usages of grammar or lexicography, sometimes to
+illustrate ancient manners and customs. The earliest of these is the
+_Mo'allakat_ (q.v.). In the 8th century Ibn Mofaddal compiled the
+collection named after him the _Mofaddaliyat_. From the 9th century we
+have the Hamasas of Abu Tammam and Buhturi, and a collection of poems of
+the tribe Hudhail (second half ed. in part by J.G.L. Kosegarten, London,
+1854; completed by J. Wellhausen in _Skizzen und Vorarbeiten_, i.
+Berlin, 1884). The numerous quotations of Ibn Qutaiba (q.v.) in the
+'Uyun ul-Akhbar (ed. C. Brockelmann, Strassburg, 1900 ff.) and the _Book
+of Poetry and Poets_ (ed. M.J. de Goeje, Leiden, 1904) bring these works
+into this class. In the 10th century were compiled the _Jamharat ash'ar
+al Arab_, containing forty-nine poems (ed. Bulaq, 1890), the work
+_al-'Iqd ul-Farid_ of Ibn' Abdi-r-Rabbihi (ed. Cairo, various years),
+and the greatest work of all this class, the _Kitab ul-Aghani_ ("Book of
+Songs") (cf. ABU-L FARAJ). The 12th century contributes the _Diwan
+Mukhtarat ush-Shu'ara'i_ with fifty qasidas. The _Khizanai ul-Adab_ of
+Abdulqadir, written in the 17th century in the form of a commentary on
+verses cited in a grammar, contains much old verse (ed. 4 vols., Bulaq,
+1882).
+
+_Belles-Lettres and Romances._--Mahomet in the Koran had made extensive
+use of _saj'_ or rhymed prose (see above). This form then dropped out of
+use almost entirely for some time. In the 10th century, however, it was
+revived, occurring almost simultaneously in the _Sermons_ of Ibn Nubata
+(946-984) and the _Letters_ of Abu Bakr ul-Khwarizmi. Both have been
+published several times in the East. The epistolary style was further
+cultivated by Hamadhani (q.v.) and carried to perfection by Abu-l'Ala
+ul-Ma'arri. Hamadhini was also the first to write in this rhymed prose a
+new form of work, the _Maqama_ ("assembly"). The name arose from the
+fact that scholars were accustomed to assemble for the purpose of
+rivalling one another in orations showing their knowledge of Arabic
+language, proverb and verse. In the _Maqamas_ of Hamadhani a narrator
+describes how in various places he met a wandering scholar who in these
+assemblies puts all his rivals to shame by his eloquence. Each oration
+forms the substance of a _Maqama_, while the _Maqamas_ themselves are
+united to one another by the constant meetings of narrator and scholar.
+Hariri (q.v.) quite eclipsed the fame of his predecessor in this
+department, and his _Maqamas_ retain their influence over Arabian
+literature to the present day. As late as the 19th century the sheik
+Nasif ul Yaziji (1800-1871) distinguished himself by writing sixty
+clever _Maqamas_ in the style of Hariri (ed. Beirut, 1856, 1872). While
+this class of literature had devoted itself chiefly to the finesses of
+the language, another set of works was given to meeting the requirements
+of moral education and the training of a gentleman. This, which is known
+as "Adab literature," is anecdotic in style with much quotation of early
+poetry and proverb. Thus government, war, friendship, morality, piety,
+eloquence, are some of the titles under which Ibn Qutaiba groups his
+stories and verses in the _'Uyun ul Akhbar_. _Jahiz_ (q.v.) in the 9th
+century and Baihaqi (_The Kitab al-Mahasin val-Masawi_, ed. F. Schwally,
+Giessen, 1900-1902) early in the 10th, wrote works of this class. A
+little later a Spaniard, Ibn 'Abdrabbihi (Abdi-r-Rabbihi), wrote his
+_'Iqd ul-Farid_ (see section _Anthologies_). The growth of city life in
+the Abbasid capital led to the desire for a new form of story, differing
+from the old tales of desert life. This was met in the first place by
+borrowing. In the 8th century Ibn Muqaffa', a convert from Mazdaism to
+Islam, translated the Pahlavi version of Bidpai's fables (itself a
+version of the Indian _Panchatantra_) into Arabic with the title _Kalila
+wa Dimna_ (ed. Beirut, various years). Owing to the purity of its
+language and style it has remained a classic work. The _Book of the 1001
+Nights_ (_Arabian Nights_) also has its basis in translations from the
+Indian through the Persian, made as early as the 9th century. To these
+stories have been added others originating in Bagdad and Egypt and a few
+others, which were at first in independent circulation. The whole work
+seems to have taken its present form (with local variations) about the
+13th century. Several other romances of considerable length are extant,
+such as the _Story of 'Antar_ (ed. 32 vols., Cairo, 1869, &c.,
+translated in part by Terrick Hamilton, 4 vols., London, 1820), and the
+_Story of Saif ibn Dhi Yezen_ (ed. Cairo, 1892).     (G. W. T.)
+
+_Historical Literature._--Arabian historians differ from all others in
+the unique form of their compositions. Each event is related in the
+words of eye-witnesses or contemporaries transmitted to the final
+narrator through a chain of intermediate reporters (_rawis_), each of
+whom passed on the original report to his successor. Often the same
+account is given in two or more slightly divergent forms, which have
+come down through different chains of reporters. Often, too, one event
+or one important detail is told in several ways on the basis of several
+contemporary statements transmitted to the final narrator through
+distinct lines of tradition. The writer, therefore, exercises no
+independent criticism except as regards the choice of authorities; for
+he rejects accounts of which the first author or one of the intermediate
+links seems to him unworthy of credit, and sometimes he states which of
+several accounts seems to him the best.
+
+A second type of Arabian historiography is that in which an author
+combines the different traditions about one occurrence into one
+continuous narrative, but prefixes a statement as to the lines of
+authorities used and states which of them he mainly follows. In this
+case the writer recurs to the first method, already described, only when
+the different traditions are greatly at variance with one another. In
+yet a third type of history the old method is entirely forsaken and we
+have a continuous narrative only occasionally interrupted by citation of
+the authority for some particular point. But the principle still is that
+what has been well said once need not be told again in other words. The
+writer, therefore, keeps as close as he can to the letter of his
+sources, so that quite a late writer often reproduces the very words of
+the first narrator.
+
+From very early times story-tellers and singers found their subjects in
+the doughty deeds of the tribe on its forays, and sometimes in contests
+with foreign powers and in the impression produced by the wealth and
+might of the sovereigns of Persia and Constantinople. The appearance of
+the Prophet with the great changes that ensued, the conquests that made
+the Arabs lords of half the civilized world, supplied a vast store of
+new matter for relations which men were never weary of hearing and
+recounting. They wished to know everything about the apostle of God.
+Every one who had known or seen him was questioned and was eager to
+answer. Moreover, the word of God in the Koran left many practical
+points undecided, and therefore it was of the highest importance to know
+exactly how the Prophet had spoken and acted in various circumstances.
+Where could this be better learned than at Medina, where he had lived so
+long and where the majority of his companions continued to live? So at
+Medina a school was gradually formed, where the chief part of the
+traditions about Mahomet and his first successors took a form more or
+less fixed. Soon men began to assist memory by making notes, and pupils
+sought to take written jottings of what they had heard from their
+teachers. Thus by the close of the 1st century many _dictata_ were
+already in circulation. For example, Hasan of Basra (d. 728 A.D.) had a
+great mass of such notes, and he was accused of sometimes passing off as
+oral tradition things he had really drawn from books; for oral tradition
+was still the one recognized authority, and it is related of more than
+one old scholar, and even of Hasan of Basra himself, that he directed
+his books to be burned at his death. The books were mere helps. Long
+after this date, when all scholars drew mainly from books, the old forms
+were still kept up. Tabari, for example, when he cites a book expresses
+himself as if he had heard what he quotes from the master with whom he
+read the passage or from whose copy he transcribed it. He even expresses
+himself in this wise: "'Omar b. Shabba has _related_ to me in his book
+on the history of Basra." No independent book of the 1st century from
+the Flight (i.e. 622-719) has come down to us. It is told, however, that
+Moawiya summoned an old man named 'Abid ibn Sharya from Yemen to
+Damascus to tell him all he knew about ancient history and that he
+induced him to write down his information. This very likely formed the
+nucleus of a book which bore the name of that sheik and was much read in
+the 3rd century from the Flight. It seems to be lost now. But in the 2nd
+century (719-816) real books began to be composed. The materials were
+supplied in the first place by oral tradition, in the second by the
+_dictata_ of older scholars, and finally by various kinds of documents,
+such as treaties, letters, collections of poetry and genealogical lists.
+Genealogical studies had become necessary through Omar's system of
+assigning state pensions to certain classes of persons according to
+their kinship with the Prophet, or their deserts during his lifetime.
+This subject received much attention even in the 1st century, but books
+about it were first written in the 2nd, the most famous being those of
+Ibn al-Kalbi (d. 763), of his son Hisham (d. 819), and of Al-Sharqi ibn
+al-Qutami. Genealogy, which often called for elucidations, led on to
+history. Baladhuri's excellent _Ansab al-Ashraf_ (Genealogies of the
+Nobles) is a history of the Arabs on a genealogical plan.
+
+The oldest extant history is the biography of the Prophet by Ibn Ishaq
+(d. 767). This work is generally trustworthy. Mahomet's life before he
+appeared as a prophet and the story of his ancestors are indeed mixed
+with many fables illustrated by spurious verses. But in Ibn Ishaq's day
+these fables were generally accepted as history--for many of them had
+been first related by contemporaries of Mahomet--and no one certainly
+thought it blameworthy to put pious verses in the mouth of the Prophet's
+forefathers, though, according to the _Fihrist_ (p. 92), Ibn Ishaq was
+duped by others with regard to the poems he quotes. The original work of
+Ibn Ishaq seems to be lost. That which we possess is an edition of it by
+Ibn Hisham (d. 834) with additions and omissions (text ed. by F.
+Wüstenfeld, Göttingen, 1858-1860; German translation by Weil, Stuttgart,
+1864).
+
+The _Life_ of the Prophet by Ibn Oqba (d. 758), based on the statements
+of two very trustworthy men, 'Urwa ibn az-Zubair (d. 713) and Az-zuhri
+(d. 742), was still much read in Syria in the 14th century. Fragments of
+this have been edited by E. Sachau, Berlin, 1904. We fortunately possess
+the _Book of the Campaigns_ of the Prophet by al-Waqidi (d. 822) and the
+important _Book of Classes_ of his disciple Ibn Sa'd (q.v.). Waqidi had
+much more copious materials than Ibn Ishaq, but gives way much more to a
+popular and sometimes romancing style of treatment. Nevertheless he
+sometimes helps us to recognize in Ibn Ishaq's narrative modifications
+of the genuine tradition made for a purpose, and the additional details
+he supplies set various events before us in a clearer light. Apart from
+this his chief merits lie in his studies on the subject of the
+traditional authorities, the results of which are given by Ibn Sa'd, and
+in his chronology, which is often excellent. A special study of the
+traditions about the conquest of Syria made by M.J. de Goeje in 1864
+(_Mémoires sur la conquête de la Syrie_, 2nd ed., Leiden, 1900), led to
+the conclusion that Waqidi's chronology is sound as regards the main
+events, and that later historians have gone astray by forsaking his
+guidance. This result has been confirmed by certain contemporary notices
+found by Th. Nöldeke in 1874 in a Syriac MS. of the British Museum. And
+that Ibn Ishaq agrees with Waqidi in certain main dates is important
+evidence for the trustworthiness of the former also. For the chronology
+before the year 10 of the Flight Waqidi did his best, but here, the
+material being defective, many of his conclusions are precarious. Waqidi
+had already a great library at his disposal. He is said to have had 600
+chests of books, chiefly _dictata_ written by or for himself, but in
+part real books by Abu Mikhnaf (d. 748), Ibn Ishaq (whom he uses but
+does not name), 'Awana (d. 764), Abu Mashar (d. 791) and other authors.
+Abu Mikhnaf left a great number of monographs on the chief events from
+the death of the Prophet to the caliphate of Walid II. These were much
+used by later writers, and we have many extracts from them, but none of
+the works themselves except a sort of romance based on his account of
+the death of Hosain (Husain) of which Wüstenfeld has given a
+translation. With regard to the history of Irak in particular he was
+deemed to have the best information, and for this subject he is Tabari's
+chief source, just as Madaini, a younger contemporary of Waqidi, is
+followed by preference in all that relates to Khorasan. Madaini's
+_History of the Caliphs_ is the best, if not the oldest, published
+before Tabari; but this book is known only by the excerpts given by
+later writers, particularly Baladhuri and Tabari. From these we judge
+that he had great narrative power, with much clear and exact learning,
+and must be placed high as a critical historian. His plan was to record
+the various traditions about an event, choosing them with critical
+skill; sometimes, however, he fused the several traditions into a
+continuous narrative. A just estimate of the relative value of the
+historians can only be reached by careful comparison in detail. This has
+been essayed by Brünnow in his study on the Kharijites (Leiden, 1884),
+in which the narrative of Mubarrad in the Kamil is compared with the
+excerpts of Madaini given by Baladhuri and those of Abu Mikhnaf given by
+Tabari. The conclusion reached is that Abu Mikhnaf and Madaini are both
+well informed and impartial.
+
+Among the contemporaries of Waqidi and Madaini were Ibn Khidash (d.
+838), the historian of the family Muhallab, whose work was one of
+Mubarrad's sources for the _History of the Kharijites_; Haitham ibn 'Adi
+(d. 822), whose works, though now lost, are often cited; and Saif ibn
+'Omar at-Tamimi, whose book on the revolt of the tribes under Abu-Bekr
+and on the Mahommedan conquests was much used by Tabari. His narratives
+are detailed and often tinged with romance, and he is certainly much
+inferior to Waqidi in accuracy. Wellhausen has thoroughly examined the
+work of Saif in _Skizzen und Vorarbeiten_, vi. Besides these are to be
+mentioned Abu 'Ubaida (d. 825), who was celebrated as a philologist and
+wrote several historical monographs that are often cited, and Azraqi,
+whose excellent _History of Mecca_ was published after his death by his
+grandson (d. 858). With these writers we pass into the 3rd century of
+Islam. But we have still an important point to notice in the 2nd
+century; for in it learned Persians began to take part in the creation
+of Arabic historical literature. Ibn Muqaffa' translated the great _Book
+of Persian Kings_, and others followed his example. Tabari and his
+contemporaries, senior and junior, such as Ibn Qutaiba, Ya'qubi,
+Dinawari, preserve to us a good part of the information about Persian
+history made known through such translations.[4] But even more important
+than the knowledge conveyed by these works was their influence on
+literary style and composition. Half a century later began versions from
+the Greek either direct or through the Syriac. The pieces translated
+were mostly philosophical; but the Arabs also learned something, however
+superficially, of ancient history.
+
+The 3rd century (816-913) was far more productive than the 2nd. Abu
+'Ubaida was succeeded by Ibn al-A'rabi (d. 846), who in like manner was
+chiefly famous as a philologist, and who wrote about ancient poems and
+battles. Much that he wrote is quoted in Tabrizi's commentary on the
+_Hamasa_, which is still richer in extracts from the historical
+elucidations of early poems given by ar-Riyashi (d. 871). Of special
+fame as a genealogist was Ibn Habib (d. 859), of whom we have a booklet
+on Arabian tribal names (ed. Wüstenfeld, 1850). Azraqi again was
+followed by Fakihi, who wrote a _History of Mecca_ in 885,[5] and 'Omar
+b. Shabba (d. 876), who composed an excellent history of Basra, known to
+us only by excerpts. Of the works of Zubair b. Bakkar (d. 870), one of
+Tabari's teachers, a learned historian and genealogist much consulted by
+later writers, there is a fragment in the Köprülü library at
+Constantinople, and another in Göttingen, part of which has been made
+known by Wüstenfeld (_Die Familie Al-Zobair_, Göttingen, 1878). Ya'qubi
+(Ibn Wadih) wrote a short general history of much value (published by
+Houtsma, Leiden, 1883). About India he knows more than his predecessors
+and more than his successors down to Beruni. Ibn Khordadhbeh's
+historical works are lost. Ibn 'Abdalhakam (d. 871) wrote of the
+conquest of Egypt and the West. Extracts from this book are given by
+M'G. de Slane in his _Histoire des Berbères_, from which we gather that
+it was a medley of true tradition and romance, and must be reckoned,
+with the book of his slightly senior contemporary, the Spaniard Ibn
+Habib, in the class of historical romances. A high place must be
+assigned to the historian Ibn Qutaiba or Kotaiba (d. 889), who wrote a
+very useful _Handbook of History_ (ed. Wüstenfeld, Göttingen, 1850).
+Much more eminent is Baladhuri (d. 893), whose book on the Arab conquest
+(ed. M.J. de Goeje, Leiden, 1865-1866) merits the special praise given
+to it by Mas'udi, and who also wrote a large work, the _Ansab
+al-Ashraf_. A contemporary, Ibn abi Tahir Taifur (d. 894), wrote on the
+Abbasid caliphs and was drawn on by Tabari. The sixth part of his work
+is in the British Museum. The universal history of Dinawari (d. 896),
+entitled _The Long Narratives_, has been edited by Girgas (1887).
+
+All these histories are more or less thrown into the shade by the great
+work of Tabari (q.v.), whose fame has never faded from his own day to
+ours. The _Annals_ (ed. M. de Goeje, Leiden, 1879-1901) are a general
+history from the creation to 302 A.H. (= A.D. 915). As a literary
+composition they do not rank very high, which may be due partly to the
+author's years, partly to the inequality of his sources, sometimes
+superabundant, sometimes defective, partly perhaps to the somewhat hasty
+condensation of his original draft. Nevertheless the value of the book
+is very great: the author's selection of traditions is usually happy,
+and the episodes of most importance are treated with most fulness of
+detail, so that it deserves the high reputation it has enjoyed from the
+first. This reputation rose steadily; there were twenty copies (one of
+them written by Tabari's own hand) in the library of the Fatimite caliph
+'Aziz (latter half of the 4th century), whereas, when Saladin became
+lord of Egypt, the princely library contained 1200 copies (Maqrizi, i.
+408 seq.).
+
+The _Annals_ soon came to be dealt with in various ways. They were
+published in shorter form with the omission of the names of authorities
+and of most of the poems cited; some passages quoted by later writers
+are not found even in the Leiden edition. On the other hand, some
+interpolations took place, one in the author's lifetime and perhaps by
+his own hand. Then many supplements were written, e.g. by Ferghani (not
+extant) and by Hamadhani (partly preserved in Paris). 'Arib of Cordova
+made an abridgment, adding the history of the West and continuing the
+story to about 975.[6] Ibn Mashkawaih wrote a history from the creation
+to 980, with the purpose of drawing the lessons of the story, following
+Tabari closely, as far as his book is known, and seldom recurring to
+other sources before the reign of Moqtadir; what follows is his own
+composition and shows him to be a writer of talent.[7] In 963 an
+abridgment of the _Annals_ was translated into Persian by Bal'ami, who,
+however, interwove many fables.[8] Ibn al-Athir (d. 1234) abridged the
+whole work, usually with judgment, but sometimes too hastily. Though he
+sometimes glided lightly over difficulties, his work is of service in
+fixing the text of Tabari. He also furnished a continuation to the year
+1224. Later writers took Tabari as their main authority, but sometimes
+consulted other sources, and so add to our knowledge--especially Ibn
+al-Jauzi (d. 1201), who adds many important details. These later
+historians had valuable help from the biographies of famous men and
+special histories of countries and cities, dynasties and princes, on
+which much labour was spent from the 4th century from the Flight
+onwards.
+
+The chief historians after Tabari may be briefly mentioned in
+chronological order. Razi (d. A.D. 932) wrote a _History of Spain_;
+Eutychius (d. 940) wrote _Annals_ (ed. L. Cheikho, Paris, 1906), which
+are very important because he gives the Christian tradition; Suli (d.
+946) wrote on the Abbasid caliphs, their viziers and court poets;
+Mas'udi (q.v.) composed various historical and geographical works (d.
+956). Of Tabari's contemporary Hamza Ispahani (c. 940) we have the
+Annals (ed. Gottwaldt, St Petersburg, 1844); Ibn al-Qutiya wrote a
+_History of Spain_; Ibn Zulaq (d. 997) a _History of Egypt_; 'Otbi wrote
+the _History of Mahmud of Ghazna_, at whose court he lived (printed on
+the margin of the Egyptian edition of Ibn al-Athir); Tha'labi (d. 1036)
+wrote a well-known _History of the Old Prophets_; Abu Nu'aim al-Ispahani
+(d. 1039) wrote a _History of Ispahan_, chiefly of the scholars of that
+city; Tha'alibi (d. c. 1038) wrote, _inter alia_, a well-known _History
+of the Poets of his Time_, published at Damascus, 1887; Biruni (q.v.)
+(d. 1048) takes a high place among historians; Koda'i (d. 1062) wrote a
+_Description of Egypt_ and also various historical pieces, of which some
+are extant; Ibn Sa'id of Cordova (d. 1070) wrote a _View of the History
+of the Various Nations_. Bagdad and its learned men found an excellent
+historian in al-Khatib al-Baghdadi (d. 1071), and Spain in Ibn Hayan (d.
+1076), and half a century later in Ibn Khaqan (d. 1135) and Ibn Bassam
+(d. 1147). Sam'ani (d. 1167) wrote an excellent book on genealogies;
+'Umara (d. 1175) wrote a _History of Yemen_ (ed. H.C. Kay, London,
+1892); Ibn 'Asaqir (d. 1176) a _History of Damascus and her Scholars_,
+which is of great value, and exists in whole or in part in several
+libraries. The _Biographical Dictionary_ of the Spaniard Ibn Pascual (d.
+1182) and that of Dabbi, a somewhat junior contemporary, are edited in
+Codera's _Bibliotheca Arab. Hisp._ (1883-1885); Saladin found his
+historian in the famous 'Imad uddin (d. 1201) (Arabic text, ed. C.
+Landberg, Leiden, 1888). Ibn ul-Jauzi, who died in the same year, has
+been already mentioned. Abdulwahid's _History of the Almohades_, written
+in 1224, was published by Dozy (2nd ed., 1881). Abdullatif or Abdallatif
+(d. 1232) is known by his writings about Egypt (trans. de Sacy, 1810);
+Ibn al-Athir (d. 1233) wrote, in addition to the _Chronicle_ already
+mentioned, a _Biographical Dictionary of Contemporaries of the Prophet_.
+Qifti (d. 1248) is especially known by his _History of Arabic
+Philologists_. Sibt ibn al-Jauzi (d. 1256), grandson of the Ibn al-Jauzi
+already mentioned, wrote a great _Chronicle_, of which much the larger
+part still exists. Codera has edited (Madrid, 1886) Ibn al-'Abbar's (d.
+1260) _Biographical Lexicon_, already known by Dozy's excerpts from it.
+Ibn al-'Adim (d. 1262) is famed for his _History of Aleppo_, and Abu
+Shama (d. 1267) wrote a well-known _History of Saladin and Nureddin_,
+taking a great deal from 'Imad uddin. Ibn abi Usaibia (d. 1269) wrote a
+_History of Physicians_, ed. A. Müller. The _History_ of Ibn al-'Amid
+(d. 1276), better known as Elmacin, was printed by Erpenius in 1625. Ibn
+Sa'id al-Maghribi (d. 1274 or 1286) is famous for his histories, but
+still more for his geographical writings. The noted theologian Nawawi
+(q.v.; d. 1278) wrote a _Biographical Dictionary of the Worthies of the
+First Ages of Islam_. Preeminent as a biographer is Ibn Khallikan (q.v.;
+d. 1282), whose much-used work was partly edited by de Slane and
+completely by Wüstenfeld (1835-1840), and translated into English by the
+former scholar (4 vols., 1843-1871).
+
+Abu 'l-Faraj, better known as Bar-Hebraeus (d. 1286), wrote, besides his
+Syriac _Chronicle_, an Arabic _History of Dynasties_ (ed. E. Pocock,
+Oxford, 1663, Beirut, 1890). Ibn 'Adhari's _History of Africa and Spain_
+has been published by Dozy (2 vols., Leiden, 1848-1851), and the
+_Qartas_ of Ibn abi Zar' by Tornberg (1843). One of the best-known of
+Arab writers is Abulfeda (d. 1331) (q.v.). Not less famous is the great
+_Encyclopaedia_ of his contemporary Nuwairi (d. 1332), but only extracts
+from it have been printed. Ibn Sayyid an-Nas (d. 1334) wrote a full
+biography of the Prophet; Mizzi (d. 1341) an extensive work on the men
+from whom traditions have been derived. We still possess, nearly
+complete, the great _Chronicle_ of Dhahabi (d. 1347), a very learned
+biographer and historian. The geographical and historical _Masalik
+al-Absar_ of Ibn Fadlallah (d. 1348) is known at present by extracts
+given by Quatremère and Amari. Ibn al-Wardi (d. c. 1349), best known by
+his _Cosmography_, wrote a _Chronicle_ which has been printed in Egypt.
+Safadi (d., 1363) got a great name as a biographer. Yafi'i (d. 1367)
+wrote a _Chronicle of Islam_ and _Lives of Saints_. Subki (d. 1369)
+published _Lives of the Theologians of the Shafi'ite School_. Of Ibn
+Kathir's _History_ the greatest part is extant. For the history of Spain
+and the Maghrib the writings of Ibn al-Khatib (d. 1374) are of
+acknowledged value. Another history, of which we possess the greater
+part, is the large work of Ibn al-Furat (d. 1404). Far superior to all
+these, however, is the famous Ibn Khaldun (q.v.) (d. 1406). Of the
+historical works of the famous lexicographer Fairuzabadi (q.v.) (d.
+1414) only a _Life of the Prophet_ remains. Maqrizi (d. 1442) is the
+subject of a separate article; Ibn Hajar (d. 1448) is best known by his
+_Biographical Dictionary of Contemporaries of the Prophet_, published in
+the _Bibliotheca Indica_. Ibn 'Arabshah (d. 1450) is known by his
+_History of Timur_ (Leeuwarden, 1767). 'Aini (d. 1451) wrote a _General
+History_, still extant. Abu'l-Mahasin ibn Taghribirdi (d. 1469) wrote at
+length on the history of Egypt; the first two parts have been published
+by Juynboll and Matthes, Leiden, 1855-1861. Flügel has published Ibn
+Kotlubogha's _Biographies of the Hanifite Jurists_. Ibn Shihna (d. 1485)
+wrote a _History of Aleppo_. Of Sakhawi we possess a bibliographical
+work on the historians. The polymath Suyuti (q.v.) (d. 1505) contributed
+a _History of the Caliphs_ and many biographical pieces. Samhudi's
+_History of Medina_ is known through the excerpts of Wüstenfeld (1861).
+Ibn Iyas (d. 1524) wrote a _History of Egypt_, and Diarbekri (d. 1559) a
+_Life of Mahomet_. To these names must be added Maqqari (Makkari) (q.v.)
+and Hajji Khalifa (q.v.) (d. 1658). He made use of European sources, and
+with him Arabic historiography may be said to cease, though he had some
+unimportant successors.
+
+A word must be said of the historical romances, the beginnings of which
+go back to the first centuries of Islam. The interest in all that
+concerned Mahomet and in the allusions of the Koran to old prophets and
+races led many professional narrators to choose these subjects. The
+increasing veneration paid to the Prophet and love for the marvellous
+soon gave rise to fables about his childhood, his visit to heaven, &c.,
+which have found their way even into sober histories, just as many
+Jewish legends told by the converted Jew Ka'b al-Ahbar and by Wahb ibn
+Monabbih, and many fables about the old princes of Yemen told by 'Abid,
+are taken as genuine history (see, however, Mas'udi, iv. 88 seq.). A
+fresh field for romantic legend was found in the history of the
+victories of Islam, the exploits of the first heroes of the faith, the
+fortunes of 'Ali and his house. Then, too, history was often expressly
+forged for party ends. The people accepted all this, and so a romantic
+tradition sprang up side by side with the historical, and had a
+literature of its own, the beginnings of which must be placed as early
+as the 2nd century of the Flight. The oldest specimens still extant are
+the fables about the conquest of Spain ascribed to Ibn Habib (d. 852),
+and those about the conquest of Egypt and the West by Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam
+(d. 871). In these truth and falsehood are mingled. But most of the
+extant literature of this kind is, in its present form, much more
+recent; e.g. the _Story of the Death of Hosain_ by the pseudo-Abu
+Mikhnaf (translated by Wüstenfeld); the _Conquest of Syria_ by Abu
+Isma'il al-Basri (edited by Nassau Lees, Calcutta, 1854, and discussed
+by de Goeje, 1864); the pseudo-Waqidi (see Hamaker, _De Expugnatione
+Memphidis et Alexandriae_, Leiden, 1835); the pseudo-Ibn Qutaiba (see
+Dozy, _Recherches_); the book ascribed to A'sam Kufi, &c. Further
+inquiry into the origin of these works is called for, but some of them
+were plainly directed to stirring up fresh zeal against the Christians.
+In the 6th century of the Flight some of these books had gained so much
+authority that they were used as sources, and thus many untruths crept
+into accepted history. (M. J. de G.; G. W. T.)
+
+  _Geography._--The writing of geographical books naturally began with
+  the description of the Moslem world, and that for practical purposes.
+  Ibn Khordadhbeh, in the middle of the 9th century, wrote a _Book of
+  Roads and Provinces_ to give an account of the highways, the
+  posting-stations and the revenues of the provinces. In the same
+  century Ya'qubi wrote his _Book of Countries_, describing specially
+  the great cities of the empire. A similar work describing the
+  provinces in some detail was that of Qudama or Kodama (d. 922).
+  Hamdani (q.v.) was led to write his great geography of Arabia by his
+  love for the ancient history of his land. Muqaddasi (Mokaddasi) at the
+  end of the 10th century was one of the early travellers whose works
+  were founded on their own observation. The study of Ptolemy's
+  geography led to a wider outlook, and the writing of works on
+  geography (q.v.) in general. A third class of Arabian geographical
+  works were those written to explain the names of places which occur in
+  the older poets. Such books were written by Bakri (q.v.) and Yaqut
+  (q.v.)[9]
+
+  _Grammar and Lexicography._--Arab tradition ascribes the first
+  grammatical treatment of the language to Abu-l-Aswad ud-Du'ali (latter
+  half of the 7th century), but the certain beginnings of Arabic grammar
+  are found a hundred years later. The Arabs from early times have
+  always been proud of their language, but its systematic study seems to
+  have arisen from contact with Persian and from the respect for the
+  language of the Koran. In Irak the two towns of Basra and Kufa
+  produced two rival schools of philologists. Bagdad soon had one of its
+  own (cf. G. Flügel's _Die grammatischen Schulen der Araber_, Leipzig,
+  1862). Khalil ibn Ahmad (718-791), an Arab from Oman, of the school of
+  Basra, was the first to enunciate the laws of Arabic metre and the
+  first to write a dictionary. His pupil Sibawaihi (q.v.), a Persian,
+  wrote the grammar known simply as _The Book_, which is generally
+  regarded in the East as authoritative and almost above criticism.
+  Other members of the school of Basra were Abu 'Ubaida (q.v.), Asma'i
+  (q.v.), Mubarrad (q.v.) and Ibn Duraid (q.v.). The school of Kufa
+  claimed to pay more attention to the living language (spoken among the
+  Bedouins) than to written laws of grammar. Among its teachers were
+  Kisa'i, the tutor of Harun al-Rashid's sons, Ibn A'rabi, Ibn as-Sikkit
+  (d. 857) and Ibn ul-Anbari (885-939). In the fourth century of Islam
+  the two schools of Kufa and Basra declined in importance before the
+  increasing power of Bagdad, where Ibn Qutaiba, Ibn Jinni (941-1002)
+  and others carried on the work, but without the former rivalry of the
+  older schools. Persia from the beginning of the 10th century produced
+  some outstanding students of Arabic. Hamadhani (d. 932) wrote a book
+  of synonyms (ed. L. Cheikho, Beirut, 1885). Jauhari (q.v.) wrote his
+  great dictionary the _Sahah_. Tha'alibi (q.v.) and Jurjani (q.v.) were
+  almost contemporary, and a little later came Zamakhshari (q.v.), whose
+  philological works are almost as famous as his commentary on the
+  Koran. The most important dictionaries of Arabic are late in origin.
+  The immense work, _Lisan ul Arab_ (ed. 20 vols, Bulaq, 1883-1889), was
+  compiled by Ibn Manzur (1232-1311), the _Qamus_ by Fairuzabadi, the
+  _Taj ul'Arus_ (ed. 10 vols., Bulaq, 1890), founded on the _Qamus_, by
+  Murtada uz-Zabidi (1732-1790).
+
+  _Scientific Literature._--The literature of the various sciences is
+  dealt with elsewhere. It is enough here to mention that such existed,
+  and that it was not indigenous. It was in the early Abbasid period
+  that the scientific works of Greece were translated into Arabic, often
+  through the Syriac, and at the same time the influence of Sanskrit
+  works made itself felt. Astronomy seems in this way to have come
+  chiefly from India. The study of mathematics learned from Greece and
+  India was developed by Arabian writers, who in turn became the
+  teachers of Europe in the 16th century. Medical literature was
+  indebted for its origin to the works of Galen and the medical school
+  of Gondesapur. Many of the Arabian philosophers were also physicians
+  and wrote on medicine. Chemistry proper was not understood, but
+  Arabian writings on alchemy led Europe to it later. So also the
+  literature of the animal world (cf. Damiri) is not zoological but
+  legendary, and the works on minerals are practical and not scientific.
+  See ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY and historical sections of such scientific
+  articles as ASTRONOMY, &c.     (G. W. T.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For the general history of the succeeding period see CALIPHATE;
+    EGYPT: _History_, § "Mahommedan."
+
+  [2] For further details of this period, see Egypt: _History_,
+    "Mahommedan Period," § 8.
+
+  [3] On the subject of transmission cf. Th. Nöldeke's _Beiträge zur
+    Kenntniss der Poesie der alten Araber_ (Hanover, 1804); and W.
+    Ahlwardt's _Bemerkungen über die Aechtheit der alten arabischen
+    Gedickte_ (Greifswald, 1872).
+
+  [4] For details see the introduction to Nöldeke's translation of
+    Tabari's _Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der Sasaniden_
+    (Leiden, 1879).
+
+  [5] Published in excerpt by Wüstenfeld along with Azraqi (Leipzig,
+    1857-1859).
+
+  [6] Of this work the Gotha Library has a portion containing 290-320
+    A.H., of which the part about the West has been printed by Dozy in
+    the Bayan, and the rest was published at Leiden in 1897.
+
+  [7] A fragment (198-251 A.H.) is printed in de Goeje, _Fragm. Hist.
+    Ar._ (vol. ii., Leiden, 1871).
+
+  [8] The first part was rendered into French by Dubeux in 1836. There
+    is an excellent French translation by Zotenberg (1874).
+
+  [9] The chief Arabian geographical works have been edited by M.J. de
+    Goeje in his _Bibliotheca Geographorum arabicorum_ (Leiden, 1874
+    ff.).
+
+
+
+
+ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY. What is known as "Arabian" philosophy owed to Arabia
+little more than its name and its language. It was a system of Greek
+thought, expressed in a Semitic tongue, and modified by Oriental
+influences, called into existence amongst the Moslem people by the
+patronage of their more liberal princes, and kept alive by the
+intrepidity and zeal of a small band of thinkers, who stood suspected
+and disliked in the eyes of their nation. Their chief claim to the
+notice of the historian of speculation comes from their warm reception
+of Greek philosophy when it had been banished from its original soil,
+and whilst western Europe was still too rude and ignorant to be its home
+(9th to 12th century).
+
+
+  Origin.
+
+In the course of that exile the traces of Semitic or Mahommedan
+influence gradually faded away, and the last of the line of Saracenic
+thinkers was a truer exponent of the one philosophy which they all
+professed to teach than the first. The whole movement is little else
+than a chapter in the history of Aristotelianism. That system of
+thought, after passing through the minds of those who saw it in the hazy
+light of an orientalized Platonism, and finding many laborious but
+narrow-purposed cultivators in the monastic schools of heretical Syria,
+was then brought into contact with the ideas and mental habits of Islam.
+But those in whom the two currents converged did not belong to the pure
+Arab race. Of the so-called Arabian philosophers of the East, al-Farabi,
+Ibn-Sina and al-Ghazali were natives of Khorasan, Bokhara and the
+outlying provinces of north-eastern Persia; whilst al-Kindi, the
+earliest of them, sprang from Basra, on the Persian Gulf, on the
+debatable ground between the Semite and the Aryan. In Spain, again,
+where Ibn-Bajja, Ibn-Tufail and Ibn Rushd rivalled or exceeded the fame
+of the Eastern schools, the Arabians of pure blood were few, and the
+Moorish ruling class was deeply intersected by Jewish colonies, and even
+by the natives of Christian Spain. Thus, alike at Bagdad and at Cordova,
+Arabian philosophy represents the temporary victory of exotic ideas and
+of subject races over the theological one-sidedness of Islam, and the
+illiterate simplicity of the early Saracens.
+
+Islam had, it is true, a philosophy of its own among its theologians
+(see MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION). It was with them that the Moslem
+theology--the science of the word (_Kalam_)--first came into existence.
+Its professors, the _Mutakallimun_ (known in Hebrew as _Medabberim_, and
+as _Loquentes_ in the Latin versions), may be compared with the
+scholastic doctors of the Catholic Church. Driven in the first instance
+to speculation in theology by the needs of their natural reason, they
+came, in after days, when Greek philosophy had been naturalized in the
+Caliphate, to adapt its methods and doctrines to the support of their
+views. They employed a quasi-philosophical method, by which, according
+to Maimonides, they first reflected how things ought to be in order to
+support, or at least not contradict, their opinions, and then, when
+their minds were made up with regard to this imaginary system, declared
+that the world was no otherwise constituted. The dogmas of creation and
+providence, of divine omnipotence, chiefly exercised them; and they
+sought to assert for God an immediate action in the making and the
+keeping of the world. Space they looked upon as pervaded by atoms
+possessing no quality or extension, and time was similarly divided into
+innumerable instants. Each change in the constitution of the atoms is a
+direct act of the Almighty. When the fire burns, or the water moistens,
+these terms merely express the habitual connexion which our senses
+perceive between one thing and another. It is not the man that throws a
+stone who is its real mover: the supreme agent has for the moment
+created motion. If a living being die, it is because God has created the
+attribute of death; and the body remains dead, only because that
+attribute is unceasingly created. Thus, on the one hand, the object
+called the cause is denied to have any efficient power to produce the
+so-called effect; and, on the other hand, the regularities or laws of
+nature are explained to be direct interferences by the Deity. The
+supposed uniformity and necessity of causation is only an effect of
+custom, and may be at any moment rescinded. In this way, by a theory
+which, according to Averroes, involves the negation of science, the
+Moslem theologians believed that they had exalted God beyond the limits
+of the metaphysical and scientific conceptions of law, form and matter;
+whilst they at the same time stood aloof from the vulgar doctrines,
+attributing a causality to things. Thus they deemed they had left a
+clear ground for the possibility of miracles.
+
+But at least one point was common to the theological and the
+philosophical doctrine. Carrying out, it may be, the principles of the
+Neo-Platonists, they kept the sanctuary of the Deity securely guarded,
+and interposed between him and his creatures a spiritual order of potent
+principles, from the Intelligence, which is the first-born image of the
+great unity, to the Soul and Nature, which come later in the spiritual
+rank. Of God the philosophers said we could not tell what He is, but
+only what He is not. The highest point, beyond which strictly
+philosophical inquirers did not penetrate, was the active intellect,--a
+sort of soul of the world in Aristotelian garb--the principle which
+inspires and regulates the development of humanity, and in which lies
+the goal of perfection for the human spirit. In theological language the
+active intellect is described as an angel. The inspirations which the
+prophet receives by angelic messengers are compared with the irradiation
+of intellectual light, which the philosopher wins by contemplation of
+truth and increasing purity of life. But while the theologian
+incessantly postulated the agency of that God whose nature he deemed
+beyond the pale of science, the philosopher, following a purely human
+and natural aim, directed his efforts to the gradual elevation of his
+part of reason from its unformed state, and to its final union with the
+controlling intellect which moves and draws to itself the spirits of
+those who prepare themselves for its influences. The philosophers in
+their way, like the mystics of Persia (the Sufites) in another, tended
+towards a theory of the communion of man with the spiritual world, which
+may be considered a protest against the practical and almost prosaic
+definiteness of the creed of Mahomet.
+
+Arabian philosophy, at the outset of its career in the 9th century, was
+able without difficulty to take possession of those resources for
+speculative thought which the Latins had barely achieved at the close of
+the 12th century by the slow process of rediscovering the Aristotelian
+logic from the commentaries and verses of Boëtius. What the Latins
+painfully accomplished, owing to their fragmentary and unintelligent
+acquaintance with ancient philosophy, was already done for the Arabians
+by the scholars of Syria. In the early centuries of the Christian era,
+both within and without the ranks of the church, the Platonic tone and
+method were paramount throughout the East. Their influence was felt in
+the creeds which formulated the orthodox dogmas in regard to the Trinity
+and the Incarnation. But in its later days the Neo-Platonist school came
+more and more to find in Aristotle the best exponent and interpreter of
+the philosopher whom they thought divine. It was in this spirit that
+Porphyry, Themistius and Joannes Philoponus composed their commentaries
+on the treatises of the Peripatetic system which, modified often
+unconsciously by the dominant ideas of its expositors, became in the 6th
+and 7th centuries the philosophy of the Eastern Church. But the
+instrument which, in the hands of John of Damascus (Damascenus), was
+made subservient to theological interests, became in the hands of others
+a dissolvent of the doctrines which had been reduced to shape under the
+prevalence of the elder Platonism. Peripatetic studies became the source
+of heresies; and conversely, the heretical sects prosecuted the study of
+Aristotle with peculiar zeal. The church of the Nestorians, and that of
+the Monophysites, in their several schools and monasteries, carried on
+from the 5th to the 8th century the study of the earlier part of the
+Organon, with almost the same means, purposes and results as were found
+among the Latin schoolmen of the earlier centuries. Up to the time when
+the religious zeal of the emperor Zeno put a stop to the Nestorian
+school at Edessa, this "Athens of Syria" was active in translating and
+popularizing the Aristotelian logic. Their banishment from Edessa in 489
+drove the Nestorian scholars to Persia, where the Sassanid rulers gave
+them a welcome; and there they continued their labours on the Organon. A
+new seminary of logic and theology sprang up at Nisibis, not far from
+the old locality; and at Gandisapora (or Nishapur), in the east of
+Persia, there arose a medical school, whence Greek medicine, and in its
+company Greek science and philosophy, ere long spread over the lands of
+Iran. Meanwhile the Monophysites had followed in the steps of the
+Nestorians, multiplying Syriac versions of the logical and medical
+science of the Greeks. Their school at Resaina is known from the name of
+Sergius, one of the first of these translators, in the days of
+Justinian; and from their monasteries at Kinnesrin (Chalcis) issued
+numerous versions of the introductory treatises of the Aristotelian
+logic. To the Isagoge of Porphyry, the Categories and the Hermeneutica
+of Aristotle, the labours of these Syrian schoolmen were confined. These
+they expounded, translated, epitomized and made the basis of their
+compilations, and the few who were bold enough to attempt the Analytics
+seem to have left their task unaccomplished.
+
+The energy of the Monophysites, however, began to sink with the rise of
+the Moslem empire; and when philosophy revived amongst them in the 13th
+century, in the person of Gregorius Bat-Hebraeus (Abulfaragius)
+(1226-1286), the revival was due to the example and influence of the
+Arabian thinkers. It was otherwise with the Nestorians. Gaining by means
+of their professional skill as physicians a high rank in the society of
+the Moslem world, the Nestorian scholars soon made Bagdad familiar with
+the knowledge of Greek philosophy and science which they possessed. But
+the narrow limits of the Syrian studies, which added to a scanty
+knowledge of Aristotle some acquaintance with his Syrian commentators,
+were soon passed by the curiosity and zeal of the students in the
+Caliphate. During the 8th and 9th centuries, rough but generally
+faithful versions of Aristotle's principal works were made into Syriac,
+and then from the Syriac into Arabic. The names of some of these
+translators, such as Johannitius (Hunain ibn-Ishãq), were heard even in
+the Latin schools. By the labours of Hunain and his family the great
+body of Greek science, medical, astronomical and mathematical, became
+accessible to the Arab-speaking races. But for the next three centuries
+fresh versions, both of the philosopher and of his commentators,
+continued to succeed each other.
+
+To the Arabians Aristotle represented and summed up Greek philosophy,
+even as Galen became to them the code of Greek medicine. They adopted
+the doctrine and system which the progress of human affairs had made the
+intellectual aliment of their Syrian guides. From first to last Arabian
+philosophers made no claim to originality; their aim was merely to
+propagate the truth of Peripateticism as it had been delivered to them.
+It was with them that the deification of Aristotle began; and from them
+the belief that in him human intelligence had reached its limit passed
+to the later schoolmen (see SCHOLASTICISM). The progress amongst the
+Arabians on this side lies in a closer adherence to their text, a nearer
+approach to the bare exegesis of their author, and an increasing
+emancipation from control by the tenets of the popular religion.
+
+
+  Under the Caliphate.
+
+Secular philosophy found its first entrance amongst the Saracens in the
+days of the early caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty, whose ways and
+thoughts had been moulded by their residence in Persia amid the
+influences of an older creed, and of ideas which had in the last resort
+sprung from the Greeks. The seat of empire had been transferred to
+Bagdad, on the highway of Oriental commerce; and the distant Khorasan
+became the favourite province of the caliph. Then was inaugurated the
+period of Persian supremacy, during which Islam was laid open to the
+full current of alien ideas and culture. The incitement came, however,
+not from the people, but from the prince: it was in the light of court
+favour that the colleges of Bagdad and Nishapur first came to attract
+students from every quarter, from the valleys of Andalusia as well as
+the upland plains of Transoxiana. Mansur, the second of the Abbasids,
+encouraged the appropriation of Greek science; but it was al-Ma'mun, the
+son of Harun al-Rashid, who deserves in the Mahommedan empire the same
+position of royal founder and benefactor which is held by Charlemagne in
+the history of the Latin schools. In his reign (813-833) Aristotle was
+first translated into Arabic. Orthodox Moslems, however, distrusted the
+course on which their chief had entered, and his philosophical
+proclivities became one ground for doubting as to his final salvation.
+
+In the eastern provinces the chief names of Arabian philosophy are those
+known to the Latin schoolmen as Alkindius, Aliarabius, Avicenna and
+Algazel, or under forms resembling these. The first of these, Alkindius
+(_see_ KINDI), flourished at the court of Bagdad in the first half of
+the 9th century. His claims to notice at the present day rest upon a few
+works on medicine, theology, music and natural science. With him begins
+that encyclopaedic character--the simultaneous cultivation of the whole
+field of investigation which is reflected from Aristotle on the Arabian
+school. In him too is found the union of Platonism and Aristotelianism
+expressed in Neo-Platonic terms. Towards the close of the 10th century
+the presentation of an entire scheme of knowledge, beginning with logic
+and mathematics, and ascending through the various departments of
+physical inquiry to the region of religious doctrine, was accomplished
+by a society which had its chief seat at Basra, the native town of
+al-Kindi. This society--the Brothers of Purity or Sincerity (Ikhwan us
+Safa'i)--divided into four orders, wrought in the interests of religion
+no less than of science; and though its attempt to compile an
+encyclopaedia of existing knowledge may have been premature, it yet
+contributed to spread abroad a desire for further information. The
+proposed reconciliation between science and faith was not accomplished,
+because the compromise could please neither party. The fifty-one
+treatises of which this encyclopaedia consists are interspersed with
+apologues in true Oriental style, and the idea of goodness, of moral
+perfection, is as prominent an end in every discourse as it was in the
+alleged dream of al-Ma'mun. The materials of the work come chiefly from
+Aristotle, but they are conceived in a Platonizing spirit, which places
+as the bond of all things a universal soul of the world with its partial
+or fragmentary souls. Contemporary with this semi-religious and
+semi-philosophical society lived Alfarabius (see FARABI), who died in
+950. His paraphrases of Aristotle formed the basis on which Avicenna
+constructed his system, and his logical treatises produced a permanent
+effect on the logic of the Latin scholars. He gave the tone and
+direction to nearly all subsequent speculations among the Arabians. His
+order and enumeration of the principles of being, his doctrine of the
+double aspect of intellect, and of the perfect beatitude which consists
+in the aggregation of noble minds when they are delivered from the
+separating barriers of individual bodies, present at least in germ the
+characteristic theory of Averroes. But al-Farabi was not always
+consistent in his views; a certain sobriety checked his speculative
+flights, and although holding that the true perfection of man is reached
+in this life by the elevation of the intellectual nature, he came
+towards the close to think the separate existence of intellect no better
+than a delusion.
+
+
+  Avicenna.
+
+Unquestionably the most illustrious name amongst the Oriental Moslems
+was Avicenna (980-1037). His rank in the medieval world as a philosopher
+was far beneath his fame as a physician. Still, the logic of Albertus
+Magnus and succeeding doctors was largely indebted to him for its
+formulae. In logic Avicenna starts from distinguishing between the
+isolated concept and the judgment or assertion; from which two primitive
+elements of knowledge there is artificially generated a complete and
+scientific knowledge by the two processes of definition and syllogism.
+But the chief interest for the history of logic belongs to his doctrine
+in so far as it bears upon the nature and function of abstract ideas.
+The question had been suggested alike to East and West by Porphyry, and
+the Arabians were the first to approach the full statement of the
+problem. Farabi had pointed out that the universal and individual are
+not distinguished from each other as understanding from the senses, but
+that both universal and individual are in one respect intellectual, just
+as in another connexion they play a part in perception. He had
+distinguished the universal essence in its abstract nature, from the
+universal considered in relation to a number of singulars. These
+suggestions formed the basis of Avicenna's doctrine. The essences or
+forms--the _intelligibilia_ which constitute the world of real
+knowledge--may be looked at in themselves (metaphysically), or as
+embodied in the things of sense (physically), or as expressing the
+processes of thought (logically). The first of these three points of
+view deals with the form or idea as self-contained in the principles of
+its own being, apart from those connexions and distinctions which it
+receives in real (sensuous) science, and through the act of intellect.
+Secondly, the form may be looked at as the similarity evolved by a
+process of comparison, as the work of mental reflection, and in that way
+as essentially expressing a relation. When thus considered as the common
+features derived by examination from singular instances, it becomes a
+universal or common term strictly so called. It is intellect which first
+makes the abstract idea a true universal. _Intellectus in formis agit
+universalitatem._ In the third place, the form or essence may be looked
+upon as embodied in outward things (_in singularibus propriis_), and
+thus it is the type more or less represented by the members of a natural
+kind. It is the designation of these outward things which forms the
+"first intention" of names; and it is only at a later stage, when
+thought comes to observe its own modes, that names, looked upon as
+predicables and universals, are taken in their "second intention." Logic
+deals with such second intentions. It does not consider the forms _ante
+multiplicitatem_, i.e. as eternal ideas--nor in _multiplicitate_, i.e.
+as immersed in the matter of the phenomenal world--but _post
+multiplicitatem_, _i. e._ as they exist in and for the intellect which
+has examined and compared. Logic does not come in contact with things,
+except as they are subject to modification by intellectual forms. In
+other words, universality, individuality and speciality are all equally
+modes of our comprehension or notion; their meaning consists in their
+setting forth the relations attaching to any object of our conception.
+In the mind, e.g., one form may be placed in reference to a multitude of
+things, and as thus related will be universal. The form animal, e.g., is
+an abstract intelligible or metaphysical idea. When an act of thought
+employs it as a schema to unify several species, it acquires its logical
+aspect (_respectus_) of generality; and the various living beings
+qualified to have the name animal applied to them constitute the natural
+class or kind. Avicenna's view of the universal may be compared with
+that of Abelard, which calls it "that whose nature it is to be
+predicated of several," as if the generality became explicit only in the
+act of predication, in the _sermo_ or proposition, and not in the
+abstract, unrelated form or essence. The three modes of the universal
+before things, in things, and after things, spring from Arabian
+influence, but depart somewhat from his standpoint.
+
+The place of Avicenna amongst Moslem philosophers is seen in the fact
+that Shahrastani takes him as the type of all, and that Ghazali's attack
+against philosophy is in reality almost entirely directed against
+Avicenna. His system is in the main a codification of Aristotle modified
+by fundamental views of Neo-Platonist origin, and it tends to be a
+compromise with theology. In order, for example, to maintain the
+necessity of creation, he taught that all things except God were
+admissible or possible in their own nature, but that certain of them
+were rendered necessary by the act of the creative first agent,--in
+other words, that the possible could be transformed into the necessary.
+Avicenna's theory of the process of knowledge is an interesting part of
+his doctrine. Man has a rational soul, one face of which is turned
+towards the body, and, by the help of the higher aspect, acts as
+practical understanding; the other face lies open to the reception and
+acquisition of the intelligible forms, and its aim is to become a
+reasonable world, reproducing the forms of the universe and their
+intelligible order. In man there is only the susceptibility to reason,
+which is sustained and helped by the light of the active intellect. Man
+may prepare himself for this influx by removing the obstacles which
+prevent the union of the intellect with the human vessel destined for
+its reception. The stages of this process to the acquisition of mind are
+generally enumerated by Avicenna as four; in this part he follows not
+Aristotle, but the Greek commentator. The first stage is that of the
+hylic or material intellect, a state of mere potentiality, like that of
+a child for writing, before he has ever put pen to paper. The second
+stage is called _in habitu_; it is compared to the case of a child that
+has learned the elements of writing, when the bare possibility is on the
+way to be developed, and is seen to be real. In this period of
+half-trained reason, it appears as happy conjecture, not yet transformed
+into art or science proper. When the power of writing has been
+actualized, we have a parallel to the _intellectus in actu_--the way of
+science and demonstration is entered. And when writing has been made a
+permanent accomplishment, or lasting property of the subject, to be
+taken up at will, it corresponds to the _intellectus adeptus_--the
+complete mastery of science. The whole process may be compared to the
+gradual illumination of a body naturally capable of receiving light.
+There are, however, grades of susceptibility to the active intellect,
+i.e. in theological language, to communication with God and his angels.
+Sometimes the receptivity is so vigorous in its affinity, that without
+teaching it rises at one step to the vision of truth, by a certain "holy
+force" above ordinary measure. (In this way philosophy tried to account
+for the phenomenon of prophecy, one of the ruling ideas of Islam.) But
+the active intellect is not merely influential on human souls. It is the
+universal giver of forms in the world.
+
+In several points Avicenna endeavoured to give a _rationale_ of
+theological dogmas, particularly of prophetic rule, of miracles, divine
+providence and immortality. The permanence of individual souls he
+supports by arguments borrowed from those of Plato. The existence of a
+prophet is shown to be a corollary from a belief in God as a moral
+governor, and the phenomena of miracles are required to evidence the
+genuineness of the prophetic mission. Thus Avicenna, like his
+predecessors, tried to harmonize the abstract forms of philosphy with
+the religious faith of his nation. But his arguments are generally
+vitiated by the fallacy of assuming what they profess to prove. His
+failure is made obvious by the attack of Ghazali on the tendencies and
+results of speculation.
+
+
+  Ghazali.
+
+To Ghazali (q.v.) it seemed that the study of secular philosophy had
+resulted in a general indifference to religion, and that the scepticism
+which concealed itself under a pretence of piety was destroying the life
+and purity of the nation. With these views he carried into the fields of
+philosophy the aims and spirit of the Moslem theologian. His restless
+life was the reflex of a mental history disturbed by prolonged
+agitation. Revolting, in the height of his success, against the current
+creed, he began to examine the foundations of knowledge. The senses are
+contradicted by one another, and disproved by reason. Reason, indeed,
+professes to furnish us with necessary truths; but what assurance have
+we that the verdicts of reason may not be reversed by some higher
+authority? Ghazali then interrogated all the sects in succession to
+learn their criterion of truth. He first applied to the theological
+schoolmen, who grounded their religion on reason; but their aim was only
+to preserve the faith from heresy. He turned to the philosophers, and
+examined the accepted Aristotelianism in a treatise which has come down
+to us--_The Destruction of the Philosophers_. He assails them on twenty
+points of their mixed physical and metaphysical peripateticism, from the
+statement of which, in spite of his pretended scepticism, we can deduce
+some very positive metaphysical opinions of his own. He claims to have
+shown that the dogmas of the eternity of matter and the permanence of
+the world are false; that their description of the Deity as the
+demiurgos is unspiritual; that they fail to prove the existence, the
+unity, the simplicity, the incorporeality or the knowledge (both of
+species and accidents) of God; that their ascription of souls to the
+celestial spheres is unproved; that their theory of causation, which
+attributes effects to the very natures of the causes, is false, for that
+all actions and events are to be ascribed to the Deity; and, finally,
+that they cannot establish the spirituality of the soul, nor prove its
+mortality. These criticisms disclose nothing like a sceptical state of
+mind, but rather a reversion from the metaphysical to the theological
+stage of thought. He denies the intrinsic tendencies, or souls, by which
+the Aristotelians explained the motion of the spheres, because he
+ascribes their motion to God. The sceptic would have denied both. G.H.
+Lewes censures Renan for asserting of Ghazali's theory of
+causation--"_Hume n'a rien dit plus_." It is true that Ghazali maintains
+that the natural law according to which effects proceed inevitably from
+their causes is only custom, and that there is no _necessary_ connexion
+between them. But while Hume absolutely denies the necessity, Ghazali
+merely removes it one stage farther back, and plants it in the mind of
+the Deity. This, of course, is not metaphysics, but theology. Having, as
+he believed, refuted the opinions of the philosophers, he next
+investigated the pretensions of the Allegorists, who derived their
+doctrines from an imam. These Arabian ultramontanes had no word for the
+doubter. They could not, he says, even understand the problems they
+sought to resolve by the assumption of infallibility, and he turned
+again, in his despair, to the instructors of his youth--the Sufis. In
+their mystical intuition of the laws of life, and absorption in the
+immanent Deity, he at last found peace. This shows the true character of
+the treatise which, alike in medieval and modern times, has been quoted
+as containing an exposition of his opinions. The work called _The
+Tendencies of the Philosophers_, translated in 1506, with the title
+_Logica et Philosophia Algazelis Arabis_, contains neither the logic nor
+the philosophy of Ghazali. It is a mere abstract or statement of the
+Peripatetic systems, and was made preliminary to that _Destruction_ of
+which we have already spoken.
+
+This indictment against liberal thought from the standpoint of the
+theological school was afterwards answered in Spain by Averroes; but in
+Bagdad it heralded the extinction of the light of philosophy. Moderate
+and compliant with the popular religion as Alfarabius and Avicenna had
+always been, as compared with their Spanish successor, they had equally
+failed to conciliate the popular spirit, and were classed in the same
+category with the heretic or the member of an immoral sect. The 12th
+century exhibits the decay of liberal intellectual activity in the
+Caliphate, and the gradual ascendancy of Turkish races animated with all
+the intolerance of semi-barbarian proselytes to the Mahommedan faith.
+Philosophy, which had only sprung up when the purely Arabian influences
+ceased to predominate, came to an end when the sceptre of the Moslem
+world passed away from the dynasty of Persia. Even in 1150 Bagdad had
+seen a library of philosophical books burned by command of the caliph
+Mostanjid; and in 1192 the same place might have witnessed a strange
+scene, in which the books of a physician were first publicly cursed, and
+then committed to the flames, while their owner was incarcerated. Thus,
+while the Latin church showed a marvellous receptivity for ethnic
+philosophy, and assimilated doctrines which it had at an earlier date
+declared impious, in Islam the theological system entrenched itself
+towards the end of the 12th century in the narrow orthodoxy of the
+Asharites, and reduced the votaries of Greek philosophy to silence.
+
+
+  In Spain.
+
+The same phenomena were repeated in Spain under the Mahommedan rulers of
+Andalusia and Morocco, with this difference, that the time of
+philosophical development was shorter, and the heights to which Spanish
+thinkers soared were greater. The reign of al-Hakam the Second (961-976)
+inaugurated in Andalusia those scientific and philosophical studies
+which were simultaneously prosecuted by the Society of Basra. From
+Cairo, Bagdad, Damascus and Alexandria, books both old and new were
+procured at any price for the library of the prince; twenty-seven free
+schools were opened in Cordova for the education of the poor; and
+intelligent knowledge was perhaps more widely diffused in Mahommedan
+Spain than in any other part of Europe at that day. The mosques of the
+city were filled with crowds who listened to lectures on science and
+literature, law and religion. But the future glory thus promised was
+long postponed. The usurping successor of Hakam found it a politic step
+to request the most notable doctors of the sacred law to examine the
+royal library; and every book treating of philosophy, astronomy and
+other forbidden topics was condemned to the flames. But the spirit of
+research, fostered by the fusion of races and the social and
+intellectual competition thus engendered, was not crushed by these
+proceedings; and for the next century and more the higher minds of Spain
+found in Damascus and Bagdad the intellectual aliment which they
+desired. At last, towards the close of the 11th century, the long-pent
+spiritual energies of Mahommedan Spain burst forth in a brief series of
+illustrious men. Whilst the native Spaniards were narrowing the limits
+of the Moorish kingdoms, and whilst the generally fanatical dynasty of
+the Almohades might have been expected to repress speculation, the
+century preceding the close of Mahommedan sway saw philosophy cultivated
+by Avempace, Abubacer and Averroes. Even amongst the Almohades there
+were princes, such as Yusuf (who began his reign in 1163) and Yaqub
+Almansur (who succeeded in 1184), who welcomed the philosopher at their
+courts and treated him as an intellectual compeer. But about 1195 the
+old distrust of philosophy revived; the philosophers were banished in
+disgrace; works on philosophical topics were ordered to be confiscated
+and burned; and the son of Almansur condemned a certain Ibn-Habib to
+death for the crime of philosophizing.
+
+
+  Avempace.
+
+Arabian speculation in Spain was heralded by Avicebron or Ibn Gabirol
+(q.v.), a Jewish philosopher (1021-1058). About a generation later the
+rank of Moslem thinkers was introduced by Abu-Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya,
+surnamed Ibn-Bajja, and known to the Latin world as Avempace. He was
+born at Saragossa, and died comparatively young at Fez in 1138. Besides
+commenting on various physical treatises of Aristotle's, he wrote some
+philosophical essays, notably one on the _Republic or Régime of the
+Solitary_, understanding by that the organized system of rules, by
+obedience to which the individual may rise from the mere life of the
+senses to the perception of pure intelligible principles and may
+participate in the divine thought which sustains the world. These rules
+for the individual are but the image or reflex of the political
+organization of the perfect or ideal state; and the man who strives to
+lead this life is called the _solitary_, not because he withdraws from
+society, but because, while in it, he guides himself by reference to a
+higher state, an ideal society. Avempace does not develop at any length
+this curious Platonic idea of the perfect state. His object is to
+discover the highest end of human life, and with this view he classifies
+the various activities of the human soul, rejects such as are material
+or animal, and then analyses the various spiritual forms to which the
+activities may be directed. He points out the graduated scale of such
+forms, through which the soul may rise, and shows that none are final or
+complete in themselves, except the pure intelligible forms, the ideas of
+ideas. These the intellect can grasp, and in so doing it becomes what he
+calls _intellectus acquisitus_, and is in a measure divine. This
+self-consciousness of pure reason is the highest object of human
+activity, and is to be attained by the speculative method. The intellect
+has in itself power to know ultimate truth and intelligence, and does
+not require a mystical illumination as Ghazali taught. Avempace's
+principles, it is clear, lead directly to the Averroistic doctrine of
+the unity of intellect, but the obscurity and incompleteness of the
+Regime do not permit us to judge how far he anticipated the later
+thinker. (See Munk, _Mélanges de phil. juive et arabe_, pp. 383-410.)
+
+The same theme was developed by Ibn.-Tufail (q.v.) in his philosophical
+romance, called _Hayy ibn-Yakdhan_ (the Living, Son of the Waking One),
+best known by Pococke's Latin version, as the _Philosophus
+Autodidactus_. It describes the process by which an isolated
+truth-seeker detaches himself from his lower passions, and raises
+himself above the material earth and the orbs of heaven to the forms
+which are the source of their movement, until he arrives at a union with
+the supreme intellect. The experiences of the religious mystic are
+paralleled with the ecstatic vision in which the philosophical hermit
+sees a world of pure intelligences, where birth and decease are unknown.
+It was this theory which Averroes (1126-1198), the last and most famous
+of the thinkers of Moslem Spain, carried out to his doctrine of the
+unity of intellect.
+
+
+  Averroes.
+
+For Aristotle the reverence of Averroes was unbounded, and to expound
+him was his chosen task. The uncritical receptivity of his age, the
+defects of the Arabic versions, the emphatic theism of his creed, and
+the rationalizing mysticism of some Oriental thought, may have sometimes
+led him astray, and given prominence to the less obvious features of
+Aristotelianism. But in his conception of the relation between
+philosophy and religion, Averroes had a light which the Latins were
+without. The science, falsely so called, of the several theological
+schools, their groundless distinctions and sophistical demonstrations,
+he regarded as the great source of heresy and scepticism. The
+allegorical interpretations and metaphysics which had been imported into
+religion had taken men's minds away from the plain sense of the Koran.
+God had declared a truth meet for all men, which needed no intellectual
+superiority to understand, in a tongue which each human soul could
+apprehend. Accordingly, the expositors of religious metaphysics, Ghazali
+included, are the enemies of true religion, because they make it a mere
+matter of syllogism. Averroes maintains that a return must be made to
+the words and teaching of the prophet; that science must not expend
+itself in dogmatizing on the metaphysical consequences of fragments of
+doctrine for popular acceptance, but must proceed to reflect upon and
+examine the existing things of the world. Averroes, at the same time,
+condemns the attempts of those who tried to give demonstrative science
+where the mind was not capable of more than rhetoric: they harm religion
+by their mere negations, destroying an old sensuous creed, but cannot
+build up a higher and intellectual faith.
+
+In this spirit Averroes does not allow the fancied needs of theological
+reasoning to interfere with his study of Aristotle, whom he simply
+interprets as a truth-seeker. The points by which he told on Europe were
+all implicit in Aristotle, but Averroes set in relief what the original
+had left obscure, and emphasized things which the Christian theologian
+passed by or misconceived. Thus Averroes had a double effect. He was the
+great interpreter of Aristotle to the later Schoolmen. On the other
+hand, he came to represent those aspects of Peripateticism most alien to
+the spirit of Christendom; and the deeply religious Moslem gave his name
+to the anti-sacerdotal party, to the materialists, sceptics and
+atheists, who defied or undermined the dominant beliefs of the church.
+
+On three points Averroes, like other Moslem thinkers, came specially
+into relation, real or supposed, with the religious creed, viz. the
+creation of the world, the divine knowledge of particular things, and
+the future of the human soul.
+
+The real grandeur of Averroes is seen in his resolute prosecution of the
+standpoint of science in matters of this world, and in his recognition
+that religion is not a branch of knowledge to be reduced to propositions
+and systems of dogma, but a personal and inward power, an individual
+truth which stands distinct from, but not contradictory to, the
+universalities of scientific law. In his science he followed the Greeks,
+and to the Schoolmen he and his compatriots rightly seemed philosophers
+of the ancient world. He maintained alike the claim of demonstrative
+science with its generalities for the few who could live in that
+ethereal world, and the claim of religion for all--the common life of
+each soul as an individual and personal consciousness. But theology, or
+the mixture of the two, he regarded as a source of evil to
+both--fostering the vain belief in a hostility of philosophers to
+religion, and meanwhile corrupting religion by a pseudo-science.
+
+The latent nominalism of Aristotle only came gradually to be emphasized
+through the prominence which Christianity gave to the individual life,
+and, apart from passing notices as in Abelard, first found clear
+enunciation in the school of Duns Scotus. The Arabians, on the contrary,
+emphasized the idealist aspect which had been adopted and promoted by
+the Neo-Platonist commentators. Hence, to Averroes the eternity of the
+world finds its true expression in the eternity of God. The ceaseless
+movement of growth and change, which presents matter in form after form
+as a continual search after a finality which in time and movement is not
+and cannot be reached, represents only the aspect the world shows to the
+physicist and to the senses. In the eye of reason the full fruition of
+this desired finality is already and always attained; the actualization,
+invisible to the senses, is achieved now and ever, and is thus beyond
+the element of time. This transcendent or abstract being is that which
+the world of nature is always seeking. He is thought or intellect, the
+actuality, of which movement is but the fragmentary attainment in
+successive instants of time. Such a mind is not in the theological sense
+a creator, yet the onward movement is not the same as what some modern
+thinkers seem to mean by development. For the perfect and absolute, the
+consummation of movement is not generated at any point in the process;
+it is an ideal end, which guides the operations of nature, and does not
+wait upon them for its achievement. God is the unchanging essence of the
+movement, and therefore its eternal cause.
+
+A special application of this relation between the prior perfect, and
+the imperfect, which it influences, is found in the doctrine of the
+connexion of the abstract (transcendent) intellect with man. This
+transcendent mind is sometimes connected with the moon, according to the
+theory of Aristotle, who assigned an imperishable matter to the sphere
+beyond the sublunary, and in general looked upon the celestial orbs as
+living and intelligent. Such an intellect, named active or productive,
+as being the author of the development of reason in man, is the
+permanent, eternal thought, which is the truth of the cosmic and
+physical movement. It is in man that the physical or sensible passes
+most evidently into the metaphysical and rational. Humanity is the
+chosen vessel in which the light of the intellect is revealed; and so
+long as mankind lasts there must always be some individuals destined to
+receive this light. What seems from the material point of view to be the
+acquisition of learning, study and a moral life, is from the higher
+point of view the manifestation of the transcendent intellect in the
+individual. The preparation of the heart and faculties gives rise to a
+series of grades between the original predisposition and the full
+acquisition of actual intellect. These grades in the main resemble those
+given by Avicenna. But beyond these, Averroes claims as the highest
+bliss of the soul a union in this life with the actual intellect. The
+intellect, therefore, is one and continuous in all individuals, who
+differ only in the degree which their illumination has attained. Such
+was the Averroist doctrine of the unity of intellect--the eternal and
+universal nature of true intellectual life. By his interpreters it was
+transformed into a theory of one soul common to all mankind, and when
+thus corrupted conflicted not unreasonably with the doctrines of a
+future life, common to Islam and Christendom.
+
+
+  Opponents of Averoism.
+
+Averroes, rejected by his Moslem countrymen, found a hearing among the
+Jews, to whom Maimonides had shown the free paths of Greek speculation.
+In the cities of Languedoc and of Provence to which they had been driven
+by Spanish fanaticism, the Jews no longer used the learned Arabic, and
+translations of the works of Averroes became necessary. His writings
+became the text-book of Levi ben Gerson at Perpignan, and of Moses of
+Narbonne. Meanwhile, before 1250, Averroes became accessible to the
+Latin Schoolmen by means of versions, accredited by the names of Michael
+Scot and others. William of Auvergne is the first Schoolman who
+criticizes the doctrines of Averroes, not, however, by name. Albertus
+Magnus and St Thomas devote special treatises to an examination of the
+Averroist theory of the unity of intellect, which they labour to confute
+in order to establish the orthodoxy of Aristotle. But as early as
+Aegidius Romanus (1247-1316). Averroes had been stamped as the patron of
+indifference to theological dogmas, and credited with the emancipation
+which was equally due to wider experience and the lessons of the
+Crusades. There had never been an absence of protest against the
+hierarchical doctrine. Berengar of Tours (11th century) had struggled in
+that interest, and with Abelard, in the 12th century, the revolt against
+authority in belief grew loud. The dialogue between a Christian, a Jew
+and a philosopher suggested a comparative estimate of religions, and
+placed the natural religion of the moral law above all positive
+revelations. Nihilists and naturalists, who deified logic and science at
+the expense of faith, were not unknown at Paris in the days of John of
+Salisbury. In such a critical generation the words of Averroism found
+willing ears, and pupils who outran their teacher. Paris became the
+centre of a sceptical society, which the decrees of bishops and
+councils, and the enthusiasm of the orthodox doctors and knights-errant
+of Catholicism, were powerless to extinguish. At Oxford Averroes told
+more as the great commentator. In the days of Roger Bacon he had become
+an authority. Bacon, placing him beside Aristotle and Avicenna,
+recommends the study of Arabic as the only way of getting the knowledge
+which bad versions made almost hopeless. In Duns Scotus, Averroes and
+Aristotle are the unequalled masters of the science of proof; and he
+pronounces distinctly the separation between Catholic and philosophical
+truth, which became the watchword of Averroism. By the 14th century
+Averroism was the common leaven of philosophy; John Baconthorpe is the
+chief of Averroists, and Walter Burley has similar tendencies.
+
+Meanwhile Averrcism had come to be regarded by the great Dominican
+school as the arch-enemy of the truth. When the emperor Frederick II.
+consulted a Moslem free-thinker on the mysteries of the faith, when the
+phrase or legend of the "Three Impostors" presented in its most
+offensive form the scientific survey of the three laws of Moses, Christ
+and Mahomet, and when the characteristic doctrines of Averroes were
+misunderstood, it soon followed that his name became the badge of the
+scoffer and the sceptic. What had begun with the subtle disputes of the
+universities of Paris, went on to the materialist teachers in the
+medical schools and the sceptical men of the world in the cities of
+northern Italy. The patricians of Venice and the lecturers of Padua made
+Averroism synonymous with doubt and criticism in theology, and with
+sarcasm against the hierarchy. Petrarch refuses to believe that any good
+thing can come out of Arabia, and speaks of Averroes as a mad dog
+barking against the church. In works of contemporary art Averroes is at
+one time the comrade of Mahomet and Antichrist; at another he lies with
+Arius and Sabellius, vanquished by the lance of St Thomas.
+
+
+  The school of Padua.
+
+It was in the universities of north Italy that Averroism finally
+settled, and there for three centuries it continued as a stronghold of
+Scholasticism to resist the efforts of revived antiquity and of
+advancing science. Padua became the seat of Averroist Aristotelianism;
+and, when Padua was conquered by Venice in 1405, the printers of the
+republic spread abroad the teaching of the professors in the university.
+As early as 1300, at Padua, Petrus Aponensis, a notable expositor of
+medical theories, had betrayed a heterodoxy in faith; and John of
+Jandun, one of the pamphleteers on the side of Louis of Bavaria, was a
+keen follower of Averroes, whom he styles a "perfect and most glorious
+physicist." Urbanus of Bologna, Paul of Venice (d. 1428), and Cajetanus
+de Thienis (1387-1465), established by their lectures and their
+discussions the authority of Averroes; and a long list of manuscripts
+rests in the libraries of Lombardy to witness the diligence of these
+writers and their successors. Even a lady of Venice, Cassandra Fedele,
+in 1480, gained her laurels in defence of Averroist theses.
+
+With Pietro Pomponazzi (q.v.) in 1495, a brilliant epoch began for the
+school of Padua. Questions of permanent and present interest took the
+place of outworn scholastic problems. The disputants ranged themselves
+under the rival commentators, Alexander and Averroes; and the
+immortality of the soul became the battle-ground of the two parties.
+Pomponazzi defended the Alexandrist doctrine of the utter mortality of
+the soul, whilst Agostino Nifo (q.v.), the Averroist, was entrusted by
+Leo X. with the task of defending the Catholic doctrine. The parties
+seemed to have changed when Averroism thus took the side of the church;
+but the change was probably due to compulsion. Nifo had edited the works
+of Averroes (1495-1497); but his expressions gave offence to the
+dominant theologians, and he had to save himself by distinguishing his
+personal faith from his editorial capacity. Alessandro Achillini, the
+persistent philosophical adversary of Pomponazzi, both at Padua and
+subsequently at Bologna, attempted, along with other moderate but not
+brilliant Averroists, to accommodate their philosophical theory with the
+requirements of Catholicism. It was this comparatively mild Averroism,
+reduced to the merely explanatory activity of a commentator, which
+continued to be the official dogma at Padua during the 16th century. Its
+typical representative is Marc-Antonio Zimara (d. 1552), the author of a
+reconciliation between the tenets of Averroes and those of Aristotle.
+
+
+  Summary.
+
+Meanwhile, in 1497, Aristotle was for the first time expounded in Greek
+at Padua. Plato had long been the favourite study at Florence; and
+Humanists, like Erasmus, Ludovicus Vives and Nizolius, enamoured of the
+popular philosophy of Cicero and Quintilian, poured out the vials of
+their contempt on scholastic barbarism with its "impious and
+thrice-accursed Averroes." The editors of Averroes complain that the
+popular taste had forsaken them for the Greek. Nevertheless, while
+Fallopius, Vesalius and Galileo were claiming attention to their
+discoveries, G. Zabarella, Francesco Piccolomini (1520-1604) and Cesare
+Cremonini (1550-1631) continued the traditions of Averroism, not without
+changes and additions. Cremonini, the last of them, died in 1631, after
+lecturing twelve years at Ferrara, and forty at Padua. The great
+educational value of Arabian philosophy for the later schoolmen
+consisted in its making them acquainted with an entire Aristotle. At the
+moment when it seemed as if everything had been made that could be made
+out of the fragments of Aristotle, and the compilations of Capella,
+Cassiodorus and others, and when mysticism and scepticism seemed the
+only resources left for the mind, the horizon of knowledge was suddenly
+widened by the acquisition of a complete Aristotle. Thus the mistakes
+inevitable in the isolated study of an imperfect _Organon_ could not
+henceforth be made. The real bearing of old questions, and the
+meaninglessness of many disputes, were seen in the new conception of
+Aristotelianism given by the _Metaphysics_ and other treatises. The
+former Realism and Nominalism were lifted into a higher phase by the
+principle of the universalizing action of intellect--_Intellectus in
+formis agit universalitatem_. The commentaries of the Arabians in this
+respect supplied nutriment more readily assimilated by the pupils than
+the pure text would have been.
+
+Arabian philosophy, whilst it promoted the exegesis of Aristotle and
+increased his authority, was not less notable as the source of the
+separation between theology and philosophy. Speculation fell on
+irreligious paths. In many cases the heretical movement was due less to
+foreign example than to the indwelling tendencies of the dominant school
+of realism. But it is not less certain that the very considerable
+freedom of the Arabians from theological bias prepared the time when
+philosophy shook off its ecclesiastical vestments. In the hurry of first
+terror, the church struck Aristotle with the anathema launched against
+innovations in philosophy. The provincial council of Paris in 1209,
+which condemned Amalricus and his followers, as well as David of
+Dinant's works, forbade the study of Aristotle's _Natural Philosophy_
+and the _Commentaries_. In 1215 the same prohibition was repeated,
+specifying the _Metaphysics_ and _Physics_, and the _Commentaries_ by
+the Spaniard Mauritius (i.e. probably Averroes). Meanwhile Albertus
+Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, accepting the exegetical services of the
+Arabians, did their best to controvert the obnoxious doctrine of the
+Intellect, and to defend the orthodoxy of Aristotle against the unholy
+glosses of infidels. But it is doubtful whether even they kept as pure
+from the infection of illegitimate doctrine as they supposed. The tide
+meanwhile flowed in stronger and stronger. In 1270 Étienne Tempier,
+bishop of Paris, supported by an assembly of theologians, anathematized
+thirteen propositions bearing the stamp of Arabian authorship; but in
+1277 the same views and others more directly offensive to Christians and
+theologians had to be censured again. Raymond Lully, in a dialogue with
+an infidel thinker, broke a lance in support of the orthodox doctrine,
+and carried on a crusade against the Arabians in every university; and a
+disciple of Thomas Aquinas drew up a list (_De erroribus philosophorum_)
+of the several delusions and errors of each of the thinkers from Kindi
+to Averroes. Strong in their conviction of the truth of Aristotelianism,
+the Arabians carried out their logical results in the theological field,
+and made the distinction of necessary and possible, of form and matter,
+the basis of conclusions in the most momentous questions. They refused
+to accept the doctrine of creation because it conflicted with the
+explanation of forms as the necessary evolution of matter. They denied
+the particular providence of God, because knowledge in the divine sphere
+did not descend to singulars. They excluded the Deity from all direct
+action upon the world, and substituted for a cosmic principle the active
+intellect,--thus holding a form of Pantheism. But all did not go the
+same length in their divergence from the popular creed.
+
+The half-legendary accounts which attribute the introduction of Arabian
+science to Gerbert, afterwards Pope Sylvester II., to Constantinus
+Africanus and to Adelard of Bath, if they have any value, refer mainly
+to medical science and mathematics. It was not till about the middle of
+the 12th century that under the patronage of Raymond, archbishop of
+Toledo, a society of translators, with the archdeacon Dominicus
+Gundisalvi at their head, produced Latin versions of the _Commentaries_
+of Avicenna, and Ghazali, of the _Fons Vitae_ of Avicebron, and of
+several Aristotelian treatises. The working translators were converted
+Jews, the best-known among them being Joannes Avendeath. With this
+effort began the chief translating epoch for Arabic works. Avicenna's
+_Canon of Medicine_ was first translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona
+(d. 1187), to whom versions of other medical and astronomical works are
+due. The movement towards introducing Arabian science and philosophy
+into Europe, however, culminated under the patronage of the emperor
+Frederick II. (1212-1250). Partly from superiority to the narrowness of
+his age, and partly in the interest of his struggle with the Papacy,
+this _Malleus ecclesiae Romanae_ drew to his court those savants whose
+pursuits were discouraged by the church, and especially students in the
+forbidden lore of the Arabians. He is said to have pensioned Jews for
+purposes of translation. One of the scholars to whom Frederick gave a
+welcome was Michael Scot, the first translator of Averroes. Scot had
+sojourned at Toledo about 1217, and had accomplished the versions of
+several astronomical and physical treatises, mainly, if we believe Roger
+Bacon, by the labours of a Jew named Andrew. But Bacon is apparently
+hypercritical in his estimate of the translators from the Arabic.
+Another protégé of Frederick's was Hermann the German (Alemannus), who,
+between the years 1243 and 1256, translated amongst other things a
+paraphrase of al-Farabi on the _Rhetoric_, and of Averroes on the
+_Poetics_ and _Ethics_ of Aristotle. Jewish scholars held an honourable
+place in transmitting the Arabian commentators to the schoolmen. It was
+amongst them, especially in Maimonides, that Aristotelianism found
+refuge after the light of philosophy was extinguished in Islam; and the
+Jewish family of the Ben-Tibbon were mainly instrumental in making
+Averroes known to southern France.
+
+  See S. Munk, _Mélanges de philosophie juive et arabe_ (Paris, 1859);
+  E. Renan, _De Philosophia Peripatetica apud Syros_ (1852), and
+  _Averroës et l'Averroisme_ (Paris, 3rd ed., 1867); Am. Jourdain,
+  _Recherches critiques sur l'âge et l'origine des traductions latines
+  d'Aristote_ (Paris, 2^me ed., 1843); B. Hauréau, _Philosophie
+  scolastique_ (Paris, 1850), tome i. p. 359; E. Vacherot, _École
+  d'Alexandrie_ (1846-1851), tome iii. p. 85; Schmolders, _Documenta
+  philosophiae Arabum_ (Bonn, 1836), and _Essai sur les écoles
+  philosophiques chez les Arabes_ (Paris, 1842); Shahrastani, _History
+  of Religious and Philosophical Sects_, in German translation by
+  Haarbrücker (Halle, 1850-1851); Dieterici, _Streit zwischen Mensch und
+  Thier_ (Berlin, 1858), and his other translations of the
+  _Encyclopaedia of the Brothers of Sincerity_ (1861 to 1872); T.J. de
+  Boer, _The History of Philosophy in Islam_ (London, 1903); K. Prantl,
+  _Geschichte der Logik_ (Leipzig, 1861); and the Histories of
+  Philosophy; also the literature under the biographies of philosophers
+  mentioned.     (W. W.; G. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+ARABIAN SEA (anc. _Mare Erythraeum_), the name applied to the portion of
+the Indian Ocean bounded E. by India, N. by Baluchistan and part of the
+southern Persian littoral, W. by Arabia, and S., approximately, by a
+line between Cape Guardafui, the north-east point of Somaliland, and
+Cape Comorin in India. It has two important branches--at the south-west
+the Gulf of Aden, connecting with the Red Sea through the strait of
+Bab-el-Mandeb; and at the north-west the Gulf of Oman, connecting with
+the Persian Gulf. Besides these larger ramifications, there are the
+Gulfs of Cambay and Kach on the Indian coast. An interest and importance
+belong to this sea as forming part of the chief highway between Europe
+and India. Its islands are few and insignificant, the chief being
+Sokotra, off the African, and the Laccadives, off the Indian coast.
+
+
+
+
+ARABICI, a religious sect originating about the beginning of the 3rd
+century, which is mentioned by Augustine (_De Haeres_. c. lxxxiii.), and
+called also [Greek: thnetopseuchitai] ("mortal-souled") by John of
+Damascus (_De Haeres_. c. xc.) The name is given to the Arabians
+mentioned by Eusebius (_Hist. Eccl_. vi. 37), whose distinctive doctrine
+was a form of Christian materialism, showing itself in the belief that
+the soul perished and was restored to life along with the body. We may
+compare Tatian's view of the soul as a subtler variety of matter.
+According to Eusebius, they were convinced of their error by Origen, and
+renounced it at a council held about A.D. 246.
+
+
+
+
+ARABI PASHA (c. 1839-   ), more correctly AHMAD 'ARABI, to which in
+later years he added the epithet _al-Misri_, "the Egyptian," Egyptian
+soldier and revolutionary leader, was born in Lower Egypt in 1839 or
+1840 of a fellah family. Having entered the army as a conscript he was
+made an officer by Said Pasha in 1862, and was employed in the transport
+department in the Abyssinian campaign of 1875 under Ismail Pasha. A
+charge of peculation, unproved, was made against him in connexion with
+this expedition and he was placed on half-pay. During this time he
+joined a secret society formed by Ali Rubi with the object of getting
+rid of Turkish officers from the Egyptian army. Arabi also attended
+lectures at the mosque El Azhar and acquired a reputation as an orator.
+In 1878 he was employed by Ismail in fomenting a disturbance against the
+ministry of Nubar, Rivers Wilson and de Blignières, and received in
+payment a wife from Ismail's harem and the command of a regiment. This
+increased his influence with the secret society, which, under the feeble
+government of Tewfik Pasha and the Dual Control, began to agitate
+against Europeans. In all that followed Arabi was put forward as the
+leader of the discontented Egyptians; he was in reality little more than
+the mouthpiece and puppet of abler men such as Ali Rubi and Mahmud Sami.
+On the 1st of February 1881 Arabi and two other Egyptian colonels,
+summoned before a court-martial for acts of disobedience, were rescued
+by their soldiers, and the khedive was forced to dismiss his then
+minister of war in favour of Mahmud Sami. A military demonstration on
+the 8th of September 1881, led by Arabi, forced the khedive to increase
+the numbers and pay of the army, to substitute Sherif Pasha for Riaz
+Pasha as prime minister, and to convene an assembly of notables. Arabi
+became under-secretary for war at the beginning of 1882, but continued
+his intrigues. The assembly of notables claimed the right of voting the
+budget, and thus came into conflict with the foreign controllers who had
+been appointed to guard the interests of the bondholders in the
+management of the Egyptian finances. Sherif fell in February, Mahmud
+Sami became prime minister, and Arabi (created a pasha) minister of war.
+Arabi, after a brief fall from office, acquired a dictatorial power that
+alarmed the British government. British and French warships went to
+Alexandria at the beginning of June; on the 11th of that month rioting
+in that city led to the sacrifice of many European lives. Order could
+only be restored through the intervention of Arabi, who now adopted a
+more distinctly anti-European attitude. His arming of the forts at
+Alexandria was held to constitute a menace to the British fleet. On the
+refusal of France to co-operate, the British fleet bombarded the forts
+(11th July), and a British force, under Sir Garnet Wolseley, defeated
+Arabi on the 13th of September at Tel-el-Kebir. Arabi fled to Cairo
+where he surrendered, and was tried (3rd of December) for rebellion. In
+accordance with an understanding made with the British representative,
+Lord Dufferin, Arabi pleaded guilty, and sentence of death was
+immediately commuted to one of banishment for life to Ceylon. The same
+sentence was passed on Mahmud Sami and others. After Arabi's exile had
+lasted for nearly twenty years, however, the khedive Abbas II. exercised
+his prerogative of mercy, and in May 1901 Arabi was permitted to return
+to Egypt. Arabi, as has been said, was rather the figurehead than the
+inspirer of the movement of 1881-1882; and was probably more honest, as
+he was certainly less intelligent, than those whose tool, in a large
+measure, he was. The movement which he represented in the eye of Europe,
+whatever the motives of its leaders, "was in its essence a genuine
+revolt against misgovernment,"[1] and it was a dim recognition of this
+fact which led Arabi to style himself "the Egyptian."
+
+  See EGYPT: _History_; also the accounts of Arabi in _Khedives and
+  Pashas_, by C.F. Moberly Bell (1884); and in Lord Cromer's _Modern
+  Egypt_ (1908).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Lord Cromer in _Egypt_, No. 1, 1905, p. 2.
+
+
+
+
+ARABISTAN (formerly KHUZISTAN), a province of Persia, bounded on the S.
+by the Persian Gulf, on the W. by Turkish territory, on the N. by
+Luristan and on the E. by the Bakhtiari district and Fars. It has its
+modern name, signifying "land of the Arabs," from the Arabs who form the
+bulk of the population, and is subdivided into the districts of
+Muhamrah, Fellahiyeh (the old Dorak), Ram Hormuz (popularly known as
+Ramiz), Havizeh, Shushter and Dizful. It has a population of about
+200,000 and pays a yearly revenue of about £30,000. The soil is very
+fertile, but since the dam over the Karun at Ahvaz was swept away and
+the numerous canals which diverted the waters of the river for
+irrigation became useless, a great part of the province is uncultivated,
+and most of the crops and produce depend for water on rainfall and
+wells. The climate is hot, and in the low-lying, swampy districts very
+unhealthy; the prevailing winds are north-west and south-east, the
+former hot and dry from the arid districts west of Mesopotamia, the
+latter bearing much moisture from the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean.
+The principal Arab tribes are the Kab (generally known as Chaab) and
+Beni Lam, the former mostly settled in towns and villages and by
+religion Shi'ites, the latter nomads and Sunnites. The staples of food
+are dates and fish in the south, elsewhere the produce of the herds and
+flocks and rice, wheat and barley. Other products are maize, cotton,
+silk and indigo, and the manufactures include carpets without pile,
+coarse woollens, cottons and silk nettings. Dyeing is extensively
+carried on in Dizful where most of the indigo is grown.
+
+Khuzistan (meaning "the land of the Khuz") was a part of the Biblical
+Elam, the classical Susiana, and appears in the great inscription of
+Darius as Uvaja.
+
+
+
+
+ARABS, the name given to that branch of the Semitic race which from the
+earliest historic times inhabited the south-western portion of the
+Arabian peninsula. The name, to-day the collective term for the
+overwhelming majority of the surviving Semitic peoples, was originally
+restricted to the nomad tribes who ranged the north of the peninsula
+east of Palestine and the Syro-Arabian desert. In this narrow sense
+"Arab" is used in the Assyrian inscriptions, in the Old Testament and in
+the Minaean inscriptions. Before the Christian era it had come to
+include all the inhabitants of the peninsula. This, it is suggested, may
+have been due to the fact that the "Arabs" were the chief people near
+the Greek and Roman colonies in Syria and Mesopotamia. Classical writers
+use the term both in its local and general sense. The Arabs to-day
+occupy, besides Arabia, a part of Mesopotamia, the western shores of the
+Red Sea, the eastern coast of the Persian Gulf and the north of Africa.
+The finest type of the race is found in south Arabia among the Ariba
+Arabs, among the mountaineers of Hadramut and Yemen and among the
+Bedouin tribes roaming over the interior of central and northern Arabia.
+The Arabs of the coasts and those of Mesopotamia are hybrids, showing
+Turkish, Negroid and Hamitic crossings. The people of Syria and
+Palestine are hybrids of Arab, Phoenician and Jewish descent. The theory
+that early Arab settlements were made on the east coast of Africa as far
+as Sofala south of the Zambezi, is without foundation; the earliest Arab
+settlement on the east coast of Africa that can be proved is Magadoxo
+(Mukdishu) in the 10th century, and the ruined cities of Mashonaland,
+once supposed to be the remains of Arab settlements, are now known to be
+of medieval African origin. On the East African coast-lands Arab
+influence is still considerable. Traces of the Arab type are met with in
+Asia Minor, the Caucasus, western Persia and India, while the influence
+of the Arab language and civilization is found in Europe (Malta and
+Spain), China and Central Asia.
+
+
+  Ethnology.
+
+The Arabs are at once the most ancient as they in many ways are the
+purest surviving type of the true Semite. Certainly the inhabitants of
+Yemen are not, and in historic times never were, pure Semites. Somali
+and other elements, generally described under the collective racial name
+of Hamitic, are clearly traceable; but the inland Arabs still present
+the nearest approach to the primitive Semitic type. The origin of the
+Arab race can only be a matter of conjecture. From the remotest historic
+times it has been divided into two branches, which from their
+geographical position it is simplest to call the North Arabians and the
+South Arabians. Arabic and Jewish tradition trace the descent of the
+latter from Joktan (Arabic _Kahtan_) son of Heber, of the former from
+Ishmael. The South Arabians--the older branch--were settled in the
+south-western part of the peninsula centuries before the uprise of the
+Ishmaelites. These latter include not only Ishmael's direct descendants
+through the twelve princes (Gen. xxv. 16), but the Edomites, Moabites,
+Ammonites, Midianites and other tribes. This ancient and undoubted
+division of the Arab race --roughly represented to-day by the
+universally adopted classification into Arabs proper and Bedouin Arabs
+(see BEDOUINS)-has caused much dispute among ethnologists. All
+authorities agree in declaring the race to be Semitic in the broadest
+ethnological signification of that term, but some thought they saw in
+this division of the race an indication of a dual origin. They asserted
+that the purer branch of the Arab family was represented by the
+sedentary Arabs who were of Hamitic (Biblical Cushite), i.e. African
+ancestry, and that the nomad Arabs were Arabs only by adoption, and were
+nearer akin to the true Semite as sons of Ishmael. Many arguments were
+adduced in support of this theory, (1) The unquestioned division in
+remote historic times of the Arab race, and the immemorial hostility
+between the two branches. (2) The concurrence of pre-Islamitic
+literature and records in representing the first settlement of the
+"pure" Arab as made in the extreme south-western part of the peninsula,
+near Aden. (3) The use of Himyar, "dusky" or "red" (suggesting African
+affinities), as the name sometimes for the ruling class, sometimes for
+the entire people. (4) The African affinities of the Himyaritic
+language. (5) The resemblance of the grammar of the Arabic now spoken by
+the "pure" Arabs, where it differs from that of the North, to the
+Abyssinian grammar. (6) The marked resemblance of the pre-Islamitic
+institutions of Yemen and its allied provinces-its monarchies, courts,
+armies and serfs--to the historical Africo-Egyptian type and even to
+modern Abyssinia. (7) The physique of the "pure" Arab, the shape and
+size of the head, the slenderness of the lower limbs, all suggesting an
+African rather than an Asiatic origin. (8) The habits of the people,
+viz. their sedentary rather than nomad occupations, their fondness for
+village life, for dancing, music and society, their cultivation of the
+soil, having more in common with African life than with that of the
+western Asiatic continent. (9) The extreme facility of marriage which
+exists in all classes of the southern Arabs with the African races, the
+fecundity of such unions and the slightness or even total absence of any
+caste feeling between the dusky "pure" Arab and the still darker
+African, pointing to a community of origin. And further arguments were
+found in the characteristics of the Bedouins, their pastoral and nomad
+tendencies; the peculiarities of their idiom allied to the Hebrew; their
+strong clan feeling, their continued resistance to anything like regal
+power or centralized organization.
+
+Such, briefly, were the more important arguments; but latterly
+ethnologists are inclined to agree that there is little really to be
+said for the African ancestry theory and that the Arab race had its
+beginning in the deserts of south Arabia, that in short the true Arabs
+are aborigines.
+
+Mahommedans call the centuries before the Prophet's birth waqt-el
+jahiliya, "the time of ignorance," but the fact is that the Arab world
+has in some respects never since reached so high a level as it had in
+those days which it suits Moslems to paint in dreary colours. Writing
+was a fine art and poetry flourished. Eloquence was an accomplishment
+all strove to acquire, and each year there were assemblies, lasting
+sometimes a month, which were devoted to contests of skill among the
+orators and poets, to listen to whose friendly rivalry tribesmen
+journeyed long distances. Last, that surest index of a people's
+civilization--the treatment of women--contrasted very favourably with
+their position under the Koran. Women had rights and were respected. The
+veil and the harem system were unknown before Mahomet. According to
+Nöldeke the Nabataean inscriptions and coins show that women held a high
+social position in northern Arabia, owning large estates and trading
+independently. Polyandry and polygamy, it is true, were practised, but
+the right of divorce belonged to the woman as well as the man. Two kinds
+of marriage were celebrated. One was a purely personal contract, with no
+witnesses, the wife not leaving her home or passing under marital
+authority. The other was a formal marriage, the woman becoming subject
+to her husband by purchase or capture. Even captive women were not kept
+in slavery. Arabic wealth and culture had indeed thus early reached a
+stage which justified Professor Robertson Smith in writing, "In this
+period the name of Arab was associated to Western writers with ideas of
+effeminate indolence and peaceful opulence ... the golden age of Yemen."
+But long before Mahomet's time this early Arab predominance was at an
+end, possibly due in great measure to the loss of the caravan trade
+through the increase of shipping. The abandonment of great cities and
+the ruin of many tribes contributed to the apparent nationalization of
+the Arab peoples. Though the traditional jealousy and hostility of the
+two branches, the Yemenites and Maadites or Ishmaelites, remained, the
+Arab world had attained by the levelling process of common misfortune
+the superficial unity it presents to-day. The nation thus formed, never
+a nation in the strict sense of the word, was distinctively and
+thoroughly Semitic in character and language, and has remained unchanged
+to the present day. The sporadic brilliancy of the ancient Arab kingdoms
+gave place to a social and political lethargy, the continuation of which
+for many centuries made the uprise of Saracenic empires seem a miracle
+to a world ignorant of the Arab past. The Arab race up to Mahomet's day
+had been in the main pagan. Monotheism, if it ever prevailed, early gave
+place to sun and star worship, or simple idolatry. Professor Robertson
+Smith suggests that totemism was the earliest form of Arabian idolatry,
+and that each tribe had its sacred animal. This he supports by the fact
+that some tribal names were derived from those of animals, and that
+animal-worship was not unknown in Arabia. What seems certain is that
+Arab religion was of a complex hybrid nature, not much to be wondered at
+when one remembers that Arabia was the asylum of many religious
+refugees, Zoroastrians, Jews, Christians. In the later pre-Islamitic
+times spirits, or jinns, as they were called, of which each tribe or
+family had its own, were worshipped, and there was but a vague idea of a
+Supreme Being. Images of the jinns to the number of 360, one for each
+day of the lunar year, were collected in the temple at Mecca, the chief
+seat of their worship. That worship was of a sanguinary nature. Human
+sacrifice was fairly frequent. Under the guise of religion female
+infanticide was a common practice. At Mecca the great object of worship
+was a plain black stone, and to it pilgrimages were made from every part
+of Arabia. This stone was so sacred to the Arabs that even Mahomet dared
+not dispense with it, and it remains the central object of sanctity in
+the Ka'ba to-day. The temples of the Sabaeans and the Minaeans were
+built east of their cities, a fact suggesting sun-worship, yet this is
+not believed to have been the cult of the Minaeans. Common to both was
+the worship of Attar, the male Ashtoreth.
+
+With the appearance of Mahomet the Arabs took anew a place in the
+world's history.
+
+
+  Physique.
+
+Physically the Arabs are one of the strongest and noblest races of the
+world. Baron de Larrey, surgeon-general to Napoleon on his expedition to
+Egypt and Syria, writes: "Their physical structure is in all respects
+more perfect than that of Europeans; their organs of sense exquisitely
+acute, their size above the average of men in general, their figure
+robust and elegant, their colour brown; their intelligence proportionate
+to their physical perfection and without doubt superior, other things
+being equal, to that of other nations." The typical Arab face is of an
+oval form, lean-featured; the eyes a brilliant black, deep-set under
+bushy eyebrows; nose aquiline, forehead straight but not high. In body
+the Arab is muscular and long-limbed, but lean. Deformed individuals or
+dwarfs are rare among Arabs; nor, except leprosy, which is common, does
+any disease seem to be hereditary among them. They often suffer from
+ophthalmia, though not in the virulent Egyptian form. They are
+scrupulously clean in their persons, and take special care of their
+teeth, which are generally white and even. Simple and abstemious in
+their habits, they often reach an extreme yet healthy old age; nor is it
+common among them for the faculties of the mind to give way sooner than
+those of the body.
+
+
+  Character.
+
+Thus, physically, they yield to few races, if any, of mankind; mentally,
+they surpass most, and are only kept back in the march of progress by
+the remarkable defect of organizing power and incapacity for combined
+action. Lax and imperfect as are their forms of government, it is with
+impatience that even these are borne; of the four caliphs who alone
+reigned--if reign theirs could be called--in Arabia proper, three died a
+violent death; and of the Wahhabi princes, the most genuine
+representatives in later times of pure Arab rule, almost all have met
+the same fate. The Arab face, which is not unkindly, but never smiling,
+expresses that dignity and gravity which are typical of the race. While
+the Arab is always polite, good-natured, manly and brave, he is also
+revengeful, cruel, untruthful and superstitious. Of the Arab nature
+Burckhardt (other authorities, e.g. Barth and Rohlfs, are far less
+complimentary) wrote: "The Arab displays his manly character when he
+defends his guest at the peril of his own life, and submits to the
+reverses of fortune, to disappointment and distress, with the most
+patient resignation. He is distinguished from a Turk by the virtues of
+pity and gratitude. The Turk is cruel, the Arab of a more kind temper;
+he pities and supports the wretched, and never forgets the generosity
+shown to him even by an enemy." The Arab will lie and cheat and swear
+false oaths, but once his word is pledged he may be trusted to the last.
+There are some oaths such as _Wallah_ (by Allah) which mean nothing, but
+such an oath as the threefold one with _wa, bi_ and _ta_ as particles of
+swearing the meanest thief will not break. In temper, or at least in the
+manifestation of it, the Arab is studiously calm; and he rarely so much
+as raises his voice in a dispute. But this outward tranquillity covers
+feelings alike keen and permanent; and the remembrance of a rash jest or
+injurious word, uttered years before, leads only too often to that
+blood-revenge which is a sacred duty everywhere in Arabia.
+
+There exist, however, marked tribal or almost semi-national diversities
+of character among the Arabs. Thus, the inhabitants of Hejaz are noted
+for courtesy and blamed for fickleness; those of Nejd are distinguished
+by their stern tenacity and dignity of deportment; the nations of Yemen
+are gentle and pliant, but revengeful; those of Hasa and Oman cheerful
+and fond of sport, though at the same time turbulent and unsteady.
+Anything approaching to a game is rare in Nejd, and in the Hejaz
+religion and the yearly occurrence of the pilgrim ceremonies almost
+exclude all public diversions; but in Yemen the well-known game of the
+"jerid," or palm-stick, with dances and music is not rare. In Oman such
+amusements are still more frequent. Again in Yemen and Oman,
+coffee-houses, where people resort for conversation, and where public
+recitals, songs and other amusements are indulged in, stand open all
+day; while nothing of the sort is tolerated in Nejd. So too the
+ceremonies of circumcision or marriage are occasions of gaiety and
+pastime on the coast, but not in the central provinces.
+
+
+  Manners and customs.
+
+An Arab town, or even village, except it be the merest hamlet, is
+invariably walled round; but seldom is a stronger material than dried
+earth used; the walls are occasionally flanked by towers of like
+construction. A dry ditch often surrounds the whole. The streets are
+irregular and seldom parallel. The Arab, indeed, lacks an eye for the
+straight. The Arab carpenter cannot form a right angle; an Arab servant
+cannot place a cloth square on a table. The Ka'ba at Mecca has none of
+its sides or angles equal. The houses are of one or two storeys, rarely
+of three, with flat mud roofs, little windows and no external ornament.
+If the town be large, the expansion of one or two streets becomes a
+market-place, where are ranged a few shops of eatables, drugs, coffee,
+cottons or other goods. Many of these shops are kept by women. The chief
+mosque is always near the market-place; so is also the governor's
+residence, which, except in size and in being more or less fortified
+Arab fashion, does not differ from a private house. Drainage is
+unthought of; but the extreme dryness of the air obviates the
+inconvenience and disease that under other skies could not fail to
+ensue, and which in the damper climates of the coast make themselves
+seriously felt. But the streets are roughly swept every day, each
+householder taking care of the roadway that lies before his own door.
+Whitewash and colour are occasionally used in Yemen, Hejaz and Oman;
+elsewhere a light ochre tint, the colour of the sun-dried bricks,
+predominates, and gives an Arab town the appearance at a distance of a
+large dust-heap in the centre of the bright green ring of gardens and
+palm-groves. Baked bricks are unknown in Arabia, and stone buildings are
+rare, especially in Nejd. Palm branches and the like, woven in wattles,
+form the dwellings, of the poorer classes in the southern districts.
+Many Arab towns possess watch-towers, like huge round factory chimneys
+in appearance, built of sun-dried bricks, and varying in height from 50
+to 100 ft. or even more. Indeed, two of these constructions at the town
+of Birkat-el-Mauj, in Oman, are said to be each of 170 ft. in height,
+and that of Nezwah, in the same province, is reckoned at 140; but these
+are of stone.
+
+The principal feature in the interior of an Arab house is the "kahwah"
+or coffee-room. It is a large apartment spread with mats, and sometimes
+furnished with carpets and a few cushions. At one end is a small furnace
+or fireplace for preparing coffee. In this room the men congregate; here
+guests are received, and even lodged; women rarely enter it, except at
+times when strangers are unlikely to be present. Some of these
+apartments are very spacious and supported by pillars; one wall is
+usually built transversely to the compass direction of the Ka'ba; it
+serves to facilitate the performance of prayer by those who may happen
+to be in the kahwah at the appointed times. The other rooms are
+ordinarily small.
+
+The Arabs are proverbially hospitable. A stranger's arrival is often the
+occasion of an amicable dispute among the wealthier inhabitants as to
+who shall have the privilege of receiving him. Arab cookery is of the
+simplest. Roughly-ground wheat cooked with butter; bread in thin cakes,
+prepared on a heated iron plate or against the walls of an open oven; a
+few vegetables, generally of the leguminous kinds; boiled mutton or
+camel's flesh, among the wealthy; dates and fruits--this is the _menu_
+of an ordinary meal. Rice is eaten by the rich and fish is common on the
+coasts. Tea, introduced only a few decades back, is now largely drunk. A
+food of which the Arabs are fond is locusts boiled in salt and water and
+then dried in the sun. They taste like stale shrimps, but there is a
+great sale for them. Spices are freely employed; butter much too largely
+for a European taste.
+
+After eating, the hands are always washed, soap or the ashes of an
+alkaline plant being used. A covered censer with burning incense is then
+passed round, and each guest perfumes his hands, face, and sometimes his
+clothes; this censer serves also on first receptions and whenever
+special honour is intended. In Yemen and Oman scented water often does
+duty for it. Coffee, without milk or sugar, but flavoured with an
+aromatic seed brought from India, is served to all. This, too, is done
+on the occasion of a first welcome, when the cups often make two or
+three successive rounds; but, in fact, coffee is made and drunk at any
+time, as frequently as the desire for it may suggest itself; and each
+time fresh grains are sifted, roasted, pounded and boiled--a very
+laborious process, and one that requires in the better sort of
+establishments a special servant or slave for the work. Arabs generally
+make but one solid meal a day--that of supper, soon after sunset. Even
+then they do not eat much, gluttony being rare among them, and even
+daintiness esteemed disgraceful. Wine, like other fermented drinks, is
+prohibited by the Koran, and is, in fact, very rarely taken, though the
+inhabitants of the mountains of Oman are said to indulge in it. On the
+coast spirits of the worst quality are sometimes procured; opium and
+hashish are sparingly indulged in. On the other hand, wherever
+Wahhabiism has left freedom of action, tobacco-smoking prevails; short
+pipes of clay, long pipes with large open bowls, or most frequently the
+water-pipe or "nar-ghileh," being used. The tobacco smoked is generally
+strong and is either brought from the neighbourhood of Bagdad or grown
+in the country itself. The strongest quality is that of Oman; the leaf
+is broad and coarse, and retains its green colour even when dried; a few
+whiffs have been known to produce absolute stupor. The aversion of the
+Wahhabis to tobacco is well known; they entitle it "mukhzi" or "the
+shameful," and its use is punished with blows, as the public use of wine
+would be elsewhere.
+
+
+  Dress.
+
+In dress much variety prevails. The loose cotton drawers girded at the
+waist, which in hot climates do duty for trousers, are not often worn,
+even by the upper classes, in Nejd or Yemama, where a kind of silk
+dressing-gown is thrown over the long shirt; frequently, too, a brown or
+black cloak distinguishes the wealthier citizen; his head-dress is a
+handkerchief fastened round the head by a band. But in Hejaz, Yemen and
+Oman, turbans are by no means uncommon; the ordinary colour is white;
+they are worn over one or more skullcaps. Trousers also form part of the
+dress in the two former of these districts; and a voluminous sash, in
+which a dagger or an inkstand is stuck, is wrapped round the waist. The
+poorer folk, however, and the villagers often content themselves with a
+broad piece of cloth round the loins, and another across the shoulders.
+In Oman trousers are rare, but over the shirt a long gown, of peculiar
+and somewhat close-fitting cut, dyed yellow, is often worn. The women in
+these provinces commonly put on loose drawers and some add veils to
+their head-dresses; they are over-fond of ornaments (gold and silver);
+their hair is generally arranged in a long plait hanging down behind.
+All men allow their beards and moustaches full growth, though this is
+usually scanty. Most Arabs shave their heads, and indeed all, strictly
+speaking, ought by Mahommedan custom to do so. An Arab seldom or never
+dyes his hair. Sandals are worn more often than shoes; none but the very
+poorest go barefoot.
+
+
+  Slavery.
+
+Slavery is still, as of old times, a recognized institution throughout
+Arabia; and an illicit traffic in blacks is carried on along the coasts
+of the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. The slaves themselves were obtained
+chiefly from the east African coast districts down as far as Zanzibar,
+but this source of supply was practically closed by the end of the 19th
+century. Slaves are usually employed in Arabia as herdsmen or as
+domestic servants, rarely in agricultural work; they also form a
+considerable portion of the bodyguards with which Eastern greatness
+loves to surround itself. Like their countrymen elsewhere, they readily
+embrace the religion of their masters and become zealous Mahommedans.
+Arab custom enfranchises a slave who has accepted Islam at the end of
+seven years of bondage, and when that period has arrived, the master,
+instead of exacting from his slave the price of freedom, generally, on
+giving him his liberty, adds the requisite means for supporting himself
+and a family in comfort. Further, on every important occasion, such as a
+birth, circumcision, a marriage or a death, one or more of the household
+slaves are sure of acquiring their freedom. Hence Arabia has a
+considerable free black population; and these again, by inter-marriage
+with the whites around, have filled the land with a mulatto breed of
+every shade, till, in the eastern and southern provinces especially, a
+white skin is almost an exception. In Arabia no prejudice exists against
+negro alliances; no social or political line separates the African from
+the Arab. A negro may become a sheik, a kadi, an amir, or whatever his
+industry and his talents may render him capable of being. This is
+particularly so in Nejd, Yemen and Hadramut; in the Hejaz and the north
+a faint line of demarcation may be observed between the races.
+
+
+  Military qualities.
+
+The Arabs are good soldiers but poor generals. Personal courage,
+wonderful endurance of privation, fixity of purpose, and a contempt of
+death are qualities common to almost every race, tribe and clan that
+compose the Arab nation. In skirmishing and harassing they have few
+equals, while at close quarters they have often shown themselves capable
+of maintaining, armed with swords and spears alone, a desperate struggle
+against guns and bayonets, neither giving nor receiving quarter. Nor are
+they wholly ignorant of tactics, their armies, when engaged in regular
+war, being divided into centre and wings, with skirmishers in front and
+a reserve behind, often screened at the outset of the engagement by the
+camels of the expedition. These animals, kneeling and ranged in long
+parallel rows, form a sort of entrenchment, from behind which the
+soldiers of the main body fire their matchlocks, while the front
+divisions, opening out, act on either flank of the enemy. This
+arrangement of troops may be traced in Arab records as far back as the
+5th century, and was often exemplified during the Wahhabi wars.
+
+Arab women are scarcely less distinguished for their bravery than the
+men. Records of armed heroines occur frequently in the chronicles or
+myths of the pre-Islamitic time; and in authentic history the Battle of
+the Camel, 656 A.D., where Ayesha, the wife of Mahomet, headed the
+charge, is only the first of a number of instances in which Arab amazons
+have taken, sword in hand, no inconsiderable share in the wars and
+victories of Islam. Even now it is the custom for an Arab force to be
+always accompanied by some courageous maiden, who, mounted on a
+blackened camel, leads the onslaught, singing verses of encouragement
+for her own, of insult for the opposing tribe. Round her litter the
+fiercest of the battle rages, and her capture or death is the signal of
+utter rout; it is hers also to head the triumph after the victory of her
+clan.
+
+
+  Education.
+
+There is little education, in the European sense of the word, in Arabia.
+Among the Bedouins there are no schools, and few, even of the most
+elementary character, in the towns or villages. Where they exist, little
+beyond the mechanical reading of the Koran, and the equally mechanical
+learning of it by rote, is taught. On the other hand, Arab
+male-children, brought up from early years among the grown-up men of the
+house or tent, learn more from their own parents and at home than is
+common in other countries; reading and writing are in most instances
+thus acquired, or rather transmitted; besides such general principles
+of grammar and eloquence, often of poetry and history, as the elders
+themselves may be able to impart. To this family schooling too are due
+the good manners, politeness, and self-restraint that early distinguish
+Arab children. In the very few instances where a public school of a
+higher class exists, writing, grammar and rhetoric sum up its teachings.
+Law and theology, in the narrow sense that both these words have in the
+Islamitic system, are explained in afternoon lectures given in most
+mosques; and some verses of the Koran, with one of the accepted
+commentaries, that of Baidawi for example, form the basis of the
+instruction. Great attention is paid to accuracy of grammar and purity
+of diction throughout Arabia; yet something of a dialectic difference
+may be observed in the various districts. The purest Arabic, that which
+is as nearly as possible identical in the choice of words and in its
+inflections with the language of the Koran, is spoken in Nejd, and the
+best again of that in the province of Suder. Next in purity comes the
+Arabic of Shammar. Throughout the Hejaz in general, the language, though
+extremely elegant, is not equally correct; in el-Hasa, Bahrein and Oman
+it is decidedly influenced by the foreign element called Nabataean. In
+Yemen, as in other southern districts of the peninsula, Arabic merges
+insensibly into the Himyaritic or African dialect of Hadramut and Mahra.
+(See SEMITIC LANGUAGES.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Lieutenant Wellsted, _Travels in Arabia_ (Lond., 1838);
+  "Narrative of a Journey to the Ruins of Nakeb el Hajar" (_Jour. R.
+  Geog. Soc._ vii. 20); Carsten Niebuhr. _Travels through Arabia_
+  (transl. into English by Robert Heron, 2 vols., Edin., 1792); John
+  Lewis Burckhardt, _Travels in Arabia_ (2 vols., Lond., 1829); _Notes
+  on the Bedouins and Wahabis_, (2 vols., Lond., 1830; in German,
+  Weimar, 1831); C.J. Cruttenden, _Journal of an Excursion to Sana'a,
+  the Capital of Yemen_ (Bombay, 1838); A. Sprenger, _Die alte
+  Geographie Arabiens als Grundlage der Entwicklungsgeschichte des
+  Semitismus_ (Berne, 1875); Sir Richard F. Burton, _Personal Narrative
+  of a Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Meccah_ (Lond., 1855); W. Robertson
+  Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_ (Cambridge); E. Reclus,
+  _Les Arabes_ (Brussels, 1898); Lady Anne Blunt, _A Pilgrimage to Nejd_
+  (2 vols., Lond., 1881); C.M. Doughty, _Arabia Deserta_ (2 vols.,
+  1888); Rev. S.M. Zwemer, _Arabia: the Cradle of Islam_ (1900);
+  Albrecht Zehme, _Arabien und die Araber, seit hundert Jahren_ (1875).
+
+
+
+
+ARACAJÚ, a city and seaport of Brazil, capital of the state of Sergipe,
+170 m. N.N.E. of Bahia, on the river Cotinguiba, or Cotindiba, 6 m. from
+the coast. The municipality, of which it forms a part, had a population
+in 1890 of 16,336, about two-thirds of whom lived in the city itself.
+Aracajú is a badly built town on the right bank of the river at the base
+of a ridge of low sand-hills and has the usual features of an
+unprogressive provincial capital. Good limestone is quarried in its
+vicinity, and the country tributary to this port produces large
+quantities of sugar. Cotton is also grown, and the back country sends
+down hides and skins for shipment. The anchorage is good, but a
+dangerous bar at the mouth of the river prevents the entrance of vessels
+drawing more than 12 ft. The port is visited, therefore, only by the
+smaller steamers of the coastwise lines. The river is navigable as far
+as the town of Maroim, about 10 m. beyond Aracajú. The city was founded
+in 1855.
+
+
+
+
+ARACATY, or ARACATÍ, a city and port of Brazil, in the state of Ceará,
+75 m. S.E. of Fortaleza, on the river Jaguaribe, 8 m. from the sea. Pop.
+of the municipality (1890) 20,182, of whom about 12,000 belonged to the
+city. A dangerous bar at the mouth of the river permits the entrance
+only of the smaller coasting steamers, but the port is an important
+commercial centre, and exports considerable quantities of cotton, hides,
+maniçoba, rubber, fruit, and palm wax.
+
+
+
+
+ARACHNE, in Greek mythology, the daughter of Idmon of Colophon in Lydia,
+a dyer in purple. She had acquired such skill in the art of weaving that
+she ventured to challenge Athena. While the goddess took as subjects her
+quarrel with Poseidon as to the naming and possession of Attica, and the
+warning examples of those who ventured to pit themselves against the
+immortals, Arachne depicted the metamorphoses of the gods and their
+amorous adventures. Her work was so perfect that Athena, enraged at
+being unable to find any blemish in it, tore it to pieces. Arachne
+hanged herself in despair; but the goddess out of pity loosened the
+rope, which became a cobweb, while Arachne herself was changed into a
+spider (Ovid, _Metam_. vi. 5-145). The story probably indicates the
+superiority of Asia over Greece in the textile arts.
+
+
+
+
+ARACHNIDA, the zoological name given in 1815 by Lamarck (Gr. [Greek:
+harachnae], a spider) to a class which he instituted for the reception
+of the spiders, scorpions and mites, previously classified by Linnaeus
+in the order Aptera of his great group Insecta. Lamarck at the same time
+founded the class Crustacea for the lobsters, crabs and water-fleas,
+also until then included in the order Aptera of Linnaeus. Lamarck
+included the Thysanura and the Myriapoda in his class Arachnida. The
+Insecta of Linnaeus was a group exactly equivalent to the Arthropoda
+founded a hundred years later by Siebold and Stannius. It was thus
+reduced by Lamarck in area, and made to comprise only the six-legged,
+wing-bearing "Insecta." For these Lamarck proposed the name Hexapoda;
+but that name has been little used, and they have retained to this day
+the title of the much larger Linnaean group, viz. Insecta. The position
+of the Arachnida in the great sub-phylum Arthropoda, according to recent
+anatomical and embryological researches, is explained in the article
+
+
+
+ARTHROPODA. The Arachnida form a distinct class or line of descent in
+the grade Euarthropoda, diverging (perhaps in common at the start with
+the Crustacea) from primitive Euarthropods, which gave rise also to the
+separate lines of descent known as the classes Diplopoda, Crustacea,
+Chilopoda and Hexapoda.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Entosternum, entosternite or plastron of
+_Limulus polyphemus_, Latr. Dorsal surface.
+
+  LAP, Left anterior process.           PLR, Posterior lateral rod or
+  RAP, Right anterior process.            tendon.
+  PhN, Pharyngeal notch.                PLP, Posterior lateral process.
+  ALR, Anterior lateial rod or tendon.  Natural size.
+
+(From Lankester, _Q J. Mic. Sci._, N S vol. xxiv, 1884)]
+
+_Limulus an Arachnid._--Modern views as to the classification and
+affinities of the Arachnida have been determined by the demonstration
+that _Limulus_ and the extinct Eurypterines (_Pterygotus_, &c.) are
+Arachnida; that is to say, are identical in the structure and relation
+of so many important parts with _Scorpio_, whilst differing in those
+respects from other Arthropoda, that it is impossible to suppose that
+the identity is due to homoplasy or convergence, and the conclusion must
+be accepted that the resemblances arise from close genetic relationship.
+The view that Limulus, the king-crab, is an Arachnid was maintained as
+long ago as 1829 by Strauss-Dürckheim (1), on the ground of its
+possession of an internal cartilaginous sternum--also possessed by the
+Arachnida (see figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6)--and of the similarity of the
+disposition of the six leg-like appendages around the mouth in the two
+cases (see figs. 45 and 63). The evidence of the exact equivalence of
+the segmentation and appendages of Limulus and Scorpio, and of a number
+of remarkable points of agreement in structure, was furnished by Ray
+Lankester in an article published in 1881 ("Limulus an Arachnid,"
+_Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. xxi. N.S.), and in a series of
+subsequent memoirs, in which the structure of the entosternum, of the
+coxal glands, of the eyes, of the veno-pericardiac muscles, of the
+respiratory lamellae, and of other parts, was for the first time
+described, and in which the new facts discovered were shown uniformly to
+support the hypothesis that Limulus is an Arachnid. A list of these
+memoirs is given at the close of this article (2, 3, 4, 5 and 13). The
+Eurypterines (Gigantostraca) were included in the identification,
+although at that time they were supposed to possess only five pairs of
+anterior or prosomatic appendages. They have now been shown to possess
+six pairs (fig. 47), as do Limulus and Scorpio.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Ventral surface of the entosternum of _Limulus
+polyphemus_, Latr. Letters as in fig. 1 with the addition of NF, neural
+fossa protecting the aggregated ganglia of the central nervous system;
+PVP, left posterior ventral process; PMP, posterior median process.
+Natural size.
+
+(From Lankester.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Entosternum of scorpion (_Palamnaeus Indus_, de
+Geer); dorsal surface.
+
+  asp, Paired anterior process of the sub-neural arch.
+  snp, Sub-neural arch.
+  ap, Anterior lateral process (same as RAP and LAP in fig. 1).
+  lmp, Lateral median process (same as ALR and PLR of fig. 1).
+  pp, Posterior process (same as PLP in fig. 1).
+  pf, Posterior flap or diaphragm of Newport.
+  m^1 and m^2, Perforations of the diaphragm for the passage of
+    muscles.
+  DR, The paired dorsal ridges.
+  GC, Gastric canal or foramen.
+  AC, Arterial canal or foramen.
+
+(After Lankester, _loc. cit._)]
+
+The various comparisons previously made between the structure of Limulus
+and the Eurypterines on the one hand, and that of a typical Arachnid,
+such as Scorpio, on the other, had been vitiated by erroneous notions as
+to the origin of the nerves supplying the anterior appendages of Limulus
+(which were finally removed by Alphonse Milne-Edwards in his beautiful
+memoir (6) on the structure of that animal), and secondly by the
+erroneous identification of the double sternal plates of Limulus, called
+"chilaria," by Owen, with a pair of appendages (7). Once the identity of
+the chilaria with the pentagonal sternal plate of the scorpion is
+recognized--an identification first insisted on by Lankester--the whole
+series of segments and appendages in the two animals, Limulus and
+Scorpio, are seen to correspond most closely, segment for segment, with
+one another (see figs. 7 and 8). The structure of the prosomatic
+appendages or legs is also seen to present many significant points of
+agreement (see figures), but a curious discrepancy existed in the
+six-jointed structure of the limb in Limulus, which differed from the
+seven-jointed limb of Scorpio by the defect of one joint. R.I. Pocock of
+the British Museum has observed that in Limulus a marking exists on the
+fourth joint, which apparently indicates a previous division of this
+segment into two, and thus establishes the agreement of Limulus and
+Scorpio in this small feature of the number of segments in the legs (see
+fig. 11).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Ventral surface of the same entosternum as that
+drawn in fig. 3. Letters as in fig. 3 with the addition of NC, neural
+canal or foramen.
+
+(After Lankester, _loc. cit._)]
+
+  It is not desirable to occupy the limited space of this article by a
+  full description of the limbs and segments of Limulus and Scorpio. The
+  reader is referred to the complete series of figures here given, with
+  their explanatory legends (figs 12, 13, 14, 15). Certain matters,
+  however, require comment and explanation to render the comparison
+  intelligible. The tergites, or chitinized dorsal halves of the body
+  rings, are fused to form a "prosomatic carapace," or carapace of the
+  prosoma, in both Limulus and Scorpio (see figs. 7 and 8). This region
+  corresponds in both cases to six somites, as indicated by the presence
+  of six pairs of limbs. On the surface of the carapace there are in
+  both animals a pair of central eyes with simple lens and a pair of
+  lateral eye-tracts, which in Limulus consist of closely-aggregated
+  simple eyes, forming a "compound" eye, whilst in Scorpio they present
+  several separate small eyes. The microscopic structure of the central
+  and the lateral eyes has been shown by Lankester and A.G. Bourne (5)
+  to differ; but the lateral eyes of Scorpio were shown by them to be
+  similar in structure to the lateral eyes of Limulus, and the central
+  eyes of Scorpio to be identical in structure with the central eyes of
+  Limulus (see below).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Entosternum of one of the mygalomorphous
+  spiders; ventral surface. Ph.N., pharyngeal notch. The posterior
+  median process with its repetition of triangular segments closely
+  resembles the same process in Limulus.
+
+  (From Lankester, _loc. cit._)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Dorsal surface of the same entosternum as that
+  drawn in fig. 5. Ph.N., pharyngeal notch.
+
+  (After Lankester, _loc. cit._)]
+
+  Following the prosoma is a region consisting of six segments (figs. 14
+  and 15), each carrying a pair of plate-like appendages in both Limulus
+  and Scorpio. This region is called the mesosoma. The tergites of this
+  region and those of the following region, the metasoma, are fused to
+  form a second or posterior carapace in Limulus, whilst remaining free
+  in Scorpio. The first pair of foliaceous appendages in each animal is
+  the genital operculum; beneath it are found the openings of the
+  genital ducts. The second pair of mesosomatic appendages in Scorpio
+  are known as the "pectens." Each consists of an axis, bearing numerous
+  blunt tooth-like processes arranged in a series. This is represented
+  in Limulus by the first gill-bearing appendage. The leaves (some 150
+  in number) of the gill-book (see figure) correspond to the tooth-like
+  processes of the pectens of Scorpio. The next four pairs of appendages
+  (completing the mesosomatic series of six) consist, in both Scorpio
+  and Limulus, of a base carrying each 130 to 150 blood-holding,
+  leaf-like plates, lying on one another like the leaves of a book.
+  Their minute structure is closely similar in the two cases; the
+  leaf-like plates receive blood from the great sternal sinus, and serve
+  as respiratory organs. The difference between the gill-books of
+  Limulus and the lung-books of Scorpio depends on the fact that the
+  latter are adapted to aerial respiration, while the former serve for
+  aquatic respiration. The appendage carrying the gill-book stands out
+  on the surface of the body in Limulus, and has other portions
+  developed besides the gill-book and its base; it is fused with its
+  fellow of the opposite side. On the other hand, in Scorpio, the
+  gill-book-bearing appendage has sunk below the surface, forming a
+  recess or chamber for itself, which communicates with the exterior by
+  an oval or circular "stigma" (fig. 10, stg). That this in-sinking
+  has taken place, and that the lung-books or in-sunken gill-books of
+  Scorpio really represent appendages (that is to say, limbs or
+  parapodia) is proved by their developmental history (see figs. 17 and
+  18). They appear at first as outstanding processes on the surface of
+  the body.
+
+  The exact mode in which the in-sinking of superficial outstanding
+  limbs, carrying gill-lamellae, has historically taken place has been a
+  matter of much speculation. It was to be hoped that the specimen of
+  the Silurian scorpion (_Palaeophonus_) from Scotland, showing the
+  ventral surface of the mesosoma (fig. 49), would throw light on this
+  matter; but the specimen recently carefully studied by the writer and
+  Pocock reveals neither gill-bearing limbs nor stigmata. The
+  probability appears to be against an actual introversion of the
+  appendage and its lamellae, as was at one time suggested by Lankester.
+  It is probable that such an in-sinking as is shown in the accompanying
+  diagram has taken place (fig. 15); but we are yet in need of evidence
+  as to the exact equivalence of margins, axis, &c., obtaining between
+  the lung-book of Scorpio and the gill-book of Limulus. Zoologists are
+  familiar with many instances (fishes, crustaceans) in which the
+  protective walls of a water-breathing organ or gill-apparatus become
+  converted into an air-breathing organ or lung, but there is no other
+  case known of the conversion of gill processes themselves into
+  air-breathing plates.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Diagram of the dorsal surface of _Limulus
+  polyphemus_.
+
+    oc, Lateral compound eyes.
+    oc', Central monomeniscous eyes.
+    PA, Post-anal spine.
+    I to VI, The six appendage-bearing somites of the prosoma.
+    VII, Usually considered to be the tergum of the genital somite, but
+      suggested by Pocock to be that of the otherwise suppressed
+      praegenital somite.
+    VIII to XIII, The six somites of the mesosoma, each with a movable
+      pleural spine and a pair of dorsal entopophysis or muscle-attaching
+      ingrowths.
+    XIV to XVIII, The confluent or unexpressed six somites of the
+      metasoma.
+
+    [According to the system of numbering explained in the text, if VII
+    is the tergum of the praegenital somite (as is probable) it should
+    be labelled _Prg_ without any number, and the somites VIII to XIII
+    should be lettered 1 to 6, indicating that they are the six normal
+    somites of the mesosoma; whilst XV to XVIII should be replaced by
+    the numbers 7 to 12--an additional suppressed segment (making up the
+    typical six) being reckoned to the metasomatic fusion.]
+
+  (From Lankester, _Q J. Micr Set_. vol. xxi., 1881)]
+
+  The identification of the lung-books of Scorpio with the gill-books of
+  Limulus is practically settled by the existence of the pectens in
+  Scorpio (fig. 14, VIII) on the second mesosomatic somite. There is no
+  doubt that _these_ are parapodial or limb appendages, carrying
+  numerous imbricated secondary processes, and therefore comparable in
+  essential structure to the leaf-bearing plates of the second
+  mesosomatic somite of Limulus. They have remained unenclosed and
+  projecting on the surface of the body, as once were the appendages of
+  the four following somites. But they have lost their respiratory
+  function. In non-aquatic life such an unprotected organ cannot
+  subserve respiration. The "pectens" have become more firmly chitinized
+  and probably somewhat altered in shape as compared with their
+  condition in the aquatic ancestral scorpions. Their present function
+  in scorpions is not ascertained. They are not specially sensitive
+  under ordinary conditions, and may be touched or even pinched without
+  causing any discomfort to the scorpion. It is probable that they
+  acquire special sensibility at the breeding season and serve as
+  "guides" in copulation. The shape of the legs and the absence of
+  paired terminal claws in the Silurian _Palaeophonus_ (see figs. 48 and
+  49) as compared with living scorpions (see fig. 10) show that the
+  early scorpions were aquatic, and we may hope some day in
+  better-preserved specimens than the two as yet discovered, to find the
+  respiratory organs of those creatures in the condition of projecting
+  appendages serving aquatic respiration somewhat as in Limulus, though
+  not necessarily repeating the exact form of the broad plates of
+  Limulus.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Diagram of the dorsal surface of a scorpion to
+  compare with fig. 7. Letters and Roman numerals as in fig. 7,
+  excepting that VII is here certainly the tergum of the first somite of
+  the mesosoma--the genital somite--and is _not_ a survival of the
+  embryonic praegenital somite. The anus (not seen) is on the sternal
+  surface.
+
+  (From Lankester, _loc. cit._)]
+
+  It is important to note that the series of lamellae of the lung-book
+  and the gill-book correspond _exactly_ in structure, the narrow, flat
+  blood-space in the lamellae being interrupted by pillar-like junctions
+  of the two surfaces in both cases (see Lankester (4)), and the free
+  surfaces of the adjacent lamellae being covered with a very delicate
+  chitinous cuticle which is drawn out into delicate hairs and
+  processes. The elongated axis which opens at the stigma in Scorpio and
+  which can be cleared of soft, surrounding tissues and coagulated blood
+  so as to present the appearance of a limb axis carrying the book-like
+  leaves of the lung is not really, as it would seem to be at first
+  sight, the limb axis. That is necessarily a blood-holding structure
+  and is obliterated and fused with soft tissues of the sternal region
+  so that the lamellae cannot be detached and presented as standing out
+  from it. The apparent axis or basal support of the scorpion's
+  lung-books shown in the figures, is a false or secondary axis and
+  merely a part of the infolded surface which forms the air-chamber. The
+  maceration of the soft parts of a scorpion preserved in weak spirit
+  and the cleaning of the chitinized in-grown cuticle give rise to the
+  false appearance of a limb axis carrying the lamellae. The margins of
+  the lamellae of the scorpion's lung-book, which are _lowermost_ in the
+  figures (fig. 15) and appear to be free, are really those which are
+  attached to the blood-holding axis. The true free ends are those
+  nearest the stigma.
+
+  Passing on now from the mesosoma we come in Scorpio to the metasoma of
+  six segments, the first of which is broad whilst the rest are
+  cylindrical. The last is perforated by the anus and carries the
+  post-anal spine or sting. The somites of the metasoma carry no
+  parapodia. In Limulus the metasoma is practically suppressed. In the
+  allied extinct Eurypterines it is well developed, and resembles that
+  of Scorpio. In the embryo Limulus (fig. 42) the six somites of the
+  mesosoma are not fused to form a carapace at an early stage, and they
+  are followed by three separately marked metasomatic somites; the other
+  three somites of the metasoma have disappeared in Limulus, but are
+  represented by the unsegmented prae-anal region. It is probable that
+  we have in the metasoma of Limulus a case of the disappearance of once
+  clearly demarcated somites. It would be possible to suppose, on the
+  other hand, that new somites are only beginning to make their
+  appearance here. The balance of various considerations is against the
+  latter hypothesis. Following the metasoma in Limulus, we have as in
+  Scorpio the post-anal spine--in this case not a sting, but a powerful
+  and important organ of locomotion, serving to turn the animal over
+  when it has fallen upon its back. The nature of the post-anal spine
+  has been strangely misinterpreted by some writers. Owen (7) maintained
+  that it represented a number of coalesced somites, regardless of its
+  post-anal position and mode of development. The agreement of the
+  grouping of the somites, of the form of the parapodia (appendages,
+  limbs) in each region, of the position of the genital aperture and
+  operculum, of the position and character of the eyes, and of the
+  powerful post-anal spines not seen in other Arthropods, is very
+  convincing as to the affinity of Limulus and Scorpio. Perhaps the
+  most important general agreement of Scorpio compared with Limulus and
+  the Eurypterines is the division of the body into the three regions
+  (or tagmata)--prosoma, mesosoma and metasoma--each consisting of six
+  segments, the prosoma having leg-like appendages, the mesosoma having
+  foliaceous appendages, and the metasoma being destitute of appendages.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Ventral view of the posterior carapace or
+  meso-metasomatic (opisthospmatic) fusion of _Limulus polyphemus_. The
+  soft integument and limbs of the mesosoma have been removed as well as
+  all the viscera and muscles, so that the inner surface of the terga of
+  these somites with their entopophyses are seen. The unsegmented dense
+  chitinous sternal plate of the metasoma (XIII to XVIII) is not
+  removed. Letters as in fig. 7.
+
+  (After Lankester, _loc. cit._)]
+
+  In 1893, some years after the identification of the somites of Limulus
+  with those of Scorpio, thus indicated, had been published, zoologists
+  were startled by the discovery by a Japanese zoologist, Kishinouye
+  (8), of a seventh prosomatic somite in the embryo of Limulus
+  longispina. This was seen in longitudinal sections, as shown in fig.
+  19. The simple identification of somite with somite in Limulus and
+  Scorpio seemed to be threatened by this discovery. But in 1896 Dr
+  August Brauer of Marburg (9) discovered in the embryo of Scorpio a
+  seventh prosomatic somite (see VII PrG, figs. 17 and 18), or, if we
+  please so to term it, a _praegenital_ somite, hitherto unrecognized.
+  In the case of Scorpio this segment is indicated in the embryo by the
+  presence of a pair of rudimentary appendages, carried by a well-marked
+  somite. As in Limulus, so in Scorpio, this unexpected somite and its
+  appendages disappear in the course of development. In fact, more or
+  less complete "excalation" of the somite takes place. Owing to its
+  position it is convenient to term the somite which is excalated in
+  Limulus and Scorpio "the praegenital somite." It appears not
+  improbable that the sternal plates wedged in between the last pair of
+  legs in both Scorpio and Limulus, viz. the pentagonal sternite of
+  Scorpio (fig. 10) and the chilaria of Limulus (see figs. 13 and 20),
+  may in part represent in the adult the sternum of the excalated
+  praegenital somite. This has not been demonstrated by an actual
+  following out of the development, but the position of these pieces and
+  the fact that they are (in Limulus) supplied by an independent
+  segmental nerve, favours the view that they may comprise the sternal
+  area of the vanished praegenital somite. This interpretation, however,
+  of the "metasternites" of Limulus and Scorpio is opposed by the
+  coexistence in Thelyphonus (figs. 55, 57 and 58) of a similar
+  metasternite with a complete praegenital somite. H.J. Hansen (10) has
+  recognized that the "praegenital somite" persists in a rudimentary
+  condition, forming a "waist" to the series of somites in the Pedipalpi
+  and Araneae. The present writer is of opinion that it will be found
+  most convenient to treat this evanescent somite as something special,
+  and not to attempt to reckon it to either the prosoma or the mesosoma.
+  These will then remain as typically composed each of six
+  appendage-bearing somites-the prosoma comprising in addition the
+  ocular prosthomere.[1] When the praegenital somite or traces of it are
+  present it should not be called "the seventh prosomatic" or the "first
+  mesosomatic," but simply the "praegenital somite." The first segment
+  of the mesosoma of Scorpio and Limulus thus remains the first segment,
+  and can be identified as such throughout the Eu-arachnida, carrying as
+  it always does the genital apertures. But it is necessary to remember,
+  in the light of recent discoveries, that the sixth prosomatic pair of
+  appendages is carried on the seventh somite of the whole series, there
+  being two prosthomeres or somites in front of the mouth, the first
+  carrying the eyes, the second the chelicerae; also that the first
+  mesosomatic or genital somite is not the seventh or even the eighth of
+  the whole senes of somites which have been historically present, but
+  is the ninth, owing to the presence or to the excalation of a
+  praegenital somite. It seems that confusion and trouble will be best
+  avoided by abstaining from the introduction of the non-evident
+  somites, the ocular and the praegenital, into the numerical
+  nomenclature of the component somites of the three great body regions.
+  We shall, therefore, ignoring the ocular somite, speak of the first,
+  second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth leg-bearing somites of the
+  prosoma, and indicate the appendages by the Roman numerals, I, II,
+  III, IV, V, VI, and whilst ignoring the praegenital somite we shall
+  speak of the first, second, third, &c., somite of the mesosoma or
+  opisthosoma (united mesosoma and metasoma) and indicate them by the
+  Arabic numerals.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Ventral view of a scorpion, _Palamnaeus
+  indus_, de Geer, to show the arrangement of the coxae of the limbs,
+  the sternal elements, genital plate and pectens.
+
+    M, Mouth behind the oval median camerostome.
+    I, The chelicerae.
+    II, The chelae.
+    III to VI, the four pairs of walking legs.
+    VIIgo, The genital somite or first somite of the mesosoma with the
+      genital operculum (a fused pair of limbs).
+    VIIIp, The pectiniferous somite.
+    IXstg to XIIstg, the four pulmonary somites.
+    met, The pentagonal metasternite of the prosoma behind all the
+      coxae.
+    x, The sternum of the pectiniferous somite.
+    y, The broad first somite of the metasoma.]
+
+  There are a number of other important points of structure besides
+  those referring to the somites and appendages in which Limulus agrees
+  with Scorpio or other Arachnida and differs from other Arthropoda. The
+  chief of these are as follows:--
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Third leg of _Limulus polyphemus_, showing
+  the division of the fourth segment of the leg by a groove S into two,
+  thus giving seven segments to the leg as in scorpion.
+
+  (From a drawing by Pocock.)]
+
+  1. _The Composition of the Head_ (that is to say, of the anterior part
+  of the prosoma) _with especial Reference to the Region in Front of the
+  Mouth._--It appears (see ARTHROPODA) that there is embryological
+  evidence of the existence of two somites in Arachnida which were
+  originally post-oral, but have become prae-oral by adaptational
+  shifting of the oral aperture. These forwardly-slipped somites are
+  called "prosthomeres." The first of these has, in Arachnids as in
+  other Arthropods, its pair of appendages represented by the eyes. The
+  second has for its pair of appendages the small pair of limbs which in
+  all living Arachnids is either chelate or retrovert (as in spiders),
+  and is known as the chelicerae. It is possible, as maintained by some
+  writers (Patten and others), that the lobes of the cerebral nervous
+  mass in Arachnids indicate a larger number of prosthomeres as having
+  fused in this region, but there is no _embryological_ evidence at
+  present which justifies us in assuming the existence in Arachnids of
+  more than two prosthomeres. The position of the chelicerae of Limulus
+  and of the ganglionic nerve-masses from which they receive their
+  nerve-supply, is closely similar to that of the same structures in
+  Scorpio. The cerebral mass is in Limulus more easily separated by
+  dissection as a median lobe distinct from the laterally-placed ganglia
+  of the chelceral somite than is the case in Scorpio, but the relations
+  are practically the same in the two forms. Formerly it was supposed
+  that in Limulus both the chelicerae and the next following pair of
+  appendages were prosthomerous, as in Crustacea, but the dissections of
+  Alphonse Milne-Edwards (6) demonstrated the true limitations of the
+  cerebrum, whilst embryological researches have done as much for
+  Scorpio. Limulus thus agrees with Scorpio and differs from the
+  Crustacea, in which there are three prosthomeres--one ocular and two
+  carrying palpiform appendages. It is true that in the lower Crustacea
+  (Apus, &c.) we have evidence of the gradual movement forward of the
+  nerve-ganglia belonging to these palpiform appendages. But although in
+  such lower Crustacea the nerve-ganglia of the third prosthomere have
+  not fused with the anterior nerve-mass, there is no question as to the
+  prae-oral position of two appendage-bearing somites in addition to the
+  ocular prosthomere. The Crustacea have, in fact, three prosthomeres in
+  the head and the Arachnida only two, and Limulus agrees with the
+  Arachnida in this respect and differs from the Crustacea. The central
+  nervous systems of Limulus and of Scorpio present closer agreement in
+  structure than can be found when a Crustacean is compared with either.
+  The wide divarication of the lateral cords in the prosoma and their
+  connexion by transverse commissures, together with the "attraction" of
+  ganglia to the prosomatic ganglion group which properly belong to
+  hinder segments, are very nearly identical in the two animals. The
+  form and disposition of the ganglion cells are also peculiar and
+  closely similar in the two. (See Patten (42) for important
+  observations on the neuromeres, &c., of Limulus and Scorpio.)
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--The prosomatic appendages of _Limulus
+  polyphemus_ (right) and Scorpio (left), _Palamnaeus indus_ compared.
+  The corresponding appendages are marked with the same Roman numeral.
+  The Arabic numerals indicate the segments of the legs.
+
+    cox, Coxa or basal segment of the leg.
+    stc, The sterno-coxal process or jaw-like up-growth of the coxa.
+    epc, The articulated movable outgrowth of the coxa, called the
+      epi-coxite (present only in III of the scorpion and III, IV and V
+      of Limulus).
+    ex^1, The exopodite of the sixth limb of Limulus.
+    a, b, c, d, Movable processes on the same leg (see for some
+      suggestions on the morphology of this leg, Pocock in _Quart. Journ.
+      Micr. Sci._ March 1901; see also fig. 50 below and explanation).
+
+  (From Lankester, _loc. cit._)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Diagrams of the metasternite st, with genital
+  operculum op, and the first lamelligerous pair of appendages ga, with
+  uniting sternal element st of Scorpio (left) and Limulus (right).
+
+  (From Lankester, _loc. cit._)]
+
+  2. _The Minute Structure of the Central Eyes and of the Lateral
+  Eyes._--Limulus agrees with Scorpio not only in having a pair of
+  central eyes and also lateral eyes, but in the microscopic structure
+  of those organs, which differs in the central and lateral eyes
+  respectively. The central eyes are "simple eyes," that is to say, have
+  a single lens, and are hence called "monomeniscous." The lateral eyes
+  are in Limulus "compound eyes," that is to say, consist of many lenses
+  placed close together; beneath each lens is a complex of protoplasmic
+  cells, in which the optic nerve terminates. Each such unit is termed
+  an "ommatidium." The lateral eyes of Scorpio consist of groups of
+  separate small lenses each with its ommatidium, but they do not form a
+  continuous compound eye as in Limulus. The ommatidium (soft structure
+  beneath the lens-unit of a compound eye) is very simple in both
+  Scorpio and Limulus. It consists of a single layer of cells,
+  continuous with those which secrete the general chitinous covering of
+  the prosoma. The cells of the ommatidium are a good deal larger than
+  the neighbouring common cells of the epidermis. They secrete the
+  knob-like lens (fig. 22). But they also receive the nerve fibres of
+  the optic nerve. They are at the same time both optic nerve-end cells,
+  that is to say, retina cells, and corneagen cells or secretors of the
+  chitinous lens-like cornea. In Limulus (fig. 23) each ommatidium has a
+  peculiar ganglion cell developed in a central position, whilst the
+  ommatidium of the lateral eyelets of Scorpio shows small intermediate
+  cells between the larger nerve-end cells. The structure of the lateral
+  eye of Limulus was first described by Grenacher, and further and more
+  accurately by Lankester and Bourne (5) and by Watase; that of Scorpio
+  by Lankester and Bourne, who showed that the statements of von Graber
+  were erroneous, and that the lateral eyes of Scorpio have a single
+  cell-layered or "monostichous" ommatidium like that of Limulus. Watase
+  has shown, in a very convincing way, how by deepening the pit-like set
+  of cells beneath a simple lens the more complex ommatidia of the
+  compound eyes of Crustacea and Hexapoda may be derived from such a
+  condition as that presented in the lateral eyes of Limulus and
+  Scorpio. (For details the reader is referred to Watase (11) and to
+  Lankester and Bourne (5).) The structure of the central eyes of
+  Scorpio and spiders and also of Limulus differs essentially from that
+  of the lateral eyes in having two layers of cells (hence called
+  diplostichous) beneath the lens, separated from one another by a
+  membrane (figs. 24 and 25). The upper layer is the corneagen and
+  secretes the lens, the lower is the retinal layer. The mass of soft
+  cell-structures beneath a large lens of a central eye is called an
+  "ommatoeum." It shows in Scorpio and Limulus a tendency to segregate
+  into minor groups or "ommatidia." It is found that in embryological
+  growth the retinal layer of the central eyes forms as a separate
+  pouch, which is pushed in laterally beneath the corneagen layer from
+  the epidermic cell layer. Hence it is in origin double, and consists
+  of a true retinal layer and a post-retinal layer (fig. 24, B), though
+  these are not separated by a membrane. Accordingly the diplostichous
+  ommatoeum or soft tissue of the Arachnid's central eye should strictly
+  be called "triplostichous," since the deep layer is itself doubled or
+  folded. The retinal cells of both the lateral and central eyes of
+  Limulus and Scorpio produce cuticular structures on their sides; each
+  such piece is a rhabdomere and a number (five or ten) uniting form a
+  rhabdom (fig. 26). In the specialized ommatidia of the compound eyes
+  of Crustacea and Hexapods the rhabdom is an important structure.[2] It
+  is a very significant fact that the lateral and central eyes of
+  Limulus and Scorpio not only agree each with each in regard to their
+  monostichous and diplostichous structure, but also in the formation in
+  both classes of eyes of rhabdomeres and rhabdoms in which the
+  component pieces are five or a multiple of five (fig. 26). Whilst each
+  unit of the lateral eye of Limulus has a rhabdom of ten[3] pieces
+  forming a star-like chitinous centre in section, each lateral eye of
+  Scorpio has several rhabdoms of five or less rhabdomeres, indicating
+  that the Limulus lateral eye-unit is more specialized than the
+  detached lateral eyelet of Scorpio, so as to present a coincidence of
+  one lens with one rhabdom. Numerous rhabdomeres (grouped as rhabdoms
+  in Limulus) are found in the retinal layer of the central eyes also.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--The first three pairs of mesosomatic
+  appendages of Scorpio and Limulus compared.
+
+    VII, The genital operculum.
+    VIII, The pectens of Scorpio and the first branchial plate of
+      Limulus.
+    IX, The first pair of lung-books of Scorpio and the second branchial
+      plate of Limulus.
+    gp, Genital pore.
+    epst, Epistigmatic sclerite.
+    stg, Stigma or orifice of the hollow tendons of the branchial plates
+      of Limulus.
+
+  (After Lankester, _loc. cit._)]
+
+  Whilst Limulus agrees thus closely with Scorpio in regard to the eyes,
+  it is to be noted that no Crustacean has structures corresponding to
+  the peculiar diplostichous central eyes, though these occur again
+  (with differences in detail) in _Hexapoda_. Possibly, however, an
+  investigation of the development of the median eyes of some Crustacea
+  (Apus, Palaemon) may prove them to be diplostichous in origin.
+
+  3. _The so-called_ "_Coxal Glands_."--In 1882 (_Proc. Roy. Soc_. No.
+  221) Lankester described under the name "coxal glands" a pair of
+  brilliantly white oviform bodies lying in the Scorpion's prosoma
+  immediately above the coxae of the fifth and sixth pairs of legs (fig.
+  27). These bodies had been erroneously supposed by Newport (12) and
+  other observers to be glandular outgrowths of the alimentary canal.
+  They are really excretory glands, and communicate with the exterior by
+  a very minute aperture on the posterior face of the coxa of the fifth
+  limb on each side. When examined with the microscope, by means of the
+  usual section method, they are seen to consist of a labyrinthine tube
+  lined with peculiar cells, each cell having a deep vertically striated
+  border on the surface farthest from the lumen, as is seen in the cells
+  of some renal organs. The coils and branches of the tube are packed by
+  connective tissue and blood spaces. A similar pair of coxal glands,
+  lobate instead of ovoid in shape, was described by Lankester in
+  Mygale, and it was also shown by him that the structures in Limulus
+  called "brick-red glands" by Packard have the same structure and
+  position as the coxal glands of Scorpio and Mygale. In Limulus these
+  organs consist each of four horizontal lobes lying on the coxal margin
+  of the second, third, fourth, and fifth prosomatic limbs, the four
+  lobes being connected to one another by a transverse piece or stem
+  (fig. 28). Microscopically their structure is the same in essentials
+  as that of the coxal glands of Scorpio (13). Coxal glands have since
+  been recognized and described in other Arachnida. In 1900 it was shown
+  that the coxal gland of Limulus is provided with a very delicate
+  thin-walled coiled duct which opens, even in the adult condition, by a
+  minute pore on the coxa of the fifth leg (Patten and Hazen, 13A).
+  Previously to this, Lankester's pupil Gulland had shown (1885) that in
+  the embryo the coxal gland is a comparatively simple tube, which opens
+  to the exterior in this position and by its other extremity into a
+  coelomic space. Similar observations were made by Laurie (17) in
+  Lankester's laboratory (1890) with regard to the early condition of
+  the coxal gland of Scorpio, and by Bertkau (41) as to that of the
+  spider Atypus. H.M. Bernard (13B) showed that the opening remains in
+  the adult scorpion. In all the embryonic or permanent opening is on
+  the coxa of the fifth pair of prosomatic limbs. Thus an organ newly
+  discovered in Scorpio was found to have its counterpart in Limulus.
+
+  The name "coxal gland" needs to be carefully distinguished from
+  "crural gland," with which it is apt to be confused. The crural
+  glands, which occur in many terrestrial Arthropods, are epidermal in
+  origin and totally distinct from the coxal glands. The coxal glands of
+  the Arachnida are structures of the same nature as the green glands of
+  the higher Crustacea and the so-called "shell glands" of the
+  Entomostraca. The latter open at the base of the fifth pair of limbs
+  of the Crustacean, just as the coxal glands open on the coxal joint of
+  the fifth pair of limbs of the Arachnid. Both belong to the category
+  of "coelomoducts," namely, tubular or funnel-like portions of the
+  coelom opening to the exterior in pairs in each somite (potentially,)
+  and usually persisting in only a few somites as either "urocoels"
+  (renal organs) or "gonocoets" (genital tubes). In Peripatus they occur
+  in every somite of the body. They have till recently been very
+  generally identified with the nephridia of Chaetopod worms, but there
+  is good reason for considering the true nephridia (typified by the
+  nephridia of the earthworm) as a distinct class of organs (see
+  Lankester in vol. ii. chap. in. of _A Treatise on Zoology_, 1900). The
+  genital ducts of Arthropoda are, like the green glands, shell glands
+  and coxal glands, to be regarded as coelomoducts (gonocoels). The
+  coxal glands do not establish any special connexion between Limulus
+  and Scorpio, since they also occur in the same somite in the lower
+  Crustacea, but it is to be noted that the coxal glands of Limulus are
+  in minute structure and probably in function more like those of
+  Arachnids than those of Crustacea.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--The remaining three pairs of mesosomatic
+  appendages of Scorpio and Limulus. Letters as in fig. 14. l130
+  indicates that there are 130 lamellae in the scorpion's lung-book,
+  whilst l150 indicates that 150 similar lamellae are counted in the
+  gill of Limulus.
+
+  (After Lankester, _loc. cit._)]
+
+  4. _The Entosternites and their Minute Structure._--Strauss-Dürckheim
+  (1) was the first to insist on the affinity between Limulus and the
+  Arachnids, indicated by the presence of a free suspended entosternum
+  or plastron or entosternite in both. We have figured here (figs. 1 to
+  6) the entosternites of Limulus, Scorpio and Mygale. Lankester some
+  years ago made a special study of the histology (3) of these
+  entosternites for the purpose of comparison, and also ascertained the
+  relations of the very numerous muscles which are inserted into them
+  (4). The entosternites are cartilaginous in texture, but they have
+  neither the chemical character nor the microscopic structure of the
+  hyaline cartilage of Vertebrates. They yield chitin in place of
+  chondrin or gelatin--as does also the cartilage of the Cephalopod's
+  endoskeleton. In microscopic structure they all present the closest
+  agreement with one another. We find a firm, homogeneous or sparsely
+  fibrillated matrix in which are embedded nucleated cells (corpuscles
+  of protoplasm) arranged in rows of three, six or eight, parallel with
+  the adjacent lines of fibrillation.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Diagram to show the way in which an
+  outgrowing gill-process bearing blood-holding lamellae, may give rise,
+  if the sternal body wall sinks inwards, to a lung-chamber with
+  air-holding lamellae.
+
+    I is the embryonic condition.
+    bs, Blood sinus.
+    L is the condition of outgrowth with gl, gill lamellae.
+    A is the condition of in-sinking of the sternal surface and
+      consequent enclosure of the lamelligerous surface of the appendage
+      in a chamber with narrow orifice--the pulmonary air-holding
+      chamber.
+    pl, Pulmonary lamellae.
+    bs, Blood sinus.
+
+  (After Kingsley.)]
+
+  A minute entosternite having the above-described structure is found in
+  the Crustacean Apus between the bases of the mandibles, and also in
+  the Decapoda in a similar position, but in no Crustacean does it
+  attain to any size or importance. On the other hand, the entosternite
+  of the Arachnida is a very large and important feature in the
+  structure of the prosoma, and must play an important part in the
+  economy of these organisms. In Limulus (figs. 1 and 2) it has as many
+  as twenty-five pairs of muscles attached to it, coming to it from the
+  bases of the surrounding limbs and from the dorsal carapace and from
+  the pharynx. It consists of an oblong plate 2 in. in length and 1 in
+  breadth, with a pair of tendinous outgrowths standing out from it at
+  right angles on each side. It "floats" between the prosomatic nerve
+  centres and the alimentary canal. In each somite of the mesosoma is a
+  small, free entosternite having a similar position, but below or
+  ventral to the nerve cords, and having a smaller number of muscles
+  attached to it. The entosternite was probably in origin part of the
+  fibrous connective tissue lying close to the integument of the sternal
+  surface--giving attachment to muscles corresponding more or less to
+  those at present attached to it. It became isolated and detached, why
+  or with what advantage to the organism it is difficult to say, and at
+  that period of Arachnidan development the great ventral nerve cords
+  occupied a more lateral position than they do at present. We know that
+  such a lateral position of the nerve cords preceded the median
+  position in both Arthropoda and Chaetopoda. Subsequently to the
+  floating off of the entosternite the approximation of the nerve cords
+  took place in the prosoma, and thus they were able to take up a
+  position below the entosternite. In the mesosoma the approximation had
+  occurred before the entosternites were formed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Embryo of scorpion, ventral view showing
+  somites and appendages.
+
+    sgc, Frontal groove.
+    sa, Rudiment of lateral eyes.
+    obl, Camerostome (upper lip).
+    so, Sense-organ of Patten.
+    PrGabp^1, Rudiment of the appendage of the praegenital somite which
+      disappears.
+    abp^2, Rudiment of the right half of the genital operculum.
+    abp^3, Rudiment of the right pecten.
+    abp^4 to abp^7. Rudiments of the four appendages which carry the
+      pulmonary lamellae.
+    I to VI, Rudiments of the six limbs of the prosoma.
+    VIIPrG, The evanescent praegenital somite.
+    VIII, The first mesosomatic somite or genital somite.
+    IX, The second mesosomatic somite or pectiniferous somite.
+    X to XIII, The four pulmoniferous somites.
+    XIV, The first metasomatic somite.
+
+  (After Brauer, _Zeitsch. wiss. Zool_., vol. lix., 1895.)]
+
+  In the scorpion (figs. 3 and 4) the entosternite has tough
+  membrane-like outgrowths which connect it with the body-wall, both
+  dorsally and ventrally forming an oblique diaphragm, cutting off the
+  cavity of the prosoma from that of the mesosoma. It was described by
+  Newport as "the diaphragm." Only the central and horizontal parts of
+  this structure correspond precisely to the entosternite of Limulus:
+  the right and left anterior processes (marked ap in figs. 3 and 4, and
+  RAP, LAP, in figs. 1 and 2) correspond in the two animals, and the
+  median lateral process _lmp_ of the scorpion represents the tendinous
+  outgrowths ALR, PLR of Limulus. The scorpion's entosternite gives rise
+  to outgrowths, besides the great posterior flaps, pf, which form the
+  diaphragm, unrepresented in Limulus. These are a ventral arch forming
+  a neural canal through which the great nerve cords pass (figs. 3 and
+  4, _snp_), and further a dorsal gastric canal and arterial canal which
+  transmit the alimentary tract and the dorsal artery respectively
+  (figs. 3 and 4, GC, DR).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Portion of a similar embryo at a later stage
+  of growth. The praegenital somite, VII PrG, is still present, but has
+  lost its rudimentary appendages; go, the genital operculum, left half;
+  Km, the left pecten; abp^4 to abp^7, the rudimentary appendages of
+  the lung-sacs.
+
+  (After Brauer, _loc. cit_.)]
+
+  In Limulus small entosternites are found in each somite of the
+  appendage-bearing mesosoma, and we find in Scorpio, in the only somite
+  of the mesosoma which has a well-developed pair of appendages, that of
+  the pectens, a small entosternite with ten pairs of muscles inserted
+  into it. The supra-pectinal entosternite lies ventral to the nerve
+  cords.
+
+  In Mygale (figs. 5 and 6) the form of the entosternite is more like
+  that of Limulus than is that of Scorpio. The anterior notch Ph.N. is
+  similar to that in Limulus, whilst the imbricate triangular pieces of
+  the posterior median region resemble the similarly-placed structures
+  of Limulus in a striking manner.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Section through an early embryo of _Limulus
+  longispina_, showing seven transverse divisions in the region of the
+  unsegmented anterior carapace. The seventh, VII, is anterior to the
+  genital operculum, op, and is the cavity of the praegenital somite
+  which is more or less completely suppressed in subsequent development,
+  possibly indicated by the area marked VII in fig. 7 and by the great
+  entopophyses of the prosomatic carapace.
+
+  (After Kishinouye, _Journ. Sci. Coll. Japan_, vol. v., 1892.)]
+
+  It must be confessed that we are singularly ignorant as to the
+  functional significance of these remarkable organs--the entosternites.
+  Their movement in an upward or downward direction in Limulus and
+  Mygale must exert a pumping action on the blood contained in the
+  dorsal arteries and the ventral veins respectively. In Scorpio the
+  completion of the horizontal plate by oblique naps, so as to form an
+  actual diaphragm shutting off the cavity of the prosoma from the rest
+  of the body, possibly gives to the organs contained in the anterior
+  chamber a physiological advantage in respect of the supply of arterial
+  blood and its separation from the venous blood of the mesosoma.
+  Possibly the movement of the diaphragm may determine the passage of
+  air into or out of the lung-sacs. Muscular fibres connected with the
+  suctorial pharynx are in Limulus inserted into the entosternite, and
+  the activity of the two organs may be correlated.
+
+  5. _The Blood and the Blood-vascular System._--The blood fluids of
+  Limulus and Scorpio are very similar. Not only are the blood
+  corpuscles of Limulus more like in form and granulation to those of
+  Scorpio than to those of any Crustacean, but the fluid is in both
+  animals strongly impregnated with the blue-coloured respiratory
+  proteid, haemocyanin. This body occurs also in the blood of Crustacea
+  and of Molluscs, but its abundance in both Limulus and Scorpio is very
+  marked, and gives to the freshly-shed blood a strong indigo-blue tint.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--View of the ventral surface of the mid-line
+  of the prosomatic region of _Limulus polyphemus_. The coxae of the
+  five pairs of limbs following the chelicerae were arranged in a series
+  on each side between the mouth, M, and the metasternites, mets.
+
+    sf, The sub-frontal median sclerite.
+    Ch, The chelicerae.
+    cam, The camerostome or upper lip.
+    M, The mouth.
+    pmst, The promesosternal sclerite of chitinous plate, unpaired.
+    mets, The right and left metasternites (corresponding to the
+      similarly placed pentagonal sternite of Scorpio). Natural size.
+
+  (After Lankester.)]
+
+  The great dorsal contractile vessel or "heart" of Limulus is closely
+  similar to that of Scorpio; its ostia or incurrent orifices are placed
+  in the same somites as those of Scorpio, but there is one additional
+  posterior pair. The origin of the paired arteries from the heart
+  differs in Limulus from the arrangement obtaining in Scorpio, in that
+  a pair of lateral commissural arteries exist in Limulus (as described
+  by Alphonse Milne-Edwards (6)) leading to a suppression of the more
+  primitive direct connexion of the four pairs of posterior lateral
+  arteries and of the great median posterior arteries with the heart
+  itself (fig. 29). The arterial system is very completely developed in
+  both Limulus and Scorpio, branching repeatedly until minute arterioles
+  are formed, not to be distinguished from true capillaries; these open
+  into irregular swollen vessels which are the veins or venous sinuses.
+  A very remarkable feature in Limulus, first described by Owen, is the
+  close accompaniment of the prosomatic nerve centres and nerves by
+  arteries, so close indeed that the great ganglion mass and its
+  out-running nerves are actually sunk in or invested by arteries. The
+  connexion is not so intimate in Scorpio, but is nevertheless a very
+  close one, closer than we find in any other Arthropods in which the
+  arterial system is well developed, e.g. the Myriapoda and some of the
+  arthrostracous Crustacea. It seems that there is a primitive tendency
+  in the Arthropoda for the arteries to accompany the nerve cords, and a
+  "supra-spinal" artery--that is to say, an artery in close relation to
+  the ventral nerve cords--has been described in several cases. On the
+  other hand, in many Arthropods, especially those which possess
+  tracheae, the arteries do not have a long course, but soon open into
+  wide blood sinuses. Scorpio certainly comes nearer to Limulus in the
+  high development of its arterial system, and the intimate relation of
+  the anterior aorta and its branches to the nerve centres and great
+  nerves, than does any other Arthropod.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2l.--Development of the lateral eyes of a
+  scorpion. h, Epidermic cell-layer; _mes_, mesoblastic connective
+  tissue; n, nerves; II, III, IV, V, depressions of the epidermis in
+  each of which a cuticular lens will be formed.
+
+  (_From Korschelt and Heider, after Laurie_.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Section through the lateral eye of
+  _Euscorpius italicus_.
+
+    lens, Cuticular lens.
+    nerv c, Retinal cells (nerve-end cells).
+    rhabd, Rhabdomes.
+    nerv f, Nerve fibres of the optic nerve.
+    int, Intermediate cells (lying between the bases of the retinal
+      cells).
+
+  (After Lankester and Bourne from Parker and Habwell's _Text book of
+  Zoology_, Macmillan & Co.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Section through a portion of the lateral eye
+  of Limulus, showing three ommatidia--A, B and C. hyp, The epidermic
+  cell-layer (so-called hypodermis), the cells of which increase in
+  volume below each lens, l, and become nerve-end cells or
+  retinula-cells, rt; in A, the letters rh point to a rhabdomere
+  secreted by the cell rt; c, the peculiar central spherical cell; n,
+  nerve fibres; mes, mesoblastic skeletal tissue; ch, chitinous
+  cuticle.
+
+  (From Korschelt and Heider after Watase.)]
+
+  An arrangement of great functional importance in regard to the venous
+  system must now be described, which was shown in 1883 by Lankester to
+  be common to Limulus and Scorpio. This arrangement has not hitherto
+  been detected in any other class than the Arachnida, and if it should
+  ultimately prove to be peculiar to that group, would have considerable
+  weight as a proof of the close genetic affinity of Limulus and
+  Scorpio.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Diagrams of the development and adult
+  structure of one of the paired central eyes of a scorpion.
+
+    A, Early condition before the lens is deposited, showing the folding
+      of the epidermic cell-layer into three.
+    B, Diagram showing the nature of this infolding.
+    C, Section through the fully formed eye.
+    h, Epidermic cell-layer.
+    r, The retinal portion of the same which, owing to the infolding,
+      lies between gl, the corneagen or lens-forming portion, and pr, the
+      post-retinal or capsular portion or fold.
+    l, Cuticular lens.
+    g, Line separating lens from the lens-forming or corneagen cells of
+      the epidermis.
+    n, Nerve fibres.
+    rh, Rhabdomeres.
+
+    [How the inversion of the nerve-end-cells and their connexion with
+    the nerve-fibres is to be reconciled with the condition found in the
+    adult, or with that of the monostichous eye, has not hitherto been
+    explained.]
+
+  (From Korschelt and Heider.)]
+
+  The great pericardial sinus is strongly developed in both animals. Its
+  walls are fibrous and complete, and it holds a considerable volume of
+  blood when the heart itself is contracted. Opening in pairs in each
+  somite, right and left into the pericardial sinus are large veins,
+  which bring the blood respectively from the gill-books and the
+  lung-books to that chamber, whence it passes by the ostia into the
+  heart. The blood is brought to the respiratory organs in both cases by
+  a great venous collecting sinus having a ventral median position. In
+  both animals _the wall of the pericardial sinus is connected by
+  vertical muscular bands to the wall of the ventral venous sinus_ (its
+  lateral expansions around the lung-books in Scorpio) in each somite
+  through which the pericardium passes. There are seven pairs of these
+  _veno-pericardiac vertical muscles_ in Scorpio, and eight in Limulus
+  (see figs. 30, 31, 32). It is obvious that the contraction of these
+  muscles must cause a depression of the floor of the pericardium and a
+  rising of the roof of the ventral blood sinus, and a consequent
+  increase of volume and flow of blood to each. Whether the pericardium
+  and the ventral sinus are made to expand simultaneously or all the
+  movement is made by one only of the surfaces concerned, must depend on
+  conditions of tension. In any case it is clear that we have in these
+  muscles an apparatus for causing the blood to flow differentially in
+  increased volume into either the pericardium, through the veins
+  leading from the respiratory organs, or from the body generally into
+  the great sinuses which bring the blood to the respiratory organs.
+  These muscles act so as to pump the blood through the respiratory
+  organs.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG 25.--Section through one of the central eyes of a
+  young Limulus.
+
+    L, Cuticular or corneous lens.
+    hy, Epidermic cell-layer.
+    corn, Its corneagen portion immediately underlying the lens.
+    ret, Retinula cells.
+    nf, Nerve fibres.
+    con. tiss, Connective tissue (mesoblastic skeletal tissue).
+
+  (After Lankester and Bourne, _Q. J. Mic. Sci._, 1883.)]
+
+  It is not surprising that with so highly developed an arterial system
+  Limulus and Scorpio should have a highly developed mechanism for
+  determining the flow of blood to the respiratory organs. That this is,
+  so to speak, a need of animals with localized respiratory organs is
+  seen by the existence of provisions serving a similar purpose in other
+  animals, e.g. the branchial hearts of the Cephalopoda.
+
+  The veno-pericardiac muscles of Scorpio were seen and figured by
+  Newport but not described by him. Those of Limulus were described and
+  figured by Alphonse Milne-Edwards, but he called them merely
+  "transparent ligaments," and did not discover their muscular
+  structure. They are figured and their importance for the first time
+  recognized in the memoir on the muscular and skeletal systems of
+  Limulus and Scorpio by Lankester, Beck and Bourne (4).
+
+  6. _Alimentary Canal and Gastric Glands._--The alimentary canal in
+  Scorpio, as in Limulus, is provided with a powerful suctorial pharynx,
+  in the working of which extrinsic muscles take a part. The mouth is
+  relatively smaller in Scorpio than in Limulus--in fact is minute, as
+  it is in all the terrestrial Arachnida which suck the juices of either
+  animals or plants. In both, the alimentary canal takes a straight
+  course from the pharynx (which bends under it downwards and backwards
+  towards the mouth in Limulus) to the anus, and is a simple, narrow,
+  cylindrical tube (fig. 33). The only point in which the gut of Limulus
+  resembles that of Scorpio rather than that of any of the Crustacea, is
+  in possessing more than a single pair of ducts or lateral outgrowths
+  connected with ramified gastric glands or gastric caeca. Limulus has
+  two pairs of these, Scorpio as many as six pairs. The Crustacea never
+  have more than one pair. The minute microscopic structure of the
+  gastric glands in the two animals is practically identical. The
+  functions of these gastric diverticula have never been carefully
+  investigated. It is very probable that in Scorpio they do not serve
+  merely to secrete a digestive fluid (shown in other Arthropoda to
+  resemble the pancreatic fluid), but that they also become distended by
+  the juices of the prey sucked in by the scorpion--as certainly must
+  occur in the case of the simple unbranched gastric caeca of the
+  spiders.
+
+  The most important difference which exists between the structure of
+  Limulus and that of Scorpio is found in the hinder region of the
+  alimentary canal. Scorpio is here provided with a single or double
+  pair of renal excretory tubes, which have been identified by earlier
+  authors with the Malpighian tubes of the Hexapod and Myriapod insects.
+  Limulus is devoid of any such tubes. We shall revert to this subject
+  below.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 26.
+
+    A, Diagram of a retinula of the central eye of a scorpion consisting
+      of five retina-cells (ret), with adherent branched pigment cells
+      (pig).
+    B, Rhabdom of the same, consisting of five confluent rhabdomeres.
+    C, Transverse section of the rhabdom of a retinula of the scorpion's
+      central eye, showing its five constituent rhabdomeres as rays of a
+      star.
+    D, Transverse section of a retinula of the lateral eye of Limulus,
+      showing ten retinula cells (ret), each bearing a rhabdomere (rhab).
+
+  (After Lankester.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Diagram showing the position of the coxal
+  glands of a scorpion, _Buthus australis_, Lin., in relation to the
+  legs, diaphragm (entosternal flap), and the gastric caeca.
+
+    1 to 6, The bases of the six prosomatic limbs.
+    A, prosomatic gastric gland (sometimes called salivary).
+    B, Coxal gland.
+    C, Diaphragm of Newport = fibrous flap of the entosternum.
+    D, Mesosomatic gastric caeca (so-called liver).
+    E, Alimentary canal.
+
+  (From Lankester, _Q. J. Mic. Sci._, vol. xxiv. N.S. p. 152.)]
+
+  7. _Ovaries and Spermaries: Gonocoels and Gonoducts._--The scorpion is
+  remarkable for having the specialized portion of coelom from the walls
+  of which egg-cells or sperm-cells are developed according to sex, in
+  the form of a simple but extensive network. It is not a pair of simple
+  tubes, nor of dendriform tubes, but a closed network. The same fact is
+  true of Limulus, as was shown by Owen (7) in regard to the ovary, and
+  by Benham (14) in regard to the testis. This is a very definite and
+  remarkable agreement, since such a reticular gonocoel is not found in
+  Crustacea (except in the male Apus). Moreover, there is a significant
+  agreement in the character of the spermatozoa of Limulus and Scorpio.
+  The Crustacea are--with the exception of the Cirrhipedia--remarkable
+  for having stiff, motionless spermatozoids. In Limulus Lankester found
+  (15) the spermatozoa to possess active flagelliform "tails," and to
+  resemble very closely those of Scorpio which, as are those of most
+  terrestrial Arthropoda, are actively motile. This is a microscopic
+  point of agreement, but is none the less significant.
+
+  In regard to the important structures concerned with the fertilization
+  of the egg, Limulus and Scorpio differ entirely from one another. The
+  eggs of Limulus are fertilized in the sea after they have been laid.
+  Scorpio, being a terrestrial animal, fertilizes by copulation. The
+  male possesses elaborate copulatory structures of a chitinous nature,
+  and the eggs are fertilized in the female without even quitting the
+  place where they are formed on the wall of the reticular gonocoel. The
+  female scorpion is viviparous, and the young are produced in a highly
+  developed condition as fully formed scorpions.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--The right coxal gland of _Limulus
+  polyphemus_, Latr.
+
+    a^2 to a^5, Posterior borders of the chitinous bases of the coxae of
+      the second, third, fourth and fifth prosomatic limbs.
+    b, Longitudinal lobe or stolon of the coxal gland.
+    c, Its four transverse lobes or outgrowths corresponding to the four
+      coxae.
+
+  (From Lankester, _loc. cit_, after Packard.)]
+
+  _Differences between Limulus and Scorpio._--We have now passed in
+  review the principal structural features in which Limulus agrees with
+  Scorpio and differs from other Arthropoda. There remains for
+  consideration the one important structural difference between the two
+  animals. Limulus agrees with the majority of the Crustacea in being
+  destitute of renal excretory caeca or tubes opening into the hinder
+  part of the gut. Scorpio, on the other hand, in common with all
+  air-breathing Arthropoda except Peripatus, possesses these tubules,
+  which are often called Malpighian tubes. A great deal has been made of
+  this difference by some writers. It has been considered by them as
+  proving that Limulus, in spite of all its special agreements with
+  Scorpio (which, however, have scarcely been appreciated by the writers
+  in question), really belongs to the Crustacean line of descent, whilst
+  Scorpio, by possessing Malpighian tubes, is declared to be
+  unmistakably tied together with the other Arachnida to the tracheate
+  Arthropods, the Hexapods, Diplopods, and Chilopods, which all possess
+  Malpighian tubes.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 29.--Diagram of the arterial system of A, Scorpio,
+  and B, Limulus. The Roman numerals indicate the body somites and the
+  two figures are adjusted for comparison. ce, Cerebral arteries; sp,
+  supra-spinal or medullary artery; c, caudal artery; l, lateral
+  anastomotic artery of Limulus. The figure B also shows the peculiar
+  neural investiture formed by the cerebral arteries in Limulus and the
+  derivation from this of the arteries to the limbs, III, IV, VI,
+  whereas in Scorpio the latter have a separate origin from the anterior
+  aorta.
+
+  (From Lankester, "Limulus an Arachnid.")]
+
+  It must be pointed out that the presence or absence of such renal
+  excretory tubes opening into the intestine appears to be a question of
+  adaptation to the changed physiological conditions of respiration, and
+  not of morphological significance, since a pair of renal excretory
+  tubes of this nature is found in certain Amphipod Crustacea
+  (Talorchestia, &c.) which have abandoned a purely aquatic life. This
+  view has been accepted and supported by Professors Korschelt and
+  Heider (16). An important fact in its favour was discovered by Laurie
+  (17), who investigated the embryology of two species of Scorpio under
+  Lankester's direction. It appears that the Malpighian tubes of Scorpio
+  are developed from the mesenteron, viz. that portion of the gut which
+  is formed by the hypoblast, whereas in Hexapod insects the similar
+  caecal tubes are developed from the proctodaeum or in-pushed portion
+  of the gut which is formed from epiblast. In fact it is not possible
+  to maintain that the renal excretory tubes of the gut are of one
+  common origin in the Arthropoda. They have appeared independently in
+  connexion with a change in the excretion of nitrogenous waste in
+  Arachnids, Crustacea, and the other classes of Arthropoda when aerial,
+  as opposed to aquatic, respiration has been established--and they have
+  been formed in some cases from the mesenteron, in other cases from the
+  proctodaeum. Their appearance in the air-breathing Arachnids does not
+  separate those forms from the water-breathing Arachnids which are
+  devoid of them, any more than does their appearance in certain
+  Amphipoda separate those Crustaceans from the other members of the
+  class.
+
+  Further, it is pointed out by Korschelt and Heider that the hinder
+  portion of the gut frequently acts in Arthropoda as an organ of
+  nitrogenous excretion in the absence of any special excretory tubules,
+  and that the production of such caeca from its surface in separate
+  lines of descent does not involve any elaborate or unlikely process of
+  growth. In other words, the Malpighian tubes of the terrestrial
+  Arachnida are _homoplastic_ with those of Hexapoda and Myriapoda, and
+  not _homogenetic_ with them. We are compelled to take a similar view
+  of the agreement between the tracheal air-tubes of Arachnida and other
+  tracheate Arthropods. They are homoplasts (see 18) one of another, and
+  do not owe their existence in the various classes compared to a common
+  inheritance of an ancestral tracheal system.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--View from below of a scorpion (_Buthus
+occitanus_) opened and dissected so as to show the pericardium with its
+muscles, the lateral arteries, and the tergo-sternal muscles.
+
+    PRO, Prosoma.
+    dpm, Dorso-plastral muscle.
+    art, Lateral artery.
+    tsm^1, Tergo-sternal muscle (labelled dv in fig. 31) of the second
+      (pectiniferous) mesosomatic somite; this is the most anterior pair
+      of the series of six, none are present in the genital somite.
+    tsm^4, Tergo-sternal muscle of the fifth mesosomatic somite.
+    tsm^6, Tergo-sternal muscle of the enlarged first metasomatic
+      somite.
+    Per, Pericardium.
+    VPM^1 to VPM^7, The series of seven pairs of veno-pericardiac
+      muscles (labelled pv in fig. 31).
+
+    There is some reason to admit the existence of another more anterior
+    pair of these muscles in Scorpio; this would make the number exactly
+    correspond with the number in Limulus.
+
+(After Lankester, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ vol. xi, 1883.)]
+
+_Conclusions arising from the Close Affinity of Limulus and
+Scorpio._--When we consider the relationships of the various classes of
+Arthropoda, having accepted and established the fact of the close
+genetic affinity of Limulus and Scorpio, we are led to important
+conclusions. In such a consideration we have to make use not only of the
+fact just mentioned, but of three important generalizations which serve
+as it were as implements for the proper estimation of the relationships
+of any series of organic forms. First of all there is the generalization
+that the relationships of the various forms of animals (or of plants) to
+one another is that of the ultimate twigs of a much-branching
+genealogical tree. Secondly, identity of structure in two organisms does
+not necessarily indicate that the identical structure has been inherited
+from an ancestor common to the two organisms compared (homogeny), but
+may be due to independent development of a like structure in two
+different lines of descent (homoplasy). Thirdly, those members of a
+group which, whilst exhibiting undoubted structural characters
+indicative of their proper assignment to that group, yet are simpler
+than and inferior in elaboration of their organization to other members
+of the group, are not necessarily representatives of the earlier and
+primitive phases in the development of the group--but are very often
+examples of retrogressive change or degeneration. The second and third
+implements of analysis above cited are of the nature of cautions or
+checks. Agreements are not _necessarily_ due to common inheritance;
+simplicity is not _necessarily_ primitive and ancestral.
+
+On the other hand, we must not rashly set down agreements as due to
+"homoplasy" or "convergence of development" if we find two or three or
+more concurrent agreements. The probability is against agreement being
+due to homoplasy when the agreement involves a number of really separate
+(not correlated) coincidences. Whilst the chances are in favour of some
+_one_ homoplastic coincidence or structural agreement occurring between
+some member or other of a large group a and some member or other of a
+large group b, the matter is very different when by such an initial
+coincidence the two members have been particularized. The chances
+against these two selected members exhibiting _another_ really
+independent homoplastic agreement are enormous: let us say 10,000 to 1.
+The chances against yet another coincidence are a hundred million to
+one, and against yet one more "coincidence" they are the square of a
+hundred million to one. Homoplasy can only be assumed when the
+coincidence is of a simple nature, and is such as may be reasonably
+supposed to have arisen by the action of like selective conditions upon
+like material in two separate lines of descent.[4]
+
+So, too, degeneration is not to be lightly assumed as the explanation of
+a simplicity of structure. There is a very definite criterion of the
+simplicity due to degeneration, which can in most cases be applied.
+Degenerative simplicity is never uniformly distributed over all the
+structures of the organism. It affects many or nearly all the structures
+of the body, but leaves some, it may be only one, at a high level of
+elaboration and complexity. Ancestral simplicity is more uniform, and
+does not co-exist with specialization and elaboration of a single organ.
+Further: degeneration cannot be inferred safely by the examination of an
+isolated case; usually we obtain a series of forms indicating the steps
+of a change in structure--and what we have to decide is whether the
+movement has been from the simple to the more complex, or from the more
+complex to the simple. The feathers of a peacock afford a convenient
+example of primitive and degenerative simplicity. The highest point of
+elaboration in colour, pattern and form is shown by the great
+eye-painted tail feathers. From these we can pass by gradual transitions
+in two directions, viz. either to the simple lateral tail feathers with
+a few rami only, developed only on one side of the shaft and of uniform
+metallic coloration--or to the simple contour feathers of small size,
+with the usual symmetrical series of numerous rami right and left of the
+shaft and no remarkable colouring. The one-sided specialization and the
+peculiar metallic colouring of the lateral tail feathers mark them as
+the extreme terms of a degenerative series, whilst the symmetry,
+likeness of constituent parts _inter se_, and absence of specialized
+pigment, as well as the fact that they differ little from any average
+feather of birds in general, mark the contour feather as primitively
+simple, and as the starting-point from which the highly elaborated
+eye-painted tail feather has gradually evolved.
+
+Applying these principles to the consideration of the Arachnida, we
+arrive at the conclusion that the smaller and simpler Arachnids are not
+the more primitive, but that the Acari or mites are, in fact, a
+degenerate group. This was maintained by Lankester in 1878 (19), again
+in 1881 (20); it was subsequently announced as a novelty by Claus in
+1885 (21). Though the aquatic members of a class of animals are in some
+instances derived from terrestrial forms, the usual transition is from
+an aquatic ancestry to more recent land-living forms. There is no doubt,
+from a consideration of the facts of structure, that the aquatic
+water-breathing Arachnids, represented in the past by the Eurypterines
+and to-day by the sole survivor Limulus, have preceded the terrestrial
+air-breathing forms of that group. Hence we see at once that the
+better-known Arachnida form a series, leading from Limulus-like aquatic
+creatures through scorpions, spiders and harvest-men, to the degenerate
+Acari or mites. The spiders are specialized and reduced in apparent
+complexity, as compared with the scorpions, but they cannot be regarded
+as degenerate since the concentration of structure which occurs in them
+results in greater efficiency and power than are exhibited by the
+scorpion. The determination of the relative degree of perfection of
+organization attained by two animals compared is difficult when we
+introduce, as seems inevitable, the question of efficiency and power,
+and do not confine the question to the perfection of morphological
+development. We have no measure of the degree of power manifested by
+various animals--though it would be possible to arrive at some
+conclusions as to how that "power" should be estimated. It is not
+possible here to discuss that matter further. We must be content to
+point out that it seems that the spiders, the pedipalps, and other large
+Arachnids have not been derived from the scorpions directly, but have
+independently developed from aquatic ancestors, and from one of these
+independent groups--probably through the harvest-men from the
+spiders--the Acari have finally resulted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Diagram of a lateral view of a longitudinal
+section of a scorpion.
+
+After Beck, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ VOL. xi., 1883.
+
+  d, Chelicera.
+  ch, Chela.
+  cam_, Camerostome.
+  m, Mouth.
+  ent_, Entosternum.
+  p, Pecten.
+  stig^1, First pulmonary aperture.
+  stig^4, Fourth pulmonary aperture.
+  dam, Muscle from carapace to a praeoral entosclerite.
+  ad, Muscle from carapace to entosternum.
+  md, Muscle from tergite of genital somite to entosternum (same as dpm
+    in fig. 30).
+  dv^1 to dv^6, Dorso-ventral muscles (same as the series labelled tsm
+    in fig. 30).
+  pv^1 to pv^7, The seven veno-pericardiac muscles of the right side
+    (labelled VPM in fig. 30).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Diagram of a lateral view of a longitudinal
+section of Limulus.
+
+After Benham, _Trans Zool. Soc._ vol. xi, 1883.
+
+  Suc, Suctorial pharynx.
+  al, Alimentary canal.
+  Ph, Pharynx.
+  M, Mouth.
+  Est, Entosternum.
+  VS, Ventral venous sinus.
+  chi, Chilaria.
+  go, Genital operculum.
+  br^1 to br^5, Branchial appendages,
+  met, Unsegmented metasoma.
+  Entap^4, Fourth dorsal entapophysis of left side.
+  tsm, Tergo-sternal muscles, six pairs as in Scorpio (labelled dv in
+    fig. 31).
+  VPM^1 to VPM^8, The eight pairs of veno-pericardiac muscles (labelled
+    pv in fig. 31). VPM^1 is probably represented in Scorpio, though not
+    marked in figs. 30 and 31.]
+
+Leaving that question for consideration in connexion with the systematic
+statement of the characters of the various groups of Arachnida which
+follows on p. 299, it is well now to consider the following question,
+viz., seeing that Limulus and Scorpio are such highly developed and
+specialized forms, and that they seem to constitute as it were the first
+and second steps in the series of recognized Arachnida--what do we know,
+or what are we led to suppose with regard to the more primitive
+Arachnida from which the Eurypterines and Limulus and Scorpio have
+sprung? Do we know in the recent or fossil condition any such primitive
+Arachnids? Such a question is not only legitimate, but prompted by the
+analogy of at least one other great class of Arthropods. The great
+Arthropod class, the Crustacea, presents to the zoologist at the present
+day an immense range of forms, comprising the primitive phyllopods, the
+minute copepods, the parasitic cirrhipedes and the powerful crabs and
+lobsters, and the highly elaborated sand-hoppers and slaters. It has
+been insisted, by those who accepted Lankester's original doctrine of
+the direct or genetic affinity of the Chaetopoda and Arthropoda, that
+Apus and Branchipus really come very near to the ancestral forms which
+connected those two great branches of Appendiculate (Parapodiate)
+animals. On the other hand, the land crabs are at an immense distance
+from these simple forms. The record of the Crustacean family-tree is, in
+fact, a fairly complete one--the lower primitive members of the group
+are still represented by living forms in great abundance. In the case of
+the Arachnida, if we have to start their genealogical history with
+Limulus and Scorpio, we are much in the same position as we should be in
+dealing with the Crustacea, were the whole of the Entomostraca and the
+whole of the Arthrostraca wiped out of existence and record. There is no
+possibility of doubt that the series of forms corresponding in the
+Arachnidan line of descent, to the forms distinguished in the Crustacean
+line of descent as the lower grade--the Entomostraca--have ceased to
+exist, and not only so, but have left little evidence in the form of
+fossils as to their former existence and nature. It must, however, be
+admitted as probable that we should find some evidence, in ancient rocks
+or in the deep sea, of the early more primitive Arachnids. And it must
+be remembered that such forms must be expected to exhibit, when found,
+differences from Limulus and Scorpio as great as those which separate
+Apus and Cancer. The existing Arachnida, like the higher Crustacea, are
+"nomomeristic," that is to say, have a fixed typical number of somites
+to the body. Further, they are like the higher Crustacea,
+"somatotagmic," that is to say, they have this limited set of somites
+grouped in three (or more) "tagmata" or regions of a fixed number of
+similarly modified somites --each tagma differing in the modification of
+its fixed number of somites from that characterizing a neighbouring
+"tagma." The most primitive among the lower Crustacea, on the other
+hand, for example, the Phyllopoda, have not a fixed number of somites,
+some genera--even allied species--have more, some less, within wide
+limits; they are "anomomeristic." They also, as is generally the case
+with anomomeristic animals, do not exhibit any conformity to a fixed
+plan of "tagmatism" or division of the somites of the body into regions
+sharply marked off from one another; the head or prosomatic tagma is
+followed by a trunk consisting of somites which either graduate in
+character as we pass along the series or exhibit a large variety in
+different genera, families and orders, of grouping of the somites. They
+are anomotagmic, as well as anomomeristic.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--The alimentary canal and gastric glands of a
+scorpion (A) and of Limulus (B).
+
+From Lankester, "Limulua an Arachnid."
+
+  ps, Muscular suctorial enlargement of the pharynx.
+  sal, Prosomatic pair of gastric caeca in Scorpio, called salivary
+    glands by some writers.
+  c^1, and c^2, The anterior two pairs of gastric caeca and ducts of
+    the mesosomatic region.
+  c^3, c^4 and c^5. Caeca and ducts of Scorpio not represented in
+    Limulus.
+  M, The Malpighian or renal caecal diverticula of Scorpio.
+  pro, The proctodaeum or portion of gut leading to anus and formed
+    embryologically by an inversion of the epiblast at that orifice.]
+
+When it is admitted--as seems to be reasonable--that the primitive
+Arachnida would, like the primitive Crustacea, be anomomeristic and
+anomotagmic, we shall not demand of claimants for the rank of primitive
+Arachnids agreement with Limulus and Scorpio in respect of the exact
+number of their somites and the exact grouping of those somites; and
+when we see how diverse are the modifications of the branches of the
+appendages both in Arachnida and in other classes of Arthropoda (q.v.),
+we shall not over-estimate a difference in the form of this or that
+appendage exhibited by the claimant as compared with the higher
+Arachnids. With those considerations in mind, the claim of the extinct
+group of the trilobites to be considered as representatives of the lower
+and more primitive steps in the Arachnidan genealogy must, it seems,
+receive a favourable judgment. They differ from the Crustacea in that
+they have only a single pair of prae-oral appendages, the second pair
+being definitely developed as mandibles. This fact renders their
+association with the Crustacea impossible, if classification is to be
+the expression of genetic affinity inferred from structural coincidence.
+On the contrary, this particular point is one in which they agree with
+the higher Arachnida. But little is known of the structure of these
+extinct animals; we are therefore compelled to deal with such special
+points of resemblance and difference as their remains still exhibit.
+They had lateral eyes[5] which resemble no known eyes so closely as the
+lateral eyes of Limulus. The general form and structure of their
+prosomatic carapace are in many striking features identical with that of
+Limulus. The trilobation of the head and body--due to the expansion and
+flattening of the sides or "pleura" of the tegumentary skeleton--is so
+closely repeated in the young of Limulus that the latter has been called
+"the trilobite stage" of Limulus (fig. 42 compared with fig. 41). No
+Crustacean exhibits this trilobite form. But most important of the
+evidences presented by the trilobites of affinity with Limulus, and
+therefore with the Arachnida, is the tendency less marked in some,
+strongly carried out in others, to form a pygidial or telsonic shield--a
+fusion of the posterior somites of the body, which is precisely
+identical in character with the metasomatic carapace of Limulus. When to
+this is added the fact that a post-anal spine is developed to a large
+size in some trilobites (fig. 38), like that of Limulus and Scorpio, and
+that lateral spines on the pleura of the somites are frequent as in
+Limulus, and that neither metasomatic fusion of somites nor post-anal
+spine, nor lateral pleural spines are found in any Crustacean, nor all
+three together in any Arthropod besides the trilobites and Limulus--the
+claim of the trilobites to be considered as representing one order of a
+lower grade of Arachnida, comparable to the grade Entomostraca of the
+Crustacea, seems to be established.
+
+The fact that the single pair of prae-oral appendages of trilobites,
+known only as yet in one genus, is in that particular case a pair of
+uni-ramose antennae--does not render the association of trilobites and
+Arachnids improbable. Although the prae-oral pair of appendages in the
+higher Arachnida is usually chelate, it is not always so; in spiders it
+is not so; nor in many Acari. The bi-ramose structure of the post-oral
+limbs, demonstrated by Beecher in the trilobite Triarthrus, is no more
+inconsistent with its claim to be a primitive Arachnid than is the
+foliaceous modification of the limbs in Phyllopods inconsistent with
+their relationship to the Arthrostracous Crustaceans such as Gammarus
+and Oniscus.
+
+Thus, then, it seems that we have in the trilobites the representatives
+of the lower phases of the Arachnidan pedigree. The simple anomomeristic
+trilobite, with its equi-formal somites and equi-formal appendages, is
+one term of the series which ends in the even more simple but degenerate
+Acari. Between the two and at the highest point of the arc, so far as
+morphological differentiation is concerned, stands the scorpion; near to
+it in the trilobite's direction (that is, on the ascending side) are
+Limulus and the Eurypterines--with a long gap, due to obliteration of
+the record, separating them from the trilobite. On the other
+side--tending downwards from the scorpion towards the Acari--are the
+Pedipalpi, the spiders, the book-scorpions, the harvest-men and the
+water-mites.
+
+The strange nobody-crabs or Pycnogonids occupy a place on the ascending
+half of the arc below the Eurypterines and Limulus. They are strangely
+modified and degenerate, but seem to be (as explained in the systematic
+review) the remnant of an Arachnidan group holding the same relation to
+the scorpions which the Laemodipoda hold to the Podophthalmate
+Crustacea.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We have now to offer a classification of the Arachnida and to pass in
+review the larger groups, with a brief statement of their structural
+characteristics.
+
+In the bibliography at the close of this article (referred to by leaded
+arabic numerals in brackets throughout these pages), the titles of works
+are given which contain detailed information as to the genera and
+species of each order or sub-order, their geographical distribution and
+their habits and economy so far as they have been ascertained. The
+limits of space do not permit of a fuller treatment of those matters
+here.
+
+            TABULAR CLASSIFICATION[6] OF THE ARACHNIDA.
+
+                        CLASS. ARACHNIDA.
+
+  _Grade A. ANOMOMERISTICA._
+    Sub-Class. TRILOBITAE.
+      Orders. Not satisfactorily determined.
+
+  _Grade B. NOMOMERISTICA._
+    Sub-Class I. PANTOPODA.
+      Order 1. Nymphonomorpha.
+        "   2. Ascorhynchomorpha.
+        "   3. Pycnogonomorpha.
+    Sub-Class II. EU-ARACHNIDA.
+          Grade a. DELOBRANCHIA, Lankester (_vel_ HYDROPNEUSTEA, Pocock).
+      Order 1. Xiphosura.
+        "   2. Gigantostraca.
+          Grade b. EMBOLOBRANCHIA, Lankester (_vel_ AEROPNEUSTEA, Pocock).
+              _Section_ [alpha]. _Pectinifera._
+      Order 1. Scorpionidea.
+           Sub-order a. Apoxypoda.
+               "     b. Dionychopoda.
+               _Section_ [beta]. _Epectinata._
+      Order 2. Pedipalpi.
+           Sub-order a. Uropygi.
+                           Tribe 1. Urotricha.
+                             "   2. Tartarides.
+           Sub-order b. Amblypygi.
+      Order 3. Araneae.
+           Sub-order a. Mesothelae.
+               "     b. Opisthothelae.
+                           Tribe 1. Mygalomorphae.
+                             "   2. Arachnomorphae.
+      Order 4. Palpigradi (= Microthelyphonidae).
+      Order 5. Solifugae (= Mycetophorae).
+      Order 6. Pseudoscorpiones (= Chelonethi).
+           Sub-order a. Panctenodactyli.
+               "     b. Hemirtenodactyli.
+      Order 7. Podogona (= Ricinulel).
+      Order 8. Opiliones.
+           Sub-order a. Laniatores.
+               "     b. Palpatores.
+               "     c. Anepignathi.
+      Order 9. Rhynchostomi (= Acari).
+           Sub-order a. Notostigmata.
+               "     b. Cryptostigmata.
+               "     c. Metastigmata.
+               "     d. Prostigmata.
+               "     e. Astigmata.
+               "     f. Vermiformia.
+               "     g. Tetrapoda.
+
+  CLASS. ARACHNIDA.--Euarthropoda having two prosthomeres (somites which
+  have passed from a post-oral to a prae-oral position), the appendages
+  of the first represented by eyes, of the second by solitary rami which
+  are rarely antenniform, more usually chelate. A tendency is exhibited
+  to the formation of a metasomatic as well as a prosomatic carapace by
+  fusion of the tergal surfaces of the somites. Intermediate somites
+  forming a mesosoma occur, but tend to fuse superficially with the
+  metasomatic carapace or to become co-ordinated with the somites of the
+  metasoma, whether fused or distinct to form one region, the
+  opisthosoma (abdomen of authors). In the most highly developed forms
+  the two anterior divisions (tagmata) of the body, prosoma and
+  mesosoma, each exhibit six pairs of limbs, pediform and plate-like
+  respectively, whilst the metasoma consists of six limbless somites and
+  a post-anal spine. The genital apertures are placed in the first
+  somite following the prosoma, excepting where a praegenital somite,
+  usually suppressed, is retained. Little is known of the form of the
+  appendages in the lowest archaic Arachnida, but the tendency of those
+  of the prosomatic somites has been (as in the Crustacea) to pass from
+  a generalized bi-ramose or multi-ramose form to that of uni-ramose
+  antennae, chelae and walking legs.
+
+  The Arachnida are divisible into two grades of structure--according to
+  the fixity or non-fixity of the number of somites building up the
+  body:--
+
+  _Grade A_ (_of the Arachnida_). _ANOMOMERISTICA._--Extinct archaic
+  Arachnida, in which (as in the Entomostracous Crustacea) the number of
+  well-developed somites may be more or less than eighteen and may be
+  grouped only as head (prosoma) and trunk or may be further
+  differentiated. A telsonic tergal shield of greater or less size is
+  always present, which may be imperfectly divided into well-marked but
+  immovable tergites indicating incompletely differentiated somites. The
+  single pair of palpiform appendages in front of the mouth has been
+  found in one instance to be antenniform, whilst the numerous post-oral
+  appendages in the same genus were bi-ramose. The position of the
+  genital apertures is not known. Compound lateral eyes present; median
+  eyes wanting. The body and head have the two pleural regions of each
+  somite flattened and expanded on either side of the true gut-holding
+  body-axis. Hence the name of the sub-class signifying tri-lobed, a
+  condition realized also in the Xiphosurous Arachnids. The members of
+  this group, whilst resembling the lower Crustacea (as all lower groups
+  of a branching genealogical tree must do), differ from them
+  essentially in that the head exhibits only one prosthomere (in
+  addition to the eye-bearing prosthomere) with palpiform appendages (as
+  in all Arachnida) instead of two. The Anomomeristic Arachnida form a
+  single sub-class, of which only imperfect fossil remains are known.
+
+  Sub-class (of the Anomomeristica). TRILOBITAE.--The single sub-class
+  Trilobitae constitutes the grade Anomomeristica. It has been variously
+  divided into orders by a number of writers. The greater or less
+  evolution and specialization of the metasomatic carapace appears to be
+  the most important basis for classification--but this has not been
+  made use of in the latest attempts at drawing up a system of the
+  Trilobites. The form of the middle and lateral regions of the
+  prosomatic shield has been used, and an excessive importance attached
+  to the demarcation of certain areas in that structure. Sutures are
+  stated to mark off some of these pieces, but in the proper sense of
+  that term as applied to the skeletal structures of the Vertebrata, no
+  sutures exist in the chitinous cuticle of Arthropoda. That any partial
+  fusion of originally distinct chitinous plates takes place in the
+  cephalic shield of Trilobites, comparable to the partial fusion of
+  bony pieces by suture in Vertebrata, is a suggestion contrary to fact.
+
+  The Trilobites are known only as fossils, mostly Silurian and
+  prae-Silurian; a few are found in Carboniferous and Permian strata. As
+  many as two thousand species are known. Genera with small metasomatic
+  carapace, consisting of three to six fused segments distinctly marked
+  though not separated by soft membrane, are _Harpes_, _Paradoxides_ and
+  _Triarthrus_ (fig. 34). In _Calymene_, _Homalonotus_ and _Phacops_
+  (fig. 38) from six to sixteen segments are clearly marked by ridges
+  and grooves in the metasomatic tagma, whilst in _Illaenus_ the shield
+  so formed is large but no somites are marked out on its surface. In
+  this genus ten free somites (mesosoma) occur between the prosomatic
+  and metasomatic carapaces. _Asaphus_ and _Megalaspis_ (fig. 39) are
+  similarly constituted. In _Agnostus_ (fig. 40) the anterior and
+  posterior carapaces constitute almost the entire body, the two
+  carapaces being connected by a mid-region of only two free somites. It
+  has been held that the forms with a small number of somites marked in
+  the posterior carapace and numerous free somites between the anterior
+  and posterior carapace, must be considered as anterior to those in
+  which a great number of posterior somites are traceable in the
+  metasomatic carapace, and that those in which the traces of distinct
+  somites in the posterior or metasomatic carapace are most completely
+  absent must be regarded as derived from those in which somites are
+  well marked in the posterior carapace and similar in appearance to
+  the free somites. The genus _Agnostus_, which belongs to the last
+  category, occurs abundantly in Cambrian strata and is one of the
+  earliest forms known. This would lead to the supposition that the
+  great development of metasomatic carapace is a primitive and not a
+  late character, were it not for the fact that _Paradoxides_ and
+  _Atops_, with an inconspicuous telsonic carapace and numerous free
+  somites, are also Cambrian in age, the latter indeed anterior in
+  horizon to _Agnostus_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 34.--Restoration of _Triarthrus Becki_, Green, as
+  determined by Beecher from specimens obtained from the Utica Slates
+  (Ordovician), New York. A, dorsal; B, ventral surface. In the latter
+  the single pair of antennae springing up from each side of the
+  camerostome or hypostome or upper lip-lobe are seen. Four pairs of
+  appendages besides these are seen to belong to the cephalic tergum.
+  All the appendages are pediform and bi-ramose; all have a prominent
+  gnathobase, and in all the exopodite carries a comb-like series of
+  secondary processes.
+
+  (After Beecher, from Zittel.) ]
+
+  On the other hand, it may well be doubted whether the pygidial or
+  posterior carapace is primarily due to a fusion of the tergites of
+  somites which were previously movable and well developed. The
+  posterior carapace of the Trilobites and of _Limulus_ is probably
+  enough in origin a telsonic carapace--that is to say, is the tergum of
+  the last segment of the body which carries the anus. From the front of
+  this region new segments are produced in the first instance, and are
+  added during growth to the existing series. This telson may enlarge,
+  it may possibly even become internally and sternally developed as
+  partially separate somites, and the tergum may remain without trace of
+  somite formation, or, as appears to be the case in _Limulus_, the
+  telson gives rise to a few well-marked somites (mesosoma and two
+  others) and then enlarges without further trace of segmentation,
+  whilst the chitinous integument which develops in increasing thickness
+  on the terga as growth advances welds together the unsegmented telson
+  and the somites in front of it, which were previously marked by
+  separate tergal thickenings. It must always be remembered that we are
+  liable (especially in the case of fossilized integuments) to attach an
+  unwarranted interpretation to the mere discontinuity or continuity of
+  the thickened plates of chitinous cuticle on the back of an Arthropod.
+  These plates may fuse, and yet the somites to which they belong may
+  remain distinct, and each have its pair of appendages well developed.
+  On the other hand, an unusually large tergal plate, whether terminal
+  or in the series, is not always due to fusion of the dorsal plates of
+  once-separate somites, but is often a case of growth and enlargement
+  of a single somite without formation of any trace of a new somite. For
+  the literature of Trilobites see (22*).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 35.--_Triarthrus Becki_, Green. a, Restored
+  thoracic limbs in transverse section of the animal; b, section across
+  a posterior somite; c, section across one of the sub-terminal somites.
+
+  (After Beecher.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 36.--_Triarthrus Becki_, Green. Dorsal view of
+  second thoracic leg with and without setae. en, Inner ramus; ex, Outer
+  ramus.
+
+  (After Beecher.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 37.--_Deiphon Forbesii_, Barr. One of the
+  Cheiruridae. Silurian Bohemia.
+
+  (From Zittel's Palaeontology.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 38.--_Dalmanites Kmulurus_, Green. One of the
+  _Phacopidae_, from the Silurian, New York.
+
+  (From Zittel.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 39.--_Megalaspis extenuatus_. One of the
+  _Asaphidae_ allied to _Illaenus_, from the Ordovician of East
+  Gothland, Sweden.
+
+  (From Zittel.)]
+
+  _Grade B (of the Aracknida) NOMOMERISTICA._--Arachnida in which,
+  excluding from consideration the eye-bearing prosthomere, the somites
+  are primarily (that is to say, in the common ancestor of the grade)
+  grouped in three regions of six--(a) the "prosoma" with palpiform
+  appendages, (b) the "mesosoma" with plate-like appendages, and (c) the
+  "metasoma" with suppressed appendages. A somite placed between the
+  prosoma and mesosoma --the prae-genital somite--appears to have
+  belonged originally to the prosomatic series (which with its ocular
+  prosthomere and palpiform limbs [Pantopoda], would thus consist of
+  eight somites), but to have been gradually reduced. In living
+  Arachnids, excepting the Pantopoda, it is either fused (with loss of
+  its appendages) with the prosoma (_Limulus_,[7] _Scorpio_), after
+  embryonic appearance, or is retained as a rudimentary, separate,
+  detached somite in front of the mesosoma, or disappears altogether
+  (excalation). The atrophy and total disappearance of ancestrally
+  well-marked somites frequently take place (as in all Arthropoda) at
+  the posterior extremity of the body, whilst excalation of somites may
+  occur at the constricted areas which often separate adjacent
+  "regions," though there are very few instances in which it has been
+  recognized. Concentration of the organ-systems by fusion of
+  neighbouring regions (prosoma, mesosoma, metasoma), previously
+  distinct, has frequently occurred, together with obliteration of the
+  muscular and chitinous structures indicative of distinct somites. This
+  concentration and obliteration of somites, often accompanied by
+  dislocation of important segmental structures (such as appendages and
+  nerve-ganglia), may lead to highly developed specialization
+  (individuation, H. Spencer), as in the Araneae and Opiliones, and, on
+  the other hand, may terminate in simplification and degeneration, as
+  in the Acari.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 40.--Four stages in the development of the
+  trilobite _Agnostus nudus_. A, Youngest stage with no mesosomatic
+  somites; B and C, stages with two mesosomatic somites between the
+  prosomatic and telsonic carapaces; D, adult condition, still with only
+  two free mesosomatic somites.
+
+  (From Korschelt and Heider.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 41.--Five Stages in the development of the
+  trilobite _Sao hirsuta_.
+
+  From Korschelt and Heider, after Barrande.
+
+    A, Youngest stage.
+    B, Older stage with distinct pygidial carapace.
+    C, Stage with two free mesosomatic somites between the prosomatic
+      and telsonic carapaces.
+    D, Stace with seven free intermediate somites.
+    E, Stave with twelve free somites; the telsonic carapace has not
+      increased in size.
+    a, Lateral eye.
+    g, So-called facial "suture" (not really a suture).
+    p, Telsonic carapace.]
+
+  The most important general change which has affected the structure of
+  the nomomeristic Arachnida in the course of their historic development
+  is the transition from an aquatic to a terrestrial life. This has been
+  accompanied by the conversion of the lamelliform gill-plates into
+  lamelliform lung-plates, and later the development from the
+  lung-chambers, and at independent sites, of tracheae or air-tubes (by
+  adaptation of the vasifactive tissue of the blood-vessels) similar to
+  those independently developed in _Peripatus_, Diplopoda, Hexapoda and
+  Chilopoda. Probably tracheae have developed independently by the same
+  process in several groups of tracheate Arachnids. The nomomeristic
+  Arachnids comprise two sub-classes--one a very small degenerate
+  offshoot from early ancestors; the other, the great bulk of the class.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 42.--So-called "trilobite stage" of _Limulus
+  polyphemus_. A, Dorsal; B, ventral view.
+
+  (from Korschelt and Heider, after Leuckart.)]
+
+  Sub-Class I. (of the Nomomeristica). PANTOPODA.--Nomomeristic
+  Arachnids, in which the somites corresponding to mesosoma and metasoma
+  have entirely aborted. The seventh, and sometimes the eighth,
+  leg-bearing somite is present and has its leg-like appendages fully
+  developed. Monomeniscous eyes with a double (really triple) cell-layer
+  formed by invagination, as in the Eu-arachnida, are present The
+  Pantopoda stand in the same relation to _Limulus_ and _Scorpio_ that
+  _Cyamus_ holds to the thoracostracous Crustacea. The reduction of the
+  organism to seven leg-bearing somites, of which the first pair, as in
+  so many Eu-arachnida, are chelate, is a form of degeneration connected
+  with a peculiar quasi-parasitic habit resembling that of the
+  crustacean Laemodipoda. The genital pores are situate at the base of
+  the 7th pair of limbs, and may be repeated on the 4th, 5th, and 6th.
+  In all known Pantopoda the size of the body is quite minute as
+  compared with that of the limbs: the alimentary canal sends a long
+  caecum into each leg (cf. the Araneae) and the genital products are
+  developed in gonocoels also placed in the legs.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 43.--One of the Nymphonomorphous Pantopoda,
+  _Nymphon hispidum_, showing the seven pairs of appendages 1 to 7; ab,
+  the rudimentary opisthosoma; s, the mouth-bearing proboscis.
+
+  From Parker and Harwell's _Text-book of Zoology_, after Hoek.]
+
+  The Pantopoda are divided into three orders, the characters of which
+  are dependent on variation in the presence of the full number of legs.
+
+  Order 1. (of the Pantopoda). Nymphonomorpha, Pocock (nov.) (fig.
+  43).--In primitive forms belonging to the family _Nymphonidae_ the
+  full complement of appendages is retained--the 1st (mandibular), the
+  2nd (palpiform), and the 3rd (ovigerous) pairs being well developed in
+  both sexes. In certain derivative forms constituting the family
+  _Pallenidae_, however, the appendages of the 2nd pair are either
+  rudimentary or atrophied altogether.
+
+  Two families: 1. Nymphonidae (genus _Nymphon_), and 2. Pallenidae
+  (genus _Pallene_).
+
+  Order 2. Ascorhynchomorpha, Pocock (nov.).--Appendages of the 2nd and
+  3rd pairs retained and developed, as in the more primitive types of
+  Nymphonomorpha; but those of the 1st pair are either rudimentary, as
+  in the _Ascorhynchidae_, or atrophied, as in the _Colossendeidae_. In
+  the latter a further specialization is shown in the fusion of the body
+  segments.
+
+  Two families. 1. Ascorhynchidae (genera _Ascorhynchus_ and
+  _Ammothea_); 2. Colossendeidae (genera _Colossendeis_ and
+  _Discoarachne_).
+
+  Order 3. Pycnogonomorpha, Pocock (nov.).--Derivative forms in which
+  the reduction in number of the anterior appendages is carried farther
+  than in the other orders, reaching its extreme in the _Pycnogonidae_,
+  where the 1st and 2nd pairs are absent in both sexes, and the 3rd pair
+  also are absent in the female. In the _Hannoniidae_, however, which
+  resemble the _Pycnogonidae_ in the absence of the 3rd pair in the
+  female and of the 2nd pair in both sexes, the 1st pair are retained in
+  both sexes.
+
+  Two families: 1. Hannoniidae (genus _Hannonia_); 2. Pycnogonidae
+  (genera _Pycnogonum_ and _Phoxichilus_).
+
+  _Remarks._--The Pantopoda are not known in the fossil condition. They
+  are entirely marine, and are not uncommon in the coralline zone of the
+  sea-coast. The species are few, not more than fifty (23). Some large
+  species of peculiar genera are taken at great depths. Their movements
+  are extremely sluggish. They are especially remarkable for the small
+  size of the body and the extension of viscera into the legs. Their
+  structure is eminently that of degenerate forms. Many frequent growths
+  of coralline Algae and hydroid polyps, upon the juices of which they
+  feed, and in some cases a species of gall is produced in hydroids by
+  the penetration of the larval Pantopod into the tissues of the polyp.
+
+  Sub-Class II. (of the Nomomeristic Arachnida). EU-ARACHNIDA.--These
+  start from highly developed and specialized aquatic branchiferous
+  forms, exhibiting a prosoma with six pediform pairs of appendages, an
+  intermediate prae-genital somite, a mesosoma of six somites bearing
+  lamelliform pairs of appendages, and a metasoma of six somites devoid
+  of appendages, and the last provided with a post-anal spine. Median
+  eyes are present, which are monomeniscous, with distinct retinal and
+  corneagenous cell-layers, and placed centrally on the prosoma. Lateral
+  eyes also may be present, arranged in lateral groups, and having a
+  single or double cell-layer beneath the lens. The first pair of limbs
+  is often chelate or prehensile, rarely antenniform; whilst the second,
+  third and fourth may also be chelate, or may be simple palps or
+  walking legs.
+
+  An internal skeletal plate, the so-called "entosternite" of
+  fibro-cartilaginous tissue, to which many muscles are attached, is
+  placed between the nerve-cords and the alimentary tract in the prosoma
+  of the larger forms (_Limulus_, _Scorpio_, _Mygale_). In the same and
+  other leading forms a pair of much-coiled glandular tubes, the coxal
+  glands (coelomocoels in origin), is found with a duct opening on the
+  coxa of the fifth pair of appendages of the prosoma. The vascular
+  system is highly developed (in the non-degenerate forms); large
+  arterial branches closely accompany or envelop the chief nerves;
+  capillaries are well developed. The blood-corpuscles are large
+  amoebiform cells, and the blood-plasma is coloured blue by
+  haemocyanin.
+
+  The alimentary canal is uncoiled and cylindrical, and gives rise
+  laterally to large gastric glands, which are more than a single pair
+  in number (two to six pairs), and may assume the form of simple caeca.
+  The mouth is minute and the pharynx is always suctorial, never
+  gizzard-like. The gonadial tubes (gonocoels or gonadial coelom) are
+  originally reticular and paired, though they may be reduced to a
+  simpler condition. They open on the first somite of the mesosoma. In
+  the numerous degenerate forms simplification occurs by obliteration of
+  the demarcations of somites and the fusion of body-regions, together
+  with a gradual suppression of the lamelliferous respiratory organs and
+  the substitution for them of tracheae, which, in their turn, in the
+  smaller and most reduced members of the group, may also disappear.
+
+  The Eu-arachnida are divided into two grades with reference to the
+  condition of the respiratory organs as adapted to aquatic or
+  terrestrial life.
+
+
+    Grade a (of the Eu-arachnida). DELOBRANCHIA (Hydropheustea).
+
+  Mesosomatic segments furnished with large plate-like appendages, the
+  1st pair acting as the genital operculum, the remaining pairs being
+  provided with branchial lamellae fitted for breathing oxygen dissolved
+  in water. The prae-genital somite partially or wholly obliterated in
+  the adult. The mouth lying far back, so that the basal segments of all
+  the prosomatic appendages, excepting those of the 1st pair, are
+  capable of acting as masticatory organs. Lateral eyes consisting of a
+  densely packed group of eye-units ("compound" eyes).
+
+  Order 1. Xiphosura.--The prae-genital somite fuses in the embryo with
+  the prosoma and disappears (see fig. 19). Not free-swimming, none of
+  the prosomatic appendages modified to act as paddles; segments of the
+  mesosoma and metasoma (=opisthosoma) not more than ten in number,
+  distinct or coalesced.
+
+    Family--Limulidae (_Limulus_).
+      "    *Belinuridae (_Belinurus_, _Aglaspis_, _Prestwichia_).
+      "    *Hemiaspidae (_Hemiaspis_, _Bunodes_).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 44.--Dorsal view of _Limulus polyphemus_, Latr.
+
+  (From Parker and Haswell, _Text book of Zoology_ after Leuckart.)]
+
+  _Remarks_.--The Xiphosura are marine in habit, frequenting the shore.
+  They are represented at the present day by the single genus _Limulus_
+  (figs. 44 and 45; also figs. 7, 9, 11, to 15 and 20), often termed the
+  king-crab, which occurs on the American coast of the Atlantic Ocean,
+  but not on its eastern coasts, and on the Asiatic coast of the
+  Pacific. The Atlantic species (_L. polyphemus_) is common on the
+  coasts of the United States, and is known as the king-crab or
+  horse-shoe crab. A single specimen was found in the harbour of
+  Copenhagen in the 18th century, having presumably been carried over by
+  a ship to which it clung.
+
+  A species of _Limulus_ is found in the Buntersandstein of the Vosges;
+  _L. Walchi_ is abundant in the Oolitic lithographic slates of Bavaria.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 45.--Ventral view of _Limulus polyphemus_.
+
+    1 to 6, The six prosomatic pairs of appendages.
+    abd, the solid opisthosomatic carapace.
+    tels, the post-anal spine (not the telson as the lettering would
+      seem to imply, but only its post-anal portion).
+    operc, the fused first pair of mesosomatic appendages forming the
+      genital operculum.
+
+  (From Parker and Haswell, _Text book of Zoology_, after Leuckart.)]
+
+  The genera _Belinurus_, _Aglaspis_, _Prestwichia_, _Hemiaspis_ and
+  _Bunodes_ consist of small forms which occur in Palaeozoic rocks. In
+  none of them are the appendages known, but in the form of the two
+  carapaces and the presence of free somites they are distinctly
+  intermediate between _Limulus_ and the Trilobitae. The young form of
+  _Limulus_ itself (fig. 40) is also similar to a Trilobite so far as
+  its segmentation and trilobation are concerned. The lateral eyes of
+  _Limulus_ appear to be identical in structure and position with those
+  of certain Trilobitae.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 46.--_Eurypterus Fischeri_, Eichwald. Silurian of
+  Rootzikil. Restoration after Schmidt. The dorsal aspect is presented
+  showing the prosomatic shield with paired compound eyes and the
+  prosomatic appendages II. to VI. The small first pair of appendages is
+  concealed from view by the carapace, 1 to 12 are the somites of the
+  opisthosoma; 13, the post-anal spine.
+
+  (From Zittel's _Text-book of Palaeontology_, The Macmillan Co, New
+  York, 1896.)]
+
+  Order 2. Gigantostraca (figs. 46, 47).--Free-swimming forms, with the
+  appendages of the 6th or 5th and 6th pairs flattened or lengthened to
+  act as oars; segments of mesosoma and metasoma (= opisthosoma), twelve
+  in number.
+
+  Appendages of anterior pair very large and chelate.
+
+    Sub-order Pterygotomorpha, Pterygotidae (_Pterygotus_).
+
+  Appendages of anterior pair minute and chelate.
+
+                               / Stylonuridae (_Stylonurus_).
+    Sub-order Eurypteromorpha <  Eurypteridae (_Eurypterus_,
+                               \   _Slimonia_).
+
+  [Illustration: From Zittel's _Palaeontology_.
+
+  FIG. 47.--_Pterygotus osiliensis_, Schmidt. Silurian of Rootzikil.
+  Restoration of the ventral surface, about a third natural size, after
+  Schmidt.
+
+    a, Camerostome or epistoma.
+    m, Chilarium or metasternite of the prosoma (so-called metastoma).
+    oc, The compound eyes.
+    1 to 8, Segments of the sixth prosomatic appendage.
+    I' to V', First five opisthosomatic somites.
+    7', Sixth opisthosomatic somite.
+
+    [Observe the powerful gnathobases of the sixth pair of prosomatic
+    limbs and the median plates behind m. The dotted line on somite I
+    indicates the position of the genital operculum which was probably
+    provided with branchial lamellae.]]
+
+  _Remarks._--The Gigantostraca are frequently spoken of as "the
+  Eurypterines." Not more than thirty species are known. They became
+  extinct in Palaeozoic times, and are chiefly found in the Upper
+  Silurian, though extending upwards as far as the Carboniferous. They
+  may be regarded as "macrourous" Xiphosura; that is to say, Xiphosura
+  in which the nomomeristic number of eighteen well-developed somites is
+  present and the posterior ones form a long tail-like region of the
+  body. There still appears to be some doubt whether in the sub-order
+  Eurypteromorpha the first pair of prosomatic appendages (fig. 46) is
+  atrophied, or whether, if present, it has the form of a pair of
+  tactile palps or of minute chelae. Though there are indications of
+  lamelliform respiratory appendages on mesosomatic somites following
+  that bearing the genital operculum, we cannot be said to have any
+  proper knowledge as to such appendages, and further evidence with
+  regard to them is much to be desired. (For literature see Zittel,
+  22*.)
+
+
+    Grade b (of the Eu-arachnida). EMBOLOBRANCHIA (Aeropneustea).
+
+  In primitive forms the respiratory lamellae of the appendages of the
+  3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th, or of the 1st and 2nd mesosomatic somites are
+  sunk beneath the surface of the body, and become adapted to breathe
+  atmospheric oxygen, forming the leaves of the so-called lung-books. In
+  specialized forms these pulmonary sacs are wholly or partly replaced
+  by tracheal tubes. The appendages of the mesosoma generally
+  suppressed; in the more primitive forms one or two pairs may be
+  retained as organs subservient to reproduction or silk-spinning. Mouth
+  situated more forwards than in Delobranchia, no share in mastication
+  being taken by the basal segments of the 5th and 6th pairs of
+  prosomatic appendages. Lateral eyes, when present, represented by
+  separate ocelli.
+
+  The prae-genital somite, after appearing in the embryo, either is
+  obliterated (_Scorpio, Galeodes, Opilio_and others) or is retained as
+  a reduced narrow region of the body, the "waist," between prosoma and
+  mesosoma. It is represented by a full-sized tergal plate in the
+  Pseudo-scorpiones.
+
+  Section [alpha]. _Pectinifera._--The primitive distinction between the
+  mesosoma and the metasoma retained, the latter consisting of six
+  somites and the former of six somites in the adult, each of which is
+  furnished during growth with a pair of appendages. Including the
+  prae-genital somite (fig. 16), which is suppressed in the adult, there
+  are thirteen somites behind the prosoma. The appendages of the 1st and
+  2nd mesosomatic somites persisting as the genital operculum and
+  pectones respectively, those of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th somites (?
+  in _Palaeophonus_) sinking below the surface during growth in
+  connexion with the formation of the four pairs of pulmonary sacs (see
+  fig. 17). Lateral eyes monostichous.
+
+  [Illustration: Restored after Thorell's indications by R.I. Pocock.
+
+  FIG. 48.--Dorsal view of a restoration of _Palaeophonus nuncius_,
+  Thorell. The Silurian scorpion from Gothland.]
+
+  Order 1. Scorpiones.--Prosoma covered by a single dorsal shield,
+  bearing typically median and lateral eyes; its sternal elements
+  reduced to a single plate lodged between or behind the basal segments
+  of the 5th and 6th pairs of appendages. Appendages of 1st pair
+  tri-segmented, chelate; of 2nd pair chelate, with their basal segments
+  subserving mastication; of 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs similar in form
+  and function, except that in recent and Carboniferous forms the basal
+  segments of the 3rd and 4th are provided with sterno-coxal (maxillary)
+  lobes, those of the 4th pair meeting in the middle line and underlying
+  the mouth. The five posterior somites of the metasoma constricted to
+  form a "tail," the post-anal sclerite persisting as a weapon of
+  offence and provided with a pair of poison glands (see figs. 8, 10,
+  12, 13, 14, 15, 21 and 22).
+
+  Sub-order Apoxypoda.--The 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs of appendages
+  short, stout, tapering, the segments about as wide as long, except the
+  apical, which is distally slender, pointed, slightly curved, and
+  without distinct movable claws.
+
+  Family--Palaeophonidae, _Palaeophonus_ (figs. 48 and 49).
+
+  Sub-order Dionychopoda.--The 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs of appendages
+  slender, not evenly tapering, the segments longer than wide; the
+  apical segment short, distally truncate, and provided with a pair of
+  movable claws. Basal segments of the 5th and 6th pairs of appendages
+  abutting against the sternum of the prosoma (see fig. 10 and figs. 51,
+  52 and 53).
+
+  Family--Pandinidae (_Pandinus, Opisthophthalmus, Urodacus_).
+    "     Vejovidae (_Vaejovis, Jurus, Euscorpius, Broteas_).
+    "     Bothriuridae (_Bothriurus, Cercophonius_).
+    "     Buthidae (_Buthus, Centrums_).
+    "     *Cyclophthalmidae (_Cydophthalmus_)         ( Carboniferous.
+    "     *Eoscorpiidae (_Eoscorpius, Centromachus_)  (
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 49.--Ventral view of a restoration of
+  _Palaeophonus Hunteri_, Pocock, the Silurian scorpion from Lesmahagow,
+  Scotland. Restored by R.I. Pocock. The meeting of the coxae of all the
+  prosomatic limbs in front of the pentagonal sternum; the space for a
+  genital operculum; the pair of pectens, and the absence of any
+  evidence of pulmonary stigmata are noticeable in this specimen.
+
+  (See Pocock, _Quart Jour. Micr. Sci._, 1901.)]
+
+  _Remarks on the Order Scorpiones._--The Scorpion is one of the great
+  animals of ancient lore and tradition. It and the crab are the only
+  two invertebrates which had impressed the minds of early men
+  sufficiently to be raised to the dignity of astronomical
+  representation. It is all the more remarkable that the scorpion proves
+  to be the oldest animal form of high elaboration which has persisted
+  to the present day. In the Upper Silurian two specimens of a scorpion
+  have been found (figs. 48, 49), one in Gothland and one in Scotland,
+  which would be recognized at once as true scorpions by a child or a
+  savage. The Silurian scorpion _Palaeophonus_, differs, so far as
+  obvious points are concerned, from a modern scorpion only in the
+  thickness of its legs and in their terminating in strong spike-like
+  joints, instead of being slight and provided with a pair of terminal
+  claws. The legs of the modern scorpion (fig. 10; fig. 51) are those of
+  a terrestrial Arthropod, such as a beetle; whilst those of the
+  Silurian scorpion are the legs of an aquatic Arthropod, such as a crab
+  or lobster. It is probable that the Silurian scorpion was an aquatic
+  animal, and that its respiratory lamellae were still projecting from
+  the surface of the body to serve as branchiae. No trace of "stigmata,"
+  the orifices of the lung-chambers of modern scorpions, can be found in
+  the Scottish specimen of _Palaeophonus_, which presents the ventral
+  surface of the animal to view. On the other hand, no trace of
+  respiratory appendages excepting the pectens can be detected in the
+  specimen (see fig. 49).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 50.--Comparison of the sixth prosomatic limb of a
+  recent scorpion (B), of Palaeophonus (C), and of Limulus (A), showing
+  their agreement in the number of segments; in the existence of a
+  movable spine, Sp, at the distal border of the fifth segment; in the
+  correspondence of the two claws at the free end of the limb of Scorpio
+  with two spines similarly placed in Limulus; and, lastly, in the
+  correspondence of the three talon-like spines carried on the distal
+  margin of segment six of recent scorpions with the four larger but
+  similarly situated spines on the leg of Limulus; s, groove dividing
+  the ankylosed segments 4 and 5 of the Limulus leg into two.
+
+  (After Pocock, _Q. J. Mic. Sci._, 1901.)]
+
+  [Illustration: From Lankester, _Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool_. vol. xvi.,
+  1881.
+
+  FIG. 51.--Drawing from life of the desert scorpion, _Buthusaustralis_,
+  Lin., from Biskra, N. Africa.]
+
+  Fossil scorpions of the modern type are found in the Coal Measures. At
+  the present day scorpions of various genera are found in all the warm
+  regions of the world. In Europe they occur as far north as Bavaria and
+  the south of France. The largest species measure 9 in. from the front
+  of the head to the end of the sting, and occur in tropical India and
+  Africa. Between 200 and 300 species are known. The scorpions use their
+  large chelae for seizing prey and for fighting with one another. They
+  never use the sting when (as frequently happens) they attack another
+  scorpion, because, as was ascertained by A.G. Bourne (24), the poison
+  exuded by the sting has no injurious effect on another scorpion nor on
+  the scorpion itself. The stories of a scorpion stinging itself to
+  death when placed in a circle of burning coals are due to erroneous
+  observation. When placed in such a position the scorpion faints and
+  becomes inert. It is found (Bourne, 24) that some species of scorpion
+  faint at a temperature of 40° Cent. They recover on being removed to
+  cooler conditions. A scorpion having seized its prey (usually a large
+  insect, or small reptile or mammal) with the large chelae brings its
+  tail over its head, and deliberately punctures the struggling victim
+  twice with its sting (fig. 52). The poison of the sting is similar to
+  snake-poison (Calmette), and rapidly paralyses animals which are not
+  immune to it. It is probably only sickly adults or young children of
+  the human race who can be actually killed by a scorpion's sting. When
+  the scorpion has paralysed its prey in this way, the two short
+  chelicerae are brought into play (fig. 53). By the crushing action of
+  their pincers, and an alternate backward and forward movement, they
+  bring the soft blood-holding tissues of the victim close to the minute
+  pin-hole aperture which is the scorpion's mouth. The muscles acting on
+  the bulb-like pharynx now set up a pumping action (see Huxley, 26);
+  and the juices--but no solid matter, excepting such as is reduced to
+  powder--are sucked into the scorpion's alimentary canal. A scorpion
+  appears to prefer for its food another scorpion, and will suck out the
+  juices of an individual as large as itself. When this has taken place,
+  the gorged scorpion becomes distended and tense in the mesosomatic
+  region. It is certain that the absorbed juices do not occupy the
+  alimentary canal alone, but pass also into its caecal off-sets which
+  are the ducts of the gastric glands (see fig. 33).
+
+  [Illustration: From Lankester, _Journ. Linn. Soc._
+
+  FIG. 52.--Drawing from life of the Italian scorpion _Euscorpius
+  italicus_, Herbst, holding a blue-bottle fly with its left chela, and
+  carefully piercing it between head and thorax with its sting. Two
+  insertions of the sting are effected and the fly is instantly
+  paralysed by the poison so introduced into its body.]
+
+  [Illustration: From Lankester, _Journ. Linn. Soc._
+
+  FIG. 53.--The same scorpion carrying the now paralysed fly held in its
+  chelicerae, the chelae liberated for attack and defence. Drawn from
+  life.]
+
+  All Arachnida, including _Limulus_, feed by suctorial action in
+  essentially the same way as _Scorpio_.
+
+  Scorpions of various species have been observed to make a hissing
+  noise when disturbed, or even when not disturbed. The sound is
+  produced by stridulating organs developed on the basal joints of the
+  limbs, which differ in position and character in different genera (see
+  Pocock, 27). Scorpions copulate with the ventral surfaces in contact.
+  The eggs are fertilized, practically in the ovary, and develop _in
+  situ_. The young are born fully formed and are carried by the mother
+  on her back. As many as thirty have been counted in a brood. For
+  information as to the embryology of scorpions, the reader is referred
+  to the works named in the bibliography below. Scorpions do not possess
+  spinning organs nor form either snares or nests, so far as is known.
+  But some species inhabiting sandy deserts form extensive burrows. The
+  fifth pair of prosomatic appendages is used by these scorpions when
+  burrowing, to kick back the sand as the burrow is excavated by the
+  great chelae.
+
+  References to works dealing with the taxonomy and geographical
+  distribution of scorpions are given at the end of this article (28).
+
+  Section [beta]. _Epectinata._--The primitive distinction between the
+  mesosoma and the metasoma wholly or almost wholly obliterated, the two
+  regions uniting to form an opisthosoma, which never consists of more
+  than twelve somites and never bears appendages or breathing-organs
+  behind the 4th somite. The breathing-organs of the opisthosoma, when
+  present, represented by two pairs of stigmata, opening either upon the
+  1st and 2nd (Pedipalpi) or the 2nd and 3rd somites (Solifugae,
+  Pseudo-scorpiones), or by a single pair upon the 3rd (? 2nd) somite
+  (Opiliones) of the opisthosoma, there being rarely an additional
+  stigma on the 4th (some Solifugae). The appendages of the 2nd somite
+  of the opisthosoma absent, rarely minute and bud-like (some
+  Amblypygi), never pectiniform. A prae-genital somite is often present
+  either in a reduced condition forming a waist (Pedipalpi, Araneae,
+  Palpigradi) or as a full-sized tergal plate (Pseudo-scorpiones); in
+  some it is entirely atrophied (Solifugae, Holosomata, and
+  Rhynchostomi). Lateral eyes when present diplostichous.
+
+  _Remarks._--The Epectinate Arachnids do not stand so close to the
+  aquatic ancestors of the Embolobranchia as do the Pectiniferous
+  scorpions. At the same time we are not justified in supposing that the
+  scorpions stand in any way as an intermediate grade between any of the
+  existing Epectinata and the Delobranchia. It is probable that the
+  Pedipalpi, Araneae, and Podogona have been separately evolved as
+  distinct lines of descent from the ancient aquatic Arachnida. The
+  Holosomata and Rhynchostomi are probably offshoots from the stem of
+  the Araneae, and it is not unlikely (in view of the structure of the
+  prosomatic somites of the Tartarides) that the Solifugae are connected
+  in origin with the Pedipalpi. The appearance of tracheae in place of
+  lung-sacs cannot be regarded as a starting-point for a new line of
+  descent comprising all the tracheate forms; tracheae seem to have
+  developed independently in different lines of descent. On the whole,
+  the Epectinata are highly specialized and degenerate forms, though
+  there are few, if any, animals which surpass the spiders in rapidity
+  of movement, deadliness of attack and constructive instincts.
+
+  [Illustration: From Lankester, _Q. J. Mic. Sci._ N.S. _vol_. xxi.,
+  1881.
+
+  FIG. 54.--_Thelyphonus_, one of the Pedipalpi.
+
+    A, Ventral view.
+    I, Chelicera (detached).
+    II, Chelae.
+    III, Palpiform limb.
+    IV to VI, The walking legs.
+    stc, Sterno-coxal process (gnathobase) of the chelae.
+    st^1, Anterior sternal plate of the prosoma.
+    st^2, Posterior sternal plate of the prosoma.
+    pregen, Position of the prae-genital somite (not seen).
+    l, l, Position of the two pulmonary sacs of the right side.
+    1 to 11, Somites of the opisthosoma (mesosoma plus metasoma).
+    msg, Stigmata of the tergo-sternal muscles.
+    an, Anus.
+    B, Dorsal view of the opisthosoma of the same.
+    pregen, The prae-genital somite.
+    p, The tergal stigmata of the tergo-sternal muscles.
+    paf, Post-anal segmented filament corresponding to the post-anal
+      spine of Limulus.]
+
+  Order 2. Pedipalpi (figs. 54 to 59).--Appendages of 1st pair
+  bisegmented, without poison gland; of 2nd pair prehensile, their basal
+  segments underlying the proboscis, and furnished with sterno-coxal
+  (maxillary) process, the apical segment tipped with a single movable
+  or immovable claw; appendages of 3rd pair different from the
+  remainder, tactile in function, with at least the apical segment
+  many-jointed and clawless. The ventral surface of the prosoma bears
+  prosternal, metasternal and usually mesosternal chitine-plates (fig.
+  55). A narrow prae-genital somite is present between opisthosoma and
+  prosoma (figs. 55, 57). Opisthosoma consisting of eleven somites,
+  almost wholly without visible appendages. Intromittent organ of male
+  beneath the genital operculum (=sternum of the 1st somite of
+  opisthosoma).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 55.--_Thelyphonus sp_. Ventral view of the
+  anterior portion of the body to show the three prosomatic sternal
+  plates a, b, c, and the rudimentary sternal element of the
+  prae-genital somite; opisth 1, first somite of the opisthosoma.
+
+  (From a drawing made by Pickard - Cambridge, under the direction of
+  R.I. Pocock.)]
+
+  _Note._--The possibility of another interpretation of the anterior
+  somites of the mesosoma and the prae-genital somite must be borne in
+  mind. Possibly, though not probably, the somites carrying the two
+  lung-sacs correspond to the first two lung-bearing somites of
+  _Scorpio_, and it is the genital opening which has shifted. The same
+  caution applies in the case of the Araneae. Excalation of one or of
+  two anterior mesosomatic somites, besides the prae-genital somite,
+  would then have to be supposed to have occurred also.
+
+  Sub-order a. Uropygi.--Prosoma longer than wide, its sternal area very
+  narrow, furnished with a large prosternal and metasternal plate, and
+  often with a small mesosternal sclerite. Appendages of 2nd pair with
+  their basal segments united in the middle line and incapable of
+  lateral movement; appendages of 3rd pair with only the apical segment
+  many-jointed. Opisthosoma without trace of appendages; its posterior
+  somites narrowed to form a movable tail for the support of the
+  post-anal sclerite, which has no poison glands.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 56.--_Thelyphonus assamensis_ [male]. Ventral
+  surface of the anterior region of the opisthosoma, the first somite
+  being pushed upwards and forwards so as to expose the subjacent
+  structures. _opistho_ 1, First somite of the opisthosoma; opistho 2,
+  second do.; g, genital aperture; l, edges of the lamellae of the
+  lung-books; m, stigmata of tergo-sternal muscles.
+
+  (Original drawing by Pocock.)]
+
+  Tribe 1. Urotricha.--Dorsal area of prosoma covered with a single
+  shield (? two in _Geralinura_), bearing median and lateral eyes.
+  Post-anal sclerite modified as a long, many-jointed feeler. Appendages
+  of 2nd pair folding in a horizontal plane, completely chelate, the
+  claw immovably united to the sixth segment. Respiratory organs present
+  in the form of pulmonary sacs.
+
+    Family--Thelyphonidae (_Thelyphonus_ (fig. 54), _Hypoctonus_,
+    *_Geralinura_).
+
+  Tribe 2. Tartarides.--Small degenerate forms with the dorsal area of
+  the prosoma furnished with two shields, a larger in front covering the
+  anterior four somites, and a smaller behind covering the 5th and 6th
+  somites; the latter generally subdivided into a right and left
+  portion. There is also a pair of narrow tergal sclerites interposed
+  between the anterior and posterior shields. Eyes evanescent or absent.
+  Appendages of 2nd pair folding in a vertical plane, not chelate, the
+  claw long and movable. Post-anal sclerite short and undivided. No
+  distinct respiratory stigmata behind the sterna of the 1st and 2nd
+  somites of the opisthosoma.
+
+    Family--Hubbardiidae (_Schizomus_, _Hubbardia_) (figs. 57-59).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 57.--_Schizomus crassicaudatus_, one of the
+  Tartarid Pedipalpi. Ventral view of a female with the appendages cut
+  short near the base.
+
+    a, Prosternum of prosoma.
+    b, Metasternum of prosoma.
+    prae-gen, The prae-genital somite.
+    I opisth, First somite of the opisthosoma.
+    II opisth, Eleventh somite of the opisthosoma.
+    pa, Post-anal lobe of the female (compare the jointed filament in
+      _Thelyphonus_, fig. 54).
+
+  (Original drawing by Pickard-Cambridge, directed by Pocock.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 58.--_Schizomus crassicaudatus_, a Tartarid
+  Pedipalp. Dorsal view of a male with the appendages cut short.
+
+    I to VI. The prosomatic appendages.
+    a, Anterior plate.
+    b, Posterior plate of the prosomatic carapace.
+    prae-gen, Tergum of the prae-genital somite.
+    11, The eleventh somite of the opisthosoma.
+    pa, Post-anal lobe of the male--a conical body with narrow basal
+      stalk.
+
+  (Original as preceding.)]
+
+  Sub-order b. Amblypygi.--Prosoma wider than long, covered above by a
+  single shield bearing median and lateral eyes, which have
+  diplostichous ommatea. Sternal area broad, with prosternal, two
+  mesosternal, and metasternal plates, the prosternum projecting
+  forwards beneath the coxae of the 2nd pair of appendages. Appendages
+  of 2nd pair folding in a horizontal plane; their basal segments
+  freely movable; claw free or fused; basal segments of 4th and 5th
+  pairs widely separated by the sternal area; appendages of 3rd pair
+  with all the segments except the proximal three, forming a
+  many-jointed flagellum. Opisthosoma without post-anal sclerite and
+  posterior caudal elongation: with frequently a pair of small lobate
+  appendages on the sternum of the 3rd somite. Respiratory organs, as in
+  Urotricha.
+
+    Family --  Phrynichidae (_Phrynichus_, _Damon_).
+      "        Admetidae (_Admetus_, _Heterophrynus_).
+      "        Charontidae (_Charon_, _Sarax_).
+    (Family ?)--*_Graeophonus_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 59.--_Schizomus crassicaudatus_, one of the
+  Pedipalpi. Lateral view of a male. II to VI, the prosomatic
+  appendages, the first being concealed (see fig. 58); 5, the fifth, and
+  11, the eleventh tergites of the opisthosoma; pa, the conical
+  post-anal lobe.
+
+  (Original as preceding.)]
+
+  _Remarks._--The Pedipalpi are confined to the tropics and warmer
+  temperate regions of both hemispheres. Fossil forms occur in the
+  Carboniferous. The small forms known as _Schizomus_ and _Hubbardia_
+  are of special interest from a morphological point of view. The
+  Pedipalpi have no poison glands. (Reference to literature (29).)
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 60.--_Liphistius desultor_, Schiödte, one of the
+  Araneae Mesothelae. Dorsal view. I to VI, the prosomatic appendages;
+  4, 5, 6, the fourth, fifth and sixth tergites of the opisthosoma.
+  Between the bases of the sixth pair of limbs and behind the prosomatic
+  carapace is seen the tergite of the small prae-genital somite.
+
+  (Original by Pickard-Cambridge and Pocock.)]
+
+  Order 3. Araneae (figs. 60 to 64.).--Prosoma covered with a single
+  shield and typically furnished with median and lateral eyes of
+  diplostichous structure, as in the Amblypygi. The sternal surface
+  wide, continuously chitinized, but with prosternal and metasternal
+  elements generally distinguishable at the anterior and posterior ends
+  respectively of the large mesosternurm. Prosternum underlying the
+  proboscis. Appendages of 1st pair have two segments, as in Pedipalpi,
+  but are furnished with poison gland, and are retroverts. Appendages of
+  2nd pair not underlying the mouth, but freely movable and, except in
+  primitive forms, furnished with a maxillary lobe; the rest of the limb
+  like the legs, tipped with a single claw and quite unmodified (except
+  in [symbol: male]). Remaining pairs of appendages similar in form and
+  function, each tipped with two or three claws. Opisthosoma when
+  segmented showing the same number of somites as in the Pedipalpi;
+  usually unsegmented, the prae-genital somite constricted to form the
+  waist; the appendages of its 3rd and 4th somites retained as spinning
+  mammillae. Respiratory organs (see fig. 63, _stg_), as in the
+  Amblypygi, or with the posterior pair, rarely the anterior pair as
+  well, replaced by tracheal tubes. Intromittent organ of male in the
+  apical segment of the 2nd prosomatic appendage.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 61.--_Liphistius desultor_. Ventral view with the
+  prosomatic appendages cut short excepting the chelicerae (i) whose
+  sharp retroverts are seen. Between the bases of the prosomatic limbs
+  an anterior and a posterior sternal plate (black) are seen. 1, The
+  sternum of the first opisthosomatic or genital somite covering the
+  genital aperture and the first pair of lung-sacs. In front of it the
+  narrow waist is formed by the soft sternal area of the praegenital
+  somite; 2, the sternite of the second opisthosomatic somite covering
+  the posterior pair of lung-sacs; 3 and 4, the spinning appendages
+  (limbs) of the opisthosoma; a, inner, b, outer ramus of the appendage;
+  ii, sternite of the eleventh somite of the opisthosoma: in front of it
+  other rudimentary sternites; an, anus.
+
+  (Original as above.)]
+
+  Sub-order a. Mesothelae (see figs. 60 to 62).--Opisthosoma distinctly
+  segmented, furnished with 11 tergal plates, as in the Amblypygi; the
+  ventral surface of the 1st and 2nd somites with large sternal plates,
+  covering the genital aperture and the two pairs of pulmonary sacs, the
+  sternal plates from the 6th to the 11th somites represented by
+  integumental ridges, weakly chitinized in the middle. The two pairs of
+  spinning appendages retain their primitive position in the middle of
+  the lower surface of the opisthosoma far in advance of the anus on the
+  3rd and 4th somites, each appendage consisting of a stout,
+  many-jointed outer branch and a slender, unsegmented inner branch.
+  Prosoma as in the Mygalomorphae, except that the mesosternal area is
+  long and narrow.
+
+    Family--Liphistiidae (_Liphistius_, *_Arthrolycosa_).
+
+  Sub-order b. Opisthothelae (see fig. 63).--Opisthosoma without trace
+  of separate terga and sterna, the segmentation merely represented
+  posteriorly by slight integumental folds and the sterna of the 1st and
+  2nd somites by the opercular plates of the pulmonary sacs. The
+  spinning appendages migrate to the posterior end of the opisthosoma
+  and take up a position close to the anus; the inner branches of the
+  anterior pair either atrophy or are represented homogenetically by a
+  plate, the cribellum, or by an undivided membranous lobe, the colulus.
+
+  Tribe 1. Mygalomorphae.--The plane of the articulation of the
+  appendages of the 1st pair to the prosoma (the retrovert) vertical,
+  the basal segment projecting straight forwards at its proximal end,
+  the distal segment or fang closing backwards in a direction
+  subparallel to the long axis of the body. Two pairs of pulmonary sacs.
+
+  Families--Theraphosidae (_Avicularia_, _Poecilotheria_). Barychelidae
+  (_Barychelus_, _Plagiobothrus_). Dipluridae (_Diplura_, _Macrothele_).
+  Ctenizidae (_Cteniza_, _Nemesia_). Atypidae (_Atypus_, _Calommata_).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 62.--_Liphistius desultor_. Lateral view.
+
+    I to VI, Appendages of the prosoma cut off at the base.
+    o, Ocular tubercle.
+    praegen, The prae-genital somite.
+    1 and 2, Sternites of the first and second opisthosomatic somites.
+    3 and 4, Appendages of the third and fourth opisthosomatic somites,
+      which are the spinning organs, and in this genus occupy their
+      primitive position instead of migrating to the anal region as in
+      other spiders.
+    5, Tergite of the fifth opisthosomatic somite.
+    11, Eleventh opisthosomatic somite; an, Anus.
+
+  (Original.)]
+
+  Tribe 2. Arachnomorpnae.--The plane of the articulation of the
+  appendages of the 1st pair to the prosoma horizontal, the basal
+  segment projecting vertically downwards, at least at its proximal end,
+  the distal segment or fang closing inwards nearly or quite at right
+  angles to the long axis of the body. The posterior pulmonary sacs
+  (except in _Hypochilus_) replaced by tracheal tubes; the anterior and
+  posterior pairs replaced by tracheal tubes in the Caponiidae.
+
+  Principal families--Hypochilidae (_Hypochilus_). Dysderidae
+  (_Dysdera_, _Segestria_). Caponiidae (_Caponia_, _Nops_). Filistatidae
+  (_Filistata_). Uloboridae (_Uloborus_, _Dinopis_). Argiapidae
+  (_Nephila_, _Gasteracantha_). Pholcidae (_Pholcus_, _Artema_).
+  Agelenidae (_Tegenuria_). Lycosidae (_Lycosa_). Clubionidae
+  (_Clubiona_, _Olios_, _Sparassus_) Gnaphosidae (_Gnaphosa_,
+  _Hemiclaea_). Thomisidae (_Thomisus_). Attidae (_Salticus_).
+  Urocteidae (_Uroctea_). Eresidae (_Eresus_).
+
+  _Remarks on the Araneae._--The Spiders are the most numerous and
+  diversified group of the Arachnida; about 2000 species are known. No
+  noteworthy fossil spiders are known; the best-preserved are in amber
+  of Oligocene age. _Protolycosa_ and _Arthrolycosa_ occur in the
+  Carboniferous. Morphologically, the spiders are remarkable for the
+  concentration and specialization of their structure, which is
+  accompanied with high physiological efficiency. The larger species of
+  Bird's Nest Spiders (_Avicularia_), the opisthosoma of which is as
+  large as a bantam's egg, undoubtedly attack young birds, and M'Cook
+  gives an account of the capture in its web by an ordinary house spider
+  of a small mouse. The "retrovert" or bent-back first pair of
+  appendages is provided with a poison gland opening on the fang or
+  terminal segment. Spiders form at least two kinds of
+  constructions--snares for the capture of prey and nests for the
+  preservation of the young. The latter are only formed by the female,
+  which is a larger and more powerful animal than the male. Like the
+  scorpions the spiders have a special tendency to cannibalism, and
+  accordingly the male, in approaching the female for the purpose of
+  fertilizing her, is liable to be fallen upon and sucked dry by the
+  object of his attentions. The sperm is removed by the male from the
+  genital aperture into a special receptacle on the terminal segment of
+  the 2nd prosomatic appendage. Thus held out at some distance from the
+  body, it is cautiously advanced by the male spider to the genital
+  aperture of the female.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 63.--Ventral view of a male mygalomorphous spider.
+
+    I to VI, The six pairs of prosomatic appendages.
+    a, Copulatory apparatus of the second appendage.
+    b, Process of the fifth joint of the third appendage.
+    M, Mouth.
+    pro, Prosternite of the prosoma.
+    mes, Mesosternite of the prosoma: observe the contact of the coxae
+      of the sixth pair of limbs behind it; compare _Liphistius_ (fig.
+      61) where this does not occur.
+    stg, Lung aperture.
+    gn, Genital aperture.
+    a, Anus with a pair of backwardly migrated spinning appendages on
+      each side of it; compare the position of these appendages in
+      _Liphistius_ (fig. 61).
+
+  (From Lankester, "Limulus an Arachnid.")]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 64.--_Liphistius desultor_. Under side of the
+  uplifted genital or first opisthosomatic somite of the female; g,
+  genital aperture; p, pitted plate, probably a gland for the secretion
+  of adhesive material for the eggs; l, the edges of the lamellae of the
+  lung-books of the first pair.
+
+  (Original drawing by Pocock.)]
+
+  For an account of the courtship and dancing of spiders, of their webs
+  and floating lines, the reader is referred to the works of M'Cook (30)
+  and the Peckhams (31), whilst an excellent account of the nests of
+  trap-door spiders is given by Moggridge (32). References to systematic
+  works will also be found at the end of this article (33).
+
+  Order 4. Palpigradi = Microthelyphonidae (see fig. 65).--Prosoma
+  covered above by three plates, a larger representing the dorsal
+  elements of the first four somites, and two smaller representing the
+  dorsal elements of the 5th and 6th.
+
+  Its ventral surface provided with one prosternal, two mesosternal and
+  one metasternal plate. Appendages of 1st pair consisting of three
+  segments, completely chelate, without poison gland; of 2nd pair
+  slender, leg-like, tipped with three claws, the basal segment without
+  sterno-coxal process taking no share in mastication, and widely
+  separated from its fellow of the opposite side; 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th
+  appendages similar in form to the 2nd and to each other.
+
+  Proboscis free, not supported from below by either the prosternum or
+  the basal segments of the appendages of the 2nd pair.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 65.--_Koenenia mirabilis_, Grassi, one of the
+  Palpigradi.
+
+    A, Ventral view of prosoma and anterior region of opisthosoma with
+      the appendages cut off near the base; a and b, prosternites; c,
+      mesosternite; and d, metasternite of the prosoma; f, ventral
+      surface of the prae-genital somite; g, sternite of the genital
+      somite (first opisthosomatic somite).
+    B, Dorsal view. I to VI, prosomatic appendages; 1 opisth, genital
+      somite (first opisthosomatic somite).
+    C, Lateral view, I to VI, prosomatic appendages; a, b, c, the three
+      tergal plates of the prosoma; prae-gen, the prae-genital somite; 1
+      to 10, the ten somites of the opisthosoma.
+    D, Chelicera.
+
+  (Original drawing by Pocock and Pickard-Cambridge, after Hansen and
+  Sörensen.)]
+
+  Opisthosoma consisting of only ten somites, which have no tergal and
+  sternal elements, the prae-genital somite contracted to form a
+  "waist," as in the Pedipalpi; the last three narrowed to form a caudal
+  support for the many-jointed flagelliform telson, as in the Urotricha.
+  Respiratory organs atrophied.
+
+    Family--Koeneniidae (_Koenenia_).
+
+  _Remarks._--An extremely remarkable minute form originally described
+  by Grassi (34) from Sicily, and since further described by Hansen
+  (35). Recently the genus has been found in Texas, U.S.A. Only one
+  genus of the order is known.
+
+  Order 5. Solifugae = Mycetophorae (see figs. 66 to 69).--Dorsal area
+  of prosoma covered with three distinct plates, two smaller
+  representing the terga of the 5th and 6th somites, and a larger
+  representing those of the anterior four somites, although the reduced
+  terga of the 3rd and 4th are traceable behind the larger plate. The
+  latter bears a pair of median eyes and obsolete lateral eyes on each
+  side. Sternal elements of prosoma almost entirely absent, traces of a
+  prosternum and metasternum alone remaining. Rostrum free, not
+  supported by either the prosternum or the basal segments of the
+  appendages. Appendages of 1st pair large, chelate, bisegmented,
+  articulated to the sides of the head-shield; appendages of 2nd pair
+  simple, pediform, with protrusible (? suctorial) organ, and no claws
+  at the tip; their basal segments united in the middle line and
+  furnished with sterno-coxal process. Remaining pairs of appendages
+  with their basal segments immovably fixed to the sternal surface,
+  similar in form, the posterior three pairs furnished with two claws
+  supported on long stalks; the basal segments of the 6th pair bearing
+  five pairs of tactile sensory organs or malleoli. The prae-genital
+  somite is suppressed. Opisthosoma composed of ten somites. Respiratory
+  organs tracheal, opening upon the ventral surface of the 2nd and 3rd,
+  and sometimes also of the 4th somite of the opisthosoma. A
+  supplementary pair of tracheae opening behind the basal segment of the
+  4th appendage of the prosoma.
+
+  (? Intromittent organ of male lodged on the dorsal side of the 1st
+  pair of prosomatic appendages.)
+
+  Families--Hexisopodidae (_Hexisopus_). Solpugidae (_Solpuga_,
+  _Rhagodes_). Galeodidae (_Galeodes_).
+
+  _Remarks._--These most strange-looking Arachnids occur in warmer
+  temperate, and tropical regions of Asia, Africa and America. Their
+  anatomy has not been studied, as yet, by means of freshly-killed
+  material, and is imperfectly known, though the presence of the coxal
+  glands was determined by Macleod in 1884. The proportionately enormous
+  chelae (chelicerae) of the first pair of appendages are not provided
+  with poison glands; their bite is not venomous.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 66.--_Galeodes sp._, one of the Solifugae. Ventral
+  view to show legs and somites.
+
+    I to VI, The six leg-bearing somites of the prosoma.
+    opisth 1, First or genital somite of the opisthosoma.
+    ge, Site of the genital aperture.
+    st, Thoracic tracheal aperture.
+    l^2, Anterior tracheal aperture of the opisthosoma in somite 2 of the
+      opisthosoma.
+    l^3, Tracheal aperture in somite 3 of the opisthosoma.
+    a, Anus.
+
+  (From Lankester, "Limulus an Arachnid.")]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 67.--_Galeodes sp._, one of the Solifugae. Ventral
+  view with the appendages cut off at the base.
+
+    I to VI, Prosomatic appendages.
+    s, Prosomatic stigma or aperture of the tracheal system.
+    1, First opisthosomatic sternite covering the genital aperture g.
+    2, Second opisthosomatic sternite covering the second pair of
+      tracheal apertures sp1.
+    sp2, The third pair of tracheal apertures.
+    10, The tenth opisthosomatic somite.
+    an, The anal aperture.
+
+  (Original by Pickard-Cambridge and Pocock.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 68.--_Galeodes sp._, one of the Solifugae. Dorsal
+  view.
+
+    I to VI, Bases of the prosomatic appendages.
+    o, Eyes.
+    a, Lateral region of the cephalic plate to which the first pair of
+      appendages are articulated.
+    b, Cephalic plate with median eye.
+    c, Dorsal element of somites bearing third and fourth pairs of
+      appendages.
+    d, Second plate of the prosoma with fifth pair of appendages.
+    e, Third or hindermost plate of the prosoma beneath which the sixth
+      pair of legs is articulated.
+    1, 2, 9, 10, First, second, ninth and tenth somites of the
+      opisthosoma.
+    an, Anus.
+
+  (Original.)]
+
+  _Galeodes_ has been made the means of a comparison between the
+  structure of the Arachnida and Hexapod insects by Haeckel and other
+  writers, and it was at one time suggested that there was a genetic
+  affinity between the two groups--through _Galeodes_, or extinct forms
+  similar to it. The segmentation of the prosoma and the form of the
+  appendages bear a homoplastic similarity to the head, pro-, meso-, and
+  meta-thorax of a Hexapod with mandibles, maxillary palps and three
+  pairs of walking legs; while the opisthosoma agrees in form and number
+  of somites with the abdomen of a Hexapod, and the tracheal stigmata
+  present certain agreements in the two cases. Reference to literature
+  (36).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 69.--_Galeodes sp._, one of the Solifugae.
+
+    I to VI, The six prosomatic limbs cut short.
+    o, The eyes.
+    b, c, Demarcated areae of the cephalic or first prosomatic plate
+      corresponding respectively to appendages I, II, III, and to
+      appendage IV (see fig. 68).
+    d, Second plate of the prosoma-carrying appendage V.
+    e, Third plate of the prosoma-carrying appendage VI. The prae-genital
+      somite is absent.
+    1, First somite of the opisthosoma.
+    2, Second do.
+    S, Prosomatic tracheal aperture between legs IV and V.
+    S' and S", Opisthosomatic tracheal apertures.
+    10, Tenth opisthosomatic somite.
+    an, Anus.
+
+  (Original.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 70.--_Garypus litoralis_, one of the
+  Pseudoscorpiones. Ventral view.
+
+    I to VI, Prosomatic appendages.
+    o, Sterno-coxal process of the basal segment of the second appendage.
+    1, Sternite of the genital or first opisthosomatic somite; the
+      prae-genital somite, though represented by a tergum, has no
+      separate ternal plate.
+    2 and 3, Sternites of the second and third somites of the
+      opisthosoma, each showing a tracheal stigma.
+    10 and 11, Sternites of the tenth and eleventh somites of the
+      opisthosoma.
+    an, Anus.
+
+  (Original by Pocock and Pickard-Cambridge.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 71.--_Garypus litoralis_, one of the
+  Pseudoscorpiones. Dorsal view.
+
+    I to VI, The prosomatic appendages.
+    o, Eyes.
+    prae-gen, Prae-genital somite.
+    1, Tergite of the genital or first opisthosomatic somite.
+    10, Tergite of the tenthsomite of the opisthosoma.
+    11, The evanescent eleventh somite of the opisthosoma.
+    an, Anus.
+
+  (Original.)]
+
+  Order 6. Pseudoscorpiones = Chelonethi, also called Chernetidia (see
+  figs. 70, 71, 72).--Prosoma covered by a single dorsal shield, at most
+  furnished with one or two diplostichous lateral eyes; sternal elements
+  obliterated or almost obliterated. Appendages of the 1st pair
+  bisegmented completely chelate, furnished with peculiar organs, the
+  _serrula_ and the _lamina_. Appendages of 2nd pair very large and
+  completely chelate, their basal segments meeting in the middle line,
+  as in the Uropygi, and provided in front with membranous lip-like
+  processes underlying the proboscis. Appendages of the 3rd, 4th, 5th
+  and 6th pairs similar in form and function, tipped with two claws,
+  their basal segments in contact in the median ventral line. The
+  prae-genital somite wide, not constricted, with large tergal plate,
+  but with its sternal plate small or inconspicuous. Opisthosoma
+  composed, at least in many cases, of eleven somites, the 11th somite
+  very small, often hidden within the both. Respiratory organs in the
+  form of tracheal tubes opening by a pair of stigmata in the 2nd and
+  3rd somites of the opisthosoma. Intromittent organ of male beneath
+  sternum of the 1st somite of the opisthosoma.
+
+  Sub-order a. Panctenodactyli.--Dorsal plate of prosoma (carapace)
+  narrowed in front; the appendages of the 1st pair small, much
+  narrower, taken together, than the posterior border of the carapace.
+  Serrula on movable digit of appendages of 1st pair fixed throughout
+  its length, and broader at its proximal than at its distal end; the
+  immovable digit with an external process.
+
+    Family--Cheliferidae (_Chelifer_ (figs. 70, 71, 72), _Chiridium_).
+       "    Garypidae (_Garypus_).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 72.--_Garypus litoralis_, one of the
+  Pseudoscorpiones. Lateral view.
+
+    I to VI, of the six prosomatic appendages.
+    o, Eyes.
+    prae-gen, Tergite of the prae-genital somite.
+    1, Genital or first opisthosomatic somite.
+    2, 3, 10, The second, third and tenth somites of the opisthosoma.
+    11, The minute eleventh somite;
+    an, the anus.
+
+  (Original.)]
+
+  Sub-order b. Hemictenodactyli.--Dorsal plate of prosoma scarcely
+  narrowed in front; the appendages of the 1st pair large, not much
+  narrower, taken together, than the posterior border of the carapace.
+  The serrula or the movable digit free at its distal end, narrowed at
+  the base; no external lamina on the immovable digit.
+
+    Family--Obisiidae (_Obisium, Pseudobisium_).
+       "    Chthoniidae (_Chthonius, Tridenchthonius_).
+
+  _Remarks._--The book-scorpions--so called because they were, in old
+  times, found not unfrequently in libraries--are found in rotten wood
+  and under stones. The similarity of the form of their appendages to
+  those of the scorpions suggests that they are a degenerate group
+  derived from the latter, but the large size of the prae-genital somite
+  in them would indicate a connexion with forms preceding the scorpions.
+  Reference to literature (37).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 73.--_Cryptostemma Karschii_, one of the Podogona.
+  Dorsal view of male.
+
+    III to VI, The third, fourth, fifth and sixth appendages of the
+      prosoma.
+    a, Movable (hinged) sclerite (so-called hood) overhanging the first
+      pair of appendages.
+    b, Fused terga of the prosoma followed by the opisthosoma of four
+      visible somites.
+    an, Orifice within which the caudal segments are withdrawn.
+    E, Extremity of the fifth appendage of the male modified to subserve
+      copulation.
+
+  (Original drawing by Pocock and Pickard-Cambridge.)]
+
+  Order 7. Podogona = Ricinulei (see figs. 73 to 76).--Dorsal area of
+  prosoma furnished with two shields, a larger behind representing,
+  probably, the tergal elements of the somites, and a smaller in front,
+  which is freely articulated to the former and folds over the
+  appendages of the 1st pair. Ventral area without distinct sternal
+  plates. Appendages of 1st pair, bisegmented, completely chelate.
+  Appendages of 2nd pair, with their basal segments uniting in the
+  middle line below the mouth, weakly chelate at apex. Appendages of
+  3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs similar in form; their basal segments in
+  contact in the middle line and immovably welded, except those of the
+  3rd pair, which have been pushed aside so that the bases of the 2nd
+  and 4th pairs are in contact with each other. A movable membranous
+  joint between the prosoma and the opisthosoma, the generative aperture
+  opening upon the ventral side of the membrane. Prae-genital somite
+  suppressed; the opisthosma consisting of nine segments, whereof the
+  first and second are almost suppressed and concealed within the joint
+  between the prosoma and the opisthosoma; the following four large and
+  manifest, and the remaining three minute and forming a slender
+  generally-retracted tail like that of _Thelyphonus_. Respiratory
+  organs tracheal, opening by a pair of spiracles in the prosoma above
+  the base of the fifth appendage on each side. Intromittent organ of
+  male placed at the distal end of the appendage of the 5th pair.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 74.--_Cryptostemma Karschii_, anterior aspect of
+  the prosoma with the "hood" removed. I to IV, first to fourth
+  appendages of the prosoma; a, basal segment of the second pair of
+  appendages meeting its fellow in the middle line (see fig. 75).
+
+  (Original drawing by Pocock and Pickard-Cambridge.)]
+
+    Family--Cryptostemmidae (_Cryptostemma, Poliochera_), Carboniferous.
+
+  _Remarks on the Podogona._--The name given to this small but
+  remarkable group has reference to the position of the male
+  intromittent organ (fig. 73, E). They are small degenerate animals
+  with a relatively firm integument. Not more than four species and
+  twice that number of specimens are known. They have been found in West
+  Africa and South America. A fact of special interest in regard to them
+  is that the genus Poliochera, from the Coal Measures, appears to be a
+  member of the same group. The name Cryptostemma, given to the
+  first-known genus of the order, described by Guérin-Méneville, refers
+  to the supposed concealment of the eyes by the movable cephalic
+  sclerite. Reference to literature (38).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 75.--_Cryptostemma Karschii_, one of the Podogona.
+  Ventral view.
+
+    I to VI, The six pairs of appendages of the prosoma, the last three
+      cut short.
+    1, 2, 3, 4, The four somites of the opisthosoma.
+    a, Visible hood overhanging the first pair of appendages.
+    b, Position of the genital orifice.
+    c, Part of 3rd appendage.
+    d, Fourth segment of 2nd appendage. Observe that the basal segment
+      of appendage III does _not_ meet its fellow in the middle line.
+
+  (Original drawing by Pocock and Pickard-Cambridge.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 76.--_Cryptostemma Karschii_. Extremity of the
+  fifth pair of appendages of the female for comparison with that of the
+  male E in fig. 73.]
+
+  Order 8. Opilione (see fig. 77).--Dorsal area of prosoma covered by a
+  single shield usually bearing a pair of eyes. Sternal elements much
+  reduced. Appendages of 1st pair large, three segmented and completely
+  chelate; of 2nd pair either simple and pediform, or prehensile and
+  subchelate; of remaining four pairs, similar in form, ambulatory in
+  function; the basal segment of the 2nd, 3rd and sometimes of the 4th
+  pairs of appendages furnished with sterno-coxal (maxillary) lobe.
+  Opisthosoma confluent throughout its breadth with the prosoma, with
+  the dorsal plate of which its anterior tergal plates are more or less
+  fused; at most ten opisthosomatic somites traceable; the generative
+  aperture thrust far forwards between the basal segments of the 6th
+  appendages. Prae-genital somite suppressed. Respiratory organs
+  tracheal, opening by a pair of stigmata situated immediately behind
+  the basal segments of the 6th pair of appendages on what is probably
+  the sternum of the 2nd opisthosomatic somite and also in some cases
+  upon the 5th segment of the legs.
+
+  Intromittent organ of male lying within the genital orifice.
+
+  Sub-order a. Laniatores.--Orifice of foetid glands opening above the
+  coxa of the 4th appendage, not raised upon a tubercle. Orifice of
+  coxal gland situated just behind that of the foetid gland. Sternal
+  plate of prosoma long and narrow, with a distinct prosternal element
+  underlying the mouth. Coxae of 4th, 5th and 6th appendages immovable.
+  Appendages of 2nd pair, strong, usually prehensile and spiny. Genital
+  orifice covered by an operculum.
+
+    Families--Gonoleptidae (_Gonoleptes, Goniasoma_).
+              Biantidae (_Biantes_).
+              Oncopodidae (_Oncopus, Pelitnus_).
+              Trioenonychidae (_Trioenonyx, Acumontia_).
+
+  Sub-order b. Palpatores.--Orifice of foetid glands opening above the
+  coxa of the 3rd appendage, not raised upon a tubercle. Orifice of
+  coxal gland situated between the coxae of the 5th and 6th appendages.
+  Sternal plate of prosoma usually short and wide, rarely longer than
+  broad; with a larger or smaller prosternal element underlying the
+  mouth. Coxae of 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th appendages movable or
+  immovable. Appendages of 2nd pair weak, pediform not prehensile.
+  Genital orifice covered by an operculum.
+
+    Families--Phalangiidae (_Phalangium, Gagrella_).
+              Ischyropsalidae (_Ischyropsalis, Taracus_).
+              Nemastomidae (_Nemastoma_).
+              Trogulidae (_Trogulus, Anelasmocephalus_).
+
+  Sub-order c. _Cyphophthalmi_ (_Anepignathi_).--Orifice of foetid
+  glands opening on a tubercle situated near the lateral border of the
+  carapace above the base of the 5th appendage. Orifice of coxal gland
+  probably situated at base of coxa of 5th appendage; sternal plate of
+  prosema minute or absent; no prosternal element underlying the mouth.
+  Coxae of 5th and 6th, and usually also of 4th appendages immovable.
+  Appendages of 2nd pair weak, pediform, not prehensile. Genital orifice
+  not covered by an operculum.
+
+    Families--Sironidae (_Siro, Pettalus_).
+              Stylocellidae (_Stylocellus_).
+
+  _Remarks on the Opiliones._--These include the harvest-men, sometimes
+  called also daddy-long-legs, with round undivided bodies and very
+  long, easily-detached legs. The intromittent organs of the male are
+  remarkable for their complexity and elaboration. The confluence of the
+  regions of the body and the dislocation of apertures from their
+  typical position are results of degeneration. The Opiliones seem to
+  lead on from the Spiders to the Mites. Reference to literature (39).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 77.--_Stylocellus sumatranus_, one of the
+  Opiliones; after Thorell. Enlarged.
+
+    A, Dorsal view; I to VI, the six prosomatic appendages.
+    B, Ventral view of the prosoma and of the first somite of the
+      opisthosoma, with the appendages I to VI cut off at the base; a,
+      tracheal stigma; mx, maxillary processes of the coxae of the 3rd
+      pair of appendages; g, genital aperture.
+    C, Ventral surface of the prosoma and opisthosoma; a, tracheal
+      stigma; b, last somite.
+    D, Lateral view of the 1st and 2nd pair of appendages.
+    E, Lateral view of the whole body and two 1st appendages, showing
+      the fusion of the dorsal elements of the prosoma into a single
+      plate, and of those of the opisthosoma into an imperfectly
+      segmented plate continuous with that of the prosoma.]
+
+  Apparently related to the Opiliones are two extinct groups, the
+  Anthracomarti and Phalangiotarbi, which are not known to have survived
+  the Carboniferous period. In the Anthracomarti the opisthosoma was
+  movably articulated to the prosoma, and consisted of from eight to ten
+  segments furnished with movable lateral plates, the anal segment being
+  overlapped dorsally by a laminate expansion of the preceding segment.
+  The carapace of the prosoma was unsegmented and often bore a pair of
+  eyes. The appendages of the 2nd pair were slender and pediform; those
+  of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs were similar in form and ambulatory
+  in function with their basal segments arranged round a sternal area as
+  in the order Araneae. The best-known genera were _Anthracomartus_ and
+  _Eophognus_.
+
+  In the Phalangiotarbi the appendages resembled those of the
+  Anthracomarti, except that the basal segments of the last four pairs
+  were usually approximated in the middle line leaving a long and narrow
+  sternal area between; and the carapace of the prosoma was unsegmented.
+  The prosoma and opisthosoma were broadly confluent and probably
+  immovably welded together. The opisthosoma consisted of eight or nine
+  segments, whereof the anterior five or six were very short in the
+  dorsal region, and the posterior three exceptionally large with the
+  anal orifice terminal.
+
+  Several genera have been established, the best-characterized being
+  _Geraphognus_ and _Architarbus_.
+
+  Order 9. Rhynchostomi = Acari (see fig. 78).--Degenerate Arachnids
+  resembling the Opiliones in many structural points, but chiefly
+  distinguishable from them by the following features:--The basal
+  segments of the appendages of the 2nd pair are united in the middle
+  line behind the mouth, those of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs are
+  widely separated and not provided with sterno-coxal (maxillary) lobes,
+  and take no share in mastication; the respiratory stigmata, when
+  present, belong to the prosoma, and the primitive segmentation of the
+  opisthosoma has entirely or almost entirely disappeared.
+
+  Sub-order a. _Notostigmata._--Opisthosoma consisting of ten segments
+  defined by integumental grooves, each of the anterior four of these
+  furnished with a single pair of dorsally-placed spiracles or tracheal
+  stigmata.
+
+    Family--Opilioacaridae (_Opilioacarus_).
+
+  Sub-order b. _Cryptostigmata._--Integument hard, strengthened by a
+  continuously chitinized dorsal and ventral sclerite. Tracheae
+  typically opening by stigmata situated in the articular sockets
+  (acetabula) of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs of appendages.
+
+    Family--Oribatidae (_Oribata, Nothrus, Hoplophora_).
+
+  Sub-order c. _Metastigmata._--Integument mostly like that of the
+  Cryptostigmata. Tracheae opening by a pair of stigmata situated above
+  and behind the base of the 4th or 5th or 6th pair of appendages.
+
+    Families--Gamasidae (_Gamasus, Pteroptus_).
+              Argasidae (_Argas, Ornithodoros_).
+              Ixodidae (_Ixodes, Rhipicephalus_).
+
+  Sub-order d. _Prostigmata._--Integument soft, strengthened by special
+  sclerites, those on the ventral surface of the prosoma apparently
+  representing the basal segments of the legs embedded in the skin.
+  Tracheae, except in the aquatic species in which they are atrophied,
+  opening by a pair of stigmata situated close to or above the base of
+  the appendages of the 1st pair (mandibles).
+
+    Families--Trombidiidae (_Trombidium, Tetranychus_).
+              Hydrachnidae (_Hydrachna, Atax_).
+              Halacaridae (_Halacarus, Leptognathus_).
+              Bdellidae (_Bdella, Eupodes_).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 78.--_Holothyrus nitidissimus_, one of the Acari;
+  after Thorell.
+
+    A, Lateral view with appendages III to VI removed; 1, plate covering
+      the whole dorsal area, representing the fused tergal sclerites of
+      the prosoma and opisthosoma; 2, similarly-formed ventral plate; 3,
+      tracheal stigma.
+    B, Dorsal view of the same animal; II to VI, 2nd to 6th pairs of
+      appendages. The 1st pair of appendages both in this and in C are
+      retracted.
+    C, Ventral view of the same; II to VI as in B; a, genital orifice;
+      b, anus; c, united basal segments of the second pair of appendages;
+      d, basal segment of the 6th prosomatic appendage of the right side.
+      The rest of the appendage, as also of app. Ill, IV and V, has been
+      cut away.]
+
+  Sub-order e. _Astigmata._--Degenerate, mostly parasitic forms
+  approaching the Prostigmata in the development of integumental
+  sclerites and the softness of the skin, but with the respiratory
+  system absent.
+
+    Families--Tyroglyphidae (_Tyroglyphus, Rhizoglyphus_).
+              Sarcoptidae (_Sarcoptes, Analges_).
+
+  Sub-order f. _Vermiformia._--Degenerate atracheate parasitic forms
+  with the body produced posteriorly into an annulated caudal
+  prolongation, and the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs of appendages short
+  and only three-jointed.
+
+    Family--Demodicidae (_Demodex_).
+
+  Sub-order g. _Tetrapoda._--Degenerate atracheate gall-mites in which
+  the body is produced posteriorly and annulated, as in _Demodex_, but
+  in which the appendages of the 3rd and 4th pairs are long and normally
+  segmented and those of the 5th and 6th pairs entirely absent.
+
+    Family--Eriophyidae (_Eriophyes, Phyllocoptes_).
+
+  _Remarks on the Rhynchostomi._--The Acari include a number of forms
+  which are of importance and special interest on account of their
+  parasitic habits. The ticks (_Ixodes_) are not only injurious as
+  blood-suckers, but are now credited with carrying the germs of Texas
+  cattle-fever, just as mosquitoes carry those of malaria. The
+  itch-insect (_Sarcoptes scabiei_) is a well-known human parasite, so
+  minute that it was not discovered until the end of the 18th century,
+  and "the itch" was treated medicinally as a rash. The female burrows
+  in the epidermis much as the female trap-door spider burrows in turf
+  in order to make a nest in which to rear her young. The male does not
+  burrow, but wanders freely on the surface of the skin. _Demodex
+  folliculorum_ is also a common parasite of the sebaceous glands of
+  the skin of the face in man, and is frequent in the skin of the dog.
+  Many Acari are parasitic on marine and freshwater molluscs, and others
+  are found on the feathers of birds and the hair of mammals. Others
+  have a special faculty of consuming dry, powdery vegetable and animal
+  refuse, and are liable to multiply in manufactured products of this
+  nature, such as mouldy cheese. A species of Acarus is recorded as
+  infesting a store of powdered strychnine and feeding on that drug, so
+  poisonous to larger organisms. Reference to literature (40).
+
+  AUTHORITIES cited by numbers in the text.--1. Strauss-Dürckheim (as
+  reported by MM. Riester and Sanson in an appendix to the sixth volume
+  of the French translation of Meckel's _Anatomy_, 1829); 2. Lankester,
+  "Limulus an Arachnid," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. xxi. N.S.,
+  1881; 3. _Idem_, "On the Skeletotrophic Tissues of Limulus, Scorpio
+  and Mygale," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. xxiv. N.S., 1884; 4.
+  _Idem. Trans. Zool. Soc._ vol. xi., 1883; 5. Lankester and A.G.
+  Bourne, "Eyes of Limulus and Scorpio," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol.
+  xxiii. N.S., Jan. 1883; 6. Milne-Edwards, A., "Recherches sur
+  l'anatomie des Limules," _Ann. Sci. Nat._ 5th Series, _Zoologie_, vol.
+  xvii., 1873; 7. Owen, Richard, "Anatomy of the King-Crab," _Trans.
+  Linn. Soc. Lond._, vol. xxviii., 1872; 8. Kishinouye, "Development of
+  _Limulus longispina_," _Journal of the Science College of Japan_, vol.
+  v., 1892; 9. Brauer, "Development of Scorpion," _Zeitschrift für wiss.
+  Zoologie_, vol. lix., 1895; 10. Hansen, H.J., "Organs and Characters
+  in Different Orders of Arachnida," _Entomol. Meddel._ vol. iv. pp.
+  137-149; 11. Watase, "On the Morphology of the Compound Eyes of
+  Arthropods," _Studies from the Biolog. Lab. Johns Hopkins University_,
+  vol. iv. pp 287-334; 12. Newport, George, "Nervous and Circulatory
+  Systems in Myriapoda and Macrourous Arachnids," _Phil. Trans. Roy.
+  Soc._, 1843; 13. Lankester, "Coxal Glands of Limulus, Scorpio and
+  Mygale," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. xxiv. N.S., 1884; 13A. W.
+  Patten and A.P. Hazen, "Development of the Coxal Glands of Limulus,"
+  _Journ. of Morphology_, vol. xvi., 1900; 13B. Bernard, "Coxal Glands
+  of Scorpio," _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ vol. xii., 1893, p. 55; 14.
+  Benham, "Testis of Limulus," _Trans. Linn. Soc._, 1882; 15. Lankester,
+  "Mobility of the Spermatozoa of Limulus," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._
+  vol. xviii. N.S., 1878; 16. Korschelt and Heider,
+  _Entwickelungsgeschichte_ (Jena, 1892), _ibique citata_; 17. Laurie,
+  M., "The Embryology of a Scorpion," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol.
+  xxxi. N.S., 1890, and "On Development of _Scorpio fulvipes_," _ibid._
+  vol. xxxii., 1891; 18. Lankester (Homoplasy and Homogeny), "On the Use
+  of the term Homology in Modern Zoology," _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._,
+  1870; 19. _Idem_, "Degeneration, a Chapter in Darwinism," 1878,
+  reprinted in the _Advancement of Science_ (Macmillan, 1890); 20.
+  _Idem_, "Limulus an Arachnid," _Q. J. Micr. Sci._ vol. xxi. N.S.; 21.
+  Claus, "Degeneration of the Acari and Classification of Arthropoda,"
+  _Anzeiger d. k. k. Akad. Wissen. Wien_, 1885; see also _Ann. and Mag.
+  Nat. Hist._ (5) vol. xvii., 1886, p. 364, and vol. xix. p. 225; 22.
+  Lindstrom, G., "Researches on the Visual Organs of the Trilobites,"
+  _K. Svenska Vet. Akad. Handl._ xxxiv. No. 8, pp. 1-86, Pls. i.-vi.,
+  1901; 22*. Zittel, American edition of his _Palaeontology_ (the
+  Macmillan Co., New York), where ample references to the literature of
+  Trilobitae and Eurypteridae will be found; also references to
+  literature of fossil Scorpions and Spiders; 23. Hoek, "Report on the
+  Pycnogonida," _Challenger Expedition Reports_, 1881; Meinert,
+  "Pycnogonida of the Danish Ingolf Expedition," vol. iii., 1899;
+  Morgan, "Embryology and Phylogeny of the Pycnogonids," _Biol. Lab.
+  Baltimore_, vol. v., 1891; 24. Bourne, A.G., "The Reputed Suicide of
+  the Scorpion," _Proc. Roy. Soc._ vol. xlii. pp. 17-22; 25. Lankester,
+  "Notes on some Habits of Scorpions," _Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool._ vol.
+  xvi. p. 455, 1882; 26. Huxley, "Pharynx of Scorpion," _Quart. Journ.
+  Micr. Sci._ vol. viii. (old series), 1860, p. 250; 27. Pocock, "How
+  and Why Scorpions hiss," _Natural Science_, vol. ix., 1896; cf.
+  _idem_, "Stridulating Organs of Spiders," _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._
+  (6), xvi. pp. 230-233; 28. Kraepelin, _Das Thierreich (Scorpiones et
+  Pedipalpi_) (Berlin, 1899); Peters, "Eine neue Eintheilung der
+  Skorpione," _Man. Akad. Wiss. Berlin_, 1861; Pocock, "Classification
+  of Scorpions," _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ (6) xii., 1893; Thorell and
+  Lindstrom, "On a Silurian Scorpion," _Kongl. Svens. Vet. Akad. Handl._
+  xxi. No. 9, 1885; 29. Cambridge, O.P., "A New Family (Tartarides) and
+  Genus of Thelyphonidea," _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ (4) x., 1872, p.
+  413; Cook, "Hubbardia, a New Genus of Pedipalpi," _Proc. Entom. Soc.
+  Washington_, vol. iv., 1899; Thorell, "Tartarides, &c." _Ann. Mus.
+  Genova_, vol. xxvii., 1889; 30. M Cook, _American Spiders and their
+  Spinning Work_ (3 vols.; Philadelphia, 1889-1893); 31. Peckham, "On
+  Sexual Selection in Spiders," _Occasional Papers Nat. Hist. Soc.
+  Wisconsin_, vol. i. pp. 1-113, 1889; 32. Moggridge, _Harvesting Ants
+  and Trap-Door Spiders_ (1873); 33. Bertkau, Ph., _Arch. f.
+  Naturgesch._ vol. xlviii. pp. 316-362; _Idem_, same journal, 1875, p.
+  235, and 1878, p. 351; Cambridge, O.P., "Araneidea" in _Biologia
+  Centr. Americana_, vols. i. and ii. (London, 1899); Keyserling,
+  _Spinnen Amerikas_ (Nuremberg, 1880-1892); Pocock, "Liphistius and the
+  Classification of Spiders," _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ (6) x., 1892;
+  Simon, _Hist. nat. des Araignées_, vols. i. and ii., 1892, 1897;
+  Wagner, "L'Industrie des Araneína," _Mem. Acad. St-Pétersbourg_;
+  _Idem_, "La Mue des Araignées," _Ann. Sci. Nat._ vol. vi.; 34. Grassi,
+  G.B. "Intorno ad un nuovo Aracnide artrogastro (_Koenenia mirabilis_)
+  &c." _Boll. Soc. Ent. Ital._ vol. xviii., 1886; 35. H.J. Hansen and
+  Sörensen, "The Order Palpigradi, Thorell (_Koenenia_), and its
+  Relationships with other Arachnida," _Ent. Tidskr._ vol. xviii. pp.
+  233-240, 1898; Kraepelin, _Das Thierreich_ (Berlin, 1901); 36.
+  Bernard. "Compar. Morphol. of the Galeodidae," _Trans. Linn. Soc.
+  Zool._ vol. vi., 1896, _ibique citata_; Dufour, "Galeodes," _Mém.
+  prés. Acad. Sci. Paris_, vol. xvii., 1862; Kraepelin, _Das Thierreich_
+  (Berlin, 1901); Pocock, "Taxonomy of Solifugae," _Ann. and Mag. Nat.
+  Hist._ vol. xx.; 37. Balzan, "Voyage au Vénézuela (Pseudoscorpiones),"
+  _Ann. Soc. Entom. France_, 1891, pp. 497-522; 38. Guérin-Méneville,
+  _Rev. Zool._, 1838, p. II; Karsch, "Ueber Cryptostemma Guer."
+  _Berliner entom. Zeitschrift_, xxxviii. pp. 25-32, 1892; Thorell, "On
+  an apparently new Arachnid belonging to the family _Cryptostemmidae_,"
+  _Westv. Bihang Svenska Vet. Akad. Handligar_, vol. xvii. No. 9, 1892;
+  39. Hansen and Sorensen, _On Two Orders of Arachnida_ (Cambridge,
+  1904); Sörensen, "_Opiliones laniatores_," _Nat. Tidskr._ (3) vol.
+  xiv., 1884; Thorell, "Opilioni," _Ann. Mus. Genova_, vol. viii., 1876;
+  40. Berlese, "Acari, &c., in Italia reperta" (Padova, 1892);
+  Canestrini, _Acarofauna Italiana_ (Padova, 1885); Canestrini and
+  Kramer, "Demodicidae and Sarcoptidae" in _Das Thierreich_ (Berlin,
+  1899); Michael, "British Oribatidae," _Ray Soc._; _Idem_, "Oribatidae"
+  in _Das Thierreich_ (Berlin, 1898); _Idem_, "Progress and Present
+  State of Knowledge of Acari," _Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc._, 1894; Nalepa,
+  "Phytoptidae," _Das Thierreich_ (Berlin, 1898); Trouessart,
+  "Classification des Acariens," _Rev. Sci. Nat. de l'ouest._ p. 289,
+  1892; Wagner, _Embryonal Entwick, von Ixodes_ (St Petersburg, 1803);
+  41. Bertkau, Ph., "Coxaldrusen der Arachniden," _Sitzb. Niederl.
+  Gesellsch._, 1885; 42. Patten, W., "Brain and Sense Organs of
+  Limulus," _Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci._ vol. xxxv., 1894; see also his
+  "Origin of Vertebrates from Arachnids," _ibid._ vol. xxxi.
+
+  Authorities not cited by numbers in the text:--
+
+  Lung-books:--Berteaux, "Le Poumon des Arachnides," _La Cellule_, vol.
+  v. 1891; Jawarowski, "Die Entwick. d. sogen. Lunge bei der
+  Arachniden," _Zeitsch. wiss. Zool._ vol. lviii., 1894; Macleod,
+  "Recherches sur la structure et la signification de l'appareil
+  respiratoire des Arachnides," _Arch. d. Biologie._ vol. v., 1884;
+  Schneider, A., "Mélanges arachnologiques," in _Tablettes zoologiques_,
+  vol. ii. p. 135, 1892; Simmons, "Development of Lung in Spiders,"
+  _Amer. Journ. Science_, vol. xlviii., 1894. Coxal Glands:--Bertkau,
+  "Ueber die Coxaldrusen der Arachniden," _Sitzb. d. Niederl.
+  Gesellsch._, 1885; Loman, "Altes und neues über das Nephridium (die
+  Coxaldrüse) der Arachniden," _Bÿd. tot de Dierkunde_, vol. xiv., 1887;
+  Macleod, "Glande coxale chez les Galéodes," _Bull. Acad. Belg._ (3)
+  vol. viii., 1884; Pelseneer, "On the Coxal Glands of Mygale," _Proc.
+  Zool. Soc._, 1885; Tower, "The External Opening of the brick-red
+  Glands of Limulus," _Zool. Anzeiger_, vol. xviii. p. 471, 1895.
+  Ento-sternite:--Schimkewitsch, "Bau und Entwick. des Endosternites der
+  Arachniden," _Zool. Jahrb._, Anal. Abtheil., vol. viii., 1894.
+  Embryology:--Balfour, "Development of the Araneina," _Q. J. Micr.
+  Sci._ vol. xx., 1880; Kingsley, "The Embryology of Limulus," _Journ.
+  Morphology_, vols. vii. and viii.; Kishinouye, "Development of
+  Araneina," _Journ. Coll. Sci. Univ. of Japan_, vol. iv., 1890; Locy,
+  "Development of Agelena," _Bull. Mus. Harvard_, vol. xii., 1885;
+  Metchnikoff, "Embryologie d. Scorpion," _Zeit. wiss. Zool._ vol. xxi.,
+  1871; _Idem_, "Embryol. Chelifer," _Zeit. wiss. Zool._ vol. xxi.,
+  1871; Schimkewitsch, "Développement des Araignées," _Archives d.
+  Biologie_, vol. vi. 1887. Sense organs:--Bertkau, "Sinnesorgane der
+  Spinnen," _Arch. f. mikros. Anat._ vol. xxvii. p. 589, 1886; Graber,
+  "Unicorneale Tracheaten Auge," _Arch. f. mikr. Anat._ vol. xvii.,
+  1879; Grenacher, _Gehörorgane der Arthropoden_ (Göttingen, 1879);
+  Kishinouye, "Lateral Eyes of Spiders," _Zool. Anz._ vol. xiv. p. 381,
+  1891; Purcell, "Phalangiden Augen," _Zool. Anzeiger_, vol. xv. p. 461.
+
+  General works on Arachnida:--Blanchard, "Les Arachnides" in
+  _L'Organisation du regne animal_; Gaubert, "Recherches sur les
+  Arachnides," _Ann. Sci. Nat._ (7) vol. xiii., 1892; Koch, C., _Die
+  Arachniden_ (16 vols., Nuremberg, 1831-1848); Koch, Keyserling and
+  Sörensen, _Die Arachniden Australiens_ (Nuremberg, 1871-1890); Pocock,
+  _Arachnida of British India_ (London, 1900); _Idem_, "On African
+  Arachnida," in _Proc. Zool. Soc._ and _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._,
+  1897-1900; Simon, _Les Arachnides de la France_ (7 vols., Paris,
+  1874-1881); Thorell, "Arachnida from the Oriental Region," _Ann. Mus.
+  Genova_, 1877-1899.     (E. R. L.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See the article ARTHROPODA for the use of the term "prosthomere."
+
+  [2] See fig. 12 in the article ARTHROPODA.
+
+  [3] Though ten is the prevailing number of retinula cells and
+    rhabdomeres in the lateral eye of Limulus, Watase states that they
+    may be as few as nine and as many as eighteen.
+
+  [4] A great deal of superfluous hypothesis has lately been put
+    forward in the name of "the principle of convergence of characters"
+    by a certain school of palaeontologists. The horse is supposed by
+    these writers to have originated by separate lines of descent in the
+    Old World and the New, from five-toed ancestors! And the important
+    consequences following from the demonstration of the identity in
+    structure of Limulus and Scorpio are evaded by arbitrary and even
+    phantastic invocations of a mysterious transcendental force which
+    brings about "convergence" irrespective of heredity and selection.
+    Morphology becomes a farce when such assumptions are made. (E. R. L.)
+
+  [5] A pair of round tubercles on the labram (camerostome or
+    hypostoma) of several species of Trilobites has been described and
+    held to be a pair of eyes (22). Sense-organs in a similar position
+    were discovered in Limulus by Patten (42) in 1894.
+
+  [6] The writer is indebted to R.I. Pocock, assistant in the Natural
+    History departments of the British Museum, for valuable assistance in
+    the preparation of this article and for the classification and
+    definition of the groups of Eu-arachnida here given. The general
+    scheme and some of the details have been brought by the writer into
+    agreement with the views maintained in this article. Pocock accepts
+    those views in all essential points and has, as a special student of
+    the Arachnida, given to them valuable expansion and confirmation. The
+    writer also desires to express his thanks to Messrs. Macmillan & Co.
+    for permission to use figs. 22, 43, 44 and 45, which are taken from
+    Parker and Haswell's _Text-book of Zoology_; and to Messrs. Swan
+    Sonnenschein & Co. for the loan of several figures from the
+    translations published by them of the admirable treatise on
+    _Embryology_ by Professors Korschelt and Heider; also to the
+    publishers of the treatise on _Palaeontology_ by Professor Zittel,
+    Herr Oldenbourg and The Macmillan Co., New York, for several cuts of
+    extinct forms.
+
+  [7] Pocock suggests that the area marked vii. in the outline figure
+    of the dorsal view of _Limulus_ (fig. 7) may be the tergum of the
+    suppressed prae-genital somite. Embryological evidence must settle
+    whether this is so or not.
+
+
+
+
+ARAD, or Ó-ARAD, a town of Hungary, capital of the county of the same
+name, 159 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 53,903. It is
+situated on the right bank of the river Maros, and consists of the inner
+town and five suburbs. Arad is a modern-built town, and contains many
+handsome private and public buildings, including a cathedral. It is the
+seat of a Greek-Orthodox bishop, and possesses a Greek-Orthodox
+theological seminary, two training schools for teachers--one Hungarian,
+and the other Rumanian--and a conservatoire for music. The town played
+an important part in the Hungarian revolution of 1848-49, and possesses
+a museum containing relics of this war of independence. One of the
+public squares contains a martyrs' monument, erected in memory of the
+thirteen Hungarian generals shot here on the 6th of October 1849, by
+order of the Austrian general Haynau. It consists of a colossal figure
+of Hungary, with four allegorical groups, and medallions of the
+executed generals. Arad is an important railway junction, and has become
+the largest industrial and commercial centre of south-eastern Hungary.
+Its principal industries are: distilling, milling, machinery-making,
+leather-working and saw-milling. A large trade is carried on in grain,
+flour, alcohol, cattle and wood. Arad was a fortified place, and was
+captured by the Turks during the wars of the 17th century, and kept by
+them till the end of that century. The new fortress, built in 1763,
+although small, was formidable, and played a great role during the
+Hungarian struggle for independence in 1849. Bravely defended by the
+Austrian general Berger until the 1st of July 1849, it was then captured
+by the Hungarian rebels, who made it their headquarters during the
+latter part of the insurrection. It was from it that Kossuth issued his
+famous proclamation (11th August 1849), and it was here that he handed
+over the supreme military and civil power to Görgei. The fortress was
+recaptured shortly after the surrender of Görgei to the Russians at
+Világos. The fortress is now used as an ammunition depot.
+
+The town of Uj-Arad, i.e. New Arad (pop. 6124), situated on the opposite
+bank of the Maros, is practically a suburb of Arad, with which it is
+connected by a bridge. The town was founded during the Turkish wars of
+the 17th century. The works erected by the Turks for the capture of the
+fortress of Arad formed the nucleus of the new town.
+
+Világos, the town where the famous capitulation of Görgei to the
+Russians took place on the 13th of August 1849, lies 21 m. by rail
+north-east of Arad.
+
+
+
+
+ARAEOSTYLE (Gr. [Greek: araios], weak or widely spaced, and [Greek:
+stylos], column), an architectural term for the intercolumniation (q.v.)
+given to those temples where the columns had only timber architraves to
+carry.
+
+
+
+
+ARAEOSYSTYLE (Gr. [Greek: araios], widely spaced, and [Greek: systylos],
+with columns set close together), an architectural term applied to a
+colonnade, in which the intercolumniation (q.v.) is alternately wide and
+narrow, as in the case of the western porch of St Paul's cathedral and
+the east front of the Louvre by Perrault.
+
+
+
+
+ARAGO, DOMINIQUE FRANÇOIS JEAN (1786-1853), French physicist, was born
+on the 26th of February 1786, at Estagel, a small village near
+Perpignan, in the department of the eastern Pyrenees. He was the eldest
+of four brothers. Jean (1788-1836) emigrated to America and became a
+general in the Mexican army. Jacques Étienne Victor (1799-1855) took
+part in L.C. de S. de Freycinet's exploring voyage in the "Uranie" from
+1817 to 1821, and on his return to France devoted himself to journalism
+and the drama. The fourth brother, Étienne Vincent (1802-1892), is said
+to have collaborated with H. de Balzac in the _Héritière de Birague_,
+and from 1822 to 1847 wrote a great number of light dramatic pieces,
+mostly in collaboration. A strong republican, he was obliged to leave
+France in 1849, but returned after the amnesty of 1859. In 1879 he was
+nominated director of the Luxembourg museum.
+
+Showing decided military tastes François Arago was sent to the municipal
+college of Perpignan, where he began to study mathematics in preparation
+for the entrance examination of the polytechnic school. Within two years
+and a half he had mastered all the subjects prescribed for examination,
+and a great deal more, and, on going up for examination at Toulouse, he
+astounded his examiner by his knowledge of Lagrange. Towards the close
+of 1803 he entered the polytechnic school, with the artillery service as
+the aim of his ambition, and in 1804, through the advice and
+recommendation of S.D. Poisson, he received the appointment of secretary
+to the Observatory of Paris. He now became acquainted with Laplace, and
+through his influence was commissioned, with J.B. Biot, to complete the
+meridional measurements which had been begun by J.B.J. Delambre, and
+interrupted since the death of P.F.A. Méchain (1744-1804). The two left
+Paris in 1806 and began operations among the mountains of Spain, but
+Biot returned to Paris after they had determined the latitude of
+Formentera, the southernmost point to which they were to carry the
+survey, leaving Arago to make the geodetical connexion of Majorca with
+Ivica and with Formentera.
+
+The adventures and difficulties of the latter were now only beginning.
+The political ferment caused by the entrance of the French into Spain
+extended to these islands, and the ignorant populace began to suspect
+that Arago's movements and his blazing fires on the top of Mount Galatzo
+were telegraphic signals to the invading army. Ultimately they became so
+infuriated that he was obliged to cause himself to be incarcerated in
+the fortress of Belver in June 1808. On the 28th of July he managed to
+escape from the island in a fishing-boat, and after an adventurous
+voyage he reached Algiers on the 3rd of August. Thence he procured a
+passage in a vessel bound for Marseilles, but on the 16th of August,
+just as the vessel was nearing Marseilles, it fell into the hands of a
+Spanish corsair. With the rest of the crew, Arago was taken to Rosas,
+and imprisoned first in a windmill, and afterwards in the fortress of
+that seaport, until the town fell into the hands of the French, when the
+prisoners were transferred to Palamos. After fully three months'
+imprisonment they were released on the demand of the dey of Algiers, and
+again set sail for Marseilles on the 28th of November, but when within
+sight of their port they were driven back by a northerly wind to Bougie
+on the coast of Africa. Transport to Algiers by sea from this place
+would have occasioned a weary stay of three months; Arago, therefore,
+set out for it by land under conduct of a Mahommedan priest, and reached
+it on Christmas day. After six months' stay in Algiers he once again, on
+the 21st of June 1809, set sail for Marseilles, where he had to undergo
+a monotonous and inhospitable quarantine in the lazaretto, before his
+difficulties were over. The first letter he received, while in the
+lazaretto, was from A. von Humboldt; and this was the origin of a
+connexion which, in Arago's words, "lasted over forty years without a
+single cloud ever having troubled it."
+
+Through all these vicissitudes Arago had succeeded in preserving the
+records of his survey; and his first act on his return home was to
+deposit them in the Bureau des Longitudes at Paris. As a reward for his
+adventurous conduct in the cause of science, he was in September 1809
+elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, in room of J.B.L. Lalande,
+at the remarkably early age of twenty-three, and before the close of the
+same year he was chosen by the council of the polytechnic school to
+succeed G. Monge in the chair of analytical geometry. About the same
+time he was named by the emperor one of the astronomers of the Royal
+Observatory, which was accordingly his residence till his death, and it
+was in this capacity that he delivered his remarkably successful series
+of popular lectures on astronomy, which were continued from 1812 to
+1845.
+
+In 1816, along with Gay-Lussac, he started the _Annales de chimie et de
+physique_, and in 1818 or 1819 he proceeded along with Biot to execute
+geodetic operations on the coasts of France, England and Scotland. They
+measured the length of the seconds-pendulum at Leith, and in Unst, one
+of the Shetland isles, the results of the observations being published
+in 1821, along with those made in Spain. Arago was elected a member of
+the Board of Longitude immediately afterwards, and contributed to each
+of its _Annuals_, for about twenty-two years, important scientific
+notices on astronomy and meteorology and occasionally on civil
+engineering, as well as interesting memoirs of members of the Academy.
+
+In 1830, Arago, who always professed liberal opinions of the extreme
+republican type, was elected a member of the chamber of deputies for the
+Lower Seine, and he employed his splendid gifts of eloquence and
+scientific knowledge in all questions connected with public education,
+the rewards of inventors, and the encouragement of the mechanical and
+practical sciences. Many of the most creditable national enterprises,
+dating from this period, are due to his advocacy--such as the reward to
+L.J.M. Daguerre for the invention of photography, the grant for the
+publication of the works of P. Fermat and Laplace, the acquisition of
+the museum of Cluny, the development of railways and electric
+telegraphs, the improvement of the navigation of the Seine, and the
+boring of the artesian wells at Grenelle.
+
+In the year 1830 also he was appointed director of the Observatory, and
+as a member of the chamber of deputies he was able to obtain grants of
+money for rebuilding it in part, and for the addition of magnificent
+instruments. In the same year, too, he was chosen perpetual secretary of
+the Academy of Sciences, in room of J.B.J. Fourier. Arago threw his
+whole soul into its service, and by his faculty of making friends he
+gained at once for it and for himself a world-wide reputation. As
+perpetual secretary it fell to him to pronounce historical _éloges_ on
+deceased members; and for this duty his rapidity and facility of
+thought, his happy piquancy of style, and his extensive knowledge
+peculiarly adapted him.
+
+In 1834 he again visited England, to attend the meeting of the British
+Association at Edinburgh. From this time till 1848 he led a life of
+comparative quiet--not the quiet of inactivity, however, for his
+incessant labours within the Academy and the Observatory produced a
+multitude of contributions to all departments of physical science,--but
+on the fall of Louis Philippe he left his laboratory to join in forming
+the provisional government. He was entrusted with the discharge of two
+important functions, that had never before been united in one person,
+viz. the ministry of war and of marine; and in the latter capacity he
+effected some salutary reforms, such as the improvement of rations in
+the navy and the abolition of flogging. He also abolished political
+oaths of all kinds, and, against an array of moneyed interests,
+succeeded in procuring the abolition of negro slavery in the French
+colonies.
+
+In the beginning of May 1852, when the government of Louis Napoleon
+required an oath of allegiance from all its functionaries, Arago
+peremptorily refused, and sent in his resignation of his post as
+astronomer at the Bureau des Longitudes. This, however, the prince
+president, to his credit, declined to accept, and made "an exception in
+favour of a _savant_ whose works had thrown lustre on France, and whose
+existence his government would regret to embitter." But the tenure of
+office thus granted did not prove of long duration. Arago was now on his
+death-bed, under a complication of diseases, induced, no doubt, by the
+hardships and labours of his earlier years. In the summer of 1853 he was
+advised by his physicians to try the effect of his native air, and he
+accordingly set out for the eastern Pyrenees. But the change was
+unavailing, and after a lingering illness, in which he suffered first
+from diabetes, then from Bright's disease, complicated by dropsy, he
+died in Paris on the 2nd of October 1853.
+
+Arago's fame as an experimenter and discoverer rests mainly on his
+contributions to magnetism and still more to optics. He found that a
+magnetic needle, made to oscillate over nonferruginous surfaces, such as
+water, glass, copper, &c., falls more rapidly in the extent of its
+oscillations according as it is more or less approached to the surface.
+This discovery, which gained him the Copley medal of the Royal Society
+in 1825, was followed by another, that a rotating plate of copper tends
+to communicate its motion to a magnetic needle suspended over it
+("magnetism of rotation"). Arago is also fairly entitled to be regarded
+as having proved the long-suspected connexion between the aurora
+borealis and the variations of the magnetic elements.
+
+In optics we owe to him not only important optical discoveries of his
+own, but the credit of stimulating the genius of A.J. Fresnel, with
+whose history, as well as with that of E.L. Malus and of Thomas Young,
+this part of his life is closely interwoven. Shortly after the beginning
+of the 19th century the labours of these three philosophers were shaping
+the modern doctrine of the undulatory theory of light. Fresnel's
+arguments in favour of that theory found little favour with Laplace,
+Poisson and Biot, the champions of the emission theory; but they were
+ardently espoused by Humboldt and by Arago, who had been appointed by
+the Academy to report on the paper. This was the foundation of an
+intimate friendship between Arago and Fresnel, and of a determination to
+carry on together further researches in this subject, which led to the
+enunciation of the fundamental laws of the polarization of light known
+by their names (see POLARIZATION). As a result of this work Arago
+constructed a _polariscope_, which he used for some interesting
+observations on the polarization of the light of the sky. To him is also
+due the discovery of the power of _rotatory polarization_ exhibited by
+quartz, and last of all, among his many contributions to the support of
+the undulatory hypothesis, comes the _experimentum crucis_ which he
+proposed to carry out for comparing directly the velocity of light in
+air and in water or glass. On the emission theory the velocity should be
+accelerated by an increase of density in the medium; on the wave theory,
+it should be retarded. In 1838 he communicated to the Academy the
+details of his apparatus, which utilized the revolving mirrors employed
+by Sir C. Wheatstone in 1835 for measuring the velocity of the electric
+discharge; but owing to the great care required in the carrying out of
+the project, and to the interruption to his labours caused by the
+revolution of 1848, it was the spring of 1850 before he was ready to put
+his idea to the test; and then his eyesight suddenly gave way. Before
+his death, however, the retardation of light in denser media was
+demonstrated by the experiments of H.L. Fizeau and J.B.L. Foucault,
+which, with improvements in detail, were based on the plan proposed by
+him.
+
+  Arago's _OEuvres_ were published after his death under the direction
+  of J.A. Barral, in 17 vols., 8vo, 1854-1862; also separately his
+  _Astronomie populaire_, in 4 vols.; _Notices biographiques_, in 3
+  vols.; _Notices scientifiques_, in 5 vols.; _Voyages scientifiques_,
+  in 1 vol.; _Mémoires scientifiques_, in 2 vols.; _Mélanges_, in 1
+  vol.; and _Tables analytiques et documents importants_ (with
+  portrait), in 1 vol. English translations of the following portions of
+  his works have appeared:--_Treatise on Comets_, by C. Gold, C.B.
+  (London, 1833); also translated by Smyth and Grant (London, 1861);
+  _Hist. éloge of James Watt_, by James Muirhead (London, 1839); also
+  translated, with notes, by Lord Brougham; _Popular Lectures on
+  Astronomy_, by Walter Kelly and Rev. L. Tomlinson (London, 1854); also
+  translated by Dr W.H. Smyth and Prof. R. Grant, 2 vols. (London,
+  1855); _Arago's Autobiography_, translated by the Rev. Baden Powell
+  (London, 1855, 1858); _Arago's Meteorological Essays_, with
+  introduction by Humboldt, translated under the superintendence of
+  Colonel Sabine (London, 1855), and _Arago's Biographies of Scientific
+  Men_, translated by Smyth, Powell and Grant, 8vo (London, 1857).
+
+
+
+
+ARAGON, or ARRAGON (in Span. _Aragón_), a captaincy-general, and
+formerly a kingdom of Spain; bounded on the N. by the Pyrenees, which
+separate it from France, on the E. by Catalonia and Valencia, S. by
+Valencia, and W. by the two Castiles and Navarre. Pop. (1900) 912,711;
+area, 18,294 sq. m. Aragon was divided in 1833 into the provinces of
+Huesca, Teruel and Saragossa; an account of its modern condition is
+therefore given under these names, which have not, however, superseded
+the older designation in popular usage.
+
+Aragon consists of a central plain, edged by mountain ranges. On the
+south, east and west, these ranges, though wild and rugged, are of no
+great elevation, but on the north the Pyrenees attain their greatest
+altitude in the peaks of Aneto (11,168 ft.) and Monte Perdido (10,998
+ft.)--also known as Las Tres Sorores, and, in French, as Mont Perdu. The
+central pass over the Pyrenees is the Port de Canfranc, on the line
+between Saragossa and Pau. Aragon is divided by the river Ebro (q.v.),
+which flows through it in a south-easterly direction, into two nearly
+equal parts, known as Trans-ibero and Cis-ibero. The Ebro is the
+principal river, and receives from the north, in its passage through the
+province, the Arba, the Gallego and the united waters of the Cinca,
+Esera, Noguera Ribagorzana, Noguera Pallaresa and Segre--the last three
+belonging to Catalonia. From the south it receives the Jalon and Jiloca
+(or _Xalon_ and _Xiloca_) and the Guadalope. The Imperial Canal of
+Aragon, which was begun by the emperor Charles V. in 1529, but remained
+unfinished for nearly two hundred years, extends from Tudela to El Burgo
+de Ebro, a distance of 80 m.; it has a depth of 9 ft., and an average
+breadth of 69, and is navigable for vessels of about 80 tons. The Royal
+Canal of Tauste, which lies along the north side of the Ebro, was cut
+for purposes of irrigation, and gives fertility to the district. Two
+leagues north-north-east of Albarracin is the remarkable fountain called
+Cella, 3700 ft. above the sea, which forms the source of the Jiloca; and
+between this river and the Sierra Molina is an extensive lake called
+Gallocanta, covering about 6000 acres. The climate is characterized by
+extreme heat in the summer and cold in the winter; among the mountains
+the snowfall is heavy, and thunderstorms are frequent, but there is
+comparatively little rain.
+
+Within a recent geological period, central Aragon was undoubtedly
+submerged by the sea, and the parched chalky soil remains saturated with
+salt, while many of the smaller streams run brackish. As the mountains
+of Valencia and Catalonia effectually bar out the fertilizing moisture
+of the sea-winds, much of the province is a sheer wilderness, stony,
+ash-coloured, scarred with dry watercourses, and destitute of any
+vegetation except thin grass and heaths. In contrast with the splendid
+fertility of Valencia or the south of France, the landscape of this
+region, like the rest of central Spain, seems almost a continuation of
+the north African desert area. There are, however, extensive oak, pine
+and beech forests in the highlands, and many beautiful oases in the
+deeply sunk valleys, and along the rivers, especially beside the Ebro,
+which is, therefore, often called the "Nile of Aragon." In such oases
+the flora is exceedingly rich. Wheat, maize, rice, oil, flax and hemp,
+of fine quality, are grown in considerable quantities; as well as
+saffron, madder, liquorice, sumach, and a variety of fruits. Merino wool
+is one of the chief products.
+
+In purity of race the Aragonese are probably equal to the Castilians, to
+whom, rather than to the Catalans or Valencians, they are also allied in
+character. The dress of the women is less distinctive than that of the
+men, who wear a picturesque black and white costume, with knee-breeches,
+a brilliantly coloured sash, black hempen sandals, and a handkerchief
+wound round the head.
+
+Three counties--Sobrarbe, situated near the headwaters of the Cinca,
+Aragon, to the west, and Ribagorza or Ribagorça, to the east--are
+indicated by tradition and the earliest chronicles as the cradle of the
+Aragonese monarchy. These districts were never wholly subdued when the
+Moors overran the country (711-713). Sobrarbe especially was for a time
+the headquarters of the Christian defence in eastern Spain. About 1035,
+Sancho III. the Great, ruler of the newly established kingdom of
+Navarre, which included the three counties above mentioned, bequeathed
+them to Gonzalez and Ramiro, his sons. Ramiro soon rid himself of his
+rival, and welded Sobrarbe, Ribagorza and Aragon into a single kingdom,
+which thenceforward grew rapidly in size and power and shared with
+Castile the chief part in the struggle against the Moors. The history of
+this period, which was terminated by the union of Castile and Aragon
+under Ferdinand and Isabella in 1479, is given, along with a full
+account of the very interesting constitution of Aragon, under SPAIN
+(q.v.). At the height of its power under James I. (1213-1276), the
+kingdom included Valencia, Catalonia, the Balearic Islands and the
+considerable territory of Montpellier in France; while Peter III.
+(1276-1285) added Sicily to his dominions.
+
+  The literature relating to Aragon is very extensive. See, in addition
+  to the works cited in the article SPAIN (section _History_), "Les
+  Archives d'Aragon et de Navarre," by L. Cadier, in _Bibliothèque de
+  l'École des Chartes_, 49 (Paris, 1888). Among the more important
+  original authorities, the following may be selected:--for general
+  history, _Anales de la corona de Aragón_, by G. Çurita, 3rd ed. in 7
+  folio volumes (Saragossa, 1668-1671; 1st ed. 1562-1580);--for
+  ecclesiastical history, _Teatro histórico de las iglesias de Aragón_
+  (Pamplona, 1770-1807); for economic history, _História de la economia
+  politica de Aragón_, by I.J. de Asso y del Rio (Saragossa, 1798). For
+  the constitution and laws of Aragon, see _Orígines del Justicia de
+  Aragón_, &c., by J. Ribera Tarrago (Saragossa, 1897), and
+  _Instituciones y reyes de Aragón_, by V. Balaguér (Madrid, 1896). The
+  topography, inhabitants, art, products, &c., of the kingdom are
+  described in a volume of the series _España_ entitled _Aragón_, by
+  J.M. Quadrado (Barcelona, 1886).
+
+
+
+
+ARAGONITE, one of the mineral forms of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), the
+other form being the more common mineral calcite. It crystallizes in the
+orthorhombic system, and the crystals are either prismatic or acicular
+in habit. Simple crystals are, however, rare; twinning on the prism
+planes (_M_ in the figures) being a characteristic feature of the
+mineral (fig. 1). This twinning is usually often repeated on the same
+plane (fig. 2), and gives rise to striations on the terminal faces (k)
+of the crystals; often, also, three crystals are twinned together on two
+of the prism planes of one of them, producing an apparently hexagonal
+prism. The mineral is colourless, white or yellowish, transparent or
+translucent, has a vitreous lustre, and, in fact, is not unlike calcite
+in general appearance. It may, however, always be readily distinguished
+from calcite by the absence of any marked cleavage, and by its greater
+hardness (H. = 3½-4) and specific gravity (2.93); further, it is
+optically biaxial, whilst calcite is uniaxial. It is brittle and has a
+subconchoidal fracture; on a fractured surface the lustre is decidedly
+resinous in character.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+The mineral was first found, as reddish twinned crystals with the form
+of six-sided prisms, at Molina in Aragon, Spain, where it occurs with
+gypsum and small crystals of ferruginous quartz in a red clay. It is
+from this locality that the mineral takes its name, which was originally
+spelt arragonite. Fine groups of crystals of the same habit are found in
+the sulphur deposits of Girgenti in Sicily; also at Herrengrund near
+Neusohl in Hungary. At many other localities the mineral takes the form
+of radiating groups of acicular crystals, such as those from the
+haematite mines of west Cumberland: beautiful feathery forms have been
+found in a limestone cave in the Transvaal. Fibrous forms are also
+common. A peculiar coralloidal variety known as _flosferri_ ("flower of
+iron") consists of radially arranged fibres: magnificent snow-white
+specimens of this variety have long been known from the iron mines of
+Eisenetz in Styria. The calcareous secretions of many groups of
+invertebrate animals consist of aragonite (calcite is also common);
+pearls may be specially cited as an example.
+
+Aragonite is a member of the isomorphous group of minerals comprising
+witherite (BaCO3), strontianite (SrCO3), cerussite (PbCO3) and bromlite
+((Ba, Ca)CO3); and crystals of aragonite sometimes contain small amounts
+of strontium or lead. A variety known as tarnowitzite, from Tarnowitz in
+Silesia, contains about 5% of lead carbonate.
+
+Aragonite is the more unstable of the two modifications of calcium
+carbonate. A crystal of aragonite when heated becomes converted into a
+granular aggregate of calcite individuals: altered crystals of this kind
+(paramorphs) are not infrequently met with in nature, whilst in fossil
+shells the original nacreous layer of aragonite has invariably been
+altered to calcite. From a solution of calcium carbonate in water
+containing carbon dioxide crystals of calcite are deposited at the
+ordinary temperature, but from a warm solution aragonite crystallizes
+out. The thermal springs of Carlsbad deposit spherical concretions of
+aragonite, forming masses known as pisolite or _Sprudelstein_.
+     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+ARAGUA, one of the smaller states of Venezuela under the redivision of
+1904, lying principally within the parallel ranges of the Venezuelan
+Cordillera, and comprising some of the most fertile and healthful
+valleys of the republic. It is bounded E. by the Federal District and
+Maturin, S. by Guárico and W. by Zamora and Carabobo. Pop. (1905, est.)
+152,364. Aragua has a short coast-line on the Caribbean west of the
+Federal District, but has no port of consequence. Cattle, swine and
+goats are raised, and the state produces coffee, sugar, cacao, beans,
+cereals and cheese. The climate of the higher valleys is subtropical,
+the mean annual temperature ranging from 74° to 80° F. The capital, La
+Victoria (pop. 7800), is situated in the fertile Aragua valley, 1558 ft.
+above sea-level and 36 m. south-west of Carácas. Other important towns
+are Barbacoas (pop. 13,109) on the left bank of the Guarico in a highly
+fertile region, Ciudad de Cura and Maracay (pop. 7500), 56 m.
+west-south-west of Carácas near the north-east shore of Lake Valencia.
+The last two towns are on the railway between Carácas and Valencia.
+
+
+
+
+ARAGUAYA, ARAGUAY or ARAGUIA, a river of Brazil and principal affluent
+of the Tocantins, rising in the Serra do Cayapó, where it is known as
+the Rio Grande, and flowing in a north by east direction to a junction
+with the Tocantins at Sao Joao do Araguaya, or Sao Joao das Duas Barras.
+Its upper course forms the boundary line between Goyaz and Matto Grosso.
+The river divides into two branches at about 13° 20' S. lat., and unites
+again at 10° 30', forming the large island of Santa Anna or Bananal. The
+eastern branch, called the Furo, is the one used by boats, as the main
+channel is obstructed by rapids. Its principal affluent is the Rio das
+Mortes, which rises in the Serra de Sao Jeronymo, near Cuyabá, Matto
+Grosso, and is utilized by boatmen going to Pará. Of other affluents,
+the Bonito, Garças, Cristallino and Tapirapé on the west, and the
+Pitombas, Claro, Vermelho, Tucupá and Chavante on the east, nothing
+definite is known as the country is still largely unexplored. The
+Araguaya has a course of 1080 m., considerable stretches of which are
+navigable for small river steamers, but as the river below Santa Anna
+Island is interrupted by reefs and rapids in two places--one having a
+fall of 85 ft. in 18 m., and the other a fall of 50 ft. in 12 m.--it
+affords no practicable outlet for the products of the state. It was
+explored in part by Henri Coudreau in 1897.
+
+  See Coudreau's _Voyage au Tocantins-Araguaya_ (Paris, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+ARAKAN, a division of Lower Burma. It consists of a strip of country
+running along the eastern seaboard of the Bay of Bengal, from the Naaf
+estuary, on the borders of Chittagong, to Cape Negrais. Length from
+northern extremity to Cape Negrais, about 400 m.; greatest breadth in
+the northern part, 90 m., gradually diminishing towards the south, as it
+is hemmed in by the Arakan Yoma mountains, until, in the extreme south,
+it tapers away to a narrow strip not more than 15 m. across. The coast
+is studded with islands, the most important of which are Cheduba, Ramree
+and Shahpura. The division has its headquarters at Akyab and consists of
+four districts--namely, Akyab, Northern Arakan Hill Tracts, Sandoway and
+Kyaukpyu, formerly called Ramree. Its area is 18,540 sq. m. The
+population at the time of the British occupation in 1826 did not exceed
+100,000. In 1831 it amounted to 173,000; in 1839 to 248,000, and in 1901
+to 762,102.
+
+The principal rivers of Arakan are--(1) the Naaf estuary, in the north,
+which forms the boundary between the division and Chittagong; (2) the
+Myu river, an arm of the sea, running a course almost parallel with the
+coast for about 50 m.; (3) the Koladaing river, rising near the Blue
+mountain, in the extreme north-east, and falling into the Bay of Bengal
+a few miles south of the Myu river, navigable by vessels of from 300 to
+400 tons burden for a distance of 40 m. inland; and (4) the Lemyu river,
+a considerable stream falling into the bay a few miles south of the
+Koladaing. Farther to the south, owing to the nearness of the range
+which bounds Arakan on the east, the rivers are of but little
+importance. These are the Talak and the Aeng, navigable by boats; and
+the Sandoway, the Taungup and the Gwa streams, the latter of which alone
+has any importance, owing to its mouth forming a good port of call or
+haven for vessels of from 9 to 10 ft. draught. There are several passes
+over the Yoma mountains, the easiest being that called the Aeng route,
+leading from the village of that name into Upper Burma. The staple crop
+of the province is rice, along with cotton, tobacco, sugar, hemp and
+indigo. The forests produce abundance of excellent oak and teak timber.
+
+The natives of Arakan trace their history as far back as 2666 B.C., and
+give a lineal succession of 227 native princes down to modern times.
+According to them, their empire had at one period far wider limits, and
+extended over Ava, part of China, and a portion of Bengal. This
+extension of their empire is not, however, corroborated by known facts
+in history. At different times the Moguls and Pegus carried their arms
+into the heart of the country. The Portuguese, during the era of their
+greatness in Asia, gained a temporary establishment in Arakan; but in
+1782 the province was finally conquered by the Burmese, from which
+period until its cession to the British in 1826, under the treaty of
+Yandaboo, its history forms part of that of Burma. The old city of
+Arakan, formerly the capital of the province, is situated on an inferior
+branch of the Koladaing river. Its remoteness from the ports and
+harbours of the country, combined with the extreme unhealthiness of its
+situation, have led to its gradual decay subsequently to the formation
+of the comparatively recent settlement of Akyab, which place is now the
+chief town of the province. The old city (now Myohaung) lies 50 m.
+north-east of Akyab. The Maghs, who form nearly the whole population of
+the province, follow the Buddhist doctrines, which are universally
+professed throughout Burma. The priests are selected from all classes of
+men, and one of their chief employments is the education of children.
+Instruction is consequently widely diffused, and few persons, it is
+said, can be found in the province who are unable to read. The
+qualifications for entering into the priestly order are good conduct and
+a fair measure of learning--such conduct at least as is good according
+to Buddhist tenets, and such learning as is esteemed among their
+votaries.
+
+The Arakanese are of Burmese origin, but separated from the parent stock
+by the Arakan Yoma mountains, and they have a dialect and customs of
+their own. Though conquered by the Burmese, they have remained distinct
+from their conquerors.
+
+The Northern Arakan Hill Tracts district is under a superintendent, who
+is usually a police officer, with headquarters at Paletwa. The area of
+the Hill Tracts is 5233 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 20,682.     (J. G. Sc.)
+
+
+
+
+ARAKCHEEV, ALEKSYEI ANDREEVICH, COUNT (1769-1834), Russian soldier and
+statesman, was descended from an ancient family of Great Novgorod. From
+his mother, Elizabeth Vitlitsaya, he inherited most of his
+characteristics, an insatiable love of work, an almost pedantic love of
+order and the most rigorous sense of duty. In 1788 he entered the corps
+of noble cadets in the artillery and engineering department, where his
+ability, especially in mathematics, soon attracted attention. In July
+1791 he was made an adjutant on the staff of Count N.I. Saltuikov, who
+(September 1792) recommended him to the cesarevich Paul Petrovich as the
+artillery officer most capable of reorganizing the army corps maintained
+by the prince at Gatchina. Arakcheev speedily won the entire confidence
+of Paul by his scrupulous zeal and undeniable technical ability. His
+inexorable discipline (magnified into cruelty by later legends) soon
+made the Gatchina corps a model for the rest of the Russian army. On the
+accession of Paul to the throne Arakcheev was promptly summoned to St
+Petersburg, appointed military commandant in the capital, and
+major-general in the grenadier battalion of the Preobrazhenskoe Guard.
+On the 12th of December 1796, he received the ribbon of St Anne and a
+rich estate at Gruzina in the government of Novgorod, the only
+substantial gift ever accepted by him during the whole of his career. At
+the coronation (5th of April 1797) Paul created him a baron, and he was
+subsequently made quartermaster-general and colonel of the whole
+Preobrazhenskoe Guard. It was to Arakcheev that Paul entrusted the
+reorganization of the army, which during the latter days of Catherine
+had fallen into a state of disorder and demoralization. Arakcheev
+remorselessly applied the iron Gatchina discipline to the whole of the
+imperial forces, beginning with the Guards. He soon became generally
+detested by the army, but pursued his course unflinchingly and
+introduced many indispensable hygienic reforms. "Clean barracks are
+healthy barracks," was his motto. Nevertheless, the opposition of the
+officers proved too strong for him, and on the 18th of March 1798 he was
+dismissed from all his appointments. Arakcheev's first disgrace only
+lasted six months. On the 11th of August he was received back into
+favour, speedily reinstated in all his former offices, and on the 5th of
+May 1799 was created a count, the emperor himself selecting the motto:
+"Devoted, not servile." Five months later he was again in disgrace, the
+emperor dismissing him on the strength of a denunciation subsequently
+proved to be false. It was a fatal step on Paul's part, for everything
+goes to prove that he would never have been assassinated had Arakcheev
+continued by his side. During the earlier years of Alexander, Arakcheev
+was completely overlooked. Only on the 27th of April 1803, was the count
+recalled to St Petersburg, and employed as inspector-general of the
+artillery. His wise and thorough reorganization of the whole department
+contributed essentially to the victories of the Russians during the
+Napoleonic wars. All critics agree, indeed, that the Arakcheev
+administration was the golden era of the Russian artillery. The activity
+of the inexhaustible inspector knew no bounds, and he neglected nothing
+which could possibly improve this arm. His principal reforms were the
+subdivision of the artillery divisions into separate independent units,
+the formation of artillery brigades, the establishment of a committee of
+instruction (1808), and the publishing of an _Artillery Journal_. At
+Austerlitz he had the satisfaction of witnessing the actual results of
+his artillery reforms. The commissariat scandals which came to light
+after the peace of Tilsit convinced the emperor that nothing short of
+the stern and incorruptible energy of Arakcheev could reach the sources
+of the evil, and in January 1808 he was appointed inspector-general and
+war minister. When, on the outbreak of the Swedish war of 1809, the
+emperor ordered the army to take advantage of an unusually severe frost
+and cross the ice of the Gulf of Finland, it was only the presence of
+Arakcheev that compelled an unwilling general and a semi-mutinous army
+to begin a campaign which ended in the conquest of Finland. On the
+institution of the "Imperial Council" (1st of January 1810), Arakcheev
+was made a member of the council of ministers and a senator, while still
+retaining the war office. Subsequently Alexander was alienated from him
+owing to the intrigues of the count's enemies, who hated him for his
+severity and regarded him as a dangerous reactionary. The alienation was
+not, however, for long. It is true, Arakcheev took no active part in the
+war of 1812, but all the correspondence and despatches relating to it
+passed through his hands, and he was the emperor's inseparable companion
+during the whole course of it. At Paris (31st of March 1814) Alexander,
+with his own hand, wrote the _ukaz_ appointing him a field-marshal, but
+he refused the dignity, accepting, instead, a miniature portrait of his
+master. From this time Alexander's confidence in Arakcheev steadily
+increased, and the emperor imparted to him, first of all, his many
+projects of reform, especially his project of military colonies, the
+carrying out of the details of which was committed to Arakcheev (1824).
+The failure of the scheme was due not to any fault of the count, but to
+the inefficiency and insubordination of the district officers. In
+Alexander's last years Arakcheev was not merely his chief counsellor,
+but his dearest friend, to whom he submitted all his projects for
+consideration and revision. The most interesting of these projects was
+the plan for the emancipation of the peasantry (1818). On the accession
+of Nicholas I., Arakcheev, thoroughly broken in health, gradually
+restricted his immense sphere of activity, and on the 26th of April
+1826, resigned all his offices and retired to Carlsbad. The 50,000
+roubles presented to him by the emperor as a parting gift he at once
+handed to the Pavlovsk Institute for the education of the daughters of
+poor gentlemen. His last days he spent on his estate at Gruzina,
+carefully collecting all his memorials of Alexander, whose memory he
+most piously cherished. He also set aside 25,000 roubles for the author
+of the best biography of his imperial friend. Arakcheev died on the 21st
+of April 1834, with his eyes fixed to the last on the late emperor's
+portrait. "I have now done everything," he said, "so I can go and make
+my report to the emperor Alexander." In 1806 he had married Natalia
+Khomutova, but they lived apart, and he had no children by her.
+
+  See Vasily Ratch, _Memorials of Count Arakcheev_ (Rus.) (St
+  Petersburg, 1864); Mikhail Ivanovich Semevsky, _Count Arakcheev and
+  the Military Colonies_ (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1871); Theodor
+  Schiemann, _Gesch. Russland's unter Kaiser Nikolaus I._, vol. i.,
+  _Alexander I._, &c. (Berlin, 1904).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+ARAL, a lake or inland sea in the west of Asia, situated between lat.
+43° 30' and 46° 51' N., and long. 58° 13' and 61° 56' E. It was known to
+the ancient Arab and Persian geographers as the Sea of Khwarizm or
+Kharezm, from the neighbouring district of the Chorasmians, and derives
+its present name from the Kirghiz designation of Aral-denghiz, or Sea of
+Islands. In virtue of its area (26,233 sq. m.) it is the fourth largest
+inland sea of the world. It has nearly the same length as width, namely
+about 170 m., if its northern gulf (Kichkineh-denghiz) is left out of
+account. Its depth is insignificant, the maximum being 220 ft. in a
+depression in the north-west, and the mean depth only 50 ft., so that
+notwithstanding its area it contains only eleven times as much water as
+the Lake of Geneva. Its altitude is 242½ ft. above the Caspian, i.e.
+about 155 ft. above the ocean. The lake is surrounded on the north by
+steppes; on the west by the rocky plateau of Ust-Urt, which separates it
+from the Caspian; on the south by the alluvial district of Khiva; and on
+the east by the Kyzyl-kum, or Red Sand Desert. On the north the shores
+are comparatively low, and the coast-line is broken by a number of
+irregular bays, of which the most important are those of Sary-chaganak
+and Paskevich. On the west an almost unbroken wall of rock extends from
+Chernychev Bay southwards, rising towards the middle to 500 ft. The
+southern coast is occupied by the delta of the Oxus (Jihun, Amu-darya),
+one of the arms of which, the Laudan, forms a swamp, 80 m. long and 20
+broad, before it discharges into the sea. The only other tributary of
+any size that the sea receives is the Jaxartes (Sihun, Syr-darya) which
+enters towards the northern extremity of the east coast, and is
+suspected to be shifting its embouchure more and more to the north. This
+river, as well as the Amu, conveys vast quantities of sediment into the
+lake; the delta of the Syr-darya increased by 13¾ sq. m. between 1847
+and 1900. The eastern coast is fringed with multitudes of small islands,
+and other islands, some of considerable size, are situated in the open
+towards the north and west. Kug-Aral, the largest, lies opposite the
+mouth of the Syr-darya, cutting off the Kichkineh-denghiz or Little Sea.
+The next largest island is the Nikolai, nearly in the middle. Navigation
+is dangerous owing to the frequency and violence of the storms, and the
+almost total absence of shelter. The north-east wind is the most
+prevalent, and sometimes blows for months together. The only other
+craft, except the steamships of the Russians, that venture on the
+waters, are the flat-bottomed boats of the Kirghiz.
+
+In regard to the period of the formation of the Aral there were formerly
+two theories. According to Sir H.C. Rawlinson (_Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc._,
+March 1867) the disturbances which produced the present lake took place
+in the course of the middle ages; while Sir Roderick Murchison contended
+(_Journ. of Roy. Geog. Soc._, 1867, p. cxliv. &c.) that the Caspian and
+Aral existed as separate seas before and during all the historic period,
+and that the main course of the rivers Jaxartes and Oxus was determined
+in a prehistoric era. The former based his opinion largely on historical
+evidence, and the latter trusted principally to geological data. There
+is no doubt that in recent historical times Lake Aral had a much greater
+extension than it has at the present time, and that its area is now
+diminishing. This is, of course, due to the excess of evaporation over
+the amount of water supplied by its two feeders, the Amu-darya and the
+Syr-darya, both of which are seriously drawn upon for irrigation in all
+the oases they flow through. Old shore lines and other indications point
+to the level of the lake having once been 50 ft. above the existing
+level. Nevertheless the general desiccation is subject to temporary
+fluctuations, which appear to correspond to the periods recently
+suggested by Eduard Brückner (b. 1862); for, whereas the lake diminished
+and shrank during 1850-1880, since the latter year it has been rising
+again. Islands which were formerly connected with the shore are now some
+distance away from it and entirely surrounded by water. Moreover, on a
+graduated level, put down in 1874, there was a permanent rise of nearly
+4 ft. by 1901. The temperature at the bottom was found (1900-1902) by
+Emil Berg to be 33.8° Fahr., while that of the surface varied from 44.5°
+to 80.5° between May and September; the mean surface temperature for
+July was 75°. The salinity of the water is much less than that of the
+ocean, containing only 1.05% of salt, and the lake freezes every year
+for a great distance from its shores. The opinion that Lake Aral
+periodically disappeared, which was for a long time countenanced by
+Western geographers, loses more and more probability now that it is
+evident that at a relatively recent period the Caspian Sea extended much
+farther eastward than it does now, and that Lake Aral communicated with
+it through the Sary-kamysh depression. The present writer is even
+inclined to think that, besides this southern communication with the
+Caspian, Lake Aral may have been, even in historical times, connected
+with the Mortvyi Kultuk (Tsarevich) Gulf of the Caspian, discharging
+part of its water into that sea through a depression of the Ust-Urt
+plateau, which is marked by a chain of lakes (Chumyshty, Asmantai). In
+this case it might have been easily confounded with a gulf of the
+Caspian (as by Jenkinson). That the level of Lake Aral was much higher
+in post-Pliocene times is proved by the discovery of shells of its
+characteristic species of _Pecten_ and _Mytilus_ in the Kara-kum Desert,
+33 m. south of the lake and at an altitude of 70 ft. above its present
+level, and perhaps even up to 200 ft. (by Syevertsov).
+
+The fish of Lake Aral belong to fresh-water species, and in some of its
+rapid tributaries the interesting _Scaphirhynchus_, which represents a
+survival from the Tertiary epoch, is found. The fishing is very
+productive, the fish being exported to Turkestan, Merv and Russia. The
+shores of the lake are uninhabited; the nearest settlements are Kazala,
+55 m. east, on the Syr, and Chimbai and Kungrad in the delta of the Amu.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Makshéev's "Description of Lake Aral," and Kaulbars'
+  "Delta of the Amu," in _Zapiski of Russ. Geogr. Soc._, 1st series, v.,
+  and new series, ix.; _Grimm's Studies of the Aral-Caspian Expedition_;
+  Nikolsky's "Fishing in Lake Aral," in _Izvestia, Russ. Geogr. Soc._,
+  1887; Prof. Mushketov, _Turkestan_, vol. i. (1886), which contains
+  bibliographical references; Rösler, _Die Aralseefrage_ (1873); Wood,
+  _The Shores of the Aral Lake_ (1876); and Berg in _Izvestia, Turkestan
+  Branch of Russian Geog. Soc._ (vol. iii., Tashkent, 1902).
+       (P. A. K.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 2, Slice 3, by Various
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 2, Slice 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 2, Slice 3
+       "Apollodorus" to "Aral"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: October 8, 2010 [EBook #34047]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 2, SL 3 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+One typographical error has been corrected. It
+appears in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME II SLICE III<br /><br />
+Apollodorus to Aral</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">APOLLODORUS</a> (Athenian painter)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">APPREHENSION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">APOLLODORUS</a> (Athenian grammarian)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">APPRENTICESHIP</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">APOLLODORUS</a> (of Carystus)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">APPROPRIATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">APOLLODORUS</a> (Greek architect)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">APPURTENANCES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">APOLLONIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">APRAKSIN, THEDOR MATVYEEVICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">APOLLONIUS</a> (the Surly)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">APRICOT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">APOLLONIUS</a> (Greek rhetorician)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">APRIES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">APOLLONIUS</a> (the Sophist)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">APRIL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">APOLLONIUS MOLON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">APRIL-FOOLS&rsquo; DAY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">APOLLONIUS OF PERGA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">A PRIORI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">APOLLONIUS OF RHODES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">APRON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">APOLLONIUS OF TRALLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">APSARAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">APOLLONIUS OF TYANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">APSE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">APOLLONIUS OF TYRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">APSE and APSIDES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">APOLLOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">APSINES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">APOLLYON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">APT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">APOLOGETICS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">APTERA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">APOLOGUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">APTERAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">APOLOGY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">APTIAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">APONEUROSIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">APULEIUS, LUCIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">APOPHTHEGM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">APULIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">APOPHYGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">APURÉ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">APOPHYLLITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">APURIMAC</a> (river of Peru)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">APOPHYSIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">APURIMAC</a> (department of Peru)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">APOPLEXY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">APYREXIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">APOROSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">&#8219;AQ&#298;BA BEN JOSEPH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">APOSIOPESIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">AQUAE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">APOSTASY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">AQUAE CUTILIAE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">APOSTIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">AQUAMARINE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">APOSTLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">AQUARELLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">APOSTLE SPOONS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">AQUARII</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">APOSTOLICAL CONSTITUTIONS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">AQUARIUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">APOSTOLIC CANONS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">AQUARIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">APOSTOLIC FATHERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">AQUATINT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">APOSTOLICI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">AQUAVIVA, CLAUDIO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">APOSTOLIC MAJESTY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">AQUEDUCT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">APOSTOLIUS, MICHAEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">AQUILA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">APOSTROPHE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">AQUILA, CASPAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">APOTACTITES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">AQUILA, SERAFINO DELL&rsquo;</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">APOTHECARY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">AQUILA</a> (city of Italy)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">APOTHEOSIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">AQUILA</a> (constellation)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">AQUILA ROMANUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">APPANAGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">AQUILEIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">APPAREL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">AQUILLIUS, MANIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">APPARITIONS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">AQUINAS, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">APPARITOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">AQUINO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">APPEAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">AQUITAINE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">APPEARANCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">ARABESQUE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">APPENDICITIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">ARABGIR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">APPENDICULATA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">ARABIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">APPENDINI, FRANCESCO MARIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">APPENZELL</a> (canton of Switzerland)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">ARABIAN SEA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">APPENZELL</a> (city of Switzerland)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">ARABICI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">APPERCEPTION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">ARABI PASHA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">APPERLEY, CHARLES JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">ARABISTAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">APPERT, BENJAMIN NICOLAS MARIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">ARABS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">APPIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">ARACAJÚ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">APPIANI, ANDREA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">ARACATY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">APPIA, VIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">ARACHNE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">APPIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">ARACHNIDA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">APPLAUSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">ARAD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">APPLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">ARAEOSTYLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">APPLEBY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">ARAEOSYSTYLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">APPLETON, NATHAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">ARAGO, DOMINIQUE FRANÇOIS JEAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">APPLETON</a> (city of U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">ARAGON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">APPOGGIATURA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">ARAGONITE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">APPOINTMENT, POWER OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">ARAGUA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">ARAGUAYA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">APPONYI, ALBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">ARAKAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">APPORTIONMENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">ARAKCHEEV, ALEKSYEI ANDREEVICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">APPORTIONMENT BILL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">ARAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">APPRAISER</a></td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page186" id="page186"></a>186</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">APOLLODORUS,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> an Athenian painter, who flourished at the
+end of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He is said to have introduced great
+improvements in perspective and chiaroscuro. What these
+were it is impossible to say: perspective cannot have been in
+his day at an advanced stage. Among his works were an
+Odysseus, a priest in prayer, and an Ajax struck by lightning.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOLLODORUS,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> an Athenian grammarian, pupil of Aristarchus
+and Panaetius the Stoic, who lived about 140 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He
+was a prolific and versatile writer. There is extant under his
+name a treatise on the gods and the heroic age, entitled <span class="grk" title="Bibliothaekae">&#914;&#953;&#946;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#952;&#7968;&#954;&#951;</span>,
+a valuable authority on ancient mythology. Modern
+critics are of opinion that, if genuine, it is an abridgment of a
+larger work by him (<span class="grk" title="Peri theon">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#952;&#949;&#8182;&#957;</span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Edition, with commentary, by Heyne (1803); text by Wagner
+(1894) (<i>Mythographi Graeci</i>, vol. i. Teubner series). Amongst other
+works by him of which only fragments remain, collected in Müller,
+<i>Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum</i>, may be mentioned: <span class="grk" title="Chronika">&#935;&#961;&#959;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#940;</span>,
+a universal history from the fall of Troy to 144 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; <span class="grk" title="Periaegaesis">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#953;&#942;&#947;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>, a
+gazetteer written in iambics; <span class="grk" title="Peri Neon">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#925;&#949;&#8182;&#957;</span>, a work on the Homeric
+catalogue of ships; and a work on etymology (<span class="grk" title="Etymologiai">&#904;&#964;&#965;&#956;&#959;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#943;&#945;&#953;</span>).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOLLODORUS,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> of Carystus in Euboea, one of the most
+important writers of the New Attic comedy, who flourished at
+Athens between 300 and 260 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He is to be distinguished from
+an older Apollodorus of Gela (342-290), also a writer of comedy,
+a contemporary of Menander. He wrote 47 comedies and
+obtained the prize five times. Terence borrowed his <i>Hecyra</i>
+and <i>Phormio</i> from the <span class="grk" title="Hekyra">&#904;&#954;&#965;&#961;&#940;</span> and <span class="grk" title="Epidikazomenos">&#904;&#960;&#953;&#948;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#950;&#972;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span> of Apollodorus.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fragments in Koch, <i>Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta</i>, ii. (1884);
+see also Meineke, <i>Historia Critica Comicorum Graecorum</i> (1839).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOLLODORUS,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> of Damascus, a famous Greek architect, who
+flourished during the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> He was a favourite of
+Trajan, for whom he constructed the stone bridge over the
+Danube (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 104-105). He also planned a gymnasium, a
+college, public baths, the Odeum and the Forum Trajanum,
+within the city of Rome; and the triumphal arches at Beneventum
+and Ancona. The Trajan column in the centre of the
+Forum is celebrated as being the first triumphal monument of
+the kind. On the accession of Hadrian, whom he had offended
+by ridiculing his performances as architect and artist, Apollodorus
+was banished, and, shortly afterwards, being charged with
+imaginary crimes, put to death (Dio Cassius lxix. 4). He also
+wrote a treatise on <i>Siege Engines</i> (<span class="grk" title="Poliorkaetika">&#928;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#961;&#954;&#951;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#940;</span>), which was
+dedicated to Hadrian.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOLLONIA,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> the name of more than thirty cities of antiquity.
+The most important are the following: (1) An Illyrian city
+(known as Apollonia <span class="grk" title="kat Epidamnon">&#954;&#945;&#964;&#8125; &#904;&#960;&#943;&#948;&#945;&#956;&#957;&#959;&#957;</span> or <span class="grk" title="pros Epidamno">&#960;&#961;&#8056;&#962; &#904;&#960;&#953;&#948;&#940;&#956;&#957;&#8179;</span>) on the
+right bank of the Aous, founded by the Corinthians and Corcyraeans.
+It soon became a place of increasing commercial
+prosperity, as the most convenient link between Brundusium
+and northern Greece, and as one of the starting-points of the
+Via Egnatia. It was an important military post in the wars
+against Philip and during the civil wars of Pompey and Caesar,
+and towards the close of the Roman republic acquired fame as a
+seat of literature and philosophy. Here Augustus was being
+educated when the death of Caesar called him to Rome. It
+seems to have sunk with the rise of Aulon, and few remains of its
+ruins are to be found. The monastery of Pollina stands on a hill
+which probably is part of the site of the old city. (2) A Thracian
+city on the Black Sea (afterwards Sozopolis, and now Sizeboli),
+colonized by the Milesians, and famous for its colossal statue of
+Apollo by Calamis, which Lucullus removed to Rome.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOLLONIUS,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> surnamed <span class="grk" title="ho dyskolos">&#8001; &#948;&#973;&#963;&#954;&#959;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span> (&ldquo;the Surly or Crabbed&rdquo;),
+a celebrated grammarian of Alexandria, who lived in the reigns
+of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. He spent the greater part of
+his life in his native city, where he died; he is also said to have
+visited Rome and attracted the attention of Antoninus. He
+was the founder of scientific grammar and is styled by Priscian
+<i>grammaticorum princeps</i>. Four of his works are extant: <i>On
+Syntax</i>, ed. Bekker, 1817; and three smaller treatises, on
+<i>Pronouns</i>, <i>Conjunctions</i> and <i>Adverbs</i>, ed. Schneider, 1878.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Grammatici Graeci</i>, i. in Teubner series; Egger, <i>Apollonius
+Dyscole</i> (1854).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOLLONIUS,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> surnamed <span class="grk" title="ho malakos">&#8001; &#956;&#945;&#955;&#945;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span> (&ldquo;the Effeminate&rdquo;), a
+Greek rhetorician of Alabanda in Caria, who flourished about
+120 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> After studying under Menecles, chief of the Asiatic
+school of oratory, he settled in Rhodes, where he taught rhetoric,
+among his pupils being Mark Antony.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOLLONIUS,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> surnamed &ldquo;the Sophist,&rdquo; of Alexandria, a
+famous grammarian, who probably lived towards the end of the
+1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> He was the author of a Homeric lexicon
+(<span class="grk" title="Lexeis Homaerikai">&#923;&#941;&#958;&#949;&#953;&#962; &#908;&#956;&#951;&#961;&#953;&#954;&#945;&#943;</span>), the only work of the kind we possess. His
+chief authorities were Aristarchus and Apion&rsquo;s Homeric glossary.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Edition by Villoison (1773), I. Bekker (1833); Leyde, <i>De Apollonii
+Sophistae Lexico Homerico</i> (1885); E.W.B. Nicholson on a newly
+discovered fragment in <i>Classical Review</i> (Nov. 1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOLLONIUS MOLON<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (sometimes called simply <span class="sc">Molon</span>),
+a Greek rhetorician, who flourished about 70 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He was a
+native of Alabanda, a pupil of Menecles, and settled at Rhodes.
+He twice visited Rome as an ambassador from Rhodes, and
+Cicero and Caesar took lessons from him. He endeavoured
+to moderate the florid Asiatic style and cultivated an &ldquo;Atticizing&rdquo;
+tendency. He wrote on Homer, and, according to Josephus,
+violently attacked the Jews.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Müller, <i>Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum</i>, iii.; E. Schürer,
+<i>History of the Jewish People</i>, iii. (Eng. tr. 1886).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOLLONIUS OF PERGA<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Pergaeus</span>], Greek geometer of the
+Alexandrian school, was probably born some twenty-five years
+later than Archimedes, <i>i.e.</i> about 262 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He flourished in the
+reigns of Ptolemy Euergetes and Ptolemy Philopator (247-205
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>). His treatise on <i>Conics</i> gained him the title of The Great
+Geometer, and is that by which his fame has been transmitted
+to modern times. All his numerous other treatises have perished,
+save one, and we have only their titles handed down, with general
+indications of their contents, by later writers, especially Pappus.
+After the <i>Conics</i> in eight Books had been written in a first edition,
+Apollonius brought out a second edition, considerably revised as
+regards Books i.-ii., at the instance of one Eudemus of Pergamum;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page187" id="page187"></a>187</span>
+the first three books were sent to Eudemus at intervals, as revised,
+and the later books were dedicated (after Eudemus&rsquo;
+death) to King Attalus I. (241-197 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Only four Books have
+survived in Greek; three more are extant in Arabic; the eighth
+has never been found. Although a fragment has been found of a
+Latin translation from the Arabic made in the 13th century, it
+was not until 1661 that a Latin translation of Books v.-vii.
+was available. This was made by Giovanni Alfonso Borelli and
+Abraham Ecchellensis from the free version in Arabic made in
+983 by Abu &rsquo;l-Fath of Ispahan and preserved in a Florence MS.
+But the best Arabic translation is that made as regards Books
+i.-iv. by Hilal ibn Abi Hilal (d. about 883), and as regards Books
+v.-vii. by Tobit ben Korra (836-901). Halley used for his
+translation an Oxford MS. of this translation of Books v.-vii.,
+but the best MS. (Bodl. 943) he only referred to in order to
+correct his translation, and it is still unpublished except for a
+fragment of Book v. published by L. Nix with German translation
+(Drugulin, Leipzig, 1889). Halley added in his edition (1710)
+a restoration of Book viii., in which he was guided by the fact
+that Pappus gives lemmas &ldquo;to the seventh and eighth books&rdquo;
+under that one heading, as well as by the statement of Apollonius
+himself that the use of the seventh book was illustrated by the
+problems solved in the eighth.</p>
+
+<p>The degree of originality of the <i>Conics</i> can best be judged
+from Apollonius&rsquo; own prefaces. Books i.-iv. form an &ldquo;elementary
+introduction,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> contain the essential principles; the
+rest are specialized investigations in particular directions. For
+Books i.-iv. he claims only that the generation of the curves
+and their fundamental properties in Book i. are worked out
+more fully and generally than they were in earlier treatises, and
+that a number of theorems in Book iii. and the greater part of
+Book iv. are new. That he made the fullest use of his predecessors&rsquo;
+works, such as Euclid&rsquo;s four Books on Conics, is clear
+from his allusions to Euclid, Conon and Nicoteles. The generality
+of treatment is indeed remarkable; he gives as the fundamental
+property of all the conics the equivalent of the Cartesian
+equation referred to <i>oblique</i> axes (consisting of a diameter and
+the tangent at its extremity) obtained by cutting an oblique
+circular cone in any manner, and the axes appear only as a
+particular case after he has shown that the property of the conic
+can be expressed in the same form with reference to any new
+diameter and the tangent at its extremity. It is clearly the form
+of the fundamental property (expressed in the terminology of
+the &ldquo;application of areas&rdquo;) which led him to call the curves for
+the first time by the names <i>parabola</i>, <i>ellipse</i>, <i>hyperbola</i>. Books
+v.-vii. are clearly original. Apollonius&rsquo; genius takes its highest
+flight in Book v., where he treats of normals as minimum and
+maximum straight lines drawn from given points to the curve
+(independently of tangent properties), discusses how many
+normals can be drawn from particular points, finds their feet by
+construction, and gives propositions determining the centre of
+curvature at any point and leading at once to the Cartesian
+equation of the evolute of any conic.</p>
+
+<p>The other treatises of Apollonius mentioned by Pappus are&mdash;1st,
+<span class="grk" title="Logou apotomae">&#923;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#965; &#7936;&#960;&#959;&#964;&#959;&#956;&#942;</span>, <i>Cutting off a Ratio</i>; 2nd, <span class="grk" title="Choriou apotomae">&#935;&#969;&#961;&#943;&#959;&#965; &#7936;&#960;&#959;&#964;&#959;&#956;&#942;</span>,
+<i>Cutting of an Area</i>; 3rd, <span class="grk" title="Diorismenae tomae">&#916;&#953;&#969;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#951; &#964;&#959;&#956;&#942;</span>, <i>Determinate Section</i>;
+4th, <span class="grk" title="Epaphai">&#904;&#960;&#945;&#966;&#945;&#943;</span>, <i>Tangencies</i>; 5th, <span class="grk" title="Neuseis">&#925;&#949;&#973;&#963;&#949;&#953;&#962;</span>, <i>Inclinations</i>; 6th, <span class="grk" title="Topoi
+epipedoi">&#932;&#972;&#960;&#959;&#953; &#7952;&#960;&#943;&#960;&#949;&#948;&#959;&#953;</span>, <i>Plane Loci</i>. Each of these was divided into two books,
+and, with the <i>Data</i>, the <i>Porisms</i> and <i>Surface-Loci</i> of Euclid and
+the <i>Conics</i> of Apollonius were, according to Pappus, included in
+the body of the ancient analysis.</p>
+
+<p>1st. <i>De Rationis Sectione</i> had for its subject the resolution of
+the following problem: Given two straight lines and a point in
+each, to draw through a third given point a straight line cutting
+the two fixed lines, so that the parts intercepted between the
+given points in them and the points of intersection with this
+third line may have a given ratio.</p>
+
+<p>2nd. <i>De Spatii Sectione</i> discussed the similar problem which
+requires the rectangle contained by the two intercepts to be equal
+to a given rectangle.</p>
+
+<p>An Arabic version of the first was found towards the end of
+the 17th century in the Bodleian library by Dr Edward Bernard,
+who began a translation of it; Halley finished it and published
+it along with a restoration of the second treatise in 1706.</p>
+
+<p>3rd. <i>De Sectione Determinata</i> resolved the problem: Given
+two, three or four points on a straight line, to find another point
+on it such that its distances from the given points satisfy the
+condition that the square on one or the rectangle contained by
+two has to the square on the remaining one or the rectangle
+contained by the remaining two, or to the rectangle contained
+by the remaining one and another given straight line, a given
+ratio. Several restorations of the solution have been attempted,
+one by W. Snellius (Leiden, 1698), another by Alex. Anderson of
+Aberdeen, in the supplement to his <i>Apollonius Redivivus</i> (Paris,
+1612), but by far the best is by Robert Simson, <i>Opera quaedam
+reliqua</i> (Glasgow, 1776).</p>
+
+<p>4th. <i>De Tactionibus</i> embraced the following general problem:
+Given three things (points, straight lines or circles) in position,
+to describe a circle passing through the given points, and touching
+the given straight lines or circles. The most difficult case, and
+the most interesting from its historical associations, is when the
+three given things are circles. This problem, which is sometimes
+known as the Apollonian Problem, was proposed by Vieta in the
+16th century to Adrianus Romanus, who gave a solution by
+means of a hyperbola. Vieta thereupon proposed a simpler
+construction, and restored the whole treatise of Apollonius in a
+small work, which he entitled <i>Apollonius Gallus</i> (Paris, 1600).
+A very full and interesting historical account of the problem is
+given in the preface to a small work of J.W. Camerer, entitled
+<i>Apollonii Pergaei quae supersunt, ac maxime Lemmata Pappi in
+hos Libras, cum Observationibus, &amp;c</i>. (Gothae, 1795, 8vo).</p>
+
+<p>5th. <i>De Inclinationibus</i> had for its object to insert a straight
+line of a given length, tending towards a given point, between
+two given (straight or circular) lines. Restorations have been
+given by Marino Ghetaldi, by Hugo d&rsquo;Omerique (<i>Geometrical
+Analysis</i>, Cadiz, 1698), and (the best) by Samuel Horsley (1770).</p>
+
+<p>6th. <i>De Locis Planis</i> is a collection of propositions relating to
+loci which are either straight lines or circles. Pappus gives
+somewhat full particulars of the propositions, and restorations
+were attempted by P. Fermat (<i>Oeuvres</i>, i., 1891, pp. 3-51), F.
+Schooten (Leiden, 1656) and, most successfully of all, by R.
+Simson (Glasgow, 1749).</p>
+
+<p>Other works of Apollonius are referred to by ancient writers,
+viz. (1) <span class="grk" title="Peri tou pyriou">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#964;&#959;&#8166; &#960;&#965;&#961;&#943;&#959;&#965;</span>, <i>On the Burning-Glass</i>, where the focal
+properties of the parabola probably found a place; (2) <span class="grk" title="Peri tou
+kochliou">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#964;&#959;&#8166; &#954;&#959;&#967;&#955;&#943;&#959;&#965;</span>, <i>On the Cylindrical Helix</i> (mentioned by Proclus); (3) a
+comparison of the dodecahedron and the icosahedron inscribed
+in the same sphere; (4) <span class="grk" title="Hae katholou pragmateia">&#905; &#954;&#945;&#952;&#972;&#955;&#959;&#965; &#960;&#961;&#945;&#947;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#949;&#943;&#945;</span>, perhaps a work
+on the general principles of mathematics in which were included
+Apollonius&rsquo; criticisms and suggestions for the improvement of
+Euclid&rsquo;s <i>Elements</i>; (5) <span class="grk" title="Okutokion">&#911;&#954;&#965;&#964;&#972;&#954;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span> (quick bringing-to-birth), in
+which, according to Eutocius, he showed how to find closer
+limits for the value of &pi; than the 3<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">7</span> and 3<span class="spp">10</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">71</span> of Archimedes;
+(6) an arithmetical work (as to which see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pappus</a></span>) on a system
+of expressing large numbers in language closer to that of common
+life than that of Archimedes&rsquo; <i>Sand-reckoner</i>, and showing how
+to multiply such large numbers; (7) a great extension of the
+theory of irrationals expounded in Euclid, Book x., from
+binomial to multinomial and from <i>ordered</i> to <i>unordered</i> irrationals
+(see extracts from Pappus&rsquo; comm. on Eucl. x., preserved
+in Arabic and published by Woepcke, 1856). Lastly, in
+astronomy he is credited by Ptolemy with an explanation of
+the motion of the planets by a system of epicycles; he also
+made researches in the lunar theory, for which he is said to have
+been called Epsilon (&epsilon;).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best editions of the works of Apollonius are the following: (1)
+<i>Apollonii Pergaei Conicorum libri quatuor, ex versione Frederici
+Commandini</i> (Bononiae, 1566), fol.; (2) <i>Apollonii Pergaei Conicorum
+libri octo, et Sereni Antissensis de Sectione Cylindri et Coni libri duo</i>
+(Oxoniae, 1710), fol. (this is the monumental edition of Edmund
+Halley); (3) the edition of the first four books of the Conics given in
+1675 by Barrow; (4) <i>Apollonii Pergaei de Sectione, Rationis libri duo:
+Accedunt ejusdem de Sectione Spatii libri duo Restituti: Praemittitur,
+&amp;c., Opera et Studio Edmundi Halley</i> (Oxoniae, 1706), 4to; (5) a
+German translation of the <i>Conics</i> by H. Balsam (Berlin, 1861);
+(6) the definitive Greek text of Heiberg (<i>Apollonii Pergaei quae Graece
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" id="page188"></a>188</span>
+exstant Opera</i>, Leipzig, 1891-1893); (7) T.L. Heath, <i>Apollonius,
+Treatise on Conic Sections</i> (Cambridge, 1896); see also H.G. Zeuthen,
+<i>Die Lehre van den Kegelschnitten im Altertum</i> (Copenhagen, 1886
+and 1902).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. L. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOLLONIUS OF RHODES<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Rhodius</span>), a Greek epic poet
+and grammarian, of Alexandria, who flourished under the
+Ptolemies Philopator and Epiphanes (222-181 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). He was
+the pupil of Callimachus, with whom he subsequently quarrelled.
+In his youth he composed the work for which he is known&mdash;<i>Argonautica</i>,
+an epic in four books on the legend of the Argonauts.
+When he read it at Alexandria, it was rejected through the
+influence of Callimachus and his party. Disgusted with his
+failure, Apollonius withdrew to Rhodes, where he was very
+successful as a rhetorician, and a revised edition of his epic was
+well received. In recognition of his talents the Rhodians
+bestowed the freedom of their city upon him&mdash;the origin of his
+surname. Returning to Alexandria, he again recited his poem,
+this time with general applause. In 196, Ptolemy Epiphanes
+appointed him librarian of the Museum, which office he probably
+held until his death. As to the <i>Argonautica</i>, Longinus&rsquo; (<i>De
+Sublim</i>. p. 54, 19) and Quintilian&rsquo;s (<i>Instit</i>, x. 1, 54) verdict of
+mediocrity seems hardly deserved; although it lacks the naturalness
+of Homer, it possesses a certain simplicity and contains
+some beautiful passages. There is a valuable collection of
+scholia. The work, highly esteemed by the Romans, was
+imitated by Virgil (<i>Aeneid</i>, iv.), Varro Atacinus, and Valerius
+Flaccus. Marianus (about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 500) paraphrased it in iambic
+trimeters. Apollonius also wrote epigrams; grammatical and
+critical works; and <span class="grk" title="Ktiseis">&#922;&#964;&#943;&#963;&#949;&#953;&#962;</span> (the foundations of cities).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Editio Princeps</i> (Florence, 1496); Merkel-Keil (with scholia, 1854);
+Seaton (1900). English translations: Verse, by Greene (1780);
+Fawkes (1780); Preston (1811); Way (1901); Prose by Coleridge
+(1889); see also Couat, <i>La Poésie alexandrine</i>; Susemihl, <i>Geschichte
+der griech. Lit. in der alexandnnischen Zeit.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOLLONIUS OF TRALLES<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (in Caria), a Greek sculptor, who
+flourished in the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> With his brother Tauriscus,
+he executed the marble group known as the Farnese Bull, representing
+Zethus and Amphion tying the revengeful Dirce to
+the tail of a wild bull.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>, pl. i. fig. 51.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOLLONIUS OF TYANA,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> a Greek philosopher of the Neo-Pythagorean
+school, born a few years before the Christian era.
+He studied at Tarsus and in the temple of Asclepius at Aegae,
+where he devoted himself to the doctrines of Pythagoras and
+adopted the ascetic habit of life in its fullest sense. He travelled
+through Asia and visited Nineveh, Babylon and India, imbibing
+the oriental mysticism of magi, Brahmans and gymnosophists.
+The narrative of his travels given by his disciple Damis and
+reproduced by Philostratus is so full of the miraculous that many
+have regarded him as an imaginary character. On his return
+to Europe he was saluted as a magician, and received the greatest
+reverence from priests and people generally. He himself claimed
+only the power of foreseeing the future; yet in Rome it was said
+that he raised from death the body of a noble lady. In the halo
+of his mysterious power he passed through Greece, Italy and
+Spain. It was said that he was accused of treason both by Nero
+and by Domitian, but escaped by miraculous means. Finally
+he set up a school at Ephesus, where he died, apparently at the
+age of a hundred years. Philostratus keeps up the mystery of
+his hero&rsquo;s life by saying, &ldquo;Concerning the manner of his death,
+<i>if he did die</i>, the accounts are various.&rdquo; The work of Philostratus
+composed at the instance of Julia, wife of Severus, is generally
+regarded as a religious work of fiction. It contains a number of
+obviously fictitious stories, through which, however, it is not
+impossible to discern the general character of the man. In the 3rd
+century, Hierocles (<i>q.v.</i>) endeavoured to prove that the doctrines
+and the life of Apollonius were more valuable than those of Christ,
+and, in modern times, Voltaire and Charles Blount (1654-1693),
+the English freethinker, have adopted a similar standpoint. Apart
+from this extravagant eulogy, it is absurd to regard Apollonius
+merely as a vulgar charlatan and miracle-monger. If we cut
+away the mass of mere fiction which Philostratus accumulated,
+we have left a highly imaginative, earnest reformer who laboured
+to infuse into the flaccid dialectic of paganism a saner spirit of
+practical morality.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L. Dyer, <i>Studies of the Gods in Greece</i> (New York, 1891);
+A. Chassang, <i>Le Merveilleux dans l&rsquo;antiquité</i> (1882); D.M. Tredwell,
+<i>Sketch of the Life of Apollonius of Tyana</i> (New York, 1886); F.C.
+Baur, <i>Apollonius von Tyana und Christus</i>, ed. Ed. Zeller (Leipzig,
+1876,&mdash;an attempt to show that Philostratus&rsquo;s story is merely a pagan
+counterblast to the New Testament history); J. Jessen, <i>Apollonius
+v. Tyana und sein Biograph Philostratos</i> (Hamburg, 1885); J. Göttsching,
+<i>Apollonius von Tyana</i> (Berlin, 1889); J.A. Froude, <i>Short
+Studies</i>, vol. iv.; G.R.S. Mead, <i>Apollonius of Tyana</i> (London, 1901);
+B.L. Gildersleeve, <i>Essays and Studies</i> (New York, 1890); Philostratus&rsquo;s
+<i>Life of Apollonius</i> (Eng. trans. New York, 1905); O. de B.
+Priaulx, <i>The Indian Travels of Apollonius</i> (1873); F.W.G. Campbell,
+<i>Apoll. of Tyana</i> (1908); see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neo-Pythagoreanism</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOLLONIUS OF TYRE,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> a medieval tale supposed to be
+derived from a lost Greek original. The earliest mention of the
+story is in the <i>Carmina</i> (Bk. vi. 8, II. 5-6) of Venantius Fortunatus,
+in the second half of the 6th century, and the romance
+may well date from three centuries earlier. It bears a marked
+resemblance to the <i>Antheia and Habrokomes</i> of Xenophon of
+Ephesus. The story relates that King Antiochus, maintaining
+incestuous relations with his daughter, kept off her suitors by
+asking them a riddle, which they must solve on pain of losing
+their heads. Apollonius of Tyre solved the riddle, which had
+to do with Antiochus&rsquo;s secret. He returned to Tyre, and, to
+escape the king&rsquo;s vengeance, set sail in search of a place of refuge.
+In Cyrene he married the daughter of King Archistrates, and
+presently, on receiving news of the death of Antiochus, departed
+to take possession of the kingdom of Antioch, of which he was,
+for no clear reason, the heir. On the voyage his wife died, or
+rather seemed to die, in giving birth to a daughter, and the
+sailors demanded that she should be thrown overboard. Apollonius
+left his daughter, named Tarsia, at Tarsus in the care
+of guardians who proved false to their trust. Father, mother,
+and daughter were only reunited after fourteen years&rsquo; separation
+and many vicissitudes. The earliest Latin MS. of this tale,
+preserved at Florence, dates from the 9th or 10th century.
+The pagan features of the supposed original are by no means
+all destroyed. The ceremonies observed by Tarsia at her nurse&rsquo;s
+grave, and the preparations for the burning of the body of
+Apollonius&rsquo;s wife, are purely pagan. The riddles which Tarsia
+propounds to her father are obviously interpolated. They are
+taken from the <i>Enigmata</i> of Caelius Firmianus Symposius. The
+many inconsistencies of the story seem to be best explained by
+the supposition (E. Rohde, <i>Der griechische Roman</i>, 2nd ed.,
+1900, pp. 435 <i>et seq</i>.) that the Antiochus story was originally
+entirely separate from the story of Apollonius&rsquo;s wanderings,
+and was clumsily tacked on by the Latin author. The romance
+kept its form through a vast number of medieval rearrangements,
+and there is little change in its outlines as set forth in the Shakespearian
+play of <i>Pericles</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Latin tale is preserved in about 100 MSS., and was printed
+by M. Velser (Augsburg, 1595), by J. Lapaume in <i>Script. Erot</i>. (Didot,
+Paris, 1856), and by A. Riese in the <i>Bibl. Teubneriana</i> (1871, new ed.
+1893). The most widespread versions in the middle ages were those
+of Godfrey of Viterbo in his <i>Pantheon</i> (1185), where it is related as
+authentic history, and in the <i>Gesta Romanorum</i> (cap. 153), which
+formed the basis of the German folk-tale by H. Steinhöwel (Augsburg,
+1471), the Dutch version (Delft, 1493), the French in <i>Le Violier
+des histoires romaines</i> (Paris, 1521), the English, by Laurence Twine
+(London, 1576, new ed. 1607), also of the Scandinavian, Czech, and
+Hungarian tales.</p>
+
+<p>In England a translation was made as early as the 11th century
+(ed. B. Thorpe, 1834, and J. Zupitza in <i>Archiv für neuere Sprachen</i>,
+1896); there is a Middle English metrical version (J.O. Halliwell,
+<i>A New Boke about Shakespeare</i>, 1850), by a poet who says he was
+vicar of Wimborne; John Gower uses the tale as an example of the
+seventh deadly sin in the eighth book of his <i>Confessio Amantis</i>;
+Robert Copland translated a prose romance of <i>Kynge Apollyne of
+Thyre</i> (Wynkyn de Worde, 1510) from the French; <i>Pericles</i> was
+entered at Stationers&rsquo; Hall in 1607, and was followed in the next
+year by George Wilkins&rsquo;s novel, <i>The Painfull Adventures of Pericles,
+Prynce of Tyre</i> (ed. Tycho Mommsen, Oldenburg, 1857), and George
+Lillo drew his play <i>Marina</i> (1738) from the piece associated with
+Shakespeare; <i>Orendel</i>, by a Middle High German minnesinger,
+contains some of the episodes of <i>Apollonius</i>; Heinrich von Neustadt
+wrote a poem of 20,000 lines on <i>Apollonius von Tyrland</i> (<i>c</i>. 1400);
+the story was well known in Spanish, <i>Libre de Apolonio</i> (verse, <i>c</i>.
+1200), and in J. de Timoneda&rsquo;s <i>Patrañuelo</i> (1576); in French much
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189"></a>189</span>
+of it was embodied in <i>Jourdain de Blaives</i> (13th cent.), and it also
+appears in Italian and medieval Greek. See A.H. Smyth, <i>Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+Pericles and Apollonius of Tyre</i> (Philadelphia, 1898); Elimar
+Klebs, <i>Die Erzahlung van A. aus Tyrus</i> (Berlin, 1899); S. Singer,
+<i>Apollonius van Tyrus</i> (Halle, 1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOLLOS<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Apollos">&#902;&#960;&#959;&#955;&#955;&#974;&#962;</span>; contracted from Apollonius), an
+Alexandrine Jew who after Paul&rsquo;s first visit to Corinth worked
+there in a similar way (1 Cor. iii. 6). He was with Paul at a
+later date in Ephesus (1 Cor. xvi. 12). In 1 Cor. i. 10-12 we read
+of four parties in the Corinthian church, of which two attached
+themselves to Paul and Apollos respectively, using their names,
+though the &ldquo;division&rdquo; can hardly have been due to conflicting
+doctrines. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paul</a></span>.) From Acts xviii. 24-28 we learn that he
+spoke and taught with power and success. He may have captivated
+his hearers by teaching &ldquo;wisdom,&rdquo; as P.W. Schmiedel
+suggests, in the allegorical style of Philo, and he was evidently
+a man of unusual magnetic force. There seems to be some contradiction
+between Acts xviii. 25 <i>a b</i> and Acts xviii. 25 <i>c</i>, 26 <i>b c</i>;
+and it has been suggested that these latter passages are subsequent
+accretions. Since Apollos was a Christian and &ldquo;taught
+exactly,&rdquo; he could hardly have been acquainted only with
+John&rsquo;s baptism or have required to be taught Christianity more
+thoroughly by Aquila and Priscilla. Martin Luther regarded
+Apollos as the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, and many
+scholars since have shared his view.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Jerome says that Apollos was so dissatisfied with the division at
+Corinth, that he retired into Crete with Zenas, a doctor of the law;
+and that the schism having been healed by Paul&rsquo;s letter to the
+Corinthians, Apollos returned to the city, and became its bishop.
+Less probable traditions assign to him the bishopric of Duras, or of
+Iconium in Phrygia, or of Caesarea.</p>
+
+<p>See the articles in the <i>Encyclopaedia Biblica</i>; Herzog-Hauck,
+<i>Realencyklopadie</i>; <i>The Jewish Encyclopaedia</i>; Hastings&rsquo; <i>Dictionary
+of the Bible</i>; and cf. Weizsäcker, <i>Das apostolische Zeitalter</i>; A.C.
+McGiffert, <i>History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOLLYON,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> the &ldquo;foul fiend&rdquo; who assaulted Christian on
+his pilgrimage through the Valley of Humiliation in John
+Bunyan&rsquo;s great allegory. The name (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Apollyon">&#902;&#960;&#959;&#955;&#955;&#973;&#969;&#957;</span>), which
+means &ldquo;destroyer&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="apollyein">&#7936;&#960;&#959;&#955;&#955;&#973;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to destroy), is taken from
+Rev. ix. 11, where it represents the Hebrew word <i>Abaddon</i> (lit.
+&ldquo;place of destruction,&rdquo; but here personified). The identification
+with the Asmodeus (<i>q.v.</i>) of Tobit iii. 8 is erroneous.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOLOGETICS,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> in theology, the systematic statement of the
+grounds which Christians allege for belief in (at least) a <i>supernatural
+revelation</i> and a <i>divine redemption</i> (cf. <i>e.g.</i> Heb. i. 1-3).
+The majority of apologists in the past have further believed in
+an <i>infallible Bible</i>; but they admit this position can only be
+reached at a late stage in the argument. We should note, however,
+that even a liberal orthodoxy, while saying nothing about
+infallibility, is pledged to the <i>essential</i> authority of the Bible;
+it cannot <i>e.g.</i> simply ignore the Old Testament with F.E.D.
+Schleiermacher. Catholic apologetics must further give a
+central position to <i>Church</i> authority, which Roman Catholics
+explicitly define as infallible; but this position too is debated
+in a late section of their system. On the other hand, there may
+be a Christianity which seeks to extricate the &ldquo;spiritual&rdquo; from
+the &ldquo;supernatural&rdquo; (Arnold Toynbee, characterizing T.H. Green).
+It would only lead to confusion, however, if we called this method
+&ldquo;apologetic.&rdquo; Any <i>single</i> effort in apologetics may be termed
+&ldquo;an apology.&rdquo; More elaborate contrasts have been proposed
+between the two words, but are of little practical importance.</p>
+
+<p>I. <i>The Word itself.</i>&mdash;In Greek, <span class="grk" title="apologia">&#7936;&#960;&#959;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#943;&#945;</span> is the defendant&rsquo;s reply
+(personally, not through a lawyer) to the speech for the prosecution&mdash;<span class="grk" title="kataegoria">&#954;&#945;&#964;&#951;&#947;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945;</span>.
+Sometimes defendants&rsquo; speeches passed into
+literature, <i>e.g.</i> Plato&rsquo;s splendid version of the <i>Apology</i> of Socrates.
+Thus, in view of persecution or slander, the Christian church
+naturally produced literary &ldquo;Apologies,&rdquo; The word has never
+quite lost this connotation of standing on the defensive and
+rebutting criticism; <i>e.g.</i> Anselm&rsquo;s <i>Apologia contra insipientem
+Gaunilonem</i> (<i>c.</i> 1100); or the Lutheran <i>Apology for the Augsburg
+Confession</i> (1531); or J.H. Newman&rsquo;s <i>Apologia pro vita sua</i>
+(1864); or A.B. Bruce&rsquo;s <i>Apologetics; or Christianity Defensively
+Stated</i> (1892). Of course, defence easily passes into counterattack,
+as when early apologists denounce Greek and Roman
+religion. Yet the purpose may be defence even then. And
+there is perhaps a reason of a deeper kind for holding Apologetics
+to the defensive. Christianity is a prophetic religion. Now a
+prophet does not argue; he declares what he feels to be God&rsquo;s
+will. For himself, he rests, like the mystic, upon an immediate
+vision of truth; but he differs from most mystics in having a
+message for others; and&mdash;again unlike most mystics&mdash;he
+addresses the hearer&rsquo;s <i>conscience</i>, which we might call (in one
+sense) the mystic element in every man&mdash;or better, perhaps, the
+prophetic. Can the positive grounds for a prophet&rsquo;s message
+be analysed and stated in terms of argument? If so, apologetics
+is literally a science, and it is pedantry to claim the defensive
+and pretend to throw the <i>onus probandi</i> upon objectors. But,
+if not, then apologetics is a mere auxiliary, and is only &ldquo;a
+science&rdquo; in so far as it presents a <i>conscious</i> and <i>systematic</i> plea.
+Bruce&rsquo;s title, and his programme of &ldquo;succouring distressed faith,&rdquo;
+imply the latter alternative; the moral appeal of Christianity,
+primary and essential; its confirmation by argument, secondary.
+The view has its difficulties; but it is hignly suggestive.</p>
+
+<p>The word <span class="grk" title="apologia">&#7936;&#960;&#959;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#943;&#945;</span> is used by Origen (<i>Contra Cel.</i> ii. 65, v. 19)
+of the general Christian defence. But the introduction of the
+adjective &ldquo;apologetic&rdquo; and of the substantive &ldquo;apologetics&rdquo; is
+recent. They are serviceable as bracketing together (1) Natural
+Theology or Theism, (2) Christian Evidences&mdash;chiefly &ldquo;miracles&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;prophecy&rdquo;; or, on a more modern view, chiefly the
+character and personality of Christ. The lower usage of Apology
+(as expression of regret for a fault) has tipped many a sarcasm
+besides George III.&rsquo;s on the occasion of Bishop Watson&rsquo;s book,
+&ldquo;I did not know that the Bible needed an apology!&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>II. <i>Apologetics in the Bible.</i>&mdash;The Old Testament does not
+argue in support of its beliefs, unless when (chiefly in parts of
+the Wisdom literature) it seeks to rebut moral difficulties (cf.
+T.K. Cheyne, <i>Job and Solomon</i>; A.S. Peake, <i>Problem of Suffering
+in the Old Testament</i>, 1904). The New Testament reflects
+chiefly controversy with Jews. Great emphasis is laid upon
+alleged fulfilments&mdash;striking or fanciful, but very generally
+striking to that age&mdash;of Old Testament prophecy (Matt. especially;
+rather differently Ep. to Heb.). The miracles of Jesus are
+also canvassed. Jews do not deny their wonderful character,
+but attribute them to black art (Mark iii. 22 &amp;c., &amp;c.). On the
+other hand, Christians and Jews are pretty well agreed on natural
+theology; so the New Testament tends to take its theism for
+granted. However, Rom. i. 20 has had great influence on
+Christian theology (<i>e.g.</i> Thomas Aquinas) in leading it to base
+theism upon reason or argument. One apologetic contention,
+aimed at Gentile readers, is found among the motives of Acts.
+Christianity is not a lawless but an excellent law-abiding faith.
+So (it is alleged) rulers, both Jewish and Gentile, have often
+admitted (xviii. 14; xix. 37; xxiii. 9; xxvi. 32).</p>
+
+<p>III. <i>Early Christian.</i>&mdash;When we leave the New Testament,
+apologetics becomes conspicuous until the political triumph of
+Christianity, and even somewhat later. The atmosphere is no
+longer Jewish but fully Greek. True there are, as always,
+Jewish controversialists. Justin Martyr writes a <i>Dialogue with
+Trypho</i>; Origen deals with many anti-Christian arguments
+borrowed by Celsus from a certain nameless Jew. Yet Greece
+was the sovereign power in all the world of ancient culture.
+And so Christianity was necessarily Hellenized, necessarily
+philosophized. One result was to bring natural theology into
+the forefront. A pure morality, belief in one God, hopes extending
+beyond death&mdash;these appealed to the age; the Church
+taught them as philosophically true <i>and</i> divinely revealed.
+But, further still, philosophy offered a vehicle which could be
+applied to the contents of Christianity. The Platonic or eclectic
+theism, which adopted the conception of the Logos, made a
+place for Christ in terms of philosophy within the Godhead.
+(John i. 1 may or may not be affected by Philo; it is almost or
+quite solitary in the N.T.) Similarly, the immortality of the
+soul may be maintained on Platonic or quasi-Platonic lines, as
+by St Athanasius (<i>Contra Gentes</i>, § 33)&mdash;a writer who repeatedly
+quotes the Alexandrian Book of Wisdom, in which Platonism
+and the Old Testament had already joined partnership. This
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page190" id="page190"></a>190</span>
+phase of Platonism, however, was much more slowly adopted.
+The earlier apologists dispute the natural immortality of the
+soul; Athanasius himself, in <i>De Incarnatione Dei</i>, §§ 4, 5, tones
+down the teaching of <i>Wisdom</i>; and the somewhat eccentric
+writer Arnobius, a layman&mdash;from Justin Martyr downwards
+apologetics has always been largely in the hands of laymen&mdash;stands
+for what has recently been called &ldquo;conditional immortality&rdquo;&mdash;eternal
+life for the righteous, the children of God, alone.</p>
+
+<p>Allied with this more empiricist stand-point is the assertion
+that Greek philosophy borrowed from Moses; but in studying
+the Fathers we constantly find that groundless assertion
+uttered in the same breath with the dominant Idealist view,
+according to which Greek philosophy was due to incomplete
+revelation from the divine Logos.</p>
+
+<p>On purely defensive lines, early apologists rebut charges of
+cannibalism and sexual promiscuity; the Christians had to
+meet in secret, and the gossip of a rotten age drew malignant
+conclusions. They make counter attacks on polytheism as a
+folly and on the shamefulness of obscene myths. Here they are
+in line with non-Christian writers or culture-mockers like Lucian
+of Samosata; or graver spirits like Porphyry, who champions
+Neo-Platonism as a rival to Christianity, and does pioneer work
+in criticism by attacks on some of the Old Testament books.
+Turning to Christian evidence proper, we are struck with the
+continued prominence of the argument from prophecy. The
+Old Testament was an immense religious asset to the early
+church. Their enemies had nothing like it; and&mdash;the N.T.
+canon being as yet but half formed&mdash;the Old Testament was
+pushed into notice by dwelling on this imperfect &ldquo;argument,&rdquo;
+which grew more extravagant as the partial control exercised
+by Jewish learning disappeared. An argument from miracles
+is also urged, though with more reserve. Formally, every one
+in that age admitted the supernatural. The question was,
+whose supernatural? And how far did it carry you? Miracle
+could not be to a 3rd century writer what it was to W. Paley&mdash;a
+conclusive and well-nigh solitary proof. Other apologies are
+by Aristides (recently recovered in translation), Athenagoras
+(&ldquo;elegant&rdquo;), Eusebius of Caesarea, Cyril of Alexandria; in
+Latin by Minucius Felix, Tertullian (a masculine spirit and
+phrase-coiner like T. Carlyle, if bitterer still), Lactantius Firmianus,
+&amp;c., &amp;c.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>As Christianity wins the day, a new objection is raised to it.
+The age is full of troubles; Christianity is ruining the empire!
+Besides notices elsewhere, we find the charge specially dealt
+with by St Augustine and his friends. Paulus Orosius argues
+that the world has always been a vale of tears. Salvian contends
+that not the acceptance of Christianity, but the sins of the people
+are bringing trouble upon them; and he gives ugly evidence
+of the continued prevalence of vice. Most impressive of all
+was Augustine&rsquo;s own contribution in <i>The City of God</i>. Powers
+created by worldliness and sin are crumbling, as they well
+may; &ldquo;the city of God remaineth!&rdquo; Whether he meant it
+so or not, the saint&rsquo;s argument became a programme and an
+apologia for the imperializing of the Western Church under the
+leadership of Rome during the middle ages.</p>
+
+<p>IV. <i>Middle Ages.</i>&mdash;From the point of view of apologetics, we
+may mass together the long stretch of history which covers the
+period between the disappearance and the re-appearance of free
+discussion. When emperors became converts, the church, so
+lately a victim and a pleader for liberty, readily learned to
+persecute. Under such conditions there is little scope for
+apologetics. Force kills argument and drives doubt below the
+smooth surface of a nominal conformity. But there were two
+influences beyond the bounds or beyond the power of the
+christianized empire. The Jew remained, as always, stubbornly
+unconvinced, and, as often, fond of slanders. Many of the
+principal medieval attempts in apologetics are directed chiefly
+against him, <i>e.g.</i> the <i>Pugio Fidei</i> of Raymond Martini (<i>c.</i> 1280),
+which became one of Pascal&rsquo;s sources (see V. below), or Peter
+Abelard&rsquo;s <i>Dialogus inter Judaeum Philosophum et Christianum</i>.
+And the Moslem came on the scenes bringing, as a gift for
+Christendom, fuller knowledge of classical, especially Aristotelian,
+texts. The Jews, less bitterly opposed to Mahommedanism
+than the Christians were, caught fire more rapidly,
+and in some cases served as an intermediate link or channel
+of communication. These two religions anticipated the discussion
+of the problem of faith and reason in the Christian
+church. According to the great Avicenna and Maimonides,
+faith and the highest reason are sure to coincide (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arabian
+Philosophy</a></span>). According to Ghazali, in his <i>Destruction of Philosophers</i>,
+the various schools of philosophy cancel each other;
+reason is bankrupt; faith is everything. (So nearly Jehuda
+Halevi.) According to Averroes, reason suffices, and faith, with
+(what he considers) its dreams of immortality and the like, is
+useful only for the ignorant masses. Christian theology, however,
+strikes out a line of its own. Moslems and Jews were
+applying Aristotelian philosophy to rigorously monotheistic
+faiths; Christianity had been encouraged by Platonism in
+teaching a trinity of divine persons, and Platonism of a certain
+order long dominated the middle ages as part of the Augustinian
+tradition. In sympathy with this Platonism, the medieval
+church began by assuming the entire mutual harmony of faith
+and reason. Such is the teaching, along different lines, alike
+of St Anselm and of Abelard. But, when increased knowledge
+of Aristotle&rsquo;s texts (and of the commentaries) led to the victory
+of a supposed Aristotelianism over a supposed Platonism,
+Albertus Magnus, and his still more distinguished pupil Thomas
+Aquinas, mark certain doctrines as belonging to faith but not
+to reason. They adhere to the general position with exceptions
+(in the case of what had been considered Platonic doctrines).
+From the point of view of philosophy, this was a compromise.
+Faith and reason partly agree, partly diverge. The tendency
+of the later middle ages is to add to the number of the doctrines
+with which philosophy cannot deal. Thomas&rsquo;s great rival, Duns
+Scotus, does this to a large extent, at times affirming &ldquo;two
+truths.&rdquo; The latter position, ascribed by the schoolmen to the
+Averroists, becomes dominant among the later Nominalists,
+William of Occam and his disciples, who withdraw <i>all</i> doctrines
+of faith from the sphere of reason. This was a second and a
+more audacious compromise. It is not exactly an attempt to
+base Christian faith on rational scepticism. It is a consistent
+policy of harbouring inconsistencies in the same mind. A
+statement may be true in philosophy and false in theology, or
+vice versa. To the standpoint of Aquinas, however, the Church
+of Rome (at least in regard to the basis of doctrine) has more
+and more returned. The councils of Trent and of the Vatican
+mark the Two Truths hypothesis as heretical, when they affirm
+that there <i>is</i> a natural knowledge of God and natural certainty
+of immortality. Along with this affirmation, the Church of
+Rome (if less decisively) has adopted the limitations of the
+Thomist theory by the condemnation of &ldquo;Ontologism&rdquo;;
+certain mysterious doctrines are beyond reason. This cautious
+compromise sanctioned by the Church does not represent the
+<i>extremest</i> reaction against nominalism. Even in the nominalistic
+epoch we have Raymond of Sabunde&rsquo;s <i>Natural Theology</i> (according
+to the article in Herzog-Hauck, not the title of the oldest
+Paris MS., but found in later MSS. and almost all the printed
+editions) or <i>Liber Creaturarum</i> (<i>c.</i> 1435). The book is not what
+moderns (schooled unconsciously in post-Reformation developments
+of Thomist ideas) expect under the name of natural
+theology. It is an attempt once more to demonstrate <i>all</i>
+scholastic dogmas out of the book of creation or on principles
+of natural reason. At many points it follows Anselm closely,
+and, of course, very often &ldquo;makes light work&rdquo; of its task.</p>
+
+<p>The Thomist compromise&mdash;or even the more sceptical view
+of &ldquo;two truths&rdquo;&mdash;has the merit of giving filling <i>of a kind</i> to
+the formula &ldquo;supernatural revelation&rdquo;&mdash;mysteries inaccessible
+to reason, beyond discovery and beyond comprehension.
+According to earlier views&mdash;repeatedly revived in Protestantism&mdash;revelation
+is just philosophy over again. Can the choice be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page191" id="page191"></a>191</span>
+fairly stated? If revelation is thought of as God&rsquo;s personal
+word, and redemption as his personal deed, is it reasonable to
+view them either as open to a sort of scientific prediction or as
+capricious and unintelligible? Even in the middle ages there
+were not wanting those&mdash;the St Victors, Bonaventura&mdash;who
+sought to vindicate mystical if not moral redemption as the
+central thought of Christianity.</p>
+
+<p>V. <i>Earlier Modern Period.</i>&mdash;It will be seen that apologetics by
+no means reissued unchanged from the long period of authority.
+The compromise of Aquinas, though not unchallenged, holds the
+field and that even with Protestants. G.W. Leibnitz devotes
+an introductory chapter in his <i>Théodicée</i>, 1710 (as against Pierre Bayle), to faith and reason. He is a good enough Lutheran to
+quote as a &ldquo;mystery&rdquo; the Eucharist no less than the Trinity,
+while he insists that truths <i>above</i> are not <i>against</i> reason. Stated thus baldly, has the distinction any meaning? The more celebrated
+and central thesis of the book&mdash;this finite universe, the
+best of all such that are possible&mdash;also restates positions of
+Augustine and Aquinas.</p>
+
+<p>Before modern philosophy began its career, there was a great
+revival of ancient philosophy at the Renaissance; sometimes
+anti-Christian, sometimes pro-Christian. The latter furnishes
+apologies by Marsilio Ficino, Agostino Steuco, J.L. Vives.</p>
+
+<p>Early in the modern period occurs the great name of Blaise
+Pascal (1623-1662). A staunch Roman Catholic, but belonging
+to a school of Augustinian enthusiasts (the Jansenists), whom
+the Church put down as heretics, he stands pretty much apart
+from the general currents. His <i>Pensées</i>, published posthumously,
+seems to have been meant for a systematic treatise, but it
+has come to us in fragments. Once again, a lay apologist! A
+layman&rsquo;s work may have the advantage of originality or the
+drawback of imperfect knowledge. Pascal&rsquo;s work exhibits both
+characters. It has the originality of rare genius, but it borrows
+its material (as industrious editors have shown) from very few
+sources&mdash;the <i>Pugio Fidei</i>, M. de Montaigne, P. Charron. Ideas
+as well as learning are largely Montaigne&rsquo;s. The latter&rsquo;s cheerful
+man-of-the-world scepticism is transfigured in Pascal to a deep
+distrust of human reason, in part, perhaps, from anti-Protestant
+motives. But this attitude, while not without parallels both
+earlier (Ghazali, Jehuda Halevi) and later (H.L. Mansel), has
+peculiarities in Pascal. It is <i>fallen</i> man whom he pursues with
+his fierce scorn; his view of man&rsquo;s nature&mdash;intellect as well as
+character&mdash;is to be read in the light of his unflinching Augustinianism.
+Again, Pascal, unlike most apologists, belongs to the
+small company of saintly souls. This philosophical sceptic is
+full of humble joy in salvation, of deep love for the Saviour.</p>
+
+<p>Another French Roman Catholic apologist, P.D. Huet  (1630-1721)&mdash;within
+the conditions of his age a prodigy of learning
+(in apologetics see his <i>Demonstratio Evangelica</i>)&mdash;is
+not uninfluenced by Pascal (<i>Traité de la faiblesse de l&rsquo;esprit humaine</i>).</p>
+
+<p>As we might expect, Protestant lands are more busily occupied
+with apologetics. Intolerant reliance upon <i>force</i> presents
+greater difficulties to them; soon it grows quite obsolete. Benedict
+Spinoza, the eminent Jewish pantheist (1632-1677), to whom
+miracle is impossible, revelation a phrase, and who renews
+pioneer work in Old Testament criticism, finds at least a fair
+measure of liberty and comfort in Holland (his birth-land).
+Bayle, the historical sceptic, lectured and published his learned
+<i>Dictionnaire</i> (1696) at Rotterdam. From Holland, earlier, had
+proceeded an apologetic work by a man of European fame.
+Hugo Grotius&rsquo;s <i>De Veritate Christianae Religionis</i> (1627) is partly
+the medieval tradition:&mdash;Oppose Mahommedans and Jews!
+It is partly practical:&mdash;Arm Christian sailors against religious
+danger! But in its cool spirit it forecasts the coming age, whose
+master is John Locke. His <i>Reasonableness of Christianity</i> (1695)
+is the thesis of &ldquo;a whole century&rdquo; of theologians. And his <i>Essay
+on the Human Understanding</i> (1690) is almost a Bible to men of
+education during the same period; its lightest word treasured.
+Locke does not break with the compromise of Aquinas. But he
+transfers attention from <i>contents</i> to <i>proof</i>. Reason
+proves that a revelation has been made-and then submits. Leibnitz
+has to supplement rather than correct Locke on this point.</p>
+
+<p>In such an atmosphere, deism readily uttered its protest
+against mysterious revelation. Deism is, in fact, the Thomist
+natural theology (more clearly distinguished from dogmatic
+theology than in the middle ages, alike by Protestants and by
+the post-Tridentine Church of Rome) now dissolving partnership
+with dogmatic and starting in business for itself. Or it is the
+doctrine of unfallen man&rsquo;s &ldquo;natural state&rdquo;&mdash;a doctrine intensified
+in Protestantism&mdash;separating itself from the theologians&rsquo;
+grave doctrine of sin. If Socinianism had challenged natural
+theology&mdash;Christ, according to it, was the prophet who first
+revealed the way to eternal life&mdash;it had glorified the natural
+powers of man; and the learning of the Arminian divines
+(friends of Grotius and Locke) had helped to modernize Christian
+apologetics upon rational lines. Deism now taught that reason,
+or &ldquo;the light of nature,&rdquo; was all-sufficient.</p>
+
+<p>Not to dwell upon earlier continental &ldquo;Deists&rdquo; (mentioned by
+Viret as quoted first in Bayle&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary</i> and again in the
+introduction to Leland&rsquo;s <i>View of the Deistical Writers</i>), Lord
+Herbert of Cherbury (<i>De Veritate</i>, 1624; <i>De Religione Gentilium</i>,
+1645?&mdash;according to J.G. Walch&rsquo;s <i>Bibliotheca Theologica</i> (1757)
+not published complete until 1663) was universally understood
+as hinting conclusions hostile to Christianity (cf. also T. Hobbes,
+<i>Leviathan</i>, 1651, ch. xxxi.; Spinoza, <i>Tractatus Theologico-Politicus</i>,
+1670, ch. xiv.). Professedly, Herbert&rsquo;s contention
+merely is that non-Christians feeling after the &ldquo;supreme God&rdquo;
+and the law of righteousness must have a chance of salvation.
+Herbert was also epoch-making for the whole 18th century in
+teaching that <i>priests</i> had <i>corrupted</i> this primitive faith. During
+the 18th century deism spread widely, though its leaders were
+&ldquo;irrepressible men like Toland, men of mediocre culture and
+ability like Anthony Collins, vulgar men like Chubb, irritated
+and disagreeable men like Matthew Tindal, who conformed that
+he might enjoy his Oxford fellowship and wrote anonymously
+that he might relieve his conscience&rdquo; (A.M. Fairbairn). More
+distinguished sympathizers are Edward Gibbon, who has the
+deistic spirit, and David Hume, the historian and philosophical
+sceptic, who has at least the letter of the deistic creed (<i>Dialogues
+Concerning Natural Religion</i>), and who uses Pascal&rsquo;s appeal to
+&ldquo;faith&rdquo; in a spirit of mockery (<i>Essay on Miracles</i>). In France
+the new school found powerful speaking-trumpets, especially
+Voltaire, the idol of his age&mdash;a great denier and scoffer, but
+always sincerely a believer in the God of reason&mdash;and the deeper
+but wilder spirit of J.J. Rousseau. Others in France developed
+still more startling conclusions from Locke&rsquo;s principles, E.B.
+Condillac&rsquo;s sensationalism&mdash;Locke&rsquo;s philosophy purged of its
+more ideal if less logical elements&mdash;leading on to materialism in
+J.O. de la Mettrie; and at least one of the Encyclopedists
+(P.H. von Holbach) capped materialism with confessed atheism.</p>
+
+<p>In Germany the parallel movement of &ldquo;illumination&rdquo; (H.S.
+Reimarus; J.S. Semler, pioneer in N.T. criticism; and a
+layman, the great Lessing) took the form of &ldquo;rationalism&rdquo;
+within the church&mdash;interpreting Bible texts by main force in a
+way which the age thought &ldquo;enlightened&rdquo; (H.E.G. Paulus,
+1761-1851, &amp;c.).</p>
+
+<p>Among the innumerable English anti-deistic writers (see
+W. Law, The <i>Case of Reason</i>; R. Bentley, or &ldquo;Phileleutherus
+Lipsiensis&rdquo;; &amp;c., &amp;c.), three are of chief importance. Nathaniel
+Lardner (Arian, 1684-1768) stands in the front rank of the
+scholarship of his time, and uses his vast knowledge to maintain
+the genuineness of all books of the New Testament and the
+perfect accuracy of its history. Joseph Butler, a very original,
+careful and honest thinker, lifts controversy with deists from
+details to principles in his <i>Analogy of Religion both Natural and
+Revealed to the Constitution and Course of Nature</i> (1736). This
+title introduces us to a new conception. Deists and orthodox
+in those days agreed in recognizing not merely natural theology
+but natural religion&mdash;&ldquo;essential religion,&rdquo; Butler more than
+once styles it; the expression shows how near he stood intellectually
+to those he criticized. But morally he stood aloof.
+In part i.&mdash;on Natural Religion&mdash;he defends a moral or punishing
+Deity against the sentimental softness of the age. The God of
+Nature, whom deists confess does punish in time, if they will
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192"></a>192</span>
+but look at the facts; why not in eternity? &ldquo;Morality,&rdquo; as
+others have confessed, is &ldquo;the nature of things&rdquo;! Not the Being
+of God is discussed&mdash;Butler will not waste words on triflers (as
+he thinks them) who deny that&mdash;but God&rsquo;s character. Unfortunately
+(perhaps) Butler prefers to argue on <i>admitted
+principles</i>; holds much of his own moral belief in reserve;
+tries to reduce everything to a question of <i>probable fact</i>. If
+this hampers him in part i., the situation appears still worse in
+part ii., which is directly occupied with the defence of Christianity.
+Butler says nothing about incomprehensible mysteries,
+and protests that reason is the only ground we have to proceed
+upon. But by treating the atonement simply as revealed (and
+unexplained) matter of fact&mdash;in spite of some partial analogies
+in human experience, a thing essentially anomalous&mdash;Butler
+repeats, and applies to the <i>moral</i> contents of Christianity, what
+Aquinas said of its speculative doctrines. (Whether one calls the
+unknowable a revealed mystery or an unexplained and inexplicable
+fact makes little difference.) William Paley (1743-1805)
+borrows from many writers; he borrows Lardner&rsquo;s learning
+and Butler&rsquo;s &ldquo;particular evidence for Christianity,&rdquo; viz. miracles,
+prophecy and &ldquo;history&rdquo;; and he states his points with perfect
+clearness. No man ever filled a typical position more exactly
+than Paley. Eighteenth-century ethics&mdash;Hedonism, with a
+theological background. Empiricist Natural Theology&mdash;the
+argument from Design. Christian Evidences&mdash;the strong
+probability of the resurrection of Christ and the consequent
+authority of his teaching. <i>Horae Paulinae</i>&mdash;mutual confirmations
+of <i>Acts</i> and Epistles; better, though one-sided. When
+such exclusively &ldquo;external&rdquo; arguments are urged, the contents
+of Christianity go for next to nothing.</p>
+
+<p>VI. <i>Later Modern Period.</i>&mdash;Towards the end of the 18th century
+a new epoch of reconstruction begins in the thought and life of
+civilization. The leader in speculative philosophy is Immanuel
+Kant, though he includes many agnostic elements, and draws
+the inference (which some things in the letter of Butler might
+seem to warrant) that the essence of Christianity is an ethical
+theism. While he thus created a new and more ethical &ldquo;rationalism,&rdquo;
+Kant&rsquo;s many-sided influence, alike in philosophy and in
+theology, worked to further issues. He (and other Germans,
+but not G.W.F. Hegel) was represented in England in a fragmentary
+way by S.T. Coleridge (1772-1834), probably the most
+typical figure of his period&mdash;another layman. His general
+thought was that &ldquo;rationalism&rdquo; represents an uprising of the
+lower reason or &ldquo;understanding&rdquo; against the higher or true
+&ldquo;reason.&rdquo; The mysteries of theology are its best part&mdash;not
+alien to reason but of its substance, the &ldquo;logos.&rdquo; This is to
+upset the compromise of Aquinas and go back to a Christian
+platonism. Of course the difficulty revives again: If a philosophy,
+why supernaturally revealed? Thomas Arnold, criticizing
+Edward Hawkins, appeals rather to the atonement as
+deeper neglected truth. So in Scotland, Thomas Erskine and
+Thomas Chalmers&mdash;the latter in contradiction to his earlier
+position&mdash;hold that the doctrine of salvation, when translated
+into experience, furnishes &ldquo;internal evidence&rdquo;&mdash;a somewhat
+broader use of the phrase than when it applies merely to evidence
+of date or authorship drawn from the contents of a book. This
+gives a new and moral filling to the conception of &ldquo;supernatural
+revelation&rdquo; The attempt to work out either of the reactions
+against Thomism in new theological systems is pretty much
+confined to Germany. Hegel&rsquo;s theological followers, of every
+shade and party, represent the first, and Schleiermacher&rsquo;s the
+second. Schleiermacher rejects natural religion in favour of the
+positive religions, while the school of A. Ritschl and W. Herrmann
+reject natural theology outright in favour of revelation&mdash;a
+striking external parallel to early Socinianism. British and
+American divines, on the other hand, are slow to suspect that a
+new apologetic principle may mean a new system of apologetics,
+to say nothing of a new dogmatic. Among the evangelicals, for
+the most part, natural theology, far from being rejected, is not
+even modified, and certain doctrines continue to be described as
+incomprehensible mysteries. No Protestant, of course, can agree
+with Roman Catholic theology that (supernatural) faith is an
+obedient assent to church authority and the mysteries it dictates.
+To Protestantism, faith is personal trust. But the principle is
+hardly ever carried out to the end. Mysterious doctrines are
+ascribed by Protestants to <i>scripture</i>; so half of revelation is
+regarded as matter for blind assent, if another half is luminous
+in experience. The movement of German philosophy which led
+from Kant to Hegel has indeed found powerful British champions
+(T.H. Green, J. and E. Caird, &amp;c.), but less churchly than
+Coleridge (or F.D. Maurice or B.F. Westcott), though churchly
+again in J.R. Illingworth and other contributors to <i>Lux Mundi</i>
+(1890). Before this wave of thought, H.L. Mansel tried (1858)
+to play Pascal&rsquo;s game on Kantian principles, developing the
+sceptical side of Kant&rsquo;s many-faceted mind. But as he protested
+against relying on the human conscience&mdash;the one element of
+positive conviction spared by Kant&mdash;his ingenuity found few
+admirers except H. Spencer, who claims him as justifying anti-Christian
+agnosticism. Butler&rsquo;s tradition was more directly
+continued by J.H. Newman&mdash;with modifications on becoming a
+Roman Catholic in the light of the church&rsquo;s decision in favour of
+Thomism. A.M. Fairbairn (<i>Catholicism, Roman and Anglican</i>,
+ch. v., and elsewhere) and E.A. Abbott (<i>Philomythus</i>, and
+elsewhere) suspect Newman of a sceptical leaven and extend the
+criticism to Butler&rsquo;s doctrine of &ldquo;probability.&rdquo; Yet it seems
+plain that any theology, maintaining redemption as historical
+fact (and not merely ideal), must attach religious importance to
+conclusions which are technically probable rather than proven.
+If we transfer Christian evidence from the &ldquo;historical&rdquo; to the
+&ldquo;philosophical&rdquo; with H. Rashdall&mdash;we surely cut down Christianity
+to the limits of theism. And the <i>inner</i> mind of Butler
+has moral anchorage in the <i>Analogy</i>, quite as much as in the
+<i>Sermons</i>. It is in part ii. more than in part i. of his masterpiece
+that the light seems to grow dim. Another of the Oxford converts
+to Rome, W.G. Ward, made vigorous contributions to
+natural theology.</p>
+
+<p>VII. <i>Contents of Modern Apologetics.</i>&mdash;Superficially regarded,
+philosophy ebbs and flows, whatever progress the debate may
+reveal to speculative insight. Old positions re-emerge from
+forgetfulness, and there is always a philosophy to back every
+&ldquo;case.&rdquo; More visible dangers arise for the apologist in the region
+of science, historical or physical. There the progress of truth,
+within whatever limits, is manifest. <i>Essays and Reviews</i> (1860)
+was a vehement announcement of scientific results&mdash;startling
+English conservatism awake for the first time. And in the
+scientific region the great apologetic classics, like Butler, are
+hopelessly out of date. The modern apologist must do ephemeral
+work&mdash;unless it should chance that he proves to be the skirmisher,
+pioneering for a modified dogmatic. He holds a watching
+brief. While he must beware of hasty speech, he has often to
+plead that new knowledge does not really threaten faith; or
+that it is not genuinely established knowledge at all; or else,
+that faith has mistaken its own grounds, and will gain strength
+by concentrating on its true field. The work is not always well
+done; but the Christian church needs it.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Apologetics and Philosophy.</i>&mdash;The main part of this subject
+is discussed under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Theism</a></span>. Some notes may be added on special
+points, (<i>a</i>) Freewill is generally assumed on the Christian side
+(R.C. Church; Scottish philosophy; H. Lotze; J. Martineau;
+W.G. Ward. Not in a libertarian sense; Leibnitz. New and
+obscure issues raised by Kant). But there is no continuous
+tradition or steady trend of discussion. (<i>b</i>) Personal immortality
+is affirmed as philosophically certain by the Church of Rome
+and many Protestant writers. Others teach &ldquo;conditional immortality.&rdquo;
+Others base the hope on belief in the resurrection
+of Christ, (<i>c</i>) Theodicy&mdash;the tradition of Leibnitz is preserved
+(on libertarian lines) by Martineau (<i>A Study of Religion</i>, 1883).
+See also F.R. Tennant&rsquo;s <i>Origin and Propagation of Sin</i> (1902)&mdash;sin
+a &ldquo;bye-product&rdquo; of a generally good evolution. Others find
+in the gospel of redemption the true theodicy. (<i>d</i>) The problem
+of Christian apologetic has been simplified in the past by the
+prevalence of the Christian ethics and temper even among many
+non-Christians (<i>e.g.</i> J.S. Mill). But hereafter it may not prove
+possible for the apologist to assume as unchallenged the Christian
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" id="page193"></a>193</span>
+moral outlook. Germans have suspected an anti-Christian
+strain in Goethe; all the world knows of it in E. von Hartmann
+or F. Nietzsche.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Apologetics and Physical Science.</i>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) Copernicanism has
+won its battles and the Church of Rome would fain have its error
+forgotten. The admission is now general that the Bible cannot
+be expected to use the language of scientific astronomy. Still,
+it is not certain that the shock of Copernicanism on supernatural
+Christianity is exhausted. (<i>b</i>) Geology has also won its battles,
+and few now try to harmonize it with Genesis. (<i>c</i>) Evolution
+came down from the clouds when C. Darwin and A.R. Wallace
+succeeded in displacing the naïf conception of special creation
+by belief in the origin of species out of other species through a
+process of natural law. This gave immense vogue to wider and
+vaguer theories of evolutionary process, notably to H. Spencer&rsquo;s
+grandiose cosmic formula in terms of mechanism. Here the
+apologist has more to say. The special Darwinian hypothesis&mdash;natural
+&ldquo;selection&rdquo;&mdash;may or may not be true; it was at least
+a fruitful suggestion. If true, it need not be exhaustive. Again,
+evolution itself need not apply everywhere. We are offered a
+philosophical rather than a scientific speculation when E. Caird
+(<i>Evolution of Religion</i>, 1893) tries to vindicate Christianity as
+the highest working of nature&mdash;true just <i>because</i> evolved from
+lower religions. The Christian apologist indeed may himself
+seek, following John Fiske, to philosophize evolution as a restatement
+of natural theology&mdash;&ldquo;one God, one law, one element
+and one far-off divine event&rdquo;&mdash;and as at least pointing <i>towards</i>
+personal immortality. But if evolution is to be the whole truth
+regarding Christianity, we should have to surrender both <i>supernatural
+revelation</i> and <i>divine redemption</i>. And these, it may
+be strongly urged, contain the magic of Christianity. Losing
+them it might sink into a lifeless theory.</p>
+
+<p>As far as pure science goes, the inference from science in
+favour of materialism has visibly lost much of its plausibility,
+and Protestant apologists would probably be prepared to accept
+in advance all verified discoveries as belonging to a different
+region from that of faith. Roman Catholic apologetic prefers to
+negotiate in detail.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Apologetics and History.</i>&mdash;History brings us nearer the
+heart of the Christian position. (<i>a</i>) Old Testament criticism
+won startling victories towards the end of the 19th century. It
+blots out much supposed knowledge, but throws a vivid and
+interesting light on the reconstrued process of history. Most
+Protestants accept the general scheme of criticism; those who
+hang back make not a few concessions (<i>e.g.</i> J. Orr, <i>Problem of
+the O.T.</i>, 1906). The Roman Catholic Church again prefers an
+attitude of reserve, (<i>b</i>) New Testament criticism raises even
+more delicate issues. Positively it may be affirmed that the
+recovered figure of the historical Jesus is the greatest asset in
+the possession of modern Christian theology and apologetics.
+The &ldquo;Lives&rdquo; of Christ, Roman Catholic and Protestant;
+&ldquo;critical&rdquo; (D.F. Strauss, A. Renan, &amp;c., &amp;c.) and &ldquo;believing,&rdquo;
+imply this at least. Negatively, &ldquo;unchallenged historical
+certainties&rdquo; are becoming few in number, or are disappearing
+altogether, through the industry of modern minds. True, the
+Tübingen criticism of F.C. Baur and his school&mdash;important as
+the first scientific attempt to conceive New Testament conditions
+and literature as a whole&mdash;has been abandoned. (A. Ritschl&rsquo;s
+<i>Entstehung der alt-katholischen Kirche</i>, 2nd edition, 1857, was an
+especially telling reply.) The synoptic gospels are now treated
+with considerable respect. It is no longer suggested in responsible
+quarters that they are party documents sacrificing truth to
+&ldquo;tendency.&rdquo; But not all quarters are responsible; and in the
+effort to grasp scientifically, <i>i.e.</i> accurately, the amazing facts of
+Christ and primitive Christianity, every imaginable hypothesis
+is canvassed. Even the Roman Catholic Church produced the
+Abbé Loisy (though he undertakes to play off church certainties
+against historical uncertainties). Hitherto at least the fourth
+gospel has been the touchstone. The authorship of the epistles
+is in many cases a matter of subordinate importance; at least
+for Protestants or for those surrendering Bible infallibility,
+which Rome can hardly do. (<i>c</i>) New Testament history,
+The apologist must maintain (1) that Jesus of Nazareth is a
+real historical figure&mdash;a point well-nigh overlooked by Strauss,
+and denied by some modern advocates of a mythical theory;
+(2) that Jesus is knowable (not one &ldquo;of whom we really know
+very little&rdquo;&mdash;B. Jowett) in his teaching, example, character,
+historical personality; and that he is full of moral splendour.
+On the other hand, faith has no special interest in claiming that
+we can compose a biographical study of the development of
+Jesus. Certainly no early writer thought of providing material
+for such use. It is a common opinion in Germany that our
+material is in fact too scanty or too self-contradictory. Yet the
+fascination of the subject will always revive the attempt. If it
+succeeds, there will be a new line of communication along
+which that great personality will tell on men&rsquo;s minds and
+hearts. If it fails&mdash;there are other channels; character can be
+known and trusted even when we are baffled by a thing necessarily
+so full of mystery as the development of a personality.
+Notably, the manifest <i>non-consciousness of personal guilt</i> in
+Jesus suggests to us his sinlessness. (3) Apologists maintain
+that Jesus &ldquo;claimed&rdquo; Messiahship. There are speculative
+constructions of gospel history which eliminate that claim;
+and no doubt apologetics could&mdash;with more or less difficulty&mdash;restate
+its position in a changed form if the paradox of to-day
+became accepted as historical fact to-morrow. The central
+apologetic thesis is the <i>uniqueness</i> of the &ldquo;only-begotten&rdquo;; it
+is here that &ldquo;the supernatural&rdquo; passes into the substance of
+Christian faith. But most probably the description of Jesus as
+thus unique will continue to be associated with the allegation&mdash;He
+told us so; he claimed Messiahship and &ldquo;died for the
+claim.&rdquo; (See preface to 5th ed. of <i>Ecce Homo</i>.) Nor did so
+superhuman a claim crush him, or deprive his soul of its balance.
+He imparted to the title a grander significance out of the riches
+of his personality. (4) In the light of this the &ldquo;argument from
+prophecy&rdquo; is reconstructed. It ceases to lay much stress upon
+coincidences between Old Testament predictions or &ldquo;types&rdquo;
+and events in Christ&rsquo;s career. It becomes the assertion; historically,
+providentially, the expectation of a <i>unique religious figure</i>
+arose&mdash;&ldquo;the&rdquo; Messiah; and Jesus gave himself to be thought
+of as that great figure. (5) It is also claimed as certain that Jesus
+had marvellous powers of healing. More reserve is being shown
+towards the other or &ldquo;nature&rdquo; miracles. These latter, it may
+be remarked, are more unambiguously supernatural. But, if
+Jesus really cured leprosy or really restored the dead to life, we
+have miracle plainly enough in the region of healing. (6) For
+Jesus&rsquo; own resurrection several lines of evidence are alleged.
+(i.) All who believe that in any sense Christ rose again insist upon
+the impression which his personality made during life. It was <i>he</i>
+whose resurrection seemed credible! Some practically stop here;
+the apologist proceeds. (ii.) There is the report of the empty
+grave; historically, not easily waved aside. (iii.) We have New
+Testament reports of appearances of the risen Jesus; subjective?
+the mere clothing of the impression made by his personality
+during life? or objective? &ldquo;telegrams&rdquo; from heaven (Th.
+Keim)&mdash;&ldquo;Veridical Hallucinations&rdquo;? or something even more,
+throwing a ray of light perhaps on the state and powers of the
+happy dead? (iv.) There is the immense influence of Jesus Christ
+in history, <i>associated with belief in him</i> as the risen Son of God.</p>
+
+<p>In view of the claims of Jesus, different possibilities arise,
+(i.) The evangelists impute to him a higher claim than he
+made. This may be called the rationalistic solution; with
+sympathy in Christ&rsquo;s ethical teaching, there is relief at minimizing
+his great claim. So, brilliantly, Wellhausen&rsquo;s Gospel commentaries
+and Introduction. (Mark fairly historical; other
+gospels&rsquo; fuller account of Christ&rsquo;s teaching and claims unreliable.)
+(ii.) The claim was fraudulent (Reimarus; Renan,
+ed. 1; popular anti-Christian agitation). This is a counsel of
+despair. (iii.) He was an enthusiastic dreamer, expecting the
+world&rsquo;s end. This the apologist will recognize as the most
+plausible hostile alternative. He may feel bound to admit an
+element of illusion in Christ&rsquo;s vision&rsquo; of the future; but he will
+contend that the apocalyptic form did not destroy the spiritual
+content of Christ&rsquo;s revelations&mdash;nay, that it was itself the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194"></a>194</span>
+vehicle of great truths. So he will argue as the essence of the
+matter that (iv.) he who has occupied Christ&rsquo;s place in history,
+and won such reverence from the purest souls, was what he
+claimed to be, and that his many-sidedness comes to focus and
+harmony when we recognize him as the Christ of God and the
+Saviour of the world.</p>
+
+<p>To a less extent, similar problems and alternatives arise in
+regard to the church:&mdash;Catholicism a compromise between
+Jewish Christianity and Pauline or Gentile Christianity (F.C.
+Baur, &amp;c.); Catholicism the Hellenizing of Christianity (A.
+Ritschl, A. Harnack); the Catholic church for good and evil
+the creation of St Paul (P. Wernle, H. Weinel); the church
+supernaturally guided (R.C. apologetic; in a modified degree
+High Church apologetic); essential&mdash;not necessarily exclusive&mdash;truth
+of Paulinism, essential error in first principles of Catholicism
+(Protestant apologetic).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;Omitting the Christian fathers as remote from the
+present day, we recognize as works of genius Pascal&rsquo;s <i>Pensées</i> and
+Butler&rsquo;s <i>Analogy</i>, to which we might add J.R. Seeley&rsquo;s <i>Ecce Homo</i>
+(1865). The philosophical, Platonist, or Idealist line of Christian
+defence is represented among recent writers by J.R. Illingworth
+[Anglican], in <i>Personality, Human and Divine</i> (1894), <i>Divine Immanence</i>
+(1898), <i>Reason and Revelation</i> (1902), who at times seems
+rather to presuppose the Thomist compromise, and A.M. Fairbairn
+[Congregationalist], in <i>Place of Christ in Modern Theology</i> (1893),
+<i>Philosophy of the Christian Religion</i> (1902). The appeal to ethical
+or Christian experience&mdash;&ldquo;internal evidence&rdquo;&mdash;is found especially
+in E.A. Abbott [Christianity supernatural and divine, but not
+miraculous], <i>Through Nature to Christ</i> (1877), <i>The Kernel and the
+Husk</i> (1886), <i>The Spirit on the Waters</i> (1897), &amp;c., or A.B. Bruce,
+<i>Chief End of Revelation</i> (1881), <i>The Miraculous Element in the
+Gospels</i> (1886), <i>Apologetics</i> (1892), and other works; Bruce&rsquo;s
+posthumous article, &ldquo;Jesus&rdquo; in <i>Encyc. Bib.</i>, was understood by
+some as exchanging Christian orthodoxy for bare theism, but probably
+its tone of aloofness is due to the attempt to keep well within
+the limits of what the author considered pure scientific history.
+Scholarly and apologetic discussion on the gospels and life of Jesus
+is further represented by the writings of W. Sanday or (earlier) of
+J.B. Lightfoot. Much American work of merit on the character of
+Christ is headed by W. E Channing, and by H. Bushnell (in <i>Nature
+and the Supernatural</i>). For defence of Christ&rsquo;s resurrection, reference
+may be made to H. Latham&rsquo;s <i>The Risen Lord</i> and R. Mackintosh&rsquo;s
+<i>First Primer of Apologetics</i>. For modification in light of recent
+scholarship of argument from prophecy, to Riehm&rsquo;s <i>Messianic
+Prophecy</i>, Stanton&rsquo;s <i>Jewish and Christian Messiah</i>, and Woods&rsquo;s
+<i>Hope of Israel</i>. Roman Catholic apologetics&mdash;of necessity, Thomist&mdash;is
+well represented by Professor Schanz of Tübingen. The whole
+Ritschl movement is apologetic in spirit; best English account in
+A.E. Garvie&rsquo;s <i>Ritschlian Theology</i> (1899). See also the chief church
+histories or histories of doctrine (Harnack; Loofs; Hagenbach;
+Shedd); A.S. Farrar&rsquo;s <i>Critical History of Free</i> (<i>i.e.</i> anti-Christian)
+<i>Thought</i> (Bampton Lectures, 1862); R.C. Trench&rsquo;s Introduction to
+<i>Notes on the Miracles</i>, and F.W. Macran&rsquo;s <i>English Apologetic
+Theology</i> (1905). For the 18th century, G.V. Lechler&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte
+des englischen Deismus</i> (1841); Mark Pattison in <i>Essays and Reviews</i>
+(1860); Leslie Stephen&rsquo;s <i>English Thought in 18th Century</i> (agnostic);
+John Hunt, <i>Religious Thought in England</i> (3 vols., 1870-1873).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. Ma.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> While these writings are of great historical value, they do not,
+of course, represent the Christian argument as conceived to-day.
+The Church of Rome prefers medieval or modern statements of its
+position; Protestantism can use only modern statements.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOLOGUE<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="apologos">&#7936;&#960;&#972;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>, a statement or account),
+a short fable or allegorical story, meant to serve as a pleasant
+vehicle for some moral doctrine or to convey some useful lesson.
+One of the best known is that of Jotham in the Book of Judges
+(ix. 7-15); others are &ldquo;The City Rat and Field Rat,&rdquo; by Horace,
+&ldquo;The Belly and its Members,&rdquo; by the patrician Menenius Agrippa
+in the second book of Livy, and perhaps most famous of all, those
+of Aesop. The term is applied more particularly to a story in
+which the actors or speakers are taken from the brute creation
+or inanimate nature. An apologue is distinguished from a fable
+in that there is always some moral sense present, which there
+need not be in a fable. It is generally dramatic, and has been
+defined as &ldquo;a satire in action.&rdquo; It differs from a parable in
+several respects. A parable is equally an ingenious tale intended
+to correct manners, but it can be <i>true</i>, while an apologue, with
+its introduction of animals and plants, to which it lends our
+ideas and language and emotions, is necessarily devoid of real
+truth, and even of all probability. The parable reaches heights
+to which the apologue cannot aspire, for the points in which
+brutes and inanimate nature present analogies to man are
+principally those of his lower nature, and the lessons taught
+by the apologue seldom therefore reach beyond prudential
+morality, whereas the parable aims at representing the relations
+between man and God. It finds its framework in the world of
+nature as it actually is, and not in any grotesque parody of it,
+and it exhibits real and not fanciful analogies. The apologue
+seizes on that which man has in common with creatures below
+him, and the parable on that which he has in common with God.
+Still, in spite of the difference of moral level, Martin Luther
+thought so highly of apologues as counsellors of virtue that he
+edited and revised Aesop and wrote a characteristic preface to
+the volume. The origin of the apologue is extremely ancient
+and comes from the East, which is the natural fatherland of
+everything connected with allegory, metaphor and imagination.
+Veiled truth was often necessary in the East, particularly with
+the slaves, who dared not reveal their minds too openly. It is
+noteworthy that the two fathers of apologue in the West were
+slaves, namely Aesop and Phaedrus. La Fontaine in France;
+Gay and Dodsley in England; Gellert, Lessing and Hagedorn
+in Germany; Tomas de Iriarte in Spain, and Krilov in Russia,
+are leading modern writers of apologues. Length is not an
+essential matter in the definition of an apologue. Those of La
+Fontaine are often very short, as, for example, &ldquo;Le Coque et
+la Perle.&rdquo; On the other hand, in the romances of Reynard the
+Fox we have medieval apologues arranged in cycles, and attaining
+epical dimensions. An Italian fabulist, Corti, is said to
+have developed an apologue of &ldquo;The Talking Animals&rdquo; to the
+bulk of twenty-six cantos. La Motte, writing at a time when
+this species of literature was universally admired, attributes
+its popularity to the fact that it <i>ménage et flatte l&rsquo;amour-propre</i>
+by inculcating virtue in an amusing manner without seeming
+to dictate or insist. This was the ordinary 18th-century view
+of the matter, but Rousseau contested the educational value of
+instruction given in this indirect form.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A work by P. Soullé, <i>La Fontaine et ses devanciers</i> (1866), is a
+history of the apologue from the earliest times until its final triumph
+in France.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOLOGY<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="apologia">&#7936;&#960;&#959;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#943;&#945;</span>, defence), in its usual sense, an
+expression of regret for something which has been wrongfully
+said or done; a withdrawal or retraction of some charge or
+imputation which is false. In an action for libel, the fact that
+an apology has been promptly and fully made is a plea in mitigation
+of damages. The apology should have the same form of
+publicity as the original charge. If made publicly, the proper
+form is an advertisement in a newspaper; if made within the
+hearing of a few only, a letter of apology, which may be read
+to those who have heard what was said, should be sufficient. By
+the English Libel Act 1843, s. 2, it was enacted that in an action
+for libel contained in a newspaper it is a defence for the defendant
+to plead that the libel was inserted without actual malice and
+without gross negligence, and that before the commencement of
+the action and at the earliest opportunity afterwards he inserted
+in the newspaper a full apology for the libel, or, where the newspaper
+in which the libel appeared was published at intervals
+exceeding one week, he offered to publish the apology in any
+newspaper selected by the plaintiff. The apology must be full
+and must be printed in as conspicuous a place and manner as the
+libel was.</p>
+
+<p>The word &ldquo;apology&rdquo; or &ldquo;apologia&rdquo; is also used in the sense
+of defence or vindication, the only meaning of the Greek
+<span class="grk" title="apologia">&#7936;&#960;&#959;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#943;&#945;</span>, especially of the defence of a doctrine or system, or
+of religious or other beliefs, &amp;c., <i>e.g.</i> Justin Martyr&rsquo;s <i>Apology</i>
+or J.H. Newman&rsquo;s <i>Apologia pro vita sua</i>. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apologetics</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APONEUROSIS<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="apo">&#7936;&#960;&#959;</span>, away, and <span class="grk" title="neuron">&#957;&#949;&#8166;&#961;&#959;&#957;</span>, a sinew), in
+anatomy, a membrane separating muscles from each other.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOPHTHEGM<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (from the <span class="grk" title="apophthegma">&#7936;&#960;&#972;&#966;&#952;&#949;&#947;&#956;&#945;</span>), a short and pointed
+utterance. The usual spelling up to Johnson&rsquo;s day was <i>apothegm</i>,
+which Webster and Worcester still prefer; it indicates the pronunciation&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;apothem&rdquo;&mdash;better than the other, which,
+however, is more usual in England and follows the derivation.
+Such sententious remarks as &ldquo;Knowledge is Power&rdquo; are
+apophthegms. They become &ldquo;proverbs&rdquo; by age and acceptance.
+Plutarch made a famous collection in his <i>Apophthegmata
+Laconica</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page195" id="page195"></a>195</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">APOPHYGE<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="apophugae">&#7936;&#960;&#959;&#966;&#965;&#947;&#942;</span>, a flying off), in architecture, the
+lowest part of the shaft of an Ionic or Corinthian column, or the
+highest member of its base if the column be considered as a
+whole. The apophyge is the inverted cavetto or concave sweep,
+on the upper edge of which the diminishing shaft rests.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOPHYLLITE,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> a mineral often classed with the zeolites,
+since it behaves like these when heated before the blowpipe
+and has the same mode of occurrence; it differs, however, from
+the zeolites proper in containing no aluminium. It is a hydrous
+potassium and calcium silicate, H<span class="su">7</span>KCa<span class="su">4</span>(SiO<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">8</span> + 4½(H<span class="su">2</span>O). A
+small amount of fluorine is often present, and it is one of the few
+minerals in which ammonium has been detected. The temperature
+at which the water is expelled is higher than is usually the
+case with zeolites; none is given off below 200°, and only about
+half at 250°; this is slowly reabsorbed again from moist air,
+and is therefore regarded as water of crystallization, the remainder
+being water of constitution. When heated before the blowpipe,
+the mineral exfoliates, owing to loss of water, and on this account
+was named apophyllite by R.J. Haüy in 1806, from the Greek
+<span class="grk" title="apo">&#7936;&#960;&#959;</span>, from, and <span class="grk" title="phullon">&#966;&#973;&#955;&#955;&#959;&#957;</span>, a leaf.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:288px; height:186px" src="images/img195.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Apophyllite always occurs as distinct crystals, which belong
+to the tetragonal system. The form is either a square prism
+terminated by the basal
+planes (fig. 2), or an acute
+pyramid (fig. 1). A prominent
+feature of the mineral
+is its perfect basal cleavage,
+on which the lustre is
+markedly pearly, presenting,
+in white crystals, somewhat
+the appearance of
+the eye of a fish after
+boiling, hence the old name
+fish-eye-stone or ichthyophthalmite for the mineral. On
+other surfaces the lustre is vitreous. The crystals are usually
+transparent and colourless, sometimes with a greenish or
+rose-red tint. Opaque white crystals of cubic habit have
+been called albine; xylochlore is an olive-green variety.
+The hardness is 4½, and the specific gravity 2.35.</p>
+
+<p>The optical characters of the mineral are of special interest,
+and have been much studied. The sign of the double refraction
+may be either positive or negative, and some crystals are divided
+into optically biaxial sectors. The variety known as leucocyclite
+shows, when examined in convergent polarized light, a peculiar
+interference figure, the rings being alternately white and violet-black
+and not coloured as in a normal figure seen in white light.</p>
+
+<p>Apophyllite is a mineral of secondary origin, commonly
+occurring, in association with other zeolites, in amygdaloidal
+cavities in basalt and melaphyre. Magnificent groups of greenish
+and colourless tabular crystals, the crystals several inches
+across, were found, with flesh-red stilbite, in the Deccan traps
+of the Western Gháts, near Bombay, during the construction of
+the Great Indian Peninsular railway. Groups of crystals of a
+beautiful pink colour have been found in the silver veins of
+Andreasberg in the Harz and of Guanaxuato in Mexico. Crystals
+of recent formation have been detected in the Roman remains
+at the hot springs of Plombières in France.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOPHYSIS<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="apophysis">&#7936;&#960;&#972;&#966;&#965;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>, offshoot), a bony protuberance,
+in human physiology; also a botanical term for the swelling of
+the spore-case in certain mosses.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOPLEXY<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="apoplaexia">&#7936;&#960;&#959;&#960;&#955;&#951;&#958;&#943;&#945;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="apoplaessein">&#7936;&#960;&#959;&#960;&#955;&#942;&#963;&#963;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to strike down,
+to stun), the term employed by Galen to designate the &ldquo;sudden
+loss of feeling and movement of the whole body, with the exception
+of respiration,&rdquo; to which, after the time of Harvey, was
+added &ldquo;and with the exception of the circulation.&rdquo; Although
+the term is occasionally employed in medicine with other significations,
+yet in its general acceptation apoplexy may be defined as a
+sudden loss of consciousness, of sensibility, and of movement without
+any <i>essential</i> modification of the respiratory and circulatory
+functions occasioned by some brain disease. It was discovered
+that the majority of the cases of apoplexy were due to cerebral
+haemorrhage, and what looked like cerebral haemorrhage, red
+softening; and the idea for a long time prevailed that apoplexy
+and cerebral haemorrhage could be employed as synonymous
+terms, and that an individual who, in popular parlance, &ldquo;had
+an apoplectic stroke,&rdquo; had necessarily suffered from haemorrhage
+into his brain. A small haemorrhage may not, however, cause
+an apoplectic fit, nor is an apoplectic fit always caused by
+haemorrhage; it may be due to sudden blocking of a large
+vessel by a clot from a distant part (embolism), or by a sudden
+clotting of the blood in the vessel itself (thrombosis). Owing
+to the prevailing idea in former times that cerebral haemorrhage
+and apoplexy were synonymous terms, the word apoplexy was
+applied to haemorrhage into other organs than the brain; thus
+the terms pulmonary apoplexy, retinal apoplexy and splenic
+apoplexy were used.</p>
+
+<p>The term &ldquo;apoplexy&rdquo; is now used in clinical medicine to
+denote that form of coma or deep state of unconsciousness
+which is due to sudden disturbance of the cerebral circulation
+occasioned by a local cause within the cranial cavity, as distinct
+from the loss of consciousness due to sudden failure of the
+heart&rsquo;s action (syncope) or the coma of narcotic or alcoholic
+poisoning, of <i>status epilepticus</i>, of uraemia or of head injury.</p>
+
+<p>The sudden coma of sunstroke and heat-stroke might be
+included, although owing to the suddenness with which a
+person may be struck down, the term <i>heat apoplexy</i> is frequently
+used, and, from an etymological point of view, quite justifiably.
+The older writers use the term <i>simple apoplexy</i> for a sudden
+attack which could not be explained by any visible disease.
+Again, <i>congestive apoplexy</i> was applied to those cases of coma
+where, at the autopsy, nothing was found to account for the
+coma and death except engorgement of the vessels of the brain
+and its membranes. In senile dementia and in general paralysis
+the brain is shrunken and the convolutions atrophied, the
+increased space in the ventricles and between the convolutions
+being filled up with the cerebro-spinal fluid. In these diseases
+apoplectic states may arise, terminating fatally; the excess of
+fluid found in such cases was formerly thought to be the cause
+of the symptoms, consequently the condition was called <i>serous
+apoplexy</i>. Such terms are no longer used, owing to the better
+knowledge of the pathology of brain disease.</p>
+
+<p>Having thus narrowed down the application of the term
+&ldquo;apoplexy,&rdquo; we are in a position to consider its chief features,
+and the mechanism by which it is produced. Apoplexy may be
+rapidly fatal, but it is very seldom <i>instantly</i> fatal. The onset is
+usually sudden, and sometimes the individual may be struck
+down in an instant, senseless and motionless, &ldquo;warranting those
+epithets, which the ancients applied to the victims of this
+disease, of <i>attoniti</i> and <i>siderati</i>, as if they were thunder-stricken
+or planet-struck&rdquo; (Sir Thomas Watson). The attack, however,
+may be less sudden and, not infrequently, attended by a convulsion;
+while occasionally, in the condition termed <i>ingravescent
+apoplexy</i>, the coma is gradual in its onset, occupying hours in its
+development. Although unexpected, various warning symptoms,
+sometimes slight, sometimes pronounced, occur in the majority
+of cases. Such are, fulness in the head, headache, giddiness,
+noises in the ears, mental confusion, slight lapses of consciousness,
+numbness or tingling in the limbs. A characteristic apoplectic
+attack presents the following phenomena: the individual falls
+down suddenly and lies without sense or motion, except that
+his pulse keeps beating and his breathing continues. He
+appears to be in a deep sleep, from which he cannot be roused;
+the breathing is laboured and stertorous, and is accompanied
+with puffing out of the cheeks; the pulse may be beating more
+strongly than natural, and the face is often flushed and turgid.
+The reflexes are abolished. Although apoplexy may occur without
+paralysis, and paralysis without apoplexy, the two, owning
+the same cause, very frequently co-exist, or happen in immediate
+sequence and connexion; consequently there is in most cases
+definite evidence of paralysis affecting usually one side of the
+body in addition to the coma. Thus the pupils are unequal;
+there may be asymmetry of the face, or the limbs may be more
+rigid or flaccid on one side than on the other. These signs of
+localized disease enable a distinction to be made from the coma
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page196" id="page196"></a>196</span>
+of narcotic poisoning and alcoholic intoxication. It must be
+borne in mind that a person smelling strongly of liquor and
+found lying in the street in a comatose state may be suffering
+from apoplexy, and the error of sending a dying man to a police
+cell may be avoided by this knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>If the fit is only moderately severe, the reflexes soon return, and
+the patient may in a few hours show indications of returning
+consciousness by making some movements or opening his eyes
+when spoken to, although later it may be found that he is
+unable to speak, or may be paralysed or mentally afflicted (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paralysis</a></span>). In severe cases the coma deepens and the patient
+dies, usually from interference with the breathing, or, less
+commonly, from arrest of the heart&rsquo;s action.</p>
+
+<p>The mechanism by which apoplexy is produced has been a
+matter of much dispute; the condition was formerly ascribed
+to the pressure exerted by the clot on the rest of the brain, but
+there is no increase of intracranial pressure in an apoplectic fit
+occurring as a result of the sudden closure of a large vessel by
+embolism or thrombosis. Suddenness of the lesion appears to
+be, then, the essential element common to all cases of apoplexy
+from organic brain disease. It is the sudden shock to the delicate
+mechanism that produces the unconsciousness; but seeing that
+the coma is usually deeper and more prolonged in cerebral
+haemorrhage than when occasioned by vascular occlusion, and
+that an ingravescent apoplexy coma gradually develops and
+deepens as the amount of haemorrhage increases, we may presume
+that increase of intracranial pressure does play an important
+part in the degree and intensity of the coma caused by the
+rupture of a vessel. Apoplexy seldom occurs under forty years
+of age, but owing to the fact that disease of the cerebral vessels
+may exist at any age, from causes which are fully explained in
+the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Neuropathology</a></span>, no period of life is exempt;
+consequently cases of true apoplexy are not wanting even in
+very young children. Recognizing that there are two causes of
+apoplexy in advanced life, viz. (1) sudden rupture of a diseased
+vessel usually associated with high arterial pressure, enlarged,
+powerfully acting heart and chronic renal disease, and (2) the
+sudden clotting of blood in a large diseased vessel favoured by a
+low arterial pressure due to a weak-acting heart, it is obvious
+that the character of the pulse forms a good guide to the diagnosis
+of the cause, the prevention and warding off of an attack, and
+the treatment of such should it occur.</p>
+
+<p>Anything which tends directly or indirectly to increase
+arterial pressure within the cerebral blood-vessels may bring
+on an attack of cerebral haemorrhage; and although the
+identification of an apoplectic habit of body with a stout build,
+a short neck and florid complexion is now generally discredited,
+it being admitted that apoplexy occurs as frequently in thin
+and spare persons who present no such peculiarity of conformation,
+yet a plethoric habit of body, occasioned by immoderate
+eating or drinking associated with the gouty diathesis, leads to a
+general arterio-sclerosis and high arterial pressure. All conditions
+which can give rise to a local intracranial or a general
+bodily increase of the arterial pressure, <i>i.e.</i> severe exertion of
+body and mind, violent emotions, much stooping, overheated
+rooms, exposure to the sun, sudden shocks to the body, constipation
+and straining at stool, may, by suddenly increasing the
+strain on the wall of a diseased vessel, lead to its rupture.</p>
+
+<p>The outlook of apoplexy is generally unfavourable in cases
+where the coma is profound; death may take place at different
+intervals after the onset. If the patient, after recovering from
+the initial coma, suffers with continual headache and lapses
+into a drowsy state, the result is likely to be serious; for such a
+condition probably indicates that an inflammatory change has
+taken place about the clot or in the area of softening.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treatment.</i>&mdash;The patient should be placed in the recumbent
+position with the head and shoulders slightly raised. He should
+be moved as little as possible from the place where the attack
+occurred. The medical man who is summoned will probably
+give the following directions: an ice-bag to be applied to the
+head; a few grains of calomel or a drop of croton oil in butter
+to be placed on the tongue, or an enema of castor oil to be
+administered. He may find it necessary to draw off the water
+with a catheter. The practice of blood-letting, once so common
+in this disease, is seldom resorted to, although in some cases,
+where there is very high arterial tension and a general state of
+plethora, it might be beneficial. Depletives are not employed
+where there is evidence of failure of the heart&rsquo;s action; indeed
+the cautious administration of stimulants may be necessary,
+either subcutaneously or by the mouth (if there exist a power of
+swallowing), together with warm applications to the surface of
+the body; a water-bed may be required, and careful nursing, is
+essential to prevent complications, especially the formation of
+bedsores.</p>
+<div class="author">(F. W. Mo.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOROSE<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="a">&#7936;</span>, without, and <span class="grk" title="poros">&#960;&#972;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>, passage), a
+biological term meaning imperforate, or not porous: there is a
+group of corals called <i>Aporosa</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOSIOPESIS<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (the Greek for &ldquo;becoming silent&rdquo;), a rhetorical
+device by which the speaker or writer stops short and leaves
+something unexpressed, but yet obvious, to be supplied by
+the imagination. The classical example is the threat, &ldquo;Quos
+ego&mdash;&mdash;!&rdquo; of Neptune (in Virgil, <i>Aen.</i> i. 135).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOSTASY<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="apostasis">&#7936;&#960;&#972;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>, in classical Greek a defection or
+revolt from a military commander), a term generally employed
+to describe a complete renunciation of the Christian faith, or
+even an exchange of one form of it for another, especially if the
+motive be unworthy. In the first centuries of the Christian era,
+apostasy was most commonly induced by persecution, and was
+indicated by some outward act, such as offering incense to a
+heathen deity or blaspheming the name of Christ.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In the
+Roman Catholic Church the word is also applied to the renunciation
+of monastic vows (<i>apostasis a monachatu</i>), and to the
+abandonment of the clerical profession for the life of the world
+(<i>apostasis a clericatu</i>). Such defection was formerly often
+punished severely.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The readmission of such apostates to the church was a matter
+that occasioned serious controversy. The emperor Julian&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Apostasy&rdquo; is discussed under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Julian</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOSTIL,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Apostille</span> (possibly connected with Lat.
+<i>appositum</i>, placed near), a marginal note made by a commentator.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOSTLE<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="apostolos">&#7936;&#960;&#972;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, one sent forth on a mission, an envoy,
+as in Is. xviii. 2; Symmachus, <span class="grk" title="apostellein apostolous">&#7936;&#960;&#959;&#963;&#964;&#941;&#955;&#955;&#949;&#953;&#957; &#7936;&#960;&#959;&#963;&#964;&#972;&#955;&#959;&#965;&#962;</span>; Aquila,
+<span class="grk" title="presbentas">&#960;&#961;&#949;&#963;&#946;&#949;&#965;&#964;&#940;&#962;</span>), a technical term used in the New Testament and in
+Christian literature generally for a special envoy of Jesus Christ.
+How far it had any similar use in Judaism in Christ&rsquo;s day is
+uncertain; but in the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, at any rate, it denoted
+responsible envoys from the central Jewish authority, especially
+for the collection of religious funds. In its first and simplest
+Christian form, the idea is present already in Mark iii. 14 f.,
+where from the general circle of his disciples Jesus &ldquo;made
+twelve (&lsquo;whom he also named apostles,&rsquo; Luke vi. 13, but
+doubtful in Mark), that they should be with him, and that he
+might from time to time send them forth (<span class="grk" title="hina apostellae">&#7989;&#957;&#945; &#7936;&#960;&#959;&#963;&#964;&#941;&#955;&#955;&#8131;</span>) to
+preach and to have authority to cast out demons.&rdquo; Later on
+(vi. 6 ff.), in connexion with systematic preaching among the
+villages of Galilee, Jesus begins actually to &ldquo;send forth&rdquo; the
+twelve, two by two; and on their return from this mission
+(vi. 30) they are for the first time described as &ldquo;apostles&rdquo; or
+missionary envoys. Matthew (x. 1 ff.) blends the calling of the
+twelve with their actual sending forth, while Luke (vi. 13)
+makes Jesus himself call them &ldquo;apostles&rdquo; (for Luke&rsquo;s usage
+cf. xi. 49, &ldquo;prophets and apostles,&rdquo; where Matthew, xxiii. 34,
+has &ldquo;prophets and wise men and scribes&rdquo;). But it is doubtful
+whether Jesus ever used the term for the Twelve, in relation to
+their temporary missions, any more than for the &ldquo;seventy
+others&rdquo; whom he &ldquo;sent forth&rdquo; later (Luke x. 1). Even the
+Fourth Gospel never so describes them. It simply has &ldquo;a
+servant is not greater than his lord, neither an apostle (envoy)
+greater than he that sent him&rdquo; (xiii. 16); and applies the idea
+of &ldquo;mission&rdquo; alike to Jesus (cf. Heb. iii. 1, &ldquo;Jesus, the apostle ... of
+our profession&rdquo;) and to his disciples, generally, as
+represented by the Twelve (xvii. 18, with 3, 6 ff.). But while
+ideally all Christ&rsquo;s disciples were &ldquo;sent&rdquo; with the Father&rsquo;s
+Name in charge, there were different degrees in which this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page197" id="page197"></a>197</span>
+applied in practice; and so we find &ldquo;apostle&rdquo; used in several
+senses, once it emerges as a technical term.</p>
+
+<p>1. In the Apostolic age itself, &ldquo;apostle&rdquo; often denotes
+simply an &ldquo;envoy,&rdquo; commissioned by Jesus Christ to be a
+primary witness and preacher of the Messianic Kingdom. This
+wide sense was shown by Lightfoot (in his commentary on
+<i>Galatians</i>, 1865) to exist in the New Testament, <i>e.g.</i> in 1 Cor.
+xii. 28 f., Eph. iv. ii, Rom. xvi. 7; and his view has since been
+emphasized<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> by the discovery of the <i>Teaching of the Twelve
+Apostles</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Didache</a></span>), with its itinerant order of &ldquo;apostles,&rdquo;
+who, together with &ldquo;prophets&rdquo; (cf. Eph. ii. 20, iii. 5) and
+&ldquo;teachers,&rdquo; constituted a <i>charismatic</i> and seemingly unordained
+ministry of the Word, in some part of the Church (in Syria?)
+during the early sub-apostolic age. Paul is our earliest witness,
+as just cited; also in 1 Cor. xv. 5 ff., where he seems to quote the
+language of Palestinian tradition, in saying that Christ &ldquo;appeared
+to Cephas; then to the Twelve; then ... to James; then to
+the apostles one and all (<span class="grk" title="tois apostolois pasin">&#964;&#959;&#8150;&#962; &#7936;&#960;&#959;&#963;&#964;&#972;&#955;&#959;&#953;&#962; &#960;&#8118;&#963;&#953;&#957;</span>); and last of all ... to
+me also.&rdquo; The appearance to &ldquo;<i>all</i> the Apostles&rdquo; must
+refer to the final commission given by the risen Christ to certain
+assembled disciples (Acts i. 6 ff., cf. Luke xxiv. 33), including not
+only the Twelve and the Lord&rsquo;s brethren (i. 13 f.), but also some
+at least of the Seventy. Of this wider circle of witnesses, taken
+from among personal disciples during Jesus&rsquo;s earthly ministry,
+we get a further glimpse in the election of one from their number
+to fill Judas&rsquo;s place among the Twelve (i. 21 ff.), as the primary
+official witnesses of Messiah and his resurrection. Many of the
+120 then present (Acts i. 15), and not only the two set forward
+for final choice, must have been personal disciples, who by the
+recent commission had been made &ldquo;apostles.&rdquo; Among such we
+may perhaps name Judas Barsabbas and Silas (Acts xv. 22, cf.
+i. 23), if not also Barnabas (1 Cor. ix. 6) and Andronicus and
+Junia (Rom. xvi. 7).</p>
+
+<p>So far, then, we gather that the original Palestinian type of
+apostleship meant simply (a) personal mission from the risen
+Christ (cf. I Cor. ix. i), following on (b) some preliminary intercourse with Jesus in his earthly ministry. It was pre-eminence
+in the latter qualification that gave the Twelve their special
+status among apostles (Acts i. 26, ii. 14, vi. 2; in Acts generally
+they are simply &ldquo;the apostles&rdquo;). Conversely, it was Paul&rsquo;s
+lack in this respect which lay at the root of his difficulties as an
+apostle.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>It is possible, though not certain, that even those Judaizing
+missionaries at Corinth whom Paul styles &ldquo;false-apostles&rdquo; or,
+ironically, &ldquo;the superlative apostles&rdquo; (2 Cor. xi. 5, 13; xii. 11),
+rested part of their claim to superiority over Paul on (<i>b</i>), possibly
+even as having done service to Christ when on earth (2 Cor. xi. 18, 23).
+There is no sign in 2 Cor. that they laid claim to (<i>a</i>). If this be
+so, they were &ldquo;Christ&rsquo;s apostles&rdquo; only indirectly, &ldquo;through men&rdquo;
+(as some had alleged touching Paul, cf. Gal. i. 1), <i>i.e.</i> as sent forth
+on mission work by certain Jerusalem leaders with letters of introduction
+(2 Cor. iii. 1; E. von Dobschutz, <i>Problems der apost. Zeitalters</i>,
+p. 106).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Twelve.</i>&mdash;When Jesus selected an inner circle of
+disciples for continuous training by personal intercourse, his
+choice of &ldquo;twelve&rdquo; had direct reference to the tribes of Israel
+(Matt. xix. 28; Luke xxii. 30). This gave them a symbolic or
+representative character as a closed body (cf. Rev. xxi. 14),
+marking them off as the primary religious authority (cf. Acts
+ii. 42, &ldquo;the apostles&rsquo; teaching&rdquo;) among the &ldquo;disciples&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;brethren,&rdquo; when these began to assume the form of a community
+or church. The relationship which other &ldquo;apostles&rdquo;
+had enjoyed with the Master had been uncertain; <i>they</i> had been
+his recognized intimates, and that as a body. Naturally, then,
+they took the lead, collectively&mdash;in form at least, though really
+the initiative lay with one or two of their own number, Peter in
+particular. The process of practical differentiation from their
+fellow apostles was furthered by the concentration of the Twelve,
+or at least of its most marked representatives, in Jerusalem,
+for a considerable period (Acts viii. 1, cf. xii. 1 ff.; an early
+tradition specifies twelve years). Other apostles soon went forth
+on their mission to &ldquo;the cities of Israel&rdquo; (cf. Acts ix. 31), and
+so exercised but little influence on the central policy of the
+Church. Hence their shadowy existence in the New Testament,
+though the actual wording of Matt. x. 5-42, read in the light of
+the <i>Didachi</i>, may help us to conceive their work in its main
+features.</p>
+
+<p>3. &ldquo;<i>Pillar</i>&rdquo; <i>Apostles.</i>&mdash;But in fact differentiation between
+apostles existed among the Twelve also. There were &ldquo;pillars,&rdquo;
+like Peter and John (and his brother James until his death),
+who really determined matters of grave moment, as in the
+conference with Paul in Gal. ii. 9&mdash;a conference which laid the
+basis of the latter&rsquo;s status as an apostle even in the eyes of
+Jewish Christians. Such pre-eminence was but the sequel of
+personal distinctions visible even in the preparatory days of
+discipleship, and it warns us against viewing the primitive facts
+touching apostles in the official light of later times.</p>
+
+<p>Consciousness of such personal pre-eminence has left its marks
+on the lists of the Twelve in the New Testament. Thus (1)
+Peter, James, John, Andrew, always appear as the first four,
+though the order varies, Mark representing relative prominence
+during Christ&rsquo;s ministry, and Acts actual influence in the Apostolic
+Church (cf. Luke viii. 51, ix. 28). (2) The others also stand
+in groups of four, the first name in each being constant, while the
+order of the rest varies.</p>
+
+<p>The same lesson emerges when we note that one such apostolic
+&ldquo;pillar&rdquo; stood outside the Twelve altogether, viz. James, the
+Lord&rsquo;s brother (Gal. ii. 9, cf. i. 19); and further, that &ldquo;the
+Lord&rsquo;s brethren&rdquo; seem to have ranked above &ldquo;apostles&rdquo;
+generally, being named between them and Peter in 1 Cor. ix. 5.
+That is, they too were apostles with the addition of a certain
+personal distinction.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Paul, the</i> &ldquo;<i>Apostle of the Gentiles.</i>&rdquo;&mdash;So far apostles are
+only of the Palestinian type, taken from among actual hearers
+of the Messiah and with a mission primarily to Jews&mdash;apostles
+&ldquo;of the circumcision&rdquo; (Gal. ii. 7-9). Now, however, emerges a
+new apostleship, that to the Gentiles; and with the change of
+mission goes also some change in the type of missionary or
+apostle. Of this type Paul was the first, and he remained its
+primary, and in some senses its only, example. Though he
+could claim, on occasion, to satisfy the old test of having seen
+the risen Lord (1 Cor. ix. 1, cf. xv. 8), he himself laid stress not
+on this, but on the revelation within his own soul of Jesus as
+God&rsquo;s Son, and of the Gospel latent therein (Gal. i. 16). This
+was his divine call as &ldquo;apostle of the Gentiles&rdquo; (Rom. xi. 13);
+here lay both his qualification and his credentials, once the fruits
+of the divine inworking were manifest in the success of his
+missionary work (Gal. ii. 8 f.; 1 Cor. xi. 1 f.; 2 Cor. in. 2 f., xii. 12).
+But this new criterion of apostleship was capable of wider
+application, one dispensing altogether with vision of the risen
+Lord&mdash;which could not even in Paul&rsquo;s case be proved so fully
+as in the case of the original apostles&mdash;but appealing to the
+&ldquo;signs of an apostle&rdquo; (1 Cor. ix. 2; 2 Cor. xii. 12), the tokens of
+spiritual gift visible in work done, and particularly in the planting
+of the Gospel in fresh fields (2 Cor. x. 14-18). It may be in this
+wide charismatic sense that Paul uses the term in 1 Cor. xii. 28 f.,
+Eph. ii. 20, iii. 5, iv. 11, and especially in Rom. xvi. 7, &ldquo;men of
+mark among the apostles&rdquo; (cf. 2 Cor. xi. 13, &ldquo;pseudo-apostles&rdquo;
+masquerading as &ldquo;apostles of Christ,&rdquo; and perhaps 1 Thess. ii, 6,
+of himself and Silas). That he used it in senses differing with
+the context is proved by 1 Cor. xv. 9, where he styles himself
+&ldquo;the least of apostles,&rdquo; although in other connexions he claims
+the very highest rank, co-ordinate even with the Twelve as a
+body (Gal. ii. 7 ff.), in virtue of his distinctive Gospel.</p>
+
+<p>This point of view was not widely shared even in circles
+appreciative of his actual work. To most he seemed but a
+fruitful worker within lines determined by &ldquo;the twelve apostles
+of the Lamb&rdquo; as a body (Rev. xxi. 14). So we read of &ldquo;the
+plant (Church) which the twelve apostles of the Beloved shall
+plant&rdquo; (<i>Ascension of Isaiah</i>, iv. 3); &ldquo;those who preached the
+Gospel to us (especially Gentiles)... unto whom He gave
+authority over the Gospel, being twelve for a witness to the
+tribes&rdquo; (Barn. viii. 3, cf. v. 9); and the going forth of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page198" id="page198"></a>198</span>
+Twelve, after twelve years, beyond Palestine &ldquo;into the world,&rdquo;
+to give it a chance to hear (<i>Preaching of Peter</i>, in Clem. Alex.
+<i>Strom.</i> vi. 5.43; 6.48). Later on, however, his own claim told
+on the Church&rsquo;s mind, when his epistles were read in church as a
+collection styled simply &ldquo;the Apostle.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>As the primary medium of the Gentile Gospel (Gal. i. 16, cf.
+i. 8, ii. 2) Paul had no peers as an &ldquo;apostle of the Gentiles&rdquo;
+(Rom. xi. 13, cf. XV. 15-20, and see 1 Cor. xv. 8, &ldquo;last of all to
+me&rdquo;), unless it were Barnabas who shares with him the title
+&ldquo;apostle&rdquo; in Acts xiv. 4, 14&mdash;possibly with reference to the
+special &ldquo;work&rdquo; on which they had recently been &ldquo;sent forth
+by the Spirit&rdquo; (xiii. 2, 4). Yet such as shared the spiritual gift
+(<i>charisma</i>) of missionary power in sufficient degree, were in fact
+apostles of Christ in the Spirit (1 Cor. xii. 28, II). Such a
+secondary type of apostolate&mdash;answering to &ldquo;apostolic missionaries&rdquo;
+of later times (cf. the use of <span class="grk" title="hierapostolos">&#7985;&#949;&#961;&#945;&#960;&#972;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span> in this sense by
+the Orthodox Eastern Church to-day)&mdash;would help to account
+for the apostolic claims of the missionaries censured in Rev. ii. 2,
+as also for the &ldquo;apostles&rdquo; of the second generation implied in
+the Didach&#275;.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>sub-apostolic age</i>, however, the class of &ldquo;missionaries&rdquo;
+enjoying a <i>charisma</i> such as was conceived to convey apostolic
+commission through the Spirit, soon became distinguished from
+&ldquo;apostles&rdquo; (cf. Hennas, <i>Sim.</i> ix. 15.4, &ldquo;the apostles and teachers
+of the message of the Son of God,&rdquo; so 25.2; in 17.1 the apostles
+are reckoned as twelve), as the title became more and more
+confined by usage to the original apostles, particularly the
+Twelve as a body (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Ascension of Isaiah</i> and the <i>Preaching of
+Peter</i>), or to them and Paul (<i>e.g.</i> in Clement and Ignatius), and
+as reverence for these latter grew in connexion with their story
+in the Gospels and in Acts.<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Thus Eusebius describes as &ldquo;evangelists&rdquo;
+(cf. Philip the Evangelist in Acts xxi. 8, also Eph. iv. 11,
+2 Tim. iv. 5) those who &ldquo;occupied the first rank in the succession
+to the Apostles&rdquo; in missionary work (<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> iii. 37, cf. v. 10).
+Yet the wider sense of &ldquo;apostle&rdquo; did not at once die out even
+in the third and fourth generations. It lingered on as applied
+to the Seventy<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a>&mdash;by Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement and Origen&mdash;
+and even to Clement of Rome, by Clem. Alex. (? as a &ldquo;fellow-worker&rdquo;
+of Paul, Phil. iv. 3); while the adjective &ldquo;apostolic&rdquo;
+was applied to men like Polycarp (in his contemporary <i>Acts of
+Martyrdom</i>) and the Phrygian, Alexander, martyred at Lyons in
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 177 (Eus. v. 1), who was &ldquo;not without share of apostolic
+<i>charisma</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The <i>authority</i> attaching to apostles was essentially spiritual in
+character and in the conditions of its exercise. Anything like
+autocracy among his followers was alien to Jesus&rsquo;s own teaching
+(Matt, xxiii. 6-11). All Christians were &ldquo;brethren,&rdquo; and the
+basis of pre-eminence among them was relative ability for service.
+But the personal relation of the original Palestinian apostles to
+Jesus himself as Master gave them a unique fitness as authorized
+witnesses, from which flowed naturally, by sheer spiritual influence,
+such special forms of authority as they came gradually
+to exercise in the early Church. &ldquo;There is no trace in Scripture
+of a formal commission of authority for government from Christ
+Himself&rdquo; (Hort, <i>Chr. Eccl.</i> p. 84) given to apostles, save as
+representing the brethren in their collective action. Even the
+&ldquo;resolutions&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="dogmata">&#948;&#972;&#947;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945;</span>) of the Jerusalem conference were not
+set forth by the apostles present simply in their own name, nor
+as <i>ipso facto</i> binding on the conscience of the Antiochene Church.
+They expressed &ldquo;a claim to deference rather than a right to be
+obeyed&rdquo; (Hort, <i>op. cit.</i> 81-85). Such was the kind of authority
+attaching to apostles, whether collectively or individually. It
+was not a fixed notion, but varied in quantity and quality with
+the growing maturity of converts. This is how Paul, from whom
+we gather most on the point, conceives the matter. The exercise
+of his spiritual authority is not absolute, lest he &ldquo;lord it over
+their faith&rdquo;; consent of conscience or of &ldquo;faith&rdquo; is ever requisite
+(2 Cor. i. 24; cf. Rom. xiv. 23). But the principle was elastic in
+application, and would take more patriarchal forms in Palestine
+than in the Greek world. The case was essentially the same as
+on the various mission-fields to-day, where the position of the
+&ldquo;missionary&rdquo; is at first one of great spiritual initiative and
+authority, limited only by his own sense of the fitness of things,
+in the light of local usages. So the notion of formal or constitutional
+authority attaching to the apostolate, in its various senses,
+is an anachronism for the apostolic age. The tendency, however,
+was for their authority to be conceived more and more on formal
+lines, and, particularly after their deaths, as absolute.</p>
+
+<p>The authority attaching to apostles as writers, which led
+gradually to the formation of a New Testament Canon&mdash;&ldquo;the
+Apostles&rdquo; side by side with &ldquo;the Books&rdquo; of the Old Testament
+(so 2 Clement xiv., <i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 120-140)&mdash;is a subject by itself (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>This change of conception helped to further the notion of a
+certain devolution of apostolic powers to successors constituted
+by act of ordination. The earliest idea of an <i>apostolical succession</i>
+meant simply the re-emergence in others of the apostolic spirit of
+missionary enthusiasm. &ldquo;The first rank in the succession of the
+apostles&rdquo; consisted of men eminent as disciples of theirs, and so
+fitted to continue their labours (Euseb. iii. 37); and even under
+Commodus (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 180-193) there were &ldquo;evangelists of the word&rdquo;
+possessed of &ldquo;inspired zeal to emulate apostles&rdquo; (v. 10). Such
+were perhaps the &ldquo;apostles&rdquo; of the <i>Didach&#275;</i>. Of the notion of
+apostolic succession in ministerial grace conferred by ordination,
+there is little or no trace before Irenaeus. The famous passage
+in Clement of Rome (xliv. 2) refers simply to the succession of
+one set of men to another in an office of apostolic institution.
+The grace that makes Polycarp &ldquo;an apostolic and prophetic
+teacher&rdquo; (<i>Mart. Polyc.</i> 16) is peculiar to him personally. But
+Irenaeus holds, apparently on <i>a priori</i> grounds, that &ldquo;elders&rdquo;
+who stand in orderly succession to the apostolic founders of the
+true tradition in the churches, have, &ldquo;along with the succession
+of oversight,&rdquo; also an &ldquo;assured gift of (insight into) truth&rdquo;
+by the Father&rsquo;s good pleasure (&ldquo;cum episcopatus successione
+charisma veritatis certum secundum placitum Patris
+acceperunt&rdquo;), in contrast to heretics who wilfully stand outside
+this approved line of transmission (<i>adv. Haer.</i> iv. 26. 2). So far,
+indeed, the succession is not limited to the monarchical episcopate
+as distinct from the presbyteral order to which it belonged (cf.
+&ldquo;presbyterii ordo, principalis consessio&rdquo; in the same context,
+and see iii. 14. 2), though the bishops of apostolic churches, as
+capable of being traced individually (iii. 3. 1), are specially
+appealed to as witnesses (cf. iv. 33. 8, v. 19. 2)&mdash;as earlier by
+Hegesippus (Euseb. iv. 22). Nor is there mention of sacerdotal
+grace attaching to the succession in apostolic truth.<a name="fa4c" id="fa4c" href="#ft4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a> But once
+the idea of supernatural grace going along with office as such
+(of which we have already a trace in the Ignatian bishop, though
+without the notion of actual apostolic succession) arose in connexion
+with <i>successio ab apostolis</i>, the full development of the
+doctrine was but a matter of time.<a name="fa5c" id="fa5c" href="#ft5c"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;In England the modern treatment of the subject
+dates from J.B. Lightfoot&rsquo;s dissertation in his <i>Commentary on
+Galatians</i>, to which Dr F.J.A. Hort&rsquo;s <i>The Christian Ecclesia</i> added
+elements of value; see also T.M. Lindsay, <i>The Church and the
+Ministry</i>, and articles in Hastings&rsquo; <i>Dictionary of the Bible</i> and the
+<i>Ency. Biblica</i>; A. Harnack, <i>Die Lehre der Apostel</i>, pp. 93 ff., and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id="page199"></a>199</span>
+<i>Dogmengeschichte</i> (3rd ed.), i. 153 ff.; E. Haupt, <i>Zum Verstandnis
+d. Apostolats in NT.</i> (Halle, 1896); and especially H. Monnier,
+<i>La Notion de l&rsquo;apostolat, des origines à Irénée</i> (Paris, 1903). The later
+legends and their sources are examined by T. Schermann, <i>Propheten- und
+Apostellegenden</i> (Leipzig, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. V. B.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> By analogy, that is; for the wider sense of &ldquo;apostle&rdquo; in the
+Apostolic age need not be identical with a sub-apostolic use of
+the term (see below, 4 <i>fin</i>.).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The tendency is already visible in the Lucan writings. An
+anologous process is seen in the use of &ldquo;disciple,&rdquo; applicable in
+the apostolic age to Christians at large, but in the course of the sub-apostolic
+age restricted to personal &ldquo;disciples of the Lord&rdquo; or to
+martyrs (Papias in Eus. iii. 39, cf. Ignatius, <i>Ad Eph.</i> i. 2).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> In the Edessene legend of Abgar, in Eus. i. 12, we read that
+&ldquo;Judas, who is also Thomas, sent Thaddaeus as apostle&mdash;one of the
+Seventy,&rdquo; where simply an authoritative envoy of Jesus seems intended.
+For traces of the wider sense of &ldquo;apostle&rdquo; in Gnostic,
+Marcionite and Montanist circles, see Monnier (as below).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4c" id="ft4c" href="#fa4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The above is substantially the view taken by J.B. Lightfoot
+in his essay on &ldquo;The Christian Ministry&rdquo; (<i>Comm. on Philippians</i>,
+6th ed., pp. 239, 252 f.), and by T.M. Lindsay, <i>The Church and the
+Ministry</i> (1902), pp. 224-228, 278 ff. Even C. Gore, <i>The Church and
+the Ministry</i> (1889), pp. 119 ff., while inferring a sacerdotal element
+in Irenaeus&rsquo;s conception of the episcopate, says: &ldquo;But it is mainly
+as preserving the catholic traditions that Irenaeus regards the
+apostolic succession&rdquo; (p. 120).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5c" id="ft5c" href="#fa5c"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See Lightfoot&rsquo;s essay for Cyprian&rsquo;s contribution, as also for that
+of the Clementines, which fix on the twofold position of James at
+Jerusalem, as apostle and bishop, as bearing on apostolic succession
+in the episcopate.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOSTLE SPOONS,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> a set of spoons, usually of silver or silver
+gilt, with the handles terminating in figures of the apostles, each
+bearing their distinctive emblem. They were common baptismal
+gifts during the 15th and 16th centuries, but were dying out by
+1666. Often single spoons were given, bearing the figure of the
+patron or name saint of the child. Sets of the twelve apostles are
+not common, and complete sets of thirteen, with the figure of our
+Lord on a larger spoon, are still rarer. The Goldsmiths&rsquo; Company
+in London has one such set, all by the same maker and bearing
+the hall-mark of 1626, and a set of thirteen was sold at Christie&rsquo;s
+in 1904 for £4900.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See William Hone, <i>The Everyday Book</i> and <i>Table Book</i> (1831);
+and W.J. Cripps, <i>Old English Plate</i> (9th ed., 1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOSTOLICAL CONSTITUTIONS<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Diatagai">&#916;&#953;&#945;&#964;&#945;&#947;&#945;&#8054;</span> <i>or</i> <span class="grk" title="Diataxeis ton
+agion apostolon dia Klaementos tou Rhomaion episkopou te kai
+politou. Katholikae didaskalia">&#916;&#953;&#945;&#964;&#940;&#958;&#949;&#953;&#962; &#964;&#8182;&#957;
+&#7937;&#947;&#943;&#969;&#957; &#7936;&#960;&#959;&#963;&#964;&#972;&#955;&#969;&#957; &#948;&#953;&#8048; &#922;&#955;&#942;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#964;&#959;&#962; &#964;&#959;&#8166; &#8172;&#969;&#956;&#945;&#943;&#969;&#957; &#7952;&#960;&#953;&#963;&#954;&#972;&#960;&#959;&#965; &#964;&#949; &#954;&#945;&#8054;
+&#960;&#959;&#955;&#943;&#964;&#959;&#965;. &#922;&#945;&#952;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#954;&#8052; &#948;&#953;&#948;&#945;&#963;&#954;&#945;&#955;&#943;&#945;</span>), a collection of ecclesiastical
+regulations in eight books, the last of which concludes with the
+eighty-five <i>Canons of the Holy Apostles</i>. By their title the Constitutions
+profess to have been drawn up by the apostles, and
+to have been transmitted to the Church by Clement of Rome;
+sometimes the alleged authors are represented as speaking
+jointly, sometimes singly. From the first they have been very
+variously estimated; the <i>Canons</i>, as a rule, more highly than the
+rest of the work. For example, the Trullan Council of Constantinople
+(<i>quini-sextum</i>), <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 692, accepts the Canons as genuine by
+its second canon, but rejects the Constitutions on the ground
+that spurious matter had been introduced into them by heretics;
+and whilst the former were henceforward used freely in the East,
+only a few portions of the latter found their way into the Greek
+and oriental law-books. Again, Dionysius Exiguus (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 500)
+translated fifty of the Canons into Latin,<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> although under the
+title <i>Canones qui dicuntur Apostolorum</i>, and thus they passed
+into other Western collections; whilst the Constitutions as a
+whole remained unknown in the West until they were published
+in 1563 by the Jesuit Turrianus. At first received with enthusiasm,
+their authenticity soon came to be impugned; and
+their true significance was largely lost sight of as it began to be
+realized that they were not what they claimed to be. Vain
+attempts were still made to rehabilitate them, and they were,
+in general, more highly estimated in England than elsewhere.
+The most extravagant estimate of all was that of Whiston, who
+calls them &ldquo;the most sacred standard of Christianity, equal in
+authority to the Gospels themselves, and superior in authority
+to the epistles of single apostles, some parts of them being our
+Saviour&rsquo;s own original laws delivered to the apostles, and the
+other parts the public acts of the apostles&rdquo; (Historical preface
+to <i>Primitive Christianity Revived</i>, pp. 85-86). Others, however,
+realized their composite character from the first, and by degrees
+some of the component documents became known. Bishop
+Pearson was able to say that &ldquo;the eight books of the Apostolic
+Constitutions have been after Epiphanius&rsquo;s time compiled and
+patched together out of the <i>didascaliae</i> or doctrines which went
+under the names of the holy apostles and their disciples or successors&rdquo; (<i>Vind. Ign.</i> i. cap. 5); whilst a greater scholar still,
+Archbishop Usher, had already gone much further, and concluded,
+forestalling the results of modern critical methods, that
+their compiler was none other than the compiler of the spurious
+Ignatian epistles (<i>Epp. Polyc. et Ign.</i> p. lxiii. f., Oxon. 1644).
+The Apostolical Constitutions, then, are spurious, and they are
+one of a long series of documents of like character. But we
+have not really gauged their significance by saying that they
+are spurious. They are the last stage and climax of a gradual
+process of compilation and crystallization, so to speak, of unwritten
+church custom; and a short account of this process will
+show their real importance and value.</p>
+
+<p>These documents are the outcome of a tendency which is
+found in every society, religious or secular, at some point in its
+history. The society begins by living in accordance
+with its fundamental principles. By degrees these
+<span class="sidenote">Origin and real nature.</span>
+translate themselves into appropriate action. Difficulties
+are faced and solved as they arise; and when
+similar circumstances recur they will tend to be met in the
+same way. Thus there grows up by degrees a body of what
+may be called customary law. Plainly, there is no particular
+point of time at which this customary law can be said to have
+begun. To all appearance it is there from the first in solution
+and gradually crystallizes out; and yet it is being continually
+modified as time goes on. Moreover, the time comes when
+the attempt is made, either by private individuals or by the
+society itself, to put this &ldquo;customary law&rdquo; into writing. Now
+when this is done, two tendencies will at once show themselves.
+(<i>a</i>) This &ldquo;customary law&rdquo; will at once become more definite:
+the very fact of putting it into writing will involve an effort
+after logical completeness. There will be a tendency on the part
+of the writer to fill up gaps; to state local customs as if they
+obtained universally; to introduce his personal equation, and
+to add to that which is the custom that which, in his opinion,
+<i>ought</i> to be. (<i>b</i>) There will be a strong tendency to fortify that
+which has been written with great names, especially in days
+when there is no very clear notion of literary property. This is
+done, not always with any deliberate consciousness of fraud
+(although it must be clearly recognized that truth is not one of
+the &ldquo;natural virtues,&rdquo; and that the sense of the obligations of
+truthfulness was far from strong), but rather to emphasize the
+importance of what was written, and the fact that it was no
+new invention of the writer&rsquo;s. In a non-literary age fame
+gathers about great names; and that which, <i>ex hypothesi</i>, has
+gone on since the beginning of things is naturally attributed to
+the founders of the society. Then come interpolations to make
+this ascription more probable, and the prefixing of a title, then
+or subsequently, which states it as a fact. This is precisely the
+way in which the Apostolical Constitutions and other kindred
+documents have come into being. They are attempts, made in
+various places and at different times, to put into writing the
+order and discipline and character of the Church; in part for
+private instruction and edification, but in part also with a view
+to actual use; frequently even with an actual reference to
+particular circumstances. In this lies their importance, to a
+degree which is only just being adequately realized. They
+contain evidence of the utmost value as to the order of the
+Church in early days; evidence, however, which needs to be
+sifted with the greatest care, since the personal preferences of
+the writer and the customs of the local church to which he belongs
+are continually mixed up with things which have a wider prevalence.
+It is only by careful investigation, by the method of
+comparisons, that these elements can be disentangled; but as
+the number of documents of this class known to us is continually
+increasing, their value increases even more than proportionately.
+And whilst their local and fugitive character must be fully
+recognized and allowed for, is it unjustifiable to set them aside
+or leave them out of account as heretical, and therefore negligible.</p>
+
+<p>It will be sufficient here to mention shortly the chief collections
+of this kind which came into existence during the first four
+centuries; generally as the work of private individuals,
+and having, at any rate, no more than a local authority
+<span class="sidenote">Other collections.</span>
+of some kind, (<i>a</i>) The earliest known to us is the
+<i>Didach&#275;</i> or <i>Teaching of the Twelve Apostles</i>, itself compiled from
+earlier materials, and dating from about 120 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Didach&#275;</a></span>).
+(<i>b</i>) <i>The Apostolic Church Order</i> (<i>apostolische Kirchenordnung</i> of
+German writers); <i>Ecclesiastical Canons of the Holy Apostles</i> of
+one MS.; <i>Sententiae Apostolorum</i> of Pitra: of about 300, and
+emanating probably from Asia Minor. Its earlier part, cc. 1-14,
+depends upon the <i>Didach&#275;</i>, and the rest of it is a book of discipline
+in which Harnack has attempted to distinguish two older fragments
+of church law (<i>Texte u. Unters</i>. ii. 5). (<i>c</i>) The so-called
+<i>Canones Hippolyti</i>, probably Alexandrian or Roman, and of the
+first half of the 3rd century. It will be observed that these
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page200" id="page200"></a>200</span>
+make no claim to apostolic authorship; but otherwise their
+origin is like that of the rest, unless indeed, as has been suggested,
+they represent the work of an actual Roman synod, (<i>d</i>) The
+so-called <i>Egyptian Church Order</i>, in Coptic from a Greek pre-Nicene
+original (<i>c</i>. 310). It is part of the Egyptian Heptateuch
+and contains neither communion nor ordination forms, (<i>e</i>) The
+<i>Ethiopic Church Order</i>, perhaps twenty years later than (<i>d</i>), and
+forming part of the <i>Ethiopic Statutes</i>. (<i>f</i>) The <i>Verona Latin
+Fragments</i>, discovered and published by Hauler, portions of
+a form akin to (<i>e</i>), which may be dated <i>c</i>. 340, though possibly
+earlier. It has a preface which refers to a treatise <i>Concerning
+Spiritual Gifts</i> as having immediately preceded it. (<i>g</i>) The
+recently discovered <i>Testament of the Lord</i>, which is somewhat
+later in date (<i>c.</i> 350), and likewise depends upon the <i>Canones
+Hippolyti</i>. (<i>h</i>) The so-called <i>Canons of Basil</i>. This is an Arabic
+work perhaps based on a Coptic and ultimately on a Greek
+original, embodying with modifications large portions of the
+Canons of Hippolytus. (On the relations between the six last-named,
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hippolytus, Canons of</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Here also may be noticed the <i>Didascalia Apostolorum</i>, originally
+written in Greek, but known through a Syriac version and a fragmentary
+Latin one published by Hauler. It is of the middle of the
+3rd century&mdash;in fact, a passage in the Latin translation seems to give
+us the date <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 254. It emanates from Palestine or Syria, and is
+independent of the documents already mentioned; and upon it the
+<i>Constitutions</i> themselves very largely depend. It is a mixture of
+moral and ecclesiastical instruction. The <i>Sacramentary of Serapion</i>
+(<i>c.</i> 350), <i>The Pilgrimage of Etheria</i> (<i>Silvia</i>) (<i>c</i>. 385), and <i>The Catechetical
+Lectures of Cyril of Jerusalem</i> (348) are also of value in this
+connexion. In the (so-called) <i>Constitutions through Hippolytus</i> we
+have possibly a preliminary draft of the famous 8th book of the
+<i>Apostolical Constitutions</i>.<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Constitutions themselves fall into three main divisions.
+(i.) The first of these consists of books i.-vi., and throughout runs
+parallel to the <i>Didascalia</i>. Bickell, indeed, held that
+this latter was an abbreviated form of books i.-vi.;
+<span class="sidenote">Contents.</span>
+but it is now agreed on all hands that the Constitutions are based
+on the <i>Didascalia</i> and not vice versa. (ii.) Then follows book vii.,
+the first thirty-one chapters of which are an adaptation of the
+<i>Didach&#275;</i>, whilst the rest contain various liturgical forms of which
+the origin is still uncertain, though it has been acutely suggested
+by Achelis, and with great probability, that they originated in
+the schismatical congregation of Lucian at Antioch. (iii.) Book
+viii. is more composite, and falls into three parts. The first two
+chapters, <span class="grk" title="peri charismatôn">&#960;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#967;&#945;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#956;&#940;&#964;&#969;&#957;</span>, may be based upon a lost work of
+St Hippolytus, otherwise known only by a reference to it in the
+preface of the <i>Verona Latin Fragments</i>; and an examination
+shows that this is highly probable. The next section, cc. 3-27,
+<span class="grk" title="peri cheirotoyioy">&#960;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#967;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#959;&#964;&#959;&#957;&#953;&#8182;&#957;</span>, and cc. 28-46, <span class="grk" title="peri kayoyoy">&#960;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#954;&#945;&#957;&#972;&#957;&#969;&#957;</span>, is twofold, and
+is evidently that upon which the writer sets most store. The
+apostles no longer speak jointly, but one by one in an apostolic
+council, and the section closes with a joint decree of them all.
+They speak of the ordination of bishops (the so-called Clementine
+Liturgy is that which is directed to be used at the consecration
+of a bishop, cc. 5-15), of presbyters, deacons, deaconesses, sub-deacons
+and lectors, and then pass on to confessors, virgins,
+widows and exorcists; after which follows a series of canons on
+various subjects, and liturgical formulae. With regard to this
+section, all that can be said is that it includes materials which
+are also to be found elsewhere&mdash;in the <i>Egyptian Church Order</i>
+and other documents already spoken of&mdash;and that the precise
+relation between them is at present not determined. The third
+section consists of the Apostolic Canons already referred to, the
+last and most significant of which places the Constitutions and
+the two epistles of Clement in the canon of Scripture, and omits
+the Apocalypse. They are derived in part from the preceding
+Constitutions, in part from the canons of the councils of Antioch,
+341, Nicaea, 325, and possibly Laodicaea, 363.</p>
+
+<p>A comparison of the Constitutions with the material upon
+which they are based will illustrate the compiler&rsquo;s method.
+(<i>a</i>) To begin with the <i>Didascalia</i> already mentioned. It is unmethodical
+and badly digested, homiletical in style, and abounding
+in biblical quotations. There is no precise arrangement;
+but the subjects, following a general introduction, are the bishop
+and his duties, penance, the administration of the offerings,
+the settlement of disputes, the divine service, the order of widows,
+deacons and deaconesses, the poor, behaviour in persecution,
+and so forth. The compiler of the Constitutions finds here
+material after his own heart. He is even more discursive and
+more homiletical in style; he adds fresh citations of the Scriptures,
+and additional explanations and moral reflexions; and
+all this with so little judgment that he often leaves confusion
+worse confounded (<i>e.g.</i> in ii. 57, where, upon a symbolical
+description of the Church as a sheepfold, he has superimposed
+the further symbolism of a ship). (<i>b</i>) Passing on to books vii.
+and viii., we observe that the compiler&rsquo;s method of necessity
+changes with his new material. In the former book he still
+makes large additions and alterations, but there is less scope for
+his prolixity than before; and in the latter, where he is no
+longer dealing with generalities, but making actual definitions,
+the Constitutions of necessity become more precise and statutory
+in form. Throughout he adopts and adapts the language of his
+sources as far as possible, &ldquo;only pruning in the most pressing
+cases,&rdquo; but towards the end he cannot avoid making larger
+alterations from time to time. And his alterations throughout
+are not made aimlessly. Where he finds things which would
+obviously clash with the customs of his own day, he unhesitatingly
+modifies them. An account of the Passion, with a curiously
+perverted chronology, the object of which was to justify the
+length of the Passion-tide fast, is entirely revised for this reason
+(v. 14); the direction to observe Easter according to the Jewish
+computation is changed into the exact contrary for the same
+reason (v. 17); and where his archetype lapses into speaking of a
+lull in persecution he naïvely informs us that the Romans have
+now given up persecuting and have adopted Christianity (vi. 26),
+forgetting altogether that he is speaking in the character of the
+apostles. Above all, he both magnifies the office of the Christian
+ministry as a whole and alters what is said of it in detail (for
+example, the deaconess loses rank not a little), to make it agree
+with the circumstances of his day in general, and with his own
+ideas of fitness in particular. It is here that his evidence is at
+once most valuable and needs to be used with the greatest care.
+To give one striking example of the value of these documents.
+The <i>Canones Hippolyti</i> (vi. 43) provide that one who has been
+a confessor for the faith may be received as a presbyter by
+virtue of his confessorship and not by the laying on of the
+bishop&rsquo;s hands; but if he be chosen a bishop, he is to be ordained.
+This provision passes on into the Egyptian <i>Ecclesiastical Canons</i>
+and other kindred documents, and even into the <i>Testamentum
+Domini</i>. But the corresponding passage in the Apostolical
+Constitutions (viii. 23) entirely reverses it: &ldquo;A confessor is not
+ordained, for he is so by choice and patience, and is worthy of
+great honour.... But if there be occasion, he is to be ordained
+either a bishop, priest, or deacon. But if any one of the confessors
+who is not ordained snatches to himself any such dignity
+upon account of his confession, let the same person be deprived
+and rejected; for he is not in such an office, since he has denied
+the constitution of Christ, and is worse than an infidel.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Who, then, is the author of the Constitutions, and what can be
+inferred with regard to him? (i.) By separating off the sources
+which he used from his own additions to them, it at
+once becomes clear that the latter are the work of one
+<span class="sidenote">Authorship, place, and date.</span>
+man: the style is unmistakable, and the method of
+working is the same throughout. The compiler of
+books i.-vi. is also the compiler of books vii., viii. (ii.) As to
+his theological position, different views have been held. Funk
+suggests Apollinarianism, which is the refuge of the destitute;
+and Achelis inclines in the same direction. But the affinities of
+the author are quite otherwise, the most pronounced of them
+being a strong subordinationist tendency, denial of a human
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page201" id="page201"></a>201</span>
+soul to Christ, and the like, which suggest not indeed Arianism
+but an inclination towards Arianism. Above all, his polemic is
+directed against the dying heresies of the 3rd century; and he
+writes with an absence of constraint which is not the language
+of one who lives amidst violent controversies or who is conscious
+of being in a minority. All this points to the position of a
+&ldquo;conservative&rdquo; or semi-Arian of the East, one who belongs,
+perhaps, to the circle of Lucian of Antioch and writes before the
+time of Julian. It is hard to think of any other time or circumstances
+in which a man could write like this, (iii.) The indications
+of <i>time</i> have been held to point to a different conclusion.
+On the one hand, the fact that the attempt to rebuild the temple
+by Julian in 363 is not mentioned in vi. 24 points to an earlier
+date; and the fact that the <span class="grk" title="kopiatai">&#954;&#959;&#960;&#953;&#8118;&#964;&#945;&#953;</span> are not mentioned amongst
+the church officers points in the same direction, for elsewhere they
+are first mentioned in a rescript of Constantius in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 357. On
+the other hand, in the cycle of feasts occur the names of several
+which are probably of later date&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> Christmas and St Stephen,
+which were introduced at Antioch <i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 378 and 379 respectively.
+Again, Epiphanius (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 374) appears to be unacquainted with
+it; he still quotes from the <i>Didascalia</i>, and elaborately explains
+it away where it is contrary to the usages of his own day. But
+as regards the former point, it is possible that the Apostolical
+Constitutions constantly gave rise to these festivals; or, on
+the other hand, that the two passages were subsequently introduced
+either by the writer himself or by some other hand,
+when the last book of the Constitutions was being used as a
+law-book. And as regards the latter, the fact that Epiphanius
+does not use the Constitutions is no proof that they had not yet
+been compiled. (iv.) As to the region of composition there is no
+real doubt. It was clearly the East, Syria or Palestine. Many
+indications are against the latter, and Syria is strongly suggested
+by the use of the Syro-Macedonian calendar. Moreover, the
+writer represents the Roman Clement as the channel of communication
+between the apostles and the Church. This fact
+both supplies him with the name by which he is commonly
+known, Pseudo-Clement, and also furnishes corroboration of his
+Syrian birth; since the other spurious writings bearing the
+name of Clement, the <i>Homilies</i> and <i>Recognitions</i>, are likewise of
+Syrian origin. Moreover, the spurious Ignatian epistles, which
+are also Syrian, depend throughout upon the Constitutions,
+(v.) But this is not all. It was long ago noticed that Pseudo-Clement
+bears a very close resemblance to Pseudo-Ignatius, the
+interpolator of the Ignatian Epistles in the longer Greek recension.
+Usher, as we have seen, identified them, and modern
+criticism accepts this identification as a fact (Lagarde, Harnack,
+Funk, Brightman). Lightfoot, indeed, still hesitated (<i>Ap.
+Fathers</i>, II. i. 266 n.) on the ground that Pseudo-Ignatius occasionally
+misunderstands the Constitutions, that the two writings give
+the Roman succession differently, and that Pseudo-Clement
+shows no knowledge of the Christological controversies of Nicaea.
+But as regards the first of these, it is rather a case of condensed
+citation than of misinterpretation; the second is explained by
+the writer&rsquo;s carelessness as shown in other passages, and all are
+solved if a considerable interval of time elapsed between the compilation
+of the Constitutions and the spurious Ignatian epistles.</p>
+
+<p>It seems clear then that the compiler was a Syrian, and that
+he also wrote the spurious Ignatian epistles; he was likewise
+probably a semi-Arian of the school of Lucian of Antioch. His
+date is given by Harnack as <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 340-360, with a leaning to
+340-343; by Lightfoot as the latter half of the 4th century;
+by Brightman, 370-380; by Maclean, 375; and by Funk as the
+beginning of the 5th century.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;W. Ueltzen, <i>Constitutiones Apostolicae</i> (Schwerin,
+1853); P.A. de Lagarde, <i>Didascalia Apostolorum Syriace</i> (Leipz.,
+1854); <i>Constitutiones Apostolorum</i> (Leipz. and Lond., 1862); M.D.
+Gibson, <i>Didascalia Apost. Syriace</i>, with Eng. trans. (<i>Horae Semiticae</i>,
+i. and ii., Cambridge, 1903); J.B. Pitra, <i>Juris Ecclesiastici Graecorum
+Historia et Monumenta</i>, i. (Rome, 1864); Hauler, <i>Didascaliae
+Apostolorum Fragmenta Ueronensia Latina</i>, (Leipzig, 1900); Bickell,
+<i>Geschichte des Kirchenrechts</i>, i. (Giessen, 1843); F.X. Funk, <i>Die
+apostolischen Konstitutionen</i> (Rottenb., 1891); A. Harnack, <i>Geschichte
+d. altchristl. Litteratur</i>, i. 515 ff. (Leipz., 1893); F.E. Brightman,
+<i>Liturgies Eastern and Western</i>, I. xvii. ff. (Oxford, 1896); H.
+Achelis, in Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopadie</i>, i. 734 f., art. &ldquo;Apostolische
+Konstitutionen und Kanones&rdquo; (Leipz., 1896); A.S. Maclean,
+<i>Recent Discoveries illustrating Early Christian Worship</i> (Lond., 1904);
+J. Wordsworth, <i>The Ministry of Grace</i>, pp. 18 ff; J.P. Arendzen,
+&ldquo;The Apostolic Church Order&rdquo; (Syriac Text, Eng. trans. and notes)
+in <i>Journ. of Theol. Studies</i>, iii. 59. Trans. of <i>Apost. Constitutions</i>,
+book viii., in Ante-Nicene Christian Library.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. E. Co.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Why he did not go on to give the remaining thirty-five is not
+clear; they belong to the same date as, and are not inferior to, the
+first fifty.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> At a later date various collections were made of the documents
+above mentioned, or some of them, to serve as law-books in different
+churches&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> the Syrian Octateuch, the Egyptian Heptateuch,
+and the Ethiopic S&#299;n&#333;d&#333;s. These, however, stand on an entirely
+different footing, since they are simply collections of existing documents,
+and no attempt is made to claim apostolic authorship for
+them.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOSTOLIC CANONS,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> a collection of eighty-five rules for the
+regulation of clerical life, appended to the eighth book of the
+<i>Apostolical Constitutions</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). They are couched in brief
+legislative form though on no definite plan, and deal with the
+vexed questions of ecclesiastical discipline as they were raised
+towards the end of the 4th century. At least half of the canons
+are derived from earlier constitutions, and probably not many
+of them are the actual productions of the compiler, whose aim
+was to gloss over the real nature of the <i>Constitutions</i>, and secure
+their incorporation with the Epistles of Clement in the New
+Testament of his day. The <i>Codex Alexandrinus</i> does indeed
+append the Clementine Epistles to its text of the New Testament.
+The Canons may be a little later in date than the preceding
+<i>Constitutions</i>, but they are evidently from the same Syrian
+theological circle.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOSTOLIC FATHERS,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> a term used to distinguish those early
+Christian writers who were believed to have been the personal
+associates of the original Apostles. While the title &ldquo;Fathers&rdquo;
+was given from at least the beginning of the 4th century to
+church writers of former days, as being the parents of Christian
+belief and thought for later times, the expression &ldquo;Apostolic
+Fathers&rdquo; dates only from the latter part of the 17th century.
+The idea of recognizing these &ldquo;Fathers&rdquo; as a special group
+exists already in the title &ldquo;Patres aevi apostolici, sive SS.
+Patrum qui temporibus apostolicis floruerunt ... opera,&rdquo; under
+which in 1672 J.B. Cotelier published at Paris the writings
+current under the names of Barnabas, Clement of Rome, Hermas,
+Ignatius and Polycarp. But the name itself is due to their next
+editor, Thomas Ittig (1643-1710), in his <i>Bibliotheca Patrum
+Apostolicorum</i> (1699), who, however, included under this title
+only Clement, Ignatius and Polycarp. Here already appears
+the doubt as to how many writers can claim the title, a doubt
+which has continued ever since, and makes the contents of the
+&ldquo;Apostolic Fathers&rdquo; differ so much from editor to editor.
+Thus the Oratorian Andrea Gallandi (1700-1779), in re-issuing
+Cotelier&rsquo;s collection in his <i>Bibliotheca Veterum Patrum</i> (1765-1781),
+included the fragments of Papias and the Epistle to
+Diognetus, to which recent editors have added the citations
+from the &ldquo;Elders&rdquo; of Papias&rsquo;s day found in Irenaeus and,
+since 1883, the <i>Didach&#275;</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The degree of historic claim which these various writings
+have to rank as the works<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of Apostolic Fathers varies greatly
+on any definition of &ldquo;apostolic.&rdquo; Originally the epithet was
+meant to be taken strictly, viz. as denoting those whom history
+could show to have been personally connected, or at least coeval,
+with one or more apostles; and an effort was made, as by
+Cotelier, to distinguish the writings rightly and wrongly assigned
+to such. Thus editions tended to vary with the historical views
+of editors. But the convenience of the category &ldquo;Apostolic
+Fathers&rdquo; to express not only those who might possibly have
+had some sort of direct contact with apostles&mdash;such as &ldquo;Barnabas,&rdquo;
+Clement, Ignatius, Papias, Polycarp&mdash;but also those
+who seemed specially to preserve the pure tradition of apostolic
+doctrine during the sub-apostolic age, has led to its general use
+in a wide and vague sense.</p>
+
+<p>Conventionally, then, the title denotes the group of writings
+which, whether in date or in internal character, are regarded as
+belonging to the main stream of the Church&rsquo;s teaching during
+the period between the Apostles and the Apologists (<i>i.e.</i> to
+c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 140). Or to put it more exactly, the &ldquo;Apostolic Fathers&rdquo;
+represent, chronologically in the main and still more from the
+religious and theological standpoint, the momentous process of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page202" id="page202"></a>202</span>
+transition from the type of teaching in the New Testament to
+that which meets us in the early Catholic Fathers, from the last
+quarter of the 2nd century onwards. The Apologists no doubt
+show us certain fresh factors entering into this development;
+but on the whole the Apostolic Fathers by themselves go a long
+way to explain the transition in question, so far as knowledge of
+this <i>saeculum obscurum</i> is within our reach at all. It is
+true that they do not include the whole even of the ecclesiastical
+literature of the sub-apostolic age, not to mention what remains of
+Gnostic and other minority types. The <i>Preaching and Apocalypse</i>
+of Peter, for instance, are quite typical of the same period, and help
+us to read between the lines of the Apostolic Fathers. Yet
+they do not really add much to what is there already, and they
+have the drawbacks of pseudonymity; they lack concrete and
+personal qualities; they are general expressions of tendencies
+which we cannot well locate or measure, save by means of
+the Apostolic Fathers themselves or of their earliest Catholic
+successors.</p>
+
+<p>(A) In <i>external features</i> the group is far from homogeneous,
+a fact which has led to their being disintegrated as a group in
+certain histories of early Christian literature (<i>e.g.</i> those of
+Harnack and Krüger), and classed each under its own literary
+type&mdash;so sacrificing to outer form, which is quite secondary in
+primitive Christian writings, the more significant fact of religious
+affinity. Its original members, those still best entitled to their
+name in any strict sense, are epistles, and in this respect also
+most akin to Apostolic writings. Indeed Ignatius takes pleasure
+in saluting his readers &ldquo;after the apostolic stamp&rdquo; (<i>ad Troll.</i>
+inscr.), while yet disclaiming all desire to emulate the apostolic
+manner in other respects, being fully conscious of the gulf between
+himself and apostles like Peter and Paul in claim to authority
+(<i>ib.</i> in. 3, <i>ad Rom.</i> iv. 3). The like holds of Polycarp,
+who, in explaining that he writes to exhort the Philippians only at
+their own request, adds, &ldquo;for neither am I, nor is any other like me,
+able to follow the wisdom of the blessed and glorious Paul&rdquo;
+(in. 2). Clement&rsquo;s epistle, indeed, conforms more to the elaborate
+and treatise-like form of the Epistle to the Hebrews, on which
+it draws so largely; and the same is true of &ldquo;Barnabas.&rdquo; But
+one and all are influenced by study of apostolic epistles, and
+witness to the impression which these produced on the men of
+the next generation. Unconsciously, too, they correspond to
+the apostolic type of writing in another respect, viz. their
+occasional and practical character. They are evoked by pressing
+needs of the hour among some definite body of Christians and
+not by any literary motive.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> This is a universal trait of primitive
+Christian writings; so that to speak of primitive Christian
+&ldquo;literature&rdquo; at all is hardly accurate, and tends to an artificial
+handling of their contents. These sub-apostolic epistles are
+veritable &ldquo;human documents,&rdquo; with the personal note running
+through them. They are after all personal expressions of Christianity,
+in which are discernible also specific types of local tradition.
+To such spontaneous actuality a large part of their interest and value is due.</p>
+
+<p>Nor is this pre-literary and vital quality really absent even
+from the writing which is least entitled to a place among
+&ldquo;Apostolic Fathers,&rdquo; the Epistle to Diognetus. This beautiful
+picture of the Christian life as a realized ideal, and of Christians
+as &ldquo;the soul&rdquo; of the world, owes its inclusion to a double error:
+first, to the accidental attachment at the end of another fragment
+(§ ii), which opens with the writer&rsquo;s claim to stand forth as a
+teacher as being &ldquo;a disciple of apostles&rdquo;; and next, to mistaken
+exegesis of this phrase as implying personal relations with
+apostles, rather than knowledge of their teaching, written or oral.
+Whether in form addressed to Diognetus, the tutor of Marcus
+Aurelius, as a typical cultured observer of Christianity, or to
+some other eminent person of the same name in the locality of its
+origin, or, as seems more likely, to cultured Greeks generally,
+personified under the significant name &ldquo;Diognetus&rdquo;
+(&ldquo;Heaven-born,&rdquo; of. Acts xvii. 28 along with § iii. 4)&mdash;the
+epistle is in any case an &ldquo;open letter&rdquo; of an essentially literary
+type. Further, its opening seems modelled on the lines of the
+preface to Luke&rsquo;s Gospel, to which, along with Acts, it may owe
+something of its very conception as a reasoned appeal to the
+lover of truth. But while literary in form and conception, its
+appeal is in spirit so personal a testimony to what the Gospel
+has done for the writer and his fellow Christians, that it is akin
+to the piety of the Apostolic Fathers as a group. It is true
+that it has marked affinities, <i>e.g.</i> in its natural theology,
+with the earliest Apologists, Aristides and Justin, even as it is
+itself in substance an apology addressed not to the State, but to
+thoughtful public opinion. But this only means that we cannot draw
+a hard and fast line between groups of early Christian writings at
+a time when practical religious interests overshadowed all others.</p>
+
+<p>If thus related to the Apologists of the middle of the 2nd
+century, the Epistle to Diognetus has also points of contact
+with one of the most practical and least literary writings found
+among our Apostolic Fathers, viz. the homily originally known
+as the Second Epistle of Clement (for this ascription, as for other
+details, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clementine Literature</a></span>). The recovery of its
+concluding sections in the same MS. which brought the <i>Didach&#275;</i>
+to light, proves beyond question that we have here the earliest
+extant sermon preached before a Christian congregation, about
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 120-140 (so J.B. Lightfoot). Its opening section, recalling
+to its hearers the passing of the mists of idolatry before the
+revelation in Jesus Christ, is markedly similar in tone and tenor to
+passages in the Epistle to Diognetus. Far closer, however, are
+the affinities between the homily and the <i>Shepherd of Hermas</i>,
+&ldquo;the first Christian allegory,&rdquo; which as a literary whole dates
+from about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 140, but probably represents a more or less
+prolonged prophetic activity on the part of its author, the brother
+of Pius, the Roman bishop of his day (<i>c.</i> 139-154). In both the
+primary theme is repentance, as called for by serious sins, after
+baptism has placed the Christian on his new and higher level of
+responsibility. Thus both are hortatory writings, the one
+argumentative in form, the other prophetic, after the manner
+of later Old Testament prophets whose messages came in visions
+and similitudes. This prophetic and apocalyptic note, which
+characterizes Hermas among the Apostolic Fathers (though there are
+traces of it also in the <i>Didach&#275;</i> and in Ignatius, <i>ad Eph.</i> xx.),
+is a genuinely primitive trait and goes far to explain the vogue which the
+<i>Shepherd</i> enjoyed in the generations immediately succeeding,
+as also the influence of its disciplinary policy, which is its
+prophetic &ldquo;burden&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hermas, Shepherd of</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>We come finally to the anonymous <i>Teaching of the Twelve Apostles</i>
+and Papias&rsquo;s <i>Exposition of Oracles of the Lord</i>, so far as this
+is known to us. The former, besides embodying catechetical instruction
+in Christian conduct (the &ldquo;Two Ways&rdquo;), which goes back in substance to
+the early apostolic age and is embodied also in &ldquo;Barnabas,&rdquo; depicts in
+outline the fundamental usages of
+church life as practised in some conservative region (probably
+within Syria) about the last quarter of the 1st century and
+perhaps even later. The whole is put forth as substantially the
+apostolic teaching (<i>Didach&#275;</i>) on the subjects in question. This
+is probably a <i>bona fide</i> claim. It expresses the feeling common
+to the Apostolic Fathers and general in the sub-apostolic age, at any
+rate in regions where apostles had once laboured, that local tradition,
+as held by the recognized church leaders, did
+but continue apostolic doctrine and practice. Into later developments
+of this feeling an increasing element of illusion entered,
+and all other written embodiments of it known to us take the
+form of literary fictions, more or less bold. It is in contrast to
+these that the <i>Didach&#275;</i> is justly felt to be genuinely primitive
+and of a piece with the Apostolic Fathers. Thus while its form
+would by analogy tend <i>per se</i> to awaken suspicion, its contents
+remove this feeling; and we may even infer from this surviving
+early formulation of local ecclesiastical tradition, that others of
+somewhat similar character came into being in the sub-apostolic
+age, but failed to survive save as embodied in later local teaching,
+oral or written, very much as if the <i>Didach&#275;</i> had perished
+and its literary offspring alone remained (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Didach&#275;</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>As regards Papias&rsquo;s <i>Exposition</i>, which Lightfoot describes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id="page203"></a>203</span>
+as &ldquo;among the earliest forerunners of commentaries, partly
+explanatory, partly illustrative, on portions of the New Testament,&rdquo;
+we need here only remark that, whatever its exact form
+may have been&mdash;as to which the extant fragments still leave
+room for doubt&mdash;it was in conception expository of the historic
+meaning of Christ&rsquo;s more ambiguous Sayings, viewed in the light
+of definitely ascertained apostolic traditions bearing on the
+subject. The like is true also of the fragments of the Elders
+preserved in Irenaeus (so far as these do not really come from
+Papias). Both bodies of exposition represent the traditional
+principle at work in the sub-apostolic age, making for the preservation
+in relative purity, over against merely subjective interpretations&mdash;those
+of the Gnostics in particular&mdash;of the historic
+or original sense of Christ&rsquo;s teaching, just as Ignatius stood for
+the historicity of the facts of His earthly career in their plain,
+natural sense.</p>
+
+<p>(B) Here the question of external form passes readily over
+into that of the <i>internal character and spirit</i>. Indeed much has
+already been said or suggested bearing on these. The relation
+of these writers to the apostolic teaching generally has become
+pretty evident. It is one of absolute loyalty and deference,
+as to the teaching of inspiration. They are conscious, as are we
+in reading them, that they are not moving on the same level of
+insight as the Apostles; they are sub-apostolic in that sense
+also. Hence there appear constant traces of study of the
+Apostolic writings, so far as these were accessible in the locality
+of each writer at his date of writing (for the details of this subject,
+and its bearing on the history of the Canonical Scriptures of the
+New Testament, see <i>The New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers</i>,
+Oxford, 1905). As Lightfoot points out (<i>Apostolic Fathers</i>,
+pt. i. vol. i. p. 7), however, personality, with its variety of
+temperament and emphasis, largely colours the Apostolic
+Fathers, especially the primary group. Clement has all the
+Roman feeling for duly constituted order and discipline;
+Ignatius has the Syrian or semi-oriental passion of devotion,
+showing itself at once in his mystic love for his Lord and his
+over-strained yearning to become His very &ldquo;disciple&rdquo; by drinking
+the like cup of martyrdom; Polycarp is, above all things,
+steady in his allegiance to what had first won his conscience
+and heart, and his &ldquo;passive and receptive character&rdquo; comes
+out in the contents of his epistle. Of the rest, whose personalities
+are less known to us, Papias shares Polycarp&rsquo;s qualities and
+their limitations, the anonymous homilist and Hermas are
+marked by intense moral earnestness, while the writer to Diognetus
+joins to this a profound religious insight. These personal
+traits determine by selective affinity, working under conditions
+given by the special local type of tradition and piety, the elements
+in the Apostolic writings which each was able to assimilate and
+express&mdash;though we must allow also for variety in the occasions
+of writing. Thus one New Testament type is echoed in one and
+another in another; or it may be several in turn. The latter
+is the case in Clement, Ignatius and Polycarp; perhaps also in
+&ldquo;Barnabas.&rdquo; In Hermas there is special affinity to the language
+and thought of the epistle of James, and in the homilist to those
+of Paul. Yet their very use of the same terms or ideas makes
+us the more aware of &ldquo;a marked contrast to the depth and clearness
+of conception with which the several Apostolic writers place
+before us different aspects of the Gospel&rdquo; (Lightfoot). While
+Apostolic phrases are used, the sense behind them is often
+different and less evangelic. They have not caught the Apostolic
+meaning, because they have not penetrated to the full religious
+experience which gave to the words, often words with long and
+varied history both in the Septuagint and in ordinary Greek
+usage, their specific meaning to each apostle and especially to
+Paul. This phenomenon was noted particularly by E. Reuss, in
+his <i>Histoire de la théologie chrétienne an siècle apostolique</i> (3rd
+ed., 1864). Take for instance Clement. Lightfoot, indeed, dwells
+on the all-round &ldquo;comprehensiveness&rdquo; with which Clement,
+as the mouthpiece of the early Roman Church, utters in succession
+phrases or ideas borrowed impartially from Peter and Paul
+and James and the Epistle to Hebrews. He admits, however,
+that such mere co-ordination of the language of Paul and James,
+for instance, as appears in his twice bracketing &ldquo;faith and
+hospitality&rdquo; as grounds of acceptance with God (the cases are
+those of Abraham and Rahab, in chs. x. and xii.), is &ldquo;from a
+strictly dogmatic point of view&rdquo; his weakness. But the weakness
+is more than a dogmatic one; it is one of religious experience, as
+the source of spiritual insight. It is not merely that &ldquo;there is no
+<i>dogmatic system</i> in Clement&rdquo; or in any other of the Apostolic
+Fathers; that may favour, not hinder, religious insight. There
+is a want of depth in Christian experience, in the power of
+realizing relative spiritual values in the light of the master principle
+involved in the distinctively Christian consciousness, such
+as could raise Clement above a verbal eclecticism, rather than
+comprehensiveness, in the use of Apostolic language. As R.W.
+Dale remarks, in a note on Reuss&rsquo;s too severe words (Eng. trans.
+ii. 295): &ldquo;The vital force of the Apostolic convictions gave to
+Apostolic thought a certain organic and consistent form.&rdquo; It is
+lack of this organic quality in the thought, not only of Clement
+but also of the Apostolic Fathers generally&mdash;with the possible
+exception of Ignatius, who seems to share the Apostolic experience
+more fully than any other, to which Reuss rightly directs
+attention. In virtue of this defect, due largely to the failure to
+enter into the Apostolic experience of mystic union with Christ,
+he can rightly speak of &ldquo;an immense retrogression&rdquo; in theology
+visible &ldquo;at the end of the century, and in circles where it might
+have been least expected&rdquo; (ii. p. 294, cf. 541).</p>
+
+<p>In fact the perspective of the Gospel was seriously changed
+and its most distinctive features obscured. This was specially
+the case with the experimental doctrines of grace. Here the
+central glory of the Cross as &ldquo;the power of God unto salvation&rdquo;
+suffered some eclipse, although the passion of Christ was felt to
+be a transcendent act of Divine Grace in one way or another.
+But even more serious was the loss of an adequate sense of
+the contrast between &ldquo;grace&rdquo; and &ldquo;works&rdquo; as conditions of
+salvation. There was little or no sense of the danger of the
+<i>legal principle</i>, as related to human egoism and the instinct to
+seek salvation as a reward for merit. The passages in which
+these things are laid bare by Paul&rsquo;s remorseless analysis of his
+own experience &ldquo;under Law&rdquo; seem to have made practically
+no impression on the Apostolic Fathers as a whole. Gentile
+Christians had not felt the fang of the Law as the ex-Pharisee
+had occasion to feel it. Even if first trained in the Hellenistic
+synagogues of the Dispersion, as was often the case, they apprehended
+the Law on its more helpful and less exacting side,
+and had not been brought &ldquo;by the Law to die unto the Law,&rdquo;
+that they might &ldquo;live unto God.&rdquo; The result was too great a
+continuity between their religious conceptions before and after
+embracing the Gospel. Thus the latter seemed to them simply
+to bring forgiveness of past sins for Christ&rsquo;s sake, and then an
+enhanced moral responsibility to the New Law revealed in
+Him. Hence a new sort of legalism, known to recent writers as
+Moralism, underlies much of the piety of the Apostolic Fathers,
+though Ignatius is quite free from it, while Polycarp and
+&ldquo;Barnabas&rdquo; are less under its influence than are the <i>Didach&#275;</i>,
+Clement, the Homilist and Hermas. It conceives salvation as
+a &ldquo;wages&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="osthos">&#956;&#953;&#963;&#952;&#972;&#962;</span>) to be earned or forfeited; and regards
+certain good works, such as prayer, fasting, alms&mdash;especially
+the last&mdash;as efficacious to cancel sins. The reality of this
+tendency, particularly at Rome, betrays itself in Hermas, who
+teaches the supererogatory merit of alms gained by the self-denial
+of fasting (<i>Sim</i>. v. 3. 3 ff.). Marcion&rsquo;s reaction, too,
+against the Judaic temper in the Church as a whole, in the
+interests of an extravagant Paulinism, while it suggests that
+Paul&rsquo;s doctrines of grace generally were inadequately realized in
+the sub-apostolic age, points also to the prevalence of such
+moralism in particular.</p>
+
+<p>(C) In attempting a final estimate of the value of the Apostolic
+Fathers for the historian to-day, we may sum up under these
+heads: ecclesiastical, theological, religious. (<i>a</i>) As a mine of
+materials for reconstructing the history of Church institutions,
+they are invaluable, and that largely in virtue of their spontaneous
+and &ldquo;esoteric&rdquo; character, with no view to the public
+generally or to posterity. (<i>b</i>) Theologically, as a stage in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page204" id="page204"></a>204</span>
+history of Christian doctrine, their value is as great negatively
+as positively. Impressive as is their witness to the persistence
+of the Apostolic teaching in its essential features, amidst all
+personal and local variations, perhaps the most striking thing
+about these writings is the degree in which they fail to appreciate
+certain elements of the Apostolic teaching as embodied in the
+New Testament, and those its higher and more distinctively
+Christian elements.<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> This negative aspect has a twofold bearing.
+Firstly, it suggests the supernormal level to which the Apostolic
+consciousness was raised at a bound by the direct influence of
+the Founder of Christianity, and justifies the marking-off of the
+Apostolic writings as a Canon, or body of Christian classics of
+unique religious authority. To this principle Marcion&rsquo;s Pauline
+Canon is a witness, though in too one-sided a spirit. Secondly,
+it means that the actual development of ecclesiastical doctrine
+began, not from the Apostolic consciousness itself, but from a
+far lower level, that of the inadequate consciousness of the sub-apostolic
+Church, even when face to face with their written words.
+This theological &ldquo;retrogression&rdquo; is of much significance for the
+history of dogma, (<i>c</i>) On the other hand, there is great religious
+and moral continuity, beneath even theological discontinuity, in
+the life working below all conscious apprehension of the deeper
+ideas involved (E. von Dobschutz, <i>Christian Life in the Primitive
+Church</i>, 1905). There is continuity in character; the Apostolic
+Fathers strike us as truly good men, with a goodness raised to a
+new type and power. This is what the Gospel of Christ aims
+chiefly at producing as its proper fruit; and the Apostolic
+Fathers would have desired no better record than that they
+were themselves genuine &ldquo;epistles of Christ.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;This is too large to indicate even in outline, but
+is given fully in the chief modern editions, viz. of Gebhardt, Harnack
+and Zahn jointly (1875-1877), J.B. Lightfoot (1885-1890) and
+F.X. Funk (1901); also in O. Bardenhewer, <i>Gesch. der altkirchlichen
+Litteratur</i> (1902), Band i., and in <i>Neutestamentliche Apokryphen</i>,
+with <i>Handbuch</i> thereto, edited by E. Hennecke (Tübingen, 1904).
+The fullest discussion in English of the teaching of Barnabas,
+Clement, Ignatius and Polycarp is by J. Donaldson, <i>The Apostolical
+Fathers</i> (1874), which, however, suffers from the imperfect state of
+the texts when he wrote. The most useful edition for ready reference,
+containing critical texts (up to date) and good translations,
+is Lightfoot&rsquo;s one-volume edition, <i>The Apostolic Fathers</i> (London,
+1891).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. V. B.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Cotelier included the Acts of Martyrdom of Clement, Ignatius
+and Polycarp; and those of Ignatius and Polycarp are still often
+printed by editors.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See G.A. Deissmann,
+<i>Bible Studies</i>, pp. 1-60, for this distinction between
+the genuine &ldquo;letter&rdquo; and the literary &ldquo;epistle,&rdquo; as applied
+to the New Testament in particular.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> One result is their inability to form a true theory of Judaism
+and of the Old Testament in relation to the Gospel, a matter of great
+moment for them and for their successors.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOSTOLICI<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Apostolic Brethren</span>, or <span class="sc">Apostles</span>, the
+names given to various Christian heretics, whose common
+doctrinal feature was an ascetic rigidity of morals, which made
+them reject property and marriage. The earliest Apostolici
+appeared in Phrygia, Cilicia, Pisidia and Pamphylia towards
+the end of the 2nd century or the beginning of the 3rd. According
+to the information given by Epiphanius (<i>Haer.</i> 61) about
+the doctrines of these heretics, it is evident that they were
+connected with the Encratites and the Tatianians. They condemned
+individual property, hence the name sometimes given to
+them of <i>Apotactites</i> or <i>Renuntiatores</i>. They preserved an absolute
+chastity and abstained from wine and meat. They refused to
+admit into their sect those Christians whom the fear of martyrdom
+had once restored to paganism. As late as the 4th century
+St Basil (<i>Can</i>. 1 and 47) knew some Apostolici. After that
+period they disappeared, either becoming completely extinct,
+or being confounded with other sects (see St Augustine, <i>Haer.</i>
+40; John of Damascus, <i>Haer.</i> 61).</p>
+
+<p>Failing a more exact designation, the name of Apostolici has
+been given to certain groups of Latin heretics of the 12th century.
+It is the second of the two sects of Cologne (the first being composed
+very probably of Cathari) that is referred to in the letter
+addressed in 1146 by Everwin, provost of Steinfeld, to St Bernard
+(Mabillon, <i>Vet. Anal.</i> iii. 452). They condemned marriage (save,
+perhaps, first marriages), the eating of meat, baptism of children,
+veneration of saints, fasting, prayers for the dead and belief in
+purgatory, denied transubstantiation, declared the Catholic
+priesthood worthless, and considered the whole church of their
+time corrupted by the &ldquo;negotia saecularia&rdquo; which absorbed all
+its zeal (of. St Bernard, <i>Serm.</i> 65 and 66 <i>in Cantic.</i>). They do
+not seem to have been known as Apostles or Apostolici: St
+Bernard, in fact, asks his hearers: &ldquo;Quo nomine istos titulove
+censebis?&rdquo; (<i>Serm. 66 in Cantic.</i>). Under this designation, too,
+are included the heretics of Perigueux in France, alluded to in
+the letter of a certain monk Heribert (Mabillon, <i>Vet. Anal.</i> iii.
+467). Heribert says merely: &ldquo;Se dicunt apostolicam vitam
+ducere.&rdquo; It is possible that they were Henricians (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Henry
+of Lausanne</a></span>). During his mission in the south-east of France
+in 1146-1147 St Bernard still met disciples of Henry of Lausanne
+in the environs of Périgueux. The heretics of whom Heribert
+speaks condemned riches, denied the value of the sacraments
+and of good works, ate no meat, drank no wine and rejected
+the veneration of images. Their leader, named Pons, gathered
+round him nobles, priests, monks and nuns.</p>
+
+<p>In the second half of the 13th century appeared in Italy the
+<i>Order of the Apostles</i> or <i>Apostle Brethren</i> (see especially the <i>Chron.</i>
+of Fra Salimbene). This was a product of the mystic fermentation
+which proceeded from exalted Franciscanism and from
+Joachimism (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fraticelli</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Joachim</a></span>). It presents great
+analogies with groups of the same character, <i>e.g.</i> Sachets,
+Bizocchi, Flagellants, &amp;c. The order of the Apostles was founded
+about 1260 by a young workman from the environs of Parma,
+Gerard Segarelli, who had sought admission unsuccessfully to
+the Franciscan order. To make his life conform to that of
+Christ, his contemporaries say that he had himself circumcised,
+wrapped in swaddling clothes and laid in a cradle, and that he
+then, clad in a white robe and bare-footed, walked through
+the streets of Parma crying &ldquo;Penitenz agite!&rdquo; (&ldquo;Poenitentiam
+agite!&rdquo;). He was soon followed by a throng of men and women,
+peasants and mechanics. All had to live in absolute poverty,
+chastity and idleness. They begged, and preached penitence.
+Opizo, bishop of Parma, protected them until they caused
+trouble in his diocese. Their diffusion into several countries
+of Christendom disturbed Pope Honorius IV., who in 1286
+ordered them to adhere to an already recognized rule. On their
+refusal, the pope condemned them to banishment and Opizo
+imprisoned Segarelli. The councils of Würzburg (1287) and
+Chichester (1289) took measures against the Apostles of Germany
+and England. But in 1291 the sect reappeared, sensibly increased,
+and Pope Nicholas IV. published anew the bull of
+Honorius IV. From that day the Apostles, regarded as rebels,
+were persecuted pitilessly. Four were burned in 1294, and
+Segarelli, as a relapsed heretic, went to the stake at Parma in
+1300.</p>
+
+<p>They had had close relations with the dissident Franciscans,
+but the Spirituals often disavowed them, especially when the
+sect, which in Segarelli&rsquo;s time had had no very precise doctrinal
+character, became with Dolcino frankly heterodox. Dolcino of
+Novara was brought up at Vercelli, and had been an Apostle
+since 1291. Thrice he fell into the hands of the Inquisition, and
+thrice recanted. But immediately after Segarelli&rsquo;s death he
+wrote an epistle, soon followed by a second, in which he declared
+that the third Joachimite age began with Segarelli and that
+Frederick of Sicily was the expected conqueror (<i>Hist. Dulcini</i>
+and <i>Addit. ad Hist. Dulcini</i> in Muratori, <i>Scriptores</i>, vol. ix.).
+He gave himself out as an angel sent from God to elucidate the
+prophecies. Soon he founded an <i>Apostolic congregation</i> at whose
+head he placed himself. Under him were his four lieutenants,
+his &ldquo;mystic sister,&rdquo; Margherita di Franck, and 4000 disciples.
+He taught almost the same principles of devotion as Segarelli,
+but the Messianic character which he attributed to himself,
+the announcement of a communistic millennial kingdom, and,
+besides, an aggressive anti-sacerdotalism, gave to Dolcino&rsquo;s sect
+a clearly marked character, analogous only to the theocratic
+community of the Anabaptists of Münster in the 16th century.
+On the 5th of June 1305 Pope Clement V., recognizing the
+impotence of the ordinary methods of repression, issued bulls
+for preaching a crusade against the Dolcinists. But four
+crusades, directed by the bishop of Vercelli, were required to
+reduce the little army of the heresiarch, entrenched in the
+mountains in the neighbourhood of Vercelli. Not till the 23rd
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page205" id="page205"></a>205</span>
+of March 1307 were the sectaries definitively overcome. The
+Catholic crusaders seized Dolcino in his entrenchments on
+Mount Rubello, and the pope at once announced the happy
+event to King Philip the Fair. At Vercelli Dolcino suffered a
+horrible punishment. He was torn in pieces with red-hot
+pincers&mdash;the torture lasting an entire day&mdash;while Margherita
+was burned at a slow fire. Dante mentions Dolcino&rsquo;s name
+(<i>Inferno</i>, c. xxviii.), and his memory is not yet completely effaced
+in the province of Novara. The Apostles continued their
+propaganda in Italy, Languedoc, Spain and Germany. In turn
+they were condemned by the councils of Cologne (1306), Treves
+(1310) and Spoleto (1311). The inquisitor of Languedoc,
+Bernard Gui, persecuted them unremittingly (see Gui&rsquo;s <i>Practica
+Inquisitionis</i>). From 1316 to 1323 the condemnations of
+Apostles increased at Avignon and Toulouse. They disappeared,
+however, at a comparatively late date from those regions (council
+of Lavaur, 1368; council of Narbonne, 1374). In Germany
+two Apostles were burned at Lübeck and Wismar at the beginning
+of the 15th century (1402-1403) by the inquisitor Eylard.</p>
+
+<p>Several controversialists, including Gotti, Krohn and Stockmann,
+have mentioned among the innumerable sects that have
+sprung from Anabaptism a group of individuals whose open-air
+preaching and rigorous practice of poverty gained them the name
+of Apostolici. These must be carefully distinguished from the
+<i>Apostoolians</i>, Mennonites of Frisia, who followed the teachings of
+the pastor Samuel Apostool (1638-beginning of 18th century).
+In the Mennonite church they represent the rigid, conservative
+party, as opposed to the Galenists, who inclined towards the
+Arminian latitudinarianism and admitted into their community
+all those who led a virtuous life, whatever their doctrinal
+tendencies.</p>
+<div class="author">(P. A.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOSTOLIC MAJESTY,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> a title borne by the kings of Hungary.
+About <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1000 it was conferred by Pope Silvester II. upon
+St Stephen (975-1038), the first Christian king of Hungary, in
+return for his zeal in seeking the conversion of the heathen. It
+was renewed by Pope Clement XIII. in 1758 in favour of the
+empress Maria Theresa and her descendants. The emperor of
+Austria bears the title of apostolic king of Hungary.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOSTOLIUS, MICHAEL<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (d. <i>c.</i> 1480), a Greek theologian and
+rhetorician of the 15th century. When, in 1453, the Turks
+conquered Constantinople, his native city, he fled to Italy, and
+there obtained the protection of Cardinal Bessarion. But
+engaging in the great dispute that then raged between the upholders
+of Aristotle and Plato, his zeal for the latter led him to
+speak so contemptuously of the more popular philosopher and of
+his defender, Theodorus Gaza, that he fell under the severe
+displeasure of his patron. He afterwards retired to Crete,
+where he earned a scanty living by teaching and by copying
+manuscripts. Many of his copies are still to be found in the
+libraries of Europe. One of them, the <i>Icones</i> of Philostratus at
+Bologna, bears the inscription: &ldquo;The king of the poor of this
+world has written this book for his living.&rdquo; Apostolius died
+about 1480, leaving two sons, Aristobulus Apostolius and
+Arsenius. The latter became bishop of Malvasia (Monemvasia)
+in the Morea.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Of his numerous works a few have been printed: <span class="grk" title="Paroimiai">&#928;&#945;&#961;&#959;&#953;&#956;&#943;&#945;&#953;</span>
+(Basel, 1538), now exceedingly rare; a collection of proverbs in
+Greek, of which a fuller edition appeared at Leiden, &ldquo;Curante
+Heinsio,&rdquo; in 1619; &ldquo;Oratio Panegyrica ad Fredericum III.&rdquo; in
+Freher&rsquo;s <i>Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum</i>, vol. ii. (Frankfort, 1624);
+Georgii Gemisthi Plethonis et Mich. Apostolii <i>Orationes funebres duae
+in quibus de Immortalitate Animae exponitur</i> (Leipzig, 1793); and a
+work against the Latin Church and the council of Florence in
+Le Moine&rsquo;s <i>Varia Sacra</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOSTROPHE<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="apostrophe">&#7936;&#960;&#959;&#963;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#966;&#942;</span>, turning away; the final <i>e</i>
+being sounded), the name given to an exclamatory rhetorical
+figure of speech, when a speaker or writer breaks off and addresses
+some one directly in the vocative. The same word (representing,
+through the French, the Greek <span class="grk" title="apostrophos prosudia">&#7936;&#960;&#972;&#963;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#966;&#959;&#962; &#960;&#961;&#959;&#963;&#8179;&#948;&#943;&#945;</span>, the
+accent of elision) means also the sign (&rsquo;) for the omission of a
+letter or letters, <i>e.g.</i> in &ldquo;don&rsquo;t.&rdquo; In physiology, &ldquo;apostrophe&rdquo;
+is used more precisely in connexion with its literal meaning of
+&ldquo;turning away,&rdquo; <i>e.g.</i> for movement away from the light, in the
+case of the accumulation of chlorophyll-corpuscles on the cells of
+leaves.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOTACTITES,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Apotactici</span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="apotaktos">&#7936;&#960;&#959;&#964;&#945;&#954;&#964;&#972;&#962;</span>, set
+apart), a sect of early Christians, who renounced all their worldly
+possessions. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apostolici</a></span> <i>ad init.</i>)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOTHECARY<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>apothecarius</i>, a keeper of an
+<i>apotheca</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="apotheke">&#7936;&#960;&#959;&#952;&#942;&#954;&#951;</span>, a store), a word used by Galen to denote
+the repository where his medicines were kept, now obsolete in
+its original sense. An apothecary was one who prepared, sold
+and prescribed drugs, but the preparing and selling of drugs
+prescribed by others has now passed into the hands of duly
+qualified and authorized persons termed &ldquo;chemists and druggists,&rdquo;
+while the apothecary, by modern legislation, has become
+a general medical practitioner, and the word itself, when used at
+all, is applied, more particularly in the United States and in
+Scotland, to those who in England are called &ldquo;pharmaceutical
+chemists.&rdquo; The Apothecaries&rsquo; Society of London is one of the
+corporations of that city, and both by royal charters and acts of
+parliament exercises the power of granting licences to practise
+medicine. The members of this society do not possess and
+never have possessed any exclusive power to deal in or sell
+drugs; and until 1868 any person whatever might open what is
+called a chemist&rsquo;s shop, and deal in drugs and poisons. In that
+year, however, the Pharmacy Act was passed, which prohibits
+any person from engaging in this business without being
+registered.</p>
+
+<p>From early records we learn that the different branches of
+the medical profession were not regularly distinguished till the
+reign of Henry VIII., when separate duties were assigned to
+them, and peculiar privileges were granted to each. In 1518
+the physicians of London were incorporated, and the barber-surgeons
+in 1540. But, independently of the physicians and the
+surgeons, there were a great number of irregular practitioners,
+who were more or less molested by their legitimate rivals, and it
+became necessary to pass an act in 1543 for their protection and
+toleration. As many of these practitioners kept shops for the
+sale of medicines, the term &ldquo;apothecary&rdquo; was used to designate
+their calling.</p>
+
+<p>In April 1606 James I. incorporated the apothecaries as one
+of the city companies, uniting them with the grocers. On their
+charter being renewed in 1617 they were formed into a separate
+corporation, under the title of the &ldquo;Apothecaries of the City of
+London.&rdquo; These apothecaries appear to have prescribed
+medicines in addition to dispensing them, and to have claimed
+an ancient right of acting in this double capacity; and it may
+be mentioned that Henry VIII., after the grant of the charter
+to the College of Physicians, appointed an apothecary to the
+Princess Mary, who was delicate and unhealthy, at a salary of
+40 marks a year, &ldquo;<i>pro meliore cura, et consideratione sanitatis
+suae</i>.&rdquo; During the 17th century, however, there arose a warm
+contest between the physicians and the apothecaries,&mdash;the
+former accusing the latter of usurping their province, and the
+latter continuing and justifying the usurpation until the dispute
+was finally set at rest by a judgment of the House of Lords in
+1703 (<i>Rose v. College of Physicians</i>, 5 Bro. P. C. 553), when it was
+decided that the duty of the apothecary consisted not only in
+compounding and dispensing, but also in directing and ordering
+the remedies employed in the treatment of disease. In 1722
+an act was obtained empowering the Apothecaries&rsquo; Company to
+visit the shops of all apothecaries practising in London, and to
+destroy such drugs as they found unfit for use. In 1748 great
+additional powers were given to the company by an act authorizing
+them to appoint a board of ten examiners, without whose
+licence no person should be allowed to dispense medicines in
+London, or within a circuit of 7 m. round it. In 1815, however,
+an act of parliament was passed which gave the Apothecaries&rsquo;
+Society a new position, empowering a board, consisting of twelve
+of their members, to examine and license all apothecaries
+throughout England and Wales. It also enacted that, from the
+1st of August of that year, no persons except those who were so
+licensed should have the right to act as apothecaries, and it
+gave the society the power of prosecuting those who practised
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page206" id="page206"></a>206</span>
+without such licence. But the act expressly exempted from
+prosecution all persons who were then in actual practice, and it
+distinctly excluded from its operation all persons pursuing the
+calling of chemists and druggists. It was also provided that
+the act should in no way interfere with the rights or privileges
+of the English universities, or of the English College of Surgeons
+or the College of Physicians; and indeed a clause imposed
+severe penalties on any apothecaries who should refuse to compound
+and dispense medicines on the order of a physician,
+legally qualified to act as such. It is therefore clear that the
+act contemplated the creation of a class of practitioners who,
+while having the right to practise medicine, should assist and
+co-operate with the physicians and surgeons.</p>
+
+<p>Before this act came into operation the education of the
+medical practitioners of England and Wales was entirely optional
+on their own part, and although many of them possessed degrees
+or licences from the universities or colleges, the greater number
+possessed no such qualification, and many of them were wholly
+illiterate and uneducated. The court of examiners of the
+Apothecaries&rsquo; Society, being empowered to enforce the acquisition
+of a sufficient medical education upon its future licentiates,
+specified from time to time the courses of lectures or terms of
+hospital practice to be attended by medical students before their
+examination, and in the progress of years regular schools of
+medicine were organized throughout England.</p>
+
+<p>As it was found that, notwithstanding the stringent regulations
+as to medical acquirements, the candidates were in many
+instances deficient in preliminary education, the court of
+examiners instituted, about the year 1850, a preliminary
+examination in arts as a necessary and indispensable prerequisite
+to the medical curriculum, and this provision has been so expanded
+that, at the present day, all medical students in the
+United Kingdom are compelled to pass a preliminary examination
+in arts, unless they hold a university degree. An act of parliament,
+passed in 1858, and known as the Medical Act, made
+very little alteration in the powers exercised by the Apothecaries&rsquo;
+Society, and indeed it confirmed and in some degree amplified
+them, for whereas by the act of 1815, the licentiates of the society
+were authorized to practise as such only in England and Wales,
+the new measure gave them the same right in Scotland and
+Ireland. The Medical Act 1886 extended the qualifications
+necessary for registration under the medical acts, by making it
+necessary to pass a qualifying examination in medicine, surgery
+and midwifery. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Medical Education</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>An act, passed in 1874, related exclusively to the Apothecaries&rsquo;
+Society, and is termed the Apothecaries&rsquo; Act Amendment Act.
+By this measure some provisions of the act of 1815, which had
+become obsolete or unsuitable, were repealed, and powers were
+given to the society to unite or co-operate with other medical
+licensing bodies in granting licences to practise. The act of
+1815 had made it compulsory on all candidates for a licence to
+have served an apprenticeship of five years to an apothecary,
+and although by the interpretation of the court of examiners
+of the society this term really included the whole period of
+medical study, yet the regulation was felt as a grievance by many
+members of the medical profession. It was accordingly repealed,
+and no apprenticeship is now necessary. The restriction of the
+choice of examiners to the members of the society was also
+repealed, and the society was given the power (which it did not
+before possess) to strike off from the list of its licentiates the
+names of disreputable persons. The act of 1874 also specified
+that the society was not deprived of any right or obligation they
+may have to admit women to examination, and to enter their
+names on the list of licentiates if they acquit themselves
+satisfactorily.</p>
+
+<p>The Apothecaries&rsquo; Society is governed by a master, two
+wardens and twenty-two assistants. The members are divided
+into Three grades, yeomanry or freemen, the livery, and the court.
+Women are not, however, admitted to the freedom. The hall
+of the society, situated in Water Lane, London, and covering
+about three-quarters of an acre, was acquired in 1633. It was
+destroyed by the great fire, but was rebuilt about ten years later
+and enlarged in 1786. This is the only property possessed by
+the society. In 1673, the society established a botanic and physic
+garden at Chelsea, and in 1722 Sir Hans Sloane, who had become
+the ground owner, gave it to the society on the condition of
+presenting annually to the Royal Society fifty dried specimens
+of plants till the number should reach 2000. This condition was
+fulfilled in 1774. Owing to the heavy cost of maintenance and
+other reasons, the &ldquo;physic garden&rdquo; was handed over in 1902,
+with the consent of the Charity Commissioners, to a committee
+of management, to be maintained in the interests of botanical
+study and research.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C.R.B. Barrett, <i>The History of the Society of Apothecaries of
+London</i> (1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APOTHEOSIS<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="apotheoûn">&#7936;&#960;&#959;&#952;&#949;&#959;&#8166;&#957;</span>, to make a god, to deify), literally
+deification. The term properly implies a clear polytheistic
+conception of gods in contrast with men, while it recognizes that
+some men cross the dividing line. It is characteristic of polytheism
+to blur that line in several ways. Thus the ancient Greek
+religion was especially disposed to belief in heroes and demigods.
+Founders of cities, and even of colonies, received worship; the
+former are, generally speaking, mythical personages and, in
+strictness, heroes. But the worship after death of historical
+persons, such as Lycurgus, or worship of the living as true
+deities, <i>e.g.</i> Lysander and Philip II. of Macedon, occurred
+sporadically even before Alexander&rsquo;s conquests brought Greek
+life into contact with oriental traditions. It was inevitable, too,
+that ancient monarchies should enlist polytheistic conceptions of
+divine or half-divine men in support of the dynasties; &ldquo;<i>Seu deos
+regesve canit deorum Sanguinem</i>,&rdquo; Horace (<i>Odes</i>, iv. 2, II. 12, 13)
+writes of Pindar; though the reference is to myths, yet the
+phrase is significant. In the East all such traits are exaggerated,
+a result perhaps rather of the statecraft than of the religions of
+Egypt and Persia. Whatever part vanity or the flattery of
+courtiers may have played with others, or with Alexander, it is
+significant that the dynasties of Alexander&rsquo;s various successors
+all claim divine honours of some sort (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ptolemies</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seleucid
+Dynasty</a></span>, &amp;c.). Theocritus (<i>Idyll</i> 17) hails Ptolemy Philadelphus
+as a demigod, and speaks of his father as seated among the
+gods along with Alexander. Ancestor worship, or reverence for
+the dead, was a third factor. It may work even in Cicero&rsquo;s
+determination that his daughter should enjoy &ldquo;<span class="grk" title="apothéôsis">&#7936;&#960;&#959;&#952;&#941;&#969;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>&rdquo;&mdash;
+as he writes to Atticus&mdash;or receive the &ldquo;honour&rdquo; of <i>consecratia</i>
+(fragment of his <i>De Consolatione</i>). Lastly, we need not speak of
+mere sycophancy. Yet it was common; Verres was worshipped
+before he was impeached!</p>
+
+<p>The Romans had, up to the end of the Republic, accepted
+only one official apotheosis; the god Quirinus, whatever his
+original meaning, having been identified with Romulus. But
+the emperor Augustus carried on the tradition of ancient
+statecraft by having Julius Caesar recognized as a god (<i>divus
+Julius</i>), the first of a new class of deities proper (<i>divi</i>). The
+tradition was steadily followed and was extended to some ladies
+of the imperial family and even to imperial favourites. Worship
+of an emperor during his lifetime, except as the worship of his
+<i>genius</i>, was, save in the cases of Caligula and Domitian, confined
+to the provinces. Apotheosis after his death, being in the hands
+of the senate, did not at once cease, even when Christianity was
+officially adopted. The Latin term is <i>consecratio</i>, which of course
+has a variety of senses, including simple burial. (Inscription in
+G. Boissier, <i>La Religion romaine</i>; Renier, <i>Inscriptions d&rsquo;Algiers</i>,
+2510.) The Greek term Apotheosis, probably a coinage of the
+Hellenistic epoch, becomes more nearly technical for the deification
+of dead emperors. But it is still used simply for the erection
+of tombs (clearly so in some Greek inscriptions, <i>Corpus Inscript.
+Graec.</i> 2831, 2832, quoted in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>s.v. Apotheosis</i>).
+Possibly there is a trace of ancestor worship even here; but the
+two usages have diverged. The squib of the philosopher Seneca
+on the memory of Claudius (d. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 54), <i>Apocolocyntosis</i> (&ldquo;pumpkinification&rdquo;),
+is evidence that, as early as Seneca&rsquo;s lifetime,
+apotheosis was in use for the recognition of a departed emperor
+as a god. It also indicates how much contempt might be
+associated with this pretended worship. The people, says
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" id="page207"></a>207</span>
+Suetonius (<i>Jul. Caes.</i> c. 88), fully believed in the divinity of
+Julius Caesar, hinting at the same time that this was by no
+means the case with the majority of the apotheoses subsequently
+decreed by the senate. Yet we learn from Capitolinus that
+Marcus Aurelius was still worshipped as a household divinity in
+the time of Diocletian, and was believed to impart revelations in
+dreams (Vit. M. Ant. c. 18). Antinous, the favourite of Hadrian,
+was adored in Egypt a century after his death (Origen, <i>Contra
+Celsum</i>, iii. 36), though, according to Boissier, his worship never
+had official sanction. The ceremonies attendant on an imperial
+apotheosis are very fully described by Herodianus (bk. iv. c. 2)
+on occasion of the obsequies of Severus, which he appears to
+have witnessed. The most significant was the liberation, at the
+moment of kindling the funeral pyre, of an eagle which was
+supposed to bear the emperor&rsquo;s soul to heaven. Sharp-sighted
+persons had actually beheld the ascension of Augustus (Suet.
+<i>August</i>, c. 100), and of Drusilla, sister of Caligula. Representations
+of apotheoses occur on several works of art; the most important
+are the apotheosis of Homer on a relief in the Townley collection
+of the British Museum, that of Titus on the arch of Titus,
+and that of Augustus on a magnificent cameo in the Louvre.</p>
+
+<p>In China at the present day many Taoist gods are (or are
+given out as) men deified for service to the state. This again
+may be statecraft. In India, the (still unexplained) rise of the
+doctrine of transmigration hindered belief. Apotheosis can
+mean nothing to those who hold that a man may be reborn as a
+god, but still needs redemption, and that men on earth may
+win redemption, if they are brave enough. Curiously, Buddhism
+itself is ruled by the ghost or shadowy remainder of belief in
+transmigration&mdash;Karma.</p>
+
+<p>Apotheosis may also be used in wider senses. (<i>a</i>) Some (<i>e.g.</i>
+Herbert Spencer) hold that most gods are deified men, and most
+myths historical traditions which have been grotesquely distorted.
+This theory is known as Euhemerism (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Euhemerus</a></span>). It is
+needless to say that the attitude of those holding the Euhemerist
+theory is at the farthest pole from belief in apotheosis. According
+to the latter, some men may become gods. According to
+the former, all gods are but men; or, some men have been
+erroneously supposed to become gods. The Euhemerist theory
+mainly appeals to ancestor worship&mdash;a fact of undoubted
+importance in the history of religion, especially in China and
+in ancient Rome. In India, too, a dead person treated with
+funeral honours becomes a guardian spirit&mdash;if neglected, a
+tormenting demon. But whether the great gods of polytheism
+were really transfigured ancestors is very doubtful. (<i>b</i>) Again,
+there is a tendency to offer something like worship to the
+founders of religions. Thus more than human honour is
+paid to Zoroaster and Buddha and even to the founders of
+systems not strictly religious, <i>e.g.</i> to Confucius and Auguste
+Comte. It is noticeable that this kind of worship is not accorded
+in rigidly monotheistic systems, <i>e.g.</i> to Moses and Mahomet.
+Nor is it accurate to speak of apotheosis in cases where the
+founder is in his lifetime regarded as the incarnation of a god
+(cf. Ali among Shi&rsquo;ite Mahommedans; the B&#259;b in Babism; the
+Druse Hakim). Most Christians on this ground repudiate the
+application of the term to the worship of Jesus Christ. Curiously,
+<i>Apotheosis</i> is used by the Latin Christian poet, Prudentius
+(<i>c.</i> 400), as the title of a poem defending orthodox views on the
+person of Christ and other points of doctrine&mdash;the affectation
+of a decadent age. (<i>c</i>) The worship paid to Saints, in those
+Christian churches which admit it, is formally distinguished as
+<i>dulia</i> (<span class="grk" title="douleia">&#948;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#949;&#943;&#945;</span>) from true worship or <i>latria</i> (<span class="grk" title="latreia">&#955;&#945;&#964;&#961;&#949;&#943;&#945;</span>). Even the
+Virgin Mary, though she is styled Mother of God and Queen of
+Heaven, receives only <i>dulia</i> or at most <i>hyperdulia</i>.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. G.; R. Ma.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> the general name given to a
+vast system of elevations in North America, partly in Canada,
+but mostly in the United States, extending as a zone, from 100
+to 300 m. wide, from Newfoundland, Gaspé Peninsula and New
+Brunswick, 1500 m. south-westward to central Alabama. The
+whole system may be divided into three great sections: the
+<i>Northern</i>, from Newfoundland to the Hudson river; the <i>Central</i>,
+from the Hudson Valley to that of New river (Great Kanawha),
+in Virginia and West Virginia; and the <i>Southern</i>, from New
+river onwards. The northern section includes the Shickshock
+Mountains and Notre Dame Range in Quebec, scattered elevations
+in Maine, the White Mountains and the Green Mountains;
+the central comprises, besides various minor groups, the Valley
+Ridges between the Front of the Allegheny Plateau and the
+Great Appalachian Valley, the New York-New Jersey Highlands
+and a large portion of the Blue Ridge; and the southern consists
+of the prolongation of the Blue Ridge, the Unaka Range,
+and the Valley Ridges adjoining the Cumberland Plateau, with
+some lesser ranges.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Chief Summits.</i>&mdash;The Appalachian belt includes, with the
+ranges enumerated above, the plateaus sloping southward to the
+Atlantic Ocean in New England, and south-eastward to the
+border of the coastal plain through the central and southern
+Atlantic states; and on the north-west, the Allegheny and
+Cumberland plateaus declining toward the Great Lakes and the
+interior plains. A remarkable feature of the belt is the longitudinal
+chain of broad valleys&mdash;the Great Appalachian Valley&mdash;which,
+in the southerly sections divides the mountain system
+into two subequal portions, but in the northernmost lies west
+of all the ranges possessing typical Appalachian features, and
+separates them from the Adirondack group. The mountain
+system has no axis of dominating altitudes, but in every portion
+the summits rise to rather uniform heights, and, especially in
+the central section, the various ridges and intermontane valleys
+have the same trend as the system itself. None of the summits
+reaches the region of perpetual snow. Mountains of the Long
+Range in Newfoundland reach heights of nearly 2000 ft. In the
+Shickshocks the higher summits rise to about 4000 ft. elevation.
+In Maine four peaks exceed 3000 ft., including Katahdin (5200
+ft.), Mount Washington, in the White Mountains (6293 ft.),
+Adams (5805), Jefferson (5725), Clay (5554), Monroe (5390),
+Madison (5380), Lafayette (5269); and a number of summits
+rise above 4000 ft. In the Green Mountains the highest point,
+Mansfield, is 4364 ft.; Lincoln (4078), Killington (4241), Camel
+Hump (4088); and a number of other heights exceed 3000 ft.
+The Catskills are not properly included in the system. The Blue
+Ridge, rising in southern Pennsylvania and there known as
+South Mountain, attains in that state elevations of about 2000
+ft.; southward to the Potomac its altitudes diminish, but 30 m.
+beyond again reach 2000 ft. In the Virginia Blue Ridge the
+following are the highest peaks east of New river: Mount
+Weather (about 1850 ft.), Mary&rsquo;s Rock (3523), Peaks of Otter
+(4001 and 3875), Stony Man (4031), Hawks Bill (4066). In
+Pennsylvania the summits of the Valley Ridges rise generally to
+about 2000 ft., and in Maryland Eagle Rock and Dans Rock are
+conspicuous points reaching 3162 ft. and 2882 ft. above the sea.
+On the same side of the Great Valley, south of the Potomac,
+are the Pinnacle (3007 ft.) and Pidgeon Roost (3400 ft.). In the
+southern section of the Blue Ridge are Grandfather Mountain
+(5964 ft.), with three other summits above 5000, and a dozen
+more above 4000. The Unaka Ranges (including the Black
+and Smoky Mountains) have eighteen peaks higher than 5000 ft.,
+and eight surpassing 6000 ft. In the Black Mountains, Mitchell
+(the culminating point of the whole system) attains an altitude
+of 6711 ft., Balsam Cone, 6645, Black Brothers, 6690, and 6620,
+and Hallback, 6403. In the Smoky Mountains we have Clingman&rsquo;s
+Peak (6611), Guyot (6636), Alexander (6447), Leconte
+(6612), Curtis (6588), with several others above 6000 and many
+higher than 5000.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the existence of the Great Appalachian Valley, the
+master streams are transverse to the axis of the system. The
+main watershed follows a tortuous course which crosses the
+mountainous belt just north of New river in Virginia; south of
+this the rivers head in the Blue Ridge, cross the higher Unakas,
+receive important tributaries from the Great Valley, and traversing
+the Cumberland Plateau in spreading gorges, escape by
+way of the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers to the Ohio and
+Mississippi, and thus to the Gulf of Mexico; in the central section
+the rivers, rising in or beyond the Valley Ridges, flow through
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page208" id="page208"></a>208</span>
+great gorges (water gaps) to the Great Valley, and by south-easterly
+courses across the Blue Ridge to tidal estuaries penetrating
+the coastal plain; in the northern section the water-parting
+lies on the inland side of the mountainous belt, the main lines of
+drainage running from north to south.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;The rocks of the Appalachian belt fall naturally
+into two divisions; ancient (pre-Cambrian) crystallines, including
+marbles, schists, gneisses, granites and other massive igneous
+rocks, and a great succession of Paleozoic sediments. The
+crystallines are confined to the portion of the belt east of the
+Great Valley where Paleozoic rocks are always highly metamorphosed
+and occur for the most part in limited patches,
+excepting in New England and Canada, where they assume
+greater areal importance, and are besides very generally intruded
+by granites. The Paleozoic sediments, ranging in age from
+Cambrian to Permian, occupy the Great Valley, the Valley
+Ridges and the plateaus still farther west. They are rarely
+metamorphosed to the point of recrystallization, though locally
+shales are altered to roofing slates, sandstones are indurated,
+limestones slightly marblized, and coals, originally bituminous,
+are changed to anthracite in northern Pennsylvania, and to
+graphite in Rhode Island. Igneous intrusions consist only of
+unimportant dikes of trap. The most striking and uniformly
+characteristic geologic feature of the mountains is their internal
+structure, consisting of innumerable parallel, long and narrow
+folds, always closely appressed in the eastern part of any cross-section
+(Piedmont Plateau to Great Valley), less so along a
+central zone (Great Valley and Valley Ridges), and increasingly
+open on the west (Allegheny and Cumberland Plateaus).
+Asymmetry of the folds is a marked characteristic in the zones
+of closer folding, the anticlines having long gently inclined
+easterly limbs, and short, steep and even overturned limbs
+upon the west. The effect of such folds is often exaggerated by
+thrusts, and faulting of this sort is prominent in the southern
+section, where the existence of over-thrusts measured by several
+miles has been established.</p>
+
+<p>What may be termed the ancestral Appalachian system was
+formed during the post-carboniferous revolution, though certain
+of its elements had been previously outlined, and perhaps at
+different dates. Folding of the rocks resulted from the operation
+of great compressive forces acting tangentially to the figure of
+the earth. Extensive and deep-seated crumpling was necessarily
+accompanied by vertical uplift throughout the zone affected,
+but once at least since their birth the mountains have been worn
+down to a lowland, and the mountains of to-day are the combined
+product of subsequent uplift of a different sort, and dissection
+by erosion. Produced by long-continued subaerial decay and
+erosion, in later Cretaceous times this lowland extended from
+the Atlantic Ocean well toward the interior of North America;
+since then the whole continent has been generally elevated, and
+by successive steps the Appalachian belt has been raised to form
+a wide but relatively low arch. The crosswise courses of the
+greater rivers result from the rivers being older than the mountains,
+which indeed have been produced by circumdenudation.
+The master streams of the present have inherited their channels
+from the drainage systems of the Cretaceous lowland, and though
+raised athwart the courses of the lowland trunk streams the
+great arch was developed so slowly that these channels could be
+maintained through <i>pari passu</i> deepening. Former tributaries
+have given place to others developed with reference to the
+distribution of more or less easily eroded strata, the present
+longitudinal valleys being determined by the out-crop of soft
+shales or soluble limestones, and the parallel ridges upheld by
+hard sandstones or schists. Parallelism of mountain ridges
+and intervening valleys is thus attributable to the folding of the
+rocks, but the origin of the interior structure of the mountains
+is to be kept distinct from the origin of the mountains as features
+of topography.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora and Fauna.</i>&mdash;Much of the region is covered with forest
+yielding quantities of valuable timber, especially in Canada and
+northern New England. The most valuable trees for lumber
+are spruce, white pine, hemlock, cedar, white birch, ash, maple
+and basswood; all excepting pine and hemlock and poplar in
+addition are ground into wood pulp for the manufacture of
+paper. In the central and southern parts of the belt oak and
+hickory constitute valuable hard woods, and certain varieties
+of the former furnish quantities of tan bark. The tulip tree
+produces a good clear lumber known as white wood or poplar,
+and is also a source of pulp. In the south both white and yellow
+pine abounds. Many flowering and fruit-bearing shrubs of the
+heath family add to the beauty of the mountainous districts,
+rhododendron and kalmia often forming impenetrable thickets.
+Bears, mountain lions (pumas), wild cats (lynx) and wolves
+haunt the more remote fastnesses of the mountains; foxes
+abound; deer are found in many districts and moose in the
+north.</p>
+
+<p><i>Influence on History.</i>&mdash;For a century the Appalachians were a
+barrier to the westward expansion of the English colonies; the
+continuity of the system, the bewildering multiplicity of its
+succeeding ridges, the tortuous courses and roughness of its
+transverse passes, a heavy forest and dense undergrowth all
+conspired to hold the settlers on the seaward-sloping plateaus
+and coastal plains. Only by way of the Hudson and Mohawk
+valleys, and round about the southern termination of the system
+were there easy routes to the interior of the country, and these
+were long closed by hostile aborigines and jealous French or
+Spanish colonists. In eastern Pennsylvania the Great Valley
+was accessible by reason of a broad gateway between the end of
+South Mountain and the Highlands, and here in the Lebanon
+Valley settled German Moravians, whose descendants even now
+retain the peculiar patois known as &ldquo;Pennsylvania Dutch.&rdquo;
+These were late comers to the New World forced to the frontier
+to find unclaimed lands. With their followers of both German
+and Scotch-Irish origin, they worked their way southward and
+soon occupied all of the Virginia Valley and the upper reaches of
+the Great Valley tributaries of the Tennessee. By 1755 the
+obstacle to westward expansion had been thus reduced by half;
+outposts of the English colonists had penetrated the Allegheny
+and Cumberland plateaus, threatening French monopoly in the
+transmontane region, and a conflict became inevitable. Making
+common cause against the French to determine the control of
+the Ohio valley, the unsuspected strength of the colonists was
+revealed, and the successful ending of the French and Indian
+War extended England&rsquo;s territory to the Mississippi. To this
+strength the geographic isolation enforced by the Appalachian
+mountains had been a prime contributor. The confinement of
+the colonies between an ocean and a mountain wall led to the
+fullest occupation of the coastal border of the continent, which
+was possible under existing conditions of agriculture, conducing
+to a community of purpose, a political and commercial solidarity,
+which would not otherwise have been developed. As early as
+1700 it was possible to ride from Portland, Maine, to southern
+Virginia, sleeping each night at some considerable village. In
+contrast to this complete industrial occupation, the French
+territory was held by a small and very scattered population, its
+extent and openness adding materially to the difficulties of a
+disputed tenure. Bearing the brunt of this contest as they did,
+the colonies were undergoing preparation for the subsequent
+struggle with the home government. Unsupported by shipping,
+the American armies fought toward the sea with the mountains
+at their back protecting them against Indians leagued with the
+British. The few settlements beyond the Great Valley were
+free for self-defence because debarred from general participation
+in the conflict by reason of their position.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the separate articles on the states, and also the following
+references:&mdash;Topographic maps and Geologic Folios of the United
+States Geological Survey; Bailey Willis, &ldquo;The Northern Appalachians,&rdquo;
+and C.W. Hayes, &ldquo;The Southern Appalachians,&rdquo; both in
+<i>National Geographic Monographs</i>, vol. i.; and chaps, iii., iv. and v.
+of Miss E.C. Semple&rsquo;s <i>American History and its Geographic Conditions</i>
+(Boston, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. C. Sp.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPANAGE,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Apanage</span> (a French word from the late Lat.
+<i>apanagium</i>, formed from <i>apanare, i.e. panem porrigere</i>, to give
+bread, <i>i.e.</i> sustenance), in its original sense, the means of
+subsistence given by parents to their younger children as distinct
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page209" id="page209"></a>209</span>
+from the rights secured to the eldest born by the custom of
+primogeniture. In its modern usage it is practically confined to
+the money endowment given to the younger children of reigning
+or mediatized houses in Germany and Austria, which reverts
+to the state or to the head of the family on the extinction of the
+line of the original grantee. In English history the system of
+appanages never played any great part, and the term is now
+properly applied only to the appanages of the crown: the duchy
+of Cornwall, assigned to the king&rsquo;s eldest son at birth, or on his
+father&rsquo;s accession to the crown, and the duchy of Lancaster.
+In the history of France, however, the appanage was a very
+important factor. The word denotes in very early French law
+the portion of lands or money given by fathers and mothers to
+their sons or daughters on marriage, and usually connotes a
+renunciation by the latter of any future inheritance; or it may
+denote the portion given by the eldest son to his brothers and
+sisters when he was sole inheritor. The word <i>apanage</i> is still
+employed in this sense in French official texts of some <i>Customs</i>;
+but it was in old public law that it received its definite meaning
+and importance. Under the kings of the third dynasty, the
+division of the kingdom among the sons of the dead monarch
+which had characterized the Merovingian and Carolingian
+dynasties, ceased. The eldest son alone succeeded to the crown;
+but at the same time a custom was established by which the king
+made territorial provision suitable to their rank for his other
+children or for his brothers and sisters; custom forbade their
+being left landless. Lands and lordships thus bestowed constituted
+the appanages, which interfered so greatly with the
+formation of ancient France. While the persevering policy of
+the Capets, which aimed at reuniting the great fiefs, duchies,
+countships, baronies, &amp;c., to the domain of the crown, gradually
+reconstructed for their benefit a territorial sovereignty over
+France, the institution of the appanage periodically subtracted
+large portions from it. Louis XI., in particular, had to struggle
+against the appanaged nobles. The old law, however, never
+abolished this institution. The edict of Moulins (1566) maintained
+it, as one of the exceptions to the inalienability of the
+crown-lands; only it was then decided that daughters of France
+should be appanaged in money, or that if, in default of coin,
+lands were assigned to them, these lands should be redeemable
+by the crown in perpetuity. The efforts of the kings to minimize
+this evil, and of the old jurisprudence to deal with the matter,
+resulted in two expedients: (1) the reversion of the appanage
+to the crown was secured as far as possible, being declared inalienable
+and transmissible only to male descendants in the
+male line of the person appanaged; (2) originally the person
+appanaged had possessed all the rights of a duke or count&mdash;that
+is to say, in the middle ages nearly all the attributes of
+sovereignty; the more important of these attributes were now
+gradually reserved to the monarch, including public authority
+over the inhabitants of the appanage in all essential matters.
+However, it is evident from the letters of appanage, dated April
+1771, in favour of the count of Provence, how many functions
+of public authority an appanaged person still held. The
+Constituent Assembly, by the law dated the 22nd of November
+1790, decided that in future there should be no appanages in
+real estate, and that younger sons of monarchs, married and
+over twenty-five years of age, should be provided for by yearly
+grants (<i>rentes apanagères</i>) from the public funds. The laws of the
+13th of August and the 21st of December 1790 revoked all the
+existing appanages, except those of the Luxembourg Palace and
+the Palais Royal. To each person hitherto appanaged an annual
+income of one million <i>livres</i> was assigned, and two millions for the
+brothers of the king. All this came to an end with the monarchy.
+Napoleon, by the <i>sénatus-consulte</i> of the 30th of January 1810,
+resolved to create appanages for the emperor&rsquo;s princely descendants,
+such appanages to consist for the most part of lands on
+French soil. The fall of the empire again annulled this enactment.
+The last appanage known in France was that enjoyed
+by the house of Orleans. Having been re-established, or
+recognized as still existing, by the Restoration, it was formally
+confirmed by the law of the 15th of January 1825. On the
+accession of Louis Philippe it was united to the national property
+by the law of the 2nd of March 1832.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For appanages in ancient law see the <i>Essai sur les apanages ou
+mémoires historiques de leur établissement</i>, attributed to Du Vaucel,
+about 1780.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. P. E.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPAREL<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (from O. Fr. <i>aparail</i>, <i>aparailler</i>, mod. <i>appareil</i>, from
+Low Lat. <i>adpariculare</i>, to make fit or equal), equipment, outfit,
+things furnished for the proper performance of anything, now
+chiefly used of dress. The word is also applied to the &ldquo;orphreys,&rdquo;
+<i>i.e.</i> embroidered strips or borders, on ecclesiastical vestments.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPARITIONS.<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> An apparition, strictly speaking, is merely
+an appearance (Lat. <i>apparere</i>, to appear), the result of perception
+exercised on any stimulus of any of the senses. But in ordinary
+usage the word apparition denotes a perception (generally
+through the sense of sight) which cannot, as a rule, be shown to
+be occasioned by an object in external nature. We say &ldquo;as a
+rule&rdquo; because many so-called apparitions are merely illusions,
+<i>i.e.</i> misconstructions of the perceptive processes, as when a
+person in a bad light sees a number of small children leading a
+horse, and finds, on nearer approach, that he sees two men
+carrying bee-hives suspended from a pole. Again, Sir Walter
+Scott&rsquo;s vision of Byron, then lately dead, proved to be a misconstruction
+of certain plaids and cloaks hanging in the hall at
+Abbotsford, or so Sir Walter declared. Had he not discovered
+the physical basis of this illusion (which, while it lasted, was an
+apparition, technically speaking), he and others might have
+thought that it was an apparition in the popular sense of the
+word, a ghost. In popular phraseology a ghost is understood
+to be a phantasm produced in some way by the spirit of a dead
+person, the impression being usually visual, though the ghost,
+or apparition, may also affect the sense of hearing (by words,
+knocks, whistles, groans and so forth), or the sense of touch,
+or of weight, as in the case of the &ldquo;incubus.&rdquo; In ordinary
+speech an apparition of a person not known to the percipient
+to be dead is called a wraith, in the Highland phrase, a spirit of
+the living. The terms <i>ghost</i> and <i>wraith</i> involve the hypothesis
+that the false perceptions are caused by spirits, a survival of the
+archaic animistic hypothesis (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Animism</a></span>), an hypothesis as
+difficult to prove as to disprove. Apparitions, of course, are not
+confined to anthropomorphic phantasms; we hear of phantom
+coaches (sometimes seen, but more frequently heard), of phantom
+dogs, cats, horses, cattle, deer, and even of phantom houses.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever may be the causes of these and other false perceptions,&mdash;most
+curious when the impression is shared by several
+witnesses,&mdash;they may best be considered under the head of
+hallucination (<i>q.v.</i>). Hallucinations may be pathological, <i>i.e.</i>
+the result of morbid conditions of brain or nerve, of disease, of
+fever, of insanity, of alcoholism, of the abuse of drugs. Again,
+they may be the result of dissociation, or may occur in the
+borderland of sleep or waking, and in this case they partake
+of the hallucinatory nature of dreams (<i>q.v.</i>). Again, hallucinations
+may, once or twice in a lifetime, come into the experience
+of the sane, the healthy, and, as far as any tests can be applied,
+of the wide-awake. In such instances the apparition (whether
+it take the form of a visual phantasm, of a recognized voice, of a
+touch, or what not) may be coincidental or non-coincidental.
+The phantasm is called coincidental if it represents a known and
+distant person who is later found to have been dying or in some
+other crisis at the moment of the percipient&rsquo;s experience. When
+the false perception coincides with nothing of the sort, it is
+styled non-coincidental. Coincidental apparitions have been
+explained by the theory of telepathy (<i>q.v.</i>), one mind or brain
+impressing another in some unknown way so as to beget an
+hallucinatory apparition or phantasm. On the evidence, so far
+as it has been collected and analysed, it seems that the mind
+which, on the hypothesis, begets the hallucinations, usually
+does so without <i>conscious</i> effort (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Subliminal Self</a></span>). There
+are, however, a few cases in which the experiment of begetting,
+in another, an hallucination from a distance, is said to have been
+experimentally and consciously made, with success.</p>
+
+<p>If the telepathic theory of coincidental hallucinations be
+accepted, we have still to account for the much more common
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page210" id="page210"></a>210</span>
+non-coincidental apparitions of the living who do not happen
+to be in any particular crisis. In these instances it cannot be
+demonstrated that telepathy has <i>not</i> been at work, as when a
+person is seen at a place which he thought of visiting, but did
+not visit. F.W. Myers even upheld a theory of psychorhagy,
+holding that the spirits of some persons have a way of manifesting
+themselves at a distance by a psychic invasion. This involves,
+as he remarked, paleolithic psychology, and the old savage
+doctrine of animism, rather than telepathy (see Myers, <i>Human
+Personality</i>). Of belief in coincidental hallucinations or wraiths
+among savages, records are scanty; the belief, however, is found
+among Maoris and Fuegians (see Lang, <i>Making of Religions</i>).
+The perception of apparitions of distant but actual scenes and
+occurrences is usually called clairvoyance (<i>q.v.</i>). The belief is
+also familiar under the name of second sight (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Second Sight</a></span>),
+a term of Scots usage, though the belief in it, and the facts
+if accepted, are of world-wide diffusion. The apparitions may
+either represent actual persons and places, or may be symbolical,
+taking the form of phantasmic lights, coffins, skeletons, shrouds
+and so forth. Again, the appearances may either represent
+things, persons and occurrences of the past (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Retrocognition</a></span>),
+or of the present (clairvoyance), or of the future (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Premonition</a></span>). When the apparitions produce themselves in
+given rooms, houses or localities, and are exhibited to various
+persons at various times, the locality is popularly said to be
+haunted by spirits, that is, of the dead, on the animistic hypothesis
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hauntings</a></span>). Like the other alleged facts, these
+are of world-wide diffusion, or the belief in them is world-wide,
+and peculiar to no race, age, or period of culture. A haunted
+place is a centre of permanent possibilities of hallucinations, or is
+believed to be so. A distinct species of hauntings are those in
+which unexplained sounds and movements of objects, apparently
+untouched, occur. The German term <i>Poltergeist</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) has been
+given to the supposed cause of these occurrences where the
+cause is not ascertained to be sportive imposture. In the performances
+of modern spiritualists the Poltergeist appears, as it
+were, to be domesticated, and to come at the call of the medium.</p>
+
+<p>An intermittent kind of ominous haunting attached, not to
+places, but to families, is that of the banshee (Celtic) or family
+death omen, such as the white bird of the Oxenhams, the Airlie
+drummer, the spectral rider of Clan Gilzean, the rappings of the
+Woodde family. These apparitions, with fairies and <i>djinns</i>
+(the Arab form of fairy), haunt the borderland between folk-lore
+and psychical research.</p>
+
+<p>So far we have been concerned with spontaneous apparitions,
+or with the belief in them. Among induced apparitions may be
+reckoned the materialized forms of spiritual <i>séances</i>, which have
+a material basis of veils, false moustaches, wigs and the <i>corpus
+vile</i> of the medium. It is also possible that mere expectancy
+and suggestion induce hallucinatory perceptions among the
+members of the circle. That apparitions of a sort can be induced
+by hypnotic and posthypnotic suggestion is certain enough (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hypnotism</a></span>). Savages produce apparitions in similar ways by
+suggestion, accompanied by dances, fumigations, darkness,
+fasting, drugs, and whatever can affect the imaginations of the
+onlookers (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Magic</a></span>). Both in savage and civilized life, some
+persons can provoke themselves into beholding apparitions
+usually fantastic, but occasionally coincidental, by sedulously
+staring into any clear deep water, a fragment of rock crystal, a
+piece of polished basalt or obsidian, a mirror, a ring, a sword
+blade, or a glass of sherry (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crystal Gazing</a></span>). Indeed any
+object, a wall, the palm of the hand, the shoulder-blade-bone of a
+sheep, may be, and has been used to this end (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Divination</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Almost all known apparitions may accommodate themselves
+to one or other of the categories given, whether they be pathological,
+coincidental or spontaneous, induced, permanently
+localized, or sporadic.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See generally, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spiritualism</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psychical Research</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. L.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPARITOR,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Apparator</span> (Latin for a servant of a public
+official, from <i>apparere</i>, to attend in public), an attendant who
+executed the orders of a Roman magistrate; hence a beadle in a
+university, a pursuivant or herald; particularly, in English
+ecclesiastical courts, the official who serves the processes of the
+court and causes defendants to appear by summons.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPEAL,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> in law. In the old English common law the term
+&ldquo;appeal&rdquo; was used to describe a process peculiar to English
+criminal procedure. It was a right of prosecution possessed as a
+personal privilege by a party individually aggrieved by a felony,
+a privilege of which the crown could not directly or indirectly
+deprive him, since he could use it alike when the prisoner was
+tried and acquitted, and when he was convicted and pardoned.
+It was chiefly known in practice as the privilege of the nearest
+relation of a murdered person. When in 1729 (after Colonel
+Oglethorpe&rsquo;s inquiry and report on the London prisons) Banbridge
+and other gaolers were indicted for their treatment of
+prisoners, but were acquitted for deficiency of evidence, appeals
+for murder were freely brought by relatives of deceased prisoners.
+In the case of Slaughterford (1708) the accused was charged with
+murdering a woman whom he had seduced; the evidence was
+very imperfect, and he was acquitted on indictment. But
+public indignation being aroused by the atrocities alleged to
+have been perpetrated, an appeal was brought, and on conviction
+he was hanged, as his execution was a privilege belonging to the
+prosecutor, of which the crown could not deprive him by a
+pardon. In 1818 an appeal was ingeniously met by an offer of
+battle, since if the appellee were an able-bodied man he had the
+choice between combat or a jury (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wager</a></span>). This neutralizing
+of one obsolete and barbarous process by another called the
+attention of the legislature to the subject, and appeal in criminal
+cases, along with trial by battle, was abolished in 1819. The
+history of this appeal is fully dealt with in Pollock and Maitland,
+<i>History of English Law</i>, 1898.</p>
+
+<p>In its usual modern sense the term appeal is applied to the
+proceeding by which the decision of a court of justice is brought
+for review before another tribunal of higher authority. In
+Roman jurisprudence it was used in this and in other significations;
+it was sometimes equivalent to prosecution, or the calling
+up of an accused person before a tribunal where the accuser
+appealed to the protection of the magistrate against injustice or
+oppression. The derivation from <i>appellare</i> (&ldquo;call&rdquo;) suggests
+that its earliest meaning was an urgent outcry or prayer against
+injustice. During the republic the magistrate was generally
+supreme within his sphere, and those who felt themselves outraged
+by injustice threw themselves on popular protection by
+<i>provocatio</i>, instead of looking to redress from a higher official
+authority. Under the empire different grades of jurisdiction
+were established, and the ultimate remedy was an appeal to
+the emperor; thus Paul, when brought before Festus, appealed
+unto Caesar. Such appeals were, however, not heard by the
+emperor in person but by a supreme judge representing him.
+In the <i>Corpus Juris</i> the appeal to the emperor is called indiscriminately
+<i>appellatio</i> and <i>provocatio</i>. A considerable portion
+of the 49th book of the <i>Pandects</i> is devoted to appeals; but
+little of the practical operation of the system is to be deduced
+from the propositions there brought together.</p>
+
+<p>During the middle ages full scope was afforded for appeals
+from the lower to the higher authorities in the church. In
+matters ecclesiastical, including those matrimonial, testamentary
+and other departments, which the church ever tried to bring
+within the operation of the canon law, there were various grades
+of appeal, ending with the pope. The claims of the church to
+engross appeals in matters trenching on the temporal rights of
+princes led to continual conflicts between church and state,
+terminated in England at the reformation by the suppression in
+1534 of appeals to Rome, which had previously been discouraged
+by legislation of Edward III. and Richard II.</p>
+
+<p>In temporal, as distinct from spiritual matters, it became
+customary for ambitious sovereigns to encourage appeals from
+the courts of the crown vassals to themselves as represented by
+the supreme judges, and Charlemagne usually enjoys the credit
+of having set the example of this system of centralization by
+establishing <i>missi dominici</i>. It is not improbable that his claim
+was suggested or justified by the practice of the Roman empire,
+to the sovereignty whereof he claimed to be successor.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page211" id="page211"></a>211</span></p>
+
+<p><i>England.</i>&mdash;When the royal authority in England grew strong
+as against that of the tenants <i>in capite</i>, the king&rsquo;s courts in
+England were more effectively organized, and their net swept
+wider so as to draw within their cognizance matters previously
+adjudged in courts baron or courts leet or in the county court,
+and they acquired authority to supervise and review the decisions
+of the inferior and local courts, to control and limit their claims
+to exercise jurisdiction, and to transfer causes from the local to
+the royal courts. The machinery by which this process was
+usually effected, under the common law, was not by what is now
+known as appeal, but by the process of <i>certiorari</i> or writs of
+error or prohibition. Recourse was also had against the decisions
+of the royal courts by appeal to the great council of the king, or
+to parliament as a whole. The supremacy of the king&rsquo;s courts
+over all causes, as well ecclesiastical as civil, has been completely
+established since the reign of Henry VIII., and they have
+effectually asserted the power to regulate and keep within their
+proper jurisdiction all other tribunals within the realm. Since
+that date the organization of judicial tribunals has gradually
+been changed and improved with the object (1) of creating a
+judicial hierarchy independent of executive control; (2) of
+ensuring that all decisions on questions of law shall be co-ordinated
+and rendered systematic by correction of the errors and vagaries
+of subordinate tribunals; and (3) of securing so far as possible
+uniformity in the judicial interpretation and administration of
+the law, by creating a supreme appellate tribunal to whose
+decisions all other tribunals are bound to conform. It would be
+undesirable to detail at length the history of appellate jurisdiction
+in England, involving as it would the discussion in great
+detail of the history and procedure of English law, and it may
+suffice to indicate the system of appeals as at present organized,
+beginning with the lowest courts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Justices of the Peace.</i>&mdash;The decisions of justices of the peace
+sitting as courts of summary jurisdiction are subject to review
+on questions of law only by the High Court of Justice. This
+review is in a sense consultative, because it is usually effected by
+means of a case voluntarily stated by the justices at the request
+of the aggrieved party, in which are set forth the facts as determined
+by the justices, the questions of law raised and their
+decision thereon, as to the correctness whereof the opinion of the
+High Court is invited. The procedure is equally open in criminal
+and civil matters brought before the justices. But when the
+justices decline to state a case for the opinion of the High Court,
+the latter, if review seems desirable, may order the justices to
+state a case. And the High Court has also power to control the
+action of justices by prohibiting them from acting in a case
+beyond their jurisdiction, ordering them to exercise jurisdiction
+where they have improperly declined (<i>mandamus</i>), or bringing
+up for review and quashing orders or convictions which they have
+made in excess of jurisdiction, or in cases in which interested
+or biassed justices have adjudicated (<i>certiorari</i>). None of these
+regulative processes exactly corresponds to what is popularly
+known as an appeal, but in effect if not in form an appeal is
+thus given.</p>
+
+<p>There is also another form of appeal, in the fullest sense of
+the term, from the decision of justices sitting as a court of
+summary jurisdiction to the justices of the same county sitting
+in general or quarter sessions, or in the case of a borough to
+the recorder as judge of the borough court of quarter sessions.
+This form of appeal is in every case the creation of statute:
+and even in text-books it is hardly possible to find a really
+complete list of the matters in respect of which such appeal
+lies. But as regards criminal cases there is an approximately
+general rule, given by § 19 of the Summary Jurisdiction Act
+1879, viz. that an appeal to quarter sessions lies from the conviction
+or order of a court of summary jurisdiction directing
+imprisonment without the option of a fine as a punishment for
+an offence, or for failing to do or to abstain from doing any
+act required to be done or left undone other than an order for
+the payment of money, or to find sureties or give security or to
+enter into a recognizance, or a conviction made on a plea of
+guilty or admission of the truth of the matter of complaint.</p>
+
+<p>As a general rule, subject to particular statutory exceptions,
+appeals of this kind are by way of rehearing, <i>i.e.</i> the actor or
+prosecutor must before the appellate tribunal call his witnesses
+and prove his case just as if no previous hearing had taken
+place before the court appealed from (Pritchard, <i>Quarter Sessions
+Practice</i>, 2nd ed., 461). The only limit is that the appellant
+must confine himself to the grounds of appeal stated in the notice
+of appeal given by him.</p>
+
+<p><i>Justices in Quarter Sessions.</i>&mdash;This tribunal has under the
+commission of the peace and under statute power to refer
+questions of difficulty arising before it for decision to the High
+Court. The old mode of exercising this power was by sending
+on to assizes indictments raising difficult questions which had
+been presented at quarter sessions. The High Court has <i>ex
+officio</i> power to transfer such indictments where the nature of the
+case and the demands of justice call for such transfer. The
+quarter sessions had also power under statute on trying an
+indictment to refer to the court for crown cases reserved
+(Crown Cases Act 1848), abolished by the Criminal Appeal Act
+1907, questions of law which had arisen at the trial, and in all
+civil cases the quarter sessions has power of its own volition
+and subject to no direct compulsion to consult the High Court
+on legal questions of difficulty which have arisen. Until 1894
+this jurisdiction was regarded as consultative only. It was and
+is exercised by stating the facts, of which the court of quarter
+sessions is the sole judge, and indicating the questions of law
+arising on the facts, and the view of quarter sessions thereon,
+and inviting the opinion of the High Court. Under the Judicature
+Act 1894 cases stated in this way are now treated as
+&ldquo;appeals&rdquo; in the popular sense.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inferior Courts of purely Civil Jurisdiction.</i>&mdash;An appeal also
+lies as a general rule to the High Court from the judgment of a
+county court or of any inferior tribunal having civil jurisdiction.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) County Courts. Any party to an action or matter in a
+county court who is dissatisfied with the determination or
+direction of the judge in law or equity, or upon the admission or
+rejection of any evidence, may appeal against the decision in the
+following cases: (1) if the amount of claim or counter-claim in
+the proceeding exceeds £20; or (2) in all equity matters or cases
+in which an injunction has been given; or (3) in actions to
+recover possession of land where questions of title are involved
+(County Courts Act 1888, § 120). In the case of a claim below
+£20 no appeal lies except by the leave of the county court.
+The old practice of appeal by way of special case as in appeals
+from justices has been abolished, and the present procedure is by
+notice of motion (R.S.C. O. LIX. rr. 10-18).</p>
+
+<p>These appeals are heard in the king&rsquo;s bench division, except
+in the case of appeals from judgments of a county court sitting
+in the exercise of admiralty jurisdiction, which are heard by
+two or more judges sitting in the probate, divorce and admiralty
+division. The chancery division has never sat to hear
+&ldquo;appeals&rdquo; from a county court exercising equity jurisdiction;
+but at times, by <i>prohibition</i> or <i>certiorari</i>, has, in effect, reviewed
+or restrained excess of jurisdiction by county courts in equity
+matters.</p>
+
+<p>The decision of the High Court on county court appeals is
+final unless an appeal to the court of appeal is brought by
+leave of that court or of the High Court (Judicature Act 1894,
+§ 1, sub. sect. 5; Judicature Act 1873, § 45).</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Other inferior courts of civil jurisdiction. Appeals from
+the local courts of record which still survive in certain cities,
+towns and districts are in a somewhat anomalous position. The
+general rule is that, unless a statute regulates such appeal, it
+may be brought in the king&rsquo;s bench division of the High Court
+on notice of motion in any case in which, before the Judicature
+Acts, the court of king&rsquo;s bench could have reviewed the decision
+of the inferior court by writ of error. The history of this question
+is dealt with in <i>Darlow</i> v. <i>Shuttleworth</i>, 1902, 1 K.B. 721.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of the mayor&rsquo;s court of London, under the local
+and general statutes regulating that court, the appeal is usually
+to the king&rsquo;s bench division, but where there is what is termed
+&ldquo;error&rdquo; on the face of the proceedings of the mayor&rsquo;s court,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page212" id="page212"></a>212</span>
+the appeal lies direct to the court of appeal as successor of the
+court of exchequer chamber. Appeals from the Liverpool court
+of passage and from the chancery courts of the duchies of
+Lancaster and Durham lie by statute direct to the court of
+appeal.</p>
+
+<p><i>High Court of Justice.</i>&mdash;Until the Supreme Court of Judicature
+Acts of 1873 and 1875 came into operation, the superior courts
+in England were imperfectly co-ordinated both as to jurisdiction
+and appeals. The effect of these acts was to create a Supreme
+Court of Judicature divided into two main branches, the High
+Court of Justice, which is an appellate court with respect to the
+inferior courts already mentioned, and to certain other special
+courts and persons; and the court of appeal, which is mainly
+concerned with appeals from the High Court of Justice.</p>
+
+<p>The High Court of Justice acts as an appellate court or court
+of consultation with reference to courts of summary jurisdiction
+or quarter sessions and to county courts and other inferior
+courts of civil jurisdiction in the cases already indicated. The
+three divisions of the court are somewhat differently placed
+with reference to appeals.</p>
+
+<p>In the chancery division (made up, in 1908, of six single
+judge courts) no appeals are heard except from subordinate
+officials (masters) of the court, or an occasional interference
+by <i>certiorari</i> or <i>prohibition</i> with a county court.</p>
+
+<p>In the probate, divorce and admiralty division, besides
+the supervision which may be exercised by a single judge over
+the subordinate officers of the court (registrars), divisional
+courts (of two judges) hear appeals from decisions of the county
+court in admiralty causes, and appeals from justices in cases
+between husband and wife under the Summary Jurisdiction
+(Married Women) Act 1895, as amended by the Licensing Act
+1902. In the first of these cases the appeal is on law only as
+in the case of other county court appeals; in the second, the
+procedure is by rehearing, or reconsideration of the facts
+as minuted in the court appealed from, and of the law there
+applied to these facts.</p>
+
+<p>The bulk of the appellate work of the High Court is conducted
+in the king&rsquo;s bench division&mdash;which, as successor of the old
+court of king&rsquo;s bench in the duties of <i>custos morum</i> of the
+realm, still retains supervisory power over all inferior courts
+in all cases in which that supervision has not been transferred
+to the other divisions of the High Court or to the court of appeal,
+or to the court of criminal appeal.</p>
+
+<p>The king&rsquo;s bench division exercises appellate jurisdiction
+in the following cases.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to decisions of justices of the peace sitting at
+quarter sessions, or as a court of summary jurisdiction, except
+in the case above stated, the subject matter of appeal is for
+the most part of a criminal or quasi-criminal character, the civil
+jurisdiction of justices being comparatively limited. The
+appeal in such cases is as to matters of law only, the justices&rsquo;
+decision on facts not being subject to review.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of the courts above named, the appeal is brought
+by writ of <i>certiorari</i>, where the jurisdiction of quarter sessions
+to give the judgment challenged is denied <i>in toto</i>, or in some cases
+by writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>, where the appellant is in custody
+under an order of the court appealed from (Judicature Act
+1894, § 2). The best example of this is the right of a fugitive
+criminal committed for extradition to challenge the legality
+of the decision of the committing magistrate by writ of <i>habeas
+corpus</i>. Save in cases of want of jurisdiction or refusal to
+exercise it, no appeal lies from quarter sessions except by consent
+of the court appealed from, which states the facts as ascertained
+by the inferior court, and invites the review of the superior
+court upon the questions of law raised by the facts as found.</p>
+
+<p>Decisions of justices sitting in the exercise of summary
+jurisdiction are subject to review by a special case in which
+the justices state the facts found by them and their decision
+on the points of law, and invite the review of the appellate
+court on these grounds. Such cases for appeal are usually
+stated by consent of the justices, but in the event of their
+refusal the appellate court may order that a case shall be stated.</p>
+
+<p>Decisions of justices in the exercise of summary jurisdiction
+may also be challenged by writ of <i>certiorari</i> as having been
+wholly outside their jurisdiction; and in such proceeding
+the appellate tribunal may review the evidence taken below
+so far as to ascertain whether the justices have by an erroneous
+finding of fact enabled themselves to assume a jurisdiction
+which upon the true facts they did not possess.</p>
+
+<p>Where the decision appealed from is in a criminal cause
+or matter the decision of the High Court is final. Where it
+is in a civil matter a further appeal also lies to the court of
+appeal by leave of the High Court or of the court of appeal
+(Judicature Act 1873, § 45).</p>
+
+<p>Appeals in criminal cases tried on indictment, criminal
+information or coroner&rsquo;s inquisition, stand on a different footing
+from other appeals.</p>
+
+<p>For many years the question of criminal appeal in general
+had been a matter of great controversy. As early as 1844 a
+bill had been unsuccessfully introduced for the purpose of
+establishing appeal in criminal cases, and from that time up
+to 1906 nearly thirty bills were brought forward with the same
+object, but none succeeded in passing. In 1892 the question
+was referred to the council of judges and favourably reported
+upon by them. It may be remarked that England was practically
+the only civilized country in which there was no appeal
+in criminal cases. It is true there was an appeal on questions
+of law arising at the trial. But the procedure was intricate
+and technical, being either (1) by writ of error, issued by the
+consent of the attorney-general (expressed by his <i>fiat</i>), to review
+errors of law appearing in the record of the trial, or (2) by special
+case, stated by the judge presiding at the trial, with respect
+to a question of law raised at the trial. These appeals were
+heard by the king&rsquo;s bench division. Meanwhile there had
+been a considerable development of public opinion in favour
+of the establishment of criminal appeal, a development
+undoubtedly hastened by the report of a committee of inquiry
+in the case of Adolf Beck (1904), showing clearly that the home
+office was not a satisfactory tribunal of final appeal. In 1906
+the lord chancellor (Lord Loreburn) introduced another criminal
+appeal bill, which passed the House of Lords, but was dropped
+in the House of Commons after a first reading. The next year
+the act (Criminal Appeal Act 1907), which was ultimately
+carried, was introduced into the House of Commons. By this
+act a court is established consisting of the lord chief justice
+and eight judges of the king&rsquo;s bench division, the jurisdiction
+of the court for crown cases reserved being transferred to the
+new court. The court to be duly constituted must consist
+of not less than three judges and of an uneven number of judges.
+The court may sit in two or more divisions if the lord chief
+justice so directs. Its sittings are held in London unless special
+directions are given by the lord chief justice that it shall sit
+at some other place. The opinion of the majority of those
+hearing the case determines any question before the court,
+and judgment is pronounced by the president (who is the lord
+chief justice or senior member present), unless in questions
+of law, when, if it is convenient that separate judgments should
+be pronounced by the members of the court, they may be so
+pronounced. The judgment of the court of criminal appeal
+is final, except where the decision involves a point of law of
+exceptional public importance, and a certificate must be obtained
+from the attorney-general to that effect. The court of criminal
+appeal is a superior court of record. An appeal may be made
+either against conviction or against sentence. A person convicted
+on indictment may appeal either on a question of law alone
+or of fact alone, or on a question of mixed law and fact. On
+a point of law a prisoner has an unqualified right of appeal,
+on a question of fact or of mixed law and fact there is a right
+of appeal only if leave be obtained from the court of criminal
+appeal or a certificate be granted by the judge who tried the
+prisoner that it is a fit case for appeal. The court is given a
+wide discretion as to whether a conviction may be sustained
+or set aside. The court may allow the appeal if they think
+that the verdict of the jury should be set aside because it is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page213" id="page213"></a>213</span>
+unreasonable, or because it cannot be supported having regard
+to the evidence, or that the judgment should be set aside
+on the ground of a wrong decision on any point of law, or
+that on any ground there was a miscarriage of justice. Power is
+given to the court to dismiss the appeal if they consider that no
+substantial miscarriage of justice has occurred, even though
+they are of opinion that the point raised in the appeal
+might be decided in favour of the appellant. The sentence
+passed at the trial may be quashed by the appeal court and
+such other sentence (whether more or less severe) warranted
+in law by the verdict substituted. Notice of appeal or notice
+of application for leave to appeal must be given within ten
+days of the date of conviction; where a conviction involves
+sentence of death or corporal punishment the sentence must
+not be executed until after the expiration of ten days, and, if
+notice of appeal is given, not until after the determination
+of the appeal or the final dismissal of the application for leave
+to appeal. The act gives the court power to order any witnesses
+who would have been compellable witnesses at the trial to attend
+and be examined before the court, and to receive the evidence,
+if tendered, of any witness who is a competent but not compellable
+witness. If any question arises on the appeal involving
+prolonged examination of documents or accounts or any scientific
+or local investigation, which the court thinks cannot be conveniently
+conducted before it, the matter may be referred to
+a special commissioner appointed by the court, and the court
+may act on the report of that commissioner if it thinks fit.
+An appellant is given the right to be present on the hearing
+of his appeal, if he desires it, except where the appeal is on
+some ground involving a question of law alone, but rules of court
+may provide for his presence in such a case, or the court may give
+him leave. The act requires shorthand notes to be taken of
+the proceedings at the trial of any person, who, if convicted,
+would have a right to appeal under the act. Nothing in the act
+affects the prerogative of mercy, and the home secretary may,
+if he thinks fit, at any time refer a case to the court of criminal
+appeal.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Court of Appeal.</i>&mdash;The court of appeal, constituted under
+the Judicature Acts, is one of the two permanent divisions of the
+Supreme Court of Judicature. As now constituted the court
+consists of <i>ex officio</i> members and five ordinary members, styled
+lords justices of appeal. The <i>ex officio</i> members are the lord
+chancellor, every person who has held that office, the lord chief
+justice, the master of the rolls, and the president of the probate,
+&amp;c., division.</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary business of the court is carried on by the lords
+justices under the presidency of the master of the rolls, who in
+1881 ceased to be a judge of the High Court (Judicature Act
+1881, § 2). The court usually sits in two divisions of three
+judges, but on occasion a third court can be formed, with the
+assistance of the other <i>ex officio</i> judges, in the absence of the
+ordinary judges from illness or public engagements, or to deal
+with arrears of business. The quorum for final appeals is three,
+for interlocutory appeals two judges.</p>
+
+<p>The court of appeal has succeeded to the appellate authority
+exercised (1) in the case of equity and bankruptcy matters by
+the lord chancellor and the lords justices of appeal in chancery
+(Judicature Act 1873, § 18); (2) in the case of common law
+matters, by the court of exchequer chamber, as a court of error,
+and the superior courts of common law sitting to review the
+decisions of single judges of these courts sitting with or without
+a jury at first instance in civil actions; (3) in the case of divorce
+or probate causes by the full court of divorce (Judicature Act
+1881, § 9); (4) in the case of admiralty causes by the king in
+council or the judicial committee of the privy council; (5) in
+the case of applications for new trials in jury actions by the
+king&rsquo;s bench division (Judicature Act 1890, § 1).</p>
+
+<p>The court never had jurisdiction to hear an appeal in any
+criminal cause or matter, but was able to review by writ of error
+decisions of the king&rsquo;s bench division in such cases, unless the
+court for crown cases reserved had dealt with the question
+under the Crown Cases Act 1848. This procedure has been
+abolished by the Criminal Appeal Act 1907. Instances of
+procedure by writ of error were rare. Those best worth notice
+are the cases of the Tichborne claimant on his conviction of
+perjury, and the case of C. Bradlaugh on the sufficiency of the
+indictment against him for publishing the <i>Fruits of Philosophy</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The appellate jurisdiction of the court as now exercised
+entitles the court to hear and determine (1) appeals from every
+judgment or decree of every division of the High Court in all
+civil cases in which such judgment is not declared final by
+statute; (2) applications for a new trial in civil cases tried in
+the king&rsquo;s bench division by judge and jury which, until 1890,
+were dealt with by two or more judges in that division; (3)
+appeals in matters of civil practice and procedure from decisions
+of a single judge in chambers, which, until 1894, were dealt with
+in a divisional court or by a judge in open court; (4) appeals
+from the chancery courts of Durham (Palatine Court of Durham
+Act 1889) and Lancaster (act of 1890, c. 23) and the Liverpool
+court of passage (<i>Anderson v. Dean</i>, 1894, 2 Q.B. 222), and on
+error in a record of the mayor&rsquo;s court of London (<i>Le Blanche</i> v.
+<i>Heaton Telegram Co.</i>, 1876, 1 Ex.D. 408); and from county
+courts under the Agricultural Holdings Acts and Workmen&rsquo;s
+Compensation Acts; (5) appeals on questions of law from
+decisions of the railway commissioners in England (Railway and
+Canal Traffic Act 1888).</p>
+
+<p>The court of appeal also exercises the lunacy jurisdiction of the
+lord chancellor, but in regard to this the jurisdiction of the court
+is for the most part original and not appellate.</p>
+
+<p>The jurisdiction of the court of appeal is excluded or limited
+in the following cases:&mdash;(1) judgments of the High Court&mdash;(<i>a</i>)
+where its jurisdiction is consultative only; (<i>b</i>) where there is an
+appeal to the High Court from an inferior court of civil jurisdiction;
+(<i>c</i>) where there is an appeal to the High Court from any
+court of person, unless in cases (<i>b</i>) and (<i>c</i>) leave be obtained
+of the court by which the order is made, or of the court of appeal;
+(2) orders of the High Court in registration and election cases
+except with the like leave; (3) orders made by consent of parties,
+or as to costs only which by law are left to the discretion of the
+court; (4) certain interlocutory orders mentioned in § 1 of
+the Supreme Court of Judicature (Procedure) Act 1894, except
+by leave of the judge appealed from or of the court of appeal
+(5) orders of the admiralty division in cases of prize, the appeal
+from which lies to His Majesty in Council; (6) where the decision
+of any court whose jurisdiction was transferred to the High Court
+is declared by statute to be final; (7) matters which from their
+nature were not appealable to any court before the Judicature
+Acts, or in which the court of appeal has no means of enforcing
+or executing its judgment. For example, it was held in the
+House of Lords, in <i>Cox</i> v. <i>Hakes</i>, 1890, 15 A.C. 506, that no
+appeal lies from the order of a judge discharging a prisoner under
+a writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>. &ldquo;If,&rdquo; said Lord Herschell, &ldquo;the contention
+of the respondent is to prevail, the statute has effected a
+grave constitutional change&rdquo;; and later, &ldquo;if&rdquo; the High Court
+&ldquo;has inherited the combined powers of the courts whose functions
+were transferred to it, but none of them had any jurisdiction or
+authority to review a discharge by a competent court under a
+writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>, or to enforce the arrest of one thus freed
+from custody ... it seems to me to follow, that however wrong
+the court of appeal might think a discharge to have been, it
+would have been powerless to order a rearrest, or at least to
+enforce such an order.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The procedure of the court of appeal is regulated by the rules
+of the Supreme Court. A distinction is drawn between appeals
+from a final judgment or order (which, unless the parties consent
+to a smaller quorum, must be heard by three judges) and an
+appeal from an interlocutory order (which may be determined
+by two judges of the court of appeal).</p>
+
+<p>In the case of appeals from a final or interlocutory &ldquo;judgment,&rdquo;
+or from an order, including applications for a new trial,
+the appeal must be brought within three months from the time
+when the judgment or order is signed, entered or otherwise
+perfected, or in the case of refusal of an application from the
+date of refusal. The appeal is by notice of motion, which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page214" id="page214"></a>214</span>
+except in cases of application for a new trial, need not state
+the grounds of appeal. Fourteen clear days&rsquo; notice of the
+motion must be given by the appellant to the other party, the
+respondent.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of appeals from an interlocutory order, or from a
+final order, or from an order made in any matter which is not an
+action, or from an order made in chambers, the appeal must be
+brought within fourteen days by motion, of which four clear
+days&rsquo; notice must be given by the appellant to all parties directly
+affected by the appeal. Controversies have arisen as to the
+meaning of the term &ldquo;interlocutory,&rdquo; which (in the absence of
+any authoritative definition) the court of appeal settles as they
+arise. The test most generally accepted is that a judgment or
+order is final if, as made, it finally disposes of the rights of the
+parties in a manner equally conclusive between them. The
+court may by special leave allow appeals of either class to be
+brought after the time above limited. The respondent may by
+proper notice bring a cross appeal against any portion of the
+judgment or order made below with which he is dissatisfied.
+The court has power to order the appellant to find security for
+the costs of an appeal, if special circumstances, such as insolvency
+or poverty or foreign domicile or the like, make the
+giving of security desirable. The court of appeal &ldquo;rehears&rdquo;
+the case. Under ordinary circumstances it does not permit a
+new case to be set up inconsistent with the case as presented
+below; and it is content with the judges&rsquo; notes, or a transcript
+of the evidence given below, and with a note or transcript of the
+judgment appealed from, but has power on special grounds to
+receive fresh evidence either <i>viva voce</i> or on affidavit. The court
+may call in for its assistance assessors who are experts on the
+matters of fact or science involved in the appeal, and usually
+does so in cases arising out of collisions at sea.</p>
+
+<p>The court of appeal may make any order which it deems just
+as to the costs of the whole or any part of an appeal, except
+possibly in the case of certain appeals in matters on the crown
+side of the High Court, as to which some doubt still exists. In
+practice the costs follow the event, unless the court in a particular
+case makes an order to the contrary.</p>
+
+<p>A decision of the court of appeal is final in appeals from
+the High Court in bankruptcy, unless leave be given to appeal
+to the House of Lords (§ 104, Bankruptcy Act 1883), and in
+divorce appeals, except where the decision either is upon the
+grant or refusal of a decree for dissolution or nullity of marriage,
+or for a declaration of legitimacy, or is upon any question of law
+on which the court gives leave to appeal (Supreme Court of
+Judicature Act 1881, § 9); but no further appeal to the House
+of Lords lies, even with leave of the court of appeal, on appeals
+from the High Court sitting as a court of appeal from county
+courts in bankruptcy. With these exceptions there is now a right
+of appeal from every order of the court of appeal to the House
+of Lords.</p>
+
+<p><i>The House of Lords.</i>&mdash;The House of Lords has for centuries
+been the court of last resort, and is still the final court of appeal
+from the chief courts in the United Kingdom. The origin of the
+appellate jurisdiction of the House of Lords was undoubtedly
+of that partly feudal and partly popular character already
+alluded to, which made the suitor seek from the high court of
+parliament the justice denied elsewhere in the baronial courts or
+by the king&rsquo;s judges. The lords exercised the mixed function of
+jurymen and judges, and, as in judgments on impeachment,
+might be influenced by private or party considerations, debating
+and dividing on the question before the House. A revolution
+was silently accomplished, however, by which the function of
+reviewing the decisions of the courts fell entirely to the lawyers
+raised to the peerage, while the unprofessional lords only attended
+to give the sanction of a quorum to the proceedings, and the
+House has always had the right to invoke the assistance of the
+judges of the superior courts to advise on the questions of law
+raised by an appeal. The letters and memoirs, so late as Queen
+Anne&rsquo;s reign, show that party or personal influence and persuasion
+were employed to procure votes on appeals, as they have
+been in later times on railway or other local bills. The last
+instance probably in which a strong division of opinion was
+manifested among the unprofessional lords was the celebrated
+Douglas cause in 1769, when the House was addressed by the
+dukes of Newcastle and Bedford, but was led by the authoritative
+opinion of Lord Mansfield on the effect of the evidence&mdash;an
+opinion which was treated rather as that of a political partisan
+than of a judge. The case of Daniel O&rsquo;Connell and others,
+brought up on writ of error from the queen&rsquo;s bench in Ireland
+in 1844, may be said to have finally established the precedent
+that the judgments of the House of Lords were to be given solely
+by the law lords. On that occasion there was a difference of
+opinion among the law lords themselves. The judgment of the
+majority of the House was strongly against the political feeling
+of the government and of the peers as a body, while the law lords
+who carried the decision had been appointed by previous governments
+opposed in politics to the existing cabinet. But all these
+temptations to a party vote by the unprofessional members were
+resisted.</p>
+
+<p>By § 20 of the act of 1873, the appellate jurisdiction of the
+House of Lords (so far as it affects England) was abolished, but
+this section was repealed by the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876.
+Under that act and an amending act of 1887, the appellate
+business of the House of Lords is conducted solely by the law
+lords, though lay peers may still sit (<i>Bradlaugh</i> v. <i>Clarke</i>, 1882,
+8 App. Cas. 354). No appeal may be heard or determined
+except in the presence of not less than three of the following
+persons:&mdash;(1) the lord chancellor; (2) the lords of appeal, four
+of whom are appointed under the act from among persons who
+hold, or have held, high judicial office, or, at the date of appointment,
+have been in practice for not less than fifteen years as
+barristers in England or Ireland, or as advocates in Scotland;
+(3) such peers of parliament as hold, or have held, high judicial
+office. By &ldquo;high judicial office&rdquo; is meant the office of lord
+chancellor of Great Britain or Ireland, lord of appeal in ordinary,
+paid judge of the judicial committee or member of that committee,
+or judge of one of the superior courts of Great Britain
+or Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>An appeal lies to the House of Lords (1) from any order or
+judgment of the court of appeal in England except as above
+stated; (2) from a judgment or order of any court in Scotland
+or Ireland from which error or an appeal to the House of Lords
+lay by common law or statute immediately before the 1st of
+November 1876. No appeals are heard from the decision of
+courts in criminal cases. The House of Lords has an indirect
+power by standing orders to admit appeals from Scotland or
+Ireland which under former law or practice could not be admitted
+(Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, § 12). The procedure on
+appeals is regulated by standing orders of the House. The
+proceedings are commenced by petition of appeal, which must
+be lodged with the clerk of the parliaments within one year from
+the date of the last judgment it appealed from. Security for
+costs (£200) must be given by bond or lodgment of the money,
+unless dispensed with by the House on the ground of poverty
+(act of 1893). Each party lodges a printed case signed and
+certified by counsel, containing a resumé of the matters to be
+discussed and of the contentions for or against the allowance of
+the appeal. The hearing is before three or more law lords, who may
+call in nautical assessors in admiralty cases (acts of 1893 and 1894).
+It is not public in the full sense of the term, as persons not concerned
+in the appeal can attend only by consent of the House.
+The House pronounces the judgment which in the opinion of the
+majority of the law lords should have been pronounced below,
+and has jurisdiction in the case of all appeals to give or refuse
+costs to the successful party. The costs of the appeal if given
+are taxed by the officers of the House. The jurisdiction as to
+costs does not directly arise under any statute (see <i>West Ham
+Guardians</i> v. <i>Bethnal Green Churchwardens</i>, 1896, A.C. 477).</p>
+
+<p><i>Appeals to the King in Council.</i>&mdash;The decisions of ecclesiastical
+courts when acting within the limits of their jurisdiction, and
+the decisions of courts in the king&rsquo;s dominions outside the
+United Kingdom, and of courts in foreign countries set up under
+the Foreign Jurisdiction Acts, cannot be dealt with by the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page215" id="page215"></a>215</span>
+House of Lords or any of the ordinary tribunals of any part of
+the United Kingdom. The power once claimed by the court
+of king&rsquo;s bench in England to control the courts of Ireland has
+lapsed, and its power to intervene in colonial cases is limited
+to the grant of the writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> to a possession in which
+no court exists having power to issue that writ or one of like
+effect (Habeas Corpus Act 1862). As regards all British possessions,
+the appeal to the king in council is in its origin and nature
+like that of the provincials unto Caesar, and flows from the
+royal prerogative to admit appeals. With the growth of the
+British empire it has been found necessary to create a comparatively
+constant and stable tribunal to advise the king in
+the exercise of this prerogative. For this purpose the judicial
+committee of the privy council was created in 1833. In 1851,
+and again in 1870, it was reorganized, and by acts of 1876,
+1887 and 1898 it received its present form. The committee
+consists of the president of the council, and of the following
+persons, if privy councillors&mdash;the lord chancellor and ex-chancellors
+of Great Britain and of Ireland, the four lords of
+appeal in ordinary, the lords justices of appeal in England or
+retired lords justices of appeal in England, and persons who
+hold or have held the office (<i>a</i>) of judge of the High Court of
+Justice or the court of appeal in England or Ireland, or of the
+court of session in Scotland; (<i>b</i>) any person who is or has been
+chief justice or a judge of the Supreme Court of Canada or of a
+superior court of any province of Canada, of any of the Australian
+states (except Fiji and Papua), or of New Zealand or the Cape
+of Good Hope or Natal. The number of persons of this class
+who may be members at once is limited to five (1895, c. 44);
+(<i>c</i>) provision is also made for the payment of two privy councillors
+who have been judges in India who attend the privy council.</p>
+
+<p>Numerous as are the members of the committee, the quorum
+is three. One or more of the lords of appeal in ordinary usually
+attend at every hearing, but the composition of the committee
+is very fluctuating. Appeals from the British dominions abroad
+lie in criminal as well as civil matters. The right of appeal is
+regulated as to most possessions by order in council, and in some
+cases is limited by imperial or colonial statute. Appeals are on
+fact as well as on law, but the committee rarely if ever disturbs
+the concurrent judgments on facts of two colonial courts. In
+the case of admiralty appeals from colonial or consular courts,
+naval assessors may be called in. The committee also hears
+(with the aid of ecclesiastical assessors) appeals from ecclesiastical
+courts. The judgment of the committee is in the form of a
+report and advice to the king, which is read by one of the members
+sitting, and no indication is given as to whether the members
+present are unanimous. Effect is given to the advice by orders
+in council dismissing or allowing the appeal, and giving direction
+as to the payment of costs and as to the further proceedings to
+be taken in the colonial courts.</p>
+
+<p>The procedure of the committee is on the same lines as that on
+appeals to the House of Lords; no well-arranged code of practice
+existed however up to the end of 1908, and new rules were
+then being proposed on the subject. The appeal is commenced
+by a petition of appeal, and by the giving of security for costs. In
+colonial appeals printed cases are lodged containing a summary
+of the contentions of the parties, and with this a printed copy of
+the record of the proceedings and documents used in the courts
+appealed from. The hearing is in the privy council chamber
+and is not public. When an appeal is called on, the counsel and
+parties are summoned into the chamber, and when the arguments
+are concluded they are requested to retire. The appeals to the
+king in council from colonial states having a federal constitution,
+like Canada and Australia, stand in an exceptional position.
+The act creating the Supreme Court of Canada purports to make
+the decision of that court final. But it is still the practice to
+admit by special leave a prerogative appeal from the court, and
+to entertain appeals from courts of the provinces of Canada
+direct to the king in council, without requiring them to go to
+the Supreme Court. The constitution of the Australian Commonwealth
+contemplates (§ 73) the possibility of restricting appeals
+to the king in council from the supreme courts of Australia,
+and sec. 74 forbids appeals to the king in council except by
+leave of the High Court of Australia from decision of that court
+on any question however arising as to the limits <i>inter se</i> of the
+constitutional powers of the commonwealth and those of any
+state or states, or as to the limits <i>inter se</i> of the constitutional
+powers of any two or more states. The exact effect of these
+enactments and of Australian legislation under § 73 is a matter
+of controversy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scotland.</i>&mdash;In Scotland the ordinary appellate tribunal for
+decisions of inferior courts and of the lords ordinary is the court
+of session, which for appellate purposes sits in two divisions.
+Appeals from inferior tribunals in criminal cases go before the
+judges of the court of session sitting in the High Court of
+Justiciary. The court of session was in its original constitution
+a committee of parliament for the performance of its judicial
+functions, and an appeal to parliament was consequently
+anomalous. In the reign of Charles II., however, the courts
+grew so intolerably corrupt that a determined effort was made
+to have their judgments overturned, by an appeal which was
+strictly of the old character of a cry for protection against
+flagrant injustice. It was called a &ldquo;protest for remeid of law,&rdquo;
+and was inserted as one of the national claims in the Petition of
+Right at the revolution. The treaty of union is silent as to
+appeals, though definitely excluding the right of English courts
+to interfere with Scottish courts or cases. The House of Lords
+has since the Union acted without challenge as the final appellate
+tribunal for Scotland in civil causes; but has always declined
+jurisdiction in Scottish criminal cases.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ireland.</i>&mdash;The Supreme Court of Judicature (Ireland) Acts
+have remodelled the courts and appellate system of Ireland on
+the same lines as those of England. The High Court of Justice
+in Ireland now consists of two divisions only, the chancery
+division, which has little or no appellate functions, and the
+king&rsquo;s bench division, which has for Ireland substantially the
+same power of reviewing and correcting the decisions of inferior
+courts as has the corresponding court in England. To this there
+is one exception, that appeals from a county court in Ireland
+may be heard on circuit by a single judge of assize. In Ireland
+there is also a court of appeal, created in 1877, whose jurisdiction
+and procedure follow the same lines as that of the English court
+of appeal.</p>
+
+<p><i>France.</i>&mdash;The court of last resort in France for all cases,
+whether civil or criminal (<i>en matière criminelle, correctionnelle
+et de police</i>), is the <i>cour de cassation</i>, which sits in Paris. It is a
+court of error for the review of all judgments of tribunals of last
+resort (except <i>juges de paix</i> in certain cases), and for the transfer
+of causes from one court to another when justice so demands,
+and to determine conflicts of jurisdiction (Law 1 Dec. 1790).
+Ordinarily it is confined to errors of law and procedure, but
+where evidence not available below is brought before the court, it
+may send the case back for retrial or give the appropriate final
+judgment, as in the case of Dreyfus (1906). It also hears appeals
+from courts martial.</p>
+
+<p>Next to the <i>cour de cassation</i> are the courts of appeal, which
+have jurisdiction to hear appeals (1) in civil matters from courts
+of first instance, <i>juges de paix</i>, and where the amount in dispute
+exceeds £60 from commercial courts, <i>tribunaux de commerce</i>
+(Civil Proc. Code, arts. 443-475); (2) in criminal matters from
+<i>tribunaux correctionnels</i> (Com. Proc. Code, arts. 202-235). The
+appeal is both on fact and on law, and applies to interlocutory or
+preparatory as well as to final judgments.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spain.</i>&mdash;In Spain the jurisdiction and procedure with reference
+to appeals is on the same lines as in France. As regards civil
+matters it is regulated by title 21 of the Civil Procedure Code.
+The appeal to the supreme court is for the most part on questions
+of law (<i>por infraccion de ley o de doctrina</i>); but the court has
+also power to review judgments on materials not available at
+the first hearing (arts. 1796, 1801).</p>
+
+<p><i>British India.</i>&mdash;In British India complete and systematic
+provision is made for appeals both in civil and in criminal cases
+by the Procedure Codes (Civil of 1882, with subsequent amendments,
+and Criminal of 1898), and also to some extent by the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page216" id="page216"></a>216</span>
+charters of the high courts of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras
+(see Ilbert, <i>Government of India</i>, Oxford, 1898, p. 137). In
+addition, the decisions of subordinate tribunals may be revised
+by a superior tribunal <i>proprio motu</i>, or reviewed in a proper case
+by the tribunal which has given them; and provision is made
+for the consultation of a superior by an inferior tribunal in cases
+of legal difficulty. The policy of admitting so many appeals
+has been criticized. But with an enormous population which
+has no representative institutions it has been deemed wise to
+provide ample means of correcting judicial errors at the instance
+not only of the aggrieved person but also at the instance of the
+supervising judicial authorities, as a means of ensuring regularity
+and propriety in the conduct of judicial business by subordinate
+judges in out-of-the-way districts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Civil Appeals.</i>&mdash;(1) Except where otherwise expressly provided
+by the Civil Procedure Code, or by any other law for the
+time being in force, an appeal lies from the whole or part of any
+decree, whether made <i>ex parte</i> or <i>inter partes</i>, of a court exercising
+original jurisdiction (Civil Procedure Code, § 540). By
+&ldquo;decree&rdquo; is meant the final expression of an adjudication upon
+a right claimed or defence set up in a civil court, when such
+adjudication, so far as regards the court expressing it, decides
+the suit (§ 2). The appeal is both on facts and on law. The
+procedure on the appeal is prescribed by c. 41 of the Civil
+Procedure Code, and the directions of the code deal even with
+the language of the judgment on appeal and the matters to be
+stated therein. (2) Decrees passed on an appeal to any court in
+India subordinate to a High Court are as a general rule subject
+to appeal to the High Court on the grounds (<i>a</i>) that they are
+contrary to a specified law, or usage having the force of law;
+(<i>b</i>) that they have failed to determine some material issue of law,
+or usage having the force of law; (<i>c</i>) of substantial error or defect
+in procedure prescribed by the code or other law which might
+possibly have produced error or defect in the decision of the case
+upon the merits (§ 584). The procedure on these appeals is
+regulated by c. 42 of the Civil Procedure Code. (3) Appeals from
+orders which do not fall within the definition of decrees are
+allowed in the cases specified in § 588 of the code. The procedure
+with respect to these appeals is on the same lines as that on
+appeals against decrees (§ 590). Provision is made (by c. 44)
+for allowing appeals <i>in forma pauperis</i> after certain preliminary
+inquiries. In the High Courts appeals lie from the decision of
+one judge to two or more judges of the High Court, whose decision
+has effect as a judgment of the full court. Appeals, in civil
+cases, from the courts of India to the king in council are
+regulated by c. 45 of the Civil Procedure Code. The appealable
+amount is for most cases Rs. 10,000 or a claim or question as
+to property of like amount.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the provisions stated as to appeals, Indian courts
+have power in certain contingencies to review their own decisions
+(§ 623). An inferior court may also refer cases of difficulty to the
+High Court on a statement of the facts as found in the referring
+court and of the opinion thereon of that Court (§§ 617-620);
+and in cases in which no appeal lies to the High Court, that court
+may call for the record of any case in which the court below
+appears to have acted without jurisdiction or failed to exercise
+its jurisdiction, or to have exercised its jurisdiction illegally or
+with material illegality (§ 622).</p>
+
+<p><i>Criminal Matters.</i>&mdash;Criminal jurisdiction in India is exercised
+by magistrates of the first, second and third class, by sessions
+courts, and the high or chief courts of the presidencies or
+provinces (Criminal Procedure Code of 1898). The higher judges
+in a district have the power of revising those decisions which
+are not absolutely summary of the judges of the classes below
+them in the same district; <i>i.e.</i> the sessions judge can revise the
+decisions of a first-class magistrate, and the High Court those
+of a sessions judge (§ 435). Inferior tribunals can also refer
+questions of law to the High Court (§§ 432, 433); and where a
+sentence of death is passed, or a sessions judge differs from the
+jury (§ 307), the matter must be referred to the High Court.
+On matters of reference or revision the parties have no right to
+be heard.</p>
+
+<p>Provision is also made for appeals by c. 31 of the Code.
+Appeals from second- or third-class magistrates are dealt with
+by the district (first-class) magistrate (§ 407). Persons convicted
+on trial by assistant sessions judges or first-class magistrates,
+except in cases where the punishment is very small, have
+an appeal to the sessions judge (§§ 408, 413). A person convicted
+on trial by the sessions judge has an appeal to the High Court
+(§ 410), but where he has pleaded guilty the only point on which
+appeal is open is the legality or extent of sentence (§ 412).
+Special provision is made as to appeals by persons born in
+Europe (whether British subjects or not) and Americans (§§ 408,
+415, and c. 33).</p>
+
+<p>In criminal cases there is a right of appeal to the king in
+council in certain cases provided for by the charters of the
+chartered high courts (see Ilbert, <i>Government of India</i>, Oxford,
+1898, p. 137).</p>
+
+<p>An appeal also lies in certain cases from the courts of British
+officers in feudatory states of India to a high court in India,
+and from the courts of Aden and Zanzibar and British East Africa
+to the High Court of Bombay. Appeals do not lie from the courts
+of native states to British courts in India, though in some cases
+there is an appeal of a political rather than judicial nature from
+the judicial tribunals of feudatory states; <i>e.g.</i> in the case of
+Kathiawar (<i>Hemchand Derchand</i> v. <i>Azam Sakarlal</i>; 1906. L.R.
+A.C. 212).</p>
+
+<p><i>Canada.</i>&mdash;In Canada each province has the regulation of its
+own courts of justice. In Ontario the judiciary are organized,
+under the Provincial Judicature Acts, in much the same manner
+as in England; and the review of decisions of inferior courts (by
+appeal or other proceedings based on English practice) is in the
+hands of the High Court of Justice, subject to appeal to the
+provincial court of appeal. In Quebec the highest court (king&rsquo;s
+bench), besides its original jurisdiction, has appellate jurisdiction
+over the superior court (see Quebec Civil Procedure Code, art.
+1114 <i>et seq</i>.). The jurisdiction is exercised by writ of error or
+by appeal, according to the nature of the decision appealed from.
+The judges of the superior court have also, under art. 494, power
+to review before three judges decisions of a judge of that court
+or of a circuit court (arts. 494-504). Nova Scotia, New Brunswick,
+Manitoba and British Columbia have supreme courts
+with appellate authority over decisions of single judges of the
+court and over inferior tribunals in the province. Appeals lie
+from the highest courts of each province, in civil matters, to the
+Supreme Court of Canada, or to the king in council in cases
+falling within the orders in council applying to each province,
+but in criminal matters to the king in council. From the
+Supreme Court of Canada no appeal lies as of right to the king
+in council (Dominion Act 1875, 38 Vic. c. 11, § 47), and the royal
+prerogative of granting special leave to appeal is sparingly exercised.
+The principles on which the judicial committee acts in
+advising for or against the grant of special leave in civil case&amp;
+are stated in <i>Daily Telegraph Newspaper Co.</i> v. <i>M&lsquo;Laughlin</i>,
+1904, L.R. A.C. 776. It is, however, as before, quite common
+for appeals to be brought direct to the privy council from
+the provincial courts without resort to the Dominion court (see
+Wheeler, <i>Privy Council Law</i>, p. 955).</p>
+
+<p><i>Australia.</i>&mdash;Each of the states of the Australian Commonwealth
+has its own supreme court. The Commonwealth parliament
+constituted in 1903 a High Court for Australia, which,
+besides its original federal jurisdiction, is also a court of appeal
+from the supreme courts of the constitutional states, or from any
+state court from which an appeal lay to the king in council at
+the establishment of the Commonwealth. The jurisdiction of the
+court is defined by the Judiciary Act of 1903, by which it is
+created. The right of appeal is given both as to criminal and
+civil matters.</p>
+
+<p><i>South Africa.</i>&mdash;In Cape Colony and Natal the appellate courts
+are the supreme courts, subject to further appeal in certain cases
+to the king in council. The superior courts of Cape Colony are
+empowered to review the proceedings of all inferior courts in
+the colony and its dependencies in cases where no appeal lies.
+There was for a time an appeal from the High Court of Orange
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" id="page217"></a>217</span>
+River Colony to the supreme court of the Transvaal, and from
+that court (whether acting for its own colony or on appeal from
+the Orange Colony), an appeal to the king in council. In other
+colonies the provisions as to appeal follow more or less closely
+the lines of English law and procedure as to appeals, and in all
+cases the ultimate appeal is to the king in council.</p>
+
+<p><i>United States.</i>&mdash;In the American courts the term &ldquo;appeal&rdquo;
+covers (1) a removal of a cause to a higher court for retrial on
+all the questions of law or fact involved, or (2) taking up points
+of law only by proceedings in error, for revision by a higher court.
+Decrees in admiralty, bankruptcy and equity, in the federal
+courts, are the subjects of an appeal; judgments in actions at
+law, of a writ of error. On an equity appeal the evidence taken
+at the original hearing is reported at length to the appellate court,
+and it has the right to review the conclusions of fact reached by
+the court below and come to different ones. This, however, is
+seldom done, the appeal being almost always decided on points of
+law based upon the conclusions of fact reached in the original
+hearing. In admiralty appeals the conclusions of fact reached by
+the trial court are specially set forth, and are final.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Appeal&rdquo; in many of the states is the general term for
+reviewing any judgment of an inferior court on assignments of
+error. It is also often used to signify a mode of reviewing proceedings
+of municipal bodies, affecting the interests of particular
+persons, <i>e.g.</i> in matters of licences or assessments.</p>
+
+<p>In criminal prosecutions an appeal, or writ of error on points
+of law, is almost everywhere allowed by statute to the defendant,
+and often to the state. (<i>United States</i> v. <i>Sanges</i>, 144 United
+States Reports, 310; <i>State</i> v. <i>Lee</i>, 65 Connecticut Reports, 265.)</p>
+
+<p>By the constitution of the United States the Supreme Court
+is vested with &ldquo;appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact,
+with such exceptions, and under such regulations, as the Congress
+shall make.&rdquo; This provision is held not to create but only to
+authorize the creation of the jurisdiction. In the words of
+Chancellor Kent, &ldquo;If congress had not provided any rule to
+regulate the proceedings in appeal, the court could not exercise
+an appellate jurisdiction: and, if a rule be provided, the court
+could not depart from it.&rdquo; In pursuance of this principle, the
+Supreme Court decided in <i>Clarke</i> v. <i>Bazadone</i> that a writ of error
+did not lie to that court from a court of the United States territory
+north-west of the Ohio, because the act had not authorized an
+appeal or writ of error from such a court (<i>Commentaries</i>, i. 324).
+The appellate jurisdiction of the court is now regulated by title
+13 chap. ii. of the Revised Statutes of the United States (1873),
+§§ 690-710; and by the acts enumerated at p. 901 of the Revised
+Statutes, United States, 1873 to 1891. Under these statutes the
+Supreme Court may entertain appeals from the highest court of a
+state of the Union, but only (1) where the state court has decided
+against the validity of a treaty or statute of the United States,
+or of an authority exercised under the United States; (2) where
+a state court has affirmed the validity of a statute, or of an
+authority exercised which has been challenged on the ground of
+repugnance to the constitution, laws or treaties of the United
+States; (3) where the state court has decided against the
+existence of a title, right, privilege, or immunity claimed or set
+up under the constitution of, or under any statute, treaty,
+commission or authority of the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The appeal from state courts is by writ of error, <i>i.e.</i> on law
+only; and applies as well in criminal as in civil cases. The
+Supreme Court will not act unless the federal question was
+raised in the court below (<i>Chicago U.S. Mail Co.</i> v. <i>McGuire</i>,
+1904, 196, U.S. 128). The circuit court of appeals, established
+in 1891, deals with appeals from the district and circuit courts of
+the United States, except where other provision is made, <i>e.g.</i>
+where the jurisdiction of the court appealed from is in question;
+in prize causes and convictions of capital crimes (U.S. Statutes,
+1801, c. 54. § 5); in cases involving the construction or application
+of the constitution; in cases arising in district or circuit courts
+involving the constitutional questions already stated as subject
+of appeal from state courts.</p>
+
+<p>The review by the circuit court of appeals is effected by
+appeal or by writ of error, and its decision is final, with certain
+exceptions but with power to certify cases to the Supreme Court
+for instructions (1891, c. 511, § 6).</p>
+
+<p>The Supreme Court hears appeals from the circuit court
+of appeals within the limits above stated, and appeals from
+the circuit and district courts in cases in which an appeal
+does not lie to the circuit court of appeals, and has power
+to issue a <i>certiorari</i> to transfer a case from the circuit court of
+Appeals.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. F. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPEARANCE<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>apparere</i>, to appear), in law, the
+coming into court of either of the parties to a suit; the formal
+act by which a defendant submits himself to the jurisdiction of
+the court. The defendant in an action in the High Court of
+England enters his appearance to the writ of summons by
+delivering, either at the central office of the Supreme Court, or
+a district registry, a written memorandum either giving his
+solicitor&rsquo;s name or stating that he defends in person. He must
+also give notice to the plaintiff of his appearance, which ought,
+according to the time limited by the writ, to be within eight
+days after service; a defendant may, however, appear any time
+before judgment. The <i>Rules of the Supreme Court</i>, orders xii.
+and xiii., regulate the procedure with respect to the entering of
+an appearance, the giving of notice, the limit of time, the setting
+aside and the general effect of default of appearance. In
+county courts there is no appearance other than the coming
+into court of the parties to the suit. In criminal cases the
+accused appears in person. In civil cases infants appear by
+their guardians <i>ad litem</i>; lunatics by their committee; companies
+by a solicitor; friendly societies by the trustee or other
+officer appointed to sue or be sued on behalf thereof.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPENDICITIS,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> the modern medical term for inflammation
+of that part of the intestine which is known as the &ldquo;appendix.&rdquo;
+Though not a new disease, there can be no doubt that it is far
+commoner than it used to be, though the explanation of this
+increased frequency is not yet forthcoming. Amongst the
+virulent micro-organisms associated with the disease no one
+specific germ has hitherto been found. It may be remarked that
+the theories that influenza, or the use of preserved foods, may
+be connected with the disease as cause and effect, have supporters.
+Sometimes the disease is due to the impaction of a pin, shot-corn,
+tooth-brush bristle, or fish-bone in the appendix, which has set
+up inflammation and ulceration. In many cases a patch of
+mortification with perforation of the appendix is caused by the
+presence of a hard faecal concretion, or &ldquo;stercolith,&rdquo; which from
+its size, shape and appearance has been mistaken by a casual
+observer for a date-stone or cherry-stone.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from the fact of the more frequent occurrence of
+appendicitis, the disease is now better understood and more
+promptly recognized. It was formerly included under the term
+&ldquo;perityphlitis&rdquo;&mdash;that is, inflammation connected with the
+caecum or <i>blind</i> portion of the large intestine. But in the vast
+majority of cases the inflammation begins in the appendix, not
+in the intestine proper. It is apt to extend and set up a localized
+peritonitis, which in the worst cases may become general.</p>
+
+<p>Appendicitis is more often met with in the young than the old,
+and in boys rather than girls; and in some families there is a
+strange predisposition towards it. It is often started by a chill,
+or by over-exertion, and sometimes the attack follows a blow or
+strain, or some other direct injury, after which the virulent
+micro-organisms seize on the mucous membrane and involve the
+appendix in acute inflammation.</p>
+
+<p>The appendix is a narrow tube, about the size of a goose-quill,
+with an average length of 3 in. It terminates in a blunt point,
+and from its worm-like shape is called <i>vermiformis</i>. It is an
+appendage of the large intestine, into which it opens, and is
+regarded as the degenerate relic, surviving in man and other
+mammals, of an earlier form of intestine. Foreign bodies passing
+down the intestinal canal may find their way into the appendix
+and lodge there. Frequently the diseased appendix is found
+blocked by hard faeces or undigested particles of food, such as
+nuts, fibrous vegetable matter, and other imperfectly masticated
+substances; inflammation may occur, however, without the
+presence of any impacted material. The appendix may be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page218" id="page218"></a>218</span>
+twisted, bent, or otherwise strangulated, or its orifice may be
+blocked, so that the tube is distended with mucus which can find
+no outlet; or ulceration of tuberculous or malignant origin
+may occur. Inflammation started in the appendix is liable to
+spread to the peritoneum, and herein lies the gravity of the
+affection and the indication for treatment. The symptoms vary
+from &ldquo;indigestion,&rdquo; and slight pain and sickness, which pass off
+in a few short days, to an exceedingly violent illness, which may
+cause death in a few hours. Pain is usually first felt in the
+belly, low down on the right side or across the region of the
+navel; sometimes, however, it is diffuse, and at other times it is
+scarcely complained of. There is some fever, the temperature
+rising to 101° or 102° F., with nausea, and very likely with
+vomiting. The abdomen is tender to pressure, and the tenderness
+may be referred to the spot mentioned above. Some swelling
+may also be made out in that region. The attack may last for
+two, three or four days, and then subside. There are, however,
+other cases less well defined, in which the mischief pursues a
+latent course, producing little more than a vague abdominal
+uneasiness, until it suddenly advances into a violent stage. In
+some chronic cases the trouble continues, on and off, for months
+or even for years.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 280px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:233px; height:303px" src="images/img218.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Large Intestine showing Vermiform
+Appendix (<i>v.a.</i>) and
+Caecum (<i>c</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>On paper it is easy to arrange cases of appendicitis into three
+classes&mdash;catarrhal, ulcerative and mortifying&mdash;but in actual
+practice this is neither desirable
+nor possible. Such classification
+is based upon the symptoms, and
+in appendicitis symptoms may be
+actually misleading. The three
+conditions to which the surgeon
+chiefly looks for guidance are
+the aspect of the patient, the
+rate of his pulse and the degree
+of fever as shown by the thermometer.
+But in certain cases
+of appendicitis, though the surgeon
+knows intuitively, or, at
+least, suspects, that the general
+condition is extremely serious,
+the patient looks fairly well and
+says that he is not in pain, his
+pulse-rate being but little quickened
+and his temperature being
+but slightly above normal.
+Nevertheless, when the surgeon
+has opened the belly in the appendix region, he finds the
+appendix swollen, perforated and mortified, and lying in a
+stinking abscess, whilst inflammation has already spread to
+the neighbouring coils of intestine. Unfortunately, the surgeon
+can no more tell what he is going to find at his operation in
+some of these cases than he can foretell the course which any
+particular case is going to run.</p>
+
+<p>We may most usefully give here the symptoms as they are
+likely to be found in an ordinary case of appendicitis, and
+as they may be observed by one who is not a member of the
+medical profession, in a way that may prove helpful to him when
+circumstances have awakened his interest in the disease.</p>
+
+<p>The case taken shall be that of a boy at school, for, as already
+stated, boys are more prone to the disease than girls. The boy
+has had, may be, occasional attacks of &ldquo;indigestion&rdquo; which
+have duly passed away under the influence of aperient medicines,
+and, being heated at play, he has sat down upon the cold ground.
+Or he has got wet through or over-tired during a long walk or
+ride. At any rate, his vital powers have been suddenly lowered,
+and the micro-organisms teeming in his bowel have seized upon
+the lining membrane of the appendix. He feels out of sorts, and
+if he manages to eat a meal he very likely vomits it soon after,
+for the whole nervous system of his abdomen is disturbed by
+the local inflammation. The act of vomiting gives slight relief,
+however, and probably he begins to complain of pains in his
+head as well as in his abdomen, and possibly he has an attack of
+shivering&mdash;the result of disturbance of his general nervous
+system. By this time he may be attacked with intense pain in
+the part of his abdomen a little above the middle of the right
+groin, and at that spot there may be a tenderness, and a feeling
+of resistance may be made out by the gentle pressure of the
+finger. In order to relax the pressure upon the tender area he
+probably lies with his right thigh slightly bent. By this time
+he may look ill, his face being slightly flushed, or pale and anxious.
+If the clinical thermometer is placed under his tongue, the index
+may rise a degree or two, perhaps several degrees, above normal,
+and his pulse may be quickened to 90 or 100 beats a minute.
+Perhaps it is a good deal quicker than this. Later, the skin of
+the lower part of the right side of the abdomen may be flushed
+or reddened.</p>
+
+<p>This clinical picture leaves no room for doubt. The boy has
+an attack of acute septic inflammation of his appendix. Let it
+be that the symptoms have come on quickly, and that the
+affection is not more than ten or twelve hours old; no one can
+tell precisely what course the disease is going to run. It may be
+that with rest in bed, constant fomentations, and absolute
+starvation, the inflammation will subside; but it is just as
+likely that in spite of this judicious treatment the symptoms
+will go from bad to worse, and that a belated operation will fail
+to rescue the boy from a general peritonitis which may end
+fatally. But at present, so far as one can tell, the disease is still
+limited to the appendix. And what, at this moment, is the best
+line of treatment? Some practitioners would answer&mdash;&ldquo;Let
+the acute attack settle down, and then, after a week or ten days,
+when everything is quiet, remove the appendix, for statistics
+show that when the operation is done in the quiet interval the
+results are extremely favourable, whilst if it is done in the acute
+stage the outlook is not so bright.&rdquo; This is quite right. But
+one cannot be sure that the &ldquo;quiet interval&rdquo; will ever arrive.
+The case in question may be one of those which rapidly go on
+from bad to worse, and mortification and perforation of the
+appendix having taken place over some hard faecal concretion,
+general peritonitis is inevitable, with distension of the bowel and
+hopeless blood-poisoning. If it were certain that the attack of
+appendicitis would subside and become quiescent, it would be
+wise to wait. But it too often happens that the first attack is,
+indeed, the last. Acute appendicitis is one thing; relapsing
+appendicitis is another. The latter condition is very manageable.</p>
+
+<p>Inasmuch, then, as it is impossible to know what direction
+the disease will take, whether to quiescence or to disaster, it is
+for the greatest good in the greatest number of cases that the
+inflamed appendix be removed by operation whilst the disease
+is still limited to the appendix. It is highly probable that if
+every available hospital surgeon were asked if he had ever had
+cause to regret having advised early operation in a case of
+appendicitis the answer would be &ldquo;No&rdquo;; on the other hand,
+every surgeon would be able to recall cases in which delay had
+been followed by disaster&mdash;which an early resort to operation
+would, in all probability, have prevented.</p>
+
+<p>If the disease is going to assume the severe form, all the
+symptoms, as a rule, increase in severity. The facial expression
+becomes more anxious, and the accumulation of gas in the
+paralysed intestine causes an increase in the abdominal distension,
+so that the patient lies with his knees drawn up. The
+vomiting continues. The pulse quickens to 120 or 140 a minute,
+and the temperature rises, perhaps to 104° F. The swelling and
+tenderness increase on the right side of the abdomen, and if the
+abscess does not find escape externally it probably bursts into
+the general peritoneal cavity, and the patient becomes bathed
+in profuse sweat, the result of blood-poisoning. Death is likely
+to follow within two days, the result of blood-poisoning and
+exhaustion.</p>
+
+<p><i>Catarrhal and Relapsing Appendicitis.</i>&mdash;Some cases of appendicitis
+run a mild course, giving rise to no worse symptoms, perhaps,
+than those of &ldquo;indigestion&rdquo; and nausea, with a feeling of general
+discomfort in the abdomen, and, probably, some local tenderness.
+The attack may be preceded or accompanied by constipation.
+The administration of a mild aperient or an enema, rest,
+starvation and fomentation will probably put matters right
+again&mdash;at any rate for a time.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page219" id="page219"></a>219</span></p>
+
+<p>This form of the disease may be due to the presence of
+&ldquo;bolted,&rdquo; unchewed or indigestible food in that part of the
+large intestine into which the appendix opens. And these mild
+recurrent attacks may sometimes be got rid of altogether by
+having the teeth put in order, and by inducing the individual
+to choose his food with discretion, to chew it carefully, to take
+his meals regularly and to eat slowly.</p>
+
+<p>Obviously, these attacks are very different from those of
+the acute septic form of the disease described above, though
+there is no telling that one of them may not develop into the
+acute form. Some of the mild attacks are due to a kink in the
+appendix, or to some other condition which temporarily prevents
+the secretions of the appendix from finding their way into the
+large intestine. Others of them are caused by a passing catarrhal
+inflammation of the lining of the appendix and have a distant
+resemblance to a recurring &ldquo;sore throat.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>After undergoing one or two of these mild attacks the patient
+would be well advised to have his appendix removed when it has
+once more got into the &ldquo;quiet stage.&rdquo; Experience abundantly
+shows that the operation can then be performed with but slight
+disturbance of the patient, and with the smallest possible amount
+of risk. And until his vulnerable appendix has been removed
+he is never safe.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>chronic</i> form of the disease though the patient is never
+desperately ill he is never quite well. He has pains and discomfort
+in the abdomen, with slight tenderness and nausea,
+with &ldquo;indigestion,&rdquo; as he may call it. And as one can never tell
+when the smouldering inflammation may break out into conflagration,
+he is well advised to submit himself to operation
+without further delay. To carry about a diseased appendix is to
+run the constant risk of being laid up at a time most inconvenient,
+as when travelling or when staying in some place where skilled
+assistance is far distant or absolutely unobtainable. But having
+made up his mind that the appendix had better be removed,
+the patient can choose time, place and surgeon, and, having
+undergone a week&rsquo;s careful training for the ordeal, can safely
+count on being back at work again in a month or six weeks&rsquo;
+time.</p>
+
+<p>As regards <i>treatment</i>, the greatest safety consists in the prompt
+removal of the inflamed appendix, and statistics show that if the
+operation can be done in the first or second day of even an acute
+attack, the result is generally favourable&mdash;that is to say, if the
+appendix can be removed whilst the disease is still shut up
+within its tissues. But in some cases ulceration and perforation,
+or mortification, may have taken place over a hard faecal
+concretion within the first twenty-four or forty-eight hours,
+and, the septic germs having been let loose, peritonitis may
+have already set in, and operation may be followed by disappointment.
+Still, if the case had been left unoperated on,
+no other result could have been expected. It was not to the
+operation, but to the intensely acute disease that the calamity
+must be attributed.</p>
+
+<p>Nature is marvellously clever in some of these cases in shutting
+off the area of the disease by glueing together the neighbouring
+coils of intestine, the limited local peritonitis causing the tissues
+to build themselves into a wall which securely shuts in the
+abscess cavity. But in other cases she seems helpless, no barrier
+being formed for limiting the area of disturbance. In such a
+case it is inevitable that disappointment must result from the
+surgeon delaying operation in the hope that delimitation might
+take place. And when at last he makes his incision he sees that
+the disease has had so long a start that his own chance of success
+is but a poor one. In a less severe attack, under the influence of
+rest, starvation and fomentation, and in cases of chronic and of
+relapsing disease, the surgeon may watch and wait and choose
+his own time for operating. But when the symptoms are steadily
+increasing in severity he should urge an immediate incision.
+When, as often happens, the inflammation begins suddenly and
+severely, and, under the influence of treatment, steadily quiets
+down, the surgeon does well to delay operation. But in a fortnight
+or so, when everything has become once more quiet, he
+will urge the removal of the appendix, for this one attack is
+more than likely to be the forerunner of other attacks if the
+diseased appendix is left.</p>
+
+<p>The most serious cases are those in which the aspect, the
+pulse, and the temperature of the patient fail to give warning
+of a very advanced state of disease. Every surgeon of experience
+has met with cases in which, though there is nothing pointing
+to the fact that the patient is on the brink of a disaster, the
+operation has shown that the appendix is mortified, and that it
+is surrounded with abundant foul matter. It is then that he
+regrets not having operated a day or two earlier. Consequently
+it is a good rule to operate in all doubtful cases. In cases in
+which one happens to know that previous attacks have passed
+off under palliative treatment, there is no need for immediate
+operation; the quiet interval may be safely waited for. But
+in cases in which there is &ldquo;no history,&rdquo; and in which the surgeon
+has nothing to guide him, the greatest safety is in prompt
+operation.</p>
+
+<p>If an attack of acute appendicitis is allowed to take its course
+unoperated on, abscess forms in the peritoneal cavity in the
+region of the appendix, but if already inflammation has happily
+glued the intestines together around that area, the pus is confined
+within definite limits. But as the abscess increases in size the
+demand for its evacuation becomes urgent. The pus, under the
+influence of a natural law, seeks its escape by the path of least
+resistance; sometimes this is into the intestine, and occasionally
+into the bladder. The most satisfactory course which it can take
+is through the wall of the abdomen and out above the right groin.
+As it is making its way in this direction the skin over that part
+becomes red, swollen, hot and tender, and the tissues between it
+and the skin become swollen and brawny. Rarely is <i>fluctuation</i>
+to be made out until the pus has worked its way close to the
+surface. Later, ulceration takes place in the undermined skin,
+and the stinking contents of the abscess escape, greatly to the
+relief of the patient. But long before this could happen the
+surgeon should have made an incision through the inflamed
+tissues in order to give nature some greatly needed help. For
+in many cases she allows the pus blindly to discover that the
+course of least resistance is not towards the surface of the
+abdomen but through the inflammatory barrier formed by the
+adherent coils of bowel, and so into the general peritoneal cavity.
+This unfortunate issue may give temporary relief to the patient,
+so that he says that he feels much better, and that his pain has
+nearly gone. But though his temperature may fall, his pulse is
+apt to quicken&mdash;an ominous coupling of symptoms; the paralysed
+bowels become further distended, so that the lungs are
+pressed upon and breathing is embarrassed; hiccough comes on;
+and whether operation is now resorted to or not, a fatal end is
+highly probable. In other cases, the escaping pus finds its way
+up towards the liver and forms an abscess below the base of the
+lungs.</p>
+
+<p>If operation is performed when appendicitis has run on to
+the formation of abscess, and the diseased appendix presents
+itself, it should of course be removed; but if it does not present
+itself the surgeon should abstain from making a determined
+search for it, as in so doing he may break down the barrier which
+nature has provided, and thus himself become the means of
+spreading a septic peritonitis. Nor should he attempt to make
+clean the foul abscess cavity. All that he should do is to provide
+for efficient drainage. A large proportion of these cases do
+extremely well with incision and drainage, and in the subsequent
+healing of the cavity the wreckage of the appendix either undergoes
+disintegration or is rendered harmless for further anxiety.</p>
+
+<p>In some cases, however, the damaged appendix remains as a
+smouldering ember, ready at any moment to cause further conflagration.
+This is made manifest by lingering pains, and by
+tenderness and warnings after the abscess has healed, and the
+patient will be well advised to have what is left of the appendix
+removed by operation at a time of quiescence. The operation,
+however, may turn out to be a very difficult one. Sometimes
+the wound by which the abscess has been evacuated, by nature
+or by art, refuses to heal completely, a little discharge of a faecal
+odour continuing to escape. The small wound leads into a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page220" id="page220"></a>220</span>
+faecal fistula, and a bent probe passed along it would probably
+find its way into the bowel. The wound is likely to close of itself
+in due course; but if after many weeks of disappointment it
+still continues to discharge, the surgeon may advise an operation
+for its obliteration.</p>
+
+<p>It occasionally happens that after operation the scar of the
+wound in the abdominal wall yields under the pressure from
+within, and a bulging of the intestines beneath the skin occurs.
+This is called a <i>ventral hernia</i>, and if the patient cannot be made
+comfortable by wearing a truss with a large flat pad, an operation
+may be deemed advisable.</p>
+
+<p>If, in a case of appendicitis, for one reason or another operation
+is to be delayed, what treatment should be resorted to? The
+patient should be put to bed with his knees resting over a pillow,
+and a large fomentation under oil silk should be laid over the
+lower part of the abdomen. No food should be given beyond
+an occasional sip of hot water. Purgatives should not be
+administered, as this would be to set in movement an inflamed
+piece of bowel. If the case is not acute, a large enema of soap
+and water with turpentine may be given, or, possibly, a dose of
+castor oil by the mouth. As a rule, however, it is unwise to set
+the bowels in vigorous action until the diseased appendix has
+been removed. No opium should be given.</p>
+
+<p>Acute intestinal obstruction, cancer of the intestine, inflammation
+of the ovary, typhoid fever and renal and gallstone
+colic, are affections which are apt to be mistaken for appendicitis.
+The first of these resembles it most closely, and diagnosis is
+sometimes impossible without resort to operation. And it is a
+fortunate thing that, when error of diagnosis has been made,
+the operation which was designed for dealing with an inflamed
+appendix may be directed with equal advantage to the morbid
+condition which is found on opening the abdomen. In typhoid
+fever the characteristic temperature, the general condition of
+the patient, and the presence of delirium are differentiating
+signs of importance; in renal and gallstone colic the situation
+and the more paroxysmal character of the pain are usually
+distinctive.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. O.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPENDICULATA,<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> a zoological name introduced by E. Ray
+Lankester (preface to the English edition of C. Gegenbaur&rsquo;s
+<i>Comparative Anatomy</i>), and employed by the same writer in the
+9th edition of this encyclopaedia (article &ldquo;Zoology&rdquo;) to denote the
+eighth phylum, or major division, of coelomate animals. The
+animals thus associated, the Rotifera, Chaetopoda and Arthropoda,
+are composed of a larger or smaller number of hollow rings,
+each ring possessing typically a pair of hollow lateral appendages,
+moved by intrinsic muscles and penetrated by blood-spaces.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPENDINI, FRANCESCO MARIA<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (1768-1837), Italian
+historian and philologist, was born at Poirino, near Turin, on
+the 4th of November 1768. Educated at Rome, he took orders
+and was sent to Ragusa, where he was appointed professor of
+rhetoric. When the French seized Ragusa, Napoleon placed
+Appendini at the head of the Ragusan academy. After the
+Austrian occupation he was appointed principal of a college at
+Zara, where he died in 1837. Appendini&rsquo;s chief work was his
+<i>Notizie Istorico-critiche sulle Antichità, Storia, e Letteratura dei
+Ragusci</i> (1802-1803).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPENZELL,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> one of the cantons of north-east Switzerland,
+entirely surrounded by the canton of St Gall; both were formed
+out of the dominions of the prince abbots of St Gall, whence the
+name Appenzell (<i>abbatis cello</i>). It is an alpine region, particularly
+in its south portion, where rises the Alpstein limestone
+range (culminating in the Säntis, 8216 ft.), though towards the
+north the surface is composed rather of green hills, separating
+green hollows in which nestle neat villages and small towns.
+It is mainly watered by two streams that descend from the
+Säntis, the Urnasch joining the Sitter (on which is the capital,
+Appenzell), which later flows into the Thur. There are light
+railways from Appenzell to St Gall either (12½ m.) past Gais or
+(20½ m.) past Herisau, as well as lines from St Gall to Trogen
+(6 m.) and from Rorschach to Heiden (4¼ m.). Since 1597 it has
+been divided, for religious reasons, into two half-cantons, which
+are quite independent of each other, and differ in many points.</p>
+
+<p>The north and west portion or <i>Ausser Rhoden</i> has a total area
+of 93.6 sq. m. (of which 90.6 are classed as &ldquo;productive&rdquo;;
+forests covering 22·5 sq. m. and glaciers .038 sq. m.), with a
+population (in 1900) of 55,281, mainly German-speaking, and
+containing 49,797 Protestants as against 5418 Romanists. Its
+political capital is Trogen (<i>q.v.</i>), though the largest town is
+Herisau (<i>q.v.</i>), while Teufen has 4595 inhabitants, and Heiden
+(3745 inhabitants) in the north-east corner is the most frequented
+of the many goats&rsquo; whey cure resorts for which the entire canton
+is famous (Urnäsch and Gais are also in Ausser Rhoden). This
+half-canton is divided into three administrative districts,
+comprising twenty communes, and is mainly industrial, the manufacture
+of cotton goods, muslins, and embroidery being very
+flourishing. It sends one member (elected by the <i>Landsgemeinde</i>)
+to the federal <i>Ständerath</i> and three to the federal <i>Nationalrath</i>
+(elected by a direct popular vote).</p>
+
+<p>The south or more mountainous portion of Appenzell forms
+the half-canton of Appenzell, <i>Inner Rhoden</i>. It has a total area
+of 66.7 sq. m. (of which 62.8 sq. m. are classed as &ldquo;productive,&rdquo;
+forests covering 12.8 sq. m. and glaciers .38 sq. m.), and a total
+population of 13,499, practically all German-speaking, and all but
+833 Romanists. Its political capital is Appenzell (<i>q.v.</i>), which is
+also the largest village, while Weissbad (near it) and Gonten are
+the best-known goats&rsquo; whey cure resorts. Embroidery and
+muslins are made in this half-canton, though wholly at home by
+the work-people. But it is very largely pastoral, containing 168
+mountain pastures or &ldquo;alps,&rdquo; maintaining each summer 4000
+cows, and of an estimated capital value of 2,682,955 francs (the
+figures for Ausser Rhoden are respectively 100 alps, 2800 cows,
+and 1,749,900 francs). Inner Rhoden is extremely conservative,
+and has the reputation of always rejecting any federal <i>Referendum</i>.
+For similar reasons it has preserved many old customs
+and costumes, those of the women being very elaborate and
+picturesque, while the herdsmen have retained their festival
+attire of red waistcoats, embroidered braces and canary-coloured
+shorts. It sends one member (named by the <i>Landsgemeinde</i>) to
+the federal <i>Ständerath</i>, and one also to the federal <i>Nationalrath</i>,
+while it forms but a single administrative district, though divided
+into six communes.</p>
+
+<p>To the outer world the canton of Appenzell is best known by
+its institution of <i>Landsgemeinden</i>, or primitive democratic
+assemblies held in the open air, in which every male citizen
+(not being disqualified) over twenty years of age must (under a
+money penalty) appear personally: each half-canton has such
+an assembly of its own, that of Inner Rhoden always meeting
+at Appenzell, and that of Ausser Rhoden in the odd years at
+Hundwil (near Herisau) and in the even years at Trogen. This
+institution is of immemorial antiquity, and the meetings in either
+case are always held on the last Sunday in April. The <i>Landsgemeinde</i>
+is the supreme legislative authority, and elects both the
+executive (in Inner Rhoden composed of nine members and called
+<i>Ständeskommission</i>, and in Ausser Rhoden of seven members
+and called <i>Regierungsrath</i>) and the president or <i>Landammann</i>;
+in each half-canton there is also a sort of standing committee
+(composed of the members of the executive and representatives
+from the communes&mdash;in Inner Rhoden one member per 250 or
+fraction over 125 of the population, and in Ausser Rhoden one
+member per 1000 of the inhabitants) which prepares business for
+the <i>Landsgemeinde</i> and decides minor matters; in Inner Rhoden
+it is named the <i>Grossrath</i> and in Ausser Rhoden the <i>Kantonsrath</i>.
+As various old-fashioned ceremonies are observed at the meetings
+and the members each appear with his girded sword, the sight of
+a meeting of the <i>Landsgemeinde</i> is most striking and interesting.
+The existing constitution of Inner Rhoden dates mainly from
+1872, and that of Ausser Rhoden from 1876.</p>
+
+<p>By the middle of the 11th century the abbots of St Gall had
+established their power in the land later called Appenzell, which,
+too, became thoroughly teutonized, its early inhabitants having
+probably been romanized Raetians. But as early as 1377, this
+portion of the abbots&rsquo; domains formed an alliance with the
+Swabian free imperial cities and adopted a constitution of its
+own. The repeated attempts of the abbots to put down this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page221" id="page221"></a>221</span>
+independence of their rule were defeated in the battles of
+Vögelinsegg (1403), north-west of Trogen, and of the Stoss (1405),
+the pass leading from Gais over to Altstätten in the Rhine valley.
+In 1411 Appenzell was placed under the &ldquo;protection&rdquo; of the
+Swiss Confederation, of which, in 1452, it became an &ldquo;allied
+member,&rdquo; and in 1513 a full member. Religious differences
+broke up the land after the Reformation into two portions, each
+called <i>Rhoden</i>, a term that in the singular is said to mean a
+&ldquo;clearing,&rdquo; and occurs in 1070, long before the final separation.
+From 1798 to 1803 Appenzell, with the other domains of the abbot
+of St Gall, was formed into the canton Säntis of the Helvetic
+Republic, but in 1803, on the creation of the new canton of St
+Gall, shrank back within its former boundaries. The oldest
+codes of the laws and customs of the land date from 1409 and
+1585, the original MS. of the latter (called the &ldquo;Silver Book&rdquo;
+from its silver clasps) being still used in Inner Rhoden when, at
+the close of the annual <i>Landsgemeinde</i>, the newly elected <i>Landammann</i>
+first takes the oath of office, and the assembled members
+then take that of obedience to him, in either case with uplifted
+right hands.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <i>Appenzellische Jahrbücher</i> (3 series from 1854, Trogen);
+G. Baumberger, &ldquo;<i>Juhu-Juuhu</i>&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Appenzellerland und
+Appenzellerleut</i> (Einsiedeln, 1903); J.G. Ebel, <i>Schilderung d. Gebirgsvolker
+d. Schweiz</i>, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1798); W. Kobelt, <i>Die Alpwirthschaft
+im Kant. App. Inner Rhoden</i> (Soleure, 1899); I.B. Richman,
+<i>Appenzell</i> (London, 1895); H. Ryffel, <i>Die schweiz. Landsgemeinden</i>
+(Zürich, 1903); J.J. Tobler and A. Strüby, <i>Die Alpwirthschaft im
+Kant. App. Ausser Rhoden</i> (Soleure, 1900); J.C. Zellweger,
+<i>Geschichte d. app. Volkes</i> (to 1597), 6 vols in 11 parts (Trogen,
+1830-1838); J.C. Zellweger, junior, <i>Der Kant. App.</i>. (Trogen, 1867);
+A. Tobler, <i>Das Volkslied im Appenzellerland</i> (Basel, 1906); J.J.
+Blumer, <i>Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte d. schweiz. Demokratien</i> (3 vols.
+St Gall, 1850-1859).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPENZELL,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> the political capital of the Inner Rhoden half
+of the Swiss canton of Appenzell. It is built in a smiling green
+hollow on the left bank of the Sitter stream, which is formed by
+the union of several mountain torrents descending from the
+Säntis. By light railways it is 12½ m. from St Gall past Gais or
+20½ m. past Herisau. Its chief streets are paved, but it is rather
+a large village than a town, though in 1900 it had 4574 inhabitants,
+practically all German-speaking and Romanists. It has a
+stately modern parish church (attached to a Gothic choir), a
+small but very ancient chapel of the abbots of St Gall (whose
+summer residence was this village), and two Capuchin convents
+(one for men, founded in 1588, and one for women, founded in
+1613). Among the archives, kept in the sacristy of the church,
+are several banners captured by the Appenzellers in former
+days, among them one taken in 1406 at Imst, near Lanedeck,
+with the inscription <i>Hundert Teufel</i>, though popularly this
+number is multiplied a thousandfold. In the principal square
+the <i>Landsgemeinde</i> (or cantonal democratic assembly) is held
+annually in the open air on the last Sunday in April. The
+inhabitants are largely employed in the production of embroidery,
+though also engaged in various pastoral occupations. About
+2½ m. by road south-east of Appenzell is Weissbad, a well-known
+goat&rsquo;s whey cure establishment, while 1½ hours above it is the
+quaint little chapel of Wildkirchli, built (1648) in a rock cavern,
+on the way to the Säntis.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPERCEPTION<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (Lat. <i>ad</i> and <i>percipere</i>, perceive), in
+psychology, a term used to describe the presentation of an
+object on which attention is fixed, in relation to the sum of
+consciousness previous to the presentation and the mind as a
+whole. The word was first used by Leibnitz, practically in the
+sense of the modern Attention (<i>q.v.</i>), by which an object is
+apprehended as &ldquo;not-self&rdquo; and yet in relation to the self. In
+Kantian terminology apperception is (1) <i>transcendental</i>&mdash;the
+perception of an object as involving the consciousness of the
+pure self as subject, and (2) <i>empirical</i>,&mdash;the cognition of the self
+in its concrete existence. In (1) apperception is almost equivalent
+to self-consciousness; the existence of the ego may be more
+or less prominent, but it is always involved. According to J.F.
+Herbart (<i>q.v.</i>) apperception is that process by which an aggregate
+or &ldquo;mass&rdquo; of presentations becomes systematized (<i>apperceptions-system</i>)
+by the accretion of new elements, either sense-given or
+product of the inner workings of the mind. He thus emphasizes
+in apperception the connexion with the self as resulting from
+the sum of antecedent experience. Hence in education the
+teacher should fully acquaint himself with the mental development
+of the pupil, in order that he may make full use of what
+the pupil already knows.</p>
+
+<p>Apperception is thus a general term for all mental processes
+in which a presentation is brought into connexion with an
+already existent and systematized mental conception, and
+thereby is classified, explained or, in a word, understood;
+<i>e.g.</i> a new scientific phenomenon is explained in the light of
+phenomena already analysed and classified. The whole intelligent
+life of man is, consciously or unconsciously, a process
+of apperception, inasmuch as every act of attention involves the
+appercipient process.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Karl Lange, <i>Ueber Apperception</i> (6th ed. revised, Leipzig,
+1899; trans. E.E. Brown, Boston, 1893); G.F. Stout, <i>Analytic
+Psychology</i> (London, 1896), bk. ii. ch. viii., and in general text-books
+of psychology; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psychology</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPERLEY, CHARLES JAMES<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1777-1843), English sportsman
+and sporting writer, better known as &ldquo;Nimrod,&rdquo; the
+pseudonym under which he published his works on the chase
+and the turf, was born at Plasgronow, near Wrexham, in Denbighshire,
+in 1777. Between the years 1805 and 1820 he devoted
+himself to fox-hunting. About 1821 he began to contribute to
+the <i>Sporting Magazine</i>, under the pseudonym of &ldquo;Nimrod,&rdquo; a
+series of racy articles, which helped to double the circulation
+of the magazine in a year or two. The proprietor, Mr Pittman,
+kept for &ldquo;Nimrod&rdquo; a stud of hunters, and defrayed all expenses
+of his tours, besides giving him a handsome salary. The death
+of Mr Pittman, however, led to a law-suit with the proprietors
+of the magazine for money advanced, and Apperley, to avoid
+imprisonment, had to take up his residence near Calais (1830),
+where he supported himself by his writings. He died in London
+on the 19th of May 1843. The most important of his works are:
+<i>Remarks on the Condition of Hunters, the Choice of Horses</i>, &amp;c.
+(1831); <i>The Chase, the Turf, and the Road</i> (originally written for
+the <i>Quarterly Review</i>), (1837); <i>Memoirs of the Life of the Late
+John Mytton</i> (1837); <i>Nimrod&rsquo;s Northern Tour</i> (1838); <i>Nimrod
+Abroad</i> (1842); <i>The Horse and the Hound</i> (a reprint from the
+seventh edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>) (1842); <i>Hunting
+Reminiscences</i> (1843).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPERT, BENJAMIN NICOLAS MARIE<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> (1797-1847), French
+philanthropist, was born in Paris on the 10th of September 1797.
+While a young man he introduced a system of mutual instruction
+into the regimental schools of the department of the Nord. The
+success which it obtained induced him to publish a <i>Manual</i>
+setting forth his system. While engaged in teaching prisoners at
+Montaigu, he fell under the suspicion of having connived at the
+escape of two of them, and was thrown into the prison of La
+Force. On his release he resolved to devote the rest of his life
+to bettering the condition of those whose lot he had for a time
+shared, and he travelled much over Europe for the purpose of
+studying the various systems of prison discipline, and wrote
+several books on the subject. After the revolution of 1830 he
+became secretary to Queen Marie Amélie, and organized the
+measures taken for the relief of the needy. He was decorated
+with the Legion of Honour in 1833.</p>
+
+<p>His brother, <span class="sc">François Appert</span> (d. 1840), was the inventor of
+the method of preserving food by enclosing it in hermetically
+sealed tins; he left a work entitled <i>Art de conserver les substances
+animales et végétables</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPIAN<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Appianos">&#902;&#960;&#960;&#953;&#945;&#957;&#972;&#962;</span>), of Alexandria, Roman historian,
+flourished during the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian and Antoninus
+Pius. He tells us that, after having filled the chief offices in
+his native place, he repaired to Rome, where he practised as an
+advocate. When advanced in years, he obtained, by the good
+offices of his friend Fronto, the dignity of imperial procurator&mdash;
+it is supposed in Egypt. His work (<span class="grk" title="Rumaika">&#8172;&#969;&#956;&#945;&#953;&#954;&#940;</span>) in twenty-four
+books, written in Greek, is rather a number of monographs than
+a connected history. It gives an account of various peoples and
+countries from the earliest times down to their incorporation
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page222" id="page222"></a>222</span>
+into the Roman empire. Besides a preface, there are extant
+eleven complete books and considerable fragments. In spite of
+its unattractive style, the work is very valuable, especially for
+the period of the civil wars.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Editio princeps, 1551; Schweighäuser, 1785; Bekker, 1852;
+Mendelssohn, 1878-1905. English translations: by W. B., 1578
+(black letter); J. D[avies], 1679; H. White, 1899 (Bohn&rsquo;s Classical
+Library); bk. i. ed. by J.L. Strachan-Davidson, 1902.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPIANI, ANDREA<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1754-1817), the best fresco painter of his
+age, was born at Milan. He was made pensioned artist to the
+kingdom of Italy by Napoleon, but lost his allowance after the
+events of 1814 and fell into poverty. Correggio was his model,
+and his best pieces, which are in the church of Santa Maria presso
+San Celso and the royal palace at Milan, almost rival those of
+his great master. He also painted Napoleon and the chief
+personages of his court. Among the most graceful of his oil-paintings
+are his &ldquo;Venus and Love,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Rinaldo in the
+Garden of Armida.&rdquo; He is known as &ldquo;the elder,&rdquo; to distinguish
+him from his great-nephew Andrea Appiani (1817-1865), an
+historical painter at Rome. Other painters of the same name
+were Niccolo Appiani (fl. 1510) and Francesco Appiani (1704-1792).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPIA, VIA,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> a high-road leading from Rome to Campania
+and lower Italy, constructed in 312 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the censor Appius
+Claudius Caecus. It originally ran only as far as Capua, but was
+successively prolonged to Beneventum, Venusia, Tarentum and
+Brundusium, though at what dates is unknown. Probably it
+was extended as far as Beneventum not long after the colonization
+of this town in 268 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and it seems to have reached
+Venusia before 190 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Horace, in the journey to Brundusium
+described in <i>Sat</i>. i. 5, followed the Via Appia as far as
+Beneventum, but not beyond.</p>
+
+<p>The original road was no doubt only gravelled (<i>glarea strata</i>);
+in 298 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> a footpath was laid <i>saxo quadrato</i> from the Porta
+Capena, by which it left Rome, to the temple of Mars, about 1 m.
+from the gate. Three years later, however, the whole road was
+paved with <i>silex</i> from the temple to Bovillae, and in 191 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+the first mile from the gate to the temple was similarly treated.
+The distance from Rome to Capua was 132 m. For the first few
+miles the road is flanked by an uninterrupted series of tombs
+and other buildings (see L. Canina, <i>Via Appia</i>, Rome, 1853).
+As far as Terracina it ran in an almost entirely straight line,
+even through the Alban Hills, where the gradients are steep.
+A remarkably fine embankment belonging to it still exists at
+Aricia. At Forum Appii it entered the Pomptine Marshes;
+that this portion (19 m. long, hence called Decennovium) belonged
+to the original road was proved by the discovery at Ad Medias
+(Mesa) of a milestone of about 250 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Ch. Hülsen, in <i>Römische
+Mitteilungen</i>, 1889, 83; 1895, 301). A still older road ran along
+the foot of the Volscian mountains past Cora, Norba and Setia;
+this served as the post road until the end of the 18th century.
+At the time of Strabo and Horace, however, it was the practice
+to travel by canal from Forum Appii to Lucus Feroniae; to
+Nerva and Trajan were due the paving of the road and the repair
+of the bridges along this section. Theodoric in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 486 ordered
+the execution of similar repairs, the success of which is recorded
+in inscriptions, but in the middle ages it was abandoned and
+impassable, and was only renewed by Pius VI. The older road
+crossed the back of the promontory at the foot of which Terracina
+stands; in imperial times, probably, the rock was cut away
+perpendicularly for a height of 120 ft. to allow the road to pass.
+Beyond Fundi it passed through the mountains to Formiae, the
+engineering of the road being noteworthy; and thence by
+Minturnae and Sinuessa (towns of the Aurunci which had been
+conquered in 314 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> to Capua. The remains of the road in
+this first portion are particularly striking.</p>
+
+<p>Between Capua and Beneventum, a distance of 32 m., the
+road passed near the defile of Caudium (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caudine Forks</a></span>).
+The modern highroad follows the ancient line, and remains of the
+latter, with the exception of three well-preserved bridges, which
+still serve for the modern highroad, are conspicuous by their
+absence. The portion of the road from Rome to Beneventum is
+described by Sir R. Colt Hoare, <i>Classical Tour through Italy</i>,
+57 seq. (London, 1819). He was accompanied on his journey,
+made in 1789, by the artist Carlo Labruzzi, who executed a series
+of 226 drawings, the greater part of which have not been published;
+they are described by T. Ashby in <i>Mélanges de l&rsquo;École
+Française de Rome</i> (1903), p. 375 seq., and <i>Atti del Congresso Internazionale
+per le Scienze Storiche</i>, vol. v. (Rome, 1904), p. 125 seq.</p>
+
+<p>From Beneventum to Brundusium by the Via Appia, through
+Venusia and Tarentum, was 202 m. A shorter route, but more
+fitted for mule traffic, though Horace drove along part of it,<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+ran by Aequum Tuticum, Aecae, Herdoniae, Canusium, Barium,
+and Gnatia (Strabo vi. 282); it was made into a main road by
+Trajan, and took the name Via Traiana. The original road, too,
+adopted in imperial times a more devious but easier route by
+Aeclanum instead of by Trevicum. This was restored by
+Hadrian for the 15 m. between Beneventum and Aeclanum.
+Under Diocletian and Maximian a road (the Via Herculia) was
+constructed from Aequum Tuticum to Pons Aufidi near Venusia,
+where it crossed the Via Appia and went on into Lucania, passing
+through Potentia and Grumentum, and joining the Via Popilia
+near Nerulum. Though it must have lost much of its importance
+through the construction of the Via Traiana, the last portion
+from Tarentum to Brundusium was restored by Constantine
+about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 315.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Via Appia was the most famous of Roman roads; Statius,
+<i>Silvae</i>, ii. 2. 12, calls it <i>longarum regina viarum</i>. It was administered
+under the empire by a curator of praetorian rank, as were the other
+important roads of Italy. A large number of milestones and other
+inscriptions relating to its repair at various times are known. See
+Ch. Hülsen in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopadie</i>, ii. 238 seq. (Stuttgart,
+1896).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It is important to note how the Romans followed up every
+victory with a road.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> From Beneventum he followed the older line of the Via Appia
+to Trevicum; thence, leaving the main road at Aquilonia, he went to
+Ausculum (&ldquo;quod versu dicere non est&rdquo;), the mod. Ascoli Satriano,
+by a by-road, for the milestones which have been found there,
+though they probably belong to the Via Traiana, cannot be in their
+original position, but must have been transplanted thither (Th.
+Mommsen in <i>Corp. Inscrip. Lat.</i>, ix. 1883, No. 6016)&mdash;and on to
+Herdoniae (why Mommsen says that he left Herdoniae on the left,
+<i>op. cit.</i> p. 592, is not clear), where he joined the line of the later Via
+Traiana.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPIN,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> a coast district of Argyllshire, Scotland, bounded W.
+by Loch Linnhe, S. by Loch Creran, E. by the districts of Benderloch
+and Lorne, and N. by Loch Leven. It lies north-east to
+south-west, and measures 14 m. in length by 7 m. in breadth.
+The scenery of the coast is extremely beautiful, and inland the
+country is rugged and mountainous. The principal hills are
+the double peaks of Ben Vair (3362 ft. and 3284 ft.) and Creag
+Ghorm (2372 ft.) in the north, and Fraochie (2883 ft.), Meall
+Ban (2148 ft.) and Ben Mhic na Ceisich (2093 ft.) near the right
+flank of Glen Creran. The chief streams are the Coe and Laroch,
+flowing into Loch Leven, the Duror and Salachan flowing into
+Loch Linnhe, and the lola and Creran flowing into Loch Creran.
+The leading industries comprise slate and granite quarries and
+lead mining. Ballachulish, Duror, Portnacroish, Appin and
+Port Appin are the principal villages. Ballachulish and Port
+Appin are ports of call for steamers, and the Caledonian railway
+company&rsquo;s branch line from Connel Ferry to Ballachulish runs
+through the coast land and has stations at Creagan, Appin,
+Duror, Kentallen and Ballachulish Ferry. Appin was the country
+of a branch of the Stewarts.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPLAUSE<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (Lat. <i>applaudere</i>, to strike upon, clap), primarily
+the expression of approval by clapping of hands, &amp;c.; generally
+any expression of approval. The custom of applauding is doubtless
+as old and as widespread as humanity, and the variety of its
+forms is limited only by the capacity for devising means of
+making a noise. Among civilized nations, however, it has at
+various times been subject to certain conventions. Thus the
+Romans had a set ritual of applause for public performances,
+expressing degrees of approval: snapping the finger and thumb,
+clapping with the flat or hollow palm, waving the flap of the toga,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id="page223"></a>223</span>
+for which last the emperor Aurelian substituted a handkerchief
+(<i>orarium</i>), distributed to all Roman citizens (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stole</a></span>). In
+the theatre, at the close of the play, the chief actor called out
+&ldquo;Valete et plaudite!&rdquo;, and the audience, guided by an unofficial
+choregus, chaunted their applause antiphonally. This was
+often organized and paid for (Böttiger, <i>Über das Applaudieren
+im Theater bei den Alten</i>, Leipz., 1822). When Christianity
+became fashionable the customs of the theatre were transferred
+to the churches. Eusebius (<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> vii. 30) says that Paul
+of Samosata encouraged the congregation to applaud his preaching
+by waving linen cloths (<span class="grk" title="othonais">&#8000;&#952;&#972;&#957;&#945;&#953;&#962;</span>), and in the 4th and 5th
+centuries applause of the rhetoric of popular preachers had
+become an established custom. Though, however, applause
+may provide a healthy stimulus, its abuse has led to attempts
+at abolishing or restricting it even in theatres. The institution
+of the <i>claque</i>, people hired by performers to applaud them, has
+largely discredited the custom, and indiscriminate applause has
+been felt as an intolerable interruption to serious performances.
+The reverential spirit which abolished applause in church has
+tended to spread to the theatre and the concert-room, largely
+under the influence of the quasi-religious atmosphere of the
+Wagner performances at Baireuth. In Germany (<i>e.g.</i> the court
+theatres at Berlin) applause during the performance and
+&ldquo;calling before the curtain&rdquo; have been officially forbidden, but
+even in Germany this is felt to be in advance of public opinion.
+(See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Acclamation</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cheering</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPLE<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (a common Teut. word, A.S. <i>aepl, aeppel</i>, O.H.G. <i>aphul,
+aphal, apfal</i>, mod. Ger. <i>Apfel</i>), the fruit of <i>Pyrus Malus</i>, belonging
+to the sub-order <i>Pomaceae</i>, of the natural order <i>Rosaceae</i>. It
+is one of the most widely cultivated and best-known and appreciated
+of fruits belonging to temperate climates. In its wild state
+it is known as the crab-apple, and is found generally distributed
+throughout Europe and western Asia, growing in as high a
+latitude as Trondhjem in Norway. The crabs of Siberia belong
+to different species of <i>Pyrus</i>. The apple-tree as cultivated is a
+moderate-sized tree with spreading branches, ovate, acutely
+serrated or crenated leaves, and flowers in corymbs. The fruit is
+too well known to need any description of its external characteristics.
+The apple is successfully cultivated in higher latitudes
+than any other fruit tree, growing up to 65° N., but notwithstanding
+this, its blossoms are more susceptible of injury from
+frost than the flowers of the peach or apricot. It comes into
+flower much later than these trees, and so avoids the night
+frost which would be fatal to its fruit-bearing. The apples which
+are grown in northern regions are, however, small, hard, and
+crabbed, the best fruit being produced in hot summer climates,
+such as Canada and the United States. Besides in Europe and
+America, the fruit is now cultivated at the Cape of Good Hope,
+in northern India and China, and in Australia and New
+Zealand.</p>
+
+<p>Apples have been cultivated in Great Britain probably since
+the period of the Roman occupation, but the names of many
+varieties indicate a French or Dutch origin of much later date.
+In 1688 Ray enumerated seventy-eight varieties in cultivation
+in the neighbourhood of London, and now it is calculated that
+about 2000 kinds can be distinguished. According to the
+purposes for which they are suitable, they can be classed as&mdash;
+1st, dessert; 2nd, culinary; and 3rd, cider apples. The
+principal dessert apples are the Pippins (<i>pepins</i>, seedlings), of
+which there are numerous varieties. As culinary apples, besides
+Rennets and other dessert kinds, Codlins and Biffins are cultivated.
+In England, Herefordshire and Devonshire are famous
+for the cultivation of apples, and in these counties the manufacture
+of cider (<i>q.v.</i>) is an important industry. Cider is also
+extensively prepared in Normandy and in Holland. Verjuice is
+the fermented juice of crab apples.</p>
+
+<p>A large trade in the importation of apples is carried on in
+Britain, imports coming chiefly from French, Belgian and Dutch
+growers, and from the United States and British North America.
+Dried and pressed apples are imported from France for stewing,
+under the name of Normandy Pippins, and similarly prepared
+fruits come also from America.</p>
+
+<p>The apple may be propagated by seeds to obtain stocks for
+grafting, and also for the production of new varieties. The
+established sorts are usually increased by grafting, the method
+called whip-grafting being preferred. The stocks should be at
+least as thick as the finger; and should be headed back to where
+the graft is to be fixed in January, unless the weather is frosty,
+but in any case before vegetation becomes active. The scions
+should be cut about the same time, and laid in firmly in a trench,
+in contact with the moist soil, until required.</p>
+
+<p>The tree will thrive in any good well-drained soil, the best
+being a good mellow calcareous loam, while the less iron there is in
+the subsoil the better. The addition of marl to soils that are not
+naturally calcareous very much improves them. The trees are
+liable to canker in undrained soils or those of a hot sandy nature.
+Where the soil is not naturally rich enough, it should be well
+manured, but not to the extent of encouraging over-luxuriance.
+It is better to apply manure in the form of a compost than to use
+it in a fresh state or unmixed.</p>
+
+<p>To form an orchard, standard trees should be planted at from
+25 to 40 ft. between the rows, according to the fertility of the soil
+and other considerations. The trees should be selected with
+clean, straight, self-supporting stems, and the head should be
+shapely and symmetrical, with the main branches well balanced.
+In order to obtain such a stem, all the leaves on the first shoot
+from the graft or bud should be encouraged to grow, and in the
+second season the terminal bud should be allowed to develop a
+further leading shoot, while the lateral shoots should be allowed
+to grow, but so that they do not compete with the leader, on
+which the growth of leaves should be encouraged in order that
+they may give additional strength to the stem below them. The
+side shoots should be removed gradually, so that the diminution of
+foliage in this direction may not exceed the increase made by the
+new branches and shoots of the upper portion. Dwarf pyramids,
+which occupy less space than open dwarfs, if not allowed to grow
+tall, may be planted at from 10 to 12 ft. apart. Dwarf bush trees
+may be planted from 10 to 15 ft. apart, according to the variety
+and the soil. Dwarf bushes on the Paradise stock are both ornamental
+and useful in small gardens, the trees being always
+conveniently under control. These bush trees, which must be
+on the proper stock&mdash;the French Paradise&mdash;may be planted at
+first 6 ft. apart, with the same distance between the rows, the
+space being afterwards increased, if desired, to 12 ft. apart, by
+removing every alternate row.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Cordons&rdquo; are trees trained to a single shoot, the laterals of
+which are kept spurred. They are usually trained horizontally,
+at about 1½ ft. from the ground, and may consist of one stem or
+of two, the stems in the latter case being trained in opposite
+directions. In cold districts the finer sorts of apples may be
+grown against walls as upright or oblique cordons. From these
+cordon trees very fine fruit may often be obtained. The apple may
+also be grown as an espalier tree, a form which does not require
+much lateral space. The ordinary trained trees for espaliers and
+walls should be planted 20 ft. apart.</p>
+
+<p>The fruit of the apple is produced on spurs which form on the
+branchlets of two years old and upwards, and continue fertile for
+a series of years. The principal pruning should be performed in
+summer, the young shoots if crowded being thinned out, and the
+superabundant laterals shortened by breaking them half through.
+The general winter pruning of the trees may take place any time
+from the beginning of November to the beginning of March, in
+open weather. The trees are rather subject to the attacks of the
+American blight, the white cottony substance found on the bark
+and developed by an insect (<i>Eriosoma, mali</i>), somewhat similar
+to the green-fly of the garden, but not a true aphis. It may be
+removed by scrubbing with a hard brush, by painting the affected
+spots with any bland oil, or by washing them with dilute paraffin
+and soft soap.</p>
+
+<p>The apple-blossom weevil (<i>Anthonomus pomorum</i>), a small
+reddish-brown beetle, often causes serious damage to the flowers.
+The female bores and lays an egg in the unopened bud, and the
+maggot feeds on the stamens and pistil. The weevil hibernates
+in the crannies of the bark or in the soil at the base of the trees,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224"></a>224</span>
+and bandages of tarred doth placed round the stem in spring
+will prevent the female from crawling up.</p>
+
+<p>The codlin moth (<i>Carpocapsa pomonana</i>) lays its eggs in May
+in the calyx of the flowers. The young caterpillar, which is
+white with black head and neck, gnaws its way through the fruit,
+and pierces the rind. When nearly full grown it attacks the core,
+and the fruit soon drops. The insect emerges and spins its
+cocoon in a crack of the bark.</p>
+
+<p>To check this disease the apples which fall before ripening
+should be promptly removed. A loosely made hay-band twisted
+round the stem about a foot from the ground is of use. The
+grubs will generally choose the bands in which to make their
+cocoon; at the end of the season the bands are collected and
+burned.</p>
+
+<p>The following are a few of the most approved varieties of the
+apple tree, arranged in order of their ripening, with the months
+in which they are in use:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="2">Dessert Apples.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">White Juneating</td> <td class="tcl cl">July</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Early Red Margaret</td> <td class="tcl">Aug.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Irish Peach</td> <td class="tcl cl">Aug.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Devonshire Quarrenden</td> <td class="tcl">Aug., Sept.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Duchess of Oldenburg</td> <td class="tcl cl">Aug., Sept.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Red Astrachan</td> <td class="tcl">Sept.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Kerry Pippin</td> <td class="tcl cl">Sept., Oct.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Peasgood&rsquo;s Nonesuch</td> <td class="tcl">Sept.-Nov.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Sam Young</td> <td class="tcl cl">Oct.-Dec.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">King of the Pippins</td> <td class="tcl">Oct.-Jan.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Cox&rsquo;s Orange Pippin</td> <td class="tcl cl">Oct.-Feb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Court of Wick</td> <td class="tcl">Oct.-Mar.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Blenheim Pippin</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-Feb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sykehouse Russet</td> <td class="tcl">Nov.-Feb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Fearn&rsquo;s Pippin</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-Mar.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mannington&rsquo;s Pearmain</td> <td class="tcl">Nov.-Mar.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Margil</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-Mar.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ribston Pippin</td> <td class="tcl">Nov.-Mar.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Golden Pippin</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-Jan.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Reinette de Canada</td> <td class="tcl">Nov.-Apr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Ashmead&rsquo;s Kernel</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-Apr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">White Winter Calville (grown under glass)</td> <td class="tcl">Dec.-Mar.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Braddick&rsquo;s Nonpareil</td> <td class="tcl cl">Dec.-Apr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Court-pendû Plat</td> <td class="tcl">Dec.-Apr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Northern Spy</td> <td class="tcl cl">Dec.-May</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cornish Gilliflower</td> <td class="tcl">Dec.-May</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Scarlet Nonpareil</td> <td class="tcl cl">Jan.-Mar.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cockle&rsquo;s Pippin</td> <td class="tcl">Jan.-Apr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Lamb Abbey Pearmain</td> <td class="tcl cl">Jan.-May</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Old Nonpareil</td> <td class="tcl">Jan.-May</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Duke of Devonshire</td> <td class="tcl cl">Feb.-May</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sturmer Pippin</td> <td class="tcl">Feb.-June</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="2">Kitchen Apples.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Keswick Codlin</td> <td class="tcl cl">Aug.-Sept.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Lord Suffield</td> <td class="tcl">Aug.-Sept.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Manks Codlin</td> <td class="tcl cl">Aug.-Oct.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ecklinville Seedling</td> <td class="tcl">Aug.-Nov.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Stirling Castle</td> <td class="tcl cl">Aug.-Nov.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">New Hawthornden</td> <td class="tcl">Sept.-Oct.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Stone&rsquo;s Seedling</td> <td class="tcl cl">Sept.-Nov.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Emperor Alexander</td> <td class="tcl">Sept.-Dec.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Waltham Abbey Seedling</td> <td class="tcl cl">Sept.-Jan.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cellini</td> <td class="tcl">Oct., Nov.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Gravenstein</td> <td class="tcl cl">Oct.-Dec.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Hawthornden</td> <td class="tcl">Oct.-Dec.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Baumann&rsquo;s Red Winter Reinette</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-Mar.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mère de Ménage</td> <td class="tcl">Oct.-Mar.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Beauty of Kent</td> <td class="tcl cl">Oct.-Feb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Yorkshire Greening</td> <td class="tcl">Oct.-Feb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Gloria Mundi</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-Jan.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Blenheim Pippin</td> <td class="tcl">Nov.-Feb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Tower of Glammis</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-Feb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Warner&rsquo;s King</td> <td class="tcl">Nov.-Mar.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Alfriston</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-Apr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Northern Greening</td> <td class="tcl">Nov.-Apr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Reinette de Canada</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-Apr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bess Pool</td> <td class="tcl">Nov.-May</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Winter Queening</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-May</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Lane&rsquo;s Prince Albert</td> <td class="tcl">Oct.-May</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl cl">Norfolk Beaufin</td> <td class="tcl cl">Nov.-July</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Apples for table use should have a sweet juicy pulp and rich
+aromatic flavour, while those suitable for cooking should possess
+the property of forming a uniform soft pulpy mass when boiled
+or baked. In their uncooked state they are not very digestible,
+but when cooked they form a very safe and useful food, exercising
+a gentle laxative influence.</p>
+
+<p>According to Hutchison their composition is as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tb lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">Water.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Proteid.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Ether<br />Extract.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Carbo-<br />hydrate.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Ash.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cellu-<br />lose.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Acids.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Fresh</td> <td class="tcc rb">82.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">Dried</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">36.2</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.4</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.0</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">49.1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.8</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4.9</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.6</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Many exotic fruits, having nothing in common with the apple;
+are known by that name, <i>e.g.</i> the Balsam apple, <i>Momordica
+Balsamina</i>; the custard apple (<i>q.v.</i>), <i>Anona reticulata</i>; the egg
+apple, <i>Solanum esculentum</i>; the rose apple, various species of
+<i>Eugenia</i>; the pineapple (<i>q.v.</i>), <i>Ananas sativus</i>; the star apple,
+<i>Chrysophyllum Cainito</i>; and the apples of Sodom, <i>Solanum
+sodomeum</i>.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. B. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPLEBY,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough, and
+the county town of Westmorland, England, in the Appleby
+parliamentary division, 276 m. N.N.W. from London, on the
+Midland and a branch of the North Eastern railways. Pop.
+(1901) 1764. It is picturesquely placed in the valley of the Eden,
+which is richly wooded, and flanked on the north-east by spurs of
+Milburn Forest and Dufton and other fells, which rise up to
+2600 ft. On a hill above the town stands the castle, retaining a
+fine Norman keep and surrounded by a double moat, now partly
+laid out as gardens. The remainder of the castle was rebuilt as a
+mansion in the 17th century. It was held for the royalists in the
+civil wars by Sir Philip Musgrave, and was the residence of Anne,
+countess of Pembroke, the last of the family of Clifford, which
+had great estates in this part of England. St Ann&rsquo;s hospital
+for thirteen poor women (1654) was of her foundation. The
+grammar school (1453) was refounded by Queen Elizabeth.
+The modern incorporation dates from 1885, with a mayor, four
+aldermen and twelve councillors. Area, 1876 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Appleby is not mentioned in any Saxon records, but after
+the Conquest it rose to importance as the head of the barony
+of Appleby which extended over the eastern portion of the
+present county of Westmorland. This barony formed part of
+the province of Carlisle granted by Henry I. to Ranulf Meschin,
+who erected the castle at Appleby and made it his place of
+residence. Appleby is a borough by prescription, and the old
+charter of incorporation, granted in the first year of James II.,
+was very shortly abandoned. In 1292 we find the mayor and
+commonalty claiming the right to elect a coroner and to have
+tolls of markets and fairs. In 1685 the governing body comprised
+a mayor, aldermen, a town clerk, burgesses of the common
+council, a coroner and subordinate officers. An undated charter
+from Henry II. conceding to the burgesses the customs of York,
+Was confirmed in 1 John, 16 Henry III., 14 Edward I., and
+5 Edward III. John granted the borough to the burgesses for
+a fee-farm rent. The impoverishment caused by the Scottish
+raids led to its seizure by Edward II. for arrears of payment,
+but Edward III. restored it on the same terms as before. Henry
+VIII. reduced the fee-farm rent from 20 marks to 2 marks, after
+an inquisition which found that Appleby was burnt by the Scots
+in 1388 and that part of it still lay in ruins. The town, however,
+never seems to have regained its prosperity, and 16th and 17th
+century writers speak of it as a poor and insignificant village.
+Appleby returned two members to parliament from 1295 until
+disfranchised by the Reform Act of 1832. The market and the
+St Lawrence fair are held by prescription. James I. granted an
+additional fair on the second Thursday in April. In the early
+18th century Appleby was celebrated for the best corn-market
+in the country.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Victoria County History, Westmorland</i>; W. Hewitson, <i>Appleby
+Charters</i> (Cumberl. and Westm. Antiq. and Archaeol. Soc., Transactions,
+xi. 279-285; Kendal, 1891).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPLETON, NATHAN<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (1770-1861) American merchant and
+politician, was born in New Ipswich, New Hampshire, on the
+6th of October 1779. He was educated in the New Ipswich
+Academy, and in 1794 entered mercantile life in Boston, in the
+employment of his brother, Samuel (1766-1853), a successful and
+benevolent man of business, with whom he was in partnership
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page225" id="page225"></a>225</span>
+from 1800 to 1809. He co-operated with Francis C. Lowell and
+others in introducing the power-loom and the manufacture of
+cotton on a large scale into the United States, a factory being
+established at Waltham, Massachusetts, in 1814, and another
+in 1822 at Lowell, Massachusetts, of which city he was one of
+the founders. He was a member of the general court of Massachusetts
+in 1816, 1821, 1822, 1824 and 1827, and in 1831-1833
+and 1842 of the national House of Representatives, in which he
+was prominent as an advocate of protective duties. He died in
+Boston on the 14th of July 1861.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Thomas Gold Appleton</span> (1812-1884), who graduated
+at Harvard in 1831, had some reputation as a writer, an artist
+and a patron of the fine arts, but was better known for his
+witticisms, one of which, the oft-quoted &ldquo;Good Americans,
+when they die, go to Paris,&rdquo; is sometimes attributed to Oliver
+Wendell Holmes. He published some poems and, in prose,
+<i>Nile Journal</i> (1876), <i>Syrian Sunshine</i> (1877), <i>Windfalls</i> (1878),
+and <i>Chequer-Work</i> (1879).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the memoir of Nathan Appleton by Robert C. Winthrop
+(Boston, 1861); and Susan Hale&rsquo;s <i>Life and Letters of Thomas Gold
+Appleton</i> (New York, 1885).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPLETON,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Outagamie county,
+Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the lower Fox river, about 90 m. N. of
+Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) 11,869; (1900) 15,085, of whom 3605
+were foreign-born; (1910, census) 16,773. It is served by the
+Chicago &amp; North-Western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee &amp; St
+Paul railways, and by steamboats on the Fox river, by means of
+which it meets lake transportation at De Pere and Green Bay.
+Appleton was one of the first cities in the United States to have
+an electric street railway line in operation; and electric street
+railways now traverse the entire Fox river valley as far as
+Fond du Lac on the south and Green Bay on the north. The
+city is attractively laid out on high bluffs above the river.
+It has several beautiful parks, two hospitals, a number of fine
+churches and school buildings, and a public library. The city
+is the seat of Lawrence college (changed from university in 1908),
+an interdenominational (originally a Methodist Episcopal)
+co-educational institution, founded in 1847 as the Lawrence
+Institute of Wisconsin and named in honour of Amos Adams
+Lawrence (1814-1886) of Boston, son of Amos Lawrence, and
+giver of $10,000 for the founding of the Institute. The college
+comprises an academy, a college of liberal arts, a school of
+expression, a school of commerce, schools of music and of art,
+and a school of correspondence; and in 1907-1908 had 33
+instructors, 575 students and a library of 24,400 volumes. The
+Fox river furnishes about 10,000 h.p., which is largely utilized
+for the manufacture of paper (of which Appleton is one of the
+largest producers in the United States), wood-pulp, sulphite
+fibre, machinery, wire screens, woollen goods, knit goods, furniture,
+dyes and flour. The total value of factory products in
+1905 was $6,672,457, an increase of 72.8% over the product
+value of 1900. Appleton was first permanently settled in 1833,
+and was named in honour of Samuel Appleton of Massachusetts,
+who owned part of the original town plot. It was incorporated
+as a village in 1853, and received in 1857 a city charter, which
+was revised in 1887 and in 1905.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPOGGIATURA<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (from Ital. <i>appoggiare</i>, to lean upon), a
+musical term for a melodic ornament, a grace-note prefixed to a
+principal note and printed in small character. The effect is
+to suspend the principal note, by taking away the time-value of
+the <i>appoggiatura</i> prefixed to it. There are two kinds, the long
+<i>appoggiatura</i>, now usually printed as played, and the short,
+where the suspension of the principal note is scarcely perceptible;
+this is often called <i>acciatura</i>, a word properly applied to an
+ornament now obsolete, in which a principal note in a melody is
+struck together with the note immediately below, the lower note
+being at once released and the other held on.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPOINTMENT, POWER OF,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> in English law, an authority
+reserved by or limited to a person, to dispose, either wholly or
+partially, of real or personal property, either for his own benefit
+or for that of others. Thus if A settle property upon trustees
+to such uses as B shall by deed or will appoint and in default of
+and until such appointment to the use of C and his heirs, B,
+though he has no interest in the property, can at any time
+appoint the property to any one he pleases, including himself,
+and C&rsquo;s interest which has hitherto been vested in him will be
+divested. In the above case A is said to be the donor, B the
+donee, and the persons in whose favour the appointment is
+exercised are called the appointees. Such powers are either
+general or limited. A general power is one which the appointor
+may exercise in favour of any person he pleases. It is obvious
+that such a power is very nearly equivalent to ownership, and
+consequently property which is the subject of a general power
+has been made to share the liabilities of ownership. By the
+Judgments Act 1838 all hereditaments over which a judgment
+debtor has such a power may be seized by the sheriff under a
+writ of <i>elegit</i>, and by the Bankruptcy Act 1883 similar property
+will vest in the trustees of a bankrupt. By the Finance Act 1894
+property of which the deceased had a general power of appointment
+is subject to the payment of estate duty, even though the
+power has not been exercised. A limited power is one which
+can only be exercised in favour of certain specified persons or
+classes; such a power is frequently inserted in marriage settlements
+in which after life estates to the husband and wife a power
+is given to appoint among the children of the marriage. In such
+a case no appointment to any one but children of the marriage is
+valid. Formerly it was held that the intention of the donor of
+such a power was that each of the class which are the objects of
+the power should take some part of the fund, and from this arose
+the equitable doctrine of illusory appointments, by which the
+courts of equity set aside an appointment which was good at
+law on the ground that a merely nominal share had been
+appointed to one of the objects. The great difficulty of deciding
+what was a nominal or illusory share caused the passing of the
+Illusory Appointments Act of 1830, whereby it was enacted
+that no appointment should be set aside merely on the ground
+that a share appointed was illusory. It was still necessary,
+however, that some share should be appointed to each object,
+and consequently it was possible in the popular phrase to be
+&ldquo;cut off with a shilling,&rdquo; but now by the Powers Amendment Act
+1874 the appointor is no longer obliged to appoint a share to
+each object of the power.</p>
+
+<p>It is a general rule that every circumstance required by the
+instrument creating the power to accompany the execution of it
+must be strictly observed. Thus it might be required that the
+appointment should be by an instrument witnessed by four
+witnesses, or that the consent in writing of some third party
+should be signified. The general rule, however, has been modified
+both by statute and by the rules of equity. By the Wills Act 1837
+a will made pursuant to the requirements of that statute shall be
+a valid execution of a power of appointment by will, notwithstanding
+that some additional form or solemnity shall have been
+required by the instrument creating the power, and by the Wills
+Act 1861 a will made out of the United Kingdom by a British
+subject according to the forms required by the law of the place
+where the will was made shall, as regards personal estate, be
+held to be well executed and admitted to probate; consequently
+it has been held that an appointment made by such a will is a
+valid exercise of the power. As regards appointments by deed
+the Law of Property Amendment Act 1859 enacts that a deed
+attested by two witnesses shall, so far as execution and attestation
+go, be a valid exercise of a power to appoint by deed. The
+courts of equity also will interfere in some cases of defective
+execution in order to carry out the intentions of the settlor.
+The principle upon which the court acts is obscure, but the rule
+has been thus stated:&mdash;&ldquo;Whenever a man having power over
+an estate, whether ownership or not, in discharge of moral or
+natural relations, shows an intention to execute such power,
+the court will operate upon the conscience of the heir (or of the
+persons entitled in default) to make him perfect this intention.&rdquo;
+Equity, however, only relieves against defects not of the essence
+of the power, such as the absence of seal or execution by will
+instead of deed, but where the defect is of the essence of the
+power, as where a consent is not obtained, equity will not assist,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page226" id="page226"></a>226</span>
+nor will it relieve where a power to appoint by will is purported
+to be exercised by deed. A power of appointment if exercised
+must be exercised bona fide, otherwise it will be void as fraudulent;
+thus it has been frequently decided that where a father,
+having a limited power of appointment among his children,
+appoints the whole fund to an infant child, who is in no need
+of the appointment and who is ill, in the expectation of the
+death of the child whereby the fund will come to him as next of
+kin, such appointment is void as a fraud upon the power. Where
+an execution is partly fraudulent and partly valid the court will,
+if possible, separate the two and only revoke that which is
+fraudulent; if, however, the two parts are not separable the
+whole is void. The same rule is applied in cases of excessive
+execution where the power is exercised in favour of persons
+some of whom are and some of whom are not objects of the power.
+The doctrine of <i>Election</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) applies to appointments under
+powers, but there must be a gift of free and disposable property
+to the persons entitled in default of appointment.</p>
+
+<p>The appointment must in law be read into the instrument
+creating the power in lieu of the power itself. Thus an appointor
+under a limited power cannot appoint to any person to whom the
+donor could not have appointed by reason of the rule against
+perpetuities, but this is not so in the case of a general power,
+for there the appointor is virtually owner of the property
+appointed. In applying this rule to appointments a distinction
+arises between powers created by deed and will, for a deed
+speaks from the date of its execution but a will from the death
+of the testator, and so limitations bad when the will was made
+may have become good when it comes into operation. Since the
+Conveyancing Act 1881 all powers may be released by the
+donees thereof, unless the power is coupled with a trust in
+respect of which there is a duty cast on the donee to exercise it;
+and this is so even though the donee gets a benefit by such
+release as one entitled in default of appointment, for this is not
+a fraud upon the power.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. S. M. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> a village of Appomattox
+county, Virginia, U.S.A., 25 m. E. of Lynchburg, in the S.
+part of the state. It is served by the Norfolk &amp; Western railway.
+The village was the scene of the surrender of the Confederate
+Army of Northern Virginia under General Robert E. Lee to
+the Federal forces under Lieutenant-General U.S. Grant on
+Sunday the 9th of April 1865. The terms were: &ldquo;the officers to
+give their individual paroles not to take up arms against the
+government of the United States until properly exchanged,
+and each company or regimental commander to sign a like
+parole for the men of their commands,&rdquo; ... neither &ldquo;side arms
+of the officers nor their private horses or baggage&rdquo; to be
+surrendered; and, as many privates in the Confederate Army
+owned horses and mules, all horses and mules claimed by men
+in the Confederate Army to be left in their possession.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPONYI, ALBERT,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1846-&emsp;&emsp;), Hungarian statesman,
+the most distinguished member of an ancient noble family,
+dating back to the 13th century, and son of the chancellor
+Gyorgy Apponyi (1808-1899) and the accomplished and saintly
+Countess Julia Sztáray, was born at Pesth on the 29th of May
+1846. Educated at the Jesuit seminary at Kalksburg and at the
+universities of Vienna and Pesth, a long foreign tour completed
+his curriculum, and at Paris he made the acquaintance of
+Montalembert, a kindred spirit, whose influence on the young
+Apponyi was permanent. He entered parliament in 1872 as a
+liberal Catholic, attaching himself at first to the Deák party;
+but the feudal and ultramontane traditions of his family circle
+profoundly modified, though they could never destroy, his
+popular ideals. On the break up of the Deák party he attached
+himself to the conservative group which followed Baron Pál
+Senynyey (1824-1888) and eventually became its leader. Until
+1905 Count Albert was constantly in opposition, but in May of
+that year he consented to take office in the second Wekerle
+ministry. A lofty and magnetic orator, his speeches were
+published at Budapest in 1896; and he is the author of an
+interesting dissertation, <i>Esthetics and Politics, the Artist and the
+Statesman</i> (Hung.) (Budapest, 1895).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPORTIONMENT<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (Fr. <i>apportionement;</i> Med. Lat. <i>apportionamentum;</i>
+derived from Lat. portio, share), distribution or
+allotment in proper shares; a term used in law in a variety of
+senses, (1) Sometimes it is employed roughly and with no
+technical meaning to indicate the distribution of a benefit (<i>e.g.</i>
+salvage or damages under the Fatal Accidents Act 1846, § 2), or
+liability (<i>e.g.</i> general average contributions, or tithe rent-charge),
+or the incidence of a duty (<i>e.g.</i> obligations as to the maintenance
+of highways). (2) In its strict legal interpretation apportionment
+falls into two classes, &ldquo;apportionment in respect of
+estate&rdquo; and &ldquo;apportionment in respect of time.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Apportionment in respect of Estate</i> may result either from the
+act of the parties or from the operation of law. Where a lessee
+is evicted from, or surrenders or forfeits possession of part of
+the property leased to him, he becomes liable at common law
+to pay only a rent apportioned to the value of the interest which
+he still retains. So where the person entitled to the reversion of
+an estate assigns part of it, the right to an apportioned part of the
+rent incident to the whole reversion passes to his assignee. The
+lessee is not bound, however, by an apportionment of rent
+made upon the grant of part of the reversion unless it is made
+either with his consent or by the verdict of a jury. The assignee
+of the reversion of part of demised premises could not, at common
+law, re-enter for breach of a condition, inasmuch as a condition
+of re-entry in a lease could not at common law be apportioned.
+But this has now been altered by statute both in England (Law
+of Property Amendment Act 1859, § 3; Conveyancing Act 1881,
+§ 12) and in many of the British colonies (<i>e.g.</i> Ontario, Rev. Stats.,
+1897, c. 170, § 9; Barbados, No. 12 of 1891, § 9). In the cases
+just mentioned there is apportionment in respect of estate by act
+of the parties.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Apportionment by operation of law</i> may be brought about where
+by act of law a lease becomes inoperative as regards its subject-matter,
+or by the &ldquo;act of God&rdquo; (as, for instance, where part of an
+estate is submerged by the encroachments of the sea). To the same
+category belongs the apportionment of rent which takes place under
+various statutes (<i>e.g.</i> the Lands Clauses Consolidation Act 1845,
+§ 119, when land is required for public purposes; the Agricultural
+Holdings Act 1883, § 41, in the case of a tenant from year to year
+receiving notice to quit part of a holding; and the Irish Land Act
+1903, § 61, apportionment of quit and crown rents).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>2. Apportionment in respect of Time.</i>&mdash;At common law, there
+was no apportionment of rent in respect of time. Such apportionment
+was, however, in ceftain cases allowed in England by the
+Distress for Rent Act 1737, and the Apportionment Act 1834,
+and is now allowed generally under the Apportionment Act 1870.
+Under that statute (§ 2) all rents, annuities, dividends and other
+periodical payments in the nature of income are to be considered
+as accruing from day to day and to be apportionable in respect
+of time accordingly. It is provided, however, that the apportioned
+part of such rents, &amp;c., shall only be payable or recoverable
+in the case of a continuing payment, when the entire portion
+of which it forms part itself becomes payable, and, in the case
+of a payment determined by re-entry, death or otherwise, only
+when the next entire portion would have been payable if it had
+not so determined (§ 3). Persons entitled to apportioned parts
+of rent have the same remedies for recovering them when payable
+as they would have had in respect of the entire rent; but a lessee
+is not to be liable for any apportioned part specifically. The rent
+is recoverable by the heir or other person who would, but for the
+apportionment, be entitled to the entire rent, and he holds it
+subject to distribution (§ 4). The Apportionment Act 1870
+extends to payments not made under any instrument in writing
+(§ 2), but not to annual sums made payable in policies of insurance
+(§ 6). Apportionment under the act can be excluded by express
+stipulation.</p>
+
+<p>The apportionment created by this statute is &ldquo;apportionment
+in respect of time.&rdquo; The cases to which it applies are mainly
+cases of either (A) apportionment of rent due under leases where
+at a time between the dates fixed for payment the lessor or lessee
+dies, or some other alteration in the position of parties occurs;
+or (B) apportionment of income between the representatives of a
+limited owner and the remainder-man when the limited interest
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page227" id="page227"></a>227</span>
+determines at a time between the date when such income became
+due.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>(A) With regard to the former of these classes, it may be noticed
+that although apportioned rent becomes payable only when the
+whole rent is due, the landlord, in the case of the bankruptcy of an
+ordinary tenant, may prove for a proportionate part of the rent up
+to the date of the receiving order (Bankruptcy Act 1883, Sched. ii.
+r. 19); and that a similar rule holds good in the winding up of a
+company (<i>in re South Kensington Co-operative Stores</i>, 1881, 17
+Ch.D. 161); and further that the act of 1870 applies to the liability
+to pay, as well as to the right to receive, rent (<i>in re Wilson</i>, 1893,
+62 L.J.Q.B. 628, 632). Accordingly where an assignment of a
+lease is made between two half-yearly rent-days, the assignee is not
+liable to pay the full amount of the half-year&rsquo;s rent falling due on the
+rent-day next after the date of the assignment, but only an apportioned
+part of that half-year&rsquo;s rent, computed from the last mentioned
+date (<i>Glass</i> v. <i>Patterson</i>, 1902, 2 Ir.R. 660).</p>
+
+<p>(B.) With regard to the apportionment of income, the only points
+requiring notice here are that all dividends payable by public
+companies are apportionable, whether paid at fixed periods or not,
+unless the payment is, in effect, a payment of capital (§ 5).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Apportionment Act 1870 extends to Scotland and Ireland.
+It has been followed in many of the British colonies (<i>e.g.</i> Ontario,
+Rev. Stats., 1897, c. 170, §§ 4-8; New Zealand, No. 4 of 1886;
+Tasmania, No. 8 of 1871; Barbados, No. 12 of 1891, §§ 9-12).
+Similar legislation has been adopted in many of the states of the
+American Union, where, as in England, rent was not, at common
+law, apportionable as to time (Kent, <i>Comm</i>. iii. 469-472).</p>
+
+<p>An <i>equitable apportionment</i>, apart from statute law, arises where
+property is bequeathed on trust to pay the income to a tenant
+for life and the reversion to others, and the realization of the
+property in the form of a fund capable of producing income is
+postponed for the benefit of the estate. In such cases there is an
+ultimate apportionment between the persons entitled to the
+income and those entitled to the capital of the accumulations
+for the period of such postponement. The rule followed is this:
+the proceeds, when realized, are apportionable between capital
+and income by ascertaining the sum which, put out and accumulated
+at 3% <i>per annum</i> from the day of the testator&rsquo;s death
+(with yearly rents and deducting income tax) would have produced
+at the day of receipt the sum actually received. The sum
+so ascertained should be treated as capital and the residue as
+income. (<i>In re Earl of Chesterfield&rsquo;s Trusts</i>, 1883, 24 Ch.D.
+643; <i>In re Goodenough</i>, 1895, 2 Ch. 537; <i>Rowlls</i> v. <i>Bebb</i>, 1900,
+2 Ch. 107.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In addition to the authorities cited in the text, see Stroud, <i>Jud.
+Dict.</i> (2nd ed., London, 1903), s.v. &ldquo;Apportion&rdquo;; Bouvier, <i>Law
+Dict.</i> (London and Boston, 1897), s.v. &ldquo;Apportionment&rdquo;; <i>Ruling
+Cases</i> (London, 1895), tit. &ldquo;Apportionment&rdquo;; Fawcett, <i>Landlord
+and Tenant</i> (London, 1905), pp. 238 et seq.; Foa, <i>Landlord and
+Tenant</i> (3rd ed., London, 1901), pp. 112 et seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. W. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPORTIONMENT BILL,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> an act passed by the Congress of
+the United States after each decennial census to determine the
+number of members which each state shall send to the House
+of Representatives. The ratio of representation fixed by
+the original constitution was 1 to 30,000 of the free population,
+and the number of the members of the first House was 65.
+As the House would, at this ratio, have become unmanageably
+large, the ratio, which is first settled by Congress before
+apportionment, has been raised after each census, as will be seen
+from the accompanying table.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Under</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Census</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Apportionment</td> <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Whole<br />Number of<br />Repre-<br />sentatives.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year</td> <td class="tccm allb">Population</td> <td class="tccm allb">Year</td> <td class="tccm allb">Ratio</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Constitution</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">· ·</td> <td class="tcc rb">1789</td> <td class="tcr rb">30,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">&ensp;65</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">First Census</td> <td class="tcc rb">1790</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,929,214</td> <td class="tcc rb">1793</td> <td class="tcr rb">33,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">105</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Second Census</td> <td class="tcc rb">1800</td> <td class="tcr rb">5,308,483</td> <td class="tcc rb">1803</td> <td class="tcr rb">33,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">141</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Third Census</td> <td class="tcc rb">1810</td> <td class="tcr rb">7,239,881</td> <td class="tcc rb">1813</td> <td class="tcr rb">35,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">181</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Fourth Census</td> <td class="tcc rb">1820</td> <td class="tcr rb">9,633,822</td> <td class="tcc rb">1823</td> <td class="tcr rb">40,000</td> <td class="tcc rb">213</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Fifth Census</td> <td class="tcc rb">1830</td> <td class="tcr rb">12,866,020</td> <td class="tcc rb">1833</td> <td class="tcr rb">47,700</td> <td class="tcc rb">240</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sixth Census</td> <td class="tcc rb">1840</td> <td class="tcr rb">17,069,453</td> <td class="tcc rb">1843</td> <td class="tcr rb">70,680</td> <td class="tcc rb">223</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Seventh Census</td> <td class="tcc rb">1850</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,191,876</td> <td class="tcc rb">1853</td> <td class="tcr rb">93,423</td> <td class="tcc rb">234</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Eighth Census</td> <td class="tcc rb">1860</td> <td class="tcr rb">31,443,321</td> <td class="tcc rb">1863</td> <td class="tcr rb">127,381</td> <td class="tcc rb">241</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ninth Census</td> <td class="tcc rb">1870</td> <td class="tcr rb">38,558,371</td> <td class="tcc rb">1873</td> <td class="tcr rb">131,425</td> <td class="tcc rb">292</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tenth Census</td> <td class="tcc rb">1880</td> <td class="tcr rb">50,155,783</td> <td class="tcc rb">1883</td> <td class="tcr rb">151,911</td> <td class="tcc rb">325</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Eleventh Census</td> <td class="tcc rb">1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">62,622,250</td> <td class="tcc rb">1893</td> <td class="tcr rb">173,901</td> <td class="tcc rb">356</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Twelfth Census</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1900</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">75,568,686</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1903</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">194,182</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">386</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The same term is applied to the acts passed by the state
+legislatures for correcting and redistributing the representation
+of the counties. Such acts are usually passed at decennial
+intervals, more often after the federal census, but the dates may
+vary in different states. The state representatives are usually
+apportioned among the several counties according to population
+and not by geographical position. The electoral districts so
+formed are expected to be equal in proportion to the number of
+inhabitants; but this method has led to much abuse in the past,
+through the making of unequal districts for partisan purposes.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gerrymander</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>If a state has received an increase in the number of its representatives
+and its legislature does not pass an apportionment
+bill before the next congressional election, the votes of the whole
+state elect the additional members on a general ticket and they
+are called &ldquo;congressmen-at-large.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPRAISER<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>appretiare</i>, to value), one who sets a
+value upon property, real or personal. In England the business
+of an appraiser is usually combined with that of an auctioneer,
+while the word itself has given place, to a great extent, to that of
+&ldquo;valuer.&rdquo; (See the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Auctions and Auctioneers</a></span>, and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Valuation and Valuers</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>In the United States appraiser is a term often used to describe
+a person specially appointed by a judicial or quasi-judicial
+authority to put a valuation on property, <i>e.g.</i> on the items of an
+inventory of the estate of a deceased person or on land taken
+for public purposes by the right of eminent domain. Appraisers
+of imported goods and boards of general appraisers have extensive
+functions in administering the customs laws of the
+United States. Merchant appraisers are sometimes appointed
+temporarily under the revenue laws to value where there is no
+resident appraiser without holding the office of appraiser (U.S.
+Rev. Stats. § 2609).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPREHENSION<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (Lat. <i>ad</i>, to; <i>prehendere</i>, to seize), in
+psychology, a term applied to a mode of consciousness in
+which nothing is affirmed or denied of the object in question, but
+the mind is merely aware of (&ldquo;seizes&rdquo;) it. &ldquo;Judgment&rdquo; (says
+Reid, ed. Hamilton, i. p. 414) &ldquo;is an act of the mind specifically
+different from simple apprehension or the bare conception
+of a thing&rdquo;; and again, &ldquo;Simple apprehension or conception
+can neither be true nor false.&rdquo; This distinction provides for the
+large class of mental acts in which we are simply aware of or
+&ldquo;take in&rdquo; a number of familiar objects, about which we in
+general make no judgment unless our attention is suddenly
+called by a new feature. Or again two alternatives may be
+apprehended without any resultant judgment as to their respective
+merits. Similarly G.F. Stout points out that while
+we have a very vivid idea of a character or an incident in a work
+of fiction, we can hardly be said in any real sense to have any
+belief or to make any judgment as to its
+existence or truth. With this mental state
+may be compared the purely aesthetic contemplation
+of music, wherein apart from, say,
+a false note, the faculty of judgment is for
+the time inoperative. To these examples may
+be added the fact that one can fully understand
+an argument in all its bearings without in any
+way judging its validity.</p>
+
+<p>Without going into the question fully, it
+may be pointed out that the distinction
+between judgment and apprehension is relative.
+In every kind of thought there is judgment of
+some sort in a greater or less degree of
+prominence. Judgment and thought are in
+fact psychologically distinguishable merely as
+different, though correlative, activities of consciousness.
+Professor Stout further investigates the phenomena
+of apprehension, and comes to the conclusion that &ldquo;it is possible
+to distinguish and identify a whole without apprehending any of
+its constituent details.&rdquo; On the other hand, if the attention
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page228" id="page228"></a>228</span>
+focuses itself for a time on the apprehended object, there is
+an expectation that such details will as it were emerge into
+consciousness. Hence he describes such apprehension as
+&ldquo;implicit,&rdquo; and in so far as the implicit apprehension determines
+the order of such emergence he describes it as &ldquo;schematic.&rdquo;
+A good example of this process is the use of formulae in calculations;
+ordinarily the formula is used without question; if
+attention is fixed upon it, the steps by which it is shown to be
+universally applicable emerge and the &ldquo;schema&rdquo; is complete
+in detail.</p>
+
+<p>With this result may be compared Kant&rsquo;s theory of apprehension
+as a synthetic act (the &ldquo;synthesis of apprehension&rdquo;)
+by which the sensory elements of a perception are subjected
+to the formal conditions of time and space.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G.F. Stout, <i>Analytic Psychology</i> (London, 1896); F. Brentano,
+<i>Psychologie</i> (bk. ii. ch. vii.), and <i>Vom Ursprung sittlicher Erkenntnis</i>;
+B. Titchener, <i>Outlines of Psychology</i> (New York, 1902), and
+text-books of psychology. Also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psychology</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPRENTICESHIP<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>apprendre</i>, to learn), a contract
+whereby one person, called the master, binds himself to teach,
+and another, called the apprentice, undertakes to learn, some
+trade or profession, the apprentice serving his master for a certain
+time.</p>
+
+<p>Roman law is silent on the subject on this contract, nor does
+it seem to have had any connexion with the division of the Roman
+citizens into tribes or colleges. So far as can be seen it arose in
+the middle ages, and formed an integral part of the system of
+trade gilds and corporations by which skilled labourers of all
+kinds sought protection against the feudal lords, and the maintenance
+of those exclusive privileges with which in the interests
+of the public they were favoured. In those times it was believed
+that neither arts nor sciences would flourish unless such only
+were allowed to practise them as had given proofs of reasonable
+proficiency and were formed into bodies corporate, with certain
+powers of self-government and the exclusive monopoly of their
+respective arts within certain localities; and the medieval
+<i>universitas</i> (corporation)&mdash;whether of smiths and tailors or of
+scholars&mdash;included both such as were entitled to practise and
+teach and such as were in course of learning. The former were
+the masters, the latter the apprentices. Hence the term <i>apprentice</i>
+was applied indifferently to such as were being taught a
+trade or a learned profession, and even to undergraduates or
+scholars who were qualifying themselves for the degree of doctor
+or master in the liberal arts. When barristers were first appointed
+by Edward I. of England they were styled <i>apprenticii
+ad legem</i>&mdash;the serjeants-at-law being <i>servientes ad legem</i>; and
+these two terms corresponded respectively to the trade names
+of apprentices and journeymen. During the middle ages the
+term of apprenticeship was seven years, and this period was
+thought no more than sufficient to instruct the learner in his
+profession, craft or mystery under a properly qualified master,
+teacher or doctor&mdash;for these names were synonymous&mdash;and
+to reimburse the latter by service for the training received.
+After this the apprentice became himself a master and a member
+of the corporation, with full rights to practise the business
+and to teach others in his turn; so also it would seem that
+undergraduates had to pass through a curriculum of seven years
+before they could attain the degree of doctor or master in the
+liberal arts. On the continent of Europe these rules were observed
+with considerable rigour, both in the learned professions
+and in those which we now designate as trades. In England
+they made their way more slowly and did not receive much
+countenance, there being always a jealousy of anything savouring
+of interference with the freedom of trade. Nevertheless the
+formation of gilds and companies of tradesmen in England dates
+probably from the 12th century, and the institution of apprenticeships
+cannot be of much later date. In 1388 and 1405 it is
+noticed in acts of parliament. By various subsequent statutes
+provisions were made for the regulation of the institution,
+and from them it appears that seven years was its ordinary
+and normal term in the absence of special arrangement. By a
+statute of 1562 this was made the law of the land, and it was
+enacted that no person should exercise any &ldquo;trade or mystery&rdquo;
+without having served a seven years&rsquo; apprenticeship. In no
+place did the apprentices become so formidable by their numbers
+and organization as in London. During the Great Rebellion
+they took an active part as a political body, and were conspicuous
+after the Restoration by being frequently engaged in tumults.
+It was probably owing to this circumstance, quite as much as to
+economic considerations of freedom of trade, that the act of
+Elizabeth never found much favour with the courts of law. Soon
+after the Great Rebellion we find the apprentice laws strongly
+reprobated by the judges, who endeavoured, on the theory that
+the act of Elizabeth could apply to no trades which were not in
+existence at its date, to limit its operation as far as possible.
+Such limitation of the act gave rise to many absurd anomalies
+and inconsistencies, <i>e.g.</i> that a coachmaker could not make his
+own wheels but must buy them of a wheelwright, while the
+latter might make both wheels and coaches, because coach-making
+was not a trade in England when the act of Elizabeth
+was passed. For the like reason the great textile and metal
+manufactures which arose at Manchester and Birmingham
+were held exempt from the operation of the statute. Concurrently
+with the dislike to the apprentice laws which such
+anomalies generated, the doctrines of Adam Smith, that all
+monopolies or restrictions on the freedom of trade were injurious
+to the public interest, had gradually been making their
+way, and notwithstanding much opposition an act was passed in
+1814 by which the statute of Elizabeth, in so far as it enacts
+that no person shall engage in any trade without a seven years&rsquo;
+apprenticeship, was wholly repealed. The effect of this act was
+to give every person the fullest right to exercise any occupation
+or calling of a mechanical or trading kind for which he deemed
+himself qualified.</p>
+
+<p>Apprenticeship, therefore, which was formerly a compulsory,
+now became a voluntary contract. In the case of the learned
+professions the principles and theories which gave birth to
+corporations with monopolies, and required apprenticeship or its
+equivalents, have&mdash;contrary to what has taken place in trade&mdash;
+been not only maintained but intensified; that is to say, not
+only have such bodies retained and even extended in some cases
+their exclusive privileges, but in general no one is allowed to
+practise in such professions unless his capabilities have been
+tested and approved by public authority. Thus no man is
+allowed to practise law or medicine in any of their branches who
+has not undergone the appropriate training by attendance at a
+university or by apprenticeship&mdash;sometimes by both combined&mdash;
+and passed certain examinations. Entrance to the church is
+guarded by similar checks. In such instances the old principle&mdash;
+now generally abandoned in trade&mdash;of granting a monopoly to
+those possessing a certain standard of qualification is maintained
+in greater vigour than ever.</p>
+
+<p>In some kinds of manufacture the old conditions have been
+modified by the subdivisions of labour or by the introduction of
+machinery, which have reduced the amount of skill which
+formerly was requisite, and thus they have passed out of the
+category of the higher skilled handicrafts, as only a very slight
+or short training is necessary to make an efficient worker; but
+a large number of the higher skilled trades remain which require a
+long period of training at the bench, and a careful inquiry into
+this subject has shown that in nearly all of such trades there is
+a scarcity of skilled workers, which is due to the falling off in the
+number of apprenticeships. Many persons qualified to form an
+opinion deplore that something in the nature of the old standard
+of qualification is not still applied to those trades, and consider
+that the only method of restoring a high standard of skill is by
+apprenticeship. The decay of apprenticeship in these trades is
+due, not to any inherent defect in the system, nor to its having
+been superseded by any other form of technical education, but to
+difficulties, especially in London and some other large towns,
+which place it beyond the reach of that class of persons who have
+the greatest need of it. Among these difficulties are:&mdash;first,
+insufficient organization, and secondly, want of funds to pay
+premiums where such are required. These difficulties are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page229" id="page229"></a>229</span>
+accentuated in London and some other large towns, but in many
+other districts apprenticeship is actively proceeded with.
+Efforts are being made, notably by the National Institution of
+Apprenticeship, to meet these difficulties. The Charity Commissioners
+in their report for 1905 recognized the value of this
+institution, and stated that they would in future enable the
+trustees of charity endowments for apprenticeship to avail
+themselves of the practical co-operation of the institution. The
+modern trade unions, on the other hand, have done nothing to
+assist in restoring apprenticeship to its proper place; on the
+contrary, they have hampered it by restrictions which they have
+imposed, limiting the number of apprentices who may be taken.
+The result of fewer apprentices has been not only to lower the
+standard of skill in the higher trades, but to reduce the productive
+capacity of the artisans. The altered conditions now attending
+apprenticeship are, mainly, that the apprentice does not live
+with the master, and that the term is generally five years instead
+of a longer period; but the principle remains precisely the same,
+and the fact that it is applied more and more largely in Austria,
+Germany and other countries is an evidence of its necessity.</p>
+
+<p>The contract of apprenticeship is generally created by indenture,
+but any writing properly expressed and attested will do.
+The full consideration must be set out, and the instrument,
+whether a premium is paid or not, must be duly stamped, except
+in the case of parish apprentices and apprentices to the sea
+service (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seamen, Laws Relating to</a></span>). Where a charity or
+institution intervenes, it retains control over the indentures
+until the end of the term of apprenticeship, when the indenture
+should be cancelled and given up to the apprentice. Any one who
+is capable of making a contract can take an apprentice, and the
+law does not limit the number which may be taken by any master.
+Any person of legal capacity can bind himself as an apprentice,
+provided he is over seven years of age, though, as he is by the
+common law exempt from all liability <i>ex contractu</i>, it is usual for
+the apprentice&rsquo;s relations or friends to become bound for his
+service and good conduct during the period of his apprenticeship.
+The consent of the apprentice, however, must be expressed by
+his executing the indenture. No child under nine can be bound
+as a parish apprentice. The master must teach the apprentice
+the agreed trade or trades; should the master exercise two
+trades (which he has agreed to teach) and give up one, it would
+be good ground for dissolving the contract by the apprentice.
+An apprentice is not bound to work on Sundays, but he may be
+required to work on bank holidays. He cannot become a volunteer
+(soldier) without his master&rsquo;s consent. It is usual in the
+indenture to state whether the apprentice is to be paid wages or
+otherwise. If the contract is to pay wages, no deduction can be
+made owing to illness or accident, unless it has been so provided
+for in the indentures. Nor is the apprentice liable for breakages
+or similar faults. The master has been supposed to have a right
+to administer moderate corporal punishment, though he may not
+delegate it. But this right is really obsolete. According to
+old custom a master provided proper food for his apprentices,
+and medical attendance when required; but the modern practice
+is for apprentices to reside with their parents or friends who
+maintain them. A master cannot assign indentures without the
+approval of the apprentice or such parties as are named in the
+contract for this purpose, even if he should transfer his business.
+The contract of apprenticeship may be dissolved by (1) efflux of
+time; (2) by death (if the master dies, some part of the premium
+is usually returnable, but if the apprentice dies no part is returnable);
+(3) by consent; (4) in case of grave misconduct; (5) under
+the Bankruptcy Act 1883, providing for discharge of the indentures
+of apprenticeship and for payment on account of
+premium. Disputes between master and apprentice, in cases
+where no premium has been paid, or where the premium does not
+exceed £25, are dealt with by courts of summary jurisdiction.
+Apprentices bound according to the &ldquo;custom of London,&rdquo; who
+are infants above the age of fourteen years and under twenty-one
+and unmarried, are responsible upon covenants contained in
+indentures executed by them just as if they were of full age.
+The term of apprenticeship is usually not less than four years.
+Apprentices by the custom of London in agreements made at
+the Guildhall are subject to the jurisdiction of the chamberlain
+of London.</p>
+
+<p>Parish apprentices are those bound out by guardians of the
+poor in England. By the Poor Relief Act 1601, overseers of the
+poor were empowered, with the consent of two justices, to put out
+poor children as apprentices &ldquo;where they shall be convenient.&rdquo;
+Owing to the disinclination to receive such apprentices it became
+necessary to make the reception compulsory (1696), but this
+compulsion to receive them was abolished in 1844. Many
+statutes have been passed from time to time regulating the
+apprenticing of parish children, but it is now under the control
+of the Local Government Board, which issues rules specifying
+fully the manner in which such children are to be bound, assigned
+and maintained.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;See E. Austin, <i>Law Relating to Apprentices</i>
+(1890); Addison, <i>On Contracts</i> (1905). For the state of apprenticeship
+in European countries, and, more particularly in France, see
+<i>Apprentissage, enquête et documents</i> (Paris, 1904, Conseil Supérieur
+du Travail, Ministère du Commerce, de l&rsquo;Industrie, des Postes et des
+Télégraphes, session de 1902). See also the literature issued by the
+National Institution of Apprenticeship, London.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. S. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPROPRIATION<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>appropriare</i>, to set aside), the act
+of setting apart and applying to a particular use to the exclusion
+of all other. In ecclesiastical law, appropriation is the perpetual
+annexation of an ecclesiastical benefice to the use of some spiritual
+corporation, either aggregate or sole. In the middle ages in
+England the custom grew up of the monasteries reserving to
+their own use the greater part of the tithes of their appropriated
+benefices, leaving only a small portion to their vicars in the
+parishes. On the dissolution of the monasteries these &ldquo;great
+tithes&rdquo; were often granted, with the monastic lands, to laymen,
+whose successors, known as &ldquo;lay impropriators&rdquo; or &ldquo;lay rectors,&rdquo;
+still hold them, the system being known as <i>impropriation</i>. Appropriation
+may be severed and the church become disappropriate,
+by the presentation of a clerk, properly instituted and inducted,
+or by the dissolution of the corporation possessing the benefice.</p>
+
+<p>In the law of debtor and creditor, appropriation of payments is
+the application of a particular payment for the purpose of paying
+a particular debt. When a creditor has two debts due to him
+from the same debtor on distinct accounts, the general law as to
+the appropriation of payments made by the debtor is that the
+debtor is entitled to apply the payments to such account as he
+thinks fit; <i>solvitur in modum solventis</i>. In default of appropriation
+by the debtor the creditor is entitled to determine the
+application of the sums paid, and may appropriate them even
+to the discharge of debts barred by the Statute of Limitations.
+In default of appropriation by either debtor or creditor, the law
+implies an appropriation of the earlier payments to the earlier
+debts.</p>
+
+<p>In constitutional law, appropriation is the assignment of money
+for a special purpose. In the United Kingdom an Appropriation
+Bill is a bill passed at the end of each session of parliament,
+enumerating the money grants made during the session, and
+appropriating the various sums, as voted by committee of supply,
+to the various purposes for which it is to be applied. The
+United States constitution (art. I. § 9) says: &ldquo;No money shall
+be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations
+made by law.&rdquo; Bills for appropriating money originate in the
+House of Representatives, but may be amended in the Senate.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APPURTENANCES<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (from late Lat. <i>appertinentia</i>, from
+<i>appertinere</i>, to appertain), a legal term for what belongs to and
+goes with something else, the accessories or things usually
+conjoined with the substantive matter in question.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APRAKSIN, THEDOR MATVYEEVICH<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1671-1728), Russian
+soldier, began life as one of the pages of Tsar Theodore III., after
+whose death he served the little tsar Peter in the same capacity.
+The playfellowship of the two lads resulted in a lifelong friendship.
+In his twenty-first year Apraksin was appointed governor of
+Archangel, then the most important commercially of all the
+Russian provinces, and built ships capable of weathering storms,
+to the great delight of the tsar. He won his colonelcy at the siege
+of Azov (1696). In 1700 he was appointed chief of the admiralty,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page230" id="page230"></a>230</span>
+in which post (from 1700 to 1706) his unusual technical ability
+was of great service. While Peter was combating Charles XII.,
+Apraksin was constructing fleets, building fortresses and havens
+(Taganrog). In 1707 he was transferred to Moscow. In 1708 he
+was appointed commander-in-chief in Ingria, to defend the new
+capital against the Swedes, whom he utterly routed, besides
+capturing Viborg in Carelia. He held the chief command in the
+Black Sea during the campaign of the Pruth (1711), and in 1713
+materially assisted the conquest of Finland by his operations
+from the side of the sea. In 1710-1720 he personally conducted
+the descents upon Sweden, ravaging that country mercilessly,
+and thus extorting the peace of Nystad, whereby she surrendered
+the best part of her Baltic provinces to Russia. For these great
+services he was made a senator and admiral-general of the empire.
+His last expedition was to Reval in 1726, to cover the town from
+an anticipated attack by the English government, with whom the
+relations of Russia at the beginning of the reign of Catharine I.
+were strained almost to breaking-point. Though frequently
+threatened with terrible penalties by Peter the Great for his
+incurable vice of peculation, Apraksin, nevertheless, contrived to
+save his head, though not his pocket, chiefly through the mediation
+of the good-natured empress, Catharine, who remained his
+friend to the last, and whom he assisted to place on the throne on
+the death of Peter. Apraksin was the most genial and kind-hearted
+of all Peter&rsquo;s pupils. He is said to have never made an
+enemy. He died on the 10th of November 1728.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. Nisbet Bain, <i>The Pupils of Peter the Great</i> (London, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APRICOT<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>praecox</i>, or <i>praecoquus</i>, ripened
+early, <i>coquere</i>, to cook, or ripen; the English form, formerly
+&ldquo;apricock&rdquo; and &ldquo;abrecox,&rdquo; comes through the Fr. <i>abricot</i>,
+from the Span. <i>albaricoque</i>, which was an adaptation of the
+Arabic <i>al-burquk</i>, itself a rendering of the late Gr. <span class="grk" title="prekokkia">&#960;&#961;&#949;&#954;&#972;&#954;&#954;&#953;&#945;</span> or
+<span class="grk" title="praikokion">&#960;&#961;&#945;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#954;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>, adapted from the Latin; the derivation from <i>in
+aprico cactus</i> is a mere guess), the fruit of <i>Prunus armeniaca</i>, also
+called <i>Armeniaca vulgaris</i>. Under the former name it is regarded
+as a species of the genus to which the plums belong, the latter
+establishes it as a distinct genus of the natural order <i>Rosaceae</i>.
+The apricot is, like the plum, a stone fruit, cultivated generally
+throughout temperate regions, and used chiefly in the form of
+preserves and in tarts. The tree has long been cultivated in
+<i>Armenia</i> (hence the name <i>Armeniaca</i>); it is a native of north
+China and other parts of temperate Asia. It flowers very early in
+the season, and is a hardy tree, but the fruit will scarcely ripen in
+Britain unless the tree is trained against a wall. A great number
+of varieties of the apricot, as of most cultivated fruits, are
+distinguished by cultivators. The kernels of several varieties
+are edible, and in Egypt those of the Musch-Musch variety form
+a considerable article of commerce. The French liqueur <i>Eau de
+noyaux</i> is prepared from bitter apricot kernels. Large quantities
+of fruit are imported from France into the United Kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>The apricot is propagated by budding on the mussel or common
+plum stock. The tree succeeds in good well-drained loamy soil,
+rather light than heavy. It is usually grown as a wall tree, the
+east and west aspects being preferred to the south, which induces
+mealiness in the fruit, though in Scotland the best aspects are
+necessary. The most usual and best mode of training is the fan
+method. The fruit is produced on shoots of the preceding year,
+and on small close spurs formed on the two-year-old wood. The
+trees should be planted about 20 ft. apart. The summer pruning
+should begin early in June, at which period all the irregular foreright
+and useless shoots are pinched off; and, shortly afterwards,
+those which remain are fastened to the wall. At the winter
+pruning all branches not duly furnished with spurs and fruit buds
+are removed. The young bearing shoots are moderately pruned
+at the points, care being, however, taken to leave a terminal shoot
+or leader to each branch. The most common error in the pruning
+of apricots is laying in the bearing shoots too thickly; the
+branches naturally diverge in fan training, and when they extend
+so as to be about 15 in. apart, a fresh branch should be laid in,
+to be again subdivided as required. The blossoms of the apricot
+open early in spring, but are more hardy than those of the
+peach; the same means of protection when necessary may be
+employed for both. If the fruit sets too numerously, it is thinned
+out in June and in the beginning of July, the later thinnings being
+used for tarts. In the south of England, where the soil is suitable,
+the hardier sorts of apricot, as the Breda and Brussels, bear well
+as standard trees in favourable seasons. In such cases the trees
+may be planted from 20 to 25 ft. apart.</p>
+
+<p>The ripening of the fruit of the apricot is accelerated by
+culture under glass, the trees being either planted out like
+peaches or grown in pots on the orchard-house system. They
+must be very gently excited, since they naturally bloom when the
+spring temperature is comparatively low. At first a maximum of
+40° only must be permitted; after two or three weeks it may be
+raised to 45°, and later on to 50° and 55°, and thus continued
+till the trees are in flower, air being freely admitted, and the
+minimum or night temperature ranging from 40° to 45°. After
+the fruit is set the temperature should be gradually raised, being
+kept higher in clear weather than in dull. When the fruit has
+stoned, the temperature may be raised to 60° or 65° by day and
+60° by night; and for ripening off it may be allowed to reach 70°
+or 80° by sun heat.</p>
+
+<p>The Moorpark is one of the best and most useful sorts in cultivation,
+and should be planted for all general purposes; the Peach
+is a very similar variety, not quite identical; and the Hemskerk
+is also similar, but hardier. The Large Early, which ripens in
+the end of July and beginning of August, and the Kaisha, a
+sweet-kernelled variety, which ripens in the middle of August,
+are also to be recommended. For standard trees in favourable
+localities the Breda and Brussels may be added.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APRIES<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Apries">&#902;&#960;&#961;&#943;&#951;&#962;</span>), the name by which Herodotus (ii. 161)
+and Diodorus (i. 68) designate <i>Uehabr&#275;&#8219;</i>, <span class="grk" title="Ouaphres">&#927;&#8016;&#945;&#966;&#961;&#942;&#962;</span>  (Pharaoh-Hophra),
+the fourth king (counting from Psammetichus I.) of
+the twenty-sixth Egyptian dynasty. He reigned from 589 to 570
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Amasis</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APRIL,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> the second month of the ancient Roman, and the
+fourth of the modern calendar, containing thirty days. The
+derivation of the name is uncertain. The traditional etymology
+from Lat. <i>aperire</i>, &ldquo;to open,&rdquo; in allusion to its being the season
+when trees and flowers begin to &ldquo;open,&rdquo; is supported by
+comparison with the modern Greek use of <span class="grk" title="anoixis">&#7941;&#957;&#959;&#953;&#958;&#953;&#962;</span> (opening) for
+spring. This seems very possible, though, as all the Roman
+months were named in honour of divinities, and as April was
+sacred to Venus, the <i>Festum Veneris et Fortunae Virilis</i> being
+held on the first day, it has been suggested that Aprilis was
+originally her month Aphrilis, from her Greek name Aphrodite.
+Jacob Grimm suggests the name of a hypothetical god or hero,
+<i>Aper</i> or <i>Aprus</i>. On the fourth and the five following days,
+games (<i>Ludi Megalenses</i>) were celebrated in honour of Cybele;
+on the fifth there was the <i>Festum Fortunae Publicae</i>; on the
+tenth (?) games in the circus, and on the nineteenth equestrian
+combats, in honour of Ceres; on the twenty-first&mdash;which was
+regarded as the birthday of Rome&mdash;the <i>Vinalia urbana</i>, when
+the wine of the previous autumn was first tasted; on the twenty-fifth,
+the <i>Robigalia</i>, for the averting of mildew; and on the
+twenty-eighth and four following days, the riotous <i>Floralia</i>.
+The Anglo-Saxons called April <i>Oster-monath</i> or <i>Eostur-monath</i>,
+the period sacred to <i>Eostre</i> or <i>Ostara</i>, the pagan Saxon goddess
+of spring, from whose name is derived the modern Easter.
+St George&rsquo;s day is the twenty-third of the month; and St Mark&rsquo;s
+Eve, with its superstition that the ghosts of those who are
+doomed to die within the year will be seen to pass into the church,
+falls on the twenty-fourth. In China the symbolical ploughing
+of the earth by the emperor and princes of the blood takes place
+in their third month, which frequently corresponds to our
+April; and in Japan the feast of Dolls is celebrated in the same
+month. The &ldquo;days of April&rdquo; (<i>journées d&rsquo;avril</i>) is a name
+appropriated in French history to a series of insurrections at
+Lyons, Paris and elsewhere, against the government of Louis
+Philippe in 1834, which led to violent repressive measures, and
+to a famous trial known as the <i>procès d&rsquo;avril</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Chambers&rsquo;s <i>Book of Days</i>; Grimm&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der deutschen
+Sprache</i>. Cap. &ldquo;Monate&rdquo;; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">April-fools&rsquo; Day</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page231" id="page231"></a>231</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">APRIL-FOOLS&rsquo; DAY,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> or <span class="sc">All-Fools&rsquo; Day</span>, the name given
+to the 1st of April in allusion to the custom of playing practical
+jokes on friends and neighbours on that day, or sending them
+on fools&rsquo; errands. The origin of this custom has been much
+disputed, and many ludicrous solutions have been suggested,
+<i>e.g.</i> that it is a farcical commemoration of Christ being sent
+from Annas to Caiaphas, from Caiaphas to Pilate, from Pilate
+to Herod, and from Herod back again to Pilate, the crucifixion
+having taken place about the 1st of April. What seems certain
+is that it is in some way or other a relic of those once universal
+festivities held at the vernal equinox, which, beginning on old
+New Year&rsquo;s day, the 25th of March, ended on the 1st of April.
+This view gains support from the fact that the exact counterpart
+of April-fooling is found to have been an immemorial custom
+in India. The festival of the spring equinox is there termed
+the feast of Huli, the last day of which is the 31st of March, upon
+which the chief amusement is the befooling of people by sending
+them on fruitless errands. It has been plausibly suggested that
+Europe derived its April-fooling from the French. They were
+the first nation to adopt the reformed calendar, Charles IX.
+in 1564 decreeing that the year should begin with the 1st of
+January. Thus the New Year&rsquo;s gifts and visits of felicitation
+which had been the feature of the 1st of April became associated
+with the first day of January, and those who disliked the change
+were fair butts for those wits who amused themselves by sending
+mock presents and paying calls of pretended ceremony on the
+1st of April. Though the 1st of April appears to have been
+anciently observed in Great Britain as a general festival, it was
+apparently not until the beginning of the 18th century that
+the making of April-fools was a common custom. In Scotland
+the custom was known as &ldquo;hunting the gowk,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> the cuckoo,
+and April-fools were &ldquo;April-gowks,&rdquo; the cuckoo being there,
+as it is in most lands, a term of contempt. In France the person
+befooled is known as <i>poisson d&rsquo;avril</i>. This has been explained
+from the association of ideas arising from the fact that in April
+the sun quits the zodiacal sign of the fish. A far more natural
+explanation would seem to be that the April fish would be a
+young fish and therefore easily caught.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">A PRIORI<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (Lat. <i>a</i>, from, <i>prior, prius</i>, that which is before,
+precedes), (1) a phrase used popularly of a judgment based on
+general considerations in the absence of particular evidence;
+(2) a logical term first used, apparently, by Albert of Saxony
+(14th century), though the theory which it denotes is as old as
+Aristotle. In the order of human knowledge the particular
+facts of experience come first and are the basis of generalized
+laws or causes (the Scholastic <i>notiora nobis</i>); but in the order
+of nature the latter rank first as the self-existent, fundamental
+truths of existence (<i>notiora naturae</i>). Thus to Aristotle the
+<i>a priori</i> argument is from law or cause to effect, as opposed to
+what we call <i>a posteriori</i> (<i>posterior</i>, subsequent, derived), from
+effect to cause. Since Kant the two phrases have become purely
+adjectival (instead of adverbial) with a technical controversial
+sense, closely allied to the Aristotelian, in relation to knowledge
+and judgments generally. <i>A priori</i> is applied to judgments
+which are regarded as independent of experience, and belonging
+to the essence of thought; <i>a posteriori</i> to those which are derived
+from particular observations. The distinction is analogous to
+that between analysis and synthesis, deduction and induction
+(but there may be a synthesis of <i>a priori</i> judgments, cf. Kant&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Synthetic Judgment <i>a priori</i>&rdquo;). Round this distinction
+a rather barren controversy has raged, and almost all modern
+philosophers have labelled themselves either &ldquo;Intuitionalist&rdquo;
+(<i>a priori</i>) or &ldquo;Empiricist&rdquo; (<i>a posteriori</i>) according to the view
+they take of knowledge. In fact, however, the rival schools
+are generally arguing at cross purposes; there is a knowledge
+based on particulars, and also a knowledge of laws or causes.
+But the two work in different spheres, and are complementary.
+The observation of isolated particulars gives not necessity, but
+merely strong probability; necessity is purely intellectual or
+&ldquo;transcendental.&rdquo; If the empiricist denies the intellectual
+element in scientific knowledge, he must not claim absolute
+validity for his conclusions; but he may hold against the
+intuitionalist that absolute laws are impossible to the human
+intellect. On the other hand, pure <i>a priori</i> knowledge can be
+nothing more than form without content (<i>e.g.</i> formal logic, the
+laws of thought). The simple fact at the bottom of the controversy
+is that in all empirical knowledge there is an intellectual
+element, without which there is no correlation of empirical data,
+and every judgment, however simple, postulates a correlation
+of some sort if only that between the predicate and its contradictory.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APRON<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (a corruption arising from a wrong division of &ldquo;a
+napron&rdquo; into &ldquo;an apron,&rdquo; from the Fr. <i>naperon, napperon</i>, a
+diminutive of <i>nappe</i>, Lat. <i>mappa</i>, a napkin), an article of costume
+used to protect the front of the clothes. It forms part of the
+ceremonial dress of Freemasons. The &ldquo;apron&rdquo; worn by church
+dignitaries is a shortened cassock (<i>q.v.</i>). The word has many
+technical uses, as for the protecting slope in front of the sill of
+dock-gates, or at the foot of weirs.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APSARAS,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> in Hindu mythology, a female spirit of the clouds
+and waters. In the Rig-Veda there is one Apsaras, wife of
+Gandharva; in the later scriptures there are many Apsaras
+who act as the handmaidens of Indra and dance before his throne.
+They are able to change their form, and specially rule over the
+fortunes of gaming. One of their duties is to guide to paradise the
+heroes who fall in battle, whose wives they then become. They
+are distinguished as <i>daivika</i> (&ldquo;divine&rdquo;) or <i>laukika</i> (&ldquo;worldly&rdquo;).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APSE<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="apsis">&#7937;&#968;&#943;&#962;</span>, a fastening, especially the felloe of a wheel;
+Lat. <i>absis</i>), in architecture, a semicircular recess covered with
+a hemispherical vault. The term is applied also to the termination
+to the choir, transept or aisle of any church which is either
+semicircular or polygonal in plan, whether vaulted or covered
+with a timber roof; a church is said to be &ldquo;apsidal&rdquo; when it
+terminates in an apse.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest example of an apse is found in the temple of
+Mars Ultor at Rome (2 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and it formed afterwards the
+favourite feature terminating the rear of any temple, and one
+which gave importance to the statue of the deity to whom the
+temple was dedicated. Its use by the Romans was not confined
+to the temples, as it is found in the palaces on the Palatine Hill,
+the great Thermae (Baths) and other monuments. In the civil
+basilicas the apse was screened off by columns, and constituted
+the court of justice. In the Ulpian (Trajan&rsquo;s) Basilica the apses
+at each end were of such great dimensions as to come better
+under the definition of hemicycles (<i>q.v.</i>). In these apses the
+floor was raised, and had an altar placed in the centre of its
+chord, where sacrifices were made prior to the sittings. The
+only other two Roman basilicas in which the semicircular apse
+can still be traced are that commenced by Maxentius and
+completed by Constantine at Rome and the basilica at Trier
+(Trèves).</p>
+
+<p>In the earliest Christian basilica, St Peter&rsquo;s at Rome, built
+330 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, the apse, 57 ft. in diameter, raised above the confessio
+or crypt, was placed at the west end of the church. This orientation
+was originally followed in the churches of St Paul and
+St Lawrence (S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura), both outside the walls
+of Rome, and is found in most of the churches at Rome. On
+the other hand, in the Byzantine church, the apse was built at the
+east end of the church.</p>
+
+<p>During the reign of Justin the Second (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 565-574), owing
+to a change in the liturgy, two more apses were added, one on
+each side of the central apse. These in the Greek Church were
+provided not to hold altars but for ceremonial purposes. One of
+the earliest examples is found in the church of St Nicholas at
+Myra of the 6th century, and the basilica erected in the great
+court of the temple at Baalbek shows the triple apse. The
+earliest example in Rome is found in the church of Sta Maria
+in Cosmedin (772-795), built probably by Greek craftsmen, who
+had been exiled by the Iconoclasts. Other triapsal choirs are
+found in the cathedral of Parenzo (542 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>), in St Mark&rsquo;s,
+Venice, in Sta Fosca and the Duomo at Torcello, and in numerous
+examples throughout Italy and Germany. In central Syria
+there is one example only, at Kalat Seman, where the side apses
+were a later addition.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page232" id="page232"></a>232</span></p>
+
+<p>There is one important distinction to be drawn between the
+Byzantine and the Latin apses; they are both semicircular
+internally, but externally the former are nearly always polygonal.
+It follows, therefore, that in those churches in Italy
+where the apse is polygonal externally, it is a sign of direct
+Byzantine influence. This is found in St Mark&rsquo;s, Venice;
+Sta Fosca, Torcello; Murano; nearly all the churches at
+Ravenna; and in the Crusaders&rsquo; churches throughout Syria.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:303px; height:205px" src="images/img232.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Apse of the White Monastery.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the Coptic church in Egypt we find other characteristics;
+in the churches of the Red and White Monasteries, attributed
+to St Helena, an unusual
+depth is given to the apse,
+in the walls of which
+niches are sunk; in the
+church of St John at
+Antinoë there are no fewer
+than seven. Similar
+niches are found in the
+apses of St Mark&rsquo;s,
+Venice, built in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 828,
+it is said in imitation of
+St Mark&rsquo;s in Alexandria,
+to receive the relics of St Mark brought over from there.</p>
+
+<p>In a large number of the apses in the Coptic churches the
+seats round the apse with the bishop&rsquo;s throne in the centre are
+still preserved; of these the best examples are at Abu Sargah,
+Al &#8219;Adra and Abu-s-Sifain. Unfortunately there are no remains
+of the fittings in the tribunes of the ancient Roman basilicas,
+but those in St Peter&rsquo;s at Rome, which were probably copied
+from them, are recorded in drawings, there being two or three
+rows of stone seats with the papal throne in the centre. It is
+possible also that some may still exist in the other early Christian
+basilicas at Rome, but there have been so many changes that
+it is not possible to trace them. In the cathedral of Parenzo
+in Istria (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 532-535), the hemicycle of marble seats for the
+clergy with the episcopal chair in the centre still exists. A
+similar arrangement is found in the apse of the church of the
+6th century attached to the church of St Helena in the island
+of Paros, where there are eight steep grades of semicircular
+stone seats with the bishop&rsquo;s chair in the centre. The aspect
+of the interior of this apse has in consequence very much the
+appearance of a Roman theatre. A third example, better known,
+exists at Torcello, with six concentric seats rising one above the
+other, and in the centre the episcopal chair with a flight of
+thirteen steps down in front of it.</p>
+
+<p>In the basilica at Bethlehem, the east end of which was
+reconstructed probably in the 5th century, apses of similar
+dimensions to the eastern apse were built at the north and south
+end of the transept. The same disposition is found in the Coptic
+churches of the Red and White Monasteries just referred to,
+in the church of St Elias at Salonica (<i>c</i>. 1012), the cathedral of
+Echmiadzin in Armenia, at Vatopedi, Mt. Athos, and some other
+Byzantine churches. An early example in France exists in the
+church of Germigny-des-Prés on the Loire (806; rebuilt 1868),
+where the three apses are horseshoe on plan, and the same is
+found in the church at Oberzell in the island of Reichenau,
+Lake of Constance, except that the eastern apse there is square.
+Small examples also are found at Querqueville and at St Wandrille
+near Caudebec, both in Normandy, but the finest development
+takes place in the church of St Maria im Capitol at Cologne,
+where the aisles are carried round both the northern and southern
+apses. The same feature exists in the cathedral of Tournai in
+Belgium and the churches at Cambrai, Soissons and Valenciennes
+(the last destroyed at the Revolution) in France, and also in
+the cathedrals of Como and of Pisa in Italy. Without aisles,
+there are examples in the churches of the Apostles and of
+St Martin at Cologne; St Quirinus at Neuss; at Roermond;
+St Cross, Breslau; the cathedral of Bonn; and, at a later date,
+in the Marienkirche at Trier; S. Elizabeth at Marburg; the
+church of Sta Maria-del-Fiore at Florence; and the cathedral
+of Parma.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of a change made in the orientation of apses
+in the 6th or 7th century, others were subsequently added at
+the west end of existing churches, and this is considered to have
+been the case at Canterbury; but in the German churches
+sometimes apses were built from the first at both ends, such as
+are shown on the manuscript plan of St Gall, of the 9th century.
+Western apses exist at Gernrode; Drübeck; Huyseburg; the
+Obermünster of Regensburg; St Godehard in Hildesheim;
+the cathedrals of Worms and Trier; the Abbey church of
+Laach; the Minster at Bonn; and in St Pietro-in-Grado near
+Pisa.</p>
+
+<p>The triapsal churches, to which we have referred, are those
+in which the side apses form the termination of the side aisles;
+but where there are transepts, the aisles are sometimes not
+continued beyond them, and the expansion of the transept
+to north and south gives more ample space for apses; of these
+there are many examples, as in the Abbey church of Laach in
+Germany; at Romsey; Christchurch, Hants; Gloucester,
+Ely, Norwich and Canterbury cathedrals, in England; and at
+St Georges de Boscherville in France; sometimes there being
+space for two apses on each side.</p>
+
+<p>In the beginning of the 13th century in France, the apses
+became radiating chapels outside the choir aisle, henceforth
+known as the chevet. These radiating chapels would seem to
+have been suggested in Norwich and Canterbury cathedrals,
+but the feature is essentially a French one and in England
+is found only in Westminster Abbey, into which it was introduced
+by Henry III., to whom the chevets of Amiens, Beauvais
+and Reims were probably well known.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APSE<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> and <b>APSIDES,</b> in mechanics, either of the two points
+of an orbit which are nearest to and farthest from the centre of
+motion. They are called the lower or nearer, and the higher
+or more distant apsides respectively. The &ldquo;line of apsides&rdquo;
+is that which joins them, forming the major axis of the orbit.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APSINES<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> of Gadara, a Greek rhetorician, who flourished
+during the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> After studying at Smyrna, he
+taught at Athens, and gained such a reputation that he was
+raised to the consulship by the emperor Maximinus (235-238).
+He was the friend of Philostratus, the author of the <i>Lives of the
+Sophists</i>, who speaks of his wonderful memory and accuracy.
+Two rhetorical treatises by him are extant: <span class="grk" title="technae raetorikae">&#932;&#941;&#967;&#957;&#951; &#8165;&#951;&#964;&#959;&#961;&#953;&#954;&#942;</span>,
+a handbook of rhetoric greatly interpolated, a considerable portion
+being taken from the <i>Rhetoric</i> of Longinus; and a smaller
+work, <span class="grk" title="perhi eschaematismenon problaematon">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#7952;&#963;&#967;&#951;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#953;&#963;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#969;&#957; &#960;&#961;&#959;&#946;&#955;&#951;&#956;&#940;&#964;&#969;&#957;</span>, on Propositions maintained
+figuratively.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Editions by Bake, 1849; Spengel-Hammer in <i>Rhetores Graeci</i>,
+ii. (1894): see also Hammer, <i>De Apsine Rhetore</i> (1876); Volkmann,
+<i>Rhetorik der Griechen und Romer</i> (1885).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APT,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> a town of south-eastern France, in the department of
+Vaucluse, on the left bank of the Coulon, 41 m. E. of Avignon
+by rail. Pop. (1906) 4990. The town was formerly surrounded
+by massive ancient walls, but these have now been for the most
+part replaced by boulevards; many of its streets are narrow
+and irregular. The chief object of interest is the church of
+Sainte-Anne (once the cathedral), the building of which was
+begun about the year 1056 on the site of a much older edifice,
+but not completed until the latter half of the 17th century.
+Many Roman remains have been found in and near the town.
+A fine bridge, the Pont Julien, spanning the Coulon below the
+town, dates from the 2nd or 3rd century. A tribunal of first
+instance and a communal college are the chief public institutions.
+The chief manufactures are silk, confectionery and earthenware;
+and there is besides a considerable trade in fruit, grain and cattle.
+Apt was at one time the chief town of the Vulgientes, a Gallic
+tribe; it was destroyed by the Romans about 125 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and
+restored by Julius Caesar, who conferred upon it the title <i>Apta
+Julia</i>; it was much injured by the Lombards and the Saracens,
+but its fortifications were rebuilt by the counts of Provence. The
+bishopric, founded in the 3rd century, was suppressed in 1790.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APTERA<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (Greek for &ldquo;wingless&rdquo;), a term in zoological classification
+applied by Linnaeus to various groups of wingless arthropods,
+including some of the insects, the centipedes, the millipedes,
+the Arachnida (scorpions, spiders, &amp;c.) and the Crustacea. In
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page233" id="page233"></a>233</span>
+modern zoology the term has become restricted to the lowest
+order of the class Hexapoda or true insects. This order includes
+the bristle-tails and the springtails.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:262px; height:726px" src="images/img233a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">From <i>Knowledge</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;A typical Thysanuran
+(<i>Machilus maritima</i>). Female, ventral view.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p><i>Mx<span class="sp">1</span>, Mx<span class="sp">2</span></i>, 1st and 2nd maxillae.</p>
+
+<p>ii.-x., Appendages on 2nd to 10th abdominal segments. The eversible sacs on the
+abdominal segments are shown, some protruded and some retracted.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ovp</i>, Ovipositor.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mn</i>, Mandible, and <i>Mxl</i>, maxillula, dissected out of head.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Many wingless insects&mdash;such as lice, fleas and certain earwigs
+and cockroaches&mdash;are placed in various orders together
+with winged insects to which they show evident relationships.
+In such cases the absence of wings must be regarded as
+secondary&mdash;due
+to a parasitic or other special manner of life. But the
+bristle-tails and springtails, which form the modern order
+Aptera, are all without any trace of wings, and, on account of
+several remarkable archaic
+characters which they exhibit,
+there is reason for
+believing that they are
+primitively wingless&mdash;that
+they represent an early offshoot
+which sprang from
+the ancestral stock of the
+Hexapoda before organs of
+flight had been acquired
+by the class.</p>
+
+<p><i>Characters.</i>&mdash;In addition
+to the complete absence of
+wings and of metamorphosis,
+the Aptera are
+characterized by peculiar
+elongate mandibles (figs.
+1, <i>Mn</i>.; 2, 4), with toothed
+apex and sub-apical grinding
+surface, like those of
+certain Crustacea; by the
+presence between the
+mandibles and maxillae of
+a pair of appendages
+(superlinguae or maxillulae),
+fig. 1, <i>Mxl</i>., which
+are absent or vestigial in
+all other insects; and, in
+most genera, by the
+presence in the adult of
+abdominal appendages used
+for locomotion, these latter
+varying in number from one
+to nine pairs. Among
+peculiarities of the internal
+organs the segmental
+arrangement of the ovaries
+in most members of the
+order is noteworthy. Many
+Aptera are covered with
+flattened scales like those
+of moths.</p>
+
+<p><i>Classification.</i>&mdash;The
+Aptera are divided into
+two divergent sub-orders,
+the <i>Thysanura</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) or
+bristle-tails, and the <i>Collembola</i>
+or springtails.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thysanura.</i>&mdash;The bristle-tails
+have an abdomen of eleven segments, the tenth usually
+carrying a pair of long many-jointed tail-feelers (cerci, fig. 1, x.);
+sometimes a median, jointed tail-appendage is also present.
+To these feelers the popular name is due. There may also be
+abdominal appendages&mdash;in the form of simple unjointed stylets
+(fig. 1, ii.-ix.), accompanied by paired eversible sacs, probably
+respiratory in function&mdash;on eight (or fewer) other abdominal
+segments. The head of a bristle-tail carries a pair of compound
+eyes and a pair of elongate many-jointed feelers.</p>
+
+<p>The air-tube system is developed in varying degree in different
+bristle-tails, the number of pairs of spiracles being three (<i>Campodea</i>),
+nine (<i>Machilis</i>), ten (<i>Lepisma</i>), or eleven (<i>Japyx</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Four families of Thysanura are usually recognized. In the
+<i>Machilidae</i> and <i>Lepismidae</i> (these two families are known as
+the Ectotrophi) the maxillae are like those of typical biting
+insects, and there is a median tail-bristle in addition to the
+paired cerci; while in the <i>Campodeidae</i> and <i>Japygidae</i> (which
+form the group Entotrophi) the jaws are apparently sunk in the
+head, through a deep inpushing at the mouth, and there is no
+median tail-bristle. The cerci in <i>Japyx</i> are not, as usual, jointed
+feelers, but strong, curved appendages forming a forceps as in
+earwigs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Collembola.</i>&mdash;In springtails, or <i>Collembola</i>, the jaws are sunk
+into the head, as in the entotrophous Thysanura; the head
+carries a pair of feelers with not more than six (usually four)
+segments, and there are eight (or fewer) distinct simple eyes on
+each side of the head (fig. 2, 1, 2). These are in some genera
+like the single elements (<i>ommatidia</i>) of a compound insect eye, in
+others like simple ocelli. The abdomen consists of six segments
+only. The first of these usually carries a ventral tube, furnished
+with paired eversible sacs which assist the insects in walking on
+smooth surfaces, and perhaps serve also as organs for breathing.
+From the researches of V. Willem it appears that the viscid
+fluid which causes the adherence of the ventral tube is secreted
+by a pair of glands in the head whose ducts open into a superficial
+groove leading from the second maxillae backward to the
+tube on the first abdominal segment. The third abdominal
+segment usually carries a pair of short appendages whose basal
+segments are fused together; this is the &ldquo;catch&rdquo; (fig. 2, 7),
+whose function is to hold in place the &ldquo;spring,&rdquo; which is formed
+by the fourth pair of abdominal appendages&mdash;also with fused
+basal segments. In most Collembola the spring appears to
+belong to the fifth abdominal somite, but Willem, by study of
+the muscles, has shown that it really belongs to the fourth. The
+fused basal segments of the appendages form the &ldquo;manubrium&rdquo;
+of the spring, which carries the two &ldquo;dentes&rdquo; (usually elongate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page234" id="page234"></a>234</span>
+and flexible), each with a &ldquo;mucro&rdquo; at its tip (fig. 2, 5). The fifth
+abdominal segment is the genital, and the sixth the anal somite.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:533px; height:560px" src="images/img233b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f80">From Carpenter, <i>Proc. R. Dub. Soc.</i>, vol. xi.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Structure of Collembola.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90">
+<p>1. <i>Isotoma hibernica</i>. Side view.</p>
+<p>2. &emsp;&emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp;&emsp; Ocelli and post-antennal organ of right side.</p>
+<p>3. &emsp;&emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp;&emsp; Tip of terminal antennal segment with antennal organ.</p>
+<p>4. &emsp;&emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp;&emsp; Mandible.</p>
+<p>5. &emsp;&emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp;&emsp; Tip of left dens with mucro. Outer view.</p>
+<p>6. &emsp;&emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp;&emsp; Hind-foot with claws. × 240.</p>
+<p>7. <i>Entomobrya anomala</i>. Catch.</p>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The spring serves the Collembola which possess it as an
+efficient leaping-organ (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Springtail</a></span>). But in some genera it
+is greatly reduced and in many quite vestigial.</p>
+
+<p>Most springtails are without air-tubes, and breathe through
+the general cuticle of the body. But in one family (<i>Sminthuridae</i>)
+a spiracle, opening on either side between the head and the
+prothorax, leads to a branching system of air-tubes. The
+<i>Sminthuridae</i> are further characterized by the globular abdomen,
+which shows but little external trace of segmentation, and by the
+well-developed spring.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Entomobryidae</i> the body is elongate and clearly segmented,
+but the dorsal region (tergum) of the prothorax is much
+reduced and the head downwardly directed; the spring is well
+developed. In the <i>Achorutidae</i> the head is forwardly directed,
+the tergum of the prothorax conspicuous, and the spring small or
+vestigial.</p>
+
+<p>In many genera of springtails a curious post-antennal organ,
+consisting of sensory structures (often complex in form) surrounded
+by a firm ring, is to be noticed on the cuticle of the head
+between the eyes and the feelers. It may be of use as an organ of
+smell. Other sensory organs occur on the third and fourth antennal
+segments in the <i>Achorutidae</i> and <i>Entomobryidae</i> (fig. 2, 3).</p>
+
+<p><i>Distribution and Habits.</i>&mdash;The Aptera are probably the most
+widely distributed of all insects. Among the bristle-tails we
+find the genus <i>Machilis</i>, represented in Europe (including the
+Faeroe Islands) and in Chile; while <i>Campodea</i> lives high on the
+mountains and in the deepest caves. The springtails have even
+a wider distribution. The genus <i>Isotoma</i>, for example, has some
+of its numerous species in regions so remote as Alaska, Franz
+Josef Land, the Sandwich Islands, the South Orkneys, Graham
+Land, Kerguelen and South Victoria Land. As it is unlikely
+that these delicate insects could be transported across sea-channels,
+their wide and discontinuous range suggests both their
+great antiquity and the former existence of continental tracts
+over which they may have travelled to their present stations.</p>
+
+<p>Springtails and bristle-tails live in damp concealed places&mdash;under
+stones or tree-bark, in moss, and in the decaying vegetable
+or animal matter which serves as food for most of them. Some
+species, however, eat fresh plant-tissues. A species of bristle-tail
+(<i>Machilis maritima</i>) and quite a number of springtails haunt
+the sea-coast at or below high-water mark. In such localities
+many thousands of individuals may sometimes be found associated
+together. The insect fauna of limestone caves both in
+Europe and North America is largely composed of Aptera,
+especially Collembola.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geological History.</i>&mdash;A supposed Thysanuran from the Silurian
+of New Brunswick has been described by G.F. Matthew, and
+another genus from the French Carboniferous by C. Brongniart.
+Not till the Tertiary do we find remains of Aptera in any quantity,
+species both of living and extinct genera being represented in the
+amber.</p>
+
+<p><i>Development.</i>&mdash;The embryonic development of several genera
+of Aptera, which has been carefully studied, will be more suitably
+described in comparison with that of other insects than here (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hexapoda</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;The modern study of the Aptera may be said to
+date from the classical memoirs of T. Tullberg, &ldquo;Sveriges Podurider,&rdquo;
+in <i>Kongl. Svensk Vetensk. Akad. Handl.</i> x., 1872, and Sir J.
+Lubbock (Lord Avebury), &ldquo;Monograph of the Collembola and
+Thysanura,&rdquo; <i>Ray Society</i>, 1873. In these, full references to the
+older literature will be found. Subsequently our knowledge of the
+Thysanura has been markedly advanced by J.T. Oudemans, <i>Bijdrage
+tot de Kennis den Thysanura en Collembola</i> (Amsterdam, 1888);
+B. Grassi, who published between 1885 and 1889 a series of memoirs
+entitled &ldquo;I progenitori dei Miriapodi e degli Insetti,&rdquo; in the <i>Atti
+Accad. di Scienz. Nat. Catania</i>, and the <i>Memor. R. Accad. dei Lincei</i>;
+and V. Willem, whose &ldquo;Recherches sur les Collemboles et les Thysanoures,&rdquo;
+in <i>Mem. Cour. Acad. Roy. Belgique</i>, lviii., 1900, are
+indispensable to the student. In addition to this work of Willem,
+valuable anatomical papers on Collembola have been published by
+H.J. Hansen (<i>Zool. Anz.</i> xvi., 1893), J.W. Folsom (<i>Bull. Mus.
+Comp. Anat. Harv.</i> xxxv., 1899), C. Börner (<i>Zool. Anz.</i> xxiii., 1900),
+and K. Absolon (<i>Zool. Anz.</i> xxiii. and xxiv., 1900, 1901), the two
+latter writers having paid especial attention to the peculiar post-antennal
+and antennal sense-organs of springtails. Absolon has
+also written on the Collembola of caves. These writers, with H.
+Schött, C. Schäffer and others, have published many systematic
+papers on Collembola, as has F. Silvestri on Thysanura. British
+species are mentioned in Lubbock&rsquo;s monograph; for recent additions
+see G.H. Carpenter and W. Evans (<i>Proc. R. Phys. Soc. Edinb.</i> xiv.,
+1899, and xv., 1903).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. H. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APTERAL<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="apteros">&#7940;&#960;&#964;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>, wingless, <span class="grk" title="a-">&#7936;-</span>, privative and
+<span class="grk" title="pteros">&#960;&#964;&#949;&#961;&#972;&#962;</span>, a wing), an architectural term applied to amphiprostyle
+temples which have no columns on the sides; in the Ionic temple
+on the Acropolis at Athens known as Nike Apteros, the adjective
+is used, not as applying to the goddess of victory but to the
+absence of any peristyle on the sides.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APTIAN<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Aptien</i>, from Apt in Vaucluse, France), in
+geology, the term introduced in 1843 by A. d&rsquo;Orbigny (<i>Pal.
+France Crét.</i> ii.) for the upper stage of the Lower Cretaceous
+rocks. In England it comprises the Lower Greensand and part
+of the Speeton beds; in France it is divided into two sub-stages,
+the lower, &ldquo;Bedoulian,&rdquo; of Bedoule in Provence, with <i>Hoplites
+deshayesei</i> and <i>Ancyloceras Matheroni</i>; and an upper, &ldquo;Gargasian,&rdquo;
+from Gargas near Apt, with <i>Hoplites furcatus</i> (<i>Dufrenoyi</i>)
+and <i>Phylloceras Guettardi</i>. To this stage belong the <i>Toucasia</i>
+limestone and <i>Orbitolina</i> marls of Spain; the <i>Schrattenkalk</i> (part)
+of the Alpine and Carpathian regions; and the <i>Terebrirostra</i>
+limestone of the same area. Parts of the Flysch of the eastern
+Alps, the Biancone of Lombardy, and <i>argile scagliose</i> of Emilia,
+are of Aptian age; so also are the &ldquo;Trinity Beds&rdquo; of North
+America. Deposits of bauxite occur in the Aptian hippurite limestone
+at Les Baux near Aries, and in the Pyrenees. The Aptian
+rocks are generally clays, marls and green glauconitic sands
+with occasional limestones. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greensand</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cretaceous</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APULEIUS, LUCIUS,<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> Platonic philosopher and rhetorician,
+was born at Madaura in Numidia about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 125. As the son
+of one of the principal officials, he received an excellent education,
+first at Carthage and subsequently at Athens. After leaving
+Athens he undertook a long course of travel, especially in the
+East, principally with the view of obtaining initiation into
+religious mysteries. Having practised for some time as an
+advocate at Rome, he returned to Africa. On a journey to
+Alexandria he fell sick at Oea (Tripoli), where he made the
+acquaintance of a rich widow, Aemilia Pudentilla, whom he
+subsequently married. The members of her family disapproved
+of the marriage, and indicted Apuleius on a charge of having
+gained her affections by magical arts. He easily established his
+innocence, and his spirited, highly entertaining, but inordinately
+long defence (<i>Apologia</i> or <i>De Magia</i>) before the proconsul
+Claudius Maximus is our principal authority for his biography.
+From allusions in his subsequent writings, and the mention of
+him by St. Augustine, we gather that the remainder of his
+prosperous life was devoted to literature and philosophy. At
+Carthage he was elected provincial priest of the imperial cult, in
+which capacity he occupied a prominent position in the provincial
+council, had the duty of collecting and managing the funds for
+the temples of the cult, and the superintendence of the games
+in the amphitheatre. He lectured on philosophy and rhetoric,
+like the Greek sophists, apparently with success, since statues
+were erected in his honour at Carthage and elsewhere. The
+year of his death is not known.</p>
+
+<p>The work on which the fame of Apuleius principally rests has
+little claim to originality. The <i>Metamorphoses</i> or <i>Golden Ass</i>
+(the latter title seems not to be the author&rsquo;s own, but to have
+been bestowed in compliment, just as the <i>Libri Rerum Quotidianarum</i>
+of Gaius were called <i>Aurei</i>) was founded on a narrative
+in the <i>Metamorphoses</i> of Lucius of Patrae, a work extant in the
+time of Photius. From Photius&rsquo;s account (impugned, however,
+by Wieland and Courier), this book would seem to have consisted
+of a collection of marvellous stories, related in an inartistic
+fashion, and in perfect good faith. The literary capabilities of
+this particular narrative attracted the attention of Apuleius&rsquo;s
+contemporary, Lucian, who proceeded to work it up in his own
+manner, adhering, as Photius seems to indicate, very closely to
+the original, but giving it a comic and satiric turn. Apuleius
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page235" id="page235"></a>235</span>
+followed this rifacimento, making it, however, the groundwork
+of an elaborate romance, interspersed with numerous episodes,
+of which the beautiful story of Cupid and Psyche is the most
+celebrated, and altering the <i>dénouement</i> to suit the religious
+revival of which he was an apostle.</p>
+
+<p>The adventures of the youthful hero in the form of an ass are
+much the same in both romances, but in Apuleius he is restored
+to human shape by the aid of Isis, into whose mysteries he is
+initiated, and finally becomes her priestess. The book is a
+remarkable illustration of the contemporary reaction against a
+period of scepticism, of the general appetite for miracle and
+magic, and of the influx of oriental and Egyptian ideas into the
+old theology. It is also composed with a well-marked literary
+aim, defined by Kretzschmann as the emulation of the Greek
+sophists, and the transplantation of their <i>tours de force</i> into the
+Latin language. Nothing, indeed, is more characteristic of
+Apuleius than his versatility, unless it be his ostentation and self-confidence
+in the display of it. The dignified, the ludicrous, the
+voluptuous, the horrible, succeed each other with bewildering
+rapidity; fancy and feeling are everywhere apparent, but not
+less so affectation, meretricious ornament, and that effort to say
+everything finely which prevents anything being said well. The
+Latinity has a strong African colouring, and is crammed with
+obsolete words, agreeably to the taste of the time. When these
+defects are mitigated or overlooked, the <i>Golden Ass</i> will be pronounced
+a most successful work, invaluable as an illustration of
+ancient manners, and full of entertainment from beginning to
+end. The most famous and poetically beautiful portion is the
+episode of Cupid and Psyche, adapted from a popular legend of
+which traces are found in most fairy mythologies, which explains
+the seeming incongruity of its being placed in the mouth of an old
+hag. The allegorical purport he has infused into it is his own,
+and entirely in the spirit of the Platonic philosophy. Don
+Quixote&rsquo;s adventure with the wine-skins, and Gil Blas&rsquo;s captivity
+among the robbers, are palpably borrowed from Apuleius; and
+several of the humorous episodes, probably current as popular
+stories long before his time, reappear in Boccaccio.</p>
+
+<p>Of Apuleius&rsquo;s other writings, the <i>Apology</i> has been already
+mentioned. The <i>Florida</i> (probably meaning simply &ldquo;anthology,&rdquo;
+without any reference to style) consists of a collection of excerpts
+from his declamations, ingenious but highly affected, and in
+general perfect examples of the sophistical art of saying nothing
+with emphasis. They deal with the most varied subjects, and
+are intended to exemplify the author&rsquo;s versatility. The pleasing
+little tract <i>On the God of Socrates</i> expounds the Platonic doctrine
+of beneficent daemons, an intermediate class between gods and
+men. Two books on Plato (<i>De Platone et Ejus Dogmate</i>) treat of
+his life, and his physical and ethical philosophy; a third, treating
+of logic, is generally considered spurious. The <i>De Mundo</i> is an
+adaptation of the <span class="grk" title="Peri kosmou">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#954;&#972;&#963;&#956;&#972;&#965;</span> wrongly attributed to Aristotle.
+Apuleius informs us that he had also composed numerous poems
+in almost all possible styles, and several works on natural history,
+some in Greek. In the preparation of these he seems to have
+attended more closely to actual anatomical research than was
+customary with ancient naturalists. Some other works&mdash;dealing
+with theology, the properties of herbs, medical remedies and
+physiognomy, are wrongly attributed to him.</p>
+
+<p>The character of Apuleius, as delineated by himself, is attractive;
+he appears vehement and passionate, but devoid of
+rancour; enterprising, munificent, genial and an enthusiast
+for the beautiful and good. His vanity and love of display are
+conspicuous, but are extenuated by a genuine thirst for knowledge
+and a surprising versatility of attainments. He prided
+himself on his proficiency in both Greek and Latin. His place in
+letters is accidentally more important than his genius strictly
+entitles him to hold. He is the only extant example in Latin
+literature of an accomplished sophist in the good sense of the
+term. The loss of other ancient romances has secured him a
+peculiar influence on modern fiction; while his chronological
+position in a transitional period renders him at once the evening
+star of the Platonic, and the morning star of the Neo-Platonic
+philosophy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Complete works: Editio princeps, ed. Andreas
+(1469); Oudendorp (1786-1823); Hildebrand (1842); Helm (1905 et
+seq.); P. Thomas (vol. iii. 1908). <i>Metamorphoses</i>, Eyssenhardt (1869),
+van der Vliet (1897). <i>Psyche et Cupido</i>, Jahn-Michaelis (1883); Beck
+(1902). <i>Apologia</i>, I. Casaubon (1594); Krüger (1864); (with the
+<i>Florida</i>), van der Vliet (1900). <i>Florida</i>, Krüger (1883). <i>De Deo
+Socratis</i>, Buckley (1844), Lütjohann (1878). <i>De Platone et ejus Dogmate</i>,
+Goldbacher (1876) (including <i>De Mundo</i> and <i>De Deo Socratis</i>).
+For the relation between Lucian&rsquo;s <span class="grk" title="Onos">&#8012;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span> and the <i>Metamorphoses</i> of
+Apuleius, see Rohde, <i>Über Lucians Schrift <span class="grk" title="Loukios">&#923;&#959;&#973;&#954;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span></i> (1869), and
+Burger, <i>De Lucio Patrensi</i> (1887). On the style of Apuleius consult
+Kretzschmann, <i>De Latinitate L. Apulei</i> (1865), and Koziol, <i>Der Stil
+des A.</i> (1872). There is a complete English translation of the works
+of Apuleius in Bohn&rsquo;s Classical Library. The translations and
+imitations of the <i>Golden Ass</i> in modern languages are numerous:
+in English, by Adlington, 1566 and later eds. (reissued in the Tudor
+translations and Temple Classics), Taylor (1822) (including the
+philosophical works), Head (1851). Of the Cupid and Psyche episode
+there are recent translations by Robert Bridges (1895) (in verse),
+Stuttaford (1903); and it is beautifully introduced by Walter Pater
+into his <i>Marius the Epicurean</i>. This episode has afforded the subject
+of a drama to Thomas Heywood, and of narrative poems to Shakerley
+Marmion, Mrs. Tighe, and William Morris (in the <i>Earthly Paradise</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APULIA<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (sometimes <span class="sc">Appulia</span> in manuscripts but never in
+inscriptions), the district inhabited in ancient times by the
+Apuli. Strictly a Samnite tribe (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Samnites</a></span>) settled round
+Mount Garganus on the east coast of Italy (Strabo vi. 3. 11),
+the Apuli mingled with the Iapygian tribes of that part of the
+coast (Dauni, Peucetii, Poediculi) who, like the Messapii, had
+come from Illyria, so that the name Apulia reached down to the
+border of the ancient Calabria. Almost the only monument of
+Samnite speech from the district is the famous <i>Tabula Bantina</i>
+from Bantia, a small city just inside the Peucetian part of Apulia,
+on the Lucanian border. This inscription is one of the latest
+and in some ways the most important monument of Oscan,
+though showing what appear to be some southern peculiarities
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Osca Lingua</a></span>). Its date is almost certainly between 118
+and 90 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and it shows that Latin had not even then spread
+over the district (cf. <span class="sc">Lucania</span>). Far older than this are some
+coins from Ausculum and Teate (later known as Teanum Apulum),
+of which the earliest belong to the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Roman or
+Latin colonies were few, Luceria (planted 314 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) in the north
+and Brundisium (soon after 268) being the chief. (See R.S.
+Conway, <i>Italic Dialects</i>, xxviii.-xxx. pp. 15 f.; and Mommsen&rsquo;s
+introduction to the opening sections of <i>C.I.L.</i> ix.)</p>
+<div class="author">(R. S. C.)</div>
+
+<p>The wars of the 4th and 3rd centuries <span class="scs">B.C.</span> brought a great
+part of the pastures of the Apulian plain into the hands of the
+Roman state, and a tax was paid on every head of cattle and
+every sheep, at first to the tax farmer and later to the imperial
+procurator. It was under the Romans that the system of
+migration for the flocks reached its full development, and the
+practice is still continued; the sheep-tracks (<i>tratturi</i>), 350 ft.
+wide, leading from the mountains of the Abruzzi to the plain
+of Apulia date in the main at least from the Roman period, and
+are mentioned in inscriptions. The plain, however, which once
+served as winter grazing ground for a million sheep, now gives
+pasture to about one-half of that number.<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The shepherds,
+who were slaves, often gave considerable trouble; we hear that
+some 7000 of them, who had made the whole country unsafe,
+were condemned to death in 185 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Livy xxxix. 29). Sheep-farming
+on a large scale was no doubt detrimental to the interests
+of the towns. We hear of repeated risings, for the last time in
+the Social War. Even in the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the then chief town
+of Apulia, Teate or Teanum Apulum (see above), suffered in this
+way. Luceria subsequently took its place, largely owing to its
+military importance; but under the Empire it was succeeded
+by Canusium.</p>
+
+<p>The road system of Apulia, which touched all the important
+towns, consisted of three main lines, the Via Appia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Appia,
+Via</a></span>), the Via Traiana, and the coast road, running more or less
+parallel in an east-south-east direction. The first (the southernmost),
+coming east from Beneventum, entered Apulia at the
+Pons Aufidi, and ran through Venusia to Tarentum, and thence,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page236" id="page236"></a>236</span>
+turning north-east, to Brundusium. The second, coming north-east
+from Beneventum, turned east at Aecae, and ran through
+Herdoniae, Canusium, Butuntum, Barium and Gnathia (Gnatia)
+to Brundusium. There was also a short cut from Butuntum to
+Gnathia through Caelia, keeping inland. The third parallel
+line ran to the north of the Via Traiana, in continuation of the
+road along the north-east coast of Picenum and Samnium;
+it entered Apulia near Larinum (whence a branch ran south to
+Bovianum Undecimanorum), and thence, keeping in the plain
+to the south of the Mons Garganus, rejoined the coast at Sipontum,
+where it received a branch road from the Via Traiana at
+Aecae, passing through Luceria and Arpi. It then passed
+through Barduli (where it was joined by a road from Canusium
+by way of Cannae) to Barium, where it joined the Via Traiana.
+From Barium a road probably ran direct to Caelia, and thence
+south-south-east to join the Via Appia some 25 m. north-west
+of Tarentum.</p>
+
+<p>Barium was an important harbour, though less so than
+Brundusium and Tarentum, which, however, belonged to
+Calabria in the Roman sense. Apulia, with Calabria, formed
+the second region of Augustus, though we once find Calabria
+treated as a part of the third region, Lucania (<i>C.I.L.</i> ix. 2213).
+The Hannibalic and later wars had, Strabo tells us, destroyed
+the former prosperity of the country; in imperial times we hear
+little or nothing of it. Both were governed by a <i>corrector</i> from
+the time of Constantine onwards, but in 668 the Lombards
+conquered Calabria and Apulia, and it was then that the former
+name was transferred to Bruttium, the meaning of the latter
+being extended to include Calabria also. In the 10th century
+the greater part of this territory was recovered by the Byzantine
+emperors, whose governor was called <span class="grk" title="Katapanos">&#922;&#945;&#964;&#945;&#960;&#945;&#957;&#972;&#962;</span>, a name which,
+under the corrupt form Capitanata, belonged to the province
+of Foggia till 1861. It was conquered by the Normans under
+William Bras-de-fer, who took the title of <i>comes Apuliae</i> in 1042;
+it was raised to a dukedom with Calabria by Robert Guiscard in
+1059, and united to the Sicilian monarchy in 1127. Many of the
+important towns possess fine Romanesque cathedrals, constructed
+under the Normans and the Hohenstaufen rulers. It
+shared the subsequent fate of Sicily, becoming a part of the
+kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1734, and being united with
+Italy in 1861.</p>
+
+<p>Modern Apulia comprises the three provinces of Foggia, Bari
+and Lecce (the latter corresponding roughly with the ancient
+Calabria, which, however, extended somewhat farther
+north inland), and is often known as Le Puglie; it
+<span class="sidenote">Modern Apulia.</span>
+stretches from Monte Gargano to the south-east extremity
+of Italy, with an area of 7376 sq. m.; it is bounded on
+the north and east by the Adriatic, on the south-east by the
+Gulf of Taranto, on the south by Basilicata and on the west
+by Campania and the Abruzzi. The three provinces correspond
+to the three natural divisions into which it falls. That of Foggia,
+though it has mountains on the west and south-west boundary,
+and the Monte Gargano at its north-east extremity, is in the main
+a great plain called the Tavoliere (chessboard) di Puglia, with
+considerable lagoons on its north and east coast. That of Bari,
+east-south-east of Foggia and divided from it by the Ofanto
+(Aufidus), the only considerable river of Apulia, 104 m. long, is
+a hilly district with a coast strip along which are the majority
+of the towns&mdash;the lack of villages is especially noticeable; in the
+<i>circondario</i> of Barletta, the north-east portion of the province,
+there are only eleven communes, with a total population of
+335,934. That of Lecce, to the east-south-east again, is a low
+flat limestone terrace.</p>
+
+<p>The industries of Apulia are mainly pastoral or agricultural.
+Besides sheep, a considerable number of horses, cattle and swine
+are bred; while despite the lack of water, which is the great
+need of modern Apulia (in 1906 arrangements were made for
+a great aqueduct, to supply the three provinces from the headwaters
+of the Sele), cultivation is actively carried on, especially
+in the province of Bari, where grain, wine, olives, almonds,
+lemons, oranges, tobacco, &amp;c., are produced in abundance, and
+the export of olive oil is attaining considerable importance. The
+salt works of Margherita di Savoia produce large quantities
+of salt, and nitre is extracted near Molfetta.</p>
+
+<p>Railway communications are fairly good, the main line from
+Bologna to Brindisi passing through the whole length of Apulia,
+by way of Foggia and Bari, and having branches from Foggia
+(the main railway centre of Apulia) to Benevento and Caserta,
+to Manfredonia, to Lucera and to Rocchetta S. Antonio (and
+thence to either Avellino, Potenza or Gioia del Colle), from
+Ofantino to Margherita di Savoia, from Barletta to Spinazzola
+(between Rocchetta S. Antonio and Gioia del Colle), from Bari
+to Putignano, and via Gioia del Colle to Taranto, and from
+Brindisi to Taranto, and to Lecce and Otranto; besides which,
+there is a steam tramway from Barletta to Bari via Andria.</p>
+
+<p>The most important harbours of Apulia are Brindisi, Bari,
+Taranto, Barletta, Molfetta and Gallipoli. The export of olive
+oil to foreign countries from the province of Lecce in 1905
+amounted to 1048 tons, as against 3395 in 1901; but that to
+home ports increased from 7077 to 9025 tons in the same period.
+The production of wine was 358,953 tons in 1905 as against
+203,995 tons in 1901 (an exceptionally bad year) and 284,156
+tons in 1902. Of this 211,872 tons were forwarded by rail and
+sea, in the proportion of five to two respectively, the rest being
+used for home consumption and as a reserve. The cultivation
+of oriental tobacco is extending in the province (see <i>Consular
+Report</i>, No. 3672, July 1906).</p>
+
+<p>The population of the province of Foggia was 425,450 (1901)
+as against 322,755 in 1871, the chief towns being Foggia (53,151),
+Cerignola (34,195), S. Severo (30,040), Monte S. Angelo (21,870),
+S. Marco in Lamis (17,309), Lucera (17,515); that of Bari,
+827,698 (1901) as against 604,540 in 1871, the chief towns being
+Bari (77,478), Andria (49,569), Barletta (42,022), Corato (41,573),
+Molfetta (40,135), Trani (31,800), Bisceglie (30,885), Bitonto
+(30,617), Canosa (24,169), Ruvo (23,776), Terlizzi (23,232),
+Altamura(22,729), Monopoli (22,545), Gioia del Colle (21,721);
+that of Lecce, 706,520 (1901) as against 493,594 in 1871, the chief
+towns being Taranto (60,733), Lecce (32,687), Brindisi (25,317),
+Martina Franca (25,007), Ostuni (22,997), Francavilla Fontana
+(20,422), Ceglie Messapica (16,867), Nardo (14,387), Galatina
+(14,071), Gallipoli (13,552), Manduria (13,113).</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The migration was made compulsory by Alphonso I. in 1442,
+and remained so until 1865. Since that time the <i>tratturi</i> have been
+to some extent absorbed by private proprietors.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APURÉ,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> a river of western Venezuela, formed by the confluence
+of the Sarare and Uribante at 6° 45&prime; N. lat. and 71° W. long.,
+and flowing eastward across the Venezuelan <i>llanos</i> to a junction
+with the Orinoco at about 7° 40&prime; N. lat. and 66° 45&prime; W. long. Its
+drainage area includes the slopes of both the Colombian and
+Venezuelan Andes. It has a sluggish course across the <i>llanos</i>
+for about 300 m., and is navigable throughout its length. Its
+principal tributaries are the Caparro, Portuguesa and Guarico on
+the north, and the Caucagua on the south. Its lateral channels
+on the south mingle with those of the Arauca for many miles,
+forming an extensive district subject to annual inundations.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APURIMAC,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> a river of central Peru, rising in the Laguna de
+Villafra in the western Cordilleras, 7 m. from Caylloma, a village
+in the department of Arequipa, and less than 100 m. from the
+Pacific coast. It flows first north-easterly, then north-westerly
+past Cuzco to the mouth of the Perené tributary, thence east and
+north to its junction with the Ucayali at 10° 41&prime; S. lat., and
+73° 34&prime; W. long. It is known as the Apurimac only down to the
+mouth of the Mantaro tributary, 11° 45&prime; S. lat. and 1325 ft. above
+sea-level. Thence to the mouth of the Perene (984 ft.) it is known
+as the Ené, and from that point to its junction with the Ucayali
+(859 ft.) as the Tambo.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">APURIMAC,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> an interior department of southern Peru, bounded
+N. by the department of Ayacucho, E. by Cuzco, S. and W. by
+Cuzco and Ayacucho. Area, 8187 sq. m.; pop. (1896) 177,387.
+The department was created in 1873 and comprises five provinces.
+Its physical features and productions are very similar to those of
+Ayacucho (<i>q.v.</i>), with the exception that sugar-cane is cultivated
+with noteworthy success in the low valley of the province of
+Abancay. The capital, Abancay, 110 m. south-west of Cuzco,
+which is only a village in size but is rich in historical associations
+and Andahuaylas, in the north-west part of the department, are
+its principal towns.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page237" id="page237"></a>237</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">APYREXIA<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="apyrexia">&#7936;&#960;&#965;&#961;&#949;&#958;&#943;&#945;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="a-">&#7936;-</span>, privative, <span class="grk" title="pyressein">&#960;&#965;&#961;&#941;&#963;&#963;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>,
+to be in a fever, <span class="grk" title="pyr">&#960;&#8166;&#961;</span>, fire, fever), in pathology, the normal interval
+or period of intermission in a fever.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">&#8219;AQ&#298;BA BEN JOSEPH<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 50-132), Jewish Palestinian rabbi,
+of the circle known as <i>tana</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). It is almost impossible to
+separate the true from the false in the numerous traditions
+respecting his life. He became the chief teacher in the rabbinical
+school of Jaffa, where, it is said, he had 24,000 scholars. Whatever
+their number, it seems certain that among them was the
+celebrated Rabbi Meir, and that through him and others &#8219;Aq&#299;ba
+exerted a great influence on the development of the doctrines
+embodied in the Mishnah. He sided with Bar Cochebas in the
+last Jewish revolt against Rome, recognized him as the Messiah,
+and acted as his sword-bearer. Being taken prisoner by the
+Romans under Julius Severus, he was flayed alive with circumstances
+of great cruelty, and met his fate, according to tradition,
+with marvellous steadfastness and composure. He is said by
+some to have been a hundred and twenty years old at the time
+of his death. He is one of the ten Jewish martyrs whose names
+occur in a penitential prayer still used in the synagogue service.
+&#8219;Aq&#299;ba was among the first to systematize the Jewish tradition,
+and he paved the way for the compilation of the Mishnah.
+From his school emanated the Greek translation of the scriptures
+by Aquila.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AQUAE<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (Lat. for &ldquo;waters&rdquo;), a name given by the Romans
+to sites where mineral springs issued from the earth. Over a
+hundred can be identified, some declaring by their modern names
+their ancient use: Aix-les-Bains in Savoy (<i>Aquae Sabaudicae</i>),
+Aix-en-Provence (<i>Aquae Sextiae</i>), Aix-la-Chapelle or Aachen
+(<i>Aquae Grani</i>), &amp;c. Only two occur in Britain: <i>Aquae Sulis</i>&mdash;less
+correctly <i>Aquae Solis</i>&mdash;at Bath in Somerset, which was
+famous, and Buxton (called <i>Aquae</i> simply), which seems to
+have been far less important. Aquae Sulis was occupied by
+the Romans almost as soon as they entered the island in
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 43, and flourished till the end of the Roman period. It was
+frequented by soldiers quartered in Britain, by the Britons, and
+by visitors from north Gaul, and its name was known in Italy,
+though patients probably seldom travelled so far. Like most
+mineral springs known to the ancients, it was under the protection
+of a local deity, the Celtic Sul, whom the Romans equated
+with their Minerva. Stately remains of its baths and temple
+have been found at various times, especially in 1790 and 1878-1895,
+and may still be seen there.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AQUAE CUTILIAE,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> a mineral spring in Italy, near the modern
+Cittaducale, 9 m. E. of Rieti. The lake near it was supposed
+by classical writers to be the central point of Italy, and was
+renowned for its floating islands, which, as in other cases, were
+formed from the partial petrification of plants by the mineral
+substances contained in the water. Considerable remains of
+baths may still be seen there&mdash;they were apparently resorted to
+by both Vespasian and Titus in their last illnesses, for both died
+there.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AQUAMARINE<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (Lat. <i>aqua marina</i>, &ldquo;water of the sea&rdquo;), a
+transparent variety of beryl (<i>q.v.</i>), having a delicate blue or
+bluish-green colour, suggestive of the tint of sea-water. It
+occurs at most localities which yield ordinary beryl, some of
+the finest coming from Russia. The gem-gravels of Ceylon
+contain aquamarine. Clear yellow beryl, such as occurs in
+Brazil, is sometimes called aquamarine chrysolite. When
+corundum presents the bluish tint of typical aquamarine, it is
+often termed Oriental aquamarine.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AQUARELLE<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (from Ital. <i>acquarella</i>, water-colour), a form of
+painting with thin water-colour or ink.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AQUARII,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> a name given to the Christians who substituted
+water for wine in the Eucharist. They were not a sect, for we
+find the practice widely in vogue at an early time, even among
+the orthodox. In Greek they were called <i>Hydroparastatae</i>, or
+those who offer water. Theodosius, in his persecuting edict of
+382, classes them as a special sect with the Manicheans, who also
+eschewed wine. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Eucharist</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AQUARIUM<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (plural <i>aquaria</i>), the name given to a receptacle
+for a marine flora and fauna. Until comparatively recently,
+aquaria were little more than domestic toys, or show-places
+of a popular character, but they have now not only assumed
+a profound scientific importance for the convenient study of
+anatomical and physiological problems in marine botany and
+zoology, but have also attained an economic value, as offering
+the best opportunities for that study of the habits and environment
+of marketable food-fish without which no steps for the
+improvement of sea-fisheries can be safely taken. The numerous
+&ldquo;zoological stations&rdquo; which have sprung up, chiefly in Europe
+and the United States, but also in the British colonies and Japan,
+often endeavour to unite these two aims, and have in many cases
+become centres of experimental work in problems relating to
+fisheries, as well as in less directly practical subjects. Of these
+stations, the oldest and the most important is that at Naples,
+which, though designed for purely scientific objects, also encourages
+popular study by means of a public aquarium. The
+following account (1902) of this station by Dr W. Giesbrecht,
+a member of the staff, will serve to show the methods and
+aims, and the complex and expensive equipment, of a modern
+aquarium:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The zoological station at Naples is an institution for the
+advancement of biological science&mdash;that is, of comparative
+anatomy, zoology, botany, physiology. It serves this end by
+providing the biologist with the various objects of his study
+and the necessary appliances; it is not a teaching institution.
+The station was founded by Dr Anton Dohrn, and opened in the
+spring of 1874; it is the oldest and largest of all biological
+stations, of which there are now about thirty in existence. Its
+two buildings are situated near the seashore in the western town
+park (Villa Nazionale) of Naples. The older and larger one,
+33 metres long, 24 m. deep, 16 m. high, contains on the ground
+floor the aquarium, which is open to the public. On the first floor
+there is, facing south, the principal library, ornamented with
+fresco paintings, and, facing north, a large hall containing twelve
+working tables, several smaller rooms and the secretarial offices.
+On the second floor is the physiological laboratory, and on the
+third floor the small library, a hall with several working tables,
+and the dark rooms used in developing photographs. The ground
+floor of the smaller building, which was finished in 1887, contains
+the rooms in which the animals are delivered, sorted and preserved,
+and the fishing tackle kept, together with the workshop
+of the engineer; on the first and second floors are workrooms,
+amongst others the botanical laboratory; on the third floor are
+store-rooms. In the basement of both buildings, which is continued
+underneath the court, there are sea-water cisterns and
+filters, engines and store-rooms. The materials for study which
+the station offers to the biologist are specimens of marine animals
+and plants which abound in the western part of the Mediterranean,
+and especially in the Gulf of Naples. To obtain these,
+two screw-steamers and several rowing boats are required, which
+are moored in the harbour of Mergellina, situated close by. The
+larger steamer, &lsquo;Johannes Müller&rsquo; (15 m. long, 2½ m. wide,
+1 m. draught), which can steam eight to ten English miles per
+hour, is provided with a steam dredge working to a depth of
+eighty fathoms. From the small steamer, &lsquo;Frank Balfour,&rsquo;
+and the rowing boats, the fishing is done by means of tow-nets.
+Besides these there are fishermen and others who daily supply
+living material for study. The plankton (small floating animals)
+is distributed in the morning, other animals as required. The
+animals brought in by the fishermen are at once distributed
+amongst the biologists, whereas the material brought up by the
+dredges is placed in flat revolving wooden vessels, so as to give
+the smaller animals time to come out of their hiding-places.
+The students who work in the station have the first claim on
+specimens of plants and animals; but specimens are also supplied
+to museums, laboratories and schools, and to individuals
+engaged in original research elsewhere. Up to the present time
+about 4000 such parcels have been despatched, and not infrequently
+live specimens of animals are sent to distant places.
+This side of the work has been of very great value to science.
+The principal appliances for study with which the station provides
+the biologist are workrooms furnished with the apparatus
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page238" id="page238"></a>238</span>
+and chemicals necessary for anatomical research and physiological
+experiments and tanks. Every student receives a tank
+for his own special use. The large tanks of the principal
+aquarium are also at his disposal for purposes of observation
+and experiment if necessary.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The water in the tanks is kept fresh by continual circulation,
+and is thus charged with the oxygen necessary to the life of the
+organisms. It is not pumped into the tanks directly from the
+sea, but from three large cisterns (containing 300 cubic metres),
+to which it again returns from the tanks. The water wasted or
+evaporated during this process is replaced by new water pumped
+into the cisterns directly from the sea. The water flows from
+the large cisterns into a smaller cistern, from which it is
+distributed by means of an electric pump through vulcanite or
+lead pipes to the various tanks. The water with which the
+tanks on the upper floors are filled is first pumped into large
+wooden tanks placed beneath the roof, thence it flows, under
+almost constant pressure, into the tanks. The water circulated
+in this manner contains by far the largest number of such
+animals as are capable of living in captivity in good condition.
+Some of them even increase at an undesirable rate, and it
+sometimes happens that young Mytilus or Ciona stop up the pipes;
+in laying these, therefore, due regard must be had to the arrangements
+for cleaning. For the cultivation of very delicate animals
+it is necessary to keep the water absolutely free from harmful bacteria;
+for this purpose large sand-filters have lately been placed in the
+system, through which the water passes after leaving the cisterns. Each
+of the smaller cisterns, which are fixed in the workrooms, consist of
+two water-tanks, placed one above the other; their frames are of wrought
+iron and the walls generally of glass. Vessels containing minute animals
+can be placed between these two tanks, receiving their water through a
+siphon from the upper tank; the water afterwards flows away into the
+lower tank.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The twenty-six tanks of the public aquarium (the largest of
+which contains 112 cubic metres of water) have stone walls, the
+front portion alone being made of glass. As the tanks hold a
+very large number of animals in proportion to the quantity of
+water, they require to be well aerated. The pipes through which
+the water is conducted are therefore placed above the surface of
+the water, and the fresh supply is driven through them under
+strong pressure. A large quantity of air in the form of fine
+bubbles is thus taken to the bottom of the tank and distributed
+through the entire mass of water. Should the organisms which
+it is desired to keep alive be very minute, there is a danger of
+their being washed away by the circulating water. To obviate
+this, either the water which flows away is passed through a
+strainer, or the water is not changed at all, air being driven
+through it by means of an apparatus put into motion by the
+drinking-water supply.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The library contains about 9000 volumes, which students use
+with the help of a slip catalogue, arranged according to authors.
+The station has published at intervals since 1879 two periodicals
+treating of the organisms of the Mediterranean. One is <i>Fauna
+und Flora des Golfes van Neapel</i>, the other <i>Mittheilungen aus der
+zoologischen Station zu Neapel</i>. The former consists of monographs
+in which special groups of animals and plants are most
+exhaustively treated and the Mediterranean species portrayed
+according to life in natural colours; up to the present time
+twenty-one zoological and five botanical monographs have appeared,
+making altogether 1200 4to sheets with about 400 plates.
+Of the Mittheilungen, which contain smaller articles on organisms
+of the Mediterranean, fourteen volumes in 8vo have been published.
+The station also publishes a <i>Zoologischer Jahresbericht</i>,
+which at first treated of the entire field of zoology, but since 1886
+has been confined principally to comparative anatomy and
+ontogeny; it appears eight to nine months after the end of the
+year reported. The <i>Guide to the Aquarium</i>, with its descriptions
+and numerous pictures, is meant to give the lay visitor an idea
+of the marine animal world.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;There are about forty officials, amongst them six zoologists,
+one physiologist, one secretary, two draughtsmen, one engineer.
+The station is a private institution, open to biologists of all
+nations under the following conditions: there are agreements
+with the governments of Austria, Baden, Bavaria, Belgium,
+Hamburg, Holland, Hesse, Italy, Prussia, Russia, Saxony,
+Switzerland, Hungary, Württemberg, the province of Naples, and
+the universities of Cambridge, Oxford, Strassburg, Columbia
+College (New York), and the British Association for the Advancement
+of Science, the Smithsonian Institution, and a society of
+women in the United States of North America (formerly also with
+Bulgaria, Rumania, Spain, the Academy of Sciences in Berlin,
+Williams College, University of Pennsylvania), by virtue of which
+the governments and corporate bodies named have the right, on
+payment of £100 per annum, to send a worker to the station;
+this places at his disposal a &lsquo;table&rsquo; or workplace, furnished
+with all the necessary appliances and materials as set down in
+the agreement. At present there are agreements for thirty-three
+tables, and since the foundation of the station nearly 1200
+biologists have worked there. The current expenses are paid
+out of the table-rents, the entrance fees to the public aquarium,
+and an annual subvention paid by the German empire.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In England a station on similar lines, but on a smaller scale,
+is maintained at Plymouth by the Marine Biological Association
+of the United Kingdom, with the help of subsidies from the
+government and the Fishmongers&rsquo; Company.</p>
+
+<p>Little difficulty is experienced in maintaining, breeding and
+rearing fresh-water animals in captivity, but for many various
+reasons it is only by unremitting attention and foresight that
+most marine animals can be kept even alive in aquaria, and very
+few indeed can be maintained in a condition healthy enough
+to breed. Much experience, however, has been gained of late
+years at considerable expense, both in England and abroad. In
+starting a marine aquarium of whatever size, it should be obvious
+that the first consideration must be a supply of the purest possible
+water, as free as may be, not only from land-drainage and sewage,
+but also from such suspended matters as chalk, fine sand or mud.
+This is most ideally and economically secured by placing the
+station a few feet above high-water mark, in as sheltered a
+position as possible, on a rocky coast, pumping from the sea to
+a large reservoir above the station, and allowing the water to
+circulate gently thence through the tanks by gravity (Banyuls).
+At an inland aquarium (Berlin, Hamburg), given pure water
+in the first instance, excellent if less complete results may nevertheless,
+be obtained. The next consideration is the method by
+which oxygen is to be supplied to the organisms in the aquarium.
+Of the two methods hitherto in use, that of pumping a jet of air
+into tanks otherwise stagnant or nearly so (Brighton), while
+supplying sufficient oxygen, has so many other disadvantages,
+that it has not been employed regularly in any of the more
+modern aquaria. It is, however, still useful in aerating quite
+small bodies of water in which hardy and minute organisms
+can be isolated and kept under control. In the other method,
+now in general use, a fine jet of water under pressure falls on
+to the surface of the tank; this carries down with it a more
+than sufficient air-supply, analysis showing in some cases a
+higher percentage of oxygen in aquarium water than in the
+open sea.</p>
+
+<p>The water supply is best effected by gravity from reservoirs
+placed above the tanks, but may be also achieved by direct
+pumping from low reservoirs or from the sea to the tanks.
+Provided that an unlimited supply of pure water can be obtained
+cheaply, the overflow from the tanks is best run to waste; but
+in aquaria less fortunately placed, it returns to a storage low-level
+reservoir, from which it is again pumped, thus circulating
+round and round (Naples, Plymouth). The storage reservoirs
+should be in all cases very large in comparison with the bulk of
+water in circulation; if practicable, they should be excavated
+in rock, and lined with the best cement. Thera is no reason
+why they should not be shallow, exposed to light and air, and
+cultivated as rock-pools by the introduction of seaweeds and
+small animals, but they must then be screened from rain, cold
+and dust. The pumps used in circulation will be less likely to
+kill minute animals if of the plunger or ram type, rather than
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page239" id="page239"></a>239</span>
+rotary, and should be of gun-metal or one of the new bronze-alloys
+which take a patina in salt water. For the circulating
+pipes many materials have been tried. Vulcanite is not only
+expensive and brittle, but has other disadvantages; common
+iron pipes, coated internally with cement or asphalt or glazed
+internally, with all unions and joints cemented, have been used
+with more or less success. Probably best of all is common lead
+piping, the joints being served with red-lead; water should be
+circulated through such pipes till they become coated with insoluble
+carbonate, for some time before animals are put into the
+tanks. For small installations glass may be used, the joints
+being made with marine glue or other suitable cement.</p>
+
+<p>In building the tanks themselves, regard must be had to their
+special purposes. If intended for show-tanks for popular admiration,
+or for the study of large animals, they must be large
+with a plate-glass front; for ordinary scientific work small
+tanks with all sides opaque are preferable from every point of
+view. According to their character, size and position, fixed tanks
+may be of brickwork, masonry or rock, coated in each case with
+cement; asphalting the sides offers no particular advantages,
+and often gives rise to great trouble and expense. All materials,
+and especially the cements, must be of the finest quality procurable.
+For smaller and movable tanks, slate slabs bolted or
+screwed together have some disadvantages, notably those of
+expense, weight and brittleness, but are often used. Better,
+cheaper and lighter, if less permanent, are tanks of wood bolted
+together, pitched internally. Glass bell-jars, useful in particular
+cases, should generally have their sides darkened, except when
+required for observation. Provision should always be made
+for cleaning every part of the tanks, pipes and reservoirs; all
+rock-work in tanks should therefore be removable. As regards
+the lighting of fixed tanks, it should always be directly from
+above. In all tanks with glass sides, whether large or small,
+as much light as possible should be kept from entering through
+the glass; otherwise, with a side-light, many animals become
+restless, and wear themselves out against the glass, affected by
+even so little light as comes through an opposite tank.</p>
+
+<p>In cases where distance from the sea or other causes make it
+impracticable to allow the overflow from the tanks to run to
+waste, special precautions must be taken to keep the water pure.
+Chemically speaking, the chief character of the water in an
+aquarium circulation, when compared with that of the open sea,
+lies in the excessive quantity of nitrogen present in various forms,
+and the reduced alkalinity; these two being probably connected.
+The excess of nitrogen is referable to dead animals, to waste
+food and to the excreta of the living organisms. The first two
+of these sources of contamination may be reduced by care
+and cleanliness, and by the maintenance of a flow of water
+sufficient to prevent the excessive accumulation of sediment
+in the tanks. The following experiment shows the rapid rise
+of nitrogen if unchecked. A tank with a considerable fauna
+was isolated from the general circulation and aerated by four
+air-jets, except during hours 124-166 of the experiment;
+column I. shows per 100,000 the nitrogen estimated as ammonia,
+column II. the total inorganic nitrogen:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 70%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">I.</td> <td class="tcc">II.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sea-water at source of original supply</td> <td class="tcc">0.001</td> <td class="tcc">0.003</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Aquarium water in tank at commencement of experiment</td> <td class="tcc">0.012</td> <td class="tcc">0.400</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">After 22½ hours</td> <td class="tcc">0.020</td> <td class="tcc">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;&rdquo;&ensp;&ensp; 75 &emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc">0.025</td> <td class="tcc">1.200</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;&rdquo;&ensp;&ensp; 93 &emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc">0.019</td> <td class="tcc">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;&rdquo;&ensp; 121½ &ensp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc">0.012</td> <td class="tcc">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;&rdquo;&ensp; 141 &emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc">0.015</td> <td class="tcc">2.200</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;&rdquo;&ensp; 165 &emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc">0.025</td> <td class="tcc">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;&rdquo;&ensp; 169 &emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc">0.025</td> <td class="tcc">· ·</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;&rdquo;&ensp; 189 &emsp;&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc">0.012</td> <td class="tcc">· ·</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">During this time the alkalinity was reduced to the equivalent of
+30 mg. CaCO<span class="su">3</span> per litre, ocean water having an alkalinity equivalent
+to 50-55 mg. per litre. It has been suggested that the organic
+nitrogen becomes oxidized into nitrous, then into nitric acid,
+which lowers the carbonate values. A great deal of reduction
+of this nitrogenous contamination can be effected by filtration,
+a method first introduced successfully at Hamburg, where a
+most thriving aquarium has been maintained by the local
+Zoological Society for many years on the circulation principle,
+new water being added only to compensate for waste and evaporation.
+The filters consist of open double boxes, the inner
+having a bottom of perforated slate on which rests rough gravel;
+on the latter is fine gravel, then coarse, and finally fine sand.
+Filtration may be either upwards or downwards through the
+inner box to the outer. Such filters, intercalated between tanks
+and reservoir, have been shown by analysis to stop a very large
+proportion of nitrogenous matter. It is doubtful whether
+aquarium water will not always show an excess of nitrogenous
+compounds, but they must be kept down in every way possible.
+In small tanks, well lighted, seaweeds can be got to flourish in
+a way that has not been found practicable in large tanks with
+a circulation; these, with Lamellibranchs and small Crustacea
+as scavengers, will be found useful in this connexion. Slight
+or occasional circulation should be employed here also, to remove
+the film of dust and other matters, which otherwise covers the
+surface of the water and prevents due oxygenation.</p>
+
+<p>In such small tanks for domestic use the fauna must be
+practically limited to bottom-living animals, but for purposes of
+research it is often desired to keep alive larval and other surface-swimming
+animals (plankton). In this case a further difficulty
+is presented, that of helping to suspend the animals in the water,
+and thus to avoid the exhaustion and death which soon follow
+their unaided efforts to keep off the bottom; this duty is effected
+in nature by specific gravity, tide and surface current. In
+order to deal with this difficulty a simple but efficient apparatus
+has been devised by Mr E.T. Browne; a &ldquo;plunger,&rdquo; generally
+a glass plate or filter funnel, moves slowly up and down in a
+bell-jar or other small tank, with a period of rest between each
+stroke; the motive power is obtained through a simple bucket-and-siphon
+arrangement worked by the overflow from other
+tanks. This apparatus (first used at the Plymouth Laboratory
+of the Marine Biological Association in 1897, and since introduced
+into similar institutions), by causing slight eddies in the water,
+keeps the floating fauna in suspension, and has proved very successful
+in rearing larvae and in similar work.</p>
+<div class="author">(G. H. Fo.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AQUARIUS<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (the &ldquo;Water-bearer&rdquo; or &ldquo;Cup-bearer&rdquo;), in
+astronomy, the eleventh sign of the zodiac (<i>q.v.</i>), situated
+between Capricornus and Pisces. Its symbol is <img style="width:25px; height:13px" src="images/img239.jpg" alt="" />, representing
+part of a stream of water, probably in allusion to the fact that
+when the sun is in this part of the heavens (January, February)
+the weather is rainy. It is also a constellation mentioned by
+Eudoxus (4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and Aratus (3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>);
+Ptolemy catalogued forty-five stars, Tycho Brahe forty-one,
+Hevelius forty-seven. &zeta; <i>Aquarii</i> is a well-defined binary,
+having both components of the fourth magnitude; it is probably
+of long period.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AQUATINT<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (Lat. <i>aqua</i>, water, and <i>tincta</i>, dyed), a kind of
+etching (<i>q.v.</i>) which imitates washes with a brush. There are
+many ways of preparing a plate for aquatint, the following being
+recommended by P.G. Hamerton. Have three different solutions
+of rosin in rectified alcohol, making them of various degrees
+of strength, but always thin enough to be quite fluid, the weakest
+solution being almost colourless. First pour the strongest
+solution on the plate. When it dries it will produce a granulation;
+and you may now bite as in ordinary etching for your
+darker tones, stopping out what the acid is not to operate upon,
+or you may use a brush charged with acid, perchloride of iron
+being a very good mordant for the purpose. After cleaning the
+plate, you proceed with the weaker solutions in the same way,
+the weakest giving the finest granulation for skies, distances, &amp;c.
+The process requires a good deal of stopping-out, and some
+burnishing, scraping, &amp;c., at last. Aquatint may be effectively
+used in combination with line etching, and still more harmoniously
+with soft ground etching in which the line imitates that of
+the lead pencil.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AQUAVIVA, CLAUDIO<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1542-1615), fifth general of the
+Jesuits, the youngest son of the duke d&rsquo;Altri, was born at Naples.
+He joined the Jesuits at Rome in 1567, and his high administrative
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page240" id="page240"></a>240</span>
+gifts marked him out for the highest posts. He was soon
+nominated provincial of Naples and then of Rome; and during
+this office he offered to join the Jesuit mission to England that
+set out under Robert Parsons (<i>q.v.</i>) in the spring of 1580. The
+following year, being then only thirty-seven years old, he was
+elected, by a large majority, general of the society in succession
+to Mercurian, to the great surprise of Gregory XIII.; but the
+extraordinary political ability he displayed, and the vast increase
+that came to the Society during his long generalate, abundantly
+justified the votes of the electors. He, together with Lainez,
+may be regarded as the real founder of the Society as it is known
+to history. A born ruler, he secured all authority in his own
+hands, and insisted that those who prided themselves on their
+obedience should act up to the profession. In his first letter
+&ldquo;On the happy increase of the Society&rdquo; (25th of July 1581), he
+treats of the necessary qualifications for superiors, and points
+out that government should be directed not by the maxims of
+human wisdom but by those of supernatural prudence. He
+successfully quelled a revolt among the Spanish Jesuits, which
+was supported by Philip II., and he made use in this matter of
+Parsons. A more difficult task was the management of Sixtus V.,
+who was hostile to the Society. By consummate tact and boldness
+Aquaviva succeeded in playing the king against the pope,
+and Sixtus against Philip. For prudential reasons, he silenced
+Mariana, whose doctrine on tyrannicide had produced deep
+indignation in France; and he also appears to have discountenanced
+the action of the French Jesuits in favour of the League,
+and was thus able to secure solid advantages when Henry IV.
+overcame the confederacy. To him is due the Jesuit system of
+education in the book <i>Ratio atque institutio studiorum</i> (Rome,
+1586). But the Dominicans denounced it to the Inquisition,
+and it was condemned both in Spain and in Rome, on account of
+some opinions concerning the Thomist doctrines of the divine
+physical premotion in secondary causes and predestination.
+The incriminated chapters were withdrawn in the edition of 1591.
+In the fierce disputes that arose between the Jesuit theologians
+and the Dominicans on the subject of grace, Aquaviva managed,
+under Clement VIII. and Paul V., to save his party from a
+condemnation that at one time seemed probable. He died at
+Rome on the 31st of January 1615, leaving the Society numbering
+13,000 members in 550 houses and 15 provinces. The subsequent
+influence exercised by the Jesuits, in their golden age,
+was largely due to the far-seeing policy of Aquaviva, who
+is undoubtedly the greatest general that has governed the
+Society.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. Tn.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AQUEDUCT<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (Lat. <i>aqua</i>, water, and <i>ducere</i>, to lead; Gr.
+<span class="grk" title="hydragogeion">&#8017;&#948;&#961;&#945;&#947;&#969;&#947;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#957;</span>, <span class="grk" title="hydragogion">&#8017;&#948;&#961;&#945;&#947;&#974;&#947;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>, <span class="grk" title="hyponomos">&#8017;&#960;&#972;&#957;&#959;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>), a term properly including
+artificial works of every kind by means of which water is conveyed
+from one place to another, but generally used in a more
+limited sense. It is, in fact, rarely employed except in cases
+where the work is of considerable magnitude and importance,
+and where the water flows naturally by gravitation. The most
+important purpose for which aqueducts are constructed is that of
+conveying pure water, from sources more or less distant, to large
+masses of population. Aqueducts are either below ground, on
+the surface, or raised on walls either solid or pierced with arches;
+to the last the term is often confined in popular language. The
+choice of method naturally depends on the contour of the country.</p>
+
+<p>I. <i>Ancient Aqueducts.</i>&mdash;In Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria&mdash;flat
+countries traversed by big rivers and subject to floods&mdash;water
+was supplied by means of open canals with large basins.
+In Persia devices of all kinds were adopted according
+<span class="sidenote">Phoenician.</span>
+to the nature of the country. In relation to the
+achievements of Greece and Rome, the Phoenicians are the most
+important among pre-classical engineers. In Cyprus water was
+supplied to temples by rock-cut subterranean conduits carried
+across intervening valleys in siphons. Such conduits have been
+found near Citium, Amathus, &amp;c. (Cesnola, <i>Cyprus</i>, pp. 187, 341).
+In Syria the most striking of Phoenician waterworks is the well
+of Ras-el-Ain near Tyre, which consisted of four strong octagonal
+towers through which rises to a height of 18 to 20 ft. the water
+from four deep artesian wells. The water thus accumulated was
+carried off in conduits to reservoirs near the shore, and thence
+in vessels or skins to the island. The aqueduct across to the
+island is, of course, of Roman work.</p>
+
+<p>It is not possible in all cases to find a satisfactory date for
+the numerous conduits which have supplied Jerusalem; some
+probably go back to the times of the kings of Judah.
+The principal reservoir consists of the three Pools of
+<span class="sidenote">Jerusalem.</span>
+Solomon which supplied the old aqueduct; the highest is
+about 20 ft. above the middle one and 40 above the lowest.
+These pools collected the water from Ain Saleh and other springs,
+and sent it to the city by two conduits. The higher of these&mdash;
+probably the older&mdash;was partly a rock-cut canal, partly carried
+on masonry; the siphon-pipe system was adopted across the
+lower ground near Rachel&rsquo;s Tomb, where the pipe (15 in. wide) is
+formed of large pierced stones embedded in rubble masonry.
+The lower conduit is still complete; it winds so much as to be
+altogether some 20 m. long. Near the Birket-es-Sultan it passes
+over the valley of Hinnom on nine low arches and reaches the
+city on the hill above the Tyropeon valley. It enters the Haram
+enclosure at the Gate of the Chain (B&#257;b es-Silsila), outside which
+is a basin 84 ft. by 42 by 24 deep. It is interesting to note in the
+case of the underground tunnel which brought water from the
+Virgin&rsquo;s Fountain to the pool of Siloam, that the two boring
+parties had no certain means of keeping the line; there is
+evidence that they had to make shafts to discover their position,
+and that ultimately the parties almost passed one another.
+Though the direct distance is 1100 ft., the length of the conduit
+is over 1700 ft. Perrot and Chipiez incline to attribute
+the Pools of Solomon to the Asmonaeans, followed by Roman
+governors, whereas the earlier tunnels of the Kedron and
+Tyropeon valley may be Punic-Jewish (see also <i>Palest. Explor.
+Fund Mem.</i>, &ldquo;Jerusalem,&rdquo; pp. 346-365). Besides these conduits
+excavation has discovered traces of many other cisterns, tunnels
+and conduits of various kinds. Many of them point to periods
+of great prosperity and engineering enterprise which gave to the
+city a water-supply far superior to that which exists at present.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the publications of the Palestine Exploration Fund; A.S.
+Murray&rsquo;s <i>Handbook to Syria and Palestine</i> (1903), pp. 63-67; Perrot
+and Chipiez, <i>History of Art in Sardinia, Judaea, &amp;c.</i> (Eng. trans.,
+1890), pp. 321 ff.; other authorities quoted under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jerusalem</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The earliest attempts in Europe to solve the problems of
+water-supply were made by the Greeks, who perhaps derived
+their ideas from the Phoenicians. It has generally
+been held, partly on the strength of a passage in Strabo
+<span class="sidenote">Greek</span>
+(v. 3. 8, p. 235), and partly owing to the comparative unimportance
+of the remains discovered, that the Greek works were
+altogether inferior to the Roman. Research in the Greek towns
+of Asia Minor, together with a juster appreciation of the remains
+as a whole, must be held to modify this view. Among the earliest
+examples of Greek work are the tunnels or <i>emissaria</i> which
+drained Lake Copais in Boeotia; these, though not strictly
+aqueducts, were undoubtedly the precursors of such works,
+consisting as they did of subterranean tunnels (<span class="grk" title="hyponomoi">&#8017;&#960;&#972;&#957;&#959;&#956;&#959;&#953;</span>) with
+vertical shafts (<span class="grk" title="phreatiai">&#966;&#961;&#949;&#945;&#964;&#943;&#945;&#953;</span>), sixteen of which are still recognizable,
+the deepest being about 150 ft. They may be compared with
+that described by Polybius as conveying water from Taurus to
+Hecatompylos, and with numerous other remains in Asia Minor,
+Syria, Phoenicia and Palmyra. Popular legend ascribed them to
+Cadmus, just as Argos referred the irrigation of its lands to
+Danaüs. They are undoubtedly of great antiquity.</p>
+
+<p>The insufficiency of water, supplied by natural springs and
+cisterns hewn in the rock, which in an early age had satisfied the
+small communities of Greece, had become a pressing public
+question by the time of the Tyrants, of whom Polycrates of
+Samos and Peisistratus of Athens were distinguished for their
+wisdom and enterprise in this respect. The former obtained the
+services of Eupalinus, an engineer celebrated for the skill with
+which he had carried out the works for the water-supply of
+Megara (see <i>Athen. Mittheil.</i> xxv., 1900, 23) under the direction
+of the Tyrant Theagenes (<i>c.</i> 625 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). At Samos the difficulty
+lay in a hill which rose between the town and the water source.
+Through this hill Eupalinus cut a tunnel 8 ft. broad, 8 ft. high
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page241" id="page241"></a>241</span>
+and 4200 ft. long, building within the tunnel a channel 3 ft.
+broad and 11 ells deep. The water, flowing by an accurately
+reckoned declivity, and all along open to the fresh air, was
+received at the lower end by a conduit of masonry, and so led
+into the town, where it supplied fountains, pipes, baths, cloacae,
+&amp;c., and ultimately passed into the harbour (Herod, iii. 60). In
+Athens, under the rule of the Peisistratids (<i>c.</i> 560-510 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), a
+similarly extensive, if less difficult, series of works was completed
+to bring water from the neighbouring hills to supplement the
+inadequate supply from the springs. From Hymettus were two
+conduits passing under the bed of the Ilissus, most of the course
+being cut in the rock. Pentelicus, richer in water, supplied
+another conduit, which can still be traced from the modern
+village of Chalandri by the air shafts built several feet above the
+ground, and at a distance apart of 130-160 ft.; the diameter of
+these shafts is 4-5 ft., and the number of them still preserved is
+about sixty. Tributary channels conveyed into the main stream
+the waters of the district through which it passed. Outside
+Athens, those two conduits met in a large reservoir, from which
+the water was distributed by a ramification of underground
+channels throughout the city. These latter channels vary in
+form, being partly round, partly square, and generally walled
+with stone; the chief one is sufficiently large for two men to
+pass in it. The precise location of the reservoir depends on the
+value of Dr Wilhelm Dörpfeld&rsquo;s theory as to the site of the
+Enneacrunus of Thucydides and Pausanias (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>:
+<i>Topography and Antiquity</i>). Dörpfeld places it south-west of
+the Acropolis, where there is a cistern connected with an aqueduct
+which passed under the theatre of Dionysus and on towards the
+Ilissus (see map under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>). Others have placed it south of
+the Olympieum in the Ilissus bed. Beside these works water was
+brought from Pentelicus in an underground conduit begun by the
+emperor Hadrian and completed by Antoninus Pius. This
+aqueduct is still in use, having been repaired in 1869.</p>
+
+<p>In Sicily, the works by which Empedocles, it is said, brought
+the water into the town of Selinus, are no longer visible; but
+it is probable that, like those of Syracuse, they consisted chiefly
+of tunnels and pipes laid under the ground. Syracuse was supplied
+by two aqueducts, one of which the Athenians destroyed
+(Thuc. vi. 100). One was fed by an affluent (the mod. Buttigliara)
+of the Anapus (mod. Anapo); it carried the water up to the top
+of Epipolae, where the channel was open, and thence down to
+the city and finally into the harbour. The other also ascends to
+the top of Epipolae, skirts the city on the north, and then
+proceeds along the coast. Its course is marked by rectangular
+shafts (<i>spiragli</i>) at the bottom of which water is still
+visible.</p>
+
+<p>An example of what appears to have been the earliest form
+of aqueduct in Greece was discovered in the island of Cos beside
+the fountain Burinna (mod. Fountain of Hippocrates) on Mount
+Oromedon. It consists of a bell-shaped chamber, built underground
+in the hill-side, to receive the water of the spring and
+keep it cool; a shaft from the top of the chamber supplied fresh
+air. From this reservoir the water was led by a subterranean
+channel, 114 ft. long and 6½ ft. high.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. M. M.)</div>
+
+<p>In comparing Greek and Roman aqueducts, many writers
+have enlarged on the greatness of the latter as an example of
+Roman contempt for natural obstacles, or even of
+Roman ignorance of the laws of nature. Now, in the
+<span class="sidenote">Roman.</span>
+first place, the Romans were not unacquainted with the law
+that water finds its own level (see Pliny, <i>Hist. Nat.</i> xxxi. 57,
+&ldquo;subit altitudinem exortus sui&rdquo;), and took full advantage of
+it in the construction of lofty fountains and the supplying of
+the upper floors of houses. That they built aqueducts across
+valleys in preference to carrying pipes underground was due
+simply to economy. Pipes had to be made of lead which was
+weak, or of bronze which was expensive; and the Romans
+were not sufficiently expert in the casting of large pipes which
+would stand a very great pressure to employ them for the whole
+course of a great aqueduct. Secondly, the water was so extremely
+hard that it was important that the channels should be
+readily accessible for repair as well as for the detection of
+leakage.<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Moreover, as we shall see, the Roman aqueducts did not,
+in fact, preserve a straight line regardless of the configuration
+of the country. A striking example is the aqueduct of Nemausus
+(Nîmes), the springs of which are some 10 m. from the town,
+though the actual distance traversed is about 25. Other
+devices, such as changing the level and then modifying the slope,
+and siphon arrangements of various kinds, were adopted (as
+in the aqueduct at Aspendus).</p>
+
+<p>Sextus Julius Frontinus, appointed <i>curator aquarum</i> in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 97,
+mentions in his treatise <i>de aquaeductibus urbis Romae</i> (on the
+aqueducts of the city of Rome) nine aqueducts as being in use
+in his time (the lengths of the aqueducts as given here follow
+his measurements). These are: (1) <span class="sc">Aqua Appia</span>, which took its
+rise between the 6th and 7th milestones of the Via Collatina,
+and measured from its source to the Porta Trigemina 11
+Roman miles, of which all but about 300 ft. were below ground.
+It appears to have been the first important enterprise of the
+kind at Rome, and was the work of the censor Appius Claudius
+Caecus, from whom it derived its name. The date of its construction
+was 312 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (2) <span class="sc">Anio Vetus</span>, constructed in 272-269
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the censor Manius Curius Dentatus. From its source
+near Tivoli, on the left side of the Anio, it flowed some 43 m.,<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+of which only 1100 ft. was above ground. At the distance of
+2 m. from Rome (Frontinus, i. 21), it parted into two courses,
+one of which led to the <i>horti Asiniani</i>, and was thence distributed;
+while the other (<i>rectus ductus</i>) led by the temple of
+Spes to the Porta Esquilina. (3) <span class="sc">Aqua Marcia</span>, reconstructed
+in 1869-1870 under the name of Acqua Pia or Marcia-Pia after
+Pius IX. (though from Tivoli to Rome the modern aqueduct
+takes an entirely different course), rising on the left side of the
+Via Valeria near the 36th milestone. It traversed 61¾ m.,
+of which 54¼ were underground, and for the remaining distance
+was carried partly on substructions and partly on arches. It
+was the work of the praetor Quintus Marcius Rex (144-140 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>),
+not of Ancus Marcius, the fourth king of Rome, as Pliny (<i>N.H.</i>
+xxxi. 3) fancied, and took its name from its constructor. Its
+waters were celebrated for their coolness and excellent quality.
+Its volume was largely increased by Augustus, who added to it
+the Aqua Augusta; and it was repaired and restored by Titus,
+Septimus Severus, Caracalla and Diocletian. (4) <span class="sc">Aqua Tepula</span>,
+from its source (now known as Sorgente Preziosa) in the district
+of Tusculum, to Rome, was some 11 m. in length. The first
+portion of its course must have been almost entirely subterranean
+and is not now traceable. For the last 6½ m. it ran on
+the same series of arches that carried the Aqua Marcia, but at
+a higher level. It was the work of the censors Cn. Servilius
+Caepio and L. Cassius Longinus, and was completed in the year
+125 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Its water is warm (about 63° Fahr.) and not of the
+best quality. (5) The <span class="sc">Aqua Julia</span>, from a source 2 m. from that
+of the Tepula, joined its course at the 10th milestone of the Via
+Latina. The combined stream, after a distance of 4 m., was
+received in a reservoir, and then once more divided into two
+channels. The entire length of the Julia was 15½ m. It was
+constructed in the year 33 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by M. Vipsanius Agrippa, who
+also built the (6) <span class="sc">Aqua Virgo</span> which, from its origin at a copious
+spring in a marsh on the Via Collatina, measured 14 m. in length;
+it was conveyed in a channel, partly under and partly above
+ground. It was begun in the year 33 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and was celebrated
+for the excellence of its waters. It was restored to use by
+Pius V. in 1570. (7) <span class="sc">Aqua Alsietina</span> or <span class="sc">Augusta</span>, the source
+of which is the Lacus Alsietinus (mod. Lago di Martignano), to
+the north of Rome, was over 22 m. in length, of which 358 paces
+were on arches. It was the work of Augustus, probably with
+the object of furnishing water for his <i>naumachia</i> (a basin for
+sham sea-fights), and not for drinking purposes. Its course is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page242" id="page242"></a>242</span>
+unknown, as no remains of it exist, but an inscription relating
+to it is given in <i>Notizie d. Scant</i> (1887), p. 182. (8, 9) The <span class="sc">Aqua
+Claudia</span> and <span class="sc">Anio Novus</span> were two aqueducts begun by Caligula
+in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 38 and completed by Claudius in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 52. The springs
+of the former belonged to the same group as those of the Marcia,
+and were situated near the 38th milestone of the Via Sublacensis,
+not far from its divergence from the Via Valeria, while the original
+intake of the latter from the river Anio was 4 m. farther along
+the same road. As the water was thick it was collected in a
+purifying tank, and 4 m. below, a branch stream, the Rivus
+Herculaneus, was added to it. According to Frontinus, over
+10 m. of the course of the Claudia and nearly 9½ of that of the
+Anio Novus were above ground. Seven miles out of Rome they
+united and ran from that point into Rome, following a natural
+isthmus formed by a lava stream from the Alban volcano, upon
+a line of arches, which still forms one of the most conspicuous
+features of the Campagna. The original inscription of Claudius
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 52) on the Porta Maggiore, by which the Aqua Claudia and
+Anio Novus crossed the Via Praenestina and the Via Labicana,
+gives the length of the Aqua Claudia as 45 m., and that of the
+Anio Novus as 62 m. Frontinus, on the other hand, gives
+46.406 m. (<i>i.e.</i> about 43 English miles) and 58.700 m. (<i>i.e.</i> about
+54 English miles). Albertini (<i>Mélanges de l&rsquo;École Française</i>, 1906,
+305) explains the difference as due to the fact that Frontinus
+was calculating the length of the Claudia from the farthest
+spring, the Fons Albudinus, and that of the Anio Novus from
+the new intake constructed by Trajan in one of the three lakes
+constructed by Nero for the adornment of his villa above Subiaco.
+Two other inscriptions on the Porta Maggiore record restorations
+by Vespasian in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 70, and by Titus in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 80. That the
+aqueducts should be spoken of as <i>vetustate dilapsi</i> so soon after
+their construction is not a little surprising, and may be attributed
+either to hasty construction in order to complete them
+by a fixed date, or to jobbery by the imperial freedmen who
+under Claudius were especially powerful, or to the fact that a line
+of arches intended originally in all probability for the Aqua
+Claudia alone was made to carry the Anio Novus as well.</p>
+
+<p>The size of the channels (<i>specus</i>) of the principal aqueducts
+varies considerably at different points of their course. The
+Anio Novus has the largest of them all, measuring 3 to 4 ft. wide
+and 9 ft. high to the top of the roof, which is pointed. They
+are lined with hard cement (<i>opus signinum</i>) containing fragments
+of broken brick. Those aqueducts of which the most conspicuous
+remains exist in the neighbourhood of Rome are the
+four from the upper valley of the Anio, the two which took
+their supply and their name from the river itself, and the Marcia
+and the Claudia, which originated from the same group of springs,
+in the floor of the Anio valley 6 m. below Subiaco. Those of the
+Anio Vetus, which travelled at a considerably lower level than
+the other three, are the least conspicuous, while the Claudia and
+Anio Novus as a rule kept close together, the latter at the highest
+level of all. The ruins of bridges and substructions in the Anio
+valley down to Tivoli, though comparatively little known, are
+of great importance. In all the aqueducts the original construction
+of the bridges was in <i>opus quadratum</i> (masonry), while
+the substructions are in brick-faced concrete; but the bridges
+are as a rule strengthened (and often several times) with reinforcing
+walls of concrete faced with <i>opus reticulatum</i> or brickwork.
+Below Tivoli, where the Anio leaves its narrow valley,
+the aqueducts sweep round towards the Alban hills, and pass
+through some very difficult country between Tivoli and Gallicano,
+alternately crossing ravines, some of which are as much
+as 300 ft. deep, and tunnelling through hills.<a name="fa3h" id="fa3h" href="#ft3h"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The engineering skill displayed is remarkable, and one wonders
+what instruments were employed&mdash;probably the so-called
+<i>chorobates</i>, an improvement upon the ordinary water-level
+(Vitruvius viii. 6), though this would be slow and complicated.
+The optical properties of glass lenses were, however, unknown to
+the ancients, and the <i>dioptra</i>, or angle measure, was considered
+by Vitruvius less trustworthy than the <i>chorobates</i> for the planning
+of aqueducts (cf. E. Hultsch, <i>s.v</i>. in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Real-encyclopädie</i>).
+The aqueducts as a rule were carried on separate
+bridges, though all four united at the Ponte Lupo, a huge
+structure, which after the addition of all the four, and with the
+inclusion of all the later strengthening walls that were found
+necessary in course of time, measures 105 ft. in height, 508 in
+length, and 46 in thickness at the bottom, without including
+the buttresses. From Gallicano onwards the course of these
+four aqueducts follows the lower slopes of the Alban Hills.
+Previous writers on the subject have been unable to determine
+their course, which is largely subterranean; but it can be
+followed step by step with the indications given by the presence
+of the calcareous deposit which was thrown out at the <i>putei</i> or
+shafts (which were, as a rule, placed at intervals of 240 ft., as
+were the <i>cippi</i>) when the <i>specus</i> was cleaned; and remains of
+bridges, though less important, owing to the less difficult character
+of the country, are not entirely absent (cf. the works by
+T. Ashby cited in bibliography).<a name="fa4h" id="fa4h" href="#ft4h"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Near the 7th milestone of
+the Via Latina at Le Capanelle, the Aqua Claudia and Anio
+Novus emerge from their underground course, and run into
+Rome upon the long series of arches already mentioned, passing
+over the Porta Maggiore. The Claudia sent off an important
+branch from the Porta Maggiore over the Caclian to the Palatine,
+but the main aqueduct soon reached its termination. A mile
+farther on the Aqua Marcia also, owing to the gradual slope of
+the ground towards Rome, begins to be supported on arches,
+which were also used to carry the Aqua Tepula and the Aqua
+Julia (of the two latter, before their junction with the Marcia, no
+remains exist above ground, but inscribed <i>cippi</i> of the last named
+and its underground channel have been found at Le Capanelle,
+and <i>cippi</i> also close to its springs, which are a little way above
+Grottaferrata at Gli Squarciarelli). The Anio Vetus followed
+the same line, but kept underground (as was natural at the early
+period at which it was constructed) until the immediate neighbourhood
+of Rome, near the locality known as &ldquo;ad Spem
+veterem&rdquo; (from a temple of Spes, of which no remains are known)
+close to the Porta Maggiore. At this point, besides the aqueducts
+named, the Aqua Appia, as we are told by Frontinus, entered the
+city, and received an important branch, the Appia Augusta.
+No remains of either have been discovered outside the city.</p>
+
+<p>The Aqua Alexandrina must also have entered the city here,
+though its channel, which lay at some depth below ground, has
+not been discovered. Considerable remains of its brick aqueducts
+exist in the district between the Via Praenestina and the Via
+Labicana.</p>
+
+<p>Of the two aqueducts on the right bank of the Tiber, the
+Alsietina, as we have said, has no remains at all, while those
+of the Traiana are not of great importance. The line of the
+aqueducts was marked by <i>cippi</i>, inscribed (in the case of the
+Anio Vetus, Marcia, Tepula, Julia and Virgo&mdash;those of the
+Claudia and Anio Novus are uninscribed, and those of the
+Traiana are differently worded) with the name of the aqueduct,
+the distance from the next <i>cippus</i> (generally 240 ft.) and the
+number, counting from Rome (not from the springs). These
+boundary stones were erected in pairs, to mark off the strip of
+land 30 ft. in width reserved for the aqueduct, and for the road
+or path which generally followed it. The shafts (<i>putei</i>) often
+stood, but not necessarily, at the same points as the <i>cippi</i>.</p>
+
+<p>To these nine must be added the two following, constructed
+after Frontinus&rsquo;s time: (10) <span class="sc">Aqua Traiana</span>, from springs to the
+north-west of the Lacus Sabatinus (Lago di Bracciano), constructed
+by Trajan in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 109, about 36½ English miles in length.
+It was restored by Paul V. in 1611, who made use of and largely
+transformed the remains of the ancient aqueduct; he allowed
+some of the inferior water of the lake to flow into the channel, and
+it is thus no longer used for drinking. (11) <span class="sc">Aqua Alexandrina</span>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page243" id="page243"></a>243</span>
+rising about 14 English miles from Rome, between the Via Praenestina
+and the Via Labicana, the work of Alexander Severus
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 226). The springs now supply the modern Acqua Felice,
+constructed by Sixtus V. in 1585, but the course of the latter
+is mainly subterranean and not identical with that of the
+former.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc"><span class="sc">Plate I.</span></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:841px; height:518px" src="images/img242a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>Photo, Altnari.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">AQUA CLAUDIA, ROME.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:833px; height:514px" src="images/img242b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>Photo, Neurdein.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">PONT DU CARD, NÎMES (NEMAUSUS).</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc"><span class="sc">Plate II.</span></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:850px; height:527px" src="images/img242c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>Photo, Laureat y Cia.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">ROMAN AQUEDUCT AT SEGOVIA.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td>
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:406px; height:513px" src="images/img242d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>Photo, Brogi.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">PISCINA MIRABILIS AT BAIAE.</td></tr></table>
+</td>
+
+<td>
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:278px; height:282px" src="images/img242e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">AQUEDUCT OF ROQUEFAVOUR, MARSEILLES.<br />
+<span class="f80">Early nineteenth century.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:399px; height:226px" src="images/img242f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr f80"><i>Photo, Dr T. Ashby.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">AQUA MARCIA, ROME.</td></tr></table>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>It is agreed that these eleven are all that were constructed.
+Procopius speaks of fourteen (and the Regionary catalogues
+mention others), but this number includes branch conduits. All
+the aqueducts ended in the city in huge <i>castella</i> or reservoirs for
+the purpose of distribution. Vitruvius recommends the division
+of these into three parts&mdash;one for the supply of fountains, &amp;c.,
+one for the public baths and one for private consumers. In the
+Piazza Vittorio Emmanuele at Rome there are still to be seen
+the remains of a large ornamental fountain built probably for the
+Aqua Julia by Domitian or Alexander Severus (Jordan-Hülsen,
+<i>Topographie</i>, i. 3350). Besides these main <i>castella</i> there were also
+many minor <i>castella</i> in various parts of the city for sub-distribution.
+To allow the water to purify itself before being distributed
+in the city, filtering and settling tanks (<i>piscinae limariae</i>) were
+built outside the walls. These <i>piscinae</i> were covered in with a
+vaulted roof, and were sometimes on a very large scale, as in the
+example still preserved at Fermo, which consists of two stories,
+each having three oblong basins communicating with each other;
+or the Piscina Mirabilis at Baiae, which is covered in by a vaulted
+roof, supported on forty-eight pillars and perforated to permit
+the escape of foul air. Two stairs lead by forty steps to the
+bottom of the reservoir. In the middle of the basin is a sinking
+to collect the deposit of the water. The walls and pillars are
+coated with a stucco so hard as to resist a tool.</p>
+
+<p>The oversight of aqueducts was placed, in the times of the
+republic, under the aediles, who were not, however, the constructors
+of them; of the four aqueducts built during this
+period, three are the work of censors, one (the Marcia) of a
+praetor. Under the empire this task devolved on special
+officials styled <i>Curatores Aquarum</i>, instituted by Augustus,
+who, as he himself says, &ldquo;rivos aquarum omnium refecit&rdquo; (inscription
+on the arch by which the Aqua Marcia crossed the Via
+Tiburtina).</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+<p>Among the aqueducts outside Italy, constructed in Roman
+times and existing still, the most remarkable are: (1) the aqueduct
+at Nîmes (Nemausus), erected probably by Vipsanius
+Agrippa in the time of Augustus, which rose to 160 ft. The Pont
+du Card, as this aqueduct is now called, consists of three tiers of
+arches across the valley of the river Gardon. In the lowest
+tier are six arches, of which one has a span of 75 ft., the others
+each 60 ft. In the second tier are eleven arches, each with a span
+of 75 ft. In the third tier are thirty-five smaller arches which
+carried the <i>specus</i>. As a bridge, the Pont du Gard has no rival
+for lightness and boldness of design among the existing remains
+of works of this class carried out in Roman times. (2) The
+aqueduct bridges at Segovia (Merckel, <i>Ingenieurtechnik</i>, pp.
+566-568), Tarragona (<i>ibid.</i> 565-566), and Merida in Spain, the
+former being 2400 ft. long, with 109 arches of fine masonry, in
+two tiers, and reaching the height of 102 ft. The bridge at
+Tarragona is 876 ft. long and 83 ft. high. (3) At Mainz are the
+ruins of an aqueduct 7000 yds. long, about half of which is
+carried on from 500 to 600 pillars (<i>Archaeological Journal</i>,
+xlvii., 1890, pp. 211-214). This aqueduct was built by the XIVth
+legion and was for the use of the camp, not for the townspeople.
+For the similar aqueduct at Luynes see <i>Arch. Journ.</i> xlv. (1888),
+pp. 235-237. Similar witnesses of Roman occupation are to be
+seen in Dacia, Africa (see especially under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carthage</a></span>), Greece
+and Asia Minor. (4) The aqueduct at Jouy-aux-Arches, near
+Metz, which originally extended across the Moselle, here very
+broad, conveyed to the city an abundance of excellent water
+from Gorze. From a large reservoir at the source of the aqueduct
+the water passed along subterranean channels built of hewn
+stone, and sufficiently spacious for a man to walk in them upright.
+Similar channels received the water after it had crossed
+the Moselle by this bridge, at the distance of about 6 m. from
+Metz, and conveyed it to the city. The bridge consisted of only
+one row of arches nearly 60 ft. high. The middle arches have
+given way under the force of the water, but the others are still
+perfectly solid. This aqueduct is probably to be attributed to
+the latter half of the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> It is for the use of the
+town; hence its size. (5) One of the principal bridges of the
+aqueduct of Antioch in Syria is 700 ft. long, and at the deepest
+point 200 ft. high. The lower part consists almost entirely of
+solid wall, and the upper part of a series of arches with very
+massive pillars. The masonry and design are rude. The water
+supply was drawn from several springs at a place called Beit el-Ma
+(anc. Daphne) about 4 or 5 m. from Antioch. From these
+separate springs the water was conducted by channels of hewn
+stone into a main channel, similarly constructed, which traversed
+the rest of the distance, being carried across streams and valleys
+by means of arches or bridges. (6) At the village of Moris, about
+an hour&rsquo;s distance north-west from the town of Mytilene, is the
+bridge of an aqueduct, carried by massive pillars built of large
+hewn blocks of grey marble, and connected by means of three
+rows of arches, of which the uppermost is of brick. The bridge
+extended about 500 ft. in length, and at the deepest point was
+from 70 to 80 ft. high. Judged by the masonry and the graceful
+design, it has been thought to be a work of the age of Augustus.
+Remains of this aqueduct are to be seen at Larisson Lamarousia,
+an hour&rsquo;s distance from Moris, and at St Demetri, two hours
+and a half from Ayasos, on the road to Vasilika.</p>
+
+<p>The whole subject of the ancient and medieval aqueducts of
+Asia Minor has been considered in great detail by G. Weber
+(&ldquo;Wasserleitungen in kleinasiatischen Städten,&rdquo; in
+the <i>Jahrbuch des kaiserl. deutsch. archäolog. Instit.</i>
+xix., 1904; see also earlier articles in <i>Jahrbuch</i>, 1892,
+<span class="sidenote">Asia Minor.</span>
+1899). The aqueducts examined are those at Pergamum,
+Laodicea and Smyrna (in the earlier articles), and those at
+Metropolis (Ionia), Tralles (Aidin), Antioch-on-Maeander, Aphrodisias,
+Trapezopolis, Hierapolis, Apamea Cibotus and Antioch
+in Pisidia. In most of these cases it is difficult or even impossible
+to decide whether the work is Hellenistic or Roman;
+to the Romans Weber inclines to attribute, <i>e.g.</i> those at Metropolis,
+Tralles (perhaps), Aphrodisias; to the Greeks, <i>e.g.</i> those
+at Antioch-on-Maeander and Antioch in Pisidia. Since, therefore,
+a detailed description of these remains does not provide
+material for any satisfactory generalizations as to the distinctive
+features of Hellenistic and Roman work, it will be
+sufficient here to mention a few of the more interesting
+discoveries.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of Metropolis, the aqueduct in the valley of the
+Astraeus consisted of an arcade about 13 to 16 ft. high. Nearer
+to the town in the hills there are distinct traces of a canal with
+brick walls. It is clear that the water could not have served
+more than the lower parts of the town, the acropolis of which
+is nearly 200 ft. above the level of the conduit. In the case of
+Tralles the water was supplied by a high pressure conduit and
+distributed from the acropolis, where there are the remains of a
+basin (13 ft. by 10) arched over with brick. The ancient aqueduct
+is to be distinguished from a later, probably Byzantine,
+canal conduit, the course of which avoids the deeper depressions,
+crossed by the old aqueduct. Of the Antioch-on-Maeander aqueduct
+only a few clay-pipes remain, and the same is true of the
+aqueduct which was built by Carminius in the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+to supply the community when reinforced by the amalgamation
+of Plarasa and Tauropolis; two of its basins are still distinguishable,
+but the two water-towers which are still standing belong
+to a later Byzantine structure. Trapezopolis was supplied
+from Mt. Salbacus (Baba Dagh): some twenty stone-pipes
+have been found built into a low wall which varies from 3¼ to
+about 5 ft. wide. Of the pillars which carried the conduit-pipe
+to Antioch in Pisidia, nineteen are still standing. Each arch
+consists of eleven keystones; no cement was used. The conduit,
+which was high-pressure, ends in a distributing tower and
+reservoir.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. M. M.)</div>
+
+<p>II. <i>Medieval.</i>&mdash;The aqueduct near Spoleto, which now serves
+also as a bridge, is deserving of notice as an early instance of the
+use of the pointed arch, belonging as it does to the 7th or 8th
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page244" id="page244"></a>244</span>
+century. It has ten arches, remarkable for the elegance of their
+design and the airy lightness of their proportions, each over
+66 ft. in span, and about 300 ft. in height.</p>
+
+<p>The aqueduct of Pyrgos, near Constantinople, is a remarkable
+example of works of this class carried out in the later times of
+the Roman empire, and consisted of two branches.
+From this circumstance it was called Egri Kemer
+<span class="sidenote">Constantinople.</span>
+(&ldquo;the Crooked Aqueduct&rdquo;), to distinguish it from
+the Long Aqueduct, situated near the source of the waters.
+One of the branches extends 670 ft. in length, and is 106 ft. in
+height at the deepest part. It is composed of three tiers of
+arches, those in each row increasing in width from the bottom
+to the top&mdash;an arrangement very properly introduced with the
+view of saving materials without diminishing the strength of the
+work. The two upper rows consisted of arches of semicircles,
+the lower of Gothic arches; and this circumstance leads to the
+belief that the date of the structure is about the 10th century.
+The breadth of the building at the base was 21 ft., and it diminished
+with a regular batter on each side to the top, where it was
+only 11 ft. The base also was protected by strong buttresses
+or counterforts, erected against each of the pillars. The other
+branch of the aqueduct was 300 ft. long, and consisted of twelve
+semicircular arches. This aqueduct serves to convey to Constantinople
+the waters of the valley of Belgrad, one of the
+principal sources from which the city is supplied. These are
+situated on the heights of Mount Haemus, the extremity of the
+Balkan Mountains, which overhangs the Black Sea. The water
+rises about 15 m. from the city, and between 3 and 4 m. west
+of the village of Belgrad, in three sources, which run in three
+deep and very confined valleys. These unite a little below the
+village, and then are collected into a large reservoir. After
+flowing a mile or two from this reservoir, the waters are augmented
+by two other streams, and conveyed by a channel of
+stone to the Crooked Aqueduct. From this they are conveyed
+to another which is the Long Aqueduct; and then, with various
+accessions, into a third, termed the Aqueduct of Justinian.
+From this they enter a vaulted conduit, which skirts the hills on
+the left side of the valley, and crosses a broad valley 2 m. below
+the Aqueduct of Justinian, by means of an aqueduct, with two
+tiers of arches of a very beautiful construction. The conduit
+then proceeds onward in a circuitous route, till it reaches the
+reservoir of Egri Kapu, situated just without and on the walls
+of the city. From this the water is conducted to the various
+quarters of the city, and also to the reservoir of St Sophia, which
+supplies the seraglio of the grand signior. The Long Aqueduct
+(Usun Kemer) is more imposing by its extent than the Crooked
+one, but is far inferior in the regularity of design and disposition
+of the materials. It is evidently a work of the Turks. It consists
+of two tiers of arches, the lower being forty-eight in number,
+and the upper fifty. The whole length was about 2200 ft., and
+the height 80 ft. The aqueduct of Justinian (Muallak Kemer
+or &ldquo;Hanging Aqueduct&rdquo;) is without doubt one of the finest
+monuments which remain to us of the middle ages. It consists
+of two tiers of large pointed arches, pierced transversely. Those
+of the lower story have 55 ft. of span, the upper ones 40 ft.
+The piers are supported by strong buttresses, and at different
+heights they have little arches passing through them laterally,
+which relieve the deadness of the solid pillar. The length of this
+aqueduct is 720 ft. and the height 108 ft. This aqueduct has
+been attributed both to Constantine I. and to Justinian, the latter
+being perhaps the more probable.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the waters of Belgrad, Constantinople was supplied
+from several other principal sources, one of which took its rise
+on the heights of the same mountains, 3 or 4 m. east of Belgrad.
+This was conveyed in a similar manner by an arched channel
+elevated, when it was necessary, on aqueduct bridges, till it
+reached the northern parts of the city. It was in the course of
+this aqueduct that the contrivance of the <i>souterasi</i> or hydraulic
+obelisks, described by Andréossy (on his voyage to the Black Sea,
+the account of the Thracian Bosporus), was constructed, which
+excited some attention, as being an improvement on the method
+of conducting water by aqueduct bridges. &ldquo;The souterasi,&rdquo;
+says Andréossy, &ldquo;are masses of masonry, having generally the
+form of a truncated pyramid or an Egyptian obelisk. To form
+a conduit with souterasi, we choose sources of water, the level
+of which is several feet higher than the reservoir by which it is
+to be distributed over the city. We bring the water from its
+sources in subterranean canals, slightly declining until we come
+to the borders of a valley or broken ground. We there raise on
+each side a souterasi, to which we adapt vertically leaden pipes
+of determinate diameters, placed parallel to the two opposite
+sides of the building. These pipes are disjoined at the upper
+part of the obelisk, which forms a sort of basin, with which the
+pipes are connected. The one permits the water to rise to the
+level from whence it had descended; by the other, the water
+descends from this level to the foot of the souterasi, where it
+enters another canal underground, which conducts it to a second
+and to a third souterasi, where it rises and again descends, as at
+the last station. Here a reservoir receives it and distributes it
+in different directions by orifices of which the discharge is known.&rdquo;
+Again he says, &ldquo;it requires but little attention to perceive that
+this system of conducting tubes is nothing but a series of siphons
+open at their upper part, and communicating with each other.
+The expense of a conduit by souterasi is estimated at only one-fifth
+of that of an aqueduct with arcades.&rdquo; There seems to be
+really no advantage in these pyramids, further than as they serve
+the purpose of discharging the air which collects in the pipes.
+They are in themselves an evident obstruction, and the water
+would flow more freely without any interruption of the kind. In
+regard to the leaden pipes, again, they would have required,
+with so little head pressure as is stated, to be used of very extraordinary
+dimensions to pass the same quantity of water as was
+discharged along the arched conduits (see also works quoted
+under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Constantinople</a></span>). The other principal source from
+which Constantinople is supplied, is from the high grounds 6 or 8
+m. west of the town, from which it is conducted by conduits
+and arches, in the same manner as the others. The supply
+drawn from all these sources, as detailed by Andréossy, amounted
+to 400,000 cubic ft. per day.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. S. M.; J. M. M.)</div>
+
+<p>III. <i>Modern Construction.</i>&mdash;Where towns are favourably situated
+the aqueduct may be very short and its cost bear a relatively
+small proportion to the total outlay upon a scheme of
+water supply, but where distant sources have to be relied upon
+<span class="sidenote">Aqueducts and water supply.</span>
+the cost of the aqueduct becomes one of the
+most important features in the scheme, and the quantity
+of water obtainable must be considerable to justify the outlay.
+Hence it is that only very large towns can undertake the responsibility
+for this expenditure. In Great Britain it has in all large
+schemes become a condition that, when a town is permitted to
+go outside its own watershed, it shall, subject to a priority of
+a certain number of gallons per day per head of its own inhabitants,
+allow local authorities, any part of whose district is
+within a certain number of miles of the aqueduct, to take a
+supply on reasonable terms. The first case in which this principle
+was adopted on a large scale was the Thirlmere scheme sanctioned
+by parliament in 1879, for augmenting the supply of Manchester.
+The previous supply was derived from a source only about 15 m.
+distant, and the cost of the aqueduct, chiefly cast-iron pipes,
+was insignificant compared with the cost of the impounding
+reservoirs. But Thirlmere is 96 m. distant from the service
+reservoir near Manchester, and the cost of the aqueduct was
+more than 90% of the total cost. As a supply of about
+50,000,000 gallons a day is available the outlay was justifiable,
+and the water is in fact very cheaply obtained. Liverpool
+derives a supply of about 40,000,000 gallons a day from the river
+Vyrnwy in North Wales, 68 m. distant, and Birmingham has
+constructed works for impounding water in Radnorshire, and conveying
+it a distance of 74 m., the supply being about 75,000,000
+gallons a day. In the year 1899 an act of parliament was passed
+authorizing the towns of Derby, Leicester, Sheffield and Nottingham,
+jointly to obtain a supply of water from the head waters of
+the river Derwent in Derbyshire. Leicester is 60 m. distant from
+this source, and its share of the supply is about 10,000,000 gallons
+a day. For more than half the distance, however, the aqueduct
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page245" id="page245"></a>245</span>
+is common to Derby and Nottingham, which together are entitled
+to about 16,000,000 gallons a day, and the expense to Leicester
+is correspondingly reduced. These are the most important cases
+of long aqueducts in England, and all are subsequent to 1879.
+It is obvious, therefore, how greatly the design and construction
+of the aqueduct have grown in importance, and what care must
+be Exercised in order that the supply upon which such large
+populations depend may not be interrupted, and that the country
+through which such large volumes of water are conveyed may not
+be flooded in consequence of the failure of any of the works.</p>
+
+<p>Practically only two types of aqueduct are used in England.
+The one is built of concrete, brickwork, &amp;c., the other of cast-iron
+(or, in special circumstances, steel) pipes. In the
+former type the water surface coincides with the
+<span class="sidenote">Construction.</span>
+hydraulic gradient, and the conditions are those of an
+artificial river; the aqueduct must therefore be carefully graded throughout, so that the fall available between source and
+termination may be economically distributed. This condition
+requires that the ground in which the work is built shall be at
+the proper elevation; if at any point this is not the case, the
+aqueduct must be carried on a substructure built up to the
+required level. Such large structures are, however, extremely
+expensive, and require elaborate devices for maintaining water-tightness against the expansion and contraction of the masonry
+due to changes of temperature. They are now only used where
+their length is very short, as in cases where mountain streams
+have to be crossed, and even these short lengths are avoided by
+some engineers, who arrange that the aqueduct shall pass,
+wherever practicable, under the streams. Where wide valleys
+interrupt the course of the built aqueduct, or where the absence
+of high ground prevents the adoption of that type at any part
+of the route, the cast-iron pipes hereafter referred to are used.</p>
+
+<p>The built aqueduct may be either in tunnel, or cut-and-cover,
+the latter term denoting the process of cutting the trench,
+building the floor, side-walls, and roof, and covering
+with earth, the surface of the ground being restored
+<span class="sidenote">Masonry aqueducts.</span>
+as before. For works conveying water for domestic
+supply, the aqueduct is in these days, in England, always
+covered. Where, as is usually the case, the water is derived
+from a tract of mountainous country, the tunnel work is sometimes
+very heavy. In the case of the Thirlmere aqueduct, out
+of the first 13 m. the length of the tunnelled portions is 8 m., the
+longest tunnel being 3 m. in length. Conditions of time, and the
+character of the rock, usually require the use of machinery for
+driving, at any rate in the case of the longer tunnels. For the
+comparatively small tunnels required for aqueducts, two percussion
+drilling machines are usually mounted on a carriage, the
+motive power being derived from compressed air sent up the
+tunnel in pipes. The holes when driven are charged with explosives
+and fired. In the Thirlmere tunnels, driven through very hard Lower
+Silurian strata, the progress was about 13 yds. a week at each face,
+work being carried on continuously day and night for six days a week.
+Where the character of the country through which the aqueduct passes
+is much the same as that from which the supply is derived, the tunnels
+need not be lined with concrete, &amp;c., more than is absolutely
+necessary for retaining the water and supporting weak places in
+the rock; the floor, however, is nearly always so treated. The
+lining, whether in tunnel or cut-and-cover, may be either of
+concrete, or brickwork, or of concrete faced with brickwork.
+To ensure the impermeability of work constructed with these materials is in practice
+somewhat difficult, and no matter how much care is taken by
+those supervising the workmen, and even by the workmen themselves,
+it is impossible to guarantee entire freedom from trouble in this
+respect. With a wall only about 15 in. thick, any neglect is
+certain to make the work permeable; frequently the labourers
+do not distribute the broken stone and fine material of the concrete
+uniformly, and no matter how excellent the design, the
+quality of materials, &amp;c., a leak is sure to occur at such places
+(unless, indeed, the pressure of the outside water is superior
+and an inflow occurs). A further cause of trouble lies in the
+water which flows from the strata on to the concrete, and
+washes away some of the cement upon which the work depends
+for its watertightness, before it has time to set. For this reason
+it is advisable to put in the floor before, and not after,
+the sidewalls and arch have been built, otherwise the only outlet for the
+water in the strata is through the ground on which the floor has
+to be laid. Each length of about 20 ft. should be completely
+constructed before the next is begun, the water then having
+an easy exit at the leading end. Manholes, by which the aqueduct
+can be entered, are usually placed in the roof at convenient
+intervals; thus, in the case of the Thirlmere aqueduct, they
+occur at every quarter of a mile.</p>
+
+<p>In some parts of America aqueducts are frequently constructed
+of wood, being then termed flumes. These are probably more
+extensively used in California than in any other part
+of the world, for conveying large quantities of water
+<span class="sidenote">Timber aqueducts.</span>
+which is required for hydraulic mining, for irrigation,
+for the supply of towns and for transporting timber. The flumes
+are frequently carried along precipitous mountain slopes, and
+across valleys, supported on trestles. In Fresno county, California,
+there is a flume 52 m. in length for transporting timber
+from the Sierra Nevada Mountains to the plain below; it has a
+rectangular V-shaped section, 3 ft. 7 in. wide at the top, and 21 in.
+deep vertically. The boards which form the sides are 1¼ in.
+thick, and some of the trestlework is 130 ft. high. The steepest
+grade occurs where there is a fall of 730 ft. in a length of 3000 ft.
+About 9,000,000 ft. of timber were used in the construction.
+At San Diego there is a flume 35 m. long for irrigation and
+domestic supply, the capacity being 50 ft. per second; it has 315
+trestle bridges (the longest of which is that across Los Coches
+Creek, 1794 ft. in length and 65 ft. in height) and 8 tunnels,
+and the cost was $900,000. The great bench flume of the
+Highline canal, Colorado, is 2640 ft. in length, 28 ft. wide, and
+7 ft. deep; the gradient is 5.28 ft. per mile, and the discharge
+1184 ft. per second.</p>
+
+<p>As previously stated, the type of aqueduct built of concrete,
+&amp;c., can only be adopted where the ground is sufficiently elevated
+to carry it, and where the quantity of water to be conveyed
+makes it more economical than piping. Where the falling contour
+<span class="sidenote">Aqueduct in iron piping.</span>
+is interrupted by valleys too wide for a masonry structure above
+the surface of the ground, the detached portions of the built
+aqueduct must be connected by rows of pipes laid beneath, and following
+the main undulations of, the surface. In such cases the built aqueduct
+terminates in a chamber of sufficient size to enclose the mouths
+of the several pipes, which, thus charged, carry the water under
+the valley up to a corresponding chamber on the farther hillside
+from which the built aqueduct again carries on the supply.
+These connecting pipes are sometimes called siphons, although
+they have nothing whatever to do with the principle of a siphon,
+the water simply flowing into the pipe at one end and out at the
+other under the influence of gravity, and the pressure of the
+atmosphere being no element in the case. The pipes are almost
+always made of cast-iron, except in such cases as the lower part
+of some siphons, where the pressure is very great, or where they
+are for use abroad, when considerations of weight are of importance,
+and when they are made of rolled steel with riveted or
+welded seams. It is frequently necessary to lay them in deep
+cuttings, in which case cast-iron is much better adapted for
+sustaining a heavy weight of earth than the thinner steel, though
+the latter is more adapted to resist internal pressure. Mr
+D. Clarke (<i>Trans. Am. Soc. C.E.</i> vol. xxxviii. p. 93) gives some
+particulars of a riveted steel pipe 24 m. long, 33 to 42 in. diameter,
+varying in thickness from 0.22 in. to 0.375 in. After a length of
+9 m. had been laid, and the trench refilled, it was found that the
+crown of the pipe had been flattened by an amount varying
+from  ½ in. to 4 in. Steel pipes suffer more from corrosion
+than those made of cast-iron, and as the metal attacked is
+much thinner the strength is more seriously reduced. These
+considerations have prevented any general change from cast-iron
+to steel.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Mr. Clemens Herschel has made some interesting remarks (<i>Proc.
+Inst. C.E.</i> vol. cxv. p. 162) as to the circumstances in which steel
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page246" id="page246"></a>246</span>
+pipes have been found preferable to cast-iron. He says that it had
+been demonstrated by practice that cast-iron cannot compete with
+wrought-iron or steel pipes in the states west of the Rocky Mountains,
+on the Pacific slope. This is due to the absence of coal and
+iron ore in these states, and to the weight of the imported cast-iron
+pipes compared with steel pipes of equal capacity and strength.
+The works of the East Jersey Water Company for the supply of
+Newark, N.J., include a riveted steel conduit 48 in. in diameter and
+21 m. long. This conduit is designed to resist only the pressure due
+to the hydraulic gradient, in contradistinction to that which would
+be due to the hydrostatic head, this arrangement saving 40% in the
+weight and cost of the pipes. For the supply of Rochester, N.Y.,
+there is a riveted steel conduit 36 in. in diameter and 20 m. long;
+and for Allegheny City, Pennsylvania, there is a steel conduit 5 ft. in
+diameter and nearly 10 m. long. The works for bringing the water
+from La Vigne and Verneuil to Paris include a steel main 5 ft. in
+diameter between St. Cloud and Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Cast-iron pipes rarely exceed 48 in. in diameter, and even this
+diameter is only practicable where the pressure of the water is low.
+In the Thirlmere aqueduct the greatest pressure is nearly 180 &#8468; on
+the square inch, the pipes where this occurs being 40 in. in diameter
+and 1¾ in. thick. These large pipes, which are usually made in
+lengths of 12 ft., are generally cast with a socket at one end for
+receiving the spigot end of the next pipe, the annular space being
+run with lead, which is prevented from flowing into the interior of
+the pipe by a spring ring subsequently removed; the surface of the
+lead is then caulked all round the outside of the pipe. A wrought-iron
+ring is sometimes shrunk on the outer rim of the socket, previously
+turned to receive it, in order to strengthen it against the
+wedging action of the caulking tool. Sometimes the pipes are cast
+as plain tubes and joined with double collars, which are run with
+lead as in the last case. The reason for adopting the latter type is
+that the stresses set up in the thicker metal of the socket by unequal
+cooling are thereby avoided, a very usual place for pipes to crack
+under pressure being at the back of the socket. The method of
+turning and boring a portion, slightly tapered, of spigot and socket
+so as to ensure a watertight junction by close annular metallic contact,
+is not suitable for large pipes, though very convenient for
+smaller diameters in even ground. Spherical joints are sometimes
+used where a line of main has to be laid under a large river or estuary,
+and where, therefore, the pipes must be jointed before being lowered
+into the previously dredged trench. This was the case at the Willamette
+river, Portland, Oregon, where a length of 2000 ft. was required.
+The pipes are of cast-iron 28 in. in diameter, 1½ in. thick, and 17 ft.
+long. The spigots were turned to a spherical surface of 20 in.
+radius outside, the inside of the sockets being of a radius <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in. greater.
+After the insertion of the spigot into the socket, a ring, 3 in. deep,
+turned inside to correspond with the socket, was bolted to the latter,
+the annular space then being run with lead. These pipes were laid
+on an inclined cradle, one end of which rested on the bed of the river
+and the other on a barge where the jointing was done; as the pipes
+were jointed the barge was carefully advanced, thus trailing the
+pipes into the trench (<i>Trans. Am. Soc. C.E.</i> vol. xxxiii. p. 257). As
+may be conjectured from the pressure which they have to stand,
+very great care has to be taken in the manufacture and handling of
+cast-iron pipes of large diameter, a care which must be unfailing
+from the time of casting until they are jointed in their final position
+in the ground. They are cast vertically, socket downwards, so that
+the densest metal may be at the weakest part, and it is advisable to
+allow an extra head of metal of about 12 in., which is subsequently
+cut off in a lathe. An inspector representing the purchaser watches
+every detail of the manufacture, and if, after being measured in
+every part and weighed, they are found satisfactory they are proved
+with internal fluid pressure, oil being preferable to water for this
+purpose. While under pressure, they are rapped from end to end
+with a hand hammer of about 5 &#8468; in weight, in order to discover
+defects. The wrought-iron rings are then, if required, shrunk on
+to the sockets, and the pipes, after being made hot in a stove, are
+dipped vertically in a composition of pitch and oil, in order to
+preserve them from corrosion. All these operations are performed
+under cover. A record should be kept of the history of the pipe
+from the time it is cast to the time it is laid and jointed in the ground,
+giving the date, number, diameter, length, thickness, and proof
+pressure, with the name of the pipe-jointer whose work closes the
+record. Such a history sometimes enables the cause (which is often
+very obscure) of a burst in a pipe to be ascertained, the position of
+every pipe being recorded.</p>
+
+<p>Cast-iron pipes, even when dipped in the composition referred to,
+suffer considerably from corrosion caused by the water, especially
+soft water, flowing through them. One pipe may be found in as
+good a condition as when made, while the next may be covered with
+nodules of rust. The effect of the rust is twofold; it reduces the
+area of the pipe, and also, in consequence of the resistance offered
+by the rough surface, retards the velocity of the water. These two
+results, expecially the latter, may seriously diminish the capability
+of discharge, and they should always be allowed for in deciding the
+diameter. Automatic scrapers are sometimes used with good
+results, but it is better to be independent of them as long as possible.
+In one case the discharge of pipes, 40 in. in diameter, was found
+after a period of about twelve years to have diminished at the rate
+of about 1% per year; in another case, where the water was soft
+and where the pipes were 40 in. in diameter, the discharge was
+diminished by 7% in ten years. An account of the state of two
+cast-iron mains supplying Boston with water is given in the <i>Trans.
+Am. Soc. C.E.</i> vol. xxxv. p. 241. These pipes, which were laid in
+1877, are 48 in. in diameter and 1800 ft. long. When they were
+examined in 1894-1895, it was estimated that the tubercles of rust
+covered nearly one-third of the interior surfaces, the bottom of the
+pipe being more encrusted than the sides and top. They had central
+points of attachment to the iron, at which no doubt the coating was
+defective, and from them the tubercles spread over the surface of
+the surrounding coating. In this case they were removed by hand,
+and the coating of the pipes was not injured in the process. Cast-iron
+pipes must not be laid in contact with cinders from a blast
+furnace with which roads are sometimes made, because these corrode
+the metal. Mr Russell Aitken (<i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> vol. cxv. p. 93)
+found in India that cast-iron pipes buried in the soil rapidly corroded,
+owing to the presence of nitric acid secreted by bacteria which
+attacked the iron. The large cast-iron pipes conveying the water
+from the Tansa reservoir to Bombay are laid above the surface of
+the ground. Cast-iron pipes of these large diameters have not been
+in existence sufficiently long to enable their life to be predicted. A
+main, 40 in. in diameter, conveying soft water, after being in existence
+fifty years at Manchester, was apparently as good as ever. In 1867
+Mr J.B. Francis found that no apparent deterioration had taken
+place in a cast-iron main, 8 in. diameter, which was laid in the year
+1828, a period of thirty-nine years (<i>Trans. Soc. Am. C.E.</i> vol. i.
+p. 26). These two instances are probably not exceptional.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Pipes in England are usually laid with not less than 2 ft. 6 in.
+of cover, in order that the water may not be frozen in a severe
+winter. Where they are laid in deep cutting they
+should be partly surrounded with concrete, so that they
+<span class="sidenote">Methods of laying.</span>
+may not be fractured by the weight of earth above
+them. Angles are turned by means of special bend pipes, the
+curves being made of as large a radius as convenient. In the
+case of the Thirlmere aqueduct, double socketed castings about
+12 in. long (exclusive of the sockets) were used, the sockets
+being inclined to each other at the required angle. They were
+made to various angles, and for any particular curve several
+would be used connected by straight pipes 3 ft. long. As special
+castings are nearly double the price of the regular pipes, the
+cost was much diminished by making them as short as possible,
+while a curve, made up of the slight angles used, offered practically
+no more impediment to the flow of water in consequence
+of its polygonal form, than would be the case had special bend
+pipes been used. In all cases of curves on a line of pipes under
+internal fluid pressure, there exists a resultant force tending
+to displace the pipes. When the curve is in a horizontal plane
+and the pipes are buried in the ground, the side of the pipe
+trench offers sufficient resistance to this force. Where, however,
+the pipes are above ground, or when the curve is in a vertical
+plane, it is necessary to anchor them in position. In the case of
+the Tansa aqueduct to Bombay, there is a curve of 500 ft. radius
+near Bassein Creek. At this point the hydrostatic head is about
+250 ft., and the engineer, Mr Clerke, mentions that a tendency
+to an outward movement of the line of pipes was observed. At
+the siphon under Kurla Creek the curves on the approaches as
+originally laid down were sharp, the hydrostatic head being there
+about 210 ft.; here the outward movement was so marked that
+it was considered advisable to realign the approaches with
+easier curves (<i>Proc. Inst. C.E.</i> vol. cxv. p. 34). In the case of
+the Thirlmere aqueduct the greatest hydrostatic pressure, 410 ft.,
+occurs at the bridge over the river Lune, where the pipes are
+40 in. in diameter, and in descending from the bridge make reverse
+angles of 31½°. The displacing force at each of these angles
+amounts to 54 tons, and as the design includes five lines of
+pipes, it is obvious that the anchoring arrangements must be
+very efficient. The steel straps used for anchoring these and all
+other bends were curved to fit as closely as possible the castings
+to be anchored. Naturally the metal was not in perfect contact,
+but when the pipes were charged the disappearance of all the
+slight inequalities showed that the straps were fulfilling their
+intended purpose. At every summit on a line of pipes one or
+more valves must be placed in order to allow the escape of
+air, and they must also be provided on long level stretches,
+and at changes of gradient where the depth of the point of
+change below the hydraulic gradient is less than that at both
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page247" id="page247"></a>247</span>
+sides, causing what may be called a virtual summit. It is better
+to have too many than too few, as accumulations of air may
+cause an enormous diminution in the quantity of water delivered.
+In all depressions discharge valves should be placed for emptying
+the pipes when desired, and for letting off the sediment which
+accumulates at such points. Automatic valves are frequently
+placed at suitable distances for cutting off the supply in case of
+a burst. At the inlet mouth of the pipe they may depend for
+their action on the sudden lowering of the water (due to a burst
+in the pipe) in the chamber from which they draw their supply,
+causing a float to sink and set the closing arrangement in motion.
+Those on the line of main are started by the increased velocity in
+the water, caused by the burst on the pipe at a lower level.
+The water, when thus accelerated, is able to move a disk hung
+in the pipe at the end of a lever and weighted so as to resist the
+normal velocity; this lever releases a catch, and a door is then
+gradually revolved by weights until it entirely closes the pipe.
+Reflux valves on the ascending leg of a siphon prevent water
+from flowing back in case of a burst below them; they have
+doors hung on hinges, opening only in the normal direction of
+flow. Due allowance must be made, in the amount of head
+allotted to a pipe, for any head which may be absorbed by such
+mechanical arrangements as those described where they offer
+opposition to the flow of the water. These large mains require
+most careful and gradual filling with water, and constant attention
+must be given to the air-valves to see that the gutta-percha
+balls do not wedge themselves in the openings. A large mass of
+water, having a considerable velocity, may cause a great many
+bursts by water-ramming, due to the admission of the water
+at too great a speed. In places where iron is absent and timber
+plentiful, as in some parts of America, pipes, even of large
+diameter and in the most important cases, are sometimes made
+of wooden staves hooped with iron. A description of two of
+these will be found below.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Thirlmere Aqueduct</i> is capable of conveying 50,000,000
+gallons a day from Thirlmere, in the English lake district, to Manchester.
+The total length of 96 m. is made up of 14 m.
+of tunnels, 37 m. of cut-and-cover, and 45 m. of cast-iron
+<span class="sidenote">Thirlmere.</span>
+pipes, five rows of the latter being required. The tunnels
+where lined, and the cut-and-cover, are formed of concrete, and are
+7 ft. in height and width, the usual thickness of the concrete being
+15 in. The inclination is 20 in. per mile. The floor is flat from side
+to side, and the side-walls are 5 ft. high to the springing of the arch,
+which has a rise of 2 ft. The water from the lake is received in a
+circular well 65 ft. deep and 40 ft. in diameter, at the bottom of
+which there is a ring of wire-gauze strainers. Wherever the concrete
+aqueduct is intersected by valleys, cast-iron pipes are laid;
+in the first instance only two of the five rows 40 in. in diameter were
+laid, the city not requiring its supply to be augmented by more than
+20,000,000 gallons a day, but in 1907 it was decided to lay a third
+line. All the elaborate arrangements described above for stopping
+the water in case of a burst have been employed, and have perfectly
+fulfilled their duties in the few cases in which they have been called
+into action. The water is received in a service reservoir at Prestwich,
+near Manchester, from which it is supplied to the city. The supply
+from this source was begun in 1894. The total cost of the complete
+scheme may be taken at about £5,000,000, of which rather under
+£3,000,000 had been spent up to the date of the opening, at which
+time only one line of pipes had been laid.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Vyrnwy Aqueduct</i> was sanctioned by parliament in 1880 for
+the supply of Liverpool from North Wales, the quantity of water
+obtainable being at least 40,000,000 gallons a day. A
+tower built in the artificial lake from which the supply is
+<span class="sidenote">Vyrnwy.</span>
+derived, contains the inlet and arrangements for straining the water.
+The aqueduct is 68 m. in length, and for nearly the whole distance
+will consist of three lines of cast-iron pipes, two of which, varying in
+diameter from 42 in. to 39 in., are now in use. As the total fall
+between Vyrnwy and the termination at Prescot reservoirs is about
+550 ft., arrangements had to be made to ensure that no part of the
+aqueduct be subjected to a greater pressure than is required for the
+actual discharge. Balancing reservoirs have therefore been constructed
+at five points on the line, advantage being taken of high
+ground where available, so that the total pressure is broken up into
+sections. At one of these points, where the ground level is 110 ft.
+below the hydraulic gradient, a circular tower is built, making a
+most imposing architectural feature in the landscape. At the crossing
+of the river Weaver, 100 ft. wide and 15 ft. deep, the three pipes,
+here made of steel, were connected together laterally, floated into
+position, and sunk into a dredged trench prepared to receive them.
+Under the river Mersey the pipes are carried in a tunnel, from which,
+during construction, the water was excluded by compressed air.</p>
+
+<p><i>Denver Aqueduct.</i>&mdash;The supply to Denver City, initiated by the
+Citizens Water Company in 1889, is derived from the Platte river,
+rising in the Rocky Mountains. The first aqueduct
+constructed is rather over 20 m. in length, of which a
+<span class="sidenote">Denver.</span>
+length of 16½ m. is made of wooden stave pipe, 30 in. in diameter.
+The maximum pressure is that due to 185 ft. of water; the average
+cost of the wooden pipe was $1.36½ per foot, and the capability of
+discharge 8,400,000 gallons a day. Within a year of the completion
+of the first conduit, it became evident that another of still greater
+capacity was required. This was completed in April 1893; it is
+34 in. in diameter and will deliver 16,000,000 gallons a day. By
+increasing the head upon the first pipe, the combined discharge is
+30,000,000 gallons a day. An incident in obtaining a temporary
+supply, without waiting for the completion of the second pipe, was
+the construction of two wooden pipes, 13 in. in diameter, crossing a
+stream with a span of 104 ft., and having no support other than that
+derived from their arched form. One end of the arch is 24½ ft.
+above the other end, and, when filled with water, the deflection with
+eight men on it was only <span class="spp">7</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> of an inch. A somewhat similar arch,
+60 ft. span, occurs on the 34-in. pipe where it crosses a canal.
+Schuyler points out (<i>Trans. Am. Soc. C.E.</i> vol. xxxi. p. 148) that the
+fact that the entire water supply of a city of 150,000 inhabitants
+is conveyed in wooden mains, is so radical a departure from all
+precedents, that it is deserving of more than a passing notice. He
+says that it is manifestly and unreservedly successful, and has
+achieved an enormous saving in cost. The sum saved by the use of
+wooden, in preference to cast-iron pipes, is estimated at $1,100,000.
+It is perhaps necessary to state that the pipe is buried in the ground
+in the same way as metal pipes. The edges of the staves are dressed
+to the radius with a minute tongue <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span> in. high on one edge of each
+stave, but with no corresponding groove in the next stave; its
+object is to ensure a close joint when the bands are tightened up.
+Leaks seldom or never occur along the longitudinal seams, but the
+end shrinkage caused troublesome joint leaks. The shrinkage in
+California redwood, which had seasoned 60 to 90 days before milling,
+was frequently as much as 3 in. in the 20 staves that formed the
+34-in. pipe, and the space so formed had to be filled by a special
+closing stave. Metallic tongues, ¾ in. deep, are inserted at the ends
+of abutting staves, in a straight saw cut. The bands, which are of
+mild steel, have a head at one end and a nut and washer at the
+other; the ends are brought together on a wrought-iron shoe,
+against which the nut and washer set. The staves forming the lower
+half of the pipe are placed on an outside, and the top staves on an
+inside, mould. While the bands are being adjusted the pipe is
+rounded out to bring the staves out full, and the staves are carefully
+driven home on to the abutting staves. The spacing of the bands
+depends on circumstances, but is about 150 bands per 100 ft. With
+low heads the limit of spacing was fixed at 17 in. The outer surface
+of the pipe, when charged, shows moisture oozing slightly over the
+entire surface. This condition Schuyler considers an ideal one for
+perfect preservation, and the staves were kept as thin as possible
+to ensure its occurrence. Samples taken from pipes in use from
+three to nine years are quite sound, and it is concluded that the wood
+will last as long as cast-iron if the pipe is kept constantly charged.
+The bands are the only perishable portion, and their life is taken at
+from fifteen to twenty years. Other portions of the second conduit
+for a length of nearly 3 m. were formed of concrete piping, 38 in.
+diameter, formed on a mould in the trench, the thickness being 2½
+to 3 in. So successful an instance of the use of wooden piping on a
+large scale is sure to lead to a large development of this type of
+aqueduct in districts where timber is plentiful and iron absent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pioneer Aqueduct, Utah.</i>&mdash;The construction of the Pioneer Aqueduct,
+Utah, was begun in 1896 by the Pioneer Electric Power
+Company, near the city of Ogden, 35 m. north of Salt
+Lake City. The storage reservoir, from which it draws
+<span class="sidenote">Pioneer, Utah.</span>
+its water, will coyer an area of 2000 acres, and contain
+about 15,000 million gallons of water. The aqueduct is a pipe 6 ft.
+in diameter, and of a total length of 6 m.; for a distance of rather
+more than 5 m. it is formed of wooden staves, the remainder, where
+the head exceeds 117 ft., being of steel. It is laid in a trench and
+covered to a depth of 3 ft. The greatest pressure on the steel pipe
+is 200 &#8468; per sq. in., and the thickness varies from <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> to <span class="spp">11</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span> in. The
+pipe was constructed according to the usual practice of marine
+boiler-work for high pressures, and each section, about 9 ft. long,
+was dipped in asphalt for an hour. These sections were supported
+on timber blocking, placed from 5 to 9 ft. apart, and consisting of
+three to six pieces of 6 × 6 in. timbers laid one on the top of the other;
+they were then riveted together in the ordinary way. The wooden
+stave-pipe is of the type successfully used in the Western States for
+many years, but its diameter is believed to be unequalled for any
+but short lengths. There were thirty-two staves in the circle, 2 in.
+in thickness, and about 20 ft. long, hooped with round steel rods <span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in.
+in diameter, each hoop being in two pieces. The pipe is supported
+at intervals of 8 ft. by sills 6 × 8 in. and 8 ft. long. The flow through
+it is 250 cubic ft. per second.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Santa Ana Canal</i> was constructed for irrigation purposes in
+California, and is designed to carry 240 cub. ft. of water per second
+(<i>Trans. Am. Soc. C.E.</i> vol. xxxiii. p. 99). The cross
+section of the flumes shows an elliptical bottom and
+<span class="sidenote">Santa Ana.</span>
+straight sides consisting of wooden staves held together by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page248" id="page248"></a>248</span>
+iron and steel ribs. The width and depth are each 5 ft. 6 in., the
+intended depth of water being 5 ft. The staves are held by T-iron
+supports resting on wooden sills spaced 8 ft. apart, and are
+compressed together by a framework. They were caulked with oakum,
+on the top of which, to a third of the total depth, hot asphalt was
+run. The use of nails was altogether avoided except in parts of the
+framework, it being noticed that decay usually starts at nail-holes.
+It was found possible to make the flume absolutely watertight, and
+in case of repair being necessary at any part the framework is easily
+taken to pieces so that new staves can be inserted. The water in the
+flume has a velocity of 9.6 ft. per second. The Warm Springs, Deep,
+and Morton cañons on the line are crossed by wooden stave pipes
+52 in. in diameter, bound with round steel rods, and laid above the
+surface of the ground. The work is planned for two rows of pipes,
+each capable of carrying 123 cub. ft. per second; of these one so
+far has been laid. The lengths of the pipes at each of the three
+cañons are 551, 964 and 756 ft. respectively, and the maximum
+head at any place is 160 ft. The pipes are not painted, and it has
+been suggested that they would suffer in their exposed position in
+case of a bush fire, a contingency to which, of course, flumes are also liable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aqueducts of New York.</i>&mdash;There are three aqueducts in New
+York&mdash;the Old Croton Aqueduct (1837-1843), the Bronx River
+Conduit (1880-1885), and the New Croton Aqueduct (1884-1893),
+discharging respectively 95, 28, and 302 million U.S.
+<span class="sidenote">New York.</span>
+gallons a day; their combined delivery is therefore 425 million
+gallons a day. The Old Croton Aqueduct is about 41 m. in length,
+and was constructed as a masonry conduit, except at the Harlem
+and Manhattan valleys, where two lines of 36-in. pipe were used.
+The inclination of the former is at the rate of about 13 in. per
+mile. The area of the cross-section is 53.34 sq. ft., the height
+is 8½ ft., and the greatest width 7 ft. 5 in.; the roof is
+semicircular, the floor segmental, and the sides have a batter
+on the face of ½ in. per foot. The sides and invert are of
+concrete, faced with 4 in. of brickwork, the roof being entirely
+of brickwork. There is a bridge over the Harlem river 1450 ft.
+in length, consisting of fifteen semicircular arches; its
+soffit is 100 ft. above high water, and its cost was $963,427.
+The construction of the New Croton Aqueduct was begun in 1885,
+and the works were sufficiently advanced by the 15th of July
+1890 to allow the supply to be begun. The lengths of the various
+parts of the aqueduct are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">Miles.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Tunnel</td> <td class="tcr">29.75</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cut-and-cover</td> <td class="tcr">1.12</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cast-iron pipes, 48 in. diameter, 8 rows.</td> <td class="tcr">2.38</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">Croton Inlet to Central Park.</td> <td class="tcr">33.25</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">====</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The length of tunnel under pressure (circular form) is 7.17 m., and
+that not under pressure (horse-shoe form) 23.70 m. The maximum
+pressure in the former is 55 &#8468; per sq. in. The width and height of
+the horse-shoe form are each 13 ft. 7 in., and the diameter of the
+circular form (with the exception of two short lengths) is 12 ft.
+3 in. The reason for constructing the aqueduct in tunnel for so long a
+distance was the enhanced value of the low-lying ground near the
+old aqueduct. The tunnel deviates from a straight line only for the
+purpose of intersecting a few transverse valleys at which it could be
+emptied. For 25 m. the gradient is 0.7 foot per mile; the tunnel is
+then depressed below the hydraulic gradient, the maximum depth
+being at the Harlem river, where it is 300 ft. below high water. The
+depth of the tunnel varies from 50 to 500 ft. from the surface of the
+ground. Forty-two shafts were sunk to facilitate driving, and in
+four cases where the surface of the ground is below the hydraulic
+gradient these are closed by watertight covers. The whole of the
+tunnel is lined with brickwork from 1 to 2 ft. in thickness, the voids
+behind the lining being filled with rubble-in-mortar. The entry to
+the old and new aqueducts is controlled by a gatehouse of elaborate
+and massive design, and the pipes which take up the supply at the
+end of the tunnel are also commanded by a gate-house. The aqueduct,
+where it passes under the Harlem river, is worthy of special notice.
+As it approaches the river it has a considerable fall, and eventually
+ends in a vertical shaft 12 ft. 3 in. in diameter (where the water has
+a fall of 174 ft.), from the bottom of which, at a depth of 300 ft.
+below high-water level, the tunnel under the river starts. The latter
+is circular in form, the diameter being 10 ft. 6 in., and the length
+is 1300 ft.; it terminates at the bottom of another vertical shaft
+also 12 ft. 3 in. in diameter. The depth of this shaft, measured from
+the floor of the lower tunnel to that of the upper tunnel leading
+away from it, is 321 ft.; it is continued up to the surface of the
+ground, though closed by double watertight covers a little above
+the level of the upper tunnel. Adjoining this shaft is another shaft
+of equal diameter, by means of which the water can be pumped out,
+and there is also a communication with the river above high-water
+level, so that the higher parts can be emptied by gravitation. The
+cost of the Old Croton Aqueduct was $11,500,000; that of the new
+aqueduct is not far short of $20,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Nadrai Aqueduct Bridge</i>, in India, opened at the end of
+1889, is the largest structure of its kind in existence. It was
+built to carry the water of the Lower Ganges canal over the Kali Naddi, in
+connexion with the irrigation canals of the north-west provinces.
+<span class="sidenote">Nadrai.</span>
+In the year 1888-1889 this canal had 564 m. of main line, with
+2050 m. of minor distributaries, and irrigated 519,022 acres of crops.
+The new bridge replaces one of much smaller size (five spans of 35
+ft.), which was completely destroyed by a high flood in July 1885.
+It gives the river a waterway of 21,000 sq. ft., and the canal a
+waterway of 1040 sq. ft., the latter representing a discharge of
+4100 cub. ft. per second. Its length is 1310 ft., and it is carried
+on fifteen arches having a span of 60 ft. The width between the
+faces of the arches is 149 ft. The foundations below the river-bed
+have a depth of 52 ft., and the total height of the structure is 88 ft.
+It cost 44½ lakhs of rupees, and occupied four years in building.
+The foundations consist of 268 circular brick cylinders, and the
+fifteen spans are arranged in three groups, divided by abutment
+piers; the latter are founded on a double row of 12-ft. cylinders,
+and the intermediate piers on a single row of 20-ft. cylinders, all
+the cylinders being hearted with hydraulic lime concrete filled in
+with skips. This aqueduct-bridge has a very fine appearance, owing
+to its massive proportions and design.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. P. H.*)</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;For ancient aqueducts in general: Curt Merckel, <i>Die
+Ingenieurtechnik im Alterthum</i> (Berlin, 1899); ch. vi. contains a very
+full account from the earliest Assyrian aqueducts onwards, with
+illustrations, measurements and an excellent bibliography. For Greek
+aqueducts see E. Curtius, &ldquo;Über städtische Wasserbauten der Hellenen,&rdquo;
+in <i>Archaeologische Zeitung</i> (1847); G. Weber (as above); papers in
+<i>Athen. Mittheil.</i> (Samos), 1877, (Enneacrunus) 1892, 1893, 1894, 1905,
+and articles on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athens</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pergamum</a></span>, &amp;c. For Roman aqueducts: R. Lanciani,
+&ldquo;I Commentari di Frontino intorno le acque e gli acquedotti,&rdquo; in
+<i>Memorie dei Lincei</i>, serie iii. vol. iv. (Rome, 1880), 215 sqq., and
+separately; C. Herschel, <i>The Two Books on the Water Supply of the City
+of Rome of Sextus Julius Frontinus</i> (Boston, 1899); T. Ashby in
+<i>Classical Review</i> (1902), 336, and articles in <i>The Builder</i>; cf. also
+the maps to T. Ashby&rsquo;s &ldquo;Classical Topography of the Roman Campagna,&rdquo; in
+<i>Papers of the British School at Rome</i>, i., in., iv. (in progress).</p>
+
+<p>For modern aqueducts, see Rickman&rsquo;s <i>Life of Telford</i> (1838);
+Schramke&rsquo;s <i>New York Croton Aqueduct; Second Annual Report of
+the Department of Public Works of the City of New York in 1872;
+Report of the Aqueduct Commissioners</i> (1887-1895), and <i>The Water
+Supply of the City of New York</i> (1896), by Wegmann; <i>Mémoires sur
+les eaux de Paris</i>, presentés par le Préfet de la Seine au Conseil
+Municipal (1854 and 1858); <i>Recherches statistiques sur les sources du
+bassin de la Seine</i>, par M. Belgrand, Ingénieur en chef des ponts et
+chaussées (1854); &ldquo;Descriptions of Mechanical Arrangements of the
+Manchester Waterworks,&rdquo; by John Frederic Bateman, F.R.S.,
+Engineer-in-chief, from the <i>Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution
+of Mechanical Engineers</i> (1866); <i>The Glasgow Waterworks</i>, by James M.
+Gale, Member Inst. C.E. (1863 and 1864); <i>The Report of the Royal
+Commission on Water Supply, and the Minutes of Evidence</i> (1867 and
+1868). For accounts of other aqueducts, see the Transactions of the
+Societies of Engineers in the different countries, and the Engineering
+Journals.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> There have been found at Caerwent, in Monmouthshire, clear
+traces of wooden pipes (internal diameter about 2 in.) which must
+have carried drinking-water, and almost certainly a pressure supply
+from the surrounding hills. Some patches of lead also have been
+found obviously nailed on to the pipes at points where they had
+burst (see <i>Archaeologia</i>, 1908).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This distance will not agree with the length given on some of the
+<i>cippi</i> (Lanciani, <i>Bull. Com.</i>, 1899, 38).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3h" id="ft3h" href="#fa3h"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The course of the Aqua Claudia was considerably shortened by
+the cutting of a tunnel 3 m. long under the Monte Affliano in the time
+of Domitian (T. Ashby, in <i>Papers of the British School at Rome</i>, iii,
+133).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4h" id="ft4h" href="#fa4h"><span class="fn">4</span></a> About 3 m. south-east of this point the presence of large
+quantities of deposit and a sudden fall in the level of the channels
+seems to indicate the existence of settling tanks, of which no actual
+traces can be seen.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AQUILA<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> <span class="grk" title="Akulas">&#902;&#954;&#973;&#955;&#945;&#962;</span>, (1) a Jew from Rome, who with his wife
+Prisca or Priscilla had settled in Corinth, where Paul stayed
+with them (Acts xviii. 2,3). They became Christians and fellow-workers
+with Paul, to whom they seem to have shown their
+devotion in some special way (Rom. xvi. 3, 4). (2) A native of
+Pontus, celebrated for a very literal and accurate translation of
+the Old Testament into Greek. Epiphanius (<i>De Pond. et Mens.</i>
+c. 15) preserves a tradition that he was a kinsman of the emperor
+Hadrian, who employed him in rebuilding Jerusalem (Aelia
+Capitolina, <i>q.v.</i>), and that he was converted to Christianity, but,
+on being reproved for practising pagan astrology, apostatized
+to Judaism. He is said also to have been a disciple of Rabbi
+&rsquo;Aqiba (d. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 132), and seems to be referred to in Jewish writings
+as <span title="akiles">&#1506;&#1511;&#1497;&#1500;&#1505;</span>. Aquila&rsquo;s version is said to have been used
+in place of the Septuagint in the synagogues. The Christians
+generally disliked it, alleging without due grounds that it rendered
+the Messianic passages incorrectly, but Jerome and Origen speak
+in its praise. Origen incorporated it in his <i>Hexapla</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>It was thought that this was the only copy extant, but in 1897
+fragments of two codices were brought to the Cambridge University
+Library. These have been published&mdash;the fragments containing
+1 Kings xx. 7-17; 2 Kings xxiii. 12-27 by F.C. Burkitt in 1897, those
+containing parts of Psalms xc.-ciii. by C. Taylor in 1899. See F.C.
+Burkitt&rsquo;s article in the <i>Jewish Encyclopaedia</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AQUILA, CASPAR<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Kaspar Adler</span>] (1488-1560), German
+reformer, was born at Augsburg on the 7th of August 1488,
+educated there and at Ulm (1502), in Italy (he met Erasmus in
+Rome), at Bern (1508), Leipzig (1510) and Wittenberg (1513).
+According to his son, he entered the ministry in August 1514,
+at Bern. He was for some time a military chaplain. In 1516
+he became pastor of Jenga, near Augsburg. Openly proclaiming
+his adhesion to Luther&rsquo;s doctrine, he was imprisoned for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>249</span>
+half a year (1520 or 1522) at Dillingen, by order of the bishop
+of Augsburg; a death sentence was commuted to banishment
+through the influence of Isabella, wife of Christian II. of
+Denmark and sister of Charles V. Returning to Wittenberg he
+met Luther, acted as tutor to the sons of Franz von Sickingen
+at Ebernburg, taught Hebrew at Wittenberg, and aided Luther
+in his version of the Old Testament. The dates and particulars
+of his career are uncertain till 1527, when he became pastor at
+Saalfeld, and in 1528, superintendent. His vehement opposition
+to the Augsburg Interim (1548) led him to take temporary
+shelter at Rudolstadt with Catherine, countess of Schwarzburg.
+In 1550 he was appointed dean of the Collegiatstift in
+Schmalkalden. Here he had a controversy with Andreas Osiander.
+Restored to Saalfeld, not without opposition, in 1552, he
+remained there, still engaged in controversy, till his death on
+the 12th of November 1560. He was twice married, and left
+four sons. He published numerous sermons, a few Old Testament
+expositions and some controversial tracts.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. Kawerau, in A. Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopadie</i> (1896); <i>Allgemeine
+deutsche Biog.</i> (1875); Lives by J. Avenarius (1718); J.G.
+Hillinger (1731); Chr. Schlegel (1737); Fr. Gensler (1816).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AQUILA, SERAFINO DELL&rsquo;<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1466-1500), Italian poet and
+improvisatore, was born in 1466 at the town of Aquila, from
+which he took his name, and died in the year 1500. He spent
+several years at the courts of Cardinal Sforza and Ferdinand,
+duke of Calabria; but his principal patrons were the Borgias
+at Rome, from whom he received many favours. Aquila seems
+to have aimed at an imitation of Dante and Petrarch; and his
+poems, which were extravagantly praised during the author&rsquo;s
+lifetime, are occasionally of considerable merit. His reputation
+was in great measure due to his remarkable skill as an
+improvisatore and musician. His works were printed at Venice in
+1502, and there have been several subsequent editions.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AQUILA,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> a city of the Abruzzi, Italy, the capital of the
+province of Aquila, and the seat of an archbishop, 2360 ft. above
+sea-level, 50 m. directly N.E. of Rome, and 145 m. by rail.
+Pop. (1901) town, 18,494; commune, 21,261. It lies on a hill
+in the wide valley of the Aterno, surrounded by mountains on
+all sides, the Gran Sasso d&rsquo;Italia being conspicuous on the
+north-east. It is a favourite summer resort of the Italians, but is
+cold and windy in winter. In the highest part of the town is
+the massive citadel, erected by the Spanish viceroy Don Pedro
+de Toledo in 1534. The church of S. Bernardino di Siena (1472)
+has a fine Renaissance façade by Nicolò Filotesio (commonly
+called Cola dell&rsquo; Amatrice), and contains the monumental tomb
+of the saint, decorated with beautiful sculptures, and executed
+by Silvestro Ariscola in 1480. The church of S. Maria di
+Collemaggio, just outside the town, has a very fine Romanesque
+façade of simple design (1270-1280) in red and white marble,
+with three finely decorated portals and a rose-window above
+each. The two side doors are also fine. The interior contains
+the mausoleum of Pope Celestine V. (d. 1296) erected in 1517.
+Many smaller churches in the town have similar façades (S.
+Giusta, S. Silvestro, &amp;c.). The town also contains some fine
+palaces: the municipality has a museum, with a collection of
+Roman inscriptions and some illuminated service books. The
+Palazzi Dragonetti and Persichetti contain private collections
+of pictures. Outside the town is the <i>Fontana delle novantanove
+cannelle</i>, a fountain with ninety-nine jets distributed along three
+walls, constructed in 1272. Aquila has some trade in lace and
+saffron, and possesses other smaller industries. It was a university
+town in the middle ages, but most of its chairs have now
+been suppressed.</p>
+
+<p>Aquila was founded by Conrad, son of the emperor
+Frederick II., about 1250, as a bulwark against the power of
+the papacy. It was destroyed by Manfred in 1259, but soon
+rebuilt by Charles I. of Anjou. Its walls were completed in 1316;
+and it maintained itself as an almost independent republic until
+it was subdued in 1521 by the Spaniards, who had become
+masters of the kingdom of Naples in 1503. It was twice sacked
+by the French in 1799.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See V. Bindi, <i>Monumenti storici ed artistici degli Abruzzi</i> (Naples,
+1889), pp. 771 seq.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AQUILA,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> in astronomy, the &ldquo;Eagle,&rdquo; sometimes named the
+&ldquo;Vulture,&rdquo; a constellation of the northern hemisphere, mentioned
+by Eudoxus (4th cent. <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and Aratus (3rd cent. <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).
+Ptolemy catalogued nineteen stars jointly in this constellation
+and in the constellation <i>Antinous</i>, which was named in the reign
+of the emperor Hadrian (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 117-138), but sometimes, and
+wrongly, attributed to Tycho Brahe, who catalogued twelve
+stars in Aquila and seven in Antinous; Hevelius determined
+twenty-three stars in the first, and nineteen in the second.
+The most brilliant star of this constellation, &alpha;-<i>Aquilae</i> or Altair,
+has a parallax of 0.23&Prime;, and consequently is about eight times as
+bright as the sun; <i>&eta;-Aquilae</i> is a short-period variable, while
+<i>Nova Aquilae</i> is a &ldquo;temporary&rdquo; or &ldquo;new&rdquo; star, discovered
+by Mrs Fleming of Harvard in 1899.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AQUILA ROMANUS,<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> a Latin grammarian who flourished
+in the second half of the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> He was the author
+of an extant treatise <i>De Figuris Sententiarum et Elocutionis</i>,
+written as an instalment of a complete rhetorical handbook for
+the use of a young and eager correspondent. While recommending
+Demosthenes and Cicero as models, he takes his own
+examples almost exclusively from Cicero. His treatise is really
+adapted from that by Alexander, son of Numenius, as is expressly
+stated by Julius Rufinianus, who brought out a supplementary
+treatise, augmented by material from other sources. Aquila&rsquo;s
+style is harsh and careless, and the Latin is inferior.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Halm, <i>Rhetores Latini minores</i> (1863); Wensch, <i>De Aquila Romano</i>
+(1861).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AQUILEIA,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> an ancient town of Italy, at the head of the
+Adriatic at the edge of the lagoons, about 6 m. from the sea, on
+the river Natiso (mod. Natisone), the course of which has changed
+somewhat since Roman times. It was founded by the Romans
+in 181 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> as a frontier fortress on the north-east, not far from
+the site where, two years before, Gaulish invaders had attempted
+to settle. The colony was led by two men of consular and one
+of praetorian rank, and 3000 <i>pedites</i> formed the bulk of the
+settlers. It was probably connected by road with Bononia in
+175 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; and subsequently with Genua in 148 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the Via
+Postumia, which ran through Cremona, Bedriacum and Altinum,
+joining the first-mentioned road at Concordia, while the
+construction of the Via Popilia from Ariminum to Ad Portum near
+Altinum in 132 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> improved the communications still further.
+In 169 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, 1500 more families were settled there as a
+reinforcement to the garrison. The discovery of the goldfields near
+the modern Klagenfurt in 150 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Strabo iv. 208) brought
+it into notice, and it soon became a place of importance, not
+only owing to its strategic position, but as a centre of trade,
+especially in agricultural products. It also had, in later times
+at least, considerable brickfields. It was originally a Latin
+colony, but became a <i>municipium</i> probably in 90 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The
+customs boundary of Italy was close by in Cicero&rsquo;s day. It was
+plundered by the Iapydes under Augustus, but, in the period
+of peace which followed, was able to develop its resources.
+Augustus visited it during the Pannonian wars in 12-10 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+and it was the birthplace of Tiberius&rsquo;s son by Julia, in the latter
+year. It was the starting-point of several important roads leading
+to the north-eastern portion of the empire&mdash;the road (Via
+Iulia Augusta) by Iulium Carnicum to Veldidena (mod. Wilten,
+near Innsbruck), from which branched off the road into Noricum,
+leading by Virunum (Klagenfurt) to Lauricum (Lorch) on the
+Danube, the road into Pannonia, leading to Emona (Laibach)<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+and Sirmium (Mitrowitz), the road to Tarsatica (near Fiume)
+and Siscia (Sissek), and that to Tergeste (Trieste) and the
+Istrian coast.</p>
+
+<p>In the war against the Marcomanni in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 167, the town
+was hard pressed; the fortifications had fallen into disrepair
+during the long peace. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 238, when the town took the
+side of the senate against the emperor Maximinus, they were
+hastily restored, and proved of sufficient strength to resist for
+several months, until Maximinus himself was assassinated.
+The 4th century marks, however, the greatest importance of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page250" id="page250"></a>250</span>
+Aquileia; it became a naval station and, probably, the seat of
+the <i>corrector Venetiarum et Histriae</i>; a mint was established here,
+the coins of which are very numerous, and the bishop obtained
+the rank of patriarch. An imperial palace was constructed here,
+in which the emperors after the time of Diocletian frequently
+resided; and the city often played a part in the struggles
+between the rulers of the 4th century. At the end of the century,
+Ausonius enumerated it as the ninth among the great cities of
+the world, placing Rome, Mediolanum and Capua before it, and
+called it &ldquo;moenibus et portu celeberrima.&rdquo; In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 452, however,
+it was destroyed by Attila, though it continued to exist
+until the Lombard invasion of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 568. After this the patriarchate
+was transferred to Grado. In 606 the diocese was
+divided into two parts, and the patriarchate of Aquileia, protected
+by the Lombards, was revived, that of Grado being
+protected by the exarch of Ravenna and later by the doges of
+Venice. In 1027 and 1044 Patriarch Poppo of Aquileia entered
+and sacked Grado, and, though the pope reconfirmed the patriarch
+of the latter in his dignities, the town never recovered,
+though it continued to be the seat of the patriarchate until its
+formal transference to Venice in 1450. The seat of the patriarchate
+of Aquileia had been transferred to Udine in 1238, but
+returned in 1420 when Venice annexed the territory of Udine.
+It was finally suppressed in 1751, and the sees of Udine and
+Gorizia (Görz) established in its stead. Its buildings served as
+stone quarries for centuries, and no edifices of the Roman period
+remain above ground. Excavations have revealed one street
+and the north-west angle of the town walls, while the local
+museum contains over 2000 inscriptions, besides statues and
+other antiquities. The cathedral, a flat-roofed basilica, was
+erected by Patriarch Poppo in 1031 on the site of an earlier
+church, and rebuilt about 1379 in the Gothic style by Patriarch
+Marquad. The narthex and baptistery belong to an earlier
+period. Of the palace of the patriarchs only two isolated
+columns remain standing. The modern village (pop. 2300) is
+rendered unhealthy by rice-fields.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See T.W. Jackson, <i>Dalmatia, Istria and the Quarnero</i> (Oxford,
+1887), iii. 377 seq.; H. Maionica, <i>Aquileia zur Romerzeit</i> (Görz,
+1881), <i>Fundkarte van Aquileia</i> (Görz, 1893), &ldquo;Inschriften in Grado&rdquo;
+(Roman inscriptions removed thither from Aquileia) in <i>Jahreshefte
+des Österr. Arch. Instituts</i>, i. (1898), Beiblatt, 83, 125.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This road is described in detail by O. Cuntz in <i>Jahreshefte des
+Österr. Arch. Inst.</i> v. (1902), Beiblatt, pp. 139 seq.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AQUILLIUS, MANIUS,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> Roman general, consul in 101 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+He successfully put down a revolt of the slaves under Athenion
+in Sicily. After his return, being accused of extortion, he was
+acquitted on account of his military services, although there
+was little doubt of his guilt. In 88 he acted as legate against
+Mithradates the Great, by whom he was defeated and taken
+prisoner. Mithradates treated him with great cruelty, and is
+said to have put him to death by pouring molten gold down his
+throat.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Diodorus Siculus xxxvi. 3; Appian, <i>Mithrid</i>. ii. 17. 21; Vell.
+Paterculus ii. 18; Cicero, <i>Verres</i>, iii. 54, <i>De Officiis</i>, ii. 14, <i>Tusc</i>.
+v. 5.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AQUINAS, THOMAS<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Thomas of Aquin</span> or <span class="sc">Aquino</span>], (<i>c.</i> 1227-1274),
+scholastic philosopher, known as <i>Doctor Angelicus, Doctor
+Universalis</i>, was of noble descent, and nearly allied to several of
+the royal houses of Europe. He was born in 1225 or 1227, at
+Roccasecca, the castle of his father Landulf, count of Aquino,
+in the territories of Naples. Having received his elementary
+education at the monastery of Monte Cassino, he studied for six
+years at the university of Naples, leaving it in his sixteenth year.
+While there he probably came under the influence of the Dominicans,
+who were doing their utmost to enlist within their ranks
+the ablest young scholars of the age, for in spite of the opposition
+of his family, which was overcome only by the intervention of
+Pope Innocent IV., he assumed the habit of St Dominic in his
+seventeenth year.</p>
+
+<p>His superiors, seeing his great aptitude for theological study,
+sent him to the Dominican school in Cologne, where Albertus
+Magnus was lecturing on philosophy and theology. In 1245
+Albertus was called to Paris, and there Aquinas followed him,
+and remained with him for three years, at the end of which he
+graduated as bachelor of theology. In 1248 he returned to
+Cologne with Albertus, and was appointed second lecturer and
+<i>magister studentium</i>. This year may be taken as the beginning
+of his literary activity and public life. Before he left Paris he
+had thrown himself with ardour into the controversy raging
+between the university and the Friar-Preachers respecting the
+liberty of teaching, resisting both by speeches and pamphlets the
+authorities of the university; and when the dispute was referred
+to the pope, the youthful Aquinas was chosen to defend his
+order, which he did with such success as to overcome the arguments
+of Guillaume de St Amour, the champion of the university,
+and one of the most celebrated men of the day. In 1257, along
+with his friend Bonaventura, he was created doctor of theology,
+and began to give courses of lectures upon this subject in Paris,
+and also in Rome and other towns in Italy. From this time
+onwards his life was one of incessant toil; he was continually
+engaged in the active service of his order, was frequently travelling
+upon long and tedious journeys, and was constantly consulted
+on affairs of state by the reigning pontiff.</p>
+
+<p>In 1263 we find him at the chapter of the Dominican order
+held in London. In 1268 he was lecturing now in Rome and
+now in Bologna, all the while engaged in the public business of
+the church. In 1271 he was again in Paris, lecturing to the
+students, managing the affairs of the church and consulted by
+the king, Louis VIII., his kinsman, on affairs of state. In 1272
+the commands of the chief of his order and the request of King
+Charles brought him back to the professor&rsquo;s chair at Naples.
+All this time he was preaching every day, writing homilies,
+disputations, lectures, and finding time to work hard at his great
+work the <i>Summa Theologiae</i>. Such rewards as the church could
+bestow had been offered to him. He refused the archbishopric of
+Naples and the abbacy of Monte Cassino. In January 1274 he
+was summoned by Pope Gregory X. to attend the council convened
+at Lyons, to investigate and if possible settle the differences
+between the Greek and Latin churches. Though suffering from
+illness, he at once set out on the journey; finding his strength
+failing on the way, he was carried to the Cistercian monastery of
+Fossa Nuova, in the diocese of Terracina, where, after a lingering
+illness of seven weeks, he died on the 7th of March 1274, Dante
+(<i>Purg</i>. xx. 69) asserts that he was poisoned by order of Charles
+of Anjou. Villani (ix. 218) quotes the belief, and the <i>Anonimo
+Fiorentino</i> describes the crime and its motive. But Muratori,
+reproducing the account given by one of Thomas&rsquo;s friends,
+gives no hint of foul play. Aquinas was canonized in 1323 by
+Pope John XXII., and in 1567 Pius V. ranked the festival of St
+Thomas with those of the four great Latin fathers, Ambrose,
+Augustine, Jerome and Gregory. No theologian save Augustine
+has had an equal influence on the theological thought and
+language of the Western Church, a fact which was strongly
+emphasized by Leo XIII. (<i>q.v.</i>) in his <i>Encyclical</i> of August 4,
+1879, which directed the clergy to take the teachings of Aquinas
+as the basis of their theological position. In 1880 he was declared
+patron of all Roman Catholic educational establishments. In a
+monastery at Naples, near the cathedral of St Januarius, is still
+shown a cell in which he is said to have lived.</p>
+
+<p>The writings of Thomas are of great importance for philosophy
+as well as for theology, for by nature and education he is the spirit
+of scholasticism incarnate. The principles on which his system
+rested were these. He held that there were two sources of
+knowledge&mdash;the mysteries of Christian faith and the truths of
+human reason. The distinction between these two was made
+emphatic by Aquinas, who is at pains, especially in his treatise
+<i>Contra Gentiles</i>, to make it plain that each is a distinct fountain
+of knowledge, but that revelation is the more important of the
+two. Revelation is a source of knowledge, rather than the
+manifestation in the world of a divine life, and its chief characteristic
+is that it presents men with mysteries, which are to be
+believed even when they cannot be understood. Revelation is
+not Scripture alone, for Scripture taken by itself does not correspond
+exactly with his description; nor is it church tradition
+alone, for church tradition must so far rest on Scripture. Revelation
+is a divine source of knowledge, of which Scripture and
+church tradition are the channels; and he who would rightly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page251" id="page251"></a>251</span>
+understand theology must familiarize himself with Scripture,
+the teachings of the fathers, and the decisions of councils, in such
+a way as to be able to make part of himself, as it were, those
+channels along which this divine knowledge flowed. Aquinas&rsquo;s
+conception of reason is in some way parallel with his conception
+of revelation. Reason is in his idea not the individual reason,
+but the fountain of natural truth, whose chief channels are the
+various systems of heathen philosophy, and more especially the
+thoughts of Plato and the methods of Aristotle. Reason and
+revelation are separate sources of knowledge; and man can put
+himself in possession of each, because he can bring himself into
+relation to the church on the one hand, and the system of philosophy,
+or more strictly Aristotle, on the other. The conception
+will be made clearer when it is remembered that Aquinas, taught
+by the mysterious author of the writings of the pseudo-Dionysius,
+who so marvellously influenced medieval writers, sometimes
+spoke of a natural revelation, or of reason as a source of truths
+in themselves mysterious, and was always accustomed to say
+that reason as well as revelation contained two kinds of knowledge.
+The first kind lay quite beyond the power of man to
+receive it, the second was within man&rsquo;s reach. In reason, as in
+revelation, man can only attain to the lower kind of knowledge;
+there is a higher kind which we may not hope to reach.</p>
+
+<p>But while reason and revelation are two distinct sources
+of truths, the truths are not contradictory; for in the last
+resort they rest on <i>one</i> absolute truth&mdash;they come from the one
+source of knowledge, God, the Absolute One. Hence arises the
+compatibility of philosophy and theology which was the fundamental
+axiom of scholasticism, and the possibility of a Summa
+Theologiae, which is a Summa Philosophiae as well. All the
+many writings of Thomas are preparatory to his great work the
+<i>Summa Theologiae</i>, and show us the progress of his mind training
+for this his life work. In the <i>Summa Catholicae Fidei contra
+Gentiles</i> he shows how a Christian theology is the sum and crown
+of all science. This work is in its design apologetic, and is meant
+to bring within the range of Christian thought all that is of value
+in Mahommedan science. He carefully establishes the necessity
+of revelation as a source of knowledge, not merely because it
+aids us in comprehending in a somewhat better way the truths
+already furnished by reason, as some of the Arabian philosophers
+and Maimonides had acknowledged, but because it is the absolute
+source of our knowledge of the mysteries of the Christian faith;
+and then he lays down the relations to be observed between
+reason and revelation, between philosophy and theology. This
+work, <i>Contra Gentiles</i>, may be taken as an elaborate exposition
+of the method of Aquinas. That method, however, implied a
+careful study and comprehension of the results which accrued
+to man from reason and revelation, and a thorough grasp of
+all that had been done by man in relation to those two sources
+of human knowledge; and so, in his preliminary writings,
+Thomas proceeds to master the two provinces. The results of
+revelation he found in the Holy Scriptures and in the writings
+of the fathers and the great theologians of the church; and
+his method was to proceed backwards. He began with
+Peter of Lombardy (who had reduced to theological order, in
+his famous book on the <i>Sentences</i>, the various authoritative
+statements of the church upon doctrine) in his <i>In Quatuor
+Sententiarum P. Lombardi libros</i>. Then came his deliverances
+upon undecided points in theology, in his <i>XII. Quodlibeta
+Disputata</i>, and his <i>Quaestiones Disputatae</i>. His <i>Catena Aurea</i>
+next appeared, which, under the form of a commentary on the
+Gospels, was really an exhaustive summary of the theological
+teaching of the greatest of the church fathers. This side of his
+preparation was finished by a close study of Scripture, the
+results of which are contained in his commentaries, <i>In omnes
+Epistolas Dim Apostoli Expositio</i>, his <i>Super Isaiam et Jeremiam</i>,
+and his <i>In Psalmos</i>. Turning now to the other side, we have
+evidence, not only from tradition but from his writings, that
+he was acquainted with Plato and the mystical Platonists;
+but he had the sagacity to perceive that Aristotle was <i>the</i> great
+representative of philosophy, and that his writings contained
+the best results and method which the natural reason had as yet
+attained to. Accordingly Aquinas prepared himself on this side
+by commentaries on Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>De Interpretatione</i>, on his <i>Posterior
+Analytics</i>, on the <i>Metaphysics</i>, the <i>Physics</i>, the <i>De Anima</i>, and
+on Aristotle&rsquo;s other psychological and physical writings, each
+commentary having for its aim to lay hold of the material and
+grasp the method contained and employed in each treatise.
+Fortified by this exhaustive preparation, Aquinas began his
+<i>Summa Theologiae</i>, which he intended to be the sum of all known
+learning, arranged according to the best method, and subordinate
+to the dictates of the church. Practically it came to be
+the theological dicta of the church, explained according to the
+philosophy of Aristotle and his Arabian commentators. The
+<i>Summa</i> is divided into three great parts, which shortly may be
+said to treat of God, Man and the God-Man. The first and the
+second parts are wholly the work of Aquinas, but of the third
+part only the first ninety quaestiones are his; the rest of it was
+finished in accordance with his designs. The first book, after
+a short introduction upon the nature of theology as understood
+by Aquinas, proceeds in 119 questions to discuss the nature,
+attributes and relations of God; and this is not done as in a
+modern work on theology, but the questions raised in the physics
+of Aristotle find a place alongside of the statements of Scripture,
+while all subjects in any way related to the central theme are
+brought into the discourse. The second part is divided into
+two, which are quoted as <i>Prima Secundae</i> and <i>Secunda Secundae</i>.
+This second part has often been described as ethic, but this is
+scarcely true. The subject is man, treated as Aristotle does,
+according to his <span class="grk" title="telos">&#964;&#941;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, and so Aquinas discusses all the ethical,
+psychological and theological questions which arise; but any
+theological discussion upon man must be mainly ethical, and so
+a great proportion of the first part, and almost the whole of the
+second, has to do with ethical questions. In his ethical discussions
+(a full account of which is given under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethics</a></span>) Aquinas
+distinguishes theological from natural virtues and vices; the
+theological virtues are faith, hope and charity; the natural,
+justice, prudence and the like. The theological virtues are
+founded on faith, in opposition to the natural, which are founded
+on reason; and as faith with Aquinas is always belief in a proposition,
+not trust in a personal Saviour, conformably with his
+idea that revelation is a new knowledge rather than a new life,
+the relation of unbelief to virtue is very strictly and narrowly
+laid down and enforced. The third part of the <i>Summa</i> is also
+divided into two parts, but by accident rather than by design.
+Aquinas died ere he had finished his great work, and what has
+been added to complete the scheme is appended as a <i>Supplementum
+Tertiae Partis</i>. In this third part Aquinas discusses
+the person, office and work of Christ, and had begun to discuss
+the sacraments, when death put an end to his labours.</p>
+
+<p>The purely philosophical theories of Aquinas are explained
+in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scholasticism</a></span>. In connexion with the problem
+of universals, he held that the diversity of individuals depends
+on the quantitative division of matter (<i>materia signata</i>), and
+in this way he attracted the criticism of the Scotists, who pointed
+out that this very matter is individual and determinate, and,
+therefore, itself requires explanation. In general, Aquinas
+maintained in different senses the real existence of universals
+<i>ante rem</i>, <i>in re</i> and <i>post rem</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best modern edition of the works of Aquinas is that prepared
+at the expense of Leo XIII. (Rome, 1882-1903). The Abbé Migne
+published a very useful edition of the <i>Summa Theologiae</i>, in four 8vo
+vols., as an appendix to his <i>Patrologiae Cursus Completus</i>; English
+editions, J. Rickaby (London, 1872), J.M. Ashley (London, 1888).
+See <i>Acta Sanct</i>., vii. Martii; A. Touron, <i>La Vie de St Thomas d&rsquo;Aquin,
+avec un exposé de sa doctrine et de ses ouvrages</i> (Paris, 1737); Karl
+Werner, <i>Der Heilige Thomas van Aquino</i> (1858); and R.B. Vaughan,
+<i>St Thomas of Aquin, his Life and Labours</i> (London, 1872): other lives
+by P. Cavanagh (London, 1890); E. Desmousseaux de Giuré (Paris,
+1888); M. Didot (Louvain, 1894). For the philosophy of Aquinas,
+see Albert Stöckl, <i>Geschichte der Philosophie des Mittelalters</i>, ii.;
+B. Hauréau, <i>De la philosophie scolastique</i>, vol. ii.; J. Frohschammer,
+<i>Die Philos. d. Th. van A</i>. (Leipzig, 1889); K. Prantl, <i>Geschichte d.
+Logik</i>, vol. iii.; C.M. Schneider, <i>Natur, Vernunft, Gott</i> (Regensburg,
+1883), <i>Das Wissen Gottes nach d. Lehre des Th. v. A</i>. (4 vols. Regensburg,
+1884-1886), <i>Die socialistische Staatsidee beleuchtet durch Th.
+v. A</i>. (Paderborn, 1894); A. Harnack, <i>Hist, of Dogma</i> (trans. Wm.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page252" id="page252"></a>252</span>
+Gilchrist, London, 1899); Ueberweg&rsquo;s <i>History of Philosophy</i>, vol. i.
+See also H.C. O&rsquo;Neill, <i>New Things and Old in St Thomas Aquinas</i>
+(1909), with biography.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. M. L.; J. M. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AQUINO,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> a town and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, in the
+province of Caserta; it is 56 m. N.W. by rail from the town
+of Caserta, and 7½ m. N.W. of Cassino. Pop. (1901) 2672. The
+modern town, close to the ancient, is unimportant, though the
+canons of the cathedral have the privilege of wearing the mitre
+and <i>cappa magna</i> at great festivals. It is close to the site of the
+ancient Aquinum, a <i>municipium</i> in the time of Cicero, and made
+a colony by the Triumviri, the birthplace of Juvenal and of the
+emperor Pescennius Niger. The Via Latina traversed it; one
+of the gates through which it passed, now called Porta S. Lorenzo,
+is still well preserved, and there are remains within the walls
+(portions of which, built of large blocks of limestone, still remain)
+of two (so called) temples, a basilica and an amphitheatre (see
+R. Delbrück in <i>Röm. Mitteilungen</i>, 1903, p. 143). Outside, on the
+south is a well-preserved triumphal arch with composite capitals,
+and close to it the 11th-century basilica of S. Maria Libera, a
+handsome building in the Romanesque style, but now roofless.
+Several Roman inscriptions are built into it, and many others
+that have been found indicate the ancient importance of the place,
+which, though it does not appear in early history, is vouched for
+by Cicero and Strabo.<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> A colony was planted here by the Triumviri.
+St Thomas Aquinas was born in the castle of Roccasecca, 5 m. N.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. Grossi, <i>Aquinum</i> (Rome, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> According to H. Nissen, <i>Ital. Landeskunde</i> (Berlin, 1902), ii. 665,
+a road ran from here to Minturnae; but no traces of it are to be
+seen.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">AQUITAINE,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> the name of an ancient province in France, the
+extent of which has varied considerably from time to time.
+About the time of Julius Caesar the name <i>Aquitania</i> was given
+to that part of Gaul lying between the Pyrenees and the Garonne,
+and its inhabitants were a race, or races, distinct from the Celts.
+The name Aquitania is probably a form of Auscetani, which in
+its turn is a lengthened form of Ausces, and is thus cognate with
+the words Basque and Wasconia, <i>i.e.</i> Gascony. Although many
+of the tribes of Aquitania submitted to Julius Caesar, it was not
+until about 28 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> that the district was brought under the
+Roman yoke. In keeping with the Roman policy of denationalization,
+the term Aquitania was extended, and under Augustus
+it included the whole of Gaul south and west of the Loire and
+the Allier, and thus ceased to possess ethnographical importance.
+In the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> this larger Aquitania was divided into
+three parts: <i>Aquitania Prima</i>, the eastern part of the district
+between the Loire and the Garonne; <i>Aquitania Secunda</i>, the
+western part of the same district; and <i>Aquitania Tertia</i>, or
+<i>Novempopulana</i>, the region between the Garonne and the
+Pyrenees, or the original Aquitania. The seats of government
+were respectively Bourges, Bordeaux and Eauze; the province
+contained twenty-six cities, and was in the diocese of Vienne.
+Like the rest of Gaul, Aquitania absorbed a large measure of
+Roman civilization, and this continued to distinguish the district
+down to a late period. In the 5th century the Visigoths
+established themselves in Aquitania Secunda, and also in parts
+of Aquitania Prima and Novempopulana, but after the defeat
+of their king Alaric II. by the Franks under Clovis in 507, they
+were supplanted by their conquerors. Clovis and his successors
+extended their authority nominally to the Pyrenees, but, as
+Guizot has remarked, &ldquo;the conquest of Aquitania by Clovis left
+it almost as alien to the people and king of Franks as it had
+formerly been.&rdquo; Subsequently during the Merovingian period
+it was contended for by the feeble rulers of the various Frankish
+kingdoms, and was frequently partitioned among them; but
+the Aquitanians had little difficulty in effectually resisting this
+authority, although they did not establish themselves as a separate
+kingdom. About 628, indeed, they gathered around Charibert,
+or Haribert, a brother of the Frankish king, Dagobert I., in the
+hope of national independence; but after his death in 630 they
+returned to their former condition. But this effort, although
+a failure, brought about a certain measure of concord between
+the two principal races inhabiting the district, and so prepared
+the way for the stubborn resistance which, subsequently, the
+Aquitanians were able to offer to the Franks.</p>
+
+<p>The first line of dukes began about 660 with one Felix, who,
+like his successor, Lupus, probably owned allegiance to the
+Frankish kings, and whose seat of government was Toulouse.
+About the end of the 7th century an adventurer named Odo,
+or Eudes, made himself master of this region. Attacked by the
+Saracens he inflicted on them a crushing defeat, but when they
+reappeared, he was obliged to invoke the aid of Charles Martel,
+who, as the price of his support, claimed and received the homage
+of his ally. Odo was succeeded by his son Hunald, who after
+carrying on a war against the Franks under Pippin the Short,
+retired to a convent, leaving both the kingdom and the conflict
+to Waifer, or Guaifer. For some years Waifer strenuously
+carried on an unequal struggle with the Franks, but he was
+assassinated in 768, and with him perished the national independence,
+although not the national individuality, of the
+Aquitanians. In 781 Charlemagne bestowed Aquitaine upon his
+young son, Louis, and as Louis was generally described as a
+king, Aquitaine is referred to during the Carolingian period
+as a kingdom, and not as a duchy. When Louis succeeded
+Charlemagne as emperor in 814, he granted Aquitaine to his
+son Pippin, on whose death in 838 the Aquitanians chose his
+son Pippin II. (d. 865) as their king. The emperor Louis I.,
+however, opposed this arrangement and gave the kingdom to
+his youngest son Charles, afterwards the emperor Charles the
+Bald. Now followed a time of confusion and conflict which
+resulted eventually in the success of Charles, although from
+845 to 852 Pippin was in possession of the kingdom. In 852
+Pippin was imprisoned by Charles the Bald, who soon afterwards
+gave to the Aquitanians his own son Charles as their king.
+On the death of the younger Charles in 866, his brother Louis
+the Stammerer succeeded to the kingdom, and when, in 877,
+Louis became king of the Franks, Aquitaine was united to the
+Frankish crown.</p>
+
+<p>A new period now begins in the history of Aquitaine. By a
+treaty made in 845 between Charles the Bald and Pippin II.
+the kingdom had been diminished by the loss of Poitou, Saintonge
+and Angoumois, which had been given to Rainulf I., count
+of Poitiers. Somewhat earlier than this date the title of duke
+of the Aquitanians had been revived, and this was now borne
+by Rainulf, although it was also claimed by the counts of
+Toulouse. The new duchy of Aquitaine, comprising the three districts
+already mentioned, remained in the hands of Rainulf&rsquo;s
+successors, in spite of some trouble with their Frankish overlords,
+until 893 when Count Rainulf II. was poisoned by order
+of King Charles III. the Simple. Charles then bestowed the
+duchy upon William the Pious, count of Auvergne, the founder
+of the abbey of Cluny, who was succeeded in 918 by his nephew,
+Count William II., who died in 926. A succession of dukes
+followed, one of whom, William IV., fought against Hugh Capet,
+king of France, and another of whom, William V., called the
+Great, was able considerably to strengthen and extend his
+authority, although he failed in his attempt to secure the Lombard
+crown. William&rsquo;s duchy almost reached the limits of
+the Roman Aquitania Prima and Secunda, but did not stretch
+south of the Garonne, a district which was in the possession
+of the Gascons. William died in 1030, and the names of
+William VI. (d. 1038), Odo or Eudes (d. 1039), who joined Gascony
+to his duchy, William VII. and William VIII. bring us down to
+William IX. (d. 1127), who succeeded in 1087, and made himself
+famous as a crusader and a troubadour. William X. (d. 1137)
+married his daughter Eleanor to Louis VII., king of France,
+and Aquitaine went as her dowry. When Eleanor was divorced
+from Louis and was married in 1152 to Henry II. of England
+the duchy passed to her new husband, who, having suppressed
+a revolt there, gave it to his son Richard. When Richard died
+in 1199, it reverted to Eleanor, and on her death five years later,
+was united to the English crown and henceforward followed
+the fortunes of the English possessions in France. Aquitaine
+as it came to the English kings stretched as of old from the
+Loire to the Pyrenees, but its extent was curtailed on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page253" id="page253"></a>253</span>
+south-east by the wide lands of the counts of Toulouse. The name
+Guienne, a corruption of Aquitaine, seems to have come into
+use about the 10th century, and the subsequent history of
+Aquitaine is merged in that of Gascony (<i>q.v.</i>) and Guienne (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. Desjardins, <i>Géographie historique el administrative de la
+Gaule romaine</i> (Paris, 1876, 93); A. Luchaire, <i>Les Origines linguistiques
+de l&rsquo;Aquitaine</i> (Paris, 1877); A. Longnon, <i>Géographie de la
+Gaule au VI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1876); A. Perroud, <i>Les Origines du
+premier duché d&rsquo;Aquitaine</i> (Paris, 1881); and E. Mabille, <i>Le Royaume
+d&rsquo;Aquitaine et ses marches sous les Carlovingiens</i> (Paris, 1870).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARABESQUE,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> a word meaning simply &ldquo;Arabian,&rdquo; but
+technically used for a certain form of decorative design in
+flowing lines intertwined; hence comes the more metaphorical
+use of this word, whether in nature or in morals, indicating a
+fantastic or complicated interweaving of lines against a background.
+In decorative design the term is historically a
+misnomer. It is applied to the grotesque decoration derived from
+Roman remains of the early time of the empire, not to any style
+derived from Arabian or Moorish work. Arabesque and Moresque
+are really distinct; the latter is from the Arabian style of ornament,
+developed by the Byzantine Greeks for their new masters,
+after the conquests of the followers of Mahomet; and the former
+is a term pretty well restricted to varieties of cinquecento decoration,
+which have nothing in common with any Arabian
+examples in their details, but are a development derived from
+Greek and Roman grotesque designs, such as we find them in
+the remains of ancient palaces at Rome, and in ancient houses
+at Pompeii. These were reproduced by Raphael and his pupils
+in the decoration of some of the corridors of the Loggie of the
+Vatican at Rome: grotesque is thus a better name for these
+decorations than Arabesque. This technical Arabesque, therefore,
+is much more ancient than any Arabian or Moorish decoration,
+and has really nothing in common with it except the mere
+symmetrical principles of its arrangement. Pliny and Vitruvius
+give us no name for the extravagant decorative wall-painting
+in vogue in their time, to which the early Italian revivers of it
+seem to have given the designation of grotesque, because it, was
+first discovered in the arched or underground chambers (<i>grotte</i>)
+of Roman ruins&mdash;as in the golden house of Nero, or the baths of
+Titus. What really took place in the Italian revival was in some
+measure a supplanting of the Arabesque for the classical
+grotesque, still retaining the original Arabian designation, while
+the genuine Arabian art, the Saracenic, was distinguished as
+Moresque or Moorish. So it is now the original Arabesque that
+is called by its specific names of Saracenic, Moorish and Alhambresque,
+while the term Arabesque is applied exclusively to the
+style developed from the debased classical grotesque of the
+Roman empire.</p>
+
+<p>There is still much of the genuine Saracenic element in Renaissance
+Arabesques, especially in that selected for book-borders
+and for silver-work, the details of which consist largely of the
+conventional Saracenic foliations. But the Arabesque developed
+in the Italian cinquecento work repudiated all the original
+Arabian elements and devices, and limited itself to the manipulating
+of the classical elements, of which the most prominent
+feature is ever the floriated or foliated scroll; and it is in this
+cinquecento decoration, whether in sculpture or in painting,
+that <i>Arabesque</i> has been perfected.</p>
+
+<p>In the Saracenic, as the elder sister of the two styles, which
+was ingeniously developed by the Byzantine Greek artists for their
+Arabian masters in the early times of Mahommedan conquest,
+every natural object was proscribed; the artists were, therefore,
+reduced to making symmetrical designs from forms which should
+have no positive meaning; yet the Byzantine Greeks, who were
+Christians, managed to work even their own ecclesiastical
+symbols, in a disguised manner, into their tracery and diapers;
+as the lily, for instance. The cross was not so introduced; this,
+of course, was inadmissible; but neither was the crescent ever
+introduced into any of this early work in Damascus or Cairo.
+The crescent was itself not a Mahommedan device till after the
+conquest of Constantinople in 1453 <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The crescent, as the
+new moon, was the symbol of Byzantium; and it was only after
+that capital of the Eastern empire fell into the hands of the Turks
+that this symbol was adopted by them. The crescent and the
+cross became antagonist standards, therefore, first in the 15th
+century. And the crescent is not an element of original Moorish
+decoration.</p>
+
+<p>The Alhambra diapers and original Majolica (Majorca) ware
+afford admirable specimens of genuine Saracenic or Moorish
+decoration. A conventional floriage is common in these diapers;
+tracery also is a great feature in this work, in geometrical combinations,
+whether rectilinear or curvilinear; and the designs
+are rich in colour; idolatry was in the reproduction of natural
+forms, not in the fanciful combination of natural colours. These
+curves and angles, therefore, or interlacings, chiefly in stucco,
+constitute the prominent elements of an Arabian ornamental
+design, combining also Arabic inscriptions; composed of a mass
+of foliation or floral forms conventionally disguised, as the exclusion
+of all natural images was the fundamental principle of
+the style in its purity. The Alhambra displays almost endless
+specimens of this peculiar work, all in relief, highly coloured,
+and profusely enriched with gold. The mosque of Tulun, in
+Cairo, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 876, the known work of a Greek, affords the
+completest example of this art in its early time; and Sicily
+contains many remains of this same exquisite Saracenic
+decoration.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the genuine Arabesque of the Arabs, but a very
+different style of design is implied by the Arabesque of the
+cinquecento, a purely classical ornamentation. This owes its
+origin to the excavation and recovery of ancient monuments,
+and was developed chiefly by the sculptors of the north, and the
+painters of central Italy; by the Lombardi of Venice, by
+Agostino Busti of Milan, by Bramante of Urbino, by Raphael,
+by Giulio Romano, and others of nearly equal merit. Very
+beautiful examples in sculpture of this cinquecento Arabesque
+are found in the churches of Venice, Verona and Brescia; in
+painting, the most complete specimens are those of the Vatican
+Loggie, and the Villa Madama at Rome and the ducal palaces
+at Mantua. The Vatican Arabesques, chiefly executed for
+Raphael by Giulio Romano, Gian Francesco Penni, and Giovanni
+da Udine, though beautiful as works of painting, are often
+very extravagant in their composition, ludicrous and sometimes
+aesthetically offensive; as are also many of the decorations of
+Pompeii. The main features of these designs are balanced
+scrolls in panels; or standards variously composed, but symmetrically
+scrolled on either side, and on the tendrils of these
+scrolls are suspended or placed birds and animals, human figures
+and chimeras, of any or all kinds, or indeed any objects that may
+take the fancy of the artist. The most perfect specimens of
+cinquecento Arabesque are certainly found in sculpture. As
+specimens of exquisite work may be mentioned the Martinengo
+tomb, in the church of the Padri Riformati at Brescia, and the
+façade of the church of Santa Maria del Miracoli there, by
+the Lombardi; and many of the carvings of the Château de
+Gaillon, France&mdash;all of which fairly illustrate the beauties and
+capabilities of the style.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also Wornum, <i>Analysis of Ornament</i> (1874).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. W.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARABGIR,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Arabkir</span> (Byz. <i>Arabraces</i>), a town of Turkey
+in Asia in the Mamuret el-Aziz or Kharput vilayet, situated
+near the confluence of the eastern and western Euphrates, but
+some miles from the right bank of the combined streams. Pop.
+about 20,000, of which the larger half is Mussulman. It is connected
+with Sivas by a <i>chaussée</i>, prolonged to the Euphrates.
+The inhabitants are enterprising and prosperous, many of them
+leaving their native city to push their fortunes elsewhere, while
+of those that remain the greater part is employed in the manufacture
+of silk and cotton goods, or in the production of fruit.
+The present town was built at a comparatively recent date;
+but about 2 m. north-east is the old town, now called Eski-Shehr,
+given (<i>c.</i> 1021) to Senekherim of Armenia by the emperor Basil II.
+It contains the ruins of a castle and of several Seljuk mosques.
+The Armenian population suffered severely during the massacres
+of 1895.</p>
+<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page254" id="page254"></a>254</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARABIA,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> a peninsula in the south-west of Asia, lying between
+34º 30&prime; and 12º 45&prime; N., and 32º 30&prime; and 60º E., is bounded W.
+by the Red Sea, S. by the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean,
+and E. by the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf. Its northern
+or land boundary is more difficult to define; most authorities,
+however, agree in taking it from El Arish on the Mediterranean,
+along the southern border of Palestine, between the Dead Sea
+and the Gulf of Akaba, then bending northwards along the Syrian
+border nearly to Tadmur, thence eastwards to the edge of the
+Euphrates valley near Anah, and thence south-east to the
+mouth of the Shat el Arab at the head of the Persian Gulf,&mdash;the
+boundary so defined includes the northern desert, which
+belongs geographically to Arabia rather than to Syria; while
+on the same grounds lower Mesopotamia and Irak, although
+occupied by an Arab population, are excluded.</p>
+
+<p>In shape, the peninsula forms a rough trapezium, with its
+greatest length from north-west to south-east. The length of its
+western side from Port Said to Aden is 1500 m.; its base from
+the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb (or Bab al Mandab) to Ras el Had
+is 1300 m., its northern side from Port Said to the Euphrates
+600 m.; its total area approximately 1,200,000 sq. m.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Geography</p>
+
+<p><i>General Features.</i>&mdash;In general terms Arabia may be described
+as a plateau sloping gently from south-west to north-east, and
+attaining its greatest elevation in the extreme south-west.
+The western escarpment of the plateau rises steeply from the
+Red Sea littoral to a height of from 4000 to 8000 ft., leaving a
+narrow belt of lowland rarely exceeding 30 m. in width between
+the shore and the foot-hills. On the north-east and east the
+plateau shelves gradually to the Euphrates and the Persian Gulf;
+only in the extreme east is this general easterly slope arrested by
+the lofty range of Jebel Akhdar, which from Ras Musandan to
+Ras el Had borders the coast of Oman.</p>
+
+<p>Its chief characteristic is the bareness and aridity of its surface;
+one-third of the whole desert, and of the remainder only
+a small proportion is suited to settled life, owing to its scanty
+water-supply and uncertain rainfall. Its mountains are insufficient
+in elevation and extent to attract their full share of
+the monsoon rains, which fall so abundantly on the Abyssinian
+highlands on the other side of the Red Sea; for this reason Arabia
+has neither lakes nor forests to control the water-supply and
+prevent its too rapid dissipation, and the rivers are mere torrent
+beds sweeping down occasionally in heavy floods, but otherwise
+dry.</p>
+
+<p>The country falls naturally into three main divisions, a
+northern, a central and a southern; the first includes the area
+between the Midian coast on the west and the head of the Persian
+Gulf on the east, a desert tract throughout, stony in the north,
+sandy in the south, but furnishing at certain seasons excellent
+pasturage; its population is almost entirely nomad and pastoral.
+The central zone includes Hejaz (or Hijaz), Nejd and El Hasa;
+much of it is a dry, stony or sandy steppe, with few wells or
+watering-places, and only occupied by nomad tribes; but the
+great wadis which intersect it contain many fertile stretches of
+alluvial soil, where cultivation is possible and which support a
+considerable settled population, with several large towns and
+numerous villages.</p>
+
+<p>The third or southern division contains the highland plateaus
+of Asir and Yemen in the west, and J. Akhdar in the east,
+which with a temperate climate, due to their great elevation and
+their proximity to the sea, deserve, if any part of Arabia does,
+the name of Arabia Felix&mdash;the population is settled and agricultural,
+and the soil, wherever the rainfall is sufficient, is productive.
+The Batina coast of Oman, irrigated by the mountain
+streams of J. Akhdar, is perhaps the most fertile district in the
+peninsula; Hadramut, too, contains many large and prosperous
+villages, and the torrents from the Yemen highlands fertilize
+several oases in the Tehama (or Tihama) or lowlands of the
+western and southern coast. These favourable conditions of soil
+and climate, however, extend only a comparatively short distance
+into the interior, by far the larger part of which is covered by
+the great southern desert, the Dahna, or Ruba el Khali, empty
+as its name implies, and uninhabitable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exploration.</i>&mdash;Before entering on a detailed description of the
+several provinces of Arabia, our sources of information will be
+briefly indicated. Except in the neighbourhood of Aden, no
+regular surveys exist, and professional work is limited to the
+marine surveys of the Indian government and the admiralty,
+which, while laying down the coast line with fair accuracy, give
+little or no topographical information inland. For the mapping of
+the whole vast interior, except in rare cases, no data exist beyond
+the itineraries of explorers, travelling as a rule under conditions
+which precluded the use of even the simplest surveying instruments.
+These journeys, naturally following the most frequented
+routes, often cover the same ground, while immense tracts, owing
+to their difficulty of access, remain unvisited by any European.</p>
+
+<p>The region most thoroughly explored is Yemen, in the south-west
+corner of the peninsula, where the labours of a succession
+of travellers from Niebuhr in 1761 to E. Glaser and R. Manzoni in
+1887 have led to a fairly complete knowledge of all that part of
+the province west of the capital Sana; while in 1902-1904 the
+operations of the Anglo-Turkish boundary commission permitted
+the execution of a systematic topographical survey of the British
+protectorate from the Red Sea to the Wadi Bana, 30 m. east of
+Aden. North of Yemen up to the Hejaz border the only
+authority is that of E.F. Jomard&rsquo;s map, published in 1839,
+based on the information given by the French officers employed
+with Ibrahim Pasha&rsquo;s army in Asir from 1824 to 1827, and of
+J. Halévy in Nejran. On the south coast expeditions have
+penetrated but a short distance, the most notable exceptions
+being those of L. Hirsch and J.T. Bent in 1887 to the Hadramut
+valley. S.B. Miles, J.R. Wellsted, and S.M. Zwemer have
+explored Oman in the extreme east; but the interior south of a
+line drawn from Taif to El Katr on the Persian Gulf is still
+virgin ground. In northern Arabia the Syrian desert and the
+great Nafud (Nefud) have been crossed by several travellers,
+though a large area remains unexplored in the north-east between
+Kasim and the gulf. In the centre, the journeys of W. Palgrave,
+C. Doughty, W. Blunt and C. Huber have done much to elucidate
+the main physical features of the country. Lastly, in the north-west
+the Sinai peninsula has been thoroughly explored, and the
+list of travellers who have visited the Holy Cities and traversed
+the main pilgrim routes through Hejaz is a fairly long one,
+though, owing to the difficulties peculiar to that region, the
+hydrography of southern Hejaz is still incompletely known.</p>
+
+<p>The story of modern exploration begins with the despatch
+of C. Niebuhr&rsquo;s mission by the Danish government in 1761.
+After a year spent in Egypt and the Sinai peninsula
+the party reached Jidda towards the end of 1762, and
+<span class="sidenote">Modern Exploration in Yemen.</span>
+after a short stay sailed on to Lohaia in the north of
+Yemen, the exploration of which formed the principal
+object of the expedition; thence, travelling through the Tehama
+or lowlands, Niebuhr and his companions visited the towns of
+Bet el Fakih, Zubed and Mokha, then the great port for the
+coffee trade of Yemen. Continuing eastward they crossed the
+mountainous region and reached the highlands of Yemen at
+Uden, a small town and the centre of a district celebrated for its
+coffee. Thence proceeding eastwards to higher altitudes where
+coffee plantations give way to fields of wheat and barley, they
+reached the town of Jibla situated among a group of mountains
+exceeding 10,000 ft. above sea-level; and turning southwards
+to Taiz descended again to the Tehama via Hes and Zubed to
+Mokha. The mission, reduced in numbers by the death of its
+archaeologist, von Haven, again visited Taiz in June 1763, where
+after some delay permission was obtained to visit Sana, the
+capital of the province and the residence of the ruling sovereign
+or imam. The route lay by Jibla, passing the foot of the lofty
+Jebel Sorak, where, in spite of illness, Forskal, the botanist
+of the party, was able to make a last excursion; a few days later
+he died at Yarim. The mission continued its march, passing
+Dhamar, the seat of a university of the Zedi sect, then frequented
+by 500 students. Thence four marches, generally over a stony
+plateau dominated by bare, sterile mountains, brought them to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page255" id="page255"></a>255</span>
+Sana, where they received a cordial welcome from the imam,
+el Mahdi Abbas.</p>
+
+<p>The aspect of the city must have been nearly the same as
+at present; Niebuhr describes the <i>enceinte</i> flanked by towers,
+the citadel at the foot of J. Nukum which rises 1000 ft. above the
+valley, the fortress and palace of the imams, now replaced by the
+Turkish military hospital, the suburb of Bir el Azab with its
+scattered houses and gardens, the Jews&rsquo; quarter and the village
+of Rauda, a few miles to the north in a fertile, irrigated plain
+which Niebuhr compares to that of Damascus. After a stay
+of ten days at Sana the mission set out again for Mokha, travelling
+by what is now the main route from the capital to Hodeda,
+through the rich coffee-bearing district of J. Haraz, and thence
+southward to Mokha, where they embarked for India. During the
+next year three other members of the party died, leaving Niebuhr
+the sole survivor. Returning to Arabia a year later, he visited
+Oman and the shores of the Persian Gulf, and travelling from
+Basra through Syria and Palestine he reached Denmark in 1764
+after four years&rsquo; absence.</p>
+
+<p>The period was perhaps specially favourable for a scientific
+mission of the sort. The outburst of fanaticism which convulsed
+Arabia twenty years later had not then reached Yemen, and
+Europeans, as such, were not exposed to any special danger.
+The travellers were thus able to move freely and to pursue their
+scientific enquiries without hindrance from either people or ruler.
+The results published in 1772 gave for the first time a comprehensive
+description not only of Yemen but of all Arabia; while
+the parts actually visited by Niebuhr were described with a
+fulness and accuracy of detail which left little or nothing for
+his successors to discover.</p>
+
+<p>C.G. Ehrenberg and W.F. Hemprich in 1825 visited the
+Tehama and the islands off the coast, and in 1836 P.E. Botta
+made an important journey in southern Yemen with
+a view to botanical research, but the next advance
+<span class="sidenote">Asir.</span>
+in geographical knowledge in south Arabia was due to the
+French officers, M.O. Tamisier, Chedufau and Mary, belonging
+to the Egyptian army in Asir; another Frenchman, L. Arnaud,
+formerly in the Egyptian service, was the first to visit the
+southern Jauf and to report on the rock-cut inscriptions and
+ruins of Marib, though it was not till 1869 that a competent
+<span class="sidenote">Jauf and Marib.</span>
+archaeologist, J. Halévy, was able to carry out any
+complete exploration there. Starting from Sana,
+Halévy went north-eastward to El Madid, a town
+of 5000 inhabitants and the capital of the small district
+of Nihm; thence crossing a plateau, where he saw the
+ruins of numerous crenellated towers, he reached the village of
+Mijzar at the foot of J. Yam, on the borders of Jauf, a vast
+sandy plain, extending eastwards to El Jail and El Hazm, where
+Halévy made his most important discoveries of Sabaean inscriptions:
+here he explored Main, the ancient capital of the
+Minaeans, Kamna on the banks of the W. Kharid, the ancient
+Caminacum, and Kharibat el Beda, the Nesca of Pliny, where
+the Sabaean army was defeated by the Romans under Aelius
+Gallus in 24 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> From El Jail Halévy travelled northward,
+passing the oasis of Khab, and skirting the great desert, reached
+the fertile district of Nejran, where he found a colony of Jews,
+with whom he spent several weeks in the oasis of Makhlaf. An
+hour&rsquo;s march to the east he discovered at the village of Medinat
+el Mahud the ruins of the Nagra metropolis of Ptolemy. In
+June 1870 he at last reached the goal of his journey, Marib;
+here he explored the ruins of Medinat an Nahas (so called from
+its numerous inscriptions engraved on brass plates), and two
+hours to the east he found the famous dam constructed by the
+Himyarites across the W. Shibwan, on which the water-supply
+of their capital depended.</p>
+
+<p>One other explorer has since visited Marib, the Austrian
+archaeologist, E. Glaser (1855-1908), who achieved more for
+science in Yemen than any traveller since Niebuhr. Under
+Turkish protection, he visited the territory of the Hashid and
+Bakil tribes north-east of Sana, and though their hostile attitude
+compelled him to return after reaching their first important
+town, Khamr, he had time to reconnoitre the plateau lying
+between the two great wadis Kharid and Hirran, formerly
+covered with Himyaritic towns and villages; and to trace the
+course of these wadis to their junction at El Ish in the Dhu
+Husen country, and thence onward to the Jauf. In 1889 he
+succeeded, again under Turkish escort, in reaching Marib, where
+he obtained, during a stay of thirty days, a large number of new
+Himyaritic inscriptions. He was unable, however, to proceed
+farther east than his predecessors, and the problem of the Jauf
+drainage and its possible connexion with the upper part of the
+Hadramut valley still remains unsolved.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest attempt to penetrate into the interior from the
+south coast was made in 1835 when Lieuts. C. Cruttenden and
+J.R. Wellsted of the &ldquo;Palinurus,&rdquo; employed on the
+marine survey of the Arabian coast, visited the ruins
+<span class="sidenote">Exploration in Hadramut.</span>
+of Nakb (el Hajar) in the W. Mefat. The Himyaritic
+inscriptions found there and at Husn Ghurab near
+Mukalla, were the first records discovered of ancient Arabian
+civilization in Hadramut. Neither of these officers was able to
+follow up their discoveries, but in 1843 Adolph von Wrede
+landed at Mukalla and, adopting the character of a pilgrim to
+the shrine of the prophet Hud, made his way northward across
+the high plateau into the W. Duwan, one of the main southern
+tributaries of the Hadramut valley, and pushed on to the
+edge of the great southern desert; on his return to the W.
+Duwan his disguise was detected and he was obliged to return
+to Mukalla. Though he did not actually enter the main Hadramut
+valley, which lay to the east of his track, his journey established
+the existence of this populous and fertile district which
+had been reported to the officers of the &ldquo;Palinurus&rdquo; as lying
+between the coast range and the great desert to the north. This
+was at last visited in 1893 by L. Hirsch under the protection
+of the sultan of Mukalla, the head of the Kaiti family, and
+practically ruler of all Hadramut, with the exception of the towns
+of Saiyun and Tarim, which belong to the Kathiri tribe. Starting
+like von Wrede from Mukalla, Hirsch first visited the W.
+Duwan and found ancient ruins and inscriptions near the village
+of Hajren; thence he proceeded north-eastward to Hauta in
+the main valley, where he was hospitably received by the Kaiti
+sultan, and sent on to his deputy at Shibam. Here he procured
+a Kathiri escort and pushed on through Saiyun to Tarim, the
+former capital. After a very brief stay, however, he was compelled
+by the hostility of the people to return in haste to Shibam,
+from which he travelled by the W. bin Ali and W. Adim back
+to Mukalla. J. Theodore Bent and his wife followed in the same
+track a few months later with a well-equipped party including
+a surveyor, Imam Sharif, lent by the Indian government, who
+made a very valuable survey of the country passed through. Both
+parties visited many sites where Himyaritic remains and inscriptions
+were found, but the hostile attitude of the natives, more
+particularly of the Seyyids, the religious hierarchy of Hadramut,
+prevented any adequate examination, and much of archaeological
+interest undoubtedly remains for future travellers to discover.</p>
+
+<p>In Oman, where the conditions are more favourable, explorers
+have penetrated only a short distance from the coast. Niebuhr
+did not go inland from Muscat; the operations by a
+British Indian force on the Pirate coast in 1810 gave
+<span class="sidenote">Exploration in Oman.</span>
+no opportunities for visiting the interior, and it was
+not till 1835 that J.R. Wellsted, who had already
+tried to penetrate into Hadramut from the south, landed at
+Muscat with the idea of reaching it from the north-east. Sailing
+thence to Sur near Ras el Had, he travelled southward through
+the country of the Bani bu Ali to the borders of the desert, then
+turning north-west up the Wadi Betha through a fertile, well-watered
+country, running up to the southern slopes of J. Akhdar,
+inhabited by a friendly people who seem to have welcomed him
+everywhere, he visited Ibra, Semed and Nizwa at the southern
+foot of the mountains. Owing to the disturbed state of the
+country, due to the presence of raiding parties from Nejd,
+Wellsted was unable to carry out his original intention of exploring
+the country to the west, and after an excursion along
+the Batina coast to Sohar he returned to India.</p>
+
+<p>In 1876 Colonel S.B. Miles, who had already done much to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page256" id="page256"></a>256</span>
+advance geographical interests in south Arabia, continued
+Wellsted&rsquo;s work in Oman; starting from Sohar on the Batina
+coast he crossed the dividing range into the Dhahira, and reached
+Birema, one of its principal oases. His investigations show that
+the Dhahira contains many settlements, with an industrious
+agricultural population, and that the unexplored tract extending
+250 m. west to the peninsula of El Katr is a desolate gravelly
+steppe, shelving gradually down to the salt marshes which border
+the shores of the gulf.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving southern Arabia, we now come to the centre and
+north. The first explorer to enter the sacred Hejaz with a
+definite scientific object was the Spaniard, Badia y
+Leblich, who, under the name of Ali Bey and claiming
+<span class="sidenote">Exploration in Hejaz.</span>
+to be the last representative of the Abbasid Caliphs,
+arrived at Jidda in 1807, and performed the pilgrimage
+to Mecca. Besides giving to the world the first accurate
+description of the holy city and the Haj ceremonies, he was the first to
+fix the position of Mecca by astronomical observations, and to
+describe the physical character of its surroundings. But the
+true pioneer of exploration in Hejaz was J.L. Burckhardt, who
+had already won a reputation as the discoverer of Petra, and
+whose experience of travel in Arab lands and knowledge of Arab
+life qualified him to pass as a Moslem, even in the headquarters
+of Islam. Burckhardt landed in Jidda in July 1814, when
+Mehemet Ali had already driven the Wahhabi invaders out of
+Hejaz, and was preparing for his farther advance against their
+stronghold in Nejd. He first visited Taif at the invitation of the
+pasha, thence he proceeded to Mecca, where he spent three
+months studying every detail of the topography of the holy
+places, and going through all the ceremonies incumbent on a
+Moslem pilgrim. In January 1815 he travelled to Medina by
+the western or coast route, and arrived there safely but broken
+in health by the hardships of the journey. His illness did not,
+however, prevent his seeing and recording everything of interest
+in Medina with the same care as at Mecca, though it compelled
+him to cut short the further journey he had proposed to himself,
+and to return by Yambu and the sea to Cairo, where he died
+only two years later.</p>
+
+<p>His striking successor, Sir Richard Burton, covered nearly
+the same ground thirty-eight years afterwards. He, too, travelling
+as a Moslem pilgrim, noted the whole ritual of the pilgrimage
+with the same keen observation as Burckhardt, and while
+amplifying somewhat the latter&rsquo;s description of Medina, confirms
+the accuracy of his work there and at Mecca in almost every
+detail. Burton&rsquo;s topographical descriptions are fuller, and his
+march to Mecca from Medina by the eastern route led him over
+ground not traversed by any other explorer in Hejaz: this route
+leads at first south-east from Medina, and then south across the
+lava beds of the Harra, keeping throughout its length on the high
+plateau which forms the borderland between Hejaz and Nejd.
+His original intention had been after visiting Mecca to find his
+way across the peninsula to Oman, but the time at his disposal
+(as an Indian officer on leave) was insufficient for so extended a
+journey; and his further contributions to Arabian geography
+were not made until twenty-five years later, when he was deputed
+by the Egyptian government to examine the reported gold
+deposits of Midian. Traces of ancient workings were found in
+several places, but the ores did not contain gold in paying
+quantities. Interesting archaeological discoveries were made,
+and a valuable topographical survey was carried out, covering
+the whole Midian coast from the head of the Gulf of Akaba to
+the mouth of the Wadi Hamd, and including both the Tehama
+range and the Hisma valley behind it; while the importance
+of the W. Hamd and the extent of the area drained by its
+tributaries was for the first time brought to light.</p>
+
+<p>Burckhardt had hoped in 1815 that the advance of the
+Egyptian expedition would have given him the opportunity
+to see something of Nejd, but he had already left
+Arabia before the overthrow of the Wahhabi power
+<span class="sidenote">Exploration in Nejd.</span>
+by Ibrahim Pasha had opened Nejd to travellers from
+Hejaz, and though several European officers accompanied
+the expedition, none of them left any record of his
+experience. It is, however, to the Egyptian conquest that the
+first visit of a British traveller to Nejd is due. The Indian
+government, wishing to enter into relations with Ibrahim Pasha,
+as <i>de facto</i> ruler of Nejd and El Hasa, with a view to putting down
+piracy in the Persian Gulf, which was seriously affecting Indian
+trade, sent a small mission under Captain G.F. Sadlier to
+congratulate the pasha on the success of the Egyptian arms,
+and no doubt with the ulterior object of obtaining a first-hand
+report on the real situation. On his arrival at Hofuf, Sadlier
+found that Ibrahim had already left Deraiya, but still hoping
+to intercept him before quitting Nejd, he followed up the retreating
+Egyptians through Yemama, and Wushm to Ras in Kasim,
+where he caught up the main body of Ibrahim&rsquo;s army, though
+the pasha himself had gone on to Medina. Sadlier hesitated
+about going farther, but he was unable to obtain a safe conduct
+to Basra, or to return by the way he had come, and was compelled
+reluctantly to accompany the army to Medina. Here he
+at last met Ibrahim, but though courteously received, the
+interview had no results, and Sadlier soon after left for Yambu,
+whence he embarked for Jidda, and after another fruitless attempt
+to treat with Ibrahim, sailed for India. If the political results
+of the mission were <i>nil</i>, the value to geographical science was
+immense; for though no geographer himself, Sadlier&rsquo;s route
+across Arabia made it possible for the first time to locate the
+principal places in something like their proper relative positions;
+incidentally, too, it showed the practicability of a considerable
+body of regular troops crossing the deserts of Nejd even in the
+months of July and August.</p>
+
+<p>Sadlier&rsquo;s route had left Jebel Shammar to one side; his
+successor, G.A. Wallin, was to make that the objective of his
+journey. Commissioned by Mehemet Ali to inform him about the
+situation in Nejd brought about by the rising power of Abdallah
+Ibn Rashid, Wallin left Cairo in April 1845, and crossing the
+pilgrim road at Ma&rsquo;an, pushed on across the Syrian desert to
+the Wadi Sirhan and the Jauf oasis, where he halted during the
+hot summer months. From the wells of Shakik he crossed the
+waterless Nafud in four days to Jubba, and after a halt there in
+the nomad camps, he moved on to Hail, already a thriving town,
+and the capital of the Shammar state whose limits included all
+northern Arabia from Kasim to the Syrian border. After a stay
+in Hail, where he had every opportunity of observing the character
+of the country and its inhabitants, and the hospitality and
+patriarchal, if sometimes stern, justice of its chief, he travelled
+on to Medina and Mecca, and returned thence to Cairo to report
+to his patron. Early in 1848 he again returned to Arabia,
+avoiding the long desert journey by landing at Muwela, thence
+striking inland to Tebuk on the pilgrim road, and re-entering
+Shammar territory at the oasis of Tema, he again visited Hail;
+and after spending a month there travelled northwards to
+Kerbela and Bagdad.</p>
+
+<p>The effects of the Egyptian invasion had passed away, and
+central Arabia had settled down again under its native rulers
+when W.G. Palgrave made his adventurous journey
+through Nejd, and published the remarkable narrative
+<span class="sidenote">Palgrave&rsquo;s journey to Nejd.</span>
+which has taken its place as the classic of Arabian
+exploration. Like Burton he was once an officer in the
+Indian army, but for some time before his journey he had been
+connected with the Jesuit mission in Syria. By training and
+temperament he was better qualified to appreciate and describe
+the social life of the people than their physical surroundings,
+and if the results of his great journey are disappointing to the
+geographer, his account of the society of the oasis towns, and of
+the remarkable men who were then ruling in Hail and Riad,
+must always possess an absorbing interest as a portrait of Arab
+life in its freest development.</p>
+
+<p>Following Wallin&rsquo;s route across the desert by Ma&rsquo;an and Jauf,
+Palgrave and his companion, a Syrian Christian, reached Hail
+in July 1862; here they were hospitably entertained by the
+amir Talal, nephew of the founder of the Ibn Rashid dynasty,
+and after some stay passed on with his countenance through
+Kasim to southern Nejd. Palgrave says little of the desert part
+of the journey or of its Bedouin inhabitants, but much of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page257" id="page257"></a>257</span>
+fertility of the oases and of the civility of the townsmen; and
+like other travellers in Nejd he speaks with enthusiasm of its
+bright, exhilarating climate. At Riad, Fesal, who had been in
+power since the Egyptian retirement, was still reigning; and
+the religious tyranny of Wahhabism prevailed, in marked contrast
+to the liberal régime of Talal in Jebel Shammar. Still,
+Palgrave and his companions, though known as Christians,
+spent nearly two months in the capital without molestation,
+making short excursions in the neighbourhood, the most important
+of which was to El Kharfa in Aflaj, the most southerly
+district of Nejd. Leaving Riad, they passed through Yemama,
+and across a strip of sandy desert to El Hasa where Palgrave
+found himself in more congenial surroundings. Finally, a voyage
+to the Oman coast and a brief stay there brought his adventures
+in Arabia to a successful ending.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Doughty, the next Englishman to visit northern
+Arabia, though he covered little new ground, saw more of the
+desert life, and has described it more minutely and
+faithfully than any other explorer. Travelling down
+<span class="sidenote">Doughty.</span>
+from Damascus in 1875 with the Haj caravan, he stopped at El
+Hajr, one of the pilgrim stations, with the intention of awaiting
+the return of the caravan and in the meantime of exploring the
+rock-cut tombs of Medain Salih and El Ala. Having successfully
+completed his investigations and sent copies of inscriptions and
+drawings of the tombs to Renan in Paris, he determined to push
+on farther into the desert. Under the protection of a sheikh of
+the Fukara Bedouin he wandered over the whole of the borderland
+between Hejaz and Nejd. Visiting Tema, where among
+other ancient remains he discovered the famous inscribed stone,
+afterwards acquired by Huber for the Louvre. Next summer he
+went on to Hail and thence back to Khaibar, where the negro
+governor and townsmen, less tolerant than his former Bedouin
+hosts, ill-treated him and even threatened his life. Returning
+to Hail in the absence of the amir, he was expelled by the
+governor; he succeeded, however, in finding protection at
+Aneza, where he spent several months, and eventually after
+many hardships and perils found his way to the coast at Jidda.</p>
+
+<p>Three years later Mr Wilfrid and Lady Anne Blunt made their
+expedition to J. Shammar. In their previous travels in Syria
+they had gained the confidence and friendship of a young sheikh
+whose family, though long settled at Tadmur, came originally
+from Nejd, and who was anxious to renew the connexion with his
+kinsmen by seeking a bride among them. In his company the
+Blunts set out from Damascus, and travelled across the Syrian
+desert by the Wadi Sirhan to Jauf. Here the sheikh found some
+of his relations and the matrimonial alliance was soon arranged;
+but though the object of the journey had been attained, the
+Blunts were anxious to visit Hail and make the acquaintance of
+the amir Ibn Rashid, of whose might and generosity they daily
+heard from their hosts in Jauf. The long stretch of waterless
+desert between Jauf and J. Shammar was crossed without
+difficulty, and the party was welcomed by the amir and hospitably
+entertained for a month, after which they travelled northwards
+in company with the Persian pilgrim caravan returning to
+Kerbela and Bagdad.</p>
+
+<p>In 1883 the French traveller, C. Huber, accompanied by the
+archaeologist, J. Euting, followed the same route from Damascus
+to Hail. The narrative of the last named forms a
+valuable supplement to that published by the Blunts,
+<span class="sidenote">Huber.</span>
+and together with Doughty&rsquo;s, furnishes as complete a picture
+as could be wished for of the social and political life of J. Shammar,
+and of the general nature of the country. Huber&rsquo;s journal,
+published after his death from his original notes, contains a mass
+of topographical and archaeological detail of the greatest scientific
+value: his routes and observations form, in fact, the first
+and only scientific data for the construction of the map of
+northern Arabia. To archaeology also his services were of equal
+importance, for, besides copying numerous inscriptions in the district
+between Hail and Tema, he succeeded in gaining possession
+of the since famous Tema stone, which ranks with the Moabite
+stone among the most valuable of Semitic inscriptions. From
+Hail Huber followed nearly in Doughty&rsquo;s track to Aneza and
+thence across central Nejd to Mecca and Jidda, where he
+despatched his notes and copies of inscriptions. A month later,
+in July 1884, he was murdered by his guides a few marches
+north of Jidda, on his way back to Hail.</p>
+
+<p>One other traveller visited Hail during the lifetime of the
+amir Mahommed&mdash;Baron E. Nolde&mdash;who arrived there in 1893,
+not long after the amir had by his victory over the combined
+forces of Riad and Kasim brought the whole of Nejd under his
+dominion. Nolde crossed the Nafud to Haiyania by a more
+direct track than that from Shakik to Jubba. The amir was away
+from his capital settling the affairs of his newly acquired territory;
+Nolde therefore, after a short halt at Hail, journeyed on to Ibn
+Rashid&rsquo;s camp somewhere in the neighbourhood of Shakra.
+Here he was on new ground, but unfortunately he gives little or
+no description of his route thither, or of his journey northwards
+by the Persian pilgrim road, already traversed by Huber in 1881.
+His narrative thus, while containing much of general interest on
+the climate and on the animal life of northern Arabia, its horses
+and camels in particular, adds little to those of his predecessors
+as regards topographical detail.</p>
+
+<p>If the journeys detailed above be traced on the map they
+will be found to cover the northern half of the peninsula above
+the line Mecca-Hofuf, with a network of routes,
+which, though sometimes separated by wide intervals,
+<span class="sidenote">General results of exploration.</span>
+are still close enough to ensure that no important
+geographical feature can have been overlooked,
+especially in a country whose general character varies so little
+over wide areas. In the southern half, on the other hand, except
+in Nejran and Jauf, no European traveller has penetrated 100 m.
+in a direct line from the coast. The vast extent of the Dahna, or
+great southern desert, covering perhaps 250,000 sq. m., accounts
+for about a third of this area, but some of the most favoured
+districts in Arabia&mdash;Asir and northern Yemen&mdash;remain unexplored,
+and the hydrography of the Dawasir basin offers some
+interesting problems, while a great field remains for the archaeologist
+in the seat of the old Sabaean kingdom from Jauf to the
+Hadramut valley.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Topographical Details.</i>&mdash;Beginning from the north-west, the Sinai
+peninsula belongs to Egypt, though geographically part of Arabia.
+It is bounded on the E. by a line drawn from Ar Rafa, a
+few miles E. of El Arish on the Mediterranean, to the head
+<span class="sidenote">Sinai Peninsula.</span>
+of the Gulf of Akaba; and on the W. by the Suez Canal;
+its length from El Arish to its most southern point is
+240 m., and its breadth from Suez to Akaba is nearly 160 m. The
+greater part drains to the Mediterranean, from which the land rises
+gradually to the summit of the Tih plateau. The deep depression of
+Wadi Feran separates the Tih from the higher mass of Sinai (<i>q.v.</i>),
+in which J. Katherine attains a height of 8500 ft.; except in W.
+Feran there is little cultivable land, the greater part consisting of
+bare, rocky hills and sandy valleys, sparsely covered with tamarisk
+and acacia bushes. The Egyptian pilgrim road crosses the peninsula
+from Suez to Akaba, passing the post of An Nakhl, with a reservoir
+and a little cultivation, about half way; a steep descent leads down
+from the edge of the Tih plateau to Akaba.</p>
+
+<p>The rest of the northern borderland is covered by the Syrian
+desert, extending from the borders of Palestine to the edge of the
+Euphrates valley. This tract, known as the Hamad, is a
+gravelly plain unbroken by any considerable range of hills
+<span class="sidenote">Syrian desert.</span>
+or any continuous watercourse except the Wadi Hauran,
+which in rainy seasons forms a succession of pools from J. Hauran
+to the Euphrates. Its general slope is to the north-east from the
+volcanic plateau of the Harra south of J. Hauran to the edge of the
+Euphrates valley. The Wadi Sirhan, a broad depression some 500 ft.
+below the average level of the Hamad, crosses it from north-east to
+south-west between Hauran and Jauf; it has a nearly uniform
+height above sea-level of 1850 ft., and appears to be the bed of an
+inland sea rather than a true watercourse. Water is found in it a
+few feet below the surface, and a little cultivation is carried on at
+the small oases of Kaf and Ithri, whence salt produced in the neighbouring
+salt lakes is exported. The W. Sirhan is continuous with the
+depression known as the Jauf, situated on the northern edge of the
+Nefud or Nafud, and the halfway station between Damascus and
+Hail; and it is possible that this depression continues eastward
+towards the Euphrates along a line a little north of the thirtieth
+parallel, where wells and pasturages are known to exist. Jauf is a
+small town consisting, at the time of the Blunts&rsquo; visit in 1879,
+of not more than 500 houses. The town with its gardens, surrounded
+by a mud wall, covers a space of 2 m. in length by half a mile in
+width; the basin in which it lies is barely 3 m. across, and except
+for the palm gardens and a few patches of corn, it is a dead flat of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page258" id="page258"></a>258</span>
+white sand, closed in by high sandstone cliffs, beyond which lies the
+open desert. The oases of Sakaka and Kara are situated in a similar
+basin 15 m. to the east; the former a town of 10,000 inhabitants
+and somewhat larger than Jauf according to Huber.</p>
+
+<p>A short distance south of Jauf the character of the desert changes
+abruptly from a level black expanse of gravel to the red sands of the
+Nafud. The northern edge of this great desert follows
+very nearly the line of the thirtieth parallel, along which
+<span class="sidenote">The Nafud.</span>
+it extends east and west for a length of some 400 m.;
+its breadth from north to south is 200 m. Though almost waterless,
+it is in fact better wooded and richer in pasture than any part of
+the Hamad; the sand-hills are dotted with <i>ghada</i>, a species of
+tamarisk, and other bushes, and several grasses and succulent plants
+&mdash;among them the <i>adar</i>, on which sheep are said to feed for a month
+without requiring water&mdash;are found in abundance in good seasons.
+In the spring months, when their camels are in milk, the Bedouins
+care nothing for water, and wander far into the Nafud with their
+flocks in search of the green pasture which springs up everywhere
+after the winter rains. A few wells exist actually in the Nafud in the
+district called El Hajra, near its north-eastern border, and along
+its southern border, between J. Shammar and Tema, there are
+numerous wells and artificial as well as natural reservoirs resorted to
+by the nomad tribes.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the great extent of the Nafud desert, the formation of
+sand-dunes is exemplified on a proportionate scale. In many places
+longitudinal dunes are found exceeding a day&rsquo;s journey in length,
+the valleys between which take three or four hours to cross; but
+the most striking feature of the Nafud are the high crescent-shaped
+sand-hills, known locally as <i>falk</i> or <i>falj</i>, described by Blunt and
+Huber, who devoted some time to their investigation. The falks
+enclose a deep hollow (known as <i>ka&lsquo;r</i>), the floor of which is often hard
+soil bare of sand, and from which the inner slopes of the falk rise as
+steeply as the sand will lie (about 50°). On the summit of the falk
+there is generally a mound known as <i>tas</i> or <i>barkhus</i> composed of
+white sand which stands out conspicuously against the deep red of
+the surrounding deserts; the exterior slopes are comparatively
+gentle. The falks are singularly uniform in shape, but vary greatly
+in size; the largest were estimated by Huber and Euting at 1¼ m.
+across and 330 ft. deep. They run in strings irregularly from east
+to west, corresponding in this with their individual direction, the
+convex face of the falk being towards the west, <i>i.e.</i> the direction of
+the prevailing wind, and the cusps to leeward. In the south of the
+Nafud, where Huber found the prevailing wind to be from the south,
+the falks are turned in that direction. Though perhaps subject to
+slight changes in the course of years, there is no doubt that these
+dunes are practically permanent features; the more prominent ones
+serve as landmarks and have well-known distinctive names. The
+character of the vegetation which clothes their slopes shows that
+even superficial changes must be slight. The general level of the
+Nafud was found by Huber&rsquo;s observations to be about 3000 ft. above
+sea-level; the highest point on the Jauf-Hail route is at Falk Alam,
+the rocky peaks of which rise 200 or 300 ft. above the surface of the
+sand. Other peaks cropping out of the Nafud are Jebel Tawil, near
+the wells of Shakik, and J. Abrak Rada, a long black ridge in the
+middle of the desert.</p>
+
+<p>The high plateau which from. J. Hauran southward forms the main
+watershed of the peninsula is covered in places by deep beds of lava,
+which from their hardness have preserved the underlying
+sandstones from degradation, and now stand up considerably
+<span class="sidenote">The Harra.</span>
+above the general level. These tracts are known as
+<i>harra</i>; the most remarkable is the Harrat El Awerid, west of the
+Haj route from Tebuk to El Ala, a mountain mass 100 m. in length
+with an average height of over 5000 ft., and the highest summit of
+which, J. Anaz, exceeds 7000 ft. The harra east of Khaibar is also
+of considerable extent, and the same formation is found all along
+the Hejaz border from Medina to the Jebel el Kura, east of Mecca.
+The surface of the harra is extremely broken, forming a labyrinth of
+lava crags and blocks of every size; the whole region is sterile and
+almost waterless, and compared with the Nafud it produces little
+vegetation; but it is resorted to by the Bedouin in the spring and
+summer months when the air is always fresh and cool. In winter it
+is cold and snow often lies for some time.</p>
+
+<p>Hejaz, if we except the Taif district in the south, which is properly
+a part of the Yemen plateau, forms a well-marked physical division,
+lying on the western slope of the peninsula, where that
+slope is at its widest, between the Harra and the Red Sea.
+<span class="sidenote">Hejaz.</span>
+A high range of granite hills, known as the Tehama range, the highest
+point of which, J. Shar, in Midian, exceeds 6500 ft., divides it
+longitudinally into a narrow littoral and a broader upland zone
+2000 or 3000 ft. above the sea. Both are generally bare and unproductive,
+the uplands, however, contain the fertile valleys of
+Khaibar and Medina, draining to the Wadi Hamd, the principal
+river system of western Arabia; and the Wadi Jadid or Es Safra,
+rising in the Harra between Medina and Es Safina, which contain
+several settlements, of which the principal produce is dates. The
+quartz reefs which crop out in the granite ranges of the Tehama
+contain traces of gold. These and the ancient copper workings were
+investigated by Burton in 1877. The richer veins had evidently
+been long ago worked out, and nothing of sufficient value to justify
+further outlay was discovered. The coast-line is fringed with small
+islets and shoals and reefs, which make navigation dangerous. The
+only ports of importance are Yambu and Jidda, which serve respectively
+Medina and Mecca; they depend entirely on the pilgrim
+traffic to the holy cities, without which they could not exist.</p>
+
+<p>The great central province of Nejd occupies all inner Arabia
+between the Nafud and the southern desert. Its northern part
+forms the basin of the Wadi Rumma, which, rising in the
+Khaibar harra, runs north-eastward across the whole
+<span class="sidenote">Nejd.</span>
+width of Nejd, till it is lost in the sands of the eastern Nafud, north
+of Aneza. The greater portion of this region is an open steppe,
+sandy in places and in others dotted with low volcanic hills, but with
+occasional ground water and in favourable seasons furnishing support
+for a considerable pastoral population. Its elevation varies from
+about 5000 ft. in the west to 2500 ft. in the east. In Jebel Shammar,
+Kasim and Wushm, where the water in the wadi beds rises nearly
+to the ground level, numerous fertile oases are found with thriving
+villages and towns.</p>
+
+<p>Jebel Shammar, from which the northern district of Nejd takes
+its name, is a double range of mountains some 20 m. apart, rising
+sharply out of the desert in bare, granite cliffs. J. Aja, the western
+and higher of the two ranges, has a length of about 100 m. from
+north-east to south-west, where it merges into the high plateau
+extending from and continuous with the Khaibar harra. The highest
+point, J. Kara, near its north-eastern extremity, is about 4600 ft.
+above sea-level, or 1600 ft. above the town of Hail, which, like most
+of the larger villages, lies along the wadi bed at the foot of J. Aja.
+The town, which has risen with the fortunes of the Ibn Rashid
+family to be the capital of Upper Nejd, is at the mouth of the valley
+between the twin ranges, about 2 m. from the foot of J. Aja,
+and contained at the time of Nolde&rsquo;s visit in 1893 about 12,000
+inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>The principal tributaries of the W. Rumma converge in lower
+Kasim, and at Aneza Doughty says its bed is 3 m. wide from bank
+to bank. Forty years before his visit a flood is said to have occurred,
+which passed down the river till it was blocked by sand-drifts at
+Thuwerat, 50 m. lower down, and for two years a lake stood nearly
+100 m. long, crowded by waterfowl not known before in that desert
+country. Below this its course has not been followed by any European
+traveller, but it may be inferred from the line of watering-places
+on the road to Kuwet, that it runs out to the Persian Gulf in that
+neighbourhood.</p>
+
+<p>East of Kasim the land rises gradually to the high plateau culminating
+in the ranges of Jebel Tuwek and J. Arid. The general direction
+of these hills is from north-west to south-east. On the west they rise
+somewhat steeply, exposing high cliffs of white limestone, which
+perhaps gave Palgrave the impression that the range is of greater
+absolute height than is actually the case. J. Tuwek in any case
+forms an important geographical feature in eastern Nejd, interrupting
+by a transverse barrier 200 m. in length the general north-easterly
+slope of the peninusla, and separating the basin of the W. Rumma
+from that of the other great river system of central Arabia, the Wadi
+Dawasir. The districts of Suder and Wushm lie on its northern side,
+Arid in the centre, and Aflaj, Harik and Yemama on its south, in the
+basin of the W. Dawasir; the whole of this hilly region of eastern
+Nejd is, perhaps, rather a rolling down country than truly mountainous,
+in which high pastures alternate with deep fertile valleys,
+supporting numerous villages with a large agricultural population.
+The W. Hanifa is its principal watercourse; its course is marked by
+an almost continuous series of palm groves and settlements, among
+which Deraiya the former, and Riad the present, capital of the Ibn
+Saud kingdom are the most extensive. Its lower course is uncertain,
+but it probably continues in a south-east direction to the districts
+of El Harik and Yemama when, joined by the drainage from Aflaj
+and the W. Dawasir, it runs eastward till it disappears in the belt of
+sandy desert 100 m. in width that forms the eastern boundary of
+Nejd, to reappear in the copious springs that fertilize El Hasa and
+the Bahrein littoral.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the unexplored southern region, Palgrave&rsquo;s informants
+in Aflaj, the most southerly district visited by him, stated that a
+day&rsquo;s march south of that place the Yemen road enters
+the W. Dawasir, up which it runs for ten days, perhaps
+<span class="sidenote">Unexplored region of S. Nejd.</span>
+200 m., to El Kura, a thinly peopled district on the borders
+of Asir; this accords with the information of the French
+officers of the Egyptian army in that district, and with that
+of Halévy, who makes all the drainage from Nejran northward run
+to the same great wadi. Whether there be any second line of drainage
+in southern Nejd skirting the edge of the great desert and following
+the depression of the W. Yabrin must remain a matter of conjecture.
+Colonel Miles concluded, from his enquiries, that the low salt swamp,
+extending inland for some distance from Khor ed Duwan, in the bay
+east of El Katr, was the outlet of an extensive drainage system
+which may well be continuous with the W. Yabrin and extend far
+into the interior, if not to Nejran itself.</p>
+
+<p>East of Nejd a strip of sandy desert 50 m. in width extends almost
+continuously from the great Nafud to the Dahna. East of this again
+a succession of stony ridges running parallel to the coast
+has to be crossed before El Hasa is reached. This
+<span class="sidenote">El Hasa.</span>
+province, which skirts the Persian Gulf from the mouth of the
+Euphrates to the frontiers of Oman, is low and hot; its shores are
+flat, and with the exception of Kuwet at the north-west corner of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page259" id="page259"></a>259</span>
+the gulf, it possesses no deep water port. North of Katif it is desert
+and only inhabited by nomads; at Katif, however, and throughout
+the district to the south bordering on the Gulf of Bahrein there are
+ample supplies of underground water, welling up in abundant springs
+often at a high temperature, and bringing fertility to an extensive
+district of which El Hofuf, a town of 15,000 to 20,000 inhabitants,
+is the most important centre.</p>
+
+<p>South-western Arabia, from the twenty-first parallel down to the
+Gulf of Aden, including the Taif district of Hejaz, Asir and Yemen,
+forms one province geographically. Throughout its length
+it consists of three zones, a narrow coastal strip, rarely
+<span class="sidenote">South-western Arabia.</span>
+exceeding 20 m. in width, a central mountainous tract,
+embracing the great chain which runs parallel to the coast
+from near Taif to within 50 m. of Aden, and an inner plateau falling
+gradually to the north-east till it merges in the Nejd steppes or the
+sands of the great desert.</p>
+
+<p>The lowland strip or Tehama consists partly of a gravelly plain,
+the <i>Khabt</i>, covered sparsely with acacia and other desert shrubs and
+trees, and furnishing pasturage for large flocks of goats and camels;
+and partly of sterile wastes of sand like the <i>Ramla</i>, which extends
+on either side of Aden almost from the seashore to the foot of the
+hills. The Tehama is, however, by no means all desert, the mountain
+torrents where they debouch into the plain have formed considerable
+tracts of alluvial soil of the highest degree of fertility producing in
+that warm equable climate two and even three crops in the year.
+The flood-water is controlled by a system of dams and channels
+constructed so as to utilize every drop, and the extent of cultivation
+is limited more by the supply of water available than by the amount
+of suitable soil. These districts support a large settled population
+and several considerable towns, of which Bet el Fakih and Zubed in
+the western and Lahej in the southern Tehama, with 4000 to 6000
+inhabitants, are the most important. There are signs that this
+coastal strip was until a geologically recent period below sea-level;
+and that the coast-line is still receding is evidenced by the history
+of the town of Muza, once a flourishing port, now 20 m. inland;
+while Bet el Fakih and Zubed, once important centres of the coffee
+trade, have lost their position through the silting up of the ports
+which formerly served them.</p>
+
+<p>The jebel or mountain-land is, however, the typical Yemen, the
+<i>Arabia Felix</i> of the ancients. Deep valleys winding through the
+barren foothills lead gradually up to the higher mountains, and as the
+track ascends the scenery and vegetation change their character;
+the trees which line the banks of the wadi are overgrown with
+creepers, and the running stream is dammed at frequent intervals,
+and led off in artificial channels to irrigate the fields on either side;
+the steeper parts of the road are paved with large stones, substantially
+built villages, with their masonry towers or <i>dars</i>, crowning every
+height, replace the collection of mud walls and brushwood huts of
+the low country; while tier above tier, terraced fields cover the hill
+slopes and attest the industry of the inhabitants and the fertility
+of their mountains. On the main route from Hodeda to Sana the
+first coffee plantations are reached at Usil, at an altitude of 4300 ft.,
+and throughout the western slopes of the range up to an altitude of
+7000 ft. it is the most important crop. Jebel Haraz, of which
+Manakha, a small town of 3000 inhabitants is the chief place, is
+described by Glaser as one vast coffee garden. Here the traveller
+ascending from the coast sees the first example of the jebel or highland
+towns, with their high three-storeyed houses, built of quarried
+stone, their narrow façades pierced with small windows with whitewashed
+borders and ornamented with varied arabesque patterns;
+each dar has the appearance of a small castle complete in itself, and
+the general effect is rather that of a cluster of separate forts than of a
+town occupied by a united community.</p>
+
+<p>The scenery in this mountain region is of the most varied description;
+bare precipitous hill-sides seamed with dry, rocky watercourses
+give place with almost startling rapidity to fertile slopes,
+terraced literally for thousands of feet. General Haig in describing
+them says: &ldquo;One can hardly realize the enormous labour, toil and
+perseverance that these represent; the terrace walls are usually
+5 to 8 ft. in height, but towards the top of the mountains they are
+sometimes as much as 15 or 18 ft.; they are built entirely of rough
+stone without mortar, and I reckon that on an average each wall
+retains not more than twice its own height in breadth, and I do not
+think I saw a single break in them unrepaired.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The highest summits as determined by actual survey are between
+10,000 and 11,000 ft. above sea-level. J. Sabur, a conspicuous mass
+in the extreme south, is 9900 ft., with a fall to the Taiz valley of
+5000 ft.; farther north several points in the mountains above Ibb
+and Yarim attain a height of 10,500 ft., and J. Hadur, near the
+Sana-Hodeda road, exceeds 10,000 ft. From the crest of the range
+there is a short drop of 2000 or 3000 ft. to the broad open valleys
+which form the principal feature of the inner plateau. The town of
+Yarim lies near its southern extremity at an altitude of about
+8000 ft.; within a short distance are the sources of the W. Yakla,
+W. Bana and W. Zubed, running respectively east and south and
+west. The first named is a dry watercourse ultimately joining the
+basin of the W. Hadramut; the two others run for a long distance
+through fertile valleys and, like many of the wadis on the seaward
+side of the range, have perennial streams down to within a few miles
+of the sea. Sana, the capital of Yemen, lies in a broad valley 7300 ft.
+above sea-level, sloping northwards to the W. Kharid which, with
+the Ghail Hirran, the sources of which are on the eastern slopes of
+J. Hadur, run north-eastward to the Jauf depression. The Arhab
+district, through which these two great wadis run, was formerly the
+centre of the Himyar kingdom; cultivation is now only to be found
+in the lower parts on the borders of the watercourses, all above
+being naked rock from which every particle of soil has been denuded.
+In the higher parts there are fine plains where Glaser found numerous
+Himyaritic remains, and which he considers were undoubtedly
+cultivated formerly, but they have long fallen out of cultivation
+owing to denudation and desiccation&mdash;the impoverishment of the
+country from these causes is increasing. Eastward the plateau
+becomes still more sterile, and its elevation probably falls more
+rapidly till it reaches the level of the Jauf and Nejran valleys on the
+borders of the desert. The water-parting between central and
+southern Arabia seems to be somewhere to the south of Nejran,
+which, according to Halévy, drains northward to the W. Dawasir,
+while the Jauf is either an isolated depression, or perhaps forms part
+of the Hadramut basin.</p>
+
+<p>Farther north, in Asir, the plateau is more mountainous and
+contains many fertile valleys. Of these may be mentioned Khamis
+Mishet and the Wadi Shahran rising among the high
+summits of the maritime chain, and the principal affluents
+<span class="sidenote">Asir.</span>
+of the Wadi Besha; the latter is a broad well-watered valley, with
+numerous scattered hamlets, four days&rsquo; journey (perhaps 80 m.)
+from the crest of the range. Still farther north is the Wadi Taraba
+and its branches running down from the highland district of Zahran.
+The lower valleys produce dates in abundance, and at higher elevations
+wheat, barley, millets and excellent fruit are grown, while
+juniper forests are said to cover the mountain slopes. In Yemen this
+tree was probably more common formerly; the place-name Arar,
+signifying juniper, is still often found where the tree no longer exists.</p>
+
+<p>The western coast of Yemen, like that of Hejaz, is studded with
+shoals and islands, of which Perim in the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb,
+Kamaran, the Turkish quarantine post, 40 m. north of
+Hodeda, and the Farsan group, off the Abu Arish coast,
+<span class="sidenote">Coast of Yemen.</span>
+are the principal. Hodeda is the only port of any importance
+since the days of steamships began; the other ports, Mokha,
+Lohaia and Kanfuda merely share in the coasting trade. The south
+coast is free from the shoals that imperil the navigation of the Red
+Sea, and in Aden it possesses the only safe natural harbour on the
+route between Suez and India. Several isolated volcanic hills crop
+out on the shore line between Aden and the straits; the most remarkable
+are J. Kharaz, 2500 ft., and J. Shamshan, 1700 ft., at the base
+of which Aden itself is built. In both of these the crater form is
+very clearly marked. A low maritime plain, similar to the Tehama
+of the western coast, extends for some 200 m. east of the Straits of
+Bab-el-Mandeb, backed by mountains rising to 7000 ft. or more;
+farther east the elevation of the highland decreases steadily, and in
+<span class="sidenote">Hadramut.</span>
+the Hadramut, north of Mukalla, does not much exceed
+4000 ft. The mountain chain, too, is less distinctly
+marked, and becomes little more than the seaward escarpment of
+the plateau which intervenes between the coast and the Hadramut
+valley. This valley runs nearly east and west for a distance of
+500 m. from the eastern slopes of the Yemen highlands to its mouth
+on the Mahra coast near Sihut. The greater part of it is desert, but
+a short stretch lying between the 48th and 50th meridians is well
+watered and exceptionally fertile. This begins a little to the east of
+Shabwa, the ancient capital, now half buried in the advancing sand,
+and for a distance of over 70 m. a succession of villages and towns
+surrounded by fields and date groves extends along the main valley
+and into the tributaries which join it from the south. Shibam,
+Saiyun and Tarim are towns of 6000 or more inhabitants, and Hajren
+and Haura in the W. Duwan are among the larger villages. Himyaritic
+remains have been found here and in the W. Mefat which
+enters the Gulf of Aden near Balhaf. A few small fishing villages
+or ports are scattered along the coast, but except Mukalla and Shihr
+none is of any importance.</p>
+
+<p>The Gara coast was visited by the Bents, who went inland from
+Dhafar, one of the centres of the old frankincense trade, to the crest
+of the plateau. The narrow coastal strip seems to be moderately
+fertile, and the hills which in places come down to the seashore are
+covered with trees, among which the frankincense and other gum-bearing
+trees are found. On the plateau, which has an altitude of
+4000 ft., there is good pasturage; inland the country slopes gently
+to a broad valley beyond which the view was bounded by the level
+horizon of the desert.</p>
+
+<p>Oman (<i>q.v.</i>) includes all the south-eastern corner of the peninsula.
+Its chief feature is the lofty range of J. Akhdar, 10,000 ft. above
+sea-level. Like the great range of western Arabia, it runs
+parallel to the coast; it differs, however, from the western
+<span class="sidenote">Oman.</span>
+range in that its fall on the landward side is as abrupt and nearly
+as great as on its seaward side. Its northern extremity, Ras
+Musandan, rises precipitously from the straits of Hormuz; farther
+south the range curves inland somewhat, leaving a narrow but fertile
+strip, known as the Batina coast, between it and the sea, and containing
+several populous towns and villages of which Sohar, Barka
+and Sib are the chief. Muscat, the capital of the province and the
+principal port on the coast, is surrounded on three sides by bare,
+rocky hills, and has the reputation of being the hottest place in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page260" id="page260"></a>260</span>
+Arabia. Zwemer says the fertility of the highland region of J.
+Akhdar is wonderful and is in striking contrast to the barrenness of
+so much of the coast; water issues in perennial springs from many
+rocky clefts, and is carefully husbanded by the ingenuity of the
+people; underground channels, known here as <i>faluj</i>, precisely similar
+to the <i>kanat</i> or <i>karez</i> of Persia and Afghanistan, are also largely used.
+The principal villages on the eastern slopes are Rustak, Nakhl and
+Semail in the well-watered valley of the same name; on the western
+slopes are Tanuf and Nizwa, lying immediately below the highest
+summit of the range; Semed, Ibra and Bidiya in the W. Betha
+are all well-built villages with palm-groves and irrigated fields. In
+the north-west the Dhahira district sloping towards the Jewasimi
+coast is more steppe-like in character; but there two oases of great
+fertility are found, of which Birema, visited by both Miles and
+Zwemer, supports a population of 15,000. West of Abu Dhabi a low
+flat steppe with no settled inhabitants extends up to the Katr
+peninsula, merging on the north into the saline marshes which border
+the Persian Gulf, and on the south into the desert.</p>
+
+<p>The great desert known as the Dahna or the Rub&rsquo;a el Khali (&ldquo;the
+empty quarter&rdquo;) is believed to cover all the interior of southern
+Arabia from the borders of Yemen in the west to those
+of Oman in the east. Halévy in Nejran, Von Wrede in
+<span class="sidenote">The southern desert.</span>
+Hadramut, and Wellsted in Oman reached its edge,
+though none of them actually entered it, and the guides
+accompanying them all concurred in describing it as uninhabitable
+and uncrossed by any track. Its northern fringe is no doubt frequented
+by the Bedouin tribes of southern Nejd after the rains,
+when its sands, like those of the northern desert, produce herbage;
+but towards the east, according to Burckhardt&rsquo;s information, it is
+quite without vegetation even in the winter and spring. The
+farthest habitable spot to the south of Nejd is the Wadi Yabrin,
+which L. Pelly heard of from the Ahl Murra Bedouins as once a
+fertile district, and which still produces dates, though, owing to
+malaria, it is now deserted; thence southward to the Hadramut
+valley no communication is known to exist.</p>
+
+<p>[<i>Geology.</i>&mdash;The geological structure of Arabia is very similar to
+that of Egypt. The oldest rocks consist of granite and schist,
+penetrated by intrusive dykes, and upon this foundation rest the
+flat-lying sedimentary deposits, beginning with a sandstone like the
+Nubian sandstone of Egypt. In the northern part of Arabia the
+crystalline rocks form a broad area extending from the peninsula
+of Sinai eastwards to Hail and southwards at least as far as Mecca.
+Towards the north the crystalline floor is overlaid by the great
+sandstone series which covers nearly the whole of the country north
+of Hail. Upon the sandstone rest a few scattered outliers of limestone,
+probably of Cretaceous age, the largest of which occur near
+Jauf and east of Bureda. Over both sandstone and granite great
+sheets of lava have been poured, and these, protecting the softer
+beds beneath from further denudation, now stand up as the high
+plateaus and hills called <i>harra</i>. Volcanic cones still exist in large
+numbers, and the sheets of lava appear as fresh as any recent flows
+of Etna or Vesuvius. Arabian manuscripts describe an eruption on
+the harra near Medina in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1256. In the south of Arabia the
+crystalline floor appears at intervals along the southern coast and
+on the shores of the Gulf of Oman. At Marbat the granite is overlaid
+by sandstone, presumably the Nubian sandstone: this is followed
+by marls containing Cenomanian fossils; and these are overlaid
+by Upper Cretaceous limestones, upon which rest isolated patches
+of <i>Alveolina</i> limestone. Generally, however, the Cretaceous beds
+do not appear, and the greater part of southern Arabia seems to be
+formed of <i>Alveolina</i> and nummulite limestones of Tertiary age.
+An extinct volcano occurs at Aden, and volcanic rocks are found at
+other places near the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. Throughout the
+whole of Arabia, so far as is known, the sedimentary beds show no
+signs of any but the most gentle folding. Faulting, however, is by
+no means absent, and some of the faults are of considerable magnitude.
+The Gulf of Akaba is a strip of country which has been let
+down between two parallel faults, and several similar faulted troughs
+occur in the Sinai peninsula. The Red Sea itself is a great trough
+bounded by faults along each side.]</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;Owing to its low latitude and generally arid surface,
+Arabia is on the whole one of the hottest regions of the earth; this
+is especially the case along the coasts of the Persian Gulf and the
+southern half of the Red Sea, where the moist heat throughout the
+year is almost intolerable to Europeans. In the interior of northern
+and central Arabia, however, where the average level of the country
+exceeds 3000 ft., the fiery heat of the summer days is followed by
+cool nights, and the winter climate is fresh and invigorating; while
+in the highlands of Asir and Yemen in the south-west, and of Oman
+in the east, the summer heat is never excessive, and the winters are,
+comparatively speaking, cold.</p>
+
+<p>In the northern desert the temperature is subject to extreme
+variations. Nolde states that on the 1st of February 1893 in the
+desert north of Hail the thermometer fell from 78° a little before
+sunset to 18° a quarter of an hour after. The midday temperatures
+recorded by Huber at Hail during January and the first half of
+February average about 65° F., and water froze on several nights;
+at Medina the winters are cold and night frosts of frequent occurrence,
+and these conditions prevail over all the western part of the
+Nejd plateau. In the east where the elevation is lower the climate is
+warmer. In the elevated highland district which extends from
+Taif to within 50 m. of Aden, the summer heat is tempered by the
+monsoon winds, and the seasonal variation of temperature is less
+marked. From observations made at Sana by Manzoni, Deflers and
+Glaser, the mean temperature for the year of that city at an altitude
+of 7300 ft. and in 15° 22&prime; N. appears to be 60° F.; for July the
+mean maximum was 77°, mean minimum 54°; for January the
+figures were 62°and 40° respectively, the lowest recorded temperature
+in 1878 was 26.6° on the 26th of January. At Aden at the sea-level
+the mean temperature for the year is 83°; the highest observed
+temperature in 1904 was 97.3°, the lowest 67.4°.</p>
+
+<p>The rainfall throughout northern and central Arabia is chiefly in
+the winter months between October and April, and is scanty and
+irregular. Doughty states that in 1876 rain to wet the ground had
+not fallen for three years at Medain Salih; in that year showers fell
+on the 29th of December and on two days in January and again in
+March. After a very hot summer the bright weather changed to
+clouded skies on the 2nd of October, rain fell tempestuously the
+same evening, and there were showery days and nights till the 14th.
+The autumn rains fell that year abundantly in the Nafud towards
+Jauf, but very little in the basin of the W. Hamd (on the western
+slope). Doughty adds that the Nejd highlands between Kasim and
+Mecca are watered yearly by seasonable rains, which at Taif are
+expected about the end of August and last commonly from four to
+six weeks. This appears to be about the northern limit reached by
+the south-west monsoon, which from June to September brings a
+fairly abundant rainfall to the Yemen highlands, though the Tehama
+remains almost entirely rainless. The rainfall is heaviest along the
+western fringe of the plateau, and penetrates inland in decreasing
+quantity over a zone which perhaps extends to 100 m. in width. In
+good seasons it is sufficient for the cultivation of the summer crop
+of millet, and for the supply of the perennial streams and springs,
+on which the irrigation of the winter crops of wheat and barley
+depend. The amount measured at Dhala at the extreme south of
+the plateau at an elevation of 4800 ft. was in 1902 as follows:&mdash;June,
+4.0 in.; July, 5.5; August, 5.8; September, 1.9. Only
+slight showers were recorded in the other months of the year. At
+higher elevations the rainfall is no doubt heavier; Manzoni mentions
+that at Sana there was constant rain throughout August and September
+1878, and that the thermometer during August did not reach
+65°. In the Tehama occasional showers fall during the winter
+months; at Aden the average rainfall for the year is 2.97 in., but
+during 1904 only 0.5 in. was recorded. Snow falls on the Harra and
+on the Tehama range in northern Arabia, and Nolde records a fall of
+snow which lay on the Nafud on the 1st of February 1893. It also
+falls on J. Akhdar in Oman, but is very rarely known on the Yemen
+mountains, probably because the precipitation during the winter
+months is so slight.</p>
+
+<p>The prevailing winds in northern Arabia as far as is known are
+from the west; along the southern coast they are from the east;
+at Sana there is generally a light breeze from the north-north-west
+from 9 to 11 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>, from noon till 4 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> a steady and often strong
+wind blows from the south-south-east, which dies away later. The
+climate is extremely dry, but this is compensated for by the heavy
+mists which sweep up from the plains during the rainless months
+and exercise a most beneficial effect in the coffee-growing districts.
+This phenomenon is known as the sukhemani or amama. In the
+morning the Tehama, as seen from the mountain tops, appears
+buried in a sea of white cloud; towards noon the clouds drift up
+the mountain slopes and cover the summits with wreaths of light
+mist charged with moisture which condenses on the trees and
+vegetation; in the afternoon they disappear, and the evenings are
+generally clear and still.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna.</i>&mdash;The wild animals of Arabia are all of the desert-loving
+type: antelopes and gazelles are found in small numbers throughout
+the peninsula; the latter are similar to the <i>chikara</i> or ravine deer of
+India. The larger antelopes, so common on the African side of the
+Gulf of Aden, are not found, except one variety, the <i>Oryx beatrix</i>
+(called by the Arabs, wild cow), which is an inhabitant of the Nafud
+between Tema and Hail; it is about the size of a donkey, white,
+and with long straight horns. Hares are numerous both in the desert
+and in cultivated tracts. In the Yemen mountains the <i>wal</i>, a wild
+goat with massive horns, similar to the Kashmir ibex, is found;
+monkeys also abound. Among smaller animals the jerboa and other
+descriptions of rat, and the <i>wabar</i> or cony are common; lizards
+and snakes are numerous, most of the latter being venomous.
+Hyenas, wolves and panthers are found in most parts of the country,
+and in the mountains the leopard and wild cat. Of birds the ostrich
+is found in the Nafud and in the W. Dawasir. Among game birds
+the bustard, guinea fowl, sand grouse (<i>kata</i>), blue rock, green pigeon,
+partridge, including a large chikor (<i>akb</i>) and a small species similar
+to the Punjab sisi; quail and several kinds of duck and snipe are
+met with. In the cultivated parts of Yemen and Tehama small
+birds are very numerous, so also are birds of prey, vultures, kites and
+hawks.</p>
+
+<p>Insects of all sorts abound; scorpions, centipedes, spiders, and an
+ugly but harmless millipede known in Yemen as <i>hablub</i> are very
+common in summer. Ants and beetles too are very numerous,
+and anthills are prominent features in many places. Locusts appear
+in great swarms and do much damage; fires are lighted at night
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page261" id="page261"></a>261</span>
+to attract them, and large quantities are caught and eaten by the
+poorer people. Bees are kept, and in Yemen and Hadramut the
+honey is exceptionally good.</p>
+
+<p>Of domesticated animals the camel is far the most useful to the
+Arab. Owing to its endurance of thirst the long desert journeys
+which separate the populous centres are made practicable,
+and in the spring months, when green forage is plentiful
+<span class="sidenote">Camel.</span>
+in the desert, the Bedouins pitch their camps for long periods far from
+any water, and not only men but horses subsist on camel&rsquo;s milk.
+The Arabian camel belongs to the one-humped species, though there
+are many varieties differing in appearance as much as the thoroughbred
+race-horse from the English cart-horse. The ordinary load for
+a pack camel is about 400 &#8468;, and in hot weather good camels will
+march 20 to 25 m. daily and only require water every third or fourth
+day: in cool weather, with ample green fodder they can go twenty-five
+days or more without drinking. A good <i>dalul</i> or riding camel
+will carry his rider 100 m. a day for a week on end. Nolde gives an
+instance from his own experience of a camel rider covering 62 m. in
+seven hours. The pure-bred riding camel is only found in perfection
+in inner Arabia; for some unexplained reason when taken out
+of their own country or north of the 30th degree they rapidly
+degenerate.</p>
+
+<p>The horse does not occupy the important position in the Bedouin
+economy that is popularly supposed. In Nejd the number of horses
+is, comparatively speaking, very small; the want of
+water in the Nafud where alone forage is obtainable,
+<span class="sidenote">Horse.</span>
+and the absence of forage in the neighbourhood of the towns makes
+horse-breeding on a large scale impracticable there. Horses are in
+fact only kept by the principal sheiks, and by far the larger proportion
+of those now in Nejd are the property of the amir and his family.
+These are kept most of the year in the Nafud, five or ten days&rsquo;
+march from Hail, where they find their own food on the desert
+herbage. When a raid is in contemplation, they are brought in and
+given a little barley for a few weeks. Reared in this way they are
+capable of marvellous endurance, marching during a raid twenty
+hours a day for eight or ten days together. As a rule, they are only
+mounted at the moment of attack, or in pursuit. Water and forage
+have to be carried for them on camels.</p>
+
+<p>The great majority of the horses that come into the market as
+Arabs, are bred in the northern desert and in Mesopotamia, by the
+various sections of the Aneza and Shammar tribes, who emigrated
+from Nejd generations ago, taking with them the original Nejd
+stock. In size and appearance, and in everything but endurance,
+these northern horses are admittedly superior to the true Nejdi. A
+few of the latter are collected by dealers in the nomad camps and
+exported chiefly from Kuwet. The amir Mahommed Ibn Rashid
+used to send down about one hundred young horses yearly.</p>
+
+<p>Asses of excellent quality are bred all over the country; they
+are much used as mounts by the richer townsmen. Except in the
+settled districts horned cattle are not numerous; they are similar
+to the Indian humped cattle, but are greatly superior in milking
+qualities. The great wealth of the Arabs is in their flocks of sheep
+and goats; they are led out to pasture soon after sunrise, and in the
+hotter months drink every second day. In the spring when the
+succulent <i>ashub</i> and <i>adar</i> grow plentifully in the desert, they go for
+weeks without drinking. They are milked once a day about sunset
+by the women (the men milk the camels), and a large proportion of
+the milk is made into <i>samn</i>, clarified butter, or <i>marisi</i>, dried curd.
+The wool is not of much value, and is spun by the women and woven
+into rugs, and made up into saddlebags or into the black Bedouin
+tents.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora.</i>&mdash;The flora of Arabia has been investigated by P. Forskal,
+the botanist of Niebuhr&rsquo;s mission, P.E. Botta, G. Schweinfurth and
+A. Deflers, to whose publications the technical reader is referred.
+Its general type approaches more closely to the African than to
+that of southern Asia. In the higher regions the principal trees are
+various species of fig, tamarind, carob and numerous kinds of
+cactiform <i>Euphorbia</i>, of which one, the <i>Euphorbia arborea</i>, grows to
+a height of 20 ft. Of Coniferae the juniper is found on the higher
+slopes of J. Sabur near Taiz, where Botta describes it as forming an
+extensive forest and growing to a large size; it is also found in the
+range overlooking the W. Madin, 50 m. W. of Aden. Considerable
+forests are said to exist in Asir, and Burton found a few fine specimens
+which he regarded as the remains of an old forest, on the
+Tehama range in Midian. On the rocky hill-sides in Yemen the
+<i>Adenium Obesum</i> is worthy of notice, with its enormous bulb-like
+stems and brilliant red flowers. Some fine aloes or agaves are also
+found. In the cultivated upland valleys all over Arabia the <i>Zisyphus
+jujuba</i>, called by some travellers lotus, grows to a large tree; its
+thorny branches are clipped yearly and used to fence the cornfields
+among which it grows. In the broad sandy wadi beds the tamarisk
+(<i>athl</i>) is everywhere found; its wood is used for making domestic
+implements of all sorts. Among fruit trees the vine, apricot, peach,
+apple, quince, fig and banana are cultivated in the highlands, and in
+the lower country the date palm flourishes, particularly throughout
+the central zone of Arabia, in Hejaz, Nejd and El Hasa, where it is
+the prime article of food. A hundred kinds of date are said to grow
+at Medina, of which the <i>birni</i> is considered the most wholesome;
+the <i>halwa</i> and the <i>jalebi</i> are the most delicately flavoured and sell at
+very high rates; the <i>khulas</i> of El Hasa is also much esteemed.</p>
+
+<p>Of cereals the common millets, <i>dhura</i> and <i>dukhn</i>, are grown in all
+parts of the country as the summer crop, and in the hot irrigated
+Tehama districts three crops are reaped in the year; in the highlands
+maize, wheat and barley are grown to a limited extent as the winter
+crop, ripening at the end of March or in April. Among vegetables
+the common kinds grown include radishes, pumpkins, cucumbers,
+melons, potatoes, onions and leeks. Roses are grown in some places
+for the manufacture of <i>atr</i>, or attar of roses; mignonette, jasmine,
+thyme, lavender and other aromatic plants are favourites in Yemen,
+when the Arabs often stick a bunch in their head-dress.</p>
+
+<p>Of the products special to Arabia coffee comes first; it is nowhere
+found wild, and is believed to have been introduced from Abyssinia
+in the 6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> It thrives on the seaward slopes
+of the western range in the zone of the tropical rains, at
+<span class="sidenote">Coffee.</span>
+altitudes between 4000 and 7000 ft. The principal centres of production
+are the upper valleys of the W. Surdad, between Kaukaban
+and Manakha, and particularly on J. Haraz; in the Wadi Zubed
+west of Uden; in Hajaria on the slopes of J. Sabur, and in the Yafa
+district north-east of Aden. It is planted in terraces on the mountain
+slopes; shady trees, such as tamarind and fig, are planted in the
+border as a protection from the sun, and the terraces are irrigated
+by channels led from a neighbouring rivulet or spring. The plants
+are raised from seedlings, and when six or seven weeks old they are
+transplanted in rows 4 to 6 ft. apart; they require watering twice
+a month, and bear in two to four years. The berries are dried in the
+sun and sent down to Hodeda or Aden, where they are subjected
+to a process for separating the husk from the bean; the result is
+about 50% of cleaned berries, <i>bun safi</i>, which is exported, and a
+residue of husk or <i>kishr</i>, from which the Yemenis make their favourite
+beverage.</p>
+
+<p>Another plant universally used as a stimulant in Southern Arabia
+is <i>khat</i> (<i>Catha edulis</i>). The best is grown on J. Sabur and the
+mountainous country round Taiz. It is a small bush propagated from
+cuttings which are left to grow for three years; the leaves are then
+stripped, except a few buds which develop next year into young
+shoots, these being cut and sold in bunches under the name of <i>khat
+mubarak</i>; next year on the branches cut back new shoots grow;
+these are sold as <i>khat malhani</i>, or second-year kat, which commands
+the highest price. The bush is then left for three years, when the
+process is repeated. The leaves and young shoots are chewed;
+they have stimulating properties, comparable with those of the coca
+of Peru.</p>
+
+<p>The aromatic gums for which Arabia was famed in ancient times
+are still produced, though the trade is a very small one. The tree
+from which myrrh is extracted grows in many places, but the
+industry is chiefly carried on at Suda, 60 m. north-north-east of Sana.
+Longitudinal slits are made in the bark, and the gum is caught in
+cups fixed beneath. The balsam of Mecca is produced in the same
+way, chiefly in the mountains near the W. Safra between Yambu
+and Medina.</p>
+
+<p>The stony plains which cover so large a part of the country are
+often covered with acacia jungle, and in the dry water-courses a kind
+of wild palm, the <i>dom</i>, abounds, from the leaves of which baskets
+and mats are woven. Brushwood and rough pasturage of some sort
+is found almost everywhere, except in the neighbourhood of the
+larger settlements, where forage and firewood have to be brought
+in from long distances. The Nafud sands, too, are tufted in many
+places with bushes or small trees, and after the winter rains they
+produce excellent pasture.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;The people, according to their own traditions,
+are derived from two stocks, the pure Arabs, descended from
+Kahtan or Joktan, fourth in descent from Shem; and the
+Mustarab or naturalized Arabs, from Ishmael. The former are
+represented at the present day by the inhabitants of Yemen,
+Hadramut and Oman, in general a settled agricultural population;
+the latter by those of Hejaz, Nejd, El Hasa, the Syrian
+desert and Mesopotamia, consisting of the Bedouin or pastoral
+tribes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arabs</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bedouins</a></span>). This distinction between the
+characteristics of the two races is only true in a general sense,
+for a considerable population of true Bedouin origin has settled
+down to agricultural life in the oases of Hejaz and Nejd, while in
+southern Arabia the tribes dwelling on the fringe of the great
+desert have to a certain extent adopted the nomad life.</p>
+
+<p>Both among the nomad and settled Arabs the organization
+is essentially tribal. The affairs of the tribe are administered by
+the sheiks, or heads of clans and families; the position of sheik
+in itself gives no real governing power, his word and counsel
+carry weight, but his influence depends on his own personal
+qualities. All matters affecting the community are discussed in
+the <i>majlis</i> or assembly, to which any tribesman has access;
+here, too, are brought the tribesmen&rsquo;s causes; both sides plead
+and judgment is given impartially, the loser is fined so many
+head of small cattle or camels, which he must pay or go into
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page262" id="page262"></a>262</span>
+exile. Murder can be expiated by the payment of <i>diya</i> or
+blood-money, if the kinsmen of the murdered man consent; they
+may, however, claim the life of the murderer, and long and
+troublesome blood feuds often ensue, involving the relatives of
+both sides for generations.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from the tribesmen there is in Hejaz and south Arabia
+a privileged, religious class, the Sharifs or Seyyids, who claim
+descent from Mahomet through his daughter Fatima. Until the
+Egyptian invasion in 1814 the Sharifs of Mecca were the recognized
+rulers of Hejaz, and though the Turks have attempted to
+suppress their importance, the Sharif still executes justice according
+to the Mahommedan law in the holy cities, though, nominally,
+as a Turkish official. In Yemen and Hadramut many villages
+are occupied exclusively by this religious hierarchy, who are
+known as Ashraf, Sada or Kudha (<i>i.e.</i> Sharifs, Seyyids or Kadhis);
+the religious affairs of the tribes are left in their hands; they do
+not, however, interfere in tribal matters generally, or join in
+fighting.</p>
+
+<p>Below these two classes, which may be looked on as the priestly
+and the military castes, there is, especially in the settled districts,
+a large population of artisans and labourers, besides negro slaves
+and their descendants, slave or free. The population of Khaibar
+consists almost entirely of the latter, and in Hail Huber estimates
+the pure Arab inhabitants at only one-third of the whole. In the
+desert, too, there is a widely scattered tribe, the Salubi, which
+from its name (<i>Salib</i>, cross) is conjectured to be of early Christian
+origin; they are great hunters, killing ostriches and gazelles;
+the Arabs despise them as an inferior race, but do not harm
+them; they pay a small tax to the tribe under whose protection
+they live, and render service as labourers, for which they receive
+in the spring milk and cheese; at the date harvest they get
+wages in kind; with this, and the produce of the chase,
+they manage to exist in the desert without agriculture or
+flocks.</p>
+
+<p>In southern Arabia the Jews form a large element in the town
+population. According to one authority their presence in Yemen
+dates from the time of Solomon, others say from the
+capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezzar. Manzoni
+<span class="sidenote">The Jews in Arabia.</span>
+estimated their number in Sana in 1878 at 1700 out
+of a total population of 20,000; at Aden they are a numerous
+and wealthy community, with agents in most of the towns of
+Yemen. Even in remote Nejran, Halévy, himself a Jew, found a
+considerable colony of his co-religionists. They wear a distinctive
+garb and are not allowed to carry arms or live in the same quarter
+as Moslems. Another foreign element of considerable strength
+in the coast towns of Muscat, Aden and Jidda, is the British
+Indian trading class; many families of Indian origin also have
+settled at Mecca, having originally come as pilgrims.</p>
+
+<p>Estimates of the population of Arabia vary enormously, and
+the figures given in the following table can only be regarded as a
+very rough approximation:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Hejaz</td> <td class="tcr">300,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Yemen and Asir</td> <td class="tcr">1,800,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Nejd</td> <td class="tcr">1,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Hadramut </td> <td class="tcr">150,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Oman</td> <td class="tcr">1,000,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">El Hasa</td> <td class="tcr">300,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Syrian desert and border</td> <td class="tcr">275,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">4,825,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Communications.</i>&mdash;The principal land routes in Arabia are
+those leading to the holy cities. In the present day the Syrian
+pilgrim route, or Darb el Haj, from Damascus to Medina and
+Mecca is the most used. The annual pilgrim caravan or haj,
+numbering some 6000 people with 10,000 pack animals, is
+escorted by a few Turkish irregulars known as <i>agel</i>; small
+fortified posts have been established at the regular halting-places
+some 30 m. apart, each furnished with a well and reservoir, and
+for the further protection of the haj, payments are made to the
+Bedouin tribes through whose territories the route passes. The
+road is a mere camel track across the desert, the chief places
+passed are Ma&rsquo;an on the Syrian border, a station on the old
+Sabaean trade route to Petra, and Medain Salih, the site of the
+rock-cut tombs and inscriptions first brought to notice by
+Doughty. From Medina the route usually followed descends
+the W. Safra to Badr Hunen, whence it keeps near the coast
+passing Rabigh and Khulesa to Mecca. The total distance,
+1300 m., is covered in forty days.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptian pilgrim route from Cairo, across the Sinai
+peninsula and down the Midian coast to El Wijh, joins the
+Syrian route at Badr Hunen. It also was formerly provided
+with stations and reservoirs, but owing to the greater facilities
+of the sea journey from Suez to Jidda it is now little used.
+Another important route is that taken by the Persian or Shia
+pilgrims from Bagdad and Kerbela across the desert, by the
+wells of Lina, to Bureda in Kasim; thence across the steppes of
+western Nejd till it crosses the Hejaz border at the Ria Mecca,
+50 m. north-east of the city. It lies almost entirely in the
+territory of the amir Ibn Rashid of J. Shammar, who derives a
+considerable revenue from the pilgrimage. The old reservoirs
+on this route attributed to Zubeda, wife of Harun al Rashid,
+were destroyed during the Wahhabi raids early in the 19th
+century, and have not been repaired. The Yemen pilgrim route,
+known as the Haj el Kabsi, led from Sada through Asir to Taif
+and Mecca, but it is no longer used.</p>
+
+<p>The principal trade routes are those leading from Damascus to
+Jauf and across the Nafud to Hail. Other important routes
+leading to Nejd are those from Kuwet to Hail, and from El Hasa
+to Riad respectively. In the west and south the principal routes,
+other than those already mentioned, are from Yambu to Medina,
+from Jidda to Mecca, Hodeda to Sana, Aden to Sana, and from
+Mukalla to the Hadramut valley. Railway construction has
+begun in Arabia, and in 1908 the Hejaz line, intended to connect
+Damascus with Mecca, had reached Medina, 500 m. south of
+Ma&rsquo;an. This line is of great strategical importance, as strengthening
+the Turkish hold on the Red Sea provinces. But the principal
+means of commercial communication for a country like Arabia
+must always be by sea. Bahrein, Kuwet and Muscat are in steam
+communication with India, and the Persian Gulf ports; all the
+great lines of steamships call at Aden on their way between Suez
+and the East, and regular services are maintained between Suez,
+Jidda, Hodeda and Aden, as well as to the ports on the African
+coast, while native coasting craft trade to the smaller ports on
+the Red Sea and Indian Ocean.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Commerce.</i>&mdash;The total value of the trade of Aden for 1904
+amounted to over £6,000,000. The imports to Jidda in the same
+year were £1,405,000, largely consisting of rice, wheat and other food
+stuffs from India; the exports, which have dwindled away in late
+years, amounted in 1904 to only £25,000. To balance the exports
+and imports specie was exported in the three years 1902-1904
+amounting to £2,319,000; a large proportion of this was perhaps
+provided by cash brought into the country by pilgrims.</p>
+
+<p>The pilgrim traffic increased largely in 1904 as compared with
+previous years; 74,600 persons landed at Jidda, 18,000 of whom
+were from British India, 13,000 from Java and the Straits Settlements,
+and the remainder from Turkish territory, Egypt and other
+countries: 235 out of a total of 334 steamships engaged in this
+traffic were British.</p>
+
+<p>The trade of Hodeda, which contributes by far the largest share
+to that of Turkish Yemen, fell off considerably during the period
+from 1901-1905, chiefly owing to the disturbed state of the country.
+In the latter year the imports amounted to £467,000, and the exports
+to £451,000; coffee, the mainstay of Yemen trade, shows a serious
+decline from £302,000 in 1902 to £229,000 in 1904; this is attributable
+partly to the great increase of production in other countries, but
+mainly to the insecurity of the trade routes and the exorbitant
+transit dues levied by the Turkish administration.</p>
+
+<p>Oman, through its chief port Muscat, had a total trade of about
+£550,000, two-thirds of which is due to imports and one-third to
+exports. The chief items of imports are arms and ammunition, rice,
+coffee and piece goods; the staple export is dates, which in a good
+year accounts for nearly half the total; much of the trade is in the
+hands of British Indians, and of the shipping 92% is British.</p>
+
+<p>The principal trade centre of the Arabian side of the Persian Gulf
+is Bahrein; the total volume of trade of which amounted in 1904
+to £1,900,000, nearly equally divided between imports and exports;
+rice, piece goods, &amp;c., form the bulk of the former, while pearls are
+the most valuable part of the latter.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. A. W.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Antiquities</p>
+
+<p>Arabia cannot be said to be &ldquo;destitute of antiquities,&rdquo; but
+the material for the study of these is still very incomplete.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page263" id="page263"></a>263</span>
+The difficulties in the way of travelling in Arabia with a view
+to scientific investigation are such that little or nothing is being
+done, and the systematic work which has given such good results
+in Egypt, Palestine and Babylonia-Assyria is unknown in Arabia.
+Yet the passing notes of travellers from the time of Carsten
+Niebuhr show that antiquities are to be found.</p>
+
+<p><i>Prehistoric Remains.</i>&mdash;Since prehistoric remains must be
+studied where they are found, the difficulty in the way of exploration
+makes itself severely felt. That such remains exist
+seems clear from the casual remarks of travellers. Thus Palgrave
+(<i>Central and Eastern Arabia</i>, vol. i. ch. 6) speaks of part of a circle
+of roughly shaped stones taken from the adjacent limestone
+mountains in the Nejd. Eight or nine of these stones still
+exist, some of them 15 ft. high. Two of them, 10 to 12 ft. apart,
+still bear their horizontal lintel. They are all without ornament.
+Palgrave compares them with the remains at Stonehenge and
+Karnak. Doughty (<i>Arabia Deserta</i>, vol. ii.), travelling in north-west
+Arabia, saw stones of granite in a row and &ldquo;flagstones set
+edgewise&rdquo; (though he does not regard these as religious), also
+&ldquo;round heaps, perhaps barrows,&rdquo; and &ldquo;dry-built round
+chambers,&rdquo; which may be ancient tombs. J.T. Bent (<i>Southern
+Arabia</i>, pp. 24 ff.) explored one of several mounds in Bahrein.
+It proved to be a tomb, and the remains in it are said to be
+Phoenician.</p>
+
+<p><i>Castles and Walls.</i>&mdash;In the south of Arabia, where an advanced
+civilization existed for centuries before the Christian era, the
+ruins of castles and city-walls are still in existence, and have been
+mentioned, though not examined carefully, by several travellers.
+In Yemen and Hadramut especially these ruins abound, and in
+some cases inscriptions seem to be still <i>in situ</i>. Great castles
+are often mentioned in early Arabian literature. One in the
+neighbourhood of San&#8219;a was described as one of the wonders of
+the world by Qazw&#299;n&#299; (<i>Ath&#257;r ul-Bil&#257;d</i>, p. 33, ed. Wüstenfeld,
+Göttingen, 1847, cf. <i>Journal of the German Oriental Society</i>,
+vol. 7, pp. 472, 476, and for other castles vol. 10, pp. 20 ff.).
+The ruins of the city of Ma&rsquo;rib, the old Sabaean capital, have
+been visited by Arnaud, Halévy and Glaser, but call for further
+description, as Arnaud confined himself to a description of the
+dike (see below), while Halévy and Glaser were interested chiefly
+in the inscriptions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Wells and Dikes.</i>&mdash;From the earliest times the conservation
+of water has been one of the serious cares of the Arabs. All over
+the country wells are to be found, and the masonry of some of
+them is undoubtedly ancient. Inscriptions are still found in
+some of these in the south. The famous well Zemzem at Mecca
+is said to belong to the early times, when the eastern traffic
+passed from the south to the north-west of Arabia through the
+Hejaz, and to have been rediscovered shortly before the time of
+Mahomet. Among the most famous remains of Ma&rsquo;rib are those
+of a great dike reminding one of the restored tanks familiar to
+visitors at Aden. These remains were first described by Arnaud
+(<i>Journal asiatique</i>, January 1874, with plan). Their importance
+was afterwards emphasized by Glaser&rsquo;s publication of two long
+inscriptions concerning their restoration in the 5th and 6th
+centuries <span class="scs">A.D.</span> (&ldquo;Zwei Inschriften über den Dammbruch von
+Marib,&rdquo; in the <i>Mitteilungen der Vorderasiatischen Gesellschaft</i>,
+Berlin, 1897). Another dike about 150 yds. long was seen by
+W.B. Harris at Hîrran in Yemen. Above it was a series of three
+tanks (<i>A Journey through the Yemen</i>, p. 279, London, 1893).</p>
+
+<p><i>Stones and Bronzes.</i>&mdash;The 19th century has brought to the
+museums of Europe (especially to London, Paris, Berlin and
+Vienna) a number of inscriptions in the languages of Minea and
+Saba, and a few in those of Hadramut and Katabania (Qatta-bania).
+These inscriptions are generally on limestone or marble
+or on tablets of bronze, and vary from a few inches to some
+feet in length and height. In some cases the originals have been
+brought to Europe, in other cases only squeezes of the inscriptions.
+The characters employed are apparently derived from
+the Phoenician (cf. Lidzbarski&rsquo;s <i>Ephemeris</i>, vol. i. pp. 109 ff.).
+The languages employed have been the subject of much study
+(cf. F. Hommel&rsquo;s <i>Süd-arabische Chrestomathie</i>, Munich, 1893),
+but the archaeological value of these remains has not been so
+fully treated. Very many of them are votive inscriptions and
+contain little more than the names of gods and princes or private
+men. A few are historical, but being (with few and late exceptions)
+undated, have given rise to much controversy among
+scholars. Their range seems to be from about 800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (or 1500
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> according to E. Glaser) to the 6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> Few are
+still <i>in situ</i>, the majority having been taken from their original
+positions and built into houses, mosques or wells of more recent
+date. Among these remains are altars, and bases for statues
+of gods or for golden images of animals dedicated to gods. The
+earlier stones are devoid of ornamentation, but the later stones
+and bronzes are sometimes ornamented with designs of leaves,
+flowers, ox-heads, men and women. Some bear figures of the
+conventionalized sacred tree with worshippers, similar to
+Babylonian designs. Besides these there are gravestones, stelae
+with human heads, fragments of limestone, architectural designs
+as well as bronze castings of camels, horses, mice, serpents, &amp;c.
+(cf. D.H. Müller&rsquo;s <i>Südarabische Alterthümer im Kunsthistorischen
+Museum</i>, Vienna, 1899, with plates).</p>
+
+<p><i>Seals, Weights and Coins.</i>&mdash;The Vienna Museum possesses a
+small number of seals and gems. The seals are inscribed with
+Sabaean writing and are of bronze, copper, silver and stone.
+The gems of onyx, carnelian and agate are later and bear various
+figures, and in some cases Arabic inscriptions. One or two
+weights are also in existence. A number of coins have been
+brought to the British Museum from Aden, San&rsquo;a and Ma&rsquo;rib.
+Others were purchased by G. Schlumberger in Constantinople;
+others have been brought to Europe by Glaser, and are now in
+the Vienna Museum. These are imitations of Greek models,
+while the inscriptions are in Sabaean characters (cf. B.V. Head,
+in the <i>Numismatic Chronicle</i>, 1878, pp. 273-284; G. Schlumberger,
+<i>Le Trêsor de San&#8219;a</i>, Paris, 1880; D.H. Müller, <i>op. cit.</i>
+pp. 65 ff. and plates).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the problem of Arabic antiquities in Rhodesia see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rhodesia</a></span>
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Zimbabwe</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">History</p>
+
+<p><i>Introduction.</i>&mdash;Arabia is a land of Semites, and is supposed by
+some scholars to have been the original home of the Semitic
+peoples. Although this cannot be said to be proved, the studies,
+linguistic and archaeological, of Semitic scholars have shown
+it to be probable. The dispersion from Arabia is easy to imagine.
+The migration into Babylonia was simple, as there are no natural
+boundaries to separate it from north-east Arabia, and similar
+migrations have taken place in historic times. That of the
+Aramaeans at an early period is likewise free from any natural
+hindrance. The connexion with Palestine has always been close;
+and the Abyssinian settlement is probably as late as the beginning
+of the Christian era. Of these migrations, however, history knows
+nothing, nor are they expressed in literature. Arabian literature
+has its own version of prehistoric times, but it is entirely
+legendary and apocryphal. It was, and still is, the custom of
+Arabian historians to begin with the creation of the world and
+tell the history from then to the time of which they are writing.
+Consequently even the more sober histories contain a mass of
+fables about early days. Many of these, taken in part from
+Jewish and Christian sources, find a place in the Koran. Of all
+these stories current at the time of Mahomet, the only ones of
+any value are the accounts of the &ldquo;days of the Arabs,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i>
+accounts of some famous inter-tribal battles in Arabia.</p>
+
+<p><i>Authorities.</i>&mdash;Until recently the Arab traditions were practically
+the only source for the pre-Islamic history of Arabia. The
+Old Testament references to Arabs were obscure. The classical
+accounts of the invasion of Aelius Callus in 26 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> threw little
+light on the state of Arabia at the time, still less on its past
+history. The Greek writers from Theophrastus in the 4th
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to Ptolemy in the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> mention many
+names of Arabian peoples and describe the situation of their
+cities, but contribute little to their history, and that little could
+not be controlled. The same applies to the information of Pliny
+in his <i>Natural History</i>. In the 19th century the discovery
+and decipherment of the Assyrian inscriptions gave a slight
+glance into the relations between Arabs and Assyrians from the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page264" id="page264"></a>264</span>
+8th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> But the great contribution of the century to
+the early history of Arabia was the collecting and translating
+of numerous early Arabian inscriptions (cf. section <i>Antiquities</i>
+above), which have done service both by their own indication of
+a great civilization in Arabia for nearly (or more than) a thousand
+years before the Christian era, and by the new stimulus which
+they gave to the study and appreciation of the materials in the
+Assyrian inscriptions, the Old Testament, and the Greek and
+Roman writers. At the same time the facts that the inscriptions
+are undated until a late period, that few are historical in their
+contents, and for the most part yield only names of gods and
+rulers and domestic and religious details, and that our collection
+is still very incomplete, have led to much serious disagreement
+among scholars as to the reconstruction of the history of Arabia
+in the pre-Christian centuries.</p>
+
+<p>All scholars, however, are agreed that the inscriptions reach as
+far back as the 9th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (some say to the 16th) and prove
+the existence of at least four civilized kingdoms during these
+centuries. These are the kingdoms of Ma&#8219;&#299;n (Minaean), of
+Saba (Sabaean), of Hadramaut (Hadramut) and of Katabania
+(Kataban&#363;). Of the two latter little is known. That of Hadramut
+had kings from the time of the Minaeans to about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 300, when
+it was conquered by Ethiopia. The limits of the kingdom of
+Katabania are not known, but it has its own inscriptions.</p>
+
+<p>As to the Sabaean kingdom there is fair agreement among
+scholars. The inscriptions go back to 800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> or earlier, and
+the same applies to the kingdom. A queen of this people (the
+&ldquo;Queen of Sheba&rdquo;) is said (1 Kings x.) to have visited Solomon
+about 950 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> There is, however, no mention of such a queen
+in the inscriptions. An Assyrian inscription mentions Ith&#8219;amara
+the Sabaean who paid tribute to Sargon in 715 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> At this time
+the Sabaeans must have been in north Arabia unless the inscription
+refers to a northern colony of the southern Sabaeans.
+The former opinion is held by E. Glaser, who thinks that in the
+9th and 8th centuries they moved down along the west coast to
+the south, where they conquered the Minaeans (see below).
+The Sabaean rule is generally divided into periods indicated by
+the titles given to their rulers. In the first of these ruled the
+Makarib, who seem to have been priest-kings. Their first capital
+was at &#7778;irw&#257;&#7717;. Ten such rulers are mentioned in the inscriptions.
+Their rule extended from the 9th to the 6th century. The second
+period begins about 550 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The rulers are known as &ldquo;kings of
+Saba.&rdquo; Their capital was Ma&rsquo;rib. The names of seventeen of
+these kings are known from the inscriptions. Their sway lasted
+until about 115 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when they were succeeded by the Himyarites.
+During this period they were engaged in constant strife
+with the neighbouring kingdoms of Hadramut and Katabania.
+The great prosperity of south-west Arabia at this time was due
+in large measure to the fact that the trade from India with Egypt
+came there by sea and then went by land up the west coast.
+This trade, however, was lost during this period, as the Ptolemies
+established an overland route from India to Alexandria. The
+connexion of Saba with the north, where the Nabataeans (<i>q.v.</i>)
+had existed from about 200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, was now broken. The decay
+that followed caused a number of Sabaeans to migrate to other
+parts of Arabia.</p>
+
+<p>The Minaean kingdom extended over the south Arabian
+Jauf, its chief cities being Karnau, Ma&#8219;&#299;n and Yathil. Some
+twenty-five kings are known from the inscriptions; of these
+twenty are known to be related to one another. Their history
+must thus cover several centuries. As inscriptions in the Minaean
+language are found in al-&rsquo;Ula in north Arabia, it is probable that
+they had colonies in that district. With regard to their date
+opinion is very much divided; some, with E. Glaser and
+F. Hommel, maintaining that their kingdom existed prior to
+that of Saba, probably from about 1500 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> or earlier until the
+Sabaeans came from their home in the north and conquered
+them in the 9th century. Other scholars think, with D.H.
+Müller, partly on palaeographical grounds (cf. M. Lidzbarski&rsquo;s
+<i>Ephemeris</i>, vol. i. pp. 109 seq., Giessen, 1902), that none of the
+inscriptions are earlier than about 800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and that the Minaean
+kingdom existed side by side with the Sabaean. It is curious that
+the Sabaean inscriptions contain no mention of the Minaeans,
+though this may be due to the fact that very few of the inscriptions
+are historical in content.</p>
+
+<p>About 115 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the power over south Arabia passed from the
+Sabaeans to the Himyarites, a people from the extreme south-west
+of Arabia; and about this time the kingdom of Katabania
+came to an end. The title taken by the new rulers was &ldquo;king of
+Saba and Raidan.&rdquo; Twenty-six kings of this period are known
+from the inscriptions, some of which are dated. In this period
+the Romans made their one attempt at direct interference in the
+affairs of Arabia. The invasion under Aelius Gallus was an
+absolute failure, the expedition being betrayed by the guides
+and lost in the sands of the desert. During the latter part of
+this time the Abyssinians, who had earlier migrated from Arabia
+to the opposite coast of Africa, began to flow back to the south
+of Arabia, where they seem to have settled gradually and
+increased in importance until about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 300, when they became
+strong enough to overturn the Himyarite kings and establish a
+dynasty of their own. The title assumed by them was &ldquo;king of
+Saba, Raid&#257;n, Hadramut and Yemen.&rdquo; The Himyarites were,
+however, still active, and after a struggle succeeded in establishing
+a Jewish Sabaean kingdom, having previously accepted
+Judaism as their religion. Their best-known king was Dhu
+Nuwas. The struggle between them and the Abyssinians now
+became one of Judaism against Christianity. The persecution
+of the Christians was very severe (see E. Glaser&rsquo;s <i>Die Abyssinier
+in Arabien und Afrika</i>, Munich, 1895, and F.M.E. Pereira&rsquo;s
+<i>Historia dos Martyres de Nagran</i>, Lisbon, 1899). Apparently for
+this reason Christian Abyssinia was supported from Byzantium
+in its attempts to regain power. These attempts were crowned
+with success in 525. Of the Christian Abyssinian kings in Arabia
+tradition tells of four, one only of whom is mentioned in inscriptions.
+The famous expedition of Abraha, the Abyssinian viceroy,
+against Mecca, took place in 570. Five years later the Persians,
+who had been called in by the opponents of Christianity, succeeded
+in taking over the rule and in appointing governors over
+Yemen. (See further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethiopia</a></span>: <i>The Axumite Kingdom</i>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Hira, Ghass&#257;n and Kinda.</i>&mdash;Before passing to the time of
+Mahomet it is necessary to take account of three other Arabian
+powers, those of Hira, Ghassan and Kinda.</p>
+
+<p>The kingdom of Hira (&#7716;&#299;ra) was established in the boundary
+land between the Euphrates and the Arabian desert, a district
+renowned for its good air and extraordinary fertility.
+The chief town was Hira, a few miles south of the site
+<span class="sidenote">Hira.</span>
+of the later town of Kufa. The inhabitants of this land are said
+in Tabari&rsquo;s history to have been of three classes:&mdash;(1) The
+Tanukh (Tnuhs), who lived in tents and were made up of Arabs
+from the Tehama and Nejd, who had united in Bahrein to form
+a new tribe, and who migrated from there to H&#299;ra, probably at
+the beginning or middle of the 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, when the
+Arsacid power was growing weak. The Arabian historians relate
+their conflict with Zenobia. (2) The &#8219;Ib&#257;d or &#8219;Ib&#257;dites, who
+dwelt in the town of Hira in houses and so led a settled life.
+These were Christians, whose ecclesiastical language was Syriac,
+though the language of intercourse was Arabic. A Christian
+bishop of Hira is known to have attended a synod in 410. In
+the 5th century they became Nestorians. (3) Refugees of various
+tribes, who came into the land but did not belong to the Tanukh
+or the &#8219;Ibad. There is no trustworthy information as to the
+earlier chiefs of this people. The dynasty of the Lakhmids,
+famed in Arabian history and literature, arose towards the end
+of the 3rd century and lasted until about 602. The names of
+twenty kings are given by Hish&#257;m al-Kalb&#299; in &#7788;abari&rsquo;s history.
+Although so many of their subjects were Christian, the Lakhmids
+remained heathen until Nu&rsquo;m&#257;n, the last of the dynasty. The
+kingdom of H&#299;ra was never really independent, but always stood
+in a relation of dependence on Persia, probably receiving pay
+from it and employing Persian soldiers. At the height of its
+power it was able to render valuable aid to its suzerain. Much
+of its time was spent in wars with Rome and Ghass&#257;n. Its
+revenues were derived from the Bedouins of the surrounding
+lands as well as from its own subjects at home. About 602 the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id="page265"></a>265</span>
+Lakhmid dynasty fell, and the Persian Chosroes (Khosrau) II.
+appointed as governor an Arab of the tribe of T&#257;i. Shortly after
+it came into relation with Islam.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:920px; height:692px" src="images/img264.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="noind f80"><a href="images/img264a.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="pt2">See G. Rothstein&rsquo;s <i>Die Dynastie der Lakhmiden in al-Hira</i> (Berlin,
+1899); Th. Nöldeke&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der
+Sassaniden</i> (Leiden, 1879).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the beginning of the 6th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> a dynasty known as
+the Jafnids, enter into the history alike of the Roman and
+Persian empires. They ruled over the tribe of Ghass&#257;n
+in the extreme north-west of Arabia, east of the
+<span class="sidenote">Ghass&#257;n.</span>
+Jordan, from near Petra in the south to the neighbourhood of
+Rosafa in the north-east. Of their origin little is known except
+that they came from the south. A part of the same tribe inhabited
+Yathrib (Medina) at the time of Mahomet. The first
+certain prince of the Jafnid house was Harith ibn Jabala, who,
+according to the chronicle of John Malalas, conquered Mondhir
+(Mundhir) of Hira in 528. In the following year, according to
+Procopius, Justinian perceived the value of the Ghass&#257;nids as an
+outpost of the Roman empire, and as opponents of the Persian
+dependants of H&#299;ra, and recognized H&#257;rith as king of the Arabs
+and patrician of the Roman empire. He was thus constantly
+engaged in battles against H&#299;ra. In 541 he fought under Belisarius
+in Mesopotamia. After his death about 569 or 570 the
+friendly relations with the West continued, but about 583 there
+was a breach. The Ghassanid kingdom split into sections each
+with its own prince. Some passed under the sway of Persia,
+others preserved their freedom at the expense of their neighbours.
+At this point their history ceases to be mentioned in the Western
+chronicles. There are references to the Ghass&#257;nid Nu&rsquo;m&#257;n in the
+poems of N&#257;bigha. Arabian tradition tells of their prince
+Jabala ibn Aiham who accepted Islam, after fighting against
+it, but finding it too democratic, returned to Christianity and
+exile in the Roman empire. As Islam advanced, some of the
+Ghass&#257;nids retreated to Cappadocia, others accepted the new
+faith.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Th. Nöldeke, <i>Die ghassanischen Fürsten aus dent Hause
+Gafna&rsquo;s</i> (Berlin, 1887).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the last decade of the 5th century a new power arose in
+central Arabia. This was the tribe of Kinda under the sway of
+the family of Aqil ul Mur&#257;r, who came from the south.
+They seem to have stood in much the same relation to
+<span class="sidenote">Kinda.</span>
+the rulers of Yemen, as the people of H&#299;ra to the Persians and
+the Ghassanids to Rome. Abraha in his invasion of the Hejaz
+was accompanied by chiefs of Kinda. Details of their history
+are not known, but they seem to have gained power at one time
+even over the Lakhmids of H&#299;ra; and to have ruled over
+Bahrein as well as Yemama until the battle of Shi&#8219;b ul Jabala,
+when they lost this province to Hira. The poet Amru&#8219;ul Qais
+was a member of the princely family of Kinda.</p>
+
+<p>Outside the territory of the powers mentioned above, Arabia
+in the 6th century was in a state of political chaos. Bahrein,
+inhabited chiefly by the Bani&#8219;Abd Qais and the Bani
+Bakr, was largely subject to Persian influence near
+<span class="sidenote">Other parts of Arabia.</span>
+its coast, and a Persian governor, Sebocht, resided
+in Hajar, its chief town. In Oman the Arabs, who
+were chiefly engaged in fishing and seafaring, were Azdites
+mixed with Persians. The ruling dynasty of Julanda in their
+capital Suhar lasted on till the Abbasid period. No Persian
+officials are mentioned in this country; whether Persians exercised
+authority over it is doubtful. On the west coast of Arabia
+the influence of the kingdom of Yemen was felt in varying degree
+according to the strength of the rulers of that land. Apart from
+this influence the Hejaz was simply a collection of cities each
+with its own government, while outside the cities the various
+tribes governed themselves and fought continual battles with
+one another.</p>
+
+<p><i>Time of Mahomet.</i>&mdash;Thus at the time of Mahomet&rsquo;s advent
+the country was peopled by various tribes, some more or less
+settled under the governments of south Arabia, Kinda, Hira and
+Ghassan, these in turn depending on Abyssinia, Persia and
+Rome (<i>i.e.</i> Byzantium); others as in the Hejaz were ruled in
+smaller communities by members of leading families, while
+in various parts of the peninsula were wandering Arabs still
+maintaining the traditions of old family and tribal rule, forming
+no state, sometimes passing, as suited them, under the influence
+and protection of one or another of the greater powers. To these
+may be added a certain number of Jewish tribes and families
+deriving their origin partly from migrations from Palestine,
+partly from converts among the Arabs themselves. Mahomet
+appealed at once to religion and patriotism, or rather created a
+feeling for both. For Mahomet as a religious teacher and for the
+details of his career see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahomet</a></span>. It is enough here to outline
+his actions in so far as he attempted to create a united, and then
+a conquering, Arabia. Though the external conquests of the
+Arabs belong more properly to the period of the caliphate, yet
+they were the natural outcome of the prophet&rsquo;s ideas. His idea
+of Arabia for the Arabians could only be realized by summoning
+the great kings of the surrounding nations to recognize Islam;
+otherwise Abyssinia, Persia and Rome (Byzantium) would
+continue their former endeavours to influence and control the
+affairs of the peninsula. Tradition tells that a few years before
+his death he did actually send letters to the emperor Heraclius,
+to the negus of Abyssinia, the king of Persia, and Cyrus, patriarch
+of Alexandria, the &ldquo;Mukaukis&rdquo; of Egypt, summoning them to
+accept Islam and threatening them with punishment in case of
+refusal. But the task of carrying out these threats fell to the lot
+of his successors; the work of the prophet was to be the subjugating
+and uniting of Arabia. This work, scarcely begun in Mecca,
+was really started after the migration to Medina by the formation
+of a party of men&mdash;the <i>Muh&#257;jirun</i> (Refugees or Emigrants)
+and the <i>Ans&#257;r</i> (Helpers or Defenders)&mdash;who accepted Mahomet
+as their religious leader. As the necessity of overcoming his
+enemies became urgent, this party became military. A few
+successes in battle attracted to him men who were interested in
+fighting and who were willing to accept his religion as a condition
+of membership of his party, which soon began to assume a
+national form. Mahomet early found an excuse for attacking
+the Jews, who were naturally in the way of his schemes. The
+Bani Nad&#299;r were expelled, the Bani Quraiza slaughtered. By the
+time he had successfully stormed the rich Jewish town of Khaibar,
+he had found that it was better to allow industrious Jews to
+remain in Arabia as payers of tribute than to expel or kill them:
+this policy he followed afterwards. The capture of Mecca (630)
+was not only an evidence of his growing power, which induced
+Arabs throughout the peninsula to join him, but gave him a valuable
+centre of pilgrimage, in which he was able by a politic adoption
+of some of the heathen Arabian ceremonies into his own rites to
+win men over the more easily to his own cause. At his death in
+623 Mahomet left Arabia practically unified. It is true that rival
+prophets were leading rebellions in various parts of Arabia,
+that the tax-collectors were not always paid, and that the
+warriors of the land were much distressed for want of work
+owing to the brotherhood of Arabs proclaimed by Mahomet.
+The tribes were a seething mass of restlessness, their old feuds
+ready to break out again. But they had realized that they had
+common interests. The power of the foreigner in Arabia was
+broken. Islam promised rich booty for those who fought and
+won, paradise for those who fell.</p>
+
+<p><i>Early Caliphs</i>.<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> I. <i>Conquest.</i>&mdash;One task of the early caliphs
+was to find an outlet for the restless fighting spirit. Abu Bekr
+(632-634), the first of these caliphs, was a man of simple life and
+profound faith. He understood the intention of Mahomet as to
+foreign nations, and set himself resolutely to carry it out in the
+face of much difficulty. Hence as soon as he assumed office he
+sent out the army already chosen to advance against the Romans
+in the north. The successful reduction of the rebels in Arabia
+enabled him in his first year to send his great general Kh&#257;lid
+with his Arab warriors first against Persians, then against
+Romans. His early death prevented him from seeing the fruits
+of his policy. Under the second caliph Omar (634-644) the
+Persians were defeated at Kadesiya (Kadessia), and Irak was
+completely subdued and the new cities of Kufa and Basra were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page266" id="page266"></a>266</span>
+founded (635). In the same year Damascus fell into the hands
+of the Arabs under Abu &#8219;Ubaida. In 636 Jerusalem fell and
+received a visit from the caliph. Three years later the fateful
+step was taken of appointing Moawiya (Mu&rsquo;aw&#299;yya) governor of
+Syria. In 640 &#8219;Amr-ibn-el-Ass (Amr ibn al-&#8219;&#256;s) invaded Egypt
+and the following year took Alexandria and founded Fostat
+(which later became Cairo). The victory at Nehavend in 641
+over the Persians, the flight of the last Sassanid king and the
+capture of Rei or Rai (class. Rhagae) in 643 meant the entire
+subjugation of Persia and crowned the conquests of Omar&rsquo;s
+caliphate. The reign of the third caliph Othman (644-656) was
+marked by the beginning of that internal strife which was to
+ruin Arabia; but the foreign conquests continued. In the north
+the Moslem arms reached Armenia and Asia Minor; on the west
+they were successful as far as Carthage on the north coast of
+Africa. After the murder of Othman, &#8219;Ali (656-661) became
+caliph, but Moawiya, governor of Syria, soon rebelled on the
+pretext of avenging the death of Othman. After the battle of
+Siffin (657) arbitration was resorted to for the settlement of the
+rival claims. By a trick &#8219;Ali was deposed (658), and the Omayyad
+dynasty was established with its capital at Damascus.</p>
+
+<p>During these early years the Arabs had not only made conquests
+by land, but had found an outlet for their energy at sea.
+In 640 Omar sent a fleet of boats across the Red Sea
+to protect the Moslems on the Abyssinian coast.
+<span class="sidenote">Institution of navy.</span>
+The boats were wrecked. Omar was so terrified by
+this that when Moawiya applied to him for permission to use
+ships for an attack on the islands of the Levant, he resolutely
+refused. Othman was less careful, and allowed a fleet from
+Africa to help in the conquests of the Levant and Asia Minor.
+In 649 he sanctioned the establishment of a maritime service,
+on condition that it should be voluntary. Abu Qais, appointed
+admiral, showed its usefulness by the capture of Cyprus. In 652
+Abu Sarh with a fleet from Egypt won a naval battle over the
+Byzantine fleet near Alexandria.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Internal Affairs.</i>&mdash;In the meantime what had become of
+Arabia and its unification? The first task of Abu Bekr had
+been to reduce those rebels who threatened to destroy that unity
+even before it was fully established. This he did by the aid of
+the great general Kh&#257;lid. First he swept down on the Bani
+Han&#299;fa in Yem&#257;ma, who with their rival prophet Mosailama
+(Mosailima) and 40,000 men were in arms. The battle of
+Yemama (633) was fierce and decisive. Mosailama was slain.
+The Bani Han&#299;fa returned to Islam. Bahrein was influenced by
+this battle, and the rebellion there, which was threatening, was
+crushed. Oman was reconquered by Huddhaifa, who became its
+governor. Ikrima settled M&#257;hra. Muh&#257;jir, with the help of
+Ikrima, succeeded with difficulty, but thoroughly, in defeating
+Amr ibn Ma&rsquo;dikarib and Qais ibn &#8219;Abd Yagh&#363;th in Yemen and
+Ashath ibn Qais in Hadramut. The Hejaz and Tehama were
+cleared of the plundering nomads by &#8219;Att&#257;b and &#7788;&#257;hir. At the
+end of the first year of his caliphate Abu Bekr saw Arabia united
+under Islam. The new national feeling demanded that all
+Arabs should be free men, so the caliph ordained that all Arab
+slaves should be freed on easy terms. The solidarity of Arabia
+survived the first foreign conquests. It was not intended that
+Arabs should settle in the conquered lands except as armies of
+occupation. Thus it was at first forbidden that Arabs should
+buy or possess land in these countries. K&#363;fa was to be only a
+military camp, as was Fostat in Egypt. The taxes with the booty
+from conquests were to be sent to Arabia for distribution among
+the Moslems. Omar tried to prevent the advance of conquests
+lest Arabia should suffer. &ldquo;I would rather the safety of my
+people than thousands of spoil and further conquest.&rdquo; But
+men could not be prevented from pouring out from their homes
+in search of new conquests and more booty. Many of those who
+went forth did not return. They acquired property and rank in
+the new lands. K&#363;fa attracted chiefly men of south Arabia,
+Basra those of the north. Both became great cities, each with
+a population of 150,000 to 200,000 Arabians. Yet so long as the
+caliphs lived in Medina, the capital of Arabia was the capital
+of the expanding Arabian empire. To it was brought a large
+share of the booty. The caliphs were chosen there, and there the
+rules for the administration were framed. Thence went out the
+governors to their provinces. Omar was the great organizer
+of Arabian affairs. He compiled the Koran, instituted the civil
+list, regulated the military organization. He, too, desired that
+Mahomet&rsquo;s wish should be carried out and that Arabia should be
+purely Moslem. To this end he expelled the Christians from
+Nejr&#257;n and gave them lands in Syria and Irak, where they were
+allowed to live in peace on payment of tribute. The Jews, too,
+were shortly after expelled from Khaibar. The secondary position
+that Arabia was beginning to assume in the Arabian empire
+is clearly marked in the progress of events during the caliphate
+of Othman. In his appointments to governorships and other
+offices, as well as in his distribution of spoil, Othman showed a
+marked preference for the members of his own tribe the Koreish
+(Quraish) and the members of his own family the Bani Omayya
+(Umayya). The other Arab tribes became increasingly jealous
+of the Koreish, while among the Koreish themselves the H&#257;shimite
+family came to hate the Omayyad, which now had much
+power, although it had been among the last to accept Islam and
+never was very strict in its religious duties. But the quarrels
+which led to the murder of Othm&#257;n were fomented not so much
+in Arabia as in K&#363;fa and Ba&#7779;ra and Fostat. In these cities the
+rival parties were composed of the most energetic fighting men,
+who were brought into the most intimate contact with one
+another, and who kept up their quarrels from the home land.
+In K&#363;fa a number of the Koreish had settled, and their arrogance
+became insupportable. The governors of all these towns were of
+Othman&rsquo;s own family. After some years of growing dissatisfaction
+deputies from these places came to Medina, and the result
+was the murder of the caliph. Syria alone remained loyal to the
+house of Omayya, and Othm&#257;n had been advised to take refuge
+there, but had refused. Arabia itself counted for little in the
+strife. Yet its prestige was not altogether lost. After the
+murder the rebels were unwilling to return home until a new
+caliph had been chosen in the capital. The Egyptian rebels
+managed to gain most influence, and, in accordance with their
+desire, &#8219;Al&#299; was appointed caliph by the citizens of Medina.
+But Medina itself was being corrupted by the constant influx of
+captives, who, employed at first as servants, soon became
+powerful enough to dictate to their masters. In the struggle that
+ensued upon the election of &#8219;Al&#299;, Arabia was involved. Ayesha,
+&#7788;al&#7717;a and Zobair, who were strong in Mecca, succeeded in
+obtaining possession of Ba&#7779;ra, but were defeated in 656 at the
+battle of the Camel (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ali</a></span>). In the south of Arabia &#8219;Al&#299; succeeded
+in establishing his own governor in Yemen, though the
+government treasure was carried off to Mecca. But the centre
+of strife was not to be Arabia. When &#8219;Al&#299; left Medina to secure
+Basra, he abandoned it as the capital of the Arabian empire.
+With the success of Moawiya Damascus became the capital of
+the caliphate (658) and Arabia became a mere province, though
+always of importance because of its possession of the two sacred
+cities Mecca and Medina. Both these cities were secured by
+Moawiya in 660, and at the same time Yemen was punished for
+its adherence to &#8219;Al&#299;. The final blow to any political pretensions
+of Medina was dealt by the caliph when he had his son Yaz&#299;d
+declared as his successor, thus taking away any claim on the
+part of the citizens of Medina to elect to the caliphate.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Omayyads.</i>&mdash;The early years of the Omayyads were years
+of constant strife in Arabia. The Kharijites who had opposed
+&#8219;Al&#299; on the ground that he had no right to allow the appeal to
+arbitration, were defeated at Nahraw&#257;n or Nahrw&#257;n (658), but
+those who escaped became fierce propagandists against the
+Koreish, some claiming that the caliph should be chosen by the
+Faithful from any tribe of the Arabs, some that there should
+be no caliph at all, that God alone was their ruler and that the
+government should be carried on by a council. They broke up
+into many sects, and were long a disturbing political force in
+Arabia as elsewhere. On the death of &#8219;Al&#299; his house was represented
+by his two sons &#7716;asan and &#7716;osain (&#7716;usain). &#7716;asan
+soon made peace with Moawiya. On the accession of Yazid,
+&#7716;osain refused homage and raised an army, but was slain at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page267" id="page267"></a>267</span>
+Kerbela (680). &#8219;&#256;bdallah ibn Zobair (of the house of Hashim)
+immediately stepped forward in Mecca as the avenger of &#8219;Al&#299;&rsquo;s
+family and the champion of religion. The two sacred cities
+supported him. Medina was besieged and sacked by the troops
+of Yaz&#299;d (682) and Mecca was besieged the following year. The
+siege was raised in the third month on the news of the death of
+Yaz&#299;d, but not before the Ka&#8219;ba had been destroyed. &#8219;&#256;bdallah
+remained in Mecca recognized as caliph in Arabia, and soon
+after in Egypt and even a part of Syria. He defeated the troops
+of Merw&#257;n I., but could not win the support of the Kh&#257;rijites.
+In 691 Abdalmalik (&#8219;Abdul-Malik) determined to crush his
+rival and sent his general Hajj&#257;j against Mecca. The siege was
+begun in March 692, and in October the city was taken and
+&#8219;&#256;bdallah slain. Abdalmalik was now supreme in Arabia and
+throughout the Moslem world. During the remaining years
+of the Omayyad dynasty (<i>i.e.</i> until 750) little is heard of Arabia
+in history. The conquests of Islam in Spain on the one side
+and India on the other had little or no effect on it. It was merely
+a province.</p>
+
+<p><i>The &#8219;Abb&#257;sids.</i>&mdash;The accession of Abul &#8219;Abb&#257;s (of the house
+of H&#257;shim) and the transference of the capital of the caliphate
+from Damascus to K&#363;fa, then Anbar and soon after (in 760)
+to Bagdad meant still further degradation to Arabia and Arabs.
+From the beginning the &#8219;Abb&#257;sids depended for help on Persians
+and Turks, and the chief offices of state were frequently filled
+with foreigners. In one thing only the Arabs conquered to the
+end; that was in their language. The study of Arabic was taken
+up by lexicographers, grammarians and poets (mostly of foreign
+origin) with a zeal rarely shown elsewhere. The old Arabian
+war spirit was dying. Although the Arabians, as a rule, were in
+favour of the Omayyad family, they could not affect the succession
+of the &#8219;Abb&#257;sids. They returned more and more to their
+old inter-tribal disputes. They formed now not only a mere
+branch of the empire of the caliphate, but a branch deriving
+little life from and giving less to the main stock. In 762 there
+was a rebellion in favour of a descendant of &#8219;Al&#299;, but it was put
+down with great severity by the army of the caliph Man&#7779;&#363;r.
+A more local &#8219;Alyite revolt in Mecca and Medina was crushed
+in 785. In the contest between the two sons of Har&#363;n al Rash&#299;d
+all Arabia sided with Mam&#363;n (812). In 845-846 the lawless
+raids of Bedouin tribes compelled the caliph W&#257;thiq to send
+his Turkish general Bogha, who was more successful in the north
+than in the centre and south of Arabia in restoring peace.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Carmathians.</i>&mdash;Towards the close of the 9th century
+Arabia was disturbed by the rise of a new movement which during
+the next hundred years dominated the peninsula, and at its
+close left it shattered never to be united again. In the year
+880 Yemen was listening to the propaganda of the new sect of
+the Carmathians (<i>q.v.</i>) or followers of Hamd&#257;n Qarma&#7789;. Four
+years later these had become a public force. In 900 &#8219;Ab&#363; Sa&#8219;id
+al-Jann&#257;bi, who had been sent to Bahrein by Hamd&#257;n, had secured
+a large part of this province and had won the city of Ka&#7789;if (Ketif)
+which contained many Jews and Persians. The Arabs who
+lived more inland were mostly Bedouin who found the obligations
+of Islam irksome, and do not seem to have made a very vigorous
+opposition to the Carmathians who took Hajar the capital of
+Bahrein in 903. From this they made successful attacks on
+Yem&#257;ma (Yamama), and attempts only partially successful
+at first at Oman. In 906 the court at Bagdad learned that
+these sectaries had gained almost all Yemen and were threatening
+Mecca and Medina. Ab&#363; Sa&#8219;&#299;d was assassinated (913) in his
+palace at La&#7717;sa (which in 926 was fortified and became the
+Carmathian capital of Bahrein). His son Sa&#8219;&#299;d succeeded him,
+but proved too weak and was deposed and succeeded by his
+brother Abu &#7788;&#257;hir. His success was constant and the caliphate
+was brought very low by him. In Arabia he subjugated Oman,
+and swooping down on the west in 929 he horrified the Moslem
+world by capturing Mecca and carrying off the sacred black
+stone to Bahrein. The Fatimite caliph &#8219;Obaidallah (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fatimites</a></span>),
+to whom Abu Tahir professed allegiance, publicly wrote
+to him to restore the stone, but there is some reason to believe
+that he secretly encouraged him to retain it. In 939, however,
+the stone was restored and pilgrimages to the holy cities were
+allowed to pass unmolested on payment of a tax. So long as
+Ab&#363; &#7788;&#257;hir lived the Carmathians controlled Arabia. After
+his death, however, they quarrelled with the Fatimite rulers
+of Egypt (969) and began to lose their influence. In 985 they
+were completely defeated in Irak, and soon after lost control
+of the pilgrimages. Oman recovered its independence. Three
+years later Ka&#7789;&#299;f, at that time their chief city, was besieged
+and taken by a Bedouin sheik, and subsequently their political
+power in Arabia came to an end. It was significant that their
+power fell into the hands of Bedouins. Arabia was now completely
+disorganized, and was only nominally subject to the
+caliphate. The attempt of Mahomet to unify Arabia had
+failed. The country was once more split up into small governments,
+more or less independent, and groups of wandering tribes
+carrying on their petty feuds. Of the history of these during
+the next few centuries little is known, except in the case of the
+Hejaz. Here the presence of the sacred cities led writers to
+record their annals (cf. F. Wüstenfeld&rsquo;s <i>Die Chroniken der
+Stadt Mekka</i>, 4 vols., Leipzig, 1857-1861). The two cities were
+governed by Arabian nobles (<i>sher&#299;fs</i>), often at feud with one
+another, recognizing formally the overlordship of the caliph
+at Bagdad or the caliph of Egypt. Thus in 966 the name of the
+caliph Moti was banished from the prayers at Mecca, and an
+&#8219;Alyite took possession of the government of the city and recognized
+the Egyptian caliph as his master. About a century later
+(1075-1094) the &#8219;Abb&#257;sid caliph was again recognized as spiritual
+head owing to the success in arms of his protector, the Seljuk
+Malik-Shah. With the fall of the Bagdad caliphate all attempts
+at control from that quarter came to an end. After the visit of
+the Sultaft Bibars (1269) Mecca was governed by an amir dependent
+on Egypt. Outside the two cities anarchy prevailed,
+and the pilgrimage was frequently unsafe owing to marauding
+Bedouins. In 1517 the Osm&#257;nl&#299; Turkish sultan Selim conquered
+Egypt, and having received the right of succession to the caliphate
+was solemnly presented by the sher&#299;f of Mecca with the keys of
+the city, and recognized as the spiritual head of Islam and ruler
+of the Hejaz. At the same time Yemen, which since the 9th
+century had been in the power of a number of small dynasties
+ruling in Zubed, San&#8219;&#257;, Sa&#8219;da and Aden, passed into the hands
+of the Turk.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the history of Yemen during this period cf. H.C. Kay,
+<i>Omarah&rsquo;s History of Yaman</i> (London, 1892), and S. Lane-Poole,
+<i>The Mahommedan Dynasties</i>, pp. 87-103 (Westminster, 1894).
+Little more than a century later (1630), a Yemen noble Kh&#257;&#7779;im
+succeeded in expelling the Turk and establishing a native im&#257;mate,
+which lasted until 1871. For descriptions of it in the 18th century
+cf. C. Niebuhr&rsquo;s accounts of his travels in Arabia in 1761.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Oman.</i>&mdash;Since the separation from the caliphate (before
+1000 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>) Oman had remained independent. For more than
+a century it was governed by five elected im&#257;ms, who were
+chosen from the tribe of al-Azd and generally lived at Nizwa.
+After them the Bani Nebh&#257;n gained the upper hand and established
+a succession of kings (<i>m&#257;liks</i>) who governed from 1154
+to 1406. During this time the country was twice invaded by
+Persians. The &ldquo;kings of Horm&#363;z&rdquo; claimed authority over the
+coast land until the beginning of the 16th century. In 1435
+the people rose against the tyranny of the Bani Nebhan and
+restored the imamate of the tribe al-Azd. In 1508 the Portuguese
+under Albuquerque seized most of the east coast of Oman.
+In 1624 a new dynasty arose in the interior, when N&#257;&#7779;ir ibn
+Murshid of the Yariba (Ya&#8219;aruba) tribe (originally from Yemen)
+was elected im&#257;m and established his capital at Rustak. He
+was able to subdue the petty princes of the country, and the
+Portuguese were compelled to give up several towns and pay
+tribute for their residence at Muscat. About 1651 the Portuguese
+were finally expelled from this city, and about 1698 from the
+Omanite settlements on the east coast of Africa.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the history of Oman from 661 to 1856 cf. G.P. Badger,
+<i>History of the Im&#257;ms and Seyyids of Oman by Salil-ibn-Razik</i> (London,
+Hakluyt Society, 1871).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Wahh&#257;bi Movement.</i>&mdash;Modern Arabian history begins with
+that of the Wahhabi movement in the middle of the 18th century.
+Its originator, Mahommed Ibn Abdul Wahh&#257;b, was born (1691)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page268" id="page268"></a>268</span>
+at Ayana in Nejd, and after studying in Basra and Damascus,
+and making the pilgrimage to Mecca returned to his native
+country and settled down at Huremala near Deraiya. The abuses
+and corruptions which had overgrown the practice of orthodox
+Islam had deeply impressed him, and he set to work to combat
+them, and to inculcate on all good Moslems a return to the
+pure simplicity of their original faith. In 1742 Mahommed
+Ibn Saud, sheik of Deraiya, accepted his doctrines, and enforced
+them by his sword with such effect that before his death in 1765
+the whole of eastern Nejd and El Hasa was converted to the
+faith of Abdul Wahhab, and accepted the political supremacy
+of Ibn Sa&#363;d. His son and successor, Abdul Aziz, in a rapid
+series of successful campaigns, extended his dominion and that
+of the reformed faith far beyond the limits of Nejd. His attacks
+on the pilgrim caravans, begun in 1783 and constantly repeated,
+startled the Mahommedan world,<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and compelled the attention
+of the sultan, as the nominal protector of the faithful. In 1798
+a Turkish force was sent from Bagdad into El Hasa, but was
+compelled to retreat without accomplishing anything, and its
+discomfiture added much to the renown of the Wahh&#257;bi power.
+In 1801 Saud, son of the amir Abdul Aziz, led an expedition to
+the Euphrates, and on the festival of Bairam, the 20th of April,
+stormed Kerbela, put the defenders to the sword, destroyed the
+sacred tomb, scattered the sacred relics and returned laden with
+the treasures, accumulated during centuries in the sanctuary
+of the Shi&#257; faith. Mecca itself was taken; plundering was forbidden,
+but the tombs of the saints and all objects of veneration
+were ruthlessly destroyed, and all ceremonies which seemed in
+the eye of the stern puritan conqueror to suggest the taint of
+idolatry were forbidden.</p>
+
+<p>On the 14th of October 1802 the amir Abdul Aziz, at the age of
+eighty-two years, was murdered by a Shi&#257; fanatic when at prayers
+in the mosque of Deraiya, and Sa&#363;d, who had for many years
+led the Wahh&#257;bi armies, became the reigning amir. In 1804
+Medina was taken and with its fall all resistance ceased. The
+Wahhabi empire had now attained its zenith, a settled government
+was established able to enforce law and order in the desert
+and in the towns, and a spirit of Arabian nationality had grown
+up which bade fair to extend the Wahh&#257;bi dominion over all
+the Arab race. It already, however, bore within it the germ of
+decay; the accumulation of treasure in the capital had led to a
+corruption of the simple manners of the earlier times; the
+exhaustion of the tribes through the heavy blood tax had roused
+discontent among them; the plundering of the holy places,
+the attacks on the pilgrim caravans under the escort of Turkish
+soldiers, and finally, in 1810, the desecration of the tomb of
+Mahomet and the removal of its costly treasures, raised a cry
+of dismay throughout the Mahommedan world, and made it
+clear even to the Turkish sultan that unless the Wahh&#257;bi
+power were crushed his claims to the caliphate were at an
+end.</p>
+
+<p>But Turkey was herself fully occupied by affairs in Europe,
+and to Mehemet Ali, then pasha of Egypt, was deputed the task
+of bringing the Wahh&#257;bis into subjection. In October 1811 an
+expedition consisting of 10,000 men under Tusun Pasha, the
+pasha&rsquo;s son, a youth of sixteen, landed in Hejaz without opposition.
+Sa&#363;d with his main forces had started northwards to
+attack Bagdad, but returning at once he met and defeated
+Tusun with great loss and compelled him to retire. Medina
+and subsequently Mecca were eventually taken by the Egyptians,
+but in spite of continual reinforcements they could do little
+more than hold their own in Hejaz. In 1813 Mehemet Ali was
+compelled to take the field himself with fresh troops, but was
+unable to achieve any decisive success, and in 1814 Tusun was
+again defeated beyond Taif. In May 1814 Saud died, and his
+son, &#256;bdallah, attempted to negotiate, but Mehemet Ali refused all
+overtures, and in January 1815 advanced into Nejd, defeated the
+Wahh&#257;bi army and occupied Ras, then the chief town in Kasim.
+Terms of peace were made, but on the retirement of the Egyptians
+&#256;bdallah refused to carry out the conditions agreed on, which
+included the return of the jewels plundered by his father, and
+another campaign had to be fought before his submission was
+obtained. Ibrahim Pasha replaced Tusun in command, and on
+reaching Arabia in September 1816 his first aim was to gain
+over the great Bedouin tribes holding the roads between Hejaz
+and his objective in Nejd; having thus secured his line of advance
+he pushed on boldly and defeated Abdallah at Wiya, where he
+put to death all prisoners taken; thence rapidly advancing,
+with contingents of the friendly Harb and Muter tribes in
+support of his regular troops, he laid siege to Ras; this place,
+however, held out and after a four months&rsquo; siege he was compelled
+to give up the attack. Leaving it on one side he pushed
+on eastwards, took Aneza after six days&rsquo; bombardment and
+occupied Bureda. Here he waited two months for reinforcements,
+and with his Bedouin contingent, strengthened by the
+adhesion of the &#256;teba and Bani Kh&#257;lid tribes, advanced on
+Shakra in Wushm, which fell in January 1818 after a regular
+siege. After destroying Huremala and massacring its inhabitants,
+he arrived before Deraiya on the 14th of April 1818.
+For six months the siege went on with varying fortune, but at
+last the courage and determination of Ibrahim triumphed,
+and on the 9th of September, after a heroic resistance, &#256;bdallah,
+with a remnant of four hundred men, was compelled to surrender.
+The Wahh&#257;bi leader was soon after sent to Constantinople,
+where, in spite of Mehemet Ali&rsquo;s intercession, he and the companions
+who had followed him in his captivity were condemned
+to death, and after being paraded through the city with ignominy
+for three days were finally beheaded.</p>
+
+<p>Deraiya was razed to the ground and the principal towns of
+Nejd were compelled to admit Egyptian garrisons; but though
+the Arabs saw themselves powerless to stand before disciplined
+troops, the Egyptians, on the other hand, had to confess that
+without useless sacrifices they could not retain their hold on the
+interior.</p>
+
+<p>In 1824 Turki, son of the unfortunate &#256;bdallah, headed a
+rising which resulted in the re-establishment of the Wahh&#257;bi
+state with Riad as its new capital; and during the next ten years
+he consolidated his power, paying tribute to and under the
+nominal suzerainty of Egypt till his murder in 1834. His son,
+Fesal, succeeded him, but in 1836 on his refusal to pay tribute
+an Egyptian force was sent to depose him and he was taken
+prisoner and sent to Cairo, while a rival claimant, Khalid, was
+established as amir in Riad. Mehemet Ali and his son Ibrahim
+Pasha were, however, now committed to their conflict with
+Turkey for Syria and Asia Minor, and had no troops to spare
+for the thankless task of holding the Arabian deserts; the
+garrisons were gradually withdrawn, and in 1842 F&#275;sal, who
+had escaped from his prison at Cairo reappeared and was everywhere
+recognized as amir. The few remaining Egyptian troops
+were ejected from Riad, and with them all semblance of Egyptian
+or Turkish rule disappeared from central Arabia.</p>
+
+<p>For a time it looked as if the supremacy of the Wahh&#257;bi
+empire was to be renewed; El Hasa, Harik, Kasim and Asir
+returned to their allegiance, but over Oman and Yemen F&#275;sal
+never re-established his dominion, and the Bahrein sheiks
+with British support kept their independence.</p>
+
+<p>A rival state had, however, arisen, under &#256;bdallah Ibn Rashid
+in Jebel Shammar. Driven into exile owing to a feud between
+his family and the Ibn &#256;li, the leading family of the
+Shammar, &#256;bdallah came to Riad in 1830, and was
+<span class="sidenote">Ibn Rashid.</span>
+favourably received by the amir Turki. In 1834 he
+was with F&#275;sal on an expedition against El Hasa when news came
+of the amir&rsquo;s murder by his cousin Mash&#257;rah. By &#256;bdallah&rsquo;s
+advice the expedition was abandoned; F&#275;sal hastened back
+with all his forces to Riad, and invested the citadel where
+Masharah had taken refuge, but failed to gain possession of it,
+until &#256;bdallah with two companions found his way into the
+palace, killed Mash&#257;rah, and placed F&#275;sal on the throne of his
+father. As a reward for his services &#256;bdallah was appointed
+governor of Jebel Shammar, and had already established himself
+in Hail when the Egyptian expedition of 1836 removed F&#275;sal
+temporarily from Nejd. During the exile of the latter he steadily
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page269" id="page269"></a>269</span>
+consolidated his power, extending his influence more especially
+over the desert tribes, till on F&#275;sal&rsquo;s return in 1842 he had
+created a state subject only in name to that of which Riad was
+the capital.</p>
+
+<p>On the death of &#256;bdallah in 1843, his son Tal&#257;l succeeded.
+He set himself to work to establish law and order throughout
+the state, to arrange its finances, and to encourage the settlement
+in Hail of artificers and merchants from abroad; the building
+of the citadel and palace commenced by Mehemet Ali, and
+continued by &#256;bdallah Ibn Rashid, was completed by Tal&#257;l. The
+town walls were strengthened, new wells dug, gardens planted,
+mosques and schools built. His uncle Obed, to whom equally
+with &#256;bdallah is due the foundation of the Ibn Rashid dynasty,
+laboured to extend the Shammar boundaries. Khaibar, Tema
+and Jauf became tributary to Hail.</p>
+
+<p>Though tolerant in religion Tal&#257;l was careful to avoid the
+suspicion of lukewarmness towards the Wahh&#257;bi formulas.
+Luxury in clothing and the use of tobacco were prohibited;
+attendance at the mosque was enforced: any doubt as to his
+orthodoxy was silenced by the amount and regularity of the
+tribute sent by him to Riad. Equally guarded was his attitude
+to the Turkish authorities; it is not improbable that Talal had
+also entered into relations with the viceroy of Egypt to ensure
+his position in case of a collision with the Porte. During his
+twenty years&rsquo; reign Jebel Shammar became a model state, where
+justice and security ruled in a manner before unheard of. F&#275;sal
+may well have watched with jealous anxiety the growing strength
+of his neighbour&rsquo;s state as compared with his own, where all
+progress was arrested by the deadening tyranny of religious
+fanaticism.</p>
+
+<p>On the 11th of March 1868 Tal&#257;l, smitten with an incurable
+malady, fell by his own hand and was succeeded by his brother
+Mat&#257;b; after a brief reign he was murdered by his
+nephews, the elder of whom, Bandar, became amir.
+<span class="sidenote">The amir Mahommed.</span>
+Mahommed, the third son of the amir &#256;bdallah, was at
+the time absent; with a view of getting his uncle into
+his power, Bandar invited him to return to Hail, and on his arrival
+went out to meet him accompanied by Hamud, son of Obed, and
+a small following. Warned by a hurried sign by Hamud that his
+life was in danger, Mahommed at once attacked Bandar, stabbed
+him and took possession of the citadel; a general massacre of
+all members of the house of Ibn Rashid followed, and next day
+Mahommed appeared with his cousin Hamud in the market-place
+of Hail, and announced his assumption of the amirship. A
+strong and capable ruler, he soon established his authority over
+all northern and western Nejd, and in 1872 the opportunity
+arrived for his intervention in the east. In that year Abdallah,
+who had succeeded F&#275;sal in Riad in 1867, was deposed, but with
+the assistance of Mahommed was reinstated; two years later,
+however, he was again deposed and forced to seek refuge at Hail,
+from which place he appealed for assistance to the Turkish
+authorities at Bagdad. Midhat Pasha, then governor-general,
+seized the occasion of asserting Turkish dominion on the Persian
+Gulf coast, and in 1875, in spite of British protests, occupied
+El Hasa and established a new province under the title of Nejd,
+with its headquarters at Hofuf, of which &#256;bdallah was appointed
+governor. This was an event of some importance, as it constituted
+the first Turkish claim to the sovereignty over Nejd
+abandoned by Egypt thirty-three years earlier. The Turks did
+not support their client by advancing into Nejd itself, and he
+and his rivals were left to fight out their battles among
+themselves. Turkey was indeed too much occupied by the war
+with Russia to pay much attention to Arab affairs, though
+a few years later she attempted to occupy Bahrein by a
+<i>coup de main</i>, which was only frustrated by the action of a
+British gunboat.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the dissensions among the ruling family of Riad,
+the towns of eastern Nejd gradually reverted to their former
+condition of independence, but menaced in turn by the growing
+power of Hail, they formed a coalition under the leadership of
+Z&#257;mil, sheik of Aneza, and in the spring of 1891, Aneza, Bureda,
+Shakra, Ras and Riad assembled their contingents to contest
+with Ibn Rashid the supremacy in Nejd. The latter had besides
+20,000 of his own south Shammar tribesmen, the whole strength
+of the Harb Bedouins, some 10,000 men, and an additional
+support of 1000 mounted men from his kinsmen, the northern
+Shammar from the Euphrates, while the Muter and &#256;teba tribes
+took part with the allies. The total strength of each side
+amounted to about 30,000 men. Z&#257;mil&rsquo;s forces held a strong
+position between Aneza and Bureda, and for over a month
+desultory fighting went on; finally an attack was made against
+the defenders&rsquo; centre, covered by 20,000 camel riders; the men
+of Aneza broke and the whole allied forces fled in disorder; Zamil
+and his eldest son were killed, as were also two of the Ibn Saud
+family, while the remainder were taken prisoners. Aneza and
+Bureda surrendered the same day, and shortly after Ras, Shakra
+and Riad tendered their submission.</p>
+
+<p>This victory placed the whole of northern and central Arabia
+under the supremacy of Mahommed Ibn Rashid, which he held
+undisputed during the rest of his life.</p>
+
+<p>On his death in 1897 his nephew Abdul-Aziz, son of the
+murdered amir Matab, succeeded; during his reign a new
+element has been introduced into Nejd politics by the
+rising importance of Kuwet (Koweit) and the attempts
+<span class="sidenote">Recent history.</span>
+of Turkey to obtain possession of its important harbour.
+In 1901 a quarrel arose between Sheik Mub&#257;rak of Kuwet and
+the amir of Hail whose cause was supported by Turkey. A force
+was equipped at Basra under Ahmad Feizi Pasha with the
+intention of occupying Kuwet; Mub&#257;rak thereupon appealed to
+Great Britain and action was taken which prevented the Turkish
+designs from being carried out. Kuwet was not formally placed
+under British protection, but it was officially announced by the
+government on the 5th of May 1903 &ldquo;that the establishment of a
+naval base or fortified port in the Persian Gulf by any other
+power would be regarded as a very grave menace to British
+interests which would certainly be resisted with all the means at
+its disposal.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime Sheik Mub&#257;rak had found useful allies in
+the Muntafik Arabs from the lower Euphrates, and the Wahh&#257;bis
+of Riad; the latter under the amir Ibn Sa&#363;d marched against
+Ibn Rashid, who at the instigation of the Porte had again
+threatened Kuwet (Koweit), compelled him to retire to his own
+territory and took possession of the towns of Bureda and Aneza.
+Sheik Mub&#257;rak and his allies continued their advance, defeated
+Ibn Rashid in two engagements on the 22nd of July and the 26th
+of September 1904, and drove him back on his capital, Hail.
+The Porte now made another effort to assist its protégé; two
+columns were despatched from Medina and Basra respectively,
+to relieve Hail, and drive out the Wahhabis. Ahmad Feizi Pasha,
+in command of the Basra column, 4200 strong, crossed the
+desert and reached the wells of Lina, 200 m. from Hail, on the
+5th of March 1905; here, however, he received orders to halt and
+negotiate before proceeding farther. The Turkish government
+realized by this time the strength of the hostile combination,
+and in view of the serious state of affairs in Yemen, hesitated to
+undertake another campaign in the deserts of Nejd. Arrangements
+were accordingly made with the Wahh&#257;bis, and on the
+10th of April Ahmad Feizi Pasha left Lina, ostensibly with the
+object of protecting the pilgrim road, and joined the Medina
+column by the end of the month. Bureda and Aneza were
+occupied without opposition, the rebellious sheiks amnestied by
+the sultan and loaded with gifts, and formal peace was made
+between the rival factions.</p>
+
+<p>European influence was not felt in Arabia until the arrival
+of the Portuguese in the eastern seas, following on the discovery
+of the Cape route. In 1506 Hormuz was taken by
+Albuquerque, and Muscat and the coast of Oman (<i>q.v.</i>)
+<span class="sidenote">History of European influence.</span>
+were occupied by the Portuguese till 1650. In 1516
+their fleets appeared in the Red Sea and an unsuccessful
+attempt was made against Jidda; but the effective occupation
+of Yemen by the Turks in the next few years frustrated any
+designs the Portuguese may have had in S.W. Arabia. Even in
+Oman their hold on the country was limited to Muscat and the
+adjacent ports, while the interior was ruled by the old Y&#257;riba
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page270" id="page270"></a>270</span>
+(Ya-&#8219;aruba) dynasty from their capital at Rustak. The Persian
+occupation, which followed that of the Portuguese, came to an
+end in the middle of the 18th century, when Ahmad Ibn Said
+expelled the invaders and in 1759 established the Ghafari
+dynasty which still reigns in Oman. He was succeeded by his
+son, who in 1798 made a treaty with the East India Company with
+the object of excluding the French from Oman, and the connexion
+<span class="sidenote">British intervention in Oman.</span>
+with Great Britain was further strengthened during
+the long reign of his grandson Sultan S&#257;id, 1804-1856.
+During the earlier years of his reign he was constantly
+at war with the Wahh&#257;bi empire, to which Oman
+became for a time tributary. The piracies committed by the
+Jawasimi Arabs in the gulf compelled the intervention of England,
+and in 1810 their strongholds were destroyed by a British-Indian
+expedition. The overthrow of the Wahhabis in 1817 restored
+Sultan Said to independence; he equipped and armed on
+Western models a fleet built in Indian ports, and took possession
+of Sokotra and Zanzibar, as well as the Persian coast north of
+the straits of Hormuz as far east as Gwadur, while by his liberal
+policy at home Sohar, Barka and Muscat became prosperous
+commercial ports.</p>
+
+<p>On his death in 1856 the kingdom was divided, Maj&#299;d, a
+younger son, taking Zanzibar, while the two elder sons contested
+the succession to Oman. The eldest, Thuw&#275;ni, with British
+support, finally obtained the throne, and in 1862 an engagement
+was entered into by the French and English governments respecting
+the independence of the sultans of Oman. He was
+assassinated in 1866, and his successor, Seyyid Turki, reigned
+till 1888. On his death several claimants disputed the succession;
+ultimately his son F&#275;sal was recognized by the British government,
+and was granted a subsidy from British-Indian revenues,
+in consideration of which he engaged not to cede any of his
+territory without the consent of the British government; similar
+engagements have been entered into by the tribes who occupy
+the south coast from the borders of Oman westward to the
+straits of Bab-el-Mandeb.</p>
+
+<p>The opening of the overland route to India again brought
+the west coast of Arabia into importance. Aden was occupied
+by the British in 1839. The Hejaz coast and some
+of the Yemen ports were still held by Mehemet Ali,
+<span class="sidenote">British sphere of influence.</span>
+as viceroy of Egypt, but on his final withdrawal from
+Arabia in 1845, Hejaz came under direct Turkish rule,
+and the conquest of Yemen in 1872 placed the whole Red Sea
+littoral (with the exception of the Midian coast, ceded by Egypt
+on the accession of Abbas Hilmi Pasha) under Ottoman administration.
+The island of Perim at the southern entrance of the Red Sea
+has been a British possession since 1857, while the promontory
+of Shekh Said on the Arabian side of the strait is in Turkish
+occupation. In order to define the limits between Turkish
+territory and that of the independent Arab tribes in political
+relations with Great Britain, a joint commission of British and
+Turkish officers in 1902-1905 laid down a boundary line from
+Shekh Said to a point on the river Bana, 12 m. north-east of the
+small town of Kataba, from which it is continued in a north-easterly
+direction up to the great desert. This delimitation
+places the whole of southern Arabia, east of this line, within the
+British sphere of influence, which thus includes the district
+surrounding Aden (<i>q.v.</i>), the Hadramut and Oman with its
+dependencies.</p>
+
+<p>The provinces of Hejaz and Yemen are each administered by
+a Turkish governor-general, with headquarters at Taif and Sana
+respectively; the country is nominally divided up
+into divisions and districts under minor officials, but
+<span class="sidenote">Turkish rule.</span>
+Turkish rule has never been acquiesced in by the
+inhabitants, and beyond the larger towns, all of which are held
+by strong garrisons, Turkish authority hardly exists. The
+powerful Bedouin tribes of Hejaz have always asserted their
+independence, and are only kept quiet by the large money
+payments made them by the sultan on the occasion of the
+annual pilgrimage to the holy cities. A large part of Asir
+and northern Yemen has never been visited by Turkish
+troops, and such revenues as are collected, mainly from
+vexatious customs and transit duties, are quite insufficient
+to meet the salaries of the officials, while the troops, ill-fed
+and their pay indefinitely in arrears, live on the country as
+best they can.</p>
+
+<p>A serious revolt broke out in Yemen in 1892. A Turkish
+detachment collecting taxes in the Bani Merwan lands north
+of Hodeda was destroyed by a body of Arabs. This
+reverse set all Yemen aflame; under the leadership
+<span class="sidenote">Yemen revolt.</span>
+of the imam, who had, since the Turkish occupation,
+lived in retirement at Sada, 120 m. north of the capital, the powerful
+tribes between Asir and Sana advanced southwards, occupied
+the principal towns and besieged the few Turkish fortified posts
+that still held out. In many cases the garrisons, Arab troops
+from Syria, went over to the insurgents. Meanwhile, reinforcements
+under General Ahmad Feizi Pasha reached Hodeda,
+Manakha was retaken, Sana relieved, and by the end of January
+1893 the country with the exception of the northern mountainous
+districts was reconquered.</p>
+
+<p>A state of intermittent rebellion, however, continued, and in
+1904 a general revolt took place with which the normal garrison
+of Yemen, the 7th army corps, was quite unable to cope. The
+military posts were everywhere besieged, and Sana, the capital,
+was cut off from all communication with the coast. During
+February 1905 reinforcements were sent up which raised the
+garrison of Sana to a strength of eight battalions, and in March
+a further reinforcement of about the same strength arrived,
+and fought its way into the capital with the loss of almost all
+its guns and train. The position was then desperate, wholesale
+desertion and starvation had decimated the garrison, and three
+weeks later Ali Riza Pasha, the Turkish commander, was compelled
+to surrender. The fall of Sana made a deep impression
+at Constantinople, every effort was made to hasten out reinforcements,
+the veteran Ahmad Feizi Pasha was nominated to the
+supreme command, and Anatolian troops in place of the unreliable
+Syrian element were detailed. The scale of the operations
+may be judged from the fact that the total number of troops
+mobilized up to the beginning of July 1905 amounted to 126
+battalions, 8 squadrons and 15 batteries; the rebel leader
+Mahommed Yahiya had at this time a following of 50,000.</p>
+
+<p>By the end of June, Ahmad Feizi Pasha was in a position to
+advance on Manakha, where he organized an efficient transport,
+rallied the scattered remnants of Ali Riza&rsquo;s army, and with the
+newly arrived troops had by the middle of July a force of some
+40 battalions available for the advance on Sana. He left
+Manakha on the 17th of July, and after almost daily fighting
+reached Sana on the 30th of August; on the 31st he entered
+the city without serious opposition, the insurgents having
+retreated northward.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;D.G. Hogarth, <i>Penetration of Arabia</i> (London,
+1904); C. Niebuhr, <i>Travels and Description of Arabia</i> (Amsterdam,
+1774); A. Zehme, <i>Arabien und die Araber seit Hundert Jahren</i> (Halle,
+1875); J.L. Burckhardt, <i>Travels in Arabia</i> (London, 1829); R.F.
+Burton, <i>Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Meccah</i> (London, 1855),
+<i>Midian revisited</i> (1879); W.G. Palgrave, <i>Central and Eastern
+Arabia</i> (London, 1865); C. Doughty, <i>Arabia Deserta</i> (Cambridge,
+1888), and an abridgment, containing mainly the personal narrative,
+under the title of <i>Wanderings in Arabia</i> (London, 1908);
+L. van den Berg, <i>Le Hadramut et les colonies arabes</i>, &amp;c. (Batavia,
+1885); C. Huber, <i>Journal d&rsquo;un voyage en Arabie</i> (Paris, 1891);
+J. Euting, <i>Reise in inner Arabien</i> (Leiden, 1896); E. Nolde, <i>Reise
+nach inner Arabien</i> (Brunswick, 1895); L. Hirsch, <i>Reise in Sud
+Arabien</i> (Leiden, 1897); J.T. Bent, <i>Southern Arabia</i> (1895);
+R. Manzoni, <i>Il Yemen</i> (Rome, 1884); A. Deflers, <i>Voyage en Yémen</i>
+(Paris, 1889); J. Halévy, <i>Journal Asiatique</i> (1872); Lady Anne
+Blunt, <i>Pilgrimage to Nejd</i> (London, 1881); E. Glaser, <i>Petermann&rsquo;s
+Mitt.</i> (1886, 1888 and 1889); W.B. Harris, <i>Journey through Yemen</i>
+(Edinburgh, 1893); J.R. Wellsted, <i>Travels in Arabia</i> (London,
+1838); Capt. F.M. Hunter, <i>Aden</i> (London, 1877). Consult also
+<i>Proc. R.G.S.</i> and <i>Geogr. Journal</i>. For geology see H.J. Carter,
+&ldquo;Memoir on the Geology of the South-East Coast of Arabia,&rdquo;
+<i>Journ. Bombay Branch Roy. Asiat. Soc.</i> vol. iv. pp. 21-96 (1852);
+Doughty&rsquo;s <i>Arabia Deserta</i>; W.F. Hume, <i>The Rift Valleys and
+Geology of Eastern Sinai</i> (London, 1901). For ancient geography of
+Arabia:&mdash;A. Sprenger, <i>Alte Geographie Arabiens</i> (Berne, 1875);
+E.H. Bunbury, <i>History of Ancient Geography</i> (London, 1883);
+D.H. Müller, <i>Hamdani&rsquo;s Geographie</i> (Leiden, 1884); E. Glaser,
+<i>Geschichte und Geographie Arabiens</i> (Berlin, 1890).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. A. W.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page271" id="page271"></a>271</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Literature</p>
+
+<p>The literature of Arabia has its origin in the songs, improvisations,
+recitations and stories of the pre-Mahommedan Arabs.
+Of written literature in those days there was, so far as we know,
+none. But where books failed memory was strong and the
+power of retaining things heard was not confined to a professional
+class. At every festive meeting many could contribute a poem
+or a story, many could even improvise the one or the other.
+When members of different tribes met in peace (as at the fair
+of &#8219;Uk&#257;&#7827;) the most skilful reciters strove to maintain the honour
+of their own people, and a ready improviser was held in high
+esteem. The smartest epigrams, the fairest similes, the keenest
+satires, spoken or sung on such occasions, were treasured in the
+memory of the hearers and carried by them to their homes.
+But the experience of all peoples in that memory requires to be
+helped by form. Sentences became balanced and were made
+clear by some sort of definite ending. The simplest form of this
+in Arabian literature is the <i>saj&#8219;</i> or rhymed prose, in which the
+sentences are usually (though not always) short and end in a
+rhyme or assonance. Mahomet used this form in many parts
+of the Koran (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Sura</i>, 81). The next step was the introduction
+of metre into the body of the sentence and the restriction of
+the passages to a definite length. This in its simplest form gave
+rise to the <i>rajaz</i> verses, where each half-line ends in the same
+rhyme and consists of three feet of the measure <img style="width:50px; height:12px" src="images/img271.jpg" alt="" />. Other
+metres were introduced later until sixteen altogether were recognized.
+In all forms the rhyme is the same throughout the
+poem, and is confined to the second half of the line except in the
+first line where the two halves rhyme. While, however, these
+measures were in early use, they were not systematically analysed
+or their rules enunciated until the time of Khal&#299;l ibn Ahmad
+in the 8th century. Two other features of Arabian poetry are
+probably connected with the necessity for aiding the memory.
+The first of these is the requirement that each line should have
+a complete sense in itself; this produces a certain jerkiness,
+and often led among the Arabs to displacement in the order
+of the lines in a long poem. The other feature, peculiar to the
+long poem (<i>qas&#299;da</i>, elegy), is that, whatever its real object,
+whatever its metre, it has a regular scheme in the arrangement
+of its material. It begins with a description of the old camping-ground,
+before which the poet calls on his companion to stop,
+while he bewails the traces of those who have left for other places.
+Then he tells of his love and how he had suffered from it, how he
+had journeyed through the desert (this part often contains some
+of the most famous descriptions and praises of animals) until
+his beast became thin and worn-out. Then at last comes the
+real subject of the poem, usually the panegyric of some man of
+influence or wealth to whom the poet has come in hope of reward
+and before whom he recites the poem.</p>
+
+<p><i>Poetry.</i>&mdash;The influence of the poet in pre-Mahommedan days
+was very great. As his name, <i>ash-Sh&#257;&#8219;ir</i>, &ldquo;the knowing man,&rdquo;
+indicates, he was supposed to have more than natural knowledge
+and power. Panegyric and satire (<i>hij&#257;&#8219;</i>) were his chief instruments.
+The praise of the tribe in well-chosen verses ennobled
+it throughout the land, a biting satire was enough to destroy
+its reputation (cf. I. Goldziher&rsquo;s <i>Abhandlungen zur arabischen
+Philologie</i>, i. pp. 1-105). Before Mahomet the ethics of the
+Arabs were summed up in <i>muruwwa</i> (custom). Hospitality,
+generosity, personal bravery were the subjects of praise; meanness
+and cowardice those of satire. The existence of poetry
+among the northern Arabs was known to the Greeks even in the
+4th century (cf. St Nilos in Migne&rsquo;s <i>Patrologia Graeca</i>, vol. 79,
+col. 648, and Sozomen&rsquo;s <i>Ecclesiastical History</i>, bk. 6, ch. 38).
+Women as well as men composed and recited poems before the
+days of the Prophet (cf. L. Cheikho&rsquo;s <i>Poetesses of the J&#257;hiliyya</i>,
+in Arabic, Beirut, 1897).</p>
+
+<p>The transmission of early Arabic poetry has been very imperfect.
+Many of the reciters were slain in battle, and it was
+not till the 8th to the 10th centuries and even later that the
+earliest collections of these poems were made. Many have to
+be recovered from grammars, dictionaries, &amp;c., where single
+lines or groups of lines are quoted to illustrate the proper use
+of words, phrases or idioms. Moreover, many a reciter was not
+content to declaim the genuine verses of ancient poets, but
+interpolated some of his own composition, and the change of
+religion introduced by Islam led to the mutilation of many
+verses to suit the doctrines of the new creed.<a name="fa3k" id="fa3k" href="#ft3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The language of the poems, as of all the best Arabian literature,
+was that of the desert Arabs of central Arabia; and to use it
+aright was the ambition of poets and scholars even in the Abbasid
+period. For the man of the towns its vocabulary was too copious
+to be easily understood, and in the age of linguistic studies
+many commentaries were written to explain words and idioms.</p>
+
+<p>Of the pre-Mahommedan poets the most famous were the six
+whose poems were collected by Asma&#8219;&#299; about the beginning of
+the 9th century (ed. W. Ahlwardt, <i>The Diwans of the Six Ancient
+Arabic Poets</i>, London, 1870). Single poems of four of
+these&mdash;Amru-ul-Qais, &#7788;arafa, Zuhair and &#8219;Antara&mdash;appear in the
+Mo&rsquo;allakat (<i>q.v.</i>). The other two were N&#257;bigha (<i>q.v.</i>) and
+&#8219;Alqama (<i>q.v.</i>). But besides these there were many others whose
+names were famous; such as Ta&#8219;abbata Sharran, a popular
+hero who recites his own adventures with great gusto; his
+companion Shanfar&#257;, whose fame rests on a fine poem which has
+been translated into French by de Sacy (in his <i>Chrestomathie
+Arabe</i>) and into English by G. Hughes (London, 1896); Aus ibn
+Hajar of the Bani Tamin, famous for his descriptions of weapons
+and hunting scenes (ed. R. Geyer, Vienna, 1892); &#7716;&#257;tim T&#257;&rsquo;i,
+renowned for his open-handed generosity as well as for his poetry
+(ed. F. Schulthess, Leipzig, 1897, with German translation);
+and &#8219;Urwa ibn ul-Ward of the tribe of &#8219;Abs, rival of &#7716;&#257;tim in
+generosity as well as in poetry (ed. Th. Nöldeke, Göttingen,
+1863). Among these early poets are found one Jew of repute,
+Samau&rsquo;al (Samuel) ibn Adiy&#257; (cf. Th. Nöldeke&rsquo;s <i>Beiträge</i>,
+pp. 52-86; art. <i>s.v.</i> &ldquo;Samuel ibn Adiya&rdquo; in <i>Jewish Encyc.</i> and
+authorities there quoted), and some Christians such as &#8219;Ad&#299;&#8219;ibn
+Zaid of Hira, who sang alike of the pleasures of drink and of
+death (ed. by Louis Cheikho in his <i>Les Poètes arabes chrétiens</i>,
+pp. 439-474, Beirut, 1890; in this work many Arabian poets
+are considered to be Christian without sufficient reason). One
+poet, a younger contemporary of Mahomet, has attracted much
+attention because his poems were religious and he was a monotheist.
+This is Umayya ibn Abi-&#7779;-&#7778;alt, a Meccan who did not
+accept Islam and died in 630. His poems are discussed by
+F. Schulthess in the <i>Orientalische Studien</i> dedicated by Th.
+Nöldeke, Giessen, 1906, and his relation to Mahomet by E. Power
+(in the <i>Mélanges de la faculté orientale de l&rsquo;université Saint-Joseph</i>,
+Beirut, 1906). Mahomet&rsquo;s relation to the poets generally was
+one of antagonism because of their influence over the Arabs
+and their devotion to the old religion and customs. Ka&#8219;b ibn
+Zuhair, however, first condemned to death, then pardoned, later
+won great favour for himself by writing a panegyric of the
+Prophet (ed. G. Freytag, Halle, 1823). Another poet, A&#8219;sha
+(<i>q.v.</i>), followed his example. Lab&#299;d (<i>q.v.</i>) and Hass&#257;n ibn Th&#257;bit
+(<i>q.v.</i>) were also contemporary. Among the poetesses of the time
+Khansa (<i>q.v.</i>) is supreme. In the scarcity of poets at this time
+two others deserve mention; Ab&#363; Mihjan, who made peace
+with Islam in 630 but was exiled for his love of wine, which he
+celebrated in his verse (ed. L. Abel, Leiden, 1887; cf. C. Landberg&rsquo;s
+<i>Primeurs arabes</i>, 1, Leiden, 1886), and Jarwal ibn Aus,
+known as al-&#7716;u&#7789;ai&#8219;a, a wandering poet whose keen satires led
+to his imprisonment by Omar (Poems, ed. by I. Goldziher in the
+<i>Journal of the German Oriental Society</i>, vols. 46 and 47).</p>
+
+<p>Had the simplicity and religious severity of the first four
+caliphs continued in their successors, the fate of poetry would
+have been hard. Probably little but religious poetry would have
+been allowed. But the Omayyads (with one exception) were not
+religious men and, while preserving the outward forms of Islam,
+allowed full liberty to the pre-Islamic customs of the Arabs and
+the beliefs and practices of Christians. At the same time the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page272" id="page272"></a>272</span>
+circumstances of the poet&rsquo;s life were altered. Poetry depended
+on patronage, and that was to be had now chiefly in the court of
+the caliph and the residences of his governors. Hence the centre
+of attraction was now the city with its interests, not the desert.
+Yet the old forms of poetry were kept. The <i>qas&#299;da</i> still required
+the long introduction (see above), which was entirely occupied
+with the affairs of the desert. Thus poetry became more and
+more artificial, until in the Abbasid period poets arose who felt
+themselves strong enough to give up the worn-out forms and
+adopt others more suitable. The names of three great poets
+adorn the Omayyad period: Akhtal, Farazdaq and Jar&#299;r were
+contemporaries (see separate articles). The first was a Christian
+of the tribe of Taghlib, whose Christianity enabled him to write
+many verses which would have been impossible to a professing
+Moslem. Protected by the caliph he employed the old weapons
+of satire to support them against the &ldquo;Helpers&rdquo; and to exalt
+his own tribe against the Qaisites. Farazdaq of the Bani Tam&#299;m,
+a good Moslem but loose in morals, lived chiefly in Medina and
+Kufa, and was renowned for his command of language. Jar&#299;r of
+another branch of the Bani Tam&#299;m lived in Irak and courted the
+favour of Hajj&#257;j, its governor. His satires were so effective that
+he is said to have crushed forty-three rivals. His great efforts
+were against Farazdaq, who was supported by Akhtal (cf. <i>The
+Naka&rsquo;id of Jar&#299;r and al-Farazdaq</i>, ed. A.A. Bevan, Leiden, 1906
+foll.). Among many minor poets one woman is conspicuous.
+Laila ul-Akhyal&#299;yya (d. 706) was married to a stranger. On the
+death of her lover in battle, she wrote numerous elegies bewailing
+him, and so became famous and devoted the rest of her life to the
+writing of verse. Two poets of the Koreish attained celebrity in
+Arabia itself at this time. Qais ur-Ruqayy&#257;t was the poet of
+&#8219;Abdallah ibn uz-Zubair (Abdallah ibn Zobair) and helped him
+until circumstances went against him, when he made his peace
+with the caliph. His poems are chiefly panegyrics and love songs
+(ed. N. Rhodonakis, Vienna, 1902). &#8219;Umar ibn Ab&#299; Rab&#299;&#8219;a
+(<i>c.</i> 643-719) was a wealthy man, who lived a life of ease in his
+native town of Mecca, and devoted himself to intrigues and
+writing love songs (ed. P. Schwarz, Leipzig, 1901-1902). His
+poems were very popular throughout Arabia. As a dweller in
+the town he was independent of the old forms of poetry, which
+controlled all others, but his influence among poets was not great
+enough to perpetuate the new style. One other short-lived
+movement of the Omayyad period should be mentioned. The
+<i>rajaz</i> poems (see above) had been a subordinate class generally
+used for improvisations in pre-Mahommedan times. In the 7th
+and 8th centuries, however, a group of poets employed them
+more seriously. The most celebrated of these were &#8219;Ajj&#257;j and
+his son Ru&rsquo;ba of the Bani Tam&#299;m (editions by W. Ahlwardt,
+Berlin, 1903; German trans. of Ru&rsquo;ba&rsquo;s poems by Ahlwardt,
+Berlin, 1904).</p>
+
+<p>With the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, a new epoch
+in Arabian poetry began. The stereotyped beginning of the
+<i>qas&#299;da</i> had been recognized as antiquated and out of place in
+city life even in the Omayyad period (cf. Goldziher, <i>Abhandlungen</i>,
+i. 144 ff). This form had been ridiculed but now it lost
+its hold altogether, and was only employed occasionally by way
+of direct imitation of the antique. The rise of Persian influence
+made itself felt in much the same way as the Norman influence
+in England by bringing a newer refinement into poetry. Tribal
+feuds are no longer the main incentives to verse. Individual
+experiences of life and matters of human interest become more
+usual subjects. Cynicism, often followed by religion in a poet&rsquo;s
+later life, is common. The tumultuous mixture of interests and
+passions to be found in a city like Bagdad are the subjects of a
+poet&rsquo;s verse. One of the earliest of these poets, Muti&#8219; ibn Ay&#257;s,
+shows the new depth of personal feeling and refinement of
+expression. Bashsh&#257;r ibn Burd (d. 783), a blind poet of Persian
+descent, shows the ascendancy of Persian influence as he openly
+rails at the Arabs and makes clear his own leaning to the Persian
+religion. In the 8th century Abu Nuw&#257;s (<i>q.v.</i>) is the greatest
+poet of his time. His language has the purity of the desert, his
+morals are those of the city, his universalism is that of the man of
+the world. Ab&#363;-l-&#8219;At&#257;hiya (<i>q.v.</i>), his contemporary, is fluent,
+simple and often didactic. Muslim ibn ul-Wal&#299;d (ed. de Goeje,
+Leiden, 1875), also contemporary, is more conservative of old
+forms and given to panegyric and satire. In the 9th century two
+of the best-known poets&mdash;Ab&#363; Tamm&#257;m (<i>q.v.</i>) and Bu&#7717;tur&#299; (<i>q.v.</i>)
+&mdash;were renowned for their knowledge of old poetry (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hamasa</a></span>)
+and were influenced by it in their own verse. On the other hand
+Ibn ul-Mo&#8219;tazz (son of the caliph) was the writer of brilliant
+occasional verse, free of all imitation. In the 10th century the
+centre of interest is in the court of Saif ud-Daula (addaula) at
+Aleppo. Here in Motanabb&#299; (<i>q.v.</i>) the claims of modern poetry
+not only to equal but to excel the ancient were put forward and
+in part at any rate recognized. Ab&#363; Fir&#257;s (932-968) was a
+member of the family of Saif ud-Daula, a soldier whose poems
+have all the charm that comes from the fact that the writer has
+lived through the events he narrates (ed. by R. Dvo&#345;ák, Leiden,
+1895). Many Arabian writers count Motanabbi the last of the
+great poets. Yet Ab&#363;-l-&#8219;Al&#257; ul-Ma&#8219;arr&#299; (<i>q.v.</i>) was original alike
+in his use of rhymes and in the philosophical nature of his poems.
+Ibn Far&#299;d (<i>q.v.</i>) is the greatest of the mystic poets, and Bus&#299;ri
+(<i>q.v.</i>) wrote the most famous poem extant in praise of the Prophet.
+In the provinces of the caliphate there were many poets, who,
+however, seldom produced original work. Spain, however, produced
+Ibn &#8219;Abd&#363;n (d. 1126), famous for the grace and finish of
+his style (ed. with commentary of Ibn Badrun by R.P.A. Dozy,
+Leiden, 1846). The Sicilian Ibn Hamd&#299;s (1048-1132) spent the
+last fifty years of his life in Spain (<i>Diw&#257;n</i>, ed. Moaçada, Palermo,
+1883; <i>Canzoniere</i>, ed. Schiaparelli, Rome, 1897). It was also
+apparently in this country that the strophe form was first used
+in Arabic poems (cf. M. Hartmann&rsquo;s <i>Das arabische Strophengedicht</i>,
+Weimar, 1897), and Ibn Quzm&#257;n (12th century), a
+wandering singer, here first used the language of everyday life
+in the form of verse known as <i>Zajal</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anthologies.</i>&mdash;As supplemental to the account of poetry may
+be mentioned here some of the chief collections of ancient verse,
+sometimes made for the sake of the poems themselves, sometimes
+to give a <i>locus classicus</i> for usages of grammar or lexicography,
+sometimes to illustrate ancient manners and customs. The
+earliest of these is the <i>Mo&#8219;allakat</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). In the 8th century Ibn
+Mofaddal compiled the collection named after him the <i>Mofaddal&#299;y&#257;t</i>.
+From the 9th century we have the Hamasas of Ab&#363;
+Tamm&#257;m and Buhtur&#299;, and a collection of poems of the tribe
+Hudhail (second half ed. in part by J.G.L. Kosegarten, London,
+1854; completed by J. Wellhausen in <i>Skizzen und Vorarbeiten</i>, i.
+Berlin, 1884). The numerous quotations of Ibn Qutaiba (<i>q.v.</i>) in
+the &#8219;Uy&#363;n ul-Akhb&#257;r (ed. C. Brockelmann, Strassburg, 1900 ff.)
+and the <i>Book of Poetry and Poets</i> (ed. M.J. de Goeje, Leiden,
+1904) bring these works into this class. In the 10th century
+were compiled the <i>Jamharat ash&#8219;ar al Arab</i>, containing forty-nine
+poems (ed. B&#363;l&#257;q, 1890), the work <i>al-&#8219;Iqd ul-Far&#299;d</i> of Ibn&#8219; Abdi-r-Rabbihi
+(ed. Cairo, various years), and the greatest work of all
+this class, the <i>K&#299;t&#257;b ul-Agh&#257;ni</i> (&ldquo;Book of Songs&rdquo;) (cf. <span class="sc">Abu-l
+Faraj</span>). The 12th century contributes the <i>Diw&#257;n Mukhtar&#257;t
+ush-Shu&#8219;ar&#257;&rsquo;i</i> with fifty qas&#299;das. The <i>Khiz&#257;nai ul-Adab</i> of
+Abdulq&#257;dir, written in the 17th century in the form of a commentary
+on verses cited in a grammar, contains much old verse
+(ed. 4 vols., B&#363;l&#257;q, 1882).</p>
+
+<p><i>Belles-Lettres and Romances.</i>&mdash;Mahomet in the Koran had made
+extensive use of <i>saj&rsquo;</i> or rhymed prose (see above). This form
+then dropped out of use almost entirely for some time. In the
+10th century, however, it was revived, occurring almost simultaneously
+in the <i>Sermons</i> of Ibn Nub&#257;ta (946-984) and the
+<i>Letters</i> of Ab&#363; Bakr ul-Khw&#257;rizm&#299;. Both have been published
+several times in the East. The epistolary style was further
+cultivated by Hamadh&#257;ni (<i>q.v.</i>) and carried to perfection by
+Ab&#363;-l&#8219;Al&#257; ul-Ma&#8219;arr&#299;. Hamadh&#299;ni was also the first to write
+in this rhymed prose a new form of work, the <i>Maq&#257;ma</i>
+(&ldquo;assembly&rdquo;). The name arose from the fact that scholars
+were accustomed to assemble for the purpose of rivalling one
+another in orations showing their knowledge of Arabic language,
+proverb and verse. In the <i>Maq&#257;mas</i> of Hamadh&#257;ni a narrator
+describes how in various places he met a wandering scholar who
+in these assemblies puts all his rivals to shame by his eloquence.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page273" id="page273"></a>273</span>
+Each oration forms the substance of a <i>Maq&#257;ma</i>, while the <i>Maq&#257;mas</i>
+themselves are united to one another by the constant meetings
+of narrator and scholar. Har&#299;r&#299; (<i>q.v.</i>) quite eclipsed the fame
+of his predecessor in this department, and his <i>Maq&#257;mas</i> retain
+their influence over Arabian literature to the present day. As
+late as the 19th century the sheik N&#257;&#7779;&#299;f ul Y&#257;z&#299;j&#299; (1800-1871)
+distinguished himself by writing sixty clever <i>Maq&#257;mas</i> in the
+style of Hariri (ed. Beirut, 1856, 1872). While this class of
+literature had devoted itself chiefly to the finesses of the language,
+another set of works was given to meeting the requirements
+of moral education and the training of a gentleman. This,
+which is known as &ldquo;Adab literature,&rdquo; is anecdotic in style with
+much quotation of early poetry and proverb. Thus government,
+war, friendship, morality, piety, eloquence, are some of the titles
+under which Ibn Qutaiba groups his stories and verses in the
+<i>&#8219;Uy&#363;n ul Akhb&#257;r</i>. <i>J&#257;hiz</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) in the 9th century and Baihaq&#299;
+(<i>The Kit&#257;b al-Ma&#7717;&#257;sin val-Mas&#257;wi</i>, ed. F. Schwally, Giessen,
+1900-1902) early in the 10th, wrote works of this class. A little
+later a Spaniard, Ibn &#8219;Abdrabbihi (Abdi-r-Rabbihi), wrote his
+<i>&#8219;Iqd ul-Far&#299;d</i> (see section <i>Anthologies</i>). The growth of city
+life in the Abbasid capital led to the desire for a new form
+of story, differing from the old tales of desert life. This was met
+in the first place by borrowing. In the 8th century Ibn Muqaffa&#8219;,
+a convert from Mazdaism to Islam, translated the Pahlavi
+version of Bidpai&rsquo;s fables (itself a version of the Indian
+<i>Panchatantra</i>) into Arabic with the title <i>Kal&#299;la wa Dimna</i> (ed. Beir&#363;t,
+various years). Owing to the purity of its language and style
+it has remained a classic work. The <i>Book of the 1001 Nights</i>
+(<i>Arabian Nights</i>) also has its basis in translations from the Indian
+through the Persian, made as early as the 9th century. To these
+stories have been added others originating in Bagdad and Egypt
+and a few others, which were at first in independent circulation.
+The whole work seems to have taken its present form (with local
+variations) about the 13th century. Several other romances of
+considerable length are extant, such as the <i>Story of &#8219;Antar</i>
+(ed. 32 vols., Cairo, 1869, &amp;c., translated in part by Terrick
+Hamilton, 4 vols., London, 1820), and the <i>Story of Saif ibn Dh&#299;
+Yezen</i> (ed. Cairo, 1892).</p>
+<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Historical Literature.</i>&mdash;Arabian historians differ from all
+others in the unique form of their compositions. Each event is
+related in the words of eye-witnesses or contemporaries transmitted
+to the final narrator through a chain of intermediate
+reporters (<i>r&#257;w&#299;s</i>), each of whom passed on the original report
+to his successor. Often the same account is given in two or
+more slightly divergent forms, which have come down through
+different chains of reporters. Often, too, one event or one important
+detail is told in several ways on the basis of several contemporary
+statements transmitted to the final narrator through
+distinct lines of tradition. The writer, therefore, exercises no independent
+criticism except as regards the choice of authorities; for
+he rejects accounts of which the first author or one of the intermediate
+links seems to him unworthy of credit, and sometimes
+he states which of several accounts seems to him the best.</p>
+
+<p>A second type of Arabian historiography is that in which an
+author combines the different traditions about one occurrence
+into one continuous narrative, but prefixes a statement as to
+the lines of authorities used and states which of them he mainly
+follows. In this case the writer recurs to the first method,
+already described, only when the different traditions are greatly
+at variance with one another. In yet a third type of history
+the old method is entirely forsaken and we have a continuous
+narrative only occasionally interrupted by citation of the
+authority for some particular point. But the principle still is
+that what has been well said once need not be told again in other
+words. The writer, therefore, keeps as close as he can to the letter
+of his sources, so that quite a late writer often reproduces the
+very words of the first narrator.</p>
+
+<p>From very early times story-tellers and singers found their
+subjects in the doughty deeds of the tribe on its forays, and
+sometimes in contests with foreign powers and in the impression
+produced by the wealth and might of the sovereigns of Persia
+and Constantinople. The appearance of the Prophet with the
+great changes that ensued, the conquests that made the Arabs
+lords of half the civilized world, supplied a vast store of new
+matter for relations which men were never weary of hearing
+and recounting. They wished to know everything about the
+apostle of God. Every one who had known or seen him was
+questioned and was eager to answer. Moreover, the word of
+God in the Koran left many practical points undecided, and
+therefore it was of the highest importance to know exactly how
+the Prophet had spoken and acted in various circumstances.
+Where could this be better learned than at Medina, where he had
+lived so long and where the majority of his companions continued
+to live? So at Medina a school was gradually formed, where the
+chief part of the traditions about Mahomet and his first successors
+took a form more or less fixed. Soon men began to assist memory
+by making notes, and pupils sought to take written jottings
+of what they had heard from their teachers. Thus by the close
+of the 1st century many <i>dictata</i> were already in circulation.
+For example, &#7716;asan of Ba&#7779;ra (d. 728 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>) had a great mass
+of such notes, and he was accused of sometimes passing off as
+oral tradition things he had really drawn from books; for oral
+tradition was still the one recognized authority, and it is related
+of more than one old scholar, and even of Hasan of Basra himself,
+that he directed his books to be burned at his death. The books
+were mere helps. Long after this date, when all scholars drew
+mainly from books, the old forms were still kept up. &#7788;abar&#299;,
+for example, when he cites a book expresses himself as if he had
+heard what he quotes from the master with whom he read the
+passage or from whose copy he transcribed it. He even expresses
+himself in this wise: &ldquo;&#8219;Omar b. Shabba has <i>related</i> to
+me in his book on the history of Ba&#7779;ra.&rdquo; No independent book
+of the 1st century from the Flight (<i>i.e.</i> 622-719) has come down
+to us. It is told, however, that Moawiya summoned an old
+man named &#8219;Abid ibn Sharya from Yemen to Damascus to
+tell him all he knew about ancient history and that he induced
+him to write down his information. This very likely formed
+the nucleus of a book which bore the name of that sheik and
+was much read in the 3rd century from the Flight. It seems to be
+lost now. But in the 2nd century (719-816) real books began to
+be composed. The materials were supplied in the first place by
+oral tradition, in the second by the <i>dictata</i> of older scholars,
+and finally by various kinds of documents, such as treaties,
+letters, collections of poetry and genealogical lists. Genealogical
+studies had become necessary through Omar&rsquo;s system of assigning
+state pensions to certain classes of persons according to their
+kinship with the Prophet, or their deserts during his lifetime.
+This subject received much attention even in the 1st century,
+but books about it were first written in the 2nd, the most famous
+being those of Ibn al-Kalb&#299; (d. 763), of his son Hish&#257;m (d. 819),
+and of Al-Sharq&#299; ibn al-Qu&#7789;&#257;m&#299;. Genealogy, which often called
+for elucidations, led on to history. Baladhuri&rsquo;s excellent <i>Ans&#257;b
+al-Ashr&#257;f</i> (Genealogies of the Nobles) is a history of the Arabs
+on a genealogical plan.</p>
+
+<p>The oldest extant history is the biography of the Prophet
+by Ibn Is&#7717;&#257;q (d. 767). This work is generally trustworthy.
+Mahomet&rsquo;s life before he appeared as a prophet and the story
+of his ancestors are indeed mixed with many fables illustrated
+by spurious verses. But in Ibn Is&#7717;&#257;q&rsquo;s day these fables were
+generally accepted as history&mdash;for many of them had been first
+related by contemporaries of Mahomet&mdash;and no one certainly
+thought it blameworthy to put pious verses in the mouth of the
+Prophet&rsquo;s forefathers, though, according to the <i>Fihrist</i> (p. 92),
+Ibn Is&#7717;&#257;q was duped by others with regard to the poems he
+quotes. The original work of Ibn Is&#7717;&#257;q seems to be lost. That
+which we possess is an edition of it by Ibn Hish&#257;m (d. 834) with
+additions and omissions (text ed. by F. Wüstenfeld, Göttingen,
+1858-1860; German translation by Weil, Stuttgart, 1864).</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Life</i> of the Prophet by Ibn Oqba (d. 758), based on the
+statements of two very trustworthy men, &#8219;Urwa ibn az-Zubair
+(d. 713) and Az-zuhri (d. 742), was still much read in Syria in
+the 14th century. Fragments of this have been edited by
+E. Sachau, Berlin, 1904. We fortunately possess the <i>Book of
+the Campaigns</i> of the Prophet by al-W&#257;qid&#299; (d. 822) and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page274" id="page274"></a>274</span>
+important <i>Book of Classes</i> of his disciple Ibn Sa&#8219;d (<i>q.v.</i>). W&#257;qid&#299;
+had much more copious materials than Ibn Is&#7717;&#257;q, but gives
+way much more to a popular and sometimes romancing style
+of treatment. Nevertheless he sometimes helps us to recognize
+in Ibn Is&#7717;&#257;q&rsquo;s narrative modifications of the genuine tradition
+made for a purpose, and the additional details he supplies set
+various events before us in a clearer light. Apart from this his
+chief merits lie in his studies on the subject of the traditional
+authorities, the results of which are given by Ibn Sa&#8219;d, and in
+his chronology, which is often excellent. A special study of the
+traditions about the conquest of Syria made by M.J. de Goeje
+in 1864 (<i>Mémoires sur la conquête de la Syrie</i>, 2nd ed., Leiden,
+1900), led to the conclusion that Waqidi&rsquo;s chronology is sound
+as regards the main events, and that later historians have gone
+astray by forsaking his guidance. This result has been confirmed
+by certain contemporary notices found by Th. Nöldeke in 1874
+in a Syriac MS. of the British Museum. And that Ibn Is&#7717;&#257;q
+agrees with W&#257;qid&#299; in certain main dates is important evidence
+for the trustworthiness of the former also. For the chronology
+before the year 10 of the Flight W&#257;qid&#299; did his best, but here,
+the material being defective, many of his conclusions are precarious.
+W&#257;qid&#299; had already a great library at his disposal.
+He is said to have had 600 chests of books, chiefly <i>dictata</i> written
+by or for himself, but in part real books by Ab&#363; Mikhnaf (d. 748),
+Ibn Is&#7717;&#257;q (whom he uses but does not name), &#8219;Aw&#257;na (d. 764),
+Ab&#363; Mashar (d. 791) and other authors. Ab&#363; Mikhnaf left a
+great number of monographs on the chief events from the death
+of the Prophet to the caliphate of Walid II. These were much
+used by later writers, and we have many extracts from them,
+but none of the works themselves except a sort of romance based
+on his account of the death of Hosain (&#7716;usain) of which Wüstenfeld
+has given a translation. With regard to the history of Irak
+in particular he was deemed to have the best information, and
+for this subject he is Tabari&rsquo;s chief source, just as Mad&#257;in&#299;, a
+younger contemporary of W&#257;qid&#299;, is followed by preference in
+all that relates to Khorasan. Mad&#257;in&#299;&rsquo;s <i>History of the Caliphs</i>
+is the best, if not the oldest, published before &#7788;abar&#299;; but this
+book is known only by the excerpts given by later writers,
+particularly Bal&#257;dhuri and &#7788;abar&#299;. From these we judge that
+he had great narrative power, with much clear and exact learning,
+and must be placed high as a critical historian. His plan was
+to record the various traditions about an event, choosing them
+with critical skill; sometimes, however, he fused the several
+traditions into a continuous narrative. A just estimate of the
+relative value of the historians can only be reached by careful
+comparison in detail. This has been essayed by Brünnow in
+his study on the Kh&#257;rijites (Leiden, 1884), in which the narrative
+of Mubarrad in the K&#257;mil is compared with the excerpts of
+Madaini given by Bal&#257;dhuri and those of Ab&#363; Mikhnaf given by
+&#7788;abar&#299;. The conclusion reached is that Ab&#363; Mikhnaf and
+M&#257;dain&#299; are both well informed and impartial.</p>
+
+<p>Among the contemporaries of W&#257;qid&#299; and M&#257;dain&#299; were
+Ibn Khid&#257;sh (d. 838), the historian of the family Muhallab,
+whose work was one of Mubarrad&rsquo;s sources for the <i>History of
+the Kh&#257;rijites</i>; Haitham ibn &#8219;Adi (d. 822), whose works, though
+now lost, are often cited; and Saif ibn &#8219;Omar at-Tam&#299;m&#299;, whose
+book on the revolt of the tribes under Abu-Bekr and on the
+Mahommedan conquests was much used by &#7788;abar&#299;. His
+narratives are detailed and often tinged with romance, and he
+is certainly much inferior to W&#257;qid&#299; in accuracy. Wellhausen
+has thoroughly examined the work of Saif in <i>Skizzen und
+Vorarbeiten</i>, vi. Besides these are to be mentioned Ab&#363; &#8219;Ubaida
+(d. 825), who was celebrated as a philologist and wrote several
+historical monographs that are often cited, and Azraq&#299;, whose
+excellent <i>History of Mecca</i> was published after his death by his
+grandson (d. 858). With these writers we pass into the 3rd
+century of Islam. But we have still an important point to notice
+in the 2nd century; for in it learned Persians began to take part
+in the creation of Arabic historical literature. Ibn Muqaffa&#8219;
+translated the great <i>Book of Persian Kings</i>, and others followed
+his example. &#7788;abar&#299; and his contemporaries, senior and junior,
+such as Ibn Qutaiba, Ya&#8219;q&#363;b&#299;, D&#299;nawar&#299;, preserve to us a good
+part of the information about Persian history made known
+through such translations.<a name="fa4k" id="fa4k" href="#ft4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a> But even more important than the
+knowledge conveyed by these works was their influence on
+literary style and composition. Half a century later began
+versions from the Greek either direct or through the Syriac.
+The pieces translated were mostly philosophical; but the Arabs
+also learned something, however superficially, of ancient history.</p>
+
+<p>The 3rd century (816-913) was far more productive than the
+2nd. Ab&#363; &#8219;Ubaida was succeeded by Ibn al-A&#8219;r&#257;b&#299; (d. 846), who
+in like manner was chiefly famous as a philologist, and who wrote
+about ancient poems and battles. Much that he wrote is quoted
+in Tabr&#299;z&#299;&rsquo;s commentary on the <i>&#7716;am&#257;sa</i>, which is still richer in
+extracts from the historical elucidations of early poems given
+by ar-Riy&#257;sh&#299; (d. 871). Of special fame as a genealogist was
+Ibn &#7716;ab&#299;b (d. 859), of whom we have a booklet on Arabian tribal
+names (ed. Wüstenfeld, 1850). Azraqi again was followed by
+F&#257;kih&#299;, who wrote a <i>History of Mecca</i> in 885,<a name="fa5k" id="fa5k" href="#ft5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a> and &#8219;Omar b.
+Shabba (d. 876), who composed an excellent history of Ba&#7779;ra,
+known to us only by excerpts. Of the works of Zubair b. Bakk&#257;r
+(d. 870), one of &#7788;abar&#299;&rsquo;s teachers, a learned historian and genealogist
+much consulted by later writers, there is a fragment in the
+Köprülü library at Constantinople, and another in Göttingen,
+part of which has been made known by Wüstenfeld (<i>Die Familie
+Al-Zobair</i>, Göttingen, 1878). Ya&#8219;q&#363;b&#299; (Ibn W&#257;&#7693;i&#7717;) wrote a
+short general history of much value (published by Houtsma,
+Leiden, 1883). About India he knows more than his predecessors
+and more than his successors down to Ber&#363;n&#299;. Ibn
+Khord&#257;dhbeh&rsquo;s historical works are lost. Ibn &#8219;Abdal&#7717;akam
+(d. 871) wrote of the conquest of Egypt and the West. Extracts
+from this book are given by M&#8219;G. de Slane in his <i>Histoire des
+Berbères</i>, from which we gather that it was a medley of true
+tradition and romance, and must be reckoned, with the book
+of his slightly senior contemporary, the Spaniard Ibn &#7716;&#257;b&#299;b,
+in the class of historical romances. A high place must be
+assigned to the historian Ibn Qutaiba or Kotaiba (d. 889),
+who wrote a very useful <i>Handbook of History</i> (ed. Wüstenfeld,
+Göttingen, 1850). Much more eminent is Bal&#257;dhur&#299; (d. 893),
+whose book on the Arab conquest (ed. M.J. de Goeje, Leiden,
+1865-1866) merits the special praise given to it by Mas&#8219;&#363;d&#299;,
+and who also wrote a large work, the <i>Ans&#257;b al-Ashr&#257;f</i>. A
+contemporary, Ibn abi T&#257;hir Taif&#363;r (d. 894), wrote on the
+Abbasid caliphs and was drawn on by &#7788;abar&#299;. The sixth part
+of his work is in the British Museum. The universal history
+of Dinawari (d. 896), entitled <i>The Long Narratives</i>, has been
+edited by Girgas (1887).</p>
+
+<p>All these histories are more or less thrown into the shade by
+the great work of &#7788;abar&#299; (<i>q.v.</i>), whose fame has never faded from
+his own day to ours. The <i>Annals</i> (ed. M. de Goeje, Leiden,
+1879-1901) are a general history from the creation to 302 <span class="scs">A.H.</span>
+(= <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 915). As a literary composition they do not rank very
+high, which may be due partly to the author&rsquo;s years, partly to
+the inequality of his sources, sometimes superabundant, sometimes
+defective, partly perhaps to the somewhat hasty condensation
+of his original draft. Nevertheless the value of the book is
+very great: the author&rsquo;s selection of traditions is usually happy,
+and the episodes of most importance are treated with most
+fulness of detail, so that it deserves the high reputation it has
+enjoyed from the first. This reputation rose steadily; there
+were twenty copies (one of them written by Tabari&rsquo;s own hand)
+in the library of the Fatimite caliph &#8219;Aziz (latter half of the 4th
+century), whereas, when Saladin became lord of Egypt, the
+princely library contained 1200 copies (Maqr&#299;z&#299;, i. 408 seq.).</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Annals</i> soon came to be dealt with in various ways. They
+were published in shorter form with the omission of the names
+of authorities and of most of the poems cited; some passages
+quoted by later writers are not found even in the Leiden edition.
+On the other hand, some interpolations took place, one in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page275" id="page275"></a>275</span>
+author&rsquo;s lifetime and perhaps by his own hand. Then many
+supplements were written, <i>e.g.</i> by Fergh&#257;n&#299; (not extant) and by
+Hamadhani (partly preserved in Paris). &#8219;Ar&#299;b of Cordova made
+an abridgment, adding the history of the West and continuing
+the story to about 975.<a name="fa6k" id="fa6k" href="#ft6k"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Ibn Mashkawaih wrote a history from
+the creation to 980, with the purpose of drawing the lessons of
+the story, following &#7788;abar&#299; closely, as far as his book is known,
+and seldom recurring to other sources before the reign of
+Moqtadir; what follows is his own composition and shows him
+to be a writer of talent.<a name="fa7k" id="fa7k" href="#ft7k"><span class="sp">7</span></a> In 963 an abridgment of the <i>Annals</i>
+was translated into Persian by Bal&#8219;am&#299;, who, however, interwove
+many fables.<a name="fa8k" id="fa8k" href="#ft8k"><span class="sp">8</span></a> Ibn al-Ath&#299;r (d. 1234) abridged the whole work,
+usually with judgment, but sometimes too hastily. Though he
+sometimes glided lightly over difficulties, his work is of service
+in fixing the text of &#7788;abar&#299;. He also furnished a continuation to
+the year 1224. Later writers took &#7788;abar&#299; as their main authority,
+but sometimes consulted other sources, and so add to our knowledge&mdash;especially
+Ibn al-Jauz&#299; (d. 1201), who adds many
+important details. These later historians had valuable help
+from the biographies of famous men and special histories of
+countries and cities, dynasties and princes, on which much
+labour was spent from the 4th century from the Flight onwards.</p>
+
+<p>The chief historians after &#7788;abar&#299; may be briefly mentioned
+in chronological order. R&#257;z&#299; (d. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 932) wrote a <i>History of
+Spain</i>; Eutychius (d. 940) wrote <i>Annals</i> (ed. L. Cheikho, Paris,
+1906), which are very important because he gives the Christian
+tradition; Suli (d. 946) wrote on the Abbasid caliphs, their
+viziers and court poets; Mas&#8219;udi (<i>q.v.</i>) composed various historical
+and geographical works (d. 956). Of &#7788;abar&#299;&rsquo;s contemporary
+Hamza Ispah&#257;n&#299; (<i>c.</i> 940) we have the Annals (ed. Gottwaldt,
+St Petersburg, 1844); Ibn al-Q&#363;&#7789;&#299;ya wrote a <i>History of
+Spain</i>; Ibn Z&#363;l&#257;q (d. 997) a <i>History of Egypt</i>; &#8219;Otbi wrote the
+<i>History of Mahmud of Ghazna</i>, at whose court he lived (printed
+on the margin of the Egyptian edition of Ibn al-Ath&#299;r); Tha&#8219;lab&#299;
+(d. 1036) wrote a well-known <i>History of the Old Prophets</i>; Abu
+Nu&#8219;aim al-Ispah&#257;n&#299; (d. 1039) wrote a <i>History of Ispahan</i>, chiefly
+of the scholars of that city; Tha&#8219;&#257;lib&#299; (d. c. 1038) wrote, <i>inter
+alia</i>, a well-known <i>History of the Poets of his Time</i>, published at
+Damascus, 1887; Bir&#363;n&#299; (<i>q.v.</i>) (d. 1048) takes a high place among
+historians; Koda&#8219;&#299; (d. 1062) wrote a <i>Description of Egypt</i> and
+also various historical pieces, of which some are extant; Ibn
+S&#257;&#8219;id of Cordova (d. 1070) wrote a <i>View of the History of the
+Various Nations</i>. Bagdad and its learned men found an excellent
+historian in al-Kh&#257;tib al-Baghd&#257;d&#299; (d. 1071), and Spain
+in Ibn Hayan (d. 1076), and half a century later in Ibn Khaq&#257;n
+(d. 1135) and Ibn Bassam (d. 1147). Sam&#8219;ani (d. 1167) wrote
+an excellent book on genealogies; &#8219;Um&#257;ra (d. 1175) wrote a
+<i>History of Yemen</i> (ed. H.C. Kay, London, 1892); Ibn &#8219;Asaqir
+(d. 1176) a <i>History of Damascus and her Scholars</i>, which is of great
+value, and exists in whole or in part in several libraries. The
+<i>Biographical Dictionary</i> of the Spaniard Ibn Pascual (d. 1182)
+and that of Dabbi, a somewhat junior contemporary, are edited
+in Codera&rsquo;s <i>Bibliotheca Arab. Hisp.</i> (1883-1885); Saladin found
+his historian in the famous &#8219;Im&#257;d udd&#299;n (d. 1201) (Arabic text,
+ed. C. Landberg, Leiden, 1888). Ibn ul-Jauz&#299;, who died in the
+same year, has been already mentioned. Abdulwahid&rsquo;s <i>History
+of the Almohades</i>, written in 1224, was published by Dozy (2nd
+ed., 1881). Abdullatif or Abdallat&#299;f (d. 1232) is known by his
+writings about Egypt (trans. de Sacy, 1810); Ibn al-Ath&#299;r
+(d. 1233) wrote, in addition to the <i>Chronicle</i> already mentioned,
+a <i>Biographical Dictionary of Contemporaries of the Prophet</i>.
+Qifti (d. 1248) is especially known by his <i>History of Arabic
+Philologists</i>. Sibt ibn al-Jauzi (d. 1256), grandson of the Ibn
+al-Jauz&#299; already mentioned, wrote a great <i>Chronicle</i>, of which
+much the larger part still exists. Codera has edited (Madrid,
+1886) Ibn al-&#8219;Abbar&rsquo;s (d. 1260) <i>Biographical Lexicon</i>, already
+known by Dozy&rsquo;s excerpts from it. Ibn al-&#8219;Ad&#299;m (d. 1262) is
+famed for his <i>History of Aleppo</i>, and Abu Shama (d. 1267) wrote
+a well-known <i>History of Saladin and Nureddin</i>, taking a great
+deal from &#8219;Imad uddin. Ibn ab&#299; Usaibia (d. 1269) wrote a
+<i>History of Physicians</i>, ed. A. Müller. The <i>History</i> of Ibn al-&#8219;Am&#299;d
+(d. 1276), better known as Elmacin, was printed by Erpenius in
+1625. Ibn Sa&#8219;&#299;d al-Maghrib&#299; (d. 1274 or 1286) is famous for his
+histories, but still more for his geographical writings. The
+noted theologian Naw&#257;w&#299; (<i>q.v.</i>; d. 1278) wrote a <i>Biographical
+Dictionary of the Worthies of the First Ages of Islam</i>. Preeminent
+as a biographer is Ibn Khallik&#257;n (<i>q.v.</i>; d. 1282), whose
+much-used work was partly edited by de Slane and completely
+by Wüstenfeld (1835-1840), and translated into English by the
+former scholar (4 vols., 1843-1871).</p>
+
+<p>Abu &#8219;l-Faraj, better known as Bar-Hebraeus (d. 1286), wrote,
+besides his Syriac <i>Chronicle</i>, an Arabic <i>History of Dynasties</i> (ed.
+E. Pocock, Oxford, 1663, Beirut, 1890). Ibn &#8219;Adhar&#299;&rsquo;s <i>History
+of Africa and Spain</i> has been published by Dozy (2 vols., Leiden,
+1848-1851), and the <i>Qartas</i> of Ibn ab&#299; Zar&#8219; by Tornberg (1843).
+One of the best-known of Arab writers is Abulfeda (d. 1331) (<i>q.v.</i>).
+Not less famous is the great <i>Encyclopaedia</i> of his contemporary
+Nuwairi (d. 1332), but only extracts from it have been printed.
+Ibn Sayyid an-N&#257;s (d. 1334) wrote a full biography of the
+Prophet; Mizz&#299; (d. 1341) an extensive work on the men from
+whom traditions have been derived. We still possess, nearly
+complete, the great <i>Chronicle</i> of Dhahab&#299; (d. 1347), a very
+learned biographer and historian. The geographical and historical
+<i>Mas&#257;lik al-Abs&#257;r</i> of Ibn Fadlall&#257;h (d. 1348) is known at
+present by extracts given by Quatremère and Amari. Ibn al-Wardi
+(d. <i>c</i>. 1349), best known by his <i>Cosmography</i>, wrote a
+<i>Chronicle</i> which has been printed in Egypt. &#7778;afad&#299; (d., 1363)
+got a great name as a biographer. Yafi&#8219;&#299; (d. 1367) wrote a
+<i>Chronicle of Islam</i> and <i>Lives of Saints</i>. Subk&#299; (d. 1369) published
+<i>Lives of the Theologians of the Shafi&rsquo;ite School</i>. Of Ibn Kath&#299;r&rsquo;s
+<i>History</i> the greatest part is extant. For the history of Spain
+and the Maghrib the writings of Ibn al-Khat&#299;b (d. 1374) are of
+acknowledged value. Another history, of which we possess the
+greater part, is the large work of Ibn al-Fur&#257;t (d. 1404). Far
+superior to all these, however, is the famous Ibn Khald&#363;n (<i>q.v.</i>)
+(d. 1406). Of the historical works of the famous lexicographer
+Fair&#363;zab&#257;d&#299; (<i>q.v.</i>) (d. 1414) only a <i>Life of the Prophet</i> remains.
+Maqriz&#299; (d. 1442) is the subject of a separate article; Ibn Hajar
+(d. 1448) is best known by his <i>Biographical Dictionary of Contemporaries
+of the Prophet</i>, published in the <i>Bibliotheca Indica</i>.
+Ibn &#8219;Arabsh&#257;h (d. 1450) is known by his <i>History of Timur</i>
+(Leeuwarden, 1767). &#8219;Ain&#299; (d. 1451) wrote a <i>General History</i>,
+still extant. Abu&#8219;l-Mah&#257;sin ibn Taghr&#299;bird&#299; (d. 1469) wrote at
+length on the history of Egypt; the first two parts have been
+published by Juynboll and Matthes, Leiden, 1855-1861. Flügel
+has published Ibn Kotlubogha&rsquo;s <i>Biographies of the Hanifite
+Jurists</i>. Ibn Shihna (d. 1485) wrote a <i>History of Aleppo</i>. Of
+Sakhawi we possess a bibliographical work on the historians.
+The polymath Suy&#363;t&#299; (<i>q.v.</i>) (d. 1505) contributed a <i>History of the
+Caliphs</i> and many biographical pieces. Samh&#363;d&#299;&rsquo;s <i>History of
+Medina</i> is known through the excerpts of Wüstenfeld (1861). Ibn
+Iy&#257;s (d. 1524) wrote a <i>History of Egypt</i>, and Diarbekri (d. 1559)
+a <i>Life of Mahomet</i>. To these names must be added Maqqari
+(Makkari) (<i>q.v.</i>) and Hajji Khal&#299;fa (<i>q.v.</i>) (d. 1658). He made
+use of European sources, and with him Arabic historiography
+may be said to cease, though he had some unimportant successors.</p>
+
+<p>A word must be said of the historical romances, the beginnings
+of which go back to the first centuries of Islam. The interest in
+all that concerned Mahomet and in the allusions of the Koran
+to old prophets and races led many professional narrators to
+choose these subjects. The increasing veneration paid to the
+Prophet and love for the marvellous soon gave rise to fables about
+his childhood, his visit to heaven, &amp;c., which have found their
+way even into sober histories, just as many Jewish legends told
+by the converted Jew Ka&#8219;b al-A&#7717;b&#257;r and by Wahb ibn Monabbih,
+and many fables about the old princes of Yemen told by &#8219;Ab&#299;d,
+are taken as genuine history (see, however, Mas&#8219;&#363;d&#299;, iv. 88 seq.).
+A fresh field for romantic legend was found in the history of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page276" id="page276"></a>276</span>
+victories of Islam, the exploits of the first heroes of the
+faith, the fortunes of &#8219;Al&#299; and his house. Then, too, history was
+often expressly forged for party ends. The people accepted all
+this, and so a romantic tradition sprang up side by side with the
+historical, and had a literature of its own, the beginnings of which
+must be placed as early as the 2nd century of the Flight. The
+oldest specimens still extant are the fables about the conquest of
+Spain ascribed to Ibn &#7716;ab&#299;b (d. 852), and those about the conquest
+of Egypt and the West by Ibn &#8219;Abd al-Hakam (d. 871). In
+these truth and falsehood are mingled. But most of the extant
+literature of this kind is, in its present form, much more recent;
+<i>e.g.</i> the <i>Story of the Death of Hosain</i> by the pseudo-Ab&#363; Mikhnaf
+(translated by Wüstenfeld); the <i>Conquest of Syria</i> by Abu Ism&#257;&#8219;&#299;l
+al-Basri (edited by Nassau Lees, Calcutta, 1854, and discussed by
+de Goeje, 1864); the pseudo-Waqidi (see Hamaker, <i>De Expugnatione
+Memphidis et Alexandriae</i>, Leiden, 1835); the pseudo-Ibn
+Qutaiba (see Dozy, <i>Recherches</i>); the book ascribed to A&#8219;&#7779;am K&#363;f&#299;,
+&amp;c. Further inquiry into the origin of these works is called for,
+but some of them were plainly directed to stirring up fresh zeal
+against the Christians. In the 6th century of the Flight some
+of these books had gained so much authority that they were
+used as sources, and thus many untruths crept into accepted
+history.</p>
+<div class="author">(M. J. de G.; G. W. T.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Geography.</i>&mdash;The writing of geographical books naturally began
+with the description of the Moslem world, and that for practical
+purposes. Ibn Khord&#257;dhbeh, in the middle of the 9th century,
+wrote a <i>Book of Roads and Provinces</i> to give an account of the highways,
+the posting-stations and the revenues of the provinces. In
+the same century Ya&#8219;q&#363;b&#299; wrote his <i>Book of Countries</i>, describing
+specially the great cities of the empire. A similar work describing
+the provinces in some detail was that of Qud&#257;ma or Kod&#257;ma (d.
+922). Hamd&#257;ni (<i>q.v.</i>) was led to write his great geography of Arabia
+by his love for the ancient history of his land. Muqaddasi
+(Mokaddasi) at the end of the 10th century was one of the early travellers
+whose works were founded on their own observation. The study of
+Ptolemy&rsquo;s geography led to a wider outlook, and the writing of
+works on geography (<i>q.v.</i>) in general. A third class of Arabian
+geographical works were those written to explain the names of places
+which occur in the older poets. Such books were written by Bakr&#299;
+(<i>q.v.</i>) and Y&#257;q&#363;t (<i>q.v.</i>)<a name="fa9k" id="fa9k" href="#ft9k"><span class="sp">9</span></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Grammar and Lexicography.</i>&mdash;Arab tradition ascribes the first
+grammatical treatment of the language to Ab&#363;-l-Aswad ud-Du&#8219;al&#299;
+(latter half of the 7th century), but the certain beginnings of Arabic
+grammar are found a hundred years later. The Arabs from early
+times have always been proud of their language, but its systematic
+study seems to have arisen from contact with Persian and from the
+respect for the language of the Koran. In Ir&#257;k the two towns of
+Basra and Kufa produced two rival schools of philologists. Bagdad
+soon had one of its own (cf. G. Flügel&rsquo;s <i>Die grammatischen Schulen
+der Araber</i>, Leipzig, 1862). Khal&#299;l ibn A&#7717;mad (718-791), an Arab
+from Om&#257;n, of the school of Basra, was the first to enunciate the
+laws of Arabic metre and the first to write a dictionary. His pupil
+Sibawaihi (<i>q.v.</i>), a Persian, wrote the grammar known simply as
+<i>The Book</i>, which is generally regarded in the East as authoritative
+and almost above criticism. Other members of the school of Basra
+were Abu &#8219;Ubaida (<i>q.v.</i>), Asma&#8219;&#299; (<i>q.v.</i>), Mubarrad (<i>q.v.</i>) and Ibn
+Duraid (<i>q.v.</i>). The school of Kufa claimed to pay more attention
+to the living language (spoken among the Bedouins) than to written
+laws of grammar. Among its teachers were Kis&#257;&#8219;&#299;, the tutor of
+Har&#363;n al-Rash&#299;d&rsquo;s sons, Ibn A&#8219;r&#257;bi, Ibn as-Sikk&#299;t (d. 857) and Ibn
+ul-Anb&#257;ri (885-939). In the fourth century of Islam the two schools
+of K&#363;fa and Basra declined in importance before the increasing
+power of Bagdad, where Ibn Qutaiba, Ibn Jinn&#299; (941-1002) and
+others carried on the work, but without the former rivalry of the
+older schools. Persia from the beginning of the 10th century produced
+some outstanding students of Arabic. Hamadh&#257;ni (d. 932)
+wrote a book of synonyms (ed. L. Cheikho, Beirut, 1885). Jauhar&#299;
+(<i>q.v.</i>) wrote his great dictionary the <i>Sah&#257;h</i>. Tha&#8219;&#257;libi (<i>q.v.</i>) and
+Jurj&#257;n&#299; (<i>q.v.</i>) were almost contemporary, and a little later came
+Zamakhshar&#299; (<i>q.v.</i>), whose philological works are almost as famous
+as his commentary on the Koran. The most important dictionaries
+of Arabic are late in origin. The immense work, <i>Lis&#257;n ul Arab</i>
+(ed. 20 vols, B&#363;l&#257;q, 1883-1889), was compiled by Ibn Manz&#363;r
+(1232-1311), the <i>Q&#257;m&#363;s</i> by Fair&#363;z&#257;b&#257;d&#299;, the <i>Taj ul&#8219;Ar&#363;s</i> (ed. 10 vols.,
+B&#363;l&#257;q, 1890), founded on the <i>Q&#257;m&#363;s</i>, by Murtad&#257; uz-Zab&#299;d&#299; (1732-1790).</p>
+
+<p><i>Scientific Literature.</i>&mdash;The literature of the various sciences is
+dealt with elsewhere. It is enough here to mention that such
+existed, and that it was not indigenous. It was in the early Abbasid
+period that the scientific works of Greece were translated into Arabic,
+often through the Syriac, and at the same time the influence of
+Sanskrit works made itself felt. Astronomy seems in this way to
+have come chiefly from India. The study of mathematics learned
+from Greece and India was developed by Arabian writers, who in
+turn became the teachers of Europe in the 16th century. Medical
+literature was indebted for its origin to the works of Galen and the
+medical school of Gondesapur. Many of the Arabian philosophers
+were also physicians and wrote on medicine. Chemistry proper was
+not understood, but Arabian writings on alchemy led Europe to it
+later. So also the literature of the animal world (cf. Dam&#299;r&#299;) is not
+zoological but legendary, and the works on minerals are practical
+and not scientific. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arabian Philosophy</a></span> and historical sections
+of such scientific articles as <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Astronomy</a></span>, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. W. T.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For the general history of the succeeding period see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caliphate</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>History</i>, § &ldquo;Mahommedan.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> For further details of this period, see Egypt: <i>History</i>, &ldquo;Mahommedan
+Period,&rdquo; § 8.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> On the subject of transmission cf. Th. Nöldeke&rsquo;s <i>Beiträge zur
+Kenntniss der Poesie der alten Araber</i> (Hanover, 1804); and W.
+Ahlwardt&rsquo;s <i>Bemerkungen über die Aechtheit der alten arabischen
+Gedickte</i> (Greifswald, 1872).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4k" id="ft4k" href="#fa4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> For details see the introduction to Nöldeke&rsquo;s translation of
+Tabari&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der Sasaniden</i>
+(Leiden, 1879).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5k" id="ft5k" href="#fa5k"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Published in excerpt by Wüstenfeld along with Azraqi (Leipzig,
+1857-1859).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6k" id="ft6k" href="#fa6k"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Of this work the Gotha Library has a portion containing 290-320
+A.H., of which the part about the West has been printed by Dozy in
+the Bayan, and the rest was published at Leiden in 1897.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7k" id="ft7k" href="#fa7k"><span class="fn">7</span></a> A fragment (198-251 <span class="scs">A.H.</span>) is printed in de Goeje, <i>Fragm. Hist.
+Ar.</i> (vol. ii., Leiden, 1871).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8k" id="ft8k" href="#fa8k"><span class="fn">8</span></a> The first part was rendered into French by Dubeux in 1836.
+There is an excellent French translation by Zotenberg (1874).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9k" id="ft9k" href="#fa9k"><span class="fn">9</span></a> The chief Arabian geographical works have been edited by
+M.J. de Goeje in his <i>Bibliotheca Geographorum arabicorum</i> (Leiden,
+1874 ff.).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY. W<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span>hat is known as &ldquo;Arabian&rdquo;
+philosophy owed to Arabia little more than its name and its
+language. It was a system of Greek thought, expressed in a
+Semitic tongue, and modified by Oriental influences, called into
+existence amongst the Moslem people by the patronage of their
+more liberal princes, and kept alive by the intrepidity and zeal
+of a small band of thinkers, who stood suspected and disliked
+in the eyes of their nation. Their chief claim to the notice of
+the historian of speculation comes from their warm reception
+of Greek philosophy when it had been banished from its original
+soil, and whilst western Europe was still too rude and ignorant
+to be its home (9th to 12th century).</p>
+
+<p>In the course of that exile the traces of Semitic or Mahommedan
+influence gradually faded away, and the last of the line of
+Saracenic thinkers was a truer exponent of the one
+philosophy which they all professed to teach than
+<span class="sidenote">Origin.</span>
+the first. The whole movement is little else than a chapter in
+the history of Aristotelianism. That system of thought, after
+passing through the minds of those who saw it in the hazy
+light of an orientalized Platonism, and finding many laborious
+but narrow-purposed cultivators in the monastic schools of
+heretical Syria, was then brought into contact with the ideas
+and mental habits of Islam. But those in whom the two currents
+converged did not belong to the pure Arab race. Of the so-called
+Arabian philosophers of the East, al-F&#257;r&#257;b&#299;, Ibn-S&#299;n&#257;
+and al-Ghaz&#257;l&#299; were natives of Khorasan, Bokhara and the
+outlying provinces of north-eastern Persia; whilst al-Kind&#299;,
+the earliest of them, sprang from Basra, on the Persian Gulf,
+on the debatable ground between the Semite and the Aryan.
+In Spain, again, where Ibn-B&#257;jja, Ibn-Tufail and Ibn Rushd
+rivalled or exceeded the fame of the Eastern schools, the Arabians
+of pure blood were few, and the Moorish ruling class was deeply
+intersected by Jewish colonies, and even by the natives of
+Christian Spain. Thus, alike at Bagdad and at Cordova, Arabian
+philosophy represents the temporary victory of exotic ideas
+and of subject races over the theological one-sidedness of Islam,
+and the illiterate simplicity of the early Saracens.</p>
+
+<p>Islam had, it is true, a philosophy of its own among its theologians
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mahommedan Religion</a></span>). It was with them that
+the Moslem theology&mdash;the science of the word (<i>Kal&#257;m</i>)&mdash;first
+came into existence. Its professors, the <i>Mut&#257;kallimun</i> (known
+in Hebrew as <i>Medabberim</i>, and as <i>Loquentes</i> in the Latin versions),
+may be compared with the scholastic doctors of the Catholic
+Church. Driven in the first instance to speculation in theology
+by the needs of their natural reason, they came, in after days,
+when Greek philosophy had been naturalized in the Caliphate,
+to adapt its methods and doctrines to the support of their views.
+They employed a quasi-philosophical method, by which, according
+to Maimonides, they first reflected how things ought to be
+in order to support, or at least not contradict, their opinions,
+and then, when their minds were made up with regard to this
+imaginary system, declared that the world was no otherwise
+constituted. The dogmas of creation and providence, of divine
+omnipotence, chiefly exercised them; and they sought to assert
+for God an immediate action in the making and the keeping
+of the world. Space they looked upon as pervaded by atoms
+possessing no quality or extension, and time was similarly divided
+into innumerable instants. Each change in the constitution
+of the atoms is a direct act of the Almighty. When the fire
+burns, or the water moistens, these terms merely express the
+habitual connexion which our senses perceive between one thing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page277" id="page277"></a>277</span>
+and another. It is not the man that throws a stone who is its
+real mover: the supreme agent has for the moment created
+motion. If a living being die, it is because God has created
+the attribute of death; and the body remains dead, only because
+that attribute is unceasingly created. Thus, on the one hand,
+the object called the cause is denied to have any efficient power
+to produce the so-called effect; and, on the other hand, the
+regularities or laws of nature are explained to be direct interferences
+by the Deity. The supposed uniformity and necessity
+of causation is only an effect of custom, and may be at any
+moment rescinded. In this way, by a theory which, according
+to Averroes, involves the negation of science, the Moslem
+theologians believed that they had exalted God beyond the
+limits of the metaphysical and scientific conceptions of law,
+form and matter; whilst they at the same time stood aloof
+from the vulgar doctrines, attributing a causality to things.
+Thus they deemed they had left a clear ground for the possibility
+of miracles.</p>
+
+<p>But at least one point was common to the theological and the
+philosophical doctrine. Carrying out, it may be, the principles
+of the Neo-Platonists, they kept the sanctuary of the Deity
+securely guarded, and interposed between him and his creatures
+a spiritual order of potent principles, from the Intelligence,
+which is the first-born image of the great unity, to the Soul and
+Nature, which come later in the spiritual rank. Of God the
+philosophers said we could not tell what He is, but only what
+He is not. The highest point, beyond which strictly philosophical
+inquirers did not penetrate, was the active intellect,&mdash;a sort of
+soul of the world in Aristotelian garb&mdash;the principle which
+inspires and regulates the development of humanity, and in
+which lies the goal of perfection for the human spirit. In theological
+language the active intellect is described as an angel.
+The inspirations which the prophet receives by angelic messengers
+are compared with the irradiation of intellectual light, which
+the philosopher wins by contemplation of truth and increasing
+purity of life. But while the theologian incessantly postulated
+the agency of that God whose nature he deemed beyond the pale
+of science, the philosopher, following a purely human and natural
+aim, directed his efforts to the gradual elevation of his part of
+reason from its unformed state, and to its final union with the
+controlling intellect which moves and draws to itself the spirits
+of those who prepare themselves for its influences. The philosophers
+in their way, like the mystics of Persia (the Sufites)
+in another, tended towards a theory of the communion of man
+with the spiritual world, which may be considered a protest
+against the practical and almost prosaic definiteness of the creed
+of Mahomet.</p>
+
+<p>Arabian philosophy, at the outset of its career in the 9th
+century, was able without difficulty to take possession of those
+resources for speculative thought which the Latins had barely
+achieved at the close of the 12th century by the slow process of
+rediscovering the Aristotelian logic from the commentaries and
+verses of Boëtius. What the Latins painfully accomplished,
+owing to their fragmentary and unintelligent acquaintance with
+ancient philosophy, was already done for the Arabians by the
+scholars of Syria. In the early centuries of the Christian era,
+both within and without the ranks of the church, the Platonic
+tone and method were paramount throughout the East. Their
+influence was felt in the creeds which formulated the orthodox
+dogmas in regard to the Trinity and the Incarnation. But in
+its later days the Neo-Platonist school came more and more to
+find in Aristotle the best exponent and interpreter of the philosopher
+whom they thought divine. It was in this spirit that
+Porphyry, Themistius and Joannes Philoponus composed their
+commentaries on the treatises of the Peripatetic system which,
+modified often unconsciously by the dominant ideas of its
+expositors, became in the 6th and 7th centuries the philosophy
+of the Eastern Church. But the instrument which, in the hands
+of John of Damascus (Damascenus), was made subservient to
+theological interests, became in the hands of others a dissolvent
+of the doctrines which had been reduced to shape under the prevalence
+of the elder Platonism. Peripatetic studies became
+the source of heresies; and conversely, the heretical sects
+prosecuted the study of Aristotle with peculiar zeal. The church
+of the Nestorians, and that of the Monophysites, in their several
+schools and monasteries, carried on from the 5th to the 8th
+century the study of the earlier part of the Organon, with almost
+the same means, purposes and results as were found among the
+Latin schoolmen of the earlier centuries. Up to the time when
+the religious zeal of the emperor Zeno put a stop to the Nestorian
+school at Edessa, this &ldquo;Athens of Syria&rdquo; was active in translating
+and popularizing the Aristotelian logic. Their banishment
+from Edessa in 489 drove the Nestorian scholars to Persia, where
+the Sassanid rulers gave them a welcome; and there they continued
+their labours on the Organon. A new seminary of logic
+and theology sprang up at Nisibis, not far from the old locality;
+and at Gandisapora (or Nishapur), in the east of Persia, there
+arose a medical school, whence Greek medicine, and in its
+company Greek science and philosophy, ere long spread over the
+lands of Iran. Meanwhile the Monophysites had followed in
+the steps of the Nestorians, multiplying Syriac versions of the
+logical and medical science of the Greeks. Their school at Resaina
+is known from the name of Sergius, one of the first of these translators,
+in the days of Justinian; and from their monasteries
+at Kinnesrin (Chalcis) issued numerous versions of the introductory
+treatises of the Aristotelian logic. To the Isagoge of
+Porphyry, the Categories and the Hermeneutica of Aristotle,
+the labours of these Syrian schoolmen were confined. These
+they expounded, translated, epitomized and made the basis of
+their compilations, and the few who were bold enough to attempt
+the Analytics seem to have left their task unaccomplished.</p>
+
+<p>The energy of the Monophysites, however, began to sink with
+the rise of the Moslem empire; and when philosophy revived
+amongst them in the 13th century, in the person of Gregorius
+Bat-Hebraeus (Abulfaragius) (1226-1286), the revival was due
+to the example and influence of the Arabian thinkers. It was
+otherwise with the Nestorians. Gaining by means of their
+professional skill as physicians a high rank in the society of the
+Moslem world, the Nestorian scholars soon made Bagdad familiar
+with the knowledge of Greek philosophy and science which they
+possessed. But the narrow limits of the Syrian studies, which
+added to a scanty knowledge of Aristotle some acquaintance
+with his Syrian commentators, were soon passed by the curiosity
+and zeal of the students in the Caliphate. During the 8th and
+9th centuries, rough but generally faithful versions of Aristotle&rsquo;s
+principal works were made into Syriac, and then from the
+Syriac into Arabic. The names of some of these translators,
+such as Johannitius (Hunain ibn-Ish&#257;q), were heard even in the
+Latin schools. By the labours of Hunain and his family the
+great body of Greek science, medical, astronomical and mathematical,
+became accessible to the Arab-speaking races. But for
+the next three centuries fresh versions, both of the philosopher
+and of his commentators, continued to succeed each other.</p>
+
+<p>To the Arabians Aristotle represented and summed up Greek
+philosophy, even as Galen became to them the code of Greek
+medicine. They adopted the doctrine and system which the
+progress of human affairs had made the intellectual aliment
+of their Syrian guides. From first to last Arabian philosophers
+made no claim to originality; their aim was merely to propagate
+the truth of Peripateticism as it had been delivered to them.
+It was with them that the deification of Aristotle began; and
+from them the belief that in him human intelligence had reached
+its limit passed to the later schoolmen (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Scholasticism</a></span>).
+The progress amongst the Arabians on this side lies in a closer
+adherence to their text, a nearer approach to the bare exegesis
+of their author, and an increasing emancipation from control
+by the tenets of the popular religion.</p>
+
+<p>Secular philosophy found its first entrance amongst the
+Saracens in the days of the early caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty,
+whose ways and thoughts had been moulded by their
+residence in Persia amid the influences of an older
+<span class="sidenote">Under the Caliphate.</span>
+creed, and of ideas which had in the last resort sprung
+from the Greeks. The seat of empire had been transferred to
+Bagdad, on the highway of Oriental commerce; and the distant
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278"></a>278</span>
+Khorasan became the favourite province of the caliph. Then
+was inaugurated the period of Persian supremacy, during which
+Islam was laid open to the full current of alien ideas and culture.
+The incitement came, however, not from the people, but from
+the prince: it was in the light of court favour that the colleges
+of Bagdad and Nishapur first came to attract students from
+every quarter, from the valleys of Andalusia as well as the
+upland plains of Transoxiana. Mans&#363;r, the second of the
+Abbasids, encouraged the appropriation of Greek science; but
+it was al-Ma&rsquo;m&#363;n, the son of Har&#363;n al-Rash&#299;d, who deserves in
+the Mahommedan empire the same position of royal founder
+and benefactor which is held by Charlemagne in the history of
+the Latin schools. In his reign (813-833) Aristotle was first
+translated into Arabic. Orthodox Moslems, however, distrusted
+the course on which their chief had entered, and his philosophical
+proclivities became one ground for doubting as to his final
+salvation.</p>
+
+<p>In the eastern provinces the chief names of Arabian philosophy
+are those known to the Latin schoolmen as Alkindius, Aliarabius,
+Avicenna and Algazel, or under forms resembling these. The
+first of these, Alkindius (<i>see</i> <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kindi</a></span>), flourished at the court of
+Bagdad in the first half of the 9th century. His claims to notice
+at the present day rest upon a few works on medicine, theology,
+music and natural science. With him begins that encyclopaedic
+character&mdash;the simultaneous cultivation of the whole field of
+investigation which is reflected from Aristotle on the Arabian
+school. In him too is found the union of Platonism and Aristotelianism
+expressed in Neo-Platonic terms. Towards the close
+of the 10th century the presentation of an entire scheme of
+knowledge, beginning with logic and mathematics, and ascending
+through the various departments of physical inquiry to the
+region of religious doctrine, was accomplished by a society
+which had its chief seat at Basra, the native town of al-Kindi.
+This society&mdash;the Brothers of Purity or Sincerity (Ikhw&#257;n us
+Saf&#257;&rsquo;i)&mdash;divided into four orders, wrought in the interests of
+religion no less than of science; and though its attempt to
+compile an encyclopaedia of existing knowledge may have been
+premature, it yet contributed to spread abroad a desire for
+further information. The proposed reconciliation between
+science and faith was not accomplished, because the compromise
+could please neither party. The fifty-one treatises of which
+this encyclopaedia consists are interspersed with apologues
+in true Oriental style, and the idea of goodness, of moral perfection,
+is as prominent an end in every discourse as it was
+in the alleged dream of al-Ma&#8219;m&#363;n. The materials of the work
+come chiefly from Aristotle, but they are conceived in a Platonizing
+spirit, which places as the bond of all things a universal
+soul of the world with its partial or fragmentary souls. Contemporary
+with this semi-religious and semi-philosophical
+society lived Alfarabius (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Far&#257;b&#299;</a></span>), who died in 950. His
+paraphrases of Aristotle formed the basis on which Avicenna
+constructed his system, and his logical treatises produced a
+permanent effect on the logic of the Latin scholars. He gave the
+tone and direction to nearly all subsequent speculations among
+the Arabians. His order and enumeration of the principles
+of being, his doctrine of the double aspect of intellect, and of
+the perfect beatitude which consists in the aggregation of noble
+minds when they are delivered from the separating barriers of
+individual bodies, present at least in germ the characteristic
+theory of Averroes. But al-Far&#257;b&#299; was not always consistent
+in his views; a certain sobriety checked his speculative flights,
+and although holding that the true perfection of man is reached
+in this life by the elevation of the intellectual nature, he came
+towards the close to think the separate existence of intellect
+no better than a delusion.</p>
+
+<p>Unquestionably the most illustrious name amongst the
+Oriental Moslems was Avicenna (980-1037). His rank in the
+medieval world as a philosopher was far beneath his
+fame as a physician. Still, the logic of Albertus
+<span class="sidenote">Avicenna.</span>
+Magnus and succeeding doctors was largely indebted to him
+for its formulae. In logic Avicenna starts from distinguishing
+between the isolated concept and the judgment or assertion;
+from which two primitive elements of knowledge there is artificially
+generated a complete and scientific knowledge by the two
+processes of definition and syllogism. But the chief interest
+for the history of logic belongs to his doctrine in so far as it bears
+upon the nature and function of abstract ideas. The question
+had been suggested alike to East and West by Porphyry, and
+the Arabians were the first to approach the full statement of the
+problem. Far&#257;b&#299; had pointed out that the universal and individual
+are not distinguished from each other as understanding
+from the senses, but that both universal and individual are in
+one respect intellectual, just as in another connexion they play
+a part in perception. He had distinguished the universal essence
+in its abstract nature, from the universal considered in relation
+to a number of singulars. These suggestions formed the basis
+of Avicenna&rsquo;s doctrine. The essences or forms&mdash;the <i>intelligibilia</i>
+which constitute the world of real knowledge&mdash;may be looked
+at in themselves (metaphysically), or as embodied in the things
+of sense (physically), or as expressing the processes of thought
+(logically). The first of these three points of view deals with the
+form or idea as self-contained in the principles of its own being,
+apart from those connexions and distinctions which it receives
+in real (sensuous) science, and through the act of intellect.
+Secondly, the form may be looked at as the similarity evolved
+by a process of comparison, as the work of mental reflection,
+and in that way as essentially expressing a relation. When
+thus considered as the common features derived by examination
+from singular instances, it becomes a universal or common term
+strictly so called. It is intellect which first makes the abstract
+idea a true universal. <i>Intellectus in formis agit universalitatem.</i>
+In the third place, the form or essence may be looked upon as
+embodied in outward things (<i>in singularibus propriis</i>), and
+thus it is the type more or less represented by the members
+of a natural kind. It is the designation of these outward things
+which forms the &ldquo;first intention&rdquo; of names; and it is only at a
+later stage, when thought comes to observe its own modes,
+that names, looked upon as predicables and universals, are taken
+in their &ldquo;second intention.&rdquo; Logic deals with such second intentions.
+It does not consider the forms <i>ante multiplicitatem</i>,
+<i>i.e.</i> as eternal ideas&mdash;nor in <i>multiplicitate</i>, <i>i.e.</i> as immersed in the
+matter of the phenomenal world&mdash;but <i>post multiplicitatem</i>, <i>i. e.</i>
+as they exist in and for the intellect which has examined and
+compared. Logic does not come in contact with things, except
+as they are subject to modification by intellectual forms. In
+other words, universality, individuality and speciality are all
+equally modes of our comprehension or notion; their meaning
+consists in their setting forth the relations attaching to any
+object of our conception. In the mind, <i>e.g.</i>, one form may be
+placed in reference to a multitude of things, and as thus related
+will be universal. The form animal, <i>e.g.</i>, is an abstract intelligible
+or metaphysical idea. When an act of thought employs it as
+a schema to unify several species, it acquires its logical aspect
+(<i>respectus</i>) of generality; and the various living beings qualified
+to have the name animal applied to them constitute the natural
+class or kind. Avicenna&rsquo;s view of the universal may be compared
+with that of Abelard, which calls it &ldquo;that whose nature
+it is to be predicated of several,&rdquo; as if the generality became
+explicit only in the act of predication, in the <i>sermo</i> or proposition,
+and not in the abstract, unrelated form or essence. The three
+modes of the universal before things, in things, and after things,
+spring from Arabian influence, but depart somewhat from his
+standpoint.</p>
+
+<p>The place of Avicenna amongst Moslem philosophers is seen in
+the fact that Shahrast&#257;n&#299; takes him as the type of all, and that
+Ghaz&#257;l&#299;&rsquo;s attack against philosophy is in reality almost entirely
+directed against Avicenna. His system is in the main a codification
+of Aristotle modified by fundamental views of Neo-Platonist
+origin, and it tends to be a compromise with theology. In order,
+for example, to maintain the necessity of creation, he taught that
+all things except God were admissible or possible in their own
+nature, but that certain of them were rendered necessary by
+the act of the creative first agent,&mdash;in other words, that the
+possible could be transformed into the necessary. Avicenna&rsquo;s
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279"></a>279</span>
+theory of the process of knowledge is an interesting part of his
+doctrine. Man has a rational soul, one face of which is turned
+towards the body, and, by the help of the higher aspect, acts as
+practical understanding; the other face lies open to the reception
+and acquisition of the intelligible forms, and its aim is to become
+a reasonable world, reproducing the forms of the universe and
+their intelligible order. In man there is only the susceptibility
+to reason, which is sustained and helped by the light of the active
+intellect. Man may prepare himself for this influx by removing
+the obstacles which prevent the union of the intellect with the
+human vessel destined for its reception. The stages of this
+process to the acquisition of mind are generally enumerated by
+Avicenna as four; in this part he follows not Aristotle, but the
+Greek commentator. The first stage is that of the hylic or
+material intellect, a state of mere potentiality, like that of a child
+for writing, before he has ever put pen to paper. The second
+stage is called <i>in habitu</i>; it is compared to the case of a child
+that has learned the elements of writing, when the bare possibility
+is on the way to be developed, and is seen to be real. In
+this period of half-trained reason, it appears as happy conjecture,
+not yet transformed into art or science proper. When the power
+of writing has been actualized, we have a parallel to the <i>intellectus
+in actu</i>&mdash;the way of science and demonstration is entered. And
+when writing has been made a permanent accomplishment,
+or lasting property of the subject, to be taken up at will, it
+corresponds to the <i>intellectus adeptus</i>&mdash;the complete mastery
+of science. The whole process may be compared to the gradual
+illumination of a body naturally capable of receiving light.
+There are, however, grades of susceptibility to the active intellect,
+<i>i.e.</i> in theological language, to communication with God and
+his angels. Sometimes the receptivity is so vigorous in its
+affinity, that without teaching it rises at one step to the vision
+of truth, by a certain &ldquo;holy force&rdquo; above ordinary measure.
+(In this way philosophy tried to account for the phenomenon
+of prophecy, one of the ruling ideas of Islam.) But the active
+intellect is not merely influential on human souls. It is the
+universal giver of forms in the world.</p>
+
+<p>In several points Avicenna endeavoured to give a <i>rationale</i>
+of theological dogmas, particularly of prophetic rule, of miracles,
+divine providence and immortality. The permanence of individual
+souls he supports by arguments borrowed from those
+of Plato. The existence of a prophet is shown to be a corollary
+from a belief in God as a moral governor, and the phenomena
+of miracles are required to evidence the genuineness of the
+prophetic mission. Thus Avicenna, like his predecessors,
+tried to harmonize the abstract forms of philosphy with the
+religious faith of his nation. But his arguments are generally
+vitiated by the fallacy of assuming what they profess to prove.
+His failure is made obvious by the attack of Ghazali on the
+tendencies and results of speculation.</p>
+
+<p>To Ghaz&#257;l&#299; (<i>q.v.</i>) it seemed that the study of secular philosophy
+had resulted in a general indifference to religion, and that the
+scepticism which concealed itself under a pretence of
+piety was destroying the life and purity of the nation.
+<span class="sidenote">Ghaz&#257;l&#299;.</span>
+With these views he carried into the fields of philosophy the aims
+and spirit of the Moslem theologian. His restless life was the
+reflex of a mental history disturbed by prolonged agitation.
+Revolting, in the height of his success, against the current
+creed, he began to examine the foundations of knowledge. The
+senses are contradicted by one another, and disproved by
+reason. Reason, indeed, professes to furnish us with necessary
+truths; but what assurance have we that the verdicts of reason
+may not be reversed by some higher authority? Ghaz&#257;l&#299; then
+interrogated all the sects in succession to learn their criterion of
+truth. He first applied to the theological schoolmen, who
+grounded their religion on reason; but their aim was only to
+preserve the faith from heresy. He turned to the philosophers,
+and examined the accepted Aristotelianism in a treatise which
+has come down to us&mdash;<i>The Destruction of the Philosophers</i>. He
+assails them on twenty points of their mixed physical and metaphysical
+peripateticism, from the statement of which, in spite
+of his pretended scepticism, we can deduce some very positive
+metaphysical opinions of his own. He claims to have shown
+that the dogmas of the eternity of matter and the permanence
+of the world are false; that their description of the Deity as
+the demiurgos is unspiritual; that they fail to prove the existence,
+the unity, the simplicity, the incorporeality or the knowledge
+(both of species and accidents) of God; that their ascription
+of souls to the celestial spheres is unproved; that their theory
+of causation, which attributes effects to the very natures of
+the causes, is false, for that all actions and events are to be
+ascribed to the Deity; and, finally, that they cannot establish
+the spirituality of the soul, nor prove its mortality. These criticisms
+disclose nothing like a sceptical state of mind, but rather
+a reversion from the metaphysical to the theological stage of
+thought. He denies the intrinsic tendencies, or souls, by which
+the Aristotelians explained the motion of the spheres, because
+he ascribes their motion to God. The sceptic would have denied
+both. G.H. Lewes censures Renan for asserting of Ghaz&#257;l&#299;&rsquo;s
+theory of causation&mdash;&ldquo;<i>Hume n&rsquo;a rien dit plus</i>.&rdquo; It is true that
+Ghaz&#257;l&#299; maintains that the natural law according to which effects
+proceed inevitably from their causes is only custom, and that
+there is no <i>necessary</i> connexion between them. But while Hume
+absolutely denies the necessity, Ghaz&#257;l&#299; merely removes it one
+stage farther back, and plants it in the mind of the Deity. This,
+of course, is not metaphysics, but theology. Having, as he
+believed, refuted the opinions of the philosophers, he next investigated
+the pretensions of the Allegorists, who derived their
+doctrines from an imam. These Arabian ultramontanes had
+no word for the doubter. They could not, he says, even understand
+the problems they sought to resolve by the assumption
+of infallibility, and he turned again, in his despair, to the instructors
+of his youth&mdash;the S&#363;f&#299;s. In their mystical intuition
+of the laws of life, and absorption in the immanent Deity, he at
+last found peace. This shows the true character of the treatise
+which, alike in medieval and modern times, has been quoted as
+containing an exposition of his opinions. The work called <i>The
+Tendencies of the Philosophers</i>, translated in 1506, with the title
+<i>Logica et Philosophia Algazelis Arabis</i>, contains neither the logic
+nor the philosophy of Ghaz&#257;l&#299;. It is a mere abstract or statement
+of the Peripatetic systems, and was made preliminary to
+that <i>Destruction</i> of which we have already spoken.</p>
+
+<p>This indictment against liberal thought from the standpoint
+of the theological school was afterwards answered in Spain by
+Averroes; but in Bagdad it heralded the extinction of the light
+of philosophy. Moderate and compliant with the popular
+religion as Alfarabius and Avicenna had always been, as compared
+with their Spanish successor, they had equally failed to
+conciliate the popular spirit, and were classed in the same category
+with the heretic or the member of an immoral sect. The
+12th century exhibits the decay of liberal intellectual activity
+in the Caliphate, and the gradual ascendancy of Turkish races
+animated with all the intolerance of semi-barbarian proselytes
+to the Mahommedan faith. Philosophy, which had only sprung
+up when the purely Arabian influences ceased to predominate,
+came to an end when the sceptre of the Moslem world passed
+away from the dynasty of Persia. Even in 1150 Bagdad had
+seen a library of philosophical books burned by command of the
+caliph Mostanjid; and in 1192 the same place might have witnessed
+a strange scene, in which the books of a physician were
+first publicly cursed, and then committed to the flames, while
+their owner was incarcerated. Thus, while the Latin church
+showed a marvellous receptivity for ethnic philosophy, and
+assimilated doctrines which it had at an earlier date declared
+impious, in Islam the theological system entrenched itself
+towards the end of the 12th century in the narrow orthodoxy
+of the Asharites, and reduced the votaries of Greek philosophy
+to silence.</p>
+
+<p>The same phenomena were repeated in Spain under the
+Mahommedan rulers of Andalusia and Morocco, with this
+difference, that the time of philosophical development
+was shorter, and the heights to which Spanish thinkers
+<span class="sidenote">In Spain.</span>
+soared were greater. The reign of al-Hakam the Second (961-976)
+inaugurated in Andalusia those scientific and philosophical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page280" id="page280"></a>280</span>
+studies which were simultaneously prosecuted by the Society
+of Basra. From Cairo, Bagdad, Damascus and Alexandria,
+books both old and new were procured at any price for the library
+of the prince; twenty-seven free schools were opened in Cordova
+for the education of the poor; and intelligent knowledge was
+perhaps more widely diffused in Mahommedan Spain than in
+any other part of Europe at that day. The mosques of the city
+were filled with crowds who listened to lectures on science and
+literature, law and religion. But the future glory thus promised
+was long postponed. The usurping successor of Hakam
+found it a politic step to request the most notable doctors of the
+sacred law to examine the royal library; and every book treating
+of philosophy, astronomy and other forbidden topics was
+condemned to the flames. But the spirit of research, fostered
+by the fusion of races and the social and intellectual competition
+thus engendered, was not crushed by these proceedings; and
+for the next century and more the higher minds of Spain found
+in Damascus and Bagdad the intellectual aliment which they
+desired. At last, towards the close of the 11th century, the
+long-pent spiritual energies of Mahommedan Spain burst forth
+in a brief series of illustrious men. Whilst the native Spaniards
+were narrowing the limits of the Moorish kingdoms, and whilst
+the generally fanatical dynasty of the Almohades might have
+been expected to repress speculation, the century preceding
+the close of Mahommedan sway saw philosophy cultivated
+by Avempace, Abubacer and Averroes. Even amongst the
+Almohades there were princes, such as Yus&#363;f (who began his
+reign in 1163) and Yaq&#363;b Almans&#363;r (who succeeded in 1184),
+who welcomed the philosopher at their courts and treated him
+as an intellectual compeer. But about 1195 the old distrust of
+philosophy revived; the philosophers were banished in disgrace;
+works on philosophical topics were ordered to be confiscated and
+burned; and the son of Almans&#363;r condemned a certain Ibn-Hab&#299;b
+to death for the crime of philosophizing.</p>
+
+<p>Arabian speculation in Spain was heralded by Avicebron or
+Ibn Gabirol (<i>q.v.</i>), a Jewish philosopher (1021-1058). About
+a generation later the rank of Moslem thinkers was
+introduced by Ab&#363;-Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya,
+<span class="sidenote">Avempace.</span>
+surnamed Ibn-B&#257;jja, and known to the Latin world as Avempace.
+He was born at Saragossa, and died comparatively young
+at Fez in 1138. Besides commenting on various physical
+treatises of Aristotle&rsquo;s, he wrote some philosophical essays,
+notably one on the <i>Republic or Régime of the Solitary</i>, understanding
+by that the organized system of rules, by obedience to
+which the individual may rise from the mere life of the senses
+to the perception of pure intelligible principles and may participate
+in the divine thought which sustains the world. These
+rules for the individual are but the image or reflex of the political
+organization of the perfect or ideal state; and the man who
+strives to lead this life is called the <i>solitary</i>, not because he withdraws
+from society, but because, while in it, he guides himself
+by reference to a higher state, an ideal society. Avempace
+does not develop at any length this curious Platonic idea of the
+perfect state. His object is to discover the highest end of human
+life, and with this view he classifies the various activities of the
+human soul, rejects such as are material or animal, and then
+analyses the various spiritual forms to which the activities may
+be directed. He points out the graduated scale of such forms,
+through which the soul may rise, and shows that none are final
+or complete in themselves, except the pure intelligible forms,
+the ideas of ideas. These the intellect can grasp, and in so
+doing it becomes what he calls <i>intellectus acquisitus</i>, and is in a
+measure divine. This self-consciousness of pure reason is the
+highest object of human activity, and is to be attained by the
+speculative method. The intellect has in itself power to know
+ultimate truth and intelligence, and does not require a mystical
+illumination as Ghaz&#257;l&#299; taught. Avempace&rsquo;s principles, it is
+clear, lead directly to the Averroistic doctrine of the unity of
+intellect, but the obscurity and incompleteness of the Regime
+do not permit us to judge how far he anticipated the later thinker.
+(See Munk, <i>Mélanges de phil. juive et arabe</i>, pp. 383-410.)</p>
+
+<p>The same theme was developed by Ibn.-&#7788;ufail (<i>q.v.</i>) in his
+philosophical romance, called <i>Hayy ibn-Yakdh&#257;n</i> (the Living,
+Son of the Waking One), best known by Pococke&rsquo;s Latin version,
+as the <i>Philosophus Autodidactus</i>. It describes the process by
+which an isolated truth-seeker detaches himself from his lower
+passions, and raises himself above the material earth and the orbs
+of heaven to the forms which are the source of their movement,
+until he arrives at a union with the supreme intellect. The
+experiences of the religious mystic are paralleled with the
+ecstatic vision in which the philosophical hermit sees a world
+of pure intelligences, where birth and decease are unknown.
+It was this theory which Averroes (1126-1198), the last and
+most famous of the thinkers of Moslem Spain, carried out to his
+doctrine of the unity of intellect.</p>
+
+<p>For Aristotle the reverence of Averroes was unbounded,
+and to expound him was his chosen task. The uncritical receptivity
+of his age, the defects of the Arabic versions,
+the emphatic theism of his creed, and the rationalizing
+<span class="sidenote">Averroes.</span>
+mysticism of some Oriental thought, may have sometimes led
+him astray, and given prominence to the less obvious features
+of Aristotelianism. But in his conception of the relation
+between philosophy and religion, Averroes had a light which
+the Latins were without. The science, falsely so called, of the
+several theological schools, their groundless distinctions and
+sophistical demonstrations, he regarded as the great source
+of heresy and scepticism. The allegorical interpretations and
+metaphysics which had been imported into religion had taken
+men&rsquo;s minds away from the plain sense of the Koran. God had
+declared a truth meet for all men, which needed no intellectual
+superiority to understand, in a tongue which each human soul
+could apprehend. Accordingly, the expositors of religious
+metaphysics, Ghaz&#257;l&#299; included, are the enemies of true religion,
+because they make it a mere matter of syllogism. Averroes
+maintains that a return must be made to the words and teaching
+of the prophet; that science must not expend itself in dogmatizing
+on the metaphysical consequences of fragments of doctrine
+for popular acceptance, but must proceed to reflect upon and
+examine the existing things of the world. Averroes, at the same
+time, condemns the attempts of those who tried to give demonstrative
+science where the mind was not capable of more than
+rhetoric: they harm religion by their mere negations, destroying
+an old sensuous creed, but cannot build up a higher and
+intellectual faith.</p>
+
+<p>In this spirit Averroes does not allow the fancied needs of
+theological reasoning to interfere with his study of Aristotle,
+whom he simply interprets as a truth-seeker. The points by
+which he told on Europe were all implicit in Aristotle, but
+Averroes set in relief what the original had left obscure, and
+emphasized things which the Christian theologian passed by or
+misconceived. Thus Averroes had a double effect. He was
+the great interpreter of Aristotle to the later Schoolmen. On the
+other hand, he came to represent those aspects of Peripateticism
+most alien to the spirit of Christendom; and the deeply religious
+Moslem gave his name to the anti-sacerdotal party, to the
+materialists, sceptics and atheists, who defied or undermined
+the dominant beliefs of the church.</p>
+
+<p>On three points Averroes, like other Moslem thinkers, came
+specially into relation, real or supposed, with the religious creed,
+viz. the creation of the world, the divine knowledge of particular
+things, and the future of the human soul.</p>
+
+<p>The real grandeur of Averroes is seen in his resolute prosecution
+of the standpoint of science in matters of this world, and in his
+recognition that religion is not a branch of knowledge to be
+reduced to propositions and systems of dogma, but a personal
+and inward power, an individual truth which stands distinct
+from, but not contradictory to, the universalities of scientific
+law. In his science he followed the Greeks, and to the Schoolmen
+he and his compatriots rightly seemed philosophers of the
+ancient world. He maintained alike the claim of demonstrative
+science with its generalities for the few who could live in that
+ethereal world, and the claim of religion for all&mdash;the common
+life of each soul as an individual and personal consciousness.
+But theology, or the mixture of the two, he regarded as a source
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page281" id="page281"></a>281</span>
+of evil to both&mdash;fostering the vain belief in a hostility of philosophers
+to religion, and meanwhile corrupting religion by a
+pseudo-science.</p>
+
+<p>The latent nominalism of Aristotle only came gradually to
+be emphasized through the prominence which Christianity
+gave to the individual life, and, apart from passing notices as
+in Abelard, first found clear enunciation in the school of Duns
+Scotus. The Arabians, on the contrary, emphasized the idealist
+aspect which had been adopted and promoted by the Neo-Platonist
+commentators. Hence, to Averroes the eternity of the
+world finds its true expression in the eternity of God. The
+ceaseless movement of growth and change, which presents
+matter in form after form as a continual search after a finality
+which in time and movement is not and cannot be reached,
+represents only the aspect the world shows to the physicist and
+to the senses. In the eye of reason the full fruition of this desired
+finality is already and always attained; the actualization, invisible
+to the senses, is achieved now and ever, and is thus beyond
+the element of time. This transcendent or abstract being is that
+which the world of nature is always seeking. He is thought or
+intellect, the actuality, of which movement is but the fragmentary
+attainment in successive instants of time. Such a mind
+is not in the theological sense a creator, yet the onward movement
+is not the same as what some modern thinkers seem to
+mean by development. For the perfect and absolute, the consummation
+of movement is not generated at any point in the
+process; it is an ideal end, which guides the operations of nature,
+and does not wait upon them for its achievement. God is the
+unchanging essence of the movement, and therefore its eternal
+cause.</p>
+
+<p>A special application of this relation between the prior perfect,
+and the imperfect, which it influences, is found in the doctrine
+of the connexion of the abstract (transcendent) intellect with
+man. This transcendent mind is sometimes connected with
+the moon, according to the theory of Aristotle, who assigned
+an imperishable matter to the sphere beyond the sublunary,
+and in general looked upon the celestial orbs as living and intelligent.
+Such an intellect, named active or productive, as being
+the author of the development of reason in man, is the permanent,
+eternal thought, which is the truth of the cosmic and physical
+movement. It is in man that the physical or sensible passes
+most evidently into the metaphysical and rational. Humanity
+is the chosen vessel in which the light of the intellect is revealed;
+and so long as mankind lasts there must always be some individuals
+destined to receive this light. What seems from the
+material point of view to be the acquisition of learning, study
+and a moral life, is from the higher point of view the manifestation
+of the transcendent intellect in the individual. The preparation
+of the heart and faculties gives rise to a series of grades
+between the original predisposition and the full acquisition of
+actual intellect. These grades in the main resemble those given
+by Avicenna. But beyond these, Averroes claims as the highest
+bliss of the soul a union in this life with the actual intellect.
+The intellect, therefore, is one and continuous in all individuals,
+who differ only in the degree which their illumination has
+attained. Such was the Averroist doctrine of the unity of
+intellect&mdash;the eternal and universal nature of true intellectual life.
+By his interpreters it was transformed into a theory of one soul
+common to all mankind, and when thus corrupted conflicted
+not unreasonably with the doctrines of a future life, common
+to Islam and Christendom.</p>
+
+<p>Averroes, rejected by his Moslem countrymen, found a hearing
+among the Jews, to whom Maimonides had shown the free paths
+of Greek speculation. In the cities of Languedoc and
+of Provence to which they had been driven by Spanish
+<span class="sidenote">Opponents of Averoism.</span>
+fanaticism, the Jews no longer used the learned Arabic,
+and translations of the works of Averroes became
+necessary. His writings became the text-book of Levi ben
+Gerson at Perpignan, and of Moses of Narbonne. Meanwhile,
+before 1250, Averroes became accessible to the Latin Schoolmen
+by means of versions, accredited by the names of Michael Scot
+and others. William of Auvergne is the first Schoolman who
+criticizes the doctrines of Averroes, not, however, by name.
+Albertus Magnus and St Thomas devote special treatises to an
+examination of the Averroist theory of the unity of intellect,
+which they labour to confute in order to establish the orthodoxy
+of Aristotle. But as early as Aegidius Romanus (1247-1316).
+Averroes had been stamped as the patron of indifference to
+theological dogmas, and credited with the emancipation which
+was equally due to wider experience and the lessons of the
+Crusades. There had never been an absence of protest against
+the hierarchical doctrine. Berengar of Tours (11th century) had
+struggled in that interest, and with Abelard, in the 12th century,
+the revolt against authority in belief grew loud. The dialogue
+between a Christian, a Jew and a philosopher suggested a comparative
+estimate of religions, and placed the natural religion of
+the moral law above all positive revelations. Nihilists and
+naturalists, who deified logic and science at the expense of
+faith, were not unknown at Paris in the days of John of Salisbury.
+In such a critical generation the words of Averroism
+found willing ears, and pupils who outran their teacher. Paris
+became the centre of a sceptical society, which the decrees of
+bishops and councils, and the enthusiasm of the orthodox doctors
+and knights-errant of Catholicism, were powerless to extinguish.
+At Oxford Averroes told more as the great commentator. In
+the days of Roger Bacon he had become an authority. Bacon,
+placing him beside Aristotle and Avicenna, recommends the
+study of Arabic as the only way of getting the knowledge which
+bad versions made almost hopeless. In Duns Scotus, Averroes
+and Aristotle are the unequalled masters of the science of proof;
+and he pronounces distinctly the separation between Catholic
+and philosophical truth, which became the watchword of Averroism.
+By the 14th century Averroism was the common leaven
+of philosophy; John Baconthorpe is the chief of Averroists, and
+Walter Burley has similar tendencies.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Averrcism had come to be regarded by the great
+Dominican school as the arch-enemy of the truth. When the
+emperor Frederick II. consulted a Moslem free-thinker on the
+mysteries of the faith, when the phrase or legend of the &ldquo;Three
+Impostors&rdquo; presented in its most offensive form the scientific
+survey of the three laws of Moses, Christ and Mahomet, and
+when the characteristic doctrines of Averroes were misunderstood,
+it soon followed that his name became the badge of the
+scoffer and the sceptic. What had begun with the subtle disputes
+of the universities of Paris, went on to the materialist
+teachers in the medical schools and the sceptical men of the world
+in the cities of northern Italy. The patricians of Venice and
+the lecturers of Padua made Averroism synonymous with
+doubt and criticism in theology, and with sarcasm against the
+hierarchy. Petrarch refuses to believe that any good thing can
+come out of Arabia, and speaks of Averroes as a mad dog barking
+against the church. In works of contemporary art Averroes
+is at one time the comrade of Mahomet and Antichrist; at
+another he lies with Arius and Sabellius, vanquished by the
+lance of St Thomas.</p>
+
+<p>It was in the universities of north Italy that Averroism
+finally settled, and there for three centuries it continued as
+a stronghold of Scholasticism to resist the efforts of
+revived antiquity and of advancing science. Padua
+<span class="sidenote">The school of Padua.</span>
+became the seat of Averroist Aristotelianism; and,
+when Padua was conquered by Venice in 1405, the printers of
+the republic spread abroad the teaching of the professors in the
+university. As early as 1300, at Padua, Petrus Aponensis, a
+notable expositor of medical theories, had betrayed a heterodoxy
+in faith; and John of Jandun, one of the pamphleteers on the
+side of Louis of Bavaria, was a keen follower of Averroes, whom
+he styles a &ldquo;perfect and most glorious physicist.&rdquo; Urbanus
+of Bologna, Paul of Venice (d. 1428), and Cajetanus de Thienis
+(1387-1465), established by their lectures and their discussions
+the authority of Averroes; and a long list of manuscripts rests
+in the libraries of Lombardy to witness the diligence of these
+writers and their successors. Even a lady of Venice, Cassandra
+Fedele, in 1480, gained her laurels in defence of Averroist theses.</p>
+
+<p>With Pietro Pomponazzi (<i>q.v.</i>) in 1495, a brilliant epoch began
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page282" id="page282"></a>282</span>
+for the school of Padua. Questions of permanent and present
+interest took the place of outworn scholastic problems. The
+disputants ranged themselves under the rival commentators,
+Alexander and Averroes; and the immortality of the soul became
+the battle-ground of the two parties. Pomponazzi defended the
+Alexandrist doctrine of the utter mortality of the soul, whilst
+Agostino Nifo (<i>q.v.</i>), the Averroist, was entrusted by Leo X.
+with the task of defending the Catholic doctrine. The parties
+seemed to have changed when Averroism thus took the side of
+the church; but the change was probably due to compulsion.
+Nifo had edited the works of Averroes (1495-1497); but his
+expressions gave offence to the dominant theologians, and he
+had to save himself by distinguishing his personal faith from his
+editorial capacity. Alessandro Achillini, the persistent philosophical
+adversary of Pomponazzi, both at Padua and subsequently
+at Bologna, attempted, along with other moderate but
+not brilliant Averroists, to accommodate their philosophical
+theory with the requirements of Catholicism. It was this comparatively
+mild Averroism, reduced to the merely explanatory
+activity of a commentator, which continued to be the official
+dogma at Padua during the 16th century. Its typical representative
+is Marc-Antonio Zimara (d. 1552), the author of a reconciliation
+between the tenets of Averroes and those of Aristotle.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, in 1497, Aristotle was for the first time expounded
+in Greek at Padua. Plato had long been the favourite study
+at Florence; and Humanists, like Erasmus, Ludovicus
+Vives and Nizolius, enamoured of the popular philosophy
+<span class="sidenote">Summary.</span>
+of Cicero and Quintilian, poured out the vials of their
+contempt on scholastic barbarism with its &ldquo;impious and thrice-accursed
+Averroes.&rdquo; The editors of Averroes complain that
+the popular taste had forsaken them for the Greek. Nevertheless,
+while Fallopius, Vesalius and Galileo were claiming attention
+to their discoveries, G. Zabarella, Francesco Piccolomini
+(1520-1604) and Cesare Cremonini (1550-1631) continued the
+traditions of Averroism, not without changes and additions.
+Cremonini, the last of them, died in 1631, after lecturing twelve
+years at Ferrara, and forty at Padua. The great educational
+value of Arabian philosophy for the later schoolmen consisted
+in its making them acquainted with an entire Aristotle. At
+the moment when it seemed as if everything had been made
+that could be made out of the fragments of Aristotle, and the
+compilations of Capella, Cassiodorus and others, and when
+mysticism and scepticism seemed the only resources left for
+the mind, the horizon of knowledge was suddenly widened by
+the acquisition of a complete Aristotle. Thus the mistakes
+inevitable in the isolated study of an imperfect <i>Organon</i> could
+not henceforth be made. The real bearing of old questions,
+and the meaninglessness of many disputes, were seen in the
+new conception of Aristotelianism given by the <i>Metaphysics</i>
+and other treatises. The former Realism and Nominalism were
+lifted into a higher phase by the principle of the universalizing
+action of intellect&mdash;<i>Intellectus in formis agit universalitatem</i>.
+The commentaries of the Arabians in this respect supplied
+nutriment more readily assimilated by the pupils than the pure
+text would have been.</p>
+
+<p>Arabian philosophy, whilst it promoted the exegesis of Aristotle
+and increased his authority, was not less notable as the source
+of the separation between theology and philosophy. Speculation
+fell on irreligious paths. In many cases the heretical movement
+was due less to foreign example than to the indwelling tendencies
+of the dominant school of realism. But it is not less certain that
+the very considerable freedom of the Arabians from theological
+bias prepared the time when philosophy shook off its ecclesiastical
+vestments. In the hurry of first terror, the church struck
+Aristotle with the anathema launched against innovations in
+philosophy. The provincial council of Paris in 1209, which
+condemned Amalricus and his followers, as well as David of
+Dinant&rsquo;s works, forbade the study of Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Natural Philosophy</i>
+and the <i>Commentaries</i>. In 1215 the same prohibition
+was repeated, specifying the <i>Metaphysics</i> and <i>Physics</i>, and the
+<i>Commentaries</i> by the Spaniard Mauritius (<i>i.e.</i> probably Averroes).
+Meanwhile Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, accepting
+the exegetical services of the Arabians, did their best to controvert
+the obnoxious doctrine of the Intellect, and to defend the
+orthodoxy of Aristotle against the unholy glosses of infidels.
+But it is doubtful whether even they kept as pure from the
+infection of illegitimate doctrine as they supposed. The tide
+meanwhile flowed in stronger and stronger. In 1270 Étienne
+Tempier, bishop of Paris, supported by an assembly of theologians,
+anathematized thirteen propositions bearing the stamp
+of Arabian authorship; but in 1277 the same views and others
+more directly offensive to Christians and theologians had to be
+censured again. Raymond Lully, in a dialogue with an infidel
+thinker, broke a lance in support of the orthodox doctrine, and
+carried on a crusade against the Arabians in every university;
+and a disciple of Thomas Aquinas drew up a list (<i>De erroribus
+philosophorum</i>) of the several delusions and errors of each of
+the thinkers from Kindi to Averroes. Strong in their conviction
+of the truth of Aristotelianism, the Arabians carried out their
+logical results in the theological field, and made the distinction
+of necessary and possible, of form and matter, the basis of conclusions
+in the most momentous questions. They refused to
+accept the doctrine of creation because it conflicted with the
+explanation of forms as the necessary evolution of matter.
+They denied the particular providence of God, because knowledge
+in the divine sphere did not descend to singulars. They excluded
+the Deity from all direct action upon the world, and
+substituted for a cosmic principle the active intellect,&mdash;thus
+holding a form of Pantheism. But all did not go the same length
+in their divergence from the popular creed.</p>
+
+<p>The half-legendary accounts which attribute the introduction
+of Arabian science to Gerbert, afterwards Pope Sylvester II.,
+to Constantinus Africanus and to Adelard of Bath, if they have
+any value, refer mainly to medical science and mathematics.
+It was not till about the middle of the 12th century that under
+the patronage of Raymond, archbishop of Toledo, a society of
+translators, with the archdeacon Dominicus Gundisalvi at their
+head, produced Latin versions of the <i>Commentaries</i> of Avicenna,
+and Ghazali, of the <i>Fons Vitae</i> of Avicebron, and of several
+Aristotelian treatises. The working translators were converted
+Jews, the best-known among them being Joannes Avendeath.
+With this effort began the chief translating epoch for Arabic
+works. Avicenna&rsquo;s <i>Canon of Medicine</i> was first translated into
+Latin by Gerard of Cremona (d. 1187), to whom versions of other
+medical and astronomical works are due. The movement
+towards introducing Arabian science and philosophy into Europe,
+however, culminated under the patronage of the emperor
+Frederick II. (1212-1250). Partly from superiority to the
+narrowness of his age, and partly in the interest of his struggle
+with the Papacy, this <i>Malleus ecclesiae Romanae</i> drew to his
+court those savants whose pursuits were discouraged by the
+church, and especially students in the forbidden lore of the
+Arabians. He is said to have pensioned Jews for purposes of
+translation. One of the scholars to whom Frederick gave a
+welcome was Michael Scot, the first translator of Averroes.
+Scot had sojourned at Toledo about 1217, and had accomplished
+the versions of several astronomical and physical treatises,
+mainly, if we believe Roger Bacon, by the labours of a Jew named
+Andrew. But Bacon is apparently hypercritical in his estimate of
+the translators from the Arabic. Another protégé of Frederick&rsquo;s
+was Hermann the German (Alemannus), who, between the years
+1243 and 1256, translated amongst other things a paraphrase of
+al-F&#257;r&#257;b&#299; on the <i>Rhetoric</i>, and of Averroes on the <i>Poetics</i> and
+<i>Ethics</i> of Aristotle. Jewish scholars held an honourable place
+in transmitting the Arabian commentators to the schoolmen.
+It was amongst them, especially in Maimonides, that Aristotelianism
+found refuge after the light of philosophy was extinguished
+in Islam; and the Jewish family of the Ben-Tibbon
+were mainly instrumental in making Averroes known to southern
+France.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See S. Munk, <i>Mélanges de philosophie juive et arabe</i> (Paris, 1859);
+E. Renan, <i>De Philosophia Peripatetica apud Syros</i> (1852), and
+<i>Averroës et l&rsquo;Averroisme</i> (Paris, 3rd ed., 1867); Am. Jourdain,
+<i>Recherches critiques sur l&rsquo;âge et l&rsquo;origine des traductions latines
+d&rsquo;Aristote</i> (Paris, 2<span class="sp">me</span> ed., 1843); B. Hauréau, <i>Philosophie scolastique</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page283" id="page283"></a>283</span>
+(Paris, 1850), tome i. p. 359; E. Vacherot, <i>École d&rsquo;Alexandrie</i>
+(1846-1851), tome iii. p. 85; Schmolders, <i>Documenta philosophiae
+Arabum</i> (Bonn, 1836), and <i>Essai sur les écoles philosophiques chez les
+Arabes</i> (Paris, 1842); Shahrastani, <i>History of Religious and Philosophical
+Sects</i>, in German translation by Haarbrücker (Halle, 1850-1851);
+Dieterici, <i>Streit zwischen Mensch und Thier</i> (Berlin, 1858),
+and his other translations of the <i>Encyclopaedia of the Brothers of
+Sincerity</i> (1861 to 1872); T.J. de Boer, <i>The History of Philosophy
+in Islam</i> (London, 1903); K. Prantl, <i>Geschichte der Logik</i> (Leipzig,
+1861); and the Histories of Philosophy; also the literature under
+the biographies of philosophers mentioned.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. W.; G. W. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARABIAN SEA<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (anc. <i>Mare Erythraeum</i>), the name applied
+to the portion of the Indian Ocean bounded E. by India, N. by
+Baluchistan and part of the southern Persian littoral, W. by
+Arabia, and S., approximately, by a line between Cape Guardafui,
+the north-east point of Somaliland, and Cape Comorin in India.
+It has two important branches&mdash;at the south-west the Gulf of
+Aden, connecting with the Red Sea through the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb;
+and at the north-west the Gulf of Oman, connecting
+with the Persian Gulf. Besides these larger ramifications, there
+are the Gulfs of Cambay and Kach on the Indian coast. An
+interest and importance belong to this sea as forming part of the
+chief highway between Europe and India. Its islands are few
+and insignificant, the chief being Sokotra, off the African, and
+the Laccadives, off the Indian coast.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARABICI,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> a religious sect originating about the beginning of
+the 3rd century, which is mentioned by Augustine (<i>De Haeres</i>.
+c. lxxxiii.), and called also <span class="grk" title="thnetopseuchitai">&#952;&#957;&#951;&#964;&#959;&#968;&#965;&#967;&#943;&#964;&#945;&#953;</span> (&ldquo;mortal-souled&rdquo;) by
+John of Damascus (<i>De Haeres</i>. c. xc.) The name is given to
+the Arabians mentioned by Eusebius (<i>Hist. Eccl</i>. vi. 37), whose
+distinctive doctrine was a form of Christian materialism, showing
+itself in the belief that the soul perished and was restored to life
+along with the body. We may compare Tatian&rsquo;s view of the
+soul as a subtler variety of matter. According to Eusebius,
+they were convinced of their error by Origen, and renounced it
+at a council held about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 246.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARABI PASHA<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1839-&emsp;&emsp;), more correctly <span class="sc">Ahmad &#8219;Ar&#257;b&#299;</span>,
+to which in later years he added the epithet <i>al-Misr&#299;</i>, &ldquo;the
+Egyptian,&rdquo; Egyptian soldier and revolutionary leader, was born
+in Lower Egypt in 1839 or 1840 of a fellah family. Having
+entered the army as a conscript he was made an officer by Said
+Pasha in 1862, and was employed in the transport department
+in the Abyssinian campaign of 1875 under Ismail Pasha. A
+charge of peculation, unproved, was made against him in connexion
+with this expedition and he was placed on half-pay.
+During this time he joined a secret society formed by Ali Rubi
+with the object of getting rid of Turkish officers from the
+Egyptian army. Arabi also attended lectures at the mosque
+El Azhar and acquired a reputation as an orator. In 1878 he
+was employed by Ismail in fomenting a disturbance against the
+ministry of Nubar, Rivers Wilson and de Blignières, and received
+in payment a wife from Ismail&rsquo;s harem and the command of a
+regiment. This increased his influence with the secret society,
+which, under the feeble government of Tewfik Pasha and the
+Dual Control, began to agitate against Europeans. In all that
+followed Arabi was put forward as the leader of the discontented
+Egyptians; he was in reality little more than the mouthpiece
+and puppet of abler men such as Ali Rubi and Mahmud
+Sami. On the 1st of February 1881 Arabi and two other
+Egyptian colonels, summoned before a court-martial for acts
+of disobedience, were rescued by their soldiers, and the khedive
+was forced to dismiss his then minister of war in favour of
+Mahmud Sami. A military demonstration on the 8th of
+September 1881, led by Arabi, forced the khedive to increase
+the numbers and pay of the army, to substitute Sherif Pasha
+for Riaz Pasha as prime minister, and to convene an assembly
+of notables. Arabi became under-secretary for war at the
+beginning of 1882, but continued his intrigues. The assembly
+of notables claimed the right of voting the budget, and thus
+came into conflict with the foreign controllers who had been
+appointed to guard the interests of the bondholders in the
+management of the Egyptian finances. Sherif fell in February,
+Mahmud Sami became prime minister, and Arabi (created a
+pasha) minister of war. Arabi, after a brief fall from office,
+acquired a dictatorial power that alarmed the British government.
+British and French warships went to Alexandria at the
+beginning of June; on the 11th of that month rioting in that
+city led to the sacrifice of many European lives. Order could
+only be restored through the intervention of Arabi, who now
+adopted a more distinctly anti-European attitude. His arming
+of the forts at Alexandria was held to constitute a menace to
+the British fleet. On the refusal of France to co-operate, the
+British fleet bombarded the forts (11th July), and a British force,
+under Sir Garnet Wolseley, defeated Arabi on the 13th of
+September at Tel-el-Kebir. Arabi fled to Cairo where he surrendered,
+and was tried (3rd of December) for rebellion. In
+accordance with an understanding made with the British
+representative, Lord Dufferin, Arabi pleaded guilty, and sentence
+of death was immediately commuted to one of banishment for
+life to Ceylon. The same sentence was passed on Mahmud
+Sami and others. After Arabi&rsquo;s exile had lasted for nearly
+twenty years, however, the khedive Abbas II. exercised his
+prerogative of mercy, and in May 1901 Arabi was permitted to
+return to Egypt. Arabi, as has been said, was rather the figurehead
+than the inspirer of the movement of 1881-1882; and
+was probably more honest, as he was certainly less intelligent,
+than those whose tool, in a large measure, he was. The movement
+which he represented in the eye of Europe, whatever the
+motives of its leaders, &ldquo;was in its essence a genuine revolt
+against misgovernment,&rdquo;<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and it was a dim recognition of this
+fact which led Arabi to style himself &ldquo;the Egyptian.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>History</i>; also the accounts of Arabi in <i>Khedives
+and Pashas</i>, by C.F. Moberly Bell (1884); and in Lord Cromer&rsquo;s
+<i>Modern Egypt</i> (1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Lord Cromer in <i>Egypt</i>, No. 1, 1905, p. 2.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARABISTAN<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (formerly <span class="sc">Khuzistan</span>), a province of Persia,
+bounded on the S. by the Persian Gulf, on the W. by Turkish
+territory, on the N. by Luristan and on the E. by the Bakhtiari
+district and Fars. It has its modern name, signifying &ldquo;land of
+the Arabs,&rdquo; from the Arabs who form the bulk of the population,
+and is subdivided into the districts of Muhamrah, Fellahiyeh
+(the old Dorak), Ram Hormuz (popularly known as Ramiz),
+Havizeh, Shushter and Dizful. It has a population of about
+200,000 and pays a yearly revenue of about £30,000. The soil
+is very fertile, but since the dam over the Karun at Ahvaz was
+swept away and the numerous canals which diverted the waters
+of the river for irrigation became useless, a great part of the
+province is uncultivated, and most of the crops and produce
+depend for water on rainfall and wells. The climate is hot, and
+in the low-lying, swampy districts very unhealthy; the prevailing
+winds are north-west and south-east, the former hot and
+dry from the arid districts west of Mesopotamia, the latter bearing
+much moisture from the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean.
+The principal Arab tribes are the Kab (generally known as
+Chaab) and Beni Lam, the former mostly settled in towns and
+villages and by religion Shi&rsquo;ites, the latter nomads and Sunnites.
+The staples of food are dates and fish in the south, elsewhere
+the produce of the herds and flocks and rice, wheat and barley.
+Other products are maize, cotton, silk and indigo, and the manufactures
+include carpets without pile, coarse woollens, cottons
+and silk nettings. Dyeing is extensively carried on in Dizful
+where most of the indigo is grown.</p>
+
+<p>Khuzistan (meaning &ldquo;the land of the Khuz&rdquo;) was a part of
+the Biblical Elam, the classical Susiana, and appears in the great
+inscription of Darius as Uvaja.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARABS,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> the name given to that branch of the Semitic race
+which from the earliest historic times inhabited the south-western
+portion of the Arabian peninsula. The name, to-day
+the collective term for the overwhelming majority of the surviving
+Semitic peoples, was originally restricted to the nomad
+tribes who ranged the north of the peninsula east of Palestine
+and the Syro-Arabian desert. In this narrow sense &ldquo;Arab&rdquo;
+is used in the Assyrian inscriptions, in the Old Testament and
+in the Minaean inscriptions. Before the Christian era it had
+come to include all the inhabitants of the peninsula. This, it is
+suggested, may have been due to the fact that the &ldquo;Arabs&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page284" id="page284"></a>284</span>
+were the chief people near the Greek and Roman colonies in
+Syria and Mesopotamia. Classical writers use the term both
+in its local and general sense. The Arabs to-day occupy, besides
+Arabia, a part of Mesopotamia, the western shores of the Red
+Sea, the eastern coast of the Persian Gulf and the north of
+Africa. The finest type of the race is found in south Arabia
+among the Ariba Arabs, among the mountaineers of Hadramut
+and Yemen and among the Bedouin tribes roaming over the
+interior of central and northern Arabia. The Arabs of the
+coasts and those of Mesopotamia are hybrids, showing Turkish,
+Negroid and Hamitic crossings. The people of Syria and
+Palestine are hybrids of Arab, Phoenician and Jewish descent.
+The theory that early Arab settlements were made on the east
+coast of Africa as far as Sofala south of the Zambezi, is without
+foundation; the earliest Arab settlement on the east coast of
+Africa that can be proved is Magadoxo (Mukdishu) in the 10th
+century, and the ruined cities of Mashonaland, once supposed
+to be the remains of Arab settlements, are now known to be
+of medieval African origin. On the East African coast-lands
+Arab influence is still considerable. Traces of the Arab type
+are met with in Asia Minor, the Caucasus, western Persia and
+India, while the influence of the Arab language and civilization
+is found in Europe (Malta and Spain), China and Central
+Asia.</p>
+
+<p>The Arabs are at once the most ancient as they in many ways
+are the purest surviving type of the true Semite. Certainly
+the inhabitants of Yemen are not, and in historic
+times never were, pure Semites. Somali and other
+<span class="sidenote">Ethnology.</span>
+elements, generally described under the collective racial name
+of Hamitic, are clearly traceable; but the inland Arabs still
+present the nearest approach to the primitive Semitic type.
+The origin of the Arab race can only be a matter of conjecture.
+From the remotest historic times it has been divided into two
+branches, which from their geographical position it is simplest
+to call the North Arabians and the South Arabians. Arabic
+and Jewish tradition trace the descent of the latter from Joktan
+(Arabic <i>Kahtan</i>) son of Heber, of the former from Ishmael.
+The South Arabians&mdash;the older branch&mdash;were settled in the
+south-western part of the peninsula centuries before the uprise
+of the Ishmaelites. These latter include not only Ishmael&rsquo;s
+direct descendants through the twelve princes (Gen. xxv. 16),
+but the Edomites, Moabites, Ammonites, Midianites and other
+tribes. This ancient and undoubted division of the Arab race
+&mdash;roughly represented to-day by the universally adopted
+classification into Arabs proper and Bedouin Arabs (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bedouins</a></span>)-has caused much dispute among ethnologists.
+All authorities agree in declaring the race to be Semitic in the
+broadest ethnological signification of that term, but some
+thought they saw in this division of the race an indication of a
+dual origin. They asserted that the purer branch of the Arab
+family was represented by the sedentary Arabs who were of
+Hamitic (Biblical Cushite), <i>i.e.</i> African ancestry, and that the
+nomad Arabs were Arabs only by adoption, and were nearer
+akin to the true Semite as sons of Ishmael. Many arguments
+were adduced in support of this theory, (1) The unquestioned
+division in remote historic times of the Arab race, and the immemorial
+hostility between the two branches. (2) The concurrence
+of pre-Islamitic literature and records in representing the
+first settlement of the &ldquo;pure&rdquo; Arab as made in the extreme
+south-western part of the peninsula, near Aden. (3) The use
+of Himyar, &ldquo;dusky&rdquo; or &ldquo;red&rdquo; (suggesting African affinities),
+as the name sometimes for the ruling class, sometimes for the
+entire people. (4) The African affinities of the Himyaritic
+language. (5) The resemblance of the grammar of the Arabic
+now spoken by the &ldquo;pure&rdquo; Arabs, where it differs from that
+of the North, to the Abyssinian grammar. (6) The marked
+resemblance of the pre-Islamitic institutions of Yemen and its
+allied provinces-its monarchies, courts, armies and serfs&mdash;to
+the historical Africo-Egyptian type and even to modern Abyssinia.
+(7) The physique of the &ldquo;pure&rdquo; Arab, the shape and
+size of the head, the slenderness of the lower limbs, all suggesting
+an African rather than an Asiatic origin. (8) The habits of the
+people, viz. their sedentary rather than nomad occupations,
+their fondness for village life, for dancing, music and society,
+their cultivation of the soil, having more in common with African
+life than with that of the western Asiatic continent. (9) The
+extreme facility of marriage which exists in all classes of the
+southern Arabs with the African races, the fecundity of such
+unions and the slightness or even total absence of any caste
+feeling between the dusky &ldquo;pure&rdquo; Arab and the still darker
+African, pointing to a community of origin. And further arguments
+were found in the characteristics of the Bedouins, their
+pastoral and nomad tendencies; the peculiarities of their idiom
+allied to the Hebrew; their strong clan feeling, their continued
+resistance to anything like regal power or centralized
+organization.</p>
+
+<p>Such, briefly, were the more important arguments; but
+latterly ethnologists are inclined to agree that there is little
+really to be said for the African ancestry theory and that the
+Arab race had its beginning in the deserts of south Arabia,
+that in short the true Arabs are aborigines.</p>
+
+<p>Mahommedans call the centuries before the Prophet&rsquo;s birth
+waqt-el jahil&#299;ya, &ldquo;the time of ignorance,&rdquo; but the fact is that
+the Arab world has in some respects never since reached so high
+a level as it had in those days which it suits Moslems to paint in
+dreary colours. Writing was a fine art and poetry flourished.
+Eloquence was an accomplishment all strove to acquire, and
+each year there were assemblies, lasting sometimes a month,
+which were devoted to contests of skill among the orators and
+poets, to listen to whose friendly rivalry tribesmen journeyed
+long distances. Last, that surest index of a people&rsquo;s
+civilization&mdash;the treatment of women&mdash;contrasted very favourably with
+their position under the Koran. Women had rights and were
+respected. The veil and the harem system were unknown before
+Mahomet. According to Nöldeke the Nabataean inscriptions
+and coins show that women held a high social position in northern
+Arabia, owning large estates and trading independently. Polyandry
+and polygamy, it is true, were practised, but the right of
+divorce belonged to the woman as well as the man. Two kinds
+of marriage were celebrated. One was a purely personal contract,
+with no witnesses, the wife not leaving her home or passing
+under marital authority. The other was a formal marriage, the
+woman becoming subject to her husband by purchase or capture.
+Even captive women were not kept in slavery. Arabic wealth
+and culture had indeed thus early reached a stage which justified
+Professor Robertson Smith in writing, &ldquo;In this period the name
+of Arab was associated to Western writers with ideas of effeminate
+indolence and peaceful opulence ... the golden age of
+Yemen.&rdquo; But long before Mahomet&rsquo;s time this early Arab
+predominance was at an end, possibly due in great measure
+to the loss of the caravan trade through the increase of shipping.
+The abandonment of great cities and the ruin of many tribes
+contributed to the apparent nationalization of the Arab peoples.
+Though the traditional jealousy and hostility of the two branches,
+the Yemenites and Maadites or Ishmaelites, remained, the Arab
+world had attained by the levelling process of common misfortune
+the superficial unity it presents to-day. The nation thus
+formed, never a nation in the strict sense of the word, was
+distinctively and thoroughly Semitic in character and language,
+and has remained unchanged to the present day. The sporadic
+brilliancy of the ancient Arab kingdoms gave place to a social
+and political lethargy, the continuation of which for many centuries
+made the uprise of Saracenic empires seem a miracle to
+a world ignorant of the Arab past. The Arab race up to
+Mahomet&rsquo;s day had been in the main pagan. Monotheism, if
+it ever prevailed, early gave place to sun and star worship,
+or simple idolatry. Professor Robertson Smith suggests that
+totemism was the earliest form of Arabian idolatry, and that
+each tribe had its sacred animal. This he supports by the fact
+that some tribal names were derived from those of animals, and
+that animal-worship was not unknown in Arabia. What seems
+certain is that Arab religion was of a complex hybrid nature,
+not much to be wondered at when one remembers that Arabia
+was the asylum of many religious refugees, Zoroastrians, Jews,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page285" id="page285"></a>285</span>
+Christians. In the later pre-Islamitic times spirits, or jinns,
+as they were called, of which each tribe or family had its
+own, were worshipped, and there was but a vague idea of a
+Supreme Being. Images of the jinns to the number of
+360, one for each day of the lunar year, were collected in
+the temple at Mecca, the chief seat of their worship. That
+worship was of a sanguinary nature. Human sacrifice was
+fairly frequent. Under the guise of religion female infanticide
+was a common practice. At Mecca the great object of worship
+was a plain black stone, and to it pilgrimages were made from
+every part of Arabia. This stone was so sacred to the Arabs
+that even Mahomet dared not dispense with it, and it remains
+the central object of sanctity in the Ka&rsquo;ba to-day. The temples
+of the Sabaeans and the Minaeans were built east of their
+cities, a fact suggesting sun-worship, yet this is not believed to
+have been the cult of the Minaeans. Common to both was the
+worship of Attar, the male Ashtoreth.</p>
+
+<p>With the appearance of Mahomet the Arabs took anew a place
+in the world&rsquo;s history.</p>
+
+<p>Physically the Arabs are one of the strongest and
+noblest races of the world. Baron de Larrey, surgeon-general to
+Napoleon on his expedition to Egypt and Syria,
+writes: &ldquo;Their physical structure is in all respects
+<span class="sidenote">Physique.</span>
+more perfect than that of Europeans; their organs of sense
+exquisitely acute, their size above the average of men in general,
+their figure robust and elegant, their colour brown; their intelligence
+proportionate to their physical perfection and without
+doubt superior, other things being equal, to that of other
+nations.&rdquo; The typical Arab face is of an oval form, lean-featured;
+the eyes a brilliant black, deep-set under bushy
+eyebrows; nose aquiline, forehead straight but not high. In
+body the Arab is muscular and long-limbed, but lean. Deformed
+individuals or dwarfs are rare among Arabs; nor, except
+leprosy, which is common, does any disease seem to be hereditary
+among them. They often suffer from ophthalmia, though not
+in the virulent Egyptian form. They are scrupulously clean
+in their persons, and take special care of their teeth, which are
+generally white and even. Simple and abstemious in their
+habits, they often reach an extreme yet healthy old age; nor
+is it common among them for the faculties of the mind to give
+way sooner than those of the body.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, physically, they yield to few races, if any, of mankind;
+mentally, they surpass most, and are only kept back in the
+march of progress by the remarkable defect of organizing
+power and incapacity for combined action.
+<span class="sidenote">Character.</span>
+Lax and imperfect as are their forms of government, it is with
+impatience that even these are borne; of the four caliphs
+who alone reigned&mdash;if reign theirs could be called&mdash;in Arabia
+proper, three died a violent death; and of the Wahhabi princes,
+the most genuine representatives in later times of pure Arab
+rule, almost all have met the same fate. The Arab face, which
+is not unkindly, but never smiling, expresses that dignity and
+gravity which are typical of the race. While the Arab is always
+polite, good-natured, manly and brave, he is also revengeful,
+cruel, untruthful and superstitious. Of the Arab nature Burckhardt
+(other authorities, <i>e.g.</i> Barth and Rohlfs, are far less complimentary)
+wrote: &ldquo;The Arab displays his manly character when
+he defends his guest at the peril of his own life, and submits
+to the reverses of fortune, to disappointment and distress, with
+the most patient resignation. He is distinguished from a Turk
+by the virtues of pity and gratitude. The Turk is cruel, the Arab
+of a more kind temper; he pities and supports the wretched, and
+never forgets the generosity shown to him even by an enemy.&rdquo;
+The Arab will lie and cheat and swear false oaths, but once his
+word is pledged he may be trusted to the last. There are some
+oaths such as <i>Wallah</i> (by Allah) which mean nothing, but such
+an oath as the threefold one with <i>wa, bi</i> and <i>ta</i> as
+particles of swearing the meanest thief will not break. In temper, or
+at least in the manifestation of it, the Arab is studiously calm;
+and he rarely so much as raises his voice in a dispute. But this
+outward tranquillity covers feelings alike keen and permanent;
+and the remembrance of a rash jest or injurious word, uttered
+years before, leads only too often to that blood-revenge which
+is a sacred duty everywhere in Arabia.</p>
+
+<p>There exist, however, marked tribal or almost semi-national
+diversities of character among the Arabs. Thus, the inhabitants
+of Hejaz are noted for courtesy and blamed for fickleness; those
+of Nejd are distinguished by their stern tenacity and dignity
+of deportment; the nations of Yemen are gentle and pliant, but
+revengeful; those of Hasa and Oman cheerful and fond of sport,
+though at the same time turbulent and unsteady. Anything
+approaching to a game is rare in Nejd, and in the Hejaz religion
+and the yearly occurrence of the pilgrim ceremonies almost
+exclude all public diversions; but in Yemen the well-known
+game of the &ldquo;jerid,&rdquo; or palm-stick, with dances and music is
+not rare. In Oman such amusements are still more frequent.
+Again in Yemen and Oman, coffee-houses, where people resort
+for conversation, and where public recitals, songs and other
+amusements are indulged in, stand open all day; while nothing
+of the sort is tolerated in Nejd. So too the ceremonies of circumcision
+or marriage are occasions of gaiety and pastime on the
+coast, but not in the central provinces.</p>
+
+<p>An Arab town, or even village, except it be the merest hamlet,
+is invariably walled round; but seldom is a stronger material
+than dried earth used; the walls are occasionally
+flanked by towers of like construction. A dry ditch
+<span class="sidenote">Manners and customs.</span>
+often surrounds the whole. The streets are irregular
+and seldom parallel. The Arab, indeed, lacks an
+eye for the straight. The Arab carpenter cannot form a right
+angle; an Arab servant cannot place a cloth square on a table.
+The Ka&rsquo;ba at Mecca has none of its sides or angles equal. The
+houses are of one or two storeys, rarely of three, with flat mud
+roofs, little windows and no external ornament. If the town
+be large, the expansion of one or two streets becomes a market-place,
+where are ranged a few shops of eatables, drugs, coffee,
+cottons or other goods. Many of these shops are kept by women.
+The chief mosque is always near the market-place; so is also
+the governor&rsquo;s residence, which, except in size and in being
+more or less fortified Arab fashion, does not differ from a private
+house. Drainage is unthought of; but the extreme dryness of
+the air obviates the inconvenience and disease that under other
+skies could not fail to ensue, and which in the damper climates
+of the coast make themselves seriously felt. But the streets are
+roughly swept every day, each householder taking care of the
+roadway that lies before his own door. Whitewash and colour
+are occasionally used in Yemen, Hejaz and Oman; elsewhere a
+light ochre tint, the colour of the sun-dried bricks, predominates,
+and gives an Arab town the appearance at a distance of a
+large dust-heap in the centre of the bright green ring of gardens
+and palm-groves. Baked bricks are unknown in Arabia, and
+stone buildings are rare, especially in Nejd. Palm branches
+and the like, woven in wattles, form the dwellings, of the poorer
+classes in the southern districts. Many Arab towns possess
+watch-towers, like huge round factory chimneys in appearance,
+built of sun-dried bricks, and varying in height from 50 to 100 ft.
+or even more. Indeed, two of these constructions at the town
+of Birkat-el-Mauj, in Oman, are said to be each of 170 ft. in
+height, and that of Nezwah, in the same province, is reckoned
+at 140; but these are of stone.</p>
+
+<p>The principal feature in the interior of an Arab house is the
+&ldquo;kahwah&rdquo; or coffee-room. It is a large apartment spread with
+mats, and sometimes furnished with carpets and a few cushions.
+At one end is a small furnace or fireplace for preparing coffee.
+In this room the men congregate; here guests are received, and
+even lodged; women rarely enter it, except at times when
+strangers are unlikely to be present. Some of these apartments
+are very spacious and supported by pillars; one wall is usually
+built transversely to the compass direction of the Ka&rsquo;ba; it
+serves to facilitate the performance of prayer by those who
+may happen to be in the kahwah at the appointed times. The
+other rooms are ordinarily small.</p>
+
+<p>The Arabs are proverbially hospitable. A stranger&rsquo;s arrival
+is often the occasion of an amicable dispute among the wealthier
+inhabitants as to who shall have the privilege of receiving him.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page286" id="page286"></a>286</span>
+Arab cookery is of the simplest. Roughly-ground wheat cooked
+with butter; bread in thin cakes, prepared on a heated iron
+plate or against the walls of an open oven; a few vegetables,
+generally of the leguminous kinds; boiled mutton or camel&rsquo;s
+flesh, among the wealthy; dates and fruits&mdash;this is the <i>menu</i>
+of an ordinary meal. Rice is eaten by the rich and fish is
+common on the coasts. Tea, introduced only a few decades
+back, is now largely drunk. A food of which the Arabs are fond
+is locusts boiled in salt and water and then dried in the sun.
+They taste like stale shrimps, but there is a great sale for them.
+Spices are freely employed; butter much too largely for a
+European taste.</p>
+
+<p>After eating, the hands are always washed, soap or the ashes
+of an alkaline plant being used. A covered censer with burning
+incense is then passed round, and each guest perfumes his hands,
+face, and sometimes his clothes; this censer serves also on first
+receptions and whenever special honour is intended. In Yemen
+and Oman scented water often does duty for it. Coffee, without
+milk or sugar, but flavoured with an aromatic seed brought from
+India, is served to all. This, too, is done on the occasion of a
+first welcome, when the cups often make two or three successive
+rounds; but, in fact, coffee is made and drunk at any time, as
+frequently as the desire for it may suggest itself; and each time
+fresh grains are sifted, roasted, pounded and boiled&mdash;a very
+laborious process, and one that requires in the better sort of
+establishments a special servant or slave for the work. Arabs
+generally make but one solid meal a day&mdash;that of supper, soon
+after sunset. Even then they do not eat much, gluttony being
+rare among them, and even daintiness esteemed disgraceful.
+Wine, like other fermented drinks, is prohibited by the Koran,
+and is, in fact, very rarely taken, though the inhabitants of the
+mountains of Oman are said to indulge in it. On the coast
+spirits of the worst quality are sometimes procured; opium
+and hashish are sparingly indulged in. On the other hand,
+wherever Wahh&#257;biism has left freedom of action, tobacco-smoking
+prevails; short pipes of clay, long pipes with large
+open bowls, or most frequently the water-pipe or &ldquo;nar-ghileh,&rdquo;
+being used. The tobacco smoked is generally strong
+and is either brought from the neighbourhood of Bagdad or
+grown in the country itself. The strongest quality is that of
+Oman; the leaf is broad and coarse, and retains its green colour
+even when dried; a few whiffs have been known to produce
+absolute stupor. The aversion of the Wahh&#257;bis to tobacco is
+well known; they entitle it &ldquo;mukhzi&rdquo; or &ldquo;the shameful,&rdquo;
+and its use is punished with blows, as the public use of wine
+would be elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>In dress much variety prevails. The loose cotton drawers
+girded at the waist, which in hot climates do duty for trousers,
+are not often worn, even by the upper classes, in Nejd
+or Yemama, where a kind of silk dressing-gown is
+<span class="sidenote">Dress.</span>
+thrown over the long shirt; frequently, too, a brown or black
+cloak distinguishes the wealthier citizen; his head-dress is a
+handkerchief fastened round the head by a band. But in Hejaz,
+Yemen and Oman, turbans are by no means uncommon; the
+ordinary colour is white; they are worn over one or more skullcaps.
+Trousers also form part of the dress in the two former
+of these districts; and a voluminous sash, in which a dagger
+or an inkstand is stuck, is wrapped round the waist. The poorer
+folk, however, and the villagers often content themselves with
+a broad piece of cloth round the loins, and another across the
+shoulders. In Oman trousers are rare, but over the shirt a long
+gown, of peculiar and somewhat close-fitting cut, dyed yellow,
+is often worn. The women in these provinces commonly put
+on loose drawers and some add veils to their head-dresses;
+they are over-fond of ornaments (gold and silver); their hair
+is generally arranged in a long plait hanging down behind. All
+men allow their beards and moustaches full growth, though
+this is usually scanty. Most Arabs shave their heads, and indeed
+all, strictly speaking, ought by Mahommedan custom to do so.
+An Arab seldom or never dyes his hair. Sandals are worn more
+often than shoes; none but the very poorest go barefoot.</p>
+
+<p>Slavery is still, as of old times, a recognized institution throughout
+Arabia; and an illicit traffic in blacks is carried on along
+the coasts of the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. The
+slaves themselves were obtained chiefly from the east
+<span class="sidenote">Slavery.</span>
+African coast districts down as far as Zanzibar, but this
+source of supply was practically closed by the end of the
+19th century. Slaves are usually employed in Arabia as
+herdsmen or as domestic servants, rarely in agricultural work;
+they also form a considerable portion of the bodyguards with
+which Eastern greatness loves to surround itself. Like their
+countrymen elsewhere, they readily embrace the religion of their
+masters and become zealous Mahommedans. Arab custom
+enfranchises a slave who has accepted Islam at the end of seven
+years of bondage, and when that period has arrived, the master,
+instead of exacting from his slave the price of freedom, generally,
+on giving him his liberty, adds the requisite means for supporting
+himself and a family in comfort. Further, on every important
+occasion, such as a birth, circumcision, a marriage or a death,
+one or more of the household slaves are sure of acquiring their
+freedom. Hence Arabia has a considerable free black population;
+and these again, by inter-marriage with the whites
+around, have filled the land with a mulatto breed of every shade,
+till, in the eastern and southern provinces especially, a white
+skin is almost an exception. In Arabia no prejudice exists
+against negro alliances; no social or political line separates
+the African from the Arab. A negro may become a sheik,
+a kadi, an amir, or whatever his industry and his talents may
+render him capable of being. This is particularly so in Nejd,
+Yemen and Hadramut; in the Hejaz and the north a faint
+line of demarcation may be observed between the races.</p>
+
+<p>The Arabs are good soldiers but poor generals. Personal
+courage, wonderful endurance of privation, fixity of purpose,
+and a contempt of death are qualities common to
+almost every race, tribe and clan that compose the
+<span class="sidenote">Military qualities.</span>
+Arab nation. In skirmishing and harassing they have
+few equals, while at close quarters they have often shown themselves
+capable of maintaining, armed with swords and spears
+alone, a desperate struggle against guns and bayonets, neither
+giving nor receiving quarter. Nor are they wholly ignorant
+of tactics, their armies, when engaged in regular war, being
+divided into centre and wings, with skirmishers in front and a
+reserve behind, often screened at the outset of the engagement
+by the camels of the expedition. These animals, kneeling and
+ranged in long parallel rows, form a sort of entrenchment, from
+behind which the soldiers of the main body fire their matchlocks,
+while the front divisions, opening out, act on either flank of the
+enemy. This arrangement of troops may be traced in Arab
+records as far back as the 5th century, and was often exemplified
+during the Wahh&#257;bi wars.</p>
+
+<p>Arab women are scarcely less distinguished for their bravery
+than the men. Records of armed heroines occur frequently in
+the chronicles or myths of the pre-Islamitic time; and in authentic
+history the Battle of the Camel, 656 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, where Ayesha, the
+wife of Mahomet, headed the charge, is only the first of a number
+of instances in which Arab amazons have taken, sword in hand,
+no inconsiderable share in the wars and victories of Islam. Even
+now it is the custom for an Arab force to be always accompanied
+by some courageous maiden, who, mounted on a blackened
+camel, leads the onslaught, singing verses of encouragement
+for her own, of insult for the opposing tribe. Round her litter
+the fiercest of the battle rages, and her capture or death is the
+signal of utter rout; it is hers also to head the triumph after the
+victory of her clan.</p>
+
+<p>There is little education, in the European sense of the word, in
+Arabia. Among the Bedouins there are no schools, and few,
+even of the most elementary character, in the towns
+or villages. Where they exist, little beyond the
+<span class="sidenote">Education.</span>
+mechanical reading of the Koran, and the equally mechanical
+learning of it by rote, is taught. On the other hand, Arab male-children,
+brought up from early years among the grown-up
+men of the house or tent, learn more from their own parents
+and at home than is common in other countries; reading
+and writing are in most instances thus acquired, or rather
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page287" id="page287"></a>287</span>
+transmitted; besides such general principles of grammar and
+eloquence, often of poetry and history, as the elders themselves
+may be able to impart. To this family schooling too are due
+the good manners, politeness, and self-restraint that early distinguish
+Arab children. In the very few instances where a
+public school of a higher class exists, writing, grammar and
+rhetoric sum up its teachings. Law and theology, in the narrow
+sense that both these words have in the Islamitic system, are
+explained in afternoon lectures given in most mosques; and
+some verses of the Koran, with one of the accepted commentaries,
+that of Baidawi for example, form the basis of the instruction.
+Great attention is paid to accuracy of grammar and purity of
+diction throughout Arabia; yet something of a dialectic difference
+may be observed in the various districts. The purest Arabic,
+that which is as nearly as possible identical in the choice of words
+and in its inflections with the language of the Koran, is spoken
+in Nejd, and the best again of that in the province of Suder.
+Next in purity comes the Arabic of Shammar. Throughout the
+Hejaz in general, the language, though extremely elegant, is
+not equally correct; in el-Hasa, Bahrein and Oman it is decidedly
+influenced by the foreign element called Nabataean.
+In Yemen, as in other southern districts of the peninsula, Arabic
+merges insensibly into the Himyaritic or African dialect of
+Hadramut and Mahra. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Semitic Languages</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Lieutenant Wellsted, <i>Travels in Arabia</i> (Lond.,
+1838); &ldquo;Narrative of a Journey to the Ruins of Nakeb el Hajar&rdquo;
+(<i>Jour. R. Geog. Soc.</i> vii. 20); Carsten Niebuhr. <i>Travels through
+Arabia</i> (transl. into English by Robert Heron, 2 vols., Edin., 1792);
+John Lewis Burckhardt, <i>Travels in Arabia</i> (2 vols., Lond., 1829);
+<i>Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabis</i>, (2 vols., Lond., 1830; in German,
+Weimar, 1831); C.J. Cruttenden, <i>Journal of an Excursion to Sana&rsquo;a,
+the Capital of Yemen</i> (Bombay, 1838); A. Sprenger, <i>Die alte Geographie
+Arabiens als Grundlage der Entwicklungsgeschichte des
+Semitismus</i> (Berne, 1875); Sir Richard F. Burton, <i>Personal Narrative
+of a Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Meccah</i> (Lond., 1855); W.
+Robertson Smith, <i>Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia</i> (Cambridge);
+E. Reclus, <i>Les Arabes</i> (Brussels, 1898); Lady Anne Blunt,
+<i>A Pilgrimage to Nejd</i> (2 vols., Lond., 1881); C.M. Doughty, <i>Arabia
+Deserta</i> (2 vols., 1888); Rev. S.M. Zwemer, <i>Arabia: the Cradle of
+Islam</i> (1900); Albrecht Zehme, <i>Arabien und die Araber, seit hundert
+Jahren</i> (1875).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARACAJÚ,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> a city and seaport of Brazil, capital of the state
+of Sergipe, 170 m. N.N.E. of Bahia, on the river Cotinguiba,
+or Cotindiba, 6 m. from the coast. The municipality, of which
+it forms a part, had a population in 1890 of 16,336, about two-thirds
+of whom lived in the city itself. Aracajú is a badly built
+town on the right bank of the river at the base of a ridge of low
+sand-hills and has the usual features of an unprogressive provincial
+capital. Good limestone is quarried in its vicinity, and
+the country tributary to this port produces large quantities of
+sugar. Cotton is also grown, and the back country sends down
+hides and skins for shipment. The anchorage is good, but a
+dangerous bar at the mouth of the river prevents the entrance
+of vessels drawing more than 12 ft. The port is visited, therefore,
+only by the smaller steamers of the coastwise lines. The
+river is navigable as far as the town of Maroim, about 10 m.
+beyond Aracajú. The city was founded in 1855.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARACATY,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Aracatí</span>, a city and port of Brazil, in the state
+of Ceará, 75 m. S.E. of Fortaleza, on the river Jaguaribe, 8 m.
+from the sea. Pop. of the municipality (1890) 20,182, of whom
+about 12,000 belonged to the city. A dangerous bar at the
+mouth of the river permits the entrance only of the smaller
+coasting steamers, but the port is an important commercial
+centre, and exports considerable quantities of cotton, hides,
+maniçoba, rubber, fruit, and palm wax.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARACHNE,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> in Greek mythology, the daughter of Idmon of
+Colophon in Lydia, a dyer in purple. She had acquired such
+skill in the art of weaving that she ventured to challenge Athena.
+While the goddess took as subjects her quarrel with Poseidon
+as to the naming and possession of Attica, and the warning
+examples of those who ventured to pit themselves against the
+immortals, Arachne depicted the metamorphoses of the gods
+and their amorous adventures. Her work was so perfect that
+Athena, enraged at being unable to find any blemish in it, tore
+it to pieces. Arachne hanged herself in despair; but the goddess
+out of pity loosened the rope, which became a cobweb, while
+Arachne herself was changed into a spider (Ovid, <i>Metam</i>. vi.
+5-145). The story probably indicates the superiority of Asia
+over Greece in the textile arts.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARACHNIDA,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> the zoological name given in 1815 by Lamarck
+(Gr. <span class="grk" title="harachnae">&#7937;&#961;&#940;&#967;&#957;&#951;</span>, a spider) to a class which he instituted for the
+reception of the spiders, scorpions and mites, previously classified
+by Linnaeus in the order Aptera of his great group Insecta.
+Lamarck at the same time founded the class Crustacea for the
+lobsters, crabs and water-fleas, also until then included in the
+order Aptera of Linnaeus. Lamarck included the Thysanura
+and the Myriapoda in his class Arachnida. The Insecta of
+Linnaeus was a group exactly equivalent to the Arthropoda
+founded a hundred years later by Siebold and Stannius. It was
+thus reduced by Lamarck in area, and made to comprise only
+the six-legged, wing-bearing &ldquo;Insecta.&rdquo; For these Lamarck
+proposed the name Hexapoda; but that name has been little used,
+and they have retained to this day the title of the much larger
+Linnaean group, viz. Insecta. The position of the Arachnida
+in the great sub-phylum Arthropoda, according to recent anatomical
+and embryological researches, is explained in the article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arthropoda</a></span>. The Arachnida form a distinct class or line of
+descent in the grade Euarthropoda, diverging (perhaps in
+common at the start with the Crustacea) from primitive Euarthropods,
+which gave rise also to the separate lines of descent
+known as the classes Diplopoda, Crustacea, Chilopoda and
+Hexapoda.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:433px; height:300px" src="images/img287.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Entosternum, entosternite or plastron of <i>Limulus
+polyphemus</i>, Latr. Dorsal surface.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>LAP, Left anterior process.</p>
+<p>RAP, Right anterior process.</p>
+<p>PhN, Pharyngeal notch.</p>
+<p>ALR, Anterior lateial rod or tendon.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>PLR, Posterior lateral rod or tendon.</p>
+<p>PLP, Posterior lateral process.</p>
+<p>Natural size.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(From Lankester, <i>Q. J. Mic. Sci.</i>, N S vol. xxiv, 1884.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Limulus an Arachnid.</i>&mdash;Modern views as to the classification
+and affinities of the Arachnida have been determined by
+the demonstration that <i>Limulus</i> and the extinct Eurypterines
+(<i>Pterygotus</i>, &amp;c.) are Arachnida; that is to say, are identical
+in the structure and relation of so many important parts with
+<i>Scorpio</i>, whilst differing in those respects from other Arthropoda,
+that it is impossible to suppose that the identity is due to homoplasy
+or convergence, and the conclusion must be accepted that
+the resemblances arise from close genetic relationship. The view
+that Limulus, the king-crab, is an Arachnid was maintained as
+long ago as 1829 by Strauss-Dürckheim (<b>1</b>), on the ground of its
+possession of an internal cartilaginous sternum&mdash;also possessed
+by the Arachnida (see figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6)&mdash;and of the similarity
+of the disposition of the six leg-like appendages around
+the mouth in the two cases (see figs. 45 and 63). The evidence
+of the exact equivalence of the segmentation and appendages
+of Limulus and Scorpio, and of a number of remarkable points
+of agreement in structure, was furnished by Ray Lankester in
+an article published in 1881 (&ldquo;Limulus an Arachnid,&rdquo; <i>Quart.
+Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. xxi. N.S.), and in a series of subsequent
+memoirs, in which the structure of the entosternum, of the coxal
+glands, of the eyes, of the veno-pericardiac muscles, of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page288" id="page288"></a>288</span>
+respiratory lamellae, and of other parts, was for the first time
+described, and in which the new facts discovered were shown
+uniformly to support the hypothesis that Limulus is an Arachnid.
+A list of these memoirs is given at the close of this article (<b>2, 3,
+4, 5</b> and <b>13</b>). The Eurypterines (Gigantostraca) were included
+in the identification, although at that time they were supposed
+to possess only five pairs of anterior or prosomatic appendages.
+They have now been shown to possess six pairs (fig. 47), as do
+Limulus and Scorpio.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:423px; height:297px" src="images/img288a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Ventral surface of the entosternum of <i>Limulus polyphemus</i>,
+Latr. Letters as in fig. 1 with the addition of NF, neural
+fossa protecting the aggregated ganglia of the central nervous system;
+PVP, left posterior ventral process; PMP, posterior median
+process. Natural size.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From Lankester.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:324px; height:289px" src="images/img288b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;Entosternum of scorpion
+(<i>Palamnaeus Indus</i>, de Geer); dorsal surface.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p><i>asp</i>, Paired anterior process of the sub-neural
+arch.</p>
+
+<p><i>snp</i>, Sub-neural arch.</p>
+
+<p><i>ap</i>, Anterior lateral process (same as RAP
+and LAP in fig. 1).</p>
+
+<p><i>lmp</i>, Lateral median process (same as ALR
+and PLR of fig. 1).</p>
+
+<p><i>pp</i>, Posterior process (same as PLP in
+fig. 1).</p>
+
+<p><i>pf</i>, Posterior flap or diaphragm of Newport.</p>
+
+<p><i>m<span class="sp">1</span></i> and <i>m<span class="sp">2</span></i>, Perforations of the diaphragm
+for the passage of muscles.</p>
+
+<p>DR, The paired dorsal ridges.</p>
+
+<p>GC, Gastric canal or foramen.</p>
+
+<p>AC, Arterial canal or foramen.</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(After Lankester, <i>loc. cit.</i>)</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The various comparisons previously made between the structure
+of Limulus and the Eurypterines on the one hand, and that
+of a typical Arachnid, such as Scorpio, on the other, had been
+vitiated by erroneous notions as to the origin of the nerves
+supplying the anterior appendages of Limulus (which were finally
+removed by Alphonse Milne-Edwards in his beautiful memoir
+(<b>6</b>) on the structure
+of that animal), and
+secondly by the erroneous
+identification of the
+double sternal plates
+of Limulus, called
+&ldquo;chilaria,&rdquo; by Owen,
+with a pair of appendages
+(<b>7</b>). Once the
+identity of the chilaria
+with the pentagonal
+sternal plate of the
+scorpion is recognized&mdash;an
+identification first
+insisted on by
+Lankester&mdash;the whole
+series of segments and
+appendages in the two
+animals, Limulus and
+Scorpio, are seen to correspond
+most closely,
+segment for segment,
+with one another (see
+figs. 7 and 8). The
+structure of the prosomatic
+appendages or
+legs is also seen to present
+many significant
+points of agreement
+(see figures), but a curious
+discrepancy existed
+in the six-jointed structure
+of the limb in Limulus, which differed from the seven-jointed
+limb of Scorpio by the defect of one joint. R.I. Pocock of the
+British Museum has observed that in Limulus a marking exists
+on the fourth joint, which apparently indicates a previous
+division of this segment into two, and thus establishes the agreement
+of Limulus and Scorpio in this small feature of the number
+of segments in the legs (see fig. 11).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>It is not desirable to occupy the limited space of this article by a
+full description of the limbs and segments of Limulus and Scorpio.
+The reader is referred to the complete series of figures here given,
+with their explanatory legends (figs 12, 13, 14, 15). Certain matters,
+however, require comment and explanation to render the comparison
+intelligible. The tergites, or chitinized dorsal halves of the body
+rings, are fused to form a
+&ldquo;prosomatic carapace,&rdquo; or
+carapace of the prosoma, in
+both Limulus and Scorpio
+(see figs. 7 and 8). This
+region corresponds in both
+cases to six somites, as indicated
+by the presence of six
+pairs of limbs. On the surface
+of the carapace there are
+in both animals a pair of
+central eyes with simple lens
+and a pair of lateral eye-tracts,
+which in Limulus
+consist of closely-aggregated
+simple eyes, forming a &ldquo;compound&rdquo;
+eye, whilst in
+Scorpio they present several
+separate small eyes. The
+microscopic structure of the
+central and the lateral eyes
+has been shown by Lankester
+and A.G. Bourne (<b>5</b>) to
+differ; but the lateral eyes of
+Scorpio were shown by them
+to be similar in structure to the lateral eyes of Limulus, and the
+central eyes of Scorpio to be identical in structure with the
+central eyes of Limulus (see below).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:287px; height:290px" src="images/img288c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.&mdash;Ventral surface of the same
+entosternum as that drawn in fig. 3.
+Letters as in fig. 3 with the addition
+of NC, neural canal or foramen.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(After Lankester, <i>loc. cit.</i>)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:208px; height:220px" src="images/img288d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.&mdash;Entosternum of
+one of the mygalomorphous
+spiders; ventral surface.
+Ph.N., pharyngeal notch.
+The posterior median process
+with its repetition of
+triangular segments closely
+resembles the same process
+in Limulus.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From Lankester, <i>loc. cit.</i>)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:231px; height:222px" src="images/img288e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.&mdash;Dorsal surface of
+the same entosternum as
+that drawn in fig. 5. Ph.N.,
+pharyngeal notch.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">After Lankester, <i>loc. cit.</i></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Following the prosoma is a region consisting of six segments (figs. 14
+and 15), each carrying a pair of plate-like
+appendages in both Limulus and Scorpio.
+This region is called the mesosoma. The
+tergites of this region and those of the
+following region, the metasoma, are
+fused to form a second or posterior
+carapace in Limulus, whilst remaining
+free in Scorpio. The first pair of foliaceous
+appendages in each animal is
+the genital operculum; beneath it are
+found the openings of the genital ducts.
+The second pair of mesosomatic appendages
+in Scorpio are known as the
+&ldquo;pectens.&rdquo; Each consists of an axis,
+bearing numerous blunt tooth-like processes
+arranged in a series. This is
+represented in Limulus by the first gill-bearing
+appendage. The leaves (some
+150 in number) of the gill-book (see
+figure) correspond to the tooth-like
+processes of the pectens of Scorpio.
+The next four pairs of appendages (completing
+the mesosomatic series of six)
+consist, in both Scorpio and Limulus,
+of a base carrying each 130 to 150
+blood-holding, leaf-like plates, lying on
+one another like the leaves of a book. Their minute structure is
+closely similar in the two cases; the leaf-like plates receive blood
+from the great sternal sinus, and
+serve as respiratory organs. The
+difference between the gill-books of
+Limulus and the lung-books of
+Scorpio depends on the fact that the
+latter are adapted to aerial respiration,
+while the former serve for
+aquatic respiration. The appendage
+carrying the gill-book stands out on
+the surface of the body in Limulus,
+and has other portions developed
+besides the gill-book and its base;
+it is fused with its fellow of the
+opposite side. On the other hand, in
+Scorpio, the gill-book-bearing appendage
+has sunk below the surface,
+forming a recess or chamber for
+itself, which communicates with the
+exterior by an oval or circular
+&ldquo;stigma&rdquo; (fig. 10, <i>stg</i>). That this
+in-sinking has taken place, and that the lung-books or in-sunken
+gill-books of Scorpio really represent appendages (that is to say,
+limbs or parapodia) is proved by their developmental history (see
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page289" id="page289"></a>289</span>
+figs. 17 and 18). They appear at first as outstanding processes on
+the surface of the body.</p>
+
+<p>The exact mode in which the in-sinking of superficial outstanding
+limbs, carrying gill-lamellae, has historically taken place has been a
+matter of much speculation. It was to be hoped that the specimen
+of the Silurian scorpion (<i>Palaeophonus</i>) from Scotland, showing the
+ventral surface of the mesosoma (fig. 49), would throw light on this
+matter; but the specimen recently carefully studied by the writer
+and Pocock reveals neither gill-bearing limbs nor stigmata. The
+probability appears to be against an actual introversion of the
+appendage and its lamellae, as was at one time suggested by
+Lankester. It is probable that such an in-sinking as is shown in the
+accompanying diagram has taken place (fig. 15); but we are yet in
+need of evidence as to the exact equivalence of margins, axis, &amp;c.,
+obtaining between the lung-book of Scorpio and the gill-book of
+Limulus. Zoologists are familiar with many instances (fishes,
+crustaceans) in which the protective walls of a water-breathing
+organ or gill-apparatus become converted into an air-breathing
+organ or lung, but there is no other case known of the conversion
+of gill processes themselves into air-breathing plates.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:504px; height:676px" src="images/img289a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.&mdash;Diagram of the dorsal surface of <i>Limulus polyphemus</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>oc</i>, Lateral compound eyes.</p>
+
+<p><i>oc&prime;</i>, Central monomeniscous eyes.</p>
+
+<p>PA, Post-anal spine.</p>
+
+<p>I to VI, The six appendage-bearing
+somites of the prosoma.</p>
+
+<p>VII, Usually considered to be
+the tergum of the genital
+somite, but suggested by
+Pocock to be that of the otherwise suppressed praegenital
+somite.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>VIII to XIII, The six somites of
+the mesosoma, each with a
+movable pleural spine and a
+pair of dorsal entopophysis or
+muscle-attaching ingrowths.</p>
+
+<p>XIV to XVIII, The confluent or
+unexpressed six somites of the
+metasoma.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2">[According to the system of numbering explained in the text, if
+VII is the tergum of the praegenital somite (as is probable) it should
+be labelled <i>Prg</i> without any number, and the somites VIII to XIII
+should be lettered 1 to 6, indicating that they are the six normal
+somites of the mesosoma; whilst XV to XVIII should be replaced
+by the numbers 7 to 12&mdash;an additional suppressed segment (making
+up the typical six) being reckoned to the metasomatic fusion.]</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(From Lankester, <i>Q.J. Micr Set</i>. vol. xxi., 1881.)</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:175px; height:658px" src="images/img289b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.&mdash;Diagram
+of the dorsal surface
+of a scorpion to compare
+with fig. 7.
+Letters and Roman
+numerals as in fig. 7,
+excepting that VII
+is here certainly the
+tergum of the first
+somite of the mesosoma&mdash;the genital
+somite&mdash;and is <i>not</i>
+a survival of the embryonic
+praegenital
+somite. The anus (not
+seen) is on the sternal
+surface.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From Lankester, <i>loc. cit.</i>)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The identification of the lung-books of Scorpio with the gill-books
+of Limulus is practically settled by the existence of the pectens in
+Scorpio (fig. 14, VIII) on the second mesosomatic somite. There is
+no doubt that <i>these</i> are parapodial or limb appendages, carrying
+numerous imbricated secondary processes, and therefore comparable
+in essential structure to the leaf-bearing plates of the second
+mesosomatic somite of Limulus. They have remained unenclosed and
+projecting on the surface of the body, as once were the appendages
+of the four following somites. But they have lost their respiratory
+function. In non-aquatic life such an unprotected organ cannot
+subserve respiration. The &ldquo;pectens&rdquo; have become more firmly
+chitinized and probably somewhat altered in shape as compared
+with their condition in the aquatic ancestral scorpions. Their
+present function in scorpions is not ascertained. They are not
+specially sensitive under ordinary conditions, and may be touched
+or even pinched without causing any discomfort to the scorpion.
+It is probable that they acquire special sensibility at the breeding
+season and serve as &ldquo;guides&rdquo; in copulation. The shape of the legs
+and the absence of paired terminal claws in the Silurian <i>Palaeophonus</i>
+(see figs. 48 and 49) as compared with living
+scorpions (see fig. 10) show that the early
+scorpions were aquatic, and we may hope
+some day in better-preserved specimens than
+the two as yet discovered, to find the respiratory
+organs of those creatures in the condition
+of projecting appendages serving
+aquatic respiration somewhat as in Limulus,
+though not necessarily repeating the exact
+form of the broad plates of Limulus.</p>
+
+<p>It is important to note that the series of
+lamellae of the lung-book and the gill-book
+correspond <i>exactly</i> in structure, the narrow,
+flat blood-space in the lamellae being interrupted
+by pillar-like junctions of the two
+surfaces in both cases (see Lankester (<b>4</b>)), and
+the free surfaces of the adjacent lamellae being
+covered with a very delicate chitinous cuticle
+which is drawn out into delicate hairs and
+processes. The elongated axis which opens
+at the stigma in Scorpio and which can be
+cleared of soft, surrounding tissues and coagulated
+blood so as to present the appearance
+of a limb axis carrying the book-like leaves
+of the lung is not really, as it would seem to
+be at first sight, the limb axis. That is necessarily
+a blood-holding structure and is
+obliterated and fused with soft tissues of the
+sternal region so that the lamellae cannot be
+detached and presented as standing out
+from it. The apparent axis or basal support
+of the scorpion&rsquo;s lung-books shown in the
+figures, is a false or secondary axis and merely
+a part of the infolded surface which forms
+the air-chamber. The maceration of the soft
+parts of a scorpion preserved in weak spirit
+and the cleaning of the chitinized in-grown
+cuticle give rise to the false appearance of a
+limb axis carrying the lamellae. The margins
+of the lamellae of the scorpion&rsquo;s lung-book,
+which are <i>lowermost</i> in the figures (fig. 15)
+and appear to be free, are really those which
+are attached to the blood-holding axis. The
+true free ends are those nearest the stigma.</p>
+
+<p>Passing on now from the mesosoma we
+come in Scorpio to the metasoma of six
+segments, the first of which is broad whilst
+the rest are cylindrical. The last is perforated
+by the anus and carries the post-anal spine
+or sting. The somites of the metasoma carry
+no parapodia. In Limulus the metasoma is
+practically suppressed. In the allied extinct
+Eurypterines it is well developed, and resembles
+that of Scorpio. In the embryo
+Limulus (fig. 42) the six somites of the
+mesosoma are not fused to form a carapace
+at an early stage, and they are followed by
+three separately marked metasomatic somites;
+the other three somites of the metasoma have
+disappeared in Limulus, but are represented
+by the unsegmented prae-anal region. It is
+probable that we have in the metasoma of Limulus a case of the disappearance
+of once clearly demarcated somites. It would be possible
+to suppose, on the other hand, that new somites are only beginning
+to make their appearance here. The balance of various considerations
+is against the latter hypothesis. Following the metasoma in
+Limulus, we have as in Scorpio the post-anal spine&mdash;in this case
+not a sting, but a powerful and important organ of locomotion,
+serving to turn the animal over when it has fallen upon its
+back. The nature of the post-anal spine has been strangely misinterpreted
+by some writers. Owen (<b>7</b>) maintained that it represented
+a number of coalesced somites, regardless of its post-anal
+position and mode of development. The agreement of the grouping
+of the somites, of the form of the parapodia (appendages, limbs) in each
+region, of the position of the genital aperture and operculum, of the
+position and character of the eyes, and of the powerful post-anal spines
+not seen in other Arthropods, is very convincing as to the affinity
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page290" id="page290"></a>290</span>
+of Limulus and Scorpio. Perhaps the most important general agreement
+of Scorpio compared with Limulus and the Eurypterines is the
+division of the body into the three regions (or tagmata)&mdash;prosoma,
+mesosoma and metasoma&mdash;each consisting of six segments, the
+prosoma having leg-like appendages, the mesosoma having foliaceous
+appendages, and the metasoma being destitute of appendages.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:438px; height:372px" src="images/img290a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.&mdash;Ventral view of the posterior carapace or meso-metasomatic
+(opisthospmatic) fusion of <i>Limulus polyphemus</i>. The soft
+integument and limbs of the mesosoma have been removed as well
+as all the viscera and muscles, so that the inner surface of the terga
+of these somites with their entopophyses are seen. The unsegmented
+dense chitinous sternal plate of the metasoma (XIII to XVIII) is
+not removed. Letters as in fig. 7.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">After Lankester, <i>loc. cit.</i>)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:300px; height:518px" src="images/img290b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.&mdash;Ventral view of a scorpion,
+<i>Palamnaeus indus</i>, de Geer, to show
+the arrangement of the coxae of the
+limbs, the sternal elements, genital
+plate and pectens.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p>M, Mouth behind the oval median
+camerostome.</p>
+
+<p>I, The chelicerae.</p>
+
+<p>II, The chelae.</p>
+
+<p>III to VI, the four pairs of walking legs.</p>
+
+<p>VII<i>go</i>, The genital somite or first
+somite of the mesosoma with the
+genital operculum (a fused pair of
+limbs).</p>
+
+<p>VIII<i>p</i>, The pectiniferous somite.</p>
+
+<p>IX<i>stg</i> to XII<i>stg</i>, the four pulmonary
+somites.</p>
+
+<p><i>met</i>, The pentagonal metasternite of
+the prosoma behind all the coxae.</p>
+
+<p><i>x</i>, The sternum of the pectiniferous
+somite.</p>
+
+<p><i>y</i>, The broad first somite of the metasoma.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:302px; height:222px" src="images/img290c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.&mdash;Third leg of <i>Limulus polyphemus</i>,
+showing the division of the fourth
+segment of the leg by a groove S into
+two, thus giving seven segments to the
+leg as in scorpion.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From a drawing by Pocock.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In 1893, some years after the identification of the somites of
+Limulus with those of Scorpio, thus indicated, had been published,
+zoologists were startled by the discovery by a Japanese zoologist,
+Kishinouye (<b>8</b>), of a seventh prosomatic somite in the embryo of
+Limulus longispina. This was seen in longitudinal sections, as shown
+in fig. 19. The simple identification of somite with somite in Limulus
+and Scorpio seemed to be threatened by this discovery. But in
+1896 Dr August Brauer of Marburg (<b>9</b>) discovered in the embryo
+of Scorpio a seventh prosomatic somite (see VII PrG, figs. 17 and 18),
+or, if we please so to term it, a <i>praegenital</i> somite, hitherto unrecognized.
+In the case of Scorpio this segment is indicated in the embryo
+by the presence of a pair of rudimentary appendages, carried by a
+well-marked somite. As in Limulus, so in Scorpio, this unexpected
+somite and its appendages disappear in the course of development.
+In fact, more or less complete &ldquo;excalation&rdquo; of the somite takes place.
+Owing to its position it is convenient to term the somite which is
+excalated in Limulus and Scorpio &ldquo;the praegenital somite.&rdquo; It
+appears not improbable that the sternal plates wedged in between
+the last pair of legs in both Scorpio and Limulus, viz. the pentagonal
+sternite of Scorpio (fig. 10) and the chilaria of Limulus (see figs. 13
+and 20), may in part represent in the adult the sternum of the excalated
+praegenital somite. This has not been demonstrated by an
+actual following out of the development, but the position of these
+pieces and the fact that they are (in Limulus) supplied by an independent
+segmental nerve, favours the view that they may comprise
+the sternal area of the vanished praegenital somite. This interpretation,
+however, of the &ldquo;metasternites&rdquo; of Limulus and Scorpio
+is opposed by the coexistence in Thelyphonus (figs. 55, 57 and 58)
+of a similar metasternite with a complete praegenital somite. H.J.
+Hansen (<b>10</b>) has recognized that the &ldquo;praegenital somite&rdquo; persists
+in a rudimentary condition, forming a &ldquo;waist&rdquo; to the series of
+somites in the Pedipalpi and Araneae. The present writer is of
+opinion that it will be found most convenient to treat this evanescent
+somite as something special, and not to attempt to reckon it to
+either the prosoma or the mesosoma. These will then remain as
+typically composed each of six appendage-bearing somites-the
+prosoma comprising in addition the ocular prosthomere.<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> When
+the praegenital somite or traces of it are present it should not be
+called &ldquo;the seventh prosomatic&rdquo; or the &ldquo;first mesosomatic,&rdquo; but
+simply the &ldquo;praegenital somite.&rdquo; The first segment of the mesosoma
+of Scorpio and Limulus thus remains the first segment, and can
+be identified as such throughout the Eu-arachnida, carrying as it
+always does the genital apertures. But it is necessary to remember,
+in the light of recent discoveries, that the sixth prosomatic pair of
+appendages is carried on the seventh somite of the whole series,
+there being two prosthomeres or somites in front of the mouth, the
+first carrying the eyes, the second the chelicerae; also that the first
+mesosomatic or genital somite is not the seventh or even the eighth
+of the whole senes of somites which have been historically present,
+but is the ninth, owing to the presence or to the excalation of a
+praegenital somite. It seems that confusion and trouble will be
+best avoided by abstaining
+from the introduction of
+the non-evident somites,
+the ocular and the praegenital,
+into the numerical
+nomenclature of the component
+somites of the three
+great body regions. We
+shall, therefore, ignoring
+the ocular somite, speak of
+the first, second, third,
+fourth, fifth and sixth leg-bearing
+somites of the prosoma,
+and indicate the
+appendages by the Roman
+numerals, I, II, III, IV,
+V, VI, and whilst ignoring
+the praegenital somite we
+shall speak of the first,
+second, third, &amp;c., somite of
+the mesosoma or opisthosoma
+(united mesosoma and
+metasoma) and indicate
+them by the Arabic
+numerals.</p>
+
+<p>There are a number of
+other important points of
+structure besides those referring
+to the somites and
+appendages in which
+Limulus agrees with Scorpio
+or other Arachnida and
+differs from other Arthropoda.
+The chief of these
+are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Composition of the
+Head</i> (that is to say, of the
+anterior part of the prosoma)
+<i>with especial Reference
+to the Region in Front of the
+Mouth.</i>&mdash;It appears (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arthropoda</a></span>) that there is
+embryological evidence of
+the existence of two somites
+in Arachnida which were
+originally post-oral, but
+have become prae-oral by
+adaptational shifting of the
+oral aperture. These
+forwardly-slipped somites
+are called &ldquo;prosthomeres.&rdquo;
+The first of these has, in
+Arachnids as in other
+Arthropods, its pair of appendages
+represented by
+the eyes. The second has
+for its pair of appendages
+the small pair of limbs
+which in all living Arachnids is either chelate or retrovert (as in
+spiders), and is known as the chelicerae. It is possible, as maintained
+by some writers (Patten and others), that the lobes of the cerebral
+nervous mass in Arachnids
+indicate a larger
+number of prosthomeres
+as having fused in this
+region, but there is no
+<i>embryological</i> evidence at
+present which justifies us
+in assuming the existence
+in Arachnids of more than
+two prosthomeres. The
+position of the chelicerae
+of Limulus and of the
+ganglionic nerve-masses
+from which they receive
+their nerve-supply, is
+closely similar to that of
+the same structures in
+Scorpio. The cerebral
+mass is in Limulus more
+easily separated by dissection
+as a median lobe
+distinct from the laterally-placed
+ganglia of the chelceral somite than is the case in Scorpio, but
+the relations are practically the same in the two forms. Formerly
+it was supposed that in Limulus both the chelicerae and the next
+following pair of appendages were prosthomerous, as in Crustacea,
+but the dissections of Alphonse Milne-Edwards (<b>6</b>) demonstrated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page291" id="page291"></a>291</span>
+the true limitations of the cerebrum, whilst embryological researches
+have done as much for Scorpio. Limulus thus agrees with Scorpio
+and differs from the Crustacea, in which there are three prosthomeres&mdash;one
+ocular and two carrying palpiform appendages. It is true that in
+the lower Crustacea (Apus, &amp;c.) we have evidence of the
+gradual movement forward of the nerve-ganglia belonging to these
+palpiform appendages. But although in such lower Crustacea the
+nerve-ganglia of the third prosthomere have not fused with the
+anterior nerve-mass, there is no question as to the prae-oral position
+of two appendage-bearing somites in addition to the ocular prosthomere.
+The Crustacea have, in fact, three prosthomeres in the head and the
+Arachnida only two, and Limulus agrees with the Arachnida
+in this respect and differs from the Crustacea. The central nervous
+systems of Limulus and of Scorpio present closer agreement in
+structure than can be found when a Crustacean is compared with
+either. The wide divarication of the lateral cords in the prosoma
+and their connexion by transverse commissures, together with the
+&ldquo;attraction&rdquo; of ganglia to the prosomatic ganglion group which
+properly belong to hinder segments, are very nearly identical in the
+two animals. The form and disposition of the ganglion cells are also
+peculiar and closely similar in the two. (See Patten (<b>42</b>) for important
+observations on the neuromeres, &amp;c., of Limulus and Scorpio.)</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:493px; height:900px" src="images/img291a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.&mdash;The prosomatic
+appendages of <i>Limulus polyphemus</i> (right) and Scorpio (left),
+<i>Palamnaeus indus</i> compared. The corresponding appendages are
+marked with the same Roman numeral. The Arabic numerals indicate
+the segments of the legs.<br /><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>cox</i>, Coxa or basal segment of the leg.</p>
+
+<p><i>stc</i>, The sterno-coxal process or jaw-like up-growth of the coxa.</p>
+
+<p><i>epc</i>, The articulated movable outgrowth of the coxa, called
+the epi-coxite (present only in III of the scorpion and III, IV and V of Limulus).</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>ex</i><span class="sp">1</span>, The exopodite of the sixth limb of Limulus.</p>
+
+<p><i>a, b, c, d</i>, Movable processes on the same leg (see for some
+suggestions on the morphology of this leg, Pocock in <i>Quart.
+Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> March 1901; see also fig. 50 below and
+explanation).</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(From Lankester, <i>loc. cit.</i>)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:358px; height:275px" src="images/img291b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.&mdash;Diagrams of the metasternite <i>st</i>,
+with genital operculum <i>op</i>, and the first lamelligerous
+pair of appendages <i>ga</i>, with uniting sternal element <i>st</i>
+of Scorpio (left) and Limulus (right).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From Lankester, <i>loc. cit.</i>)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Minute Structure of the Central Eyes and of the Lateral
+Eyes.</i>&mdash;Limulus agrees with Scorpio not only in having a pair of
+central eyes and also lateral eyes, but in the microscopic structure
+of those organs, which differs in the central and lateral eyes
+respectively. The central eyes are &ldquo;simple eyes,&rdquo; that is to say,
+have a single lens, and are hence called &ldquo;monomeniscous.&rdquo; The
+lateral eyes are in Limulus &ldquo;compound eyes,&rdquo; that is to say, consist
+of many lenses placed close together; beneath each lens is a complex
+of protoplasmic cells, in which the optic nerve terminates. Each
+such unit is termed an &ldquo;ommatidium.&rdquo; The lateral eyes of Scorpio
+consist of groups of separate small lenses each with its ommatidium,
+but they do not form a continuous compound eye as in Limulus. The ommatidium
+(soft structure beneath the lens-unit of a compound eye) is very
+simple in both Scorpio and Limulus. It consists of a single layer
+of cells, continuous with those which secrete the general chitinous
+covering of the prosoma. The cells of the ommatidium are a good
+deal larger than the neighbouring common cells of the epidermis.
+They secrete the knob-like lens (fig. 22). But they also receive the
+nerve fibres of the optic nerve. They are at the same time both
+optic nerve-end cells, that is to say, retina cells, and corneagen cells or
+secretors of the chitinous lens-like cornea. In Limulus (fig. 23) each
+ommatidium has a peculiar ganglion cell developed in a central position,
+whilst the ommatidium of the lateral eyelets of Scorpio shows small
+intermediate cells between the larger nerve-end cells. The
+structure of the lateral eye of Limulus was first described by
+Grenacher, and further and more accurately by Lankester and
+Bourne (<b>5</b>) and by Watase; that of Scorpio by Lankester and Bourne,
+who showed that the statements of von Graber were erroneous, and
+that the lateral eyes of Scorpio
+have a single cell-layered or &ldquo;monostichous&rdquo; ommatidium like that
+of Limulus. Watase has shown, in a very convincing way, how by
+deepening the pit-like set of cells beneath a simple lens the
+more complex ommatidia of the compound eyes of Crustacea and Hexapoda may
+be derived from such a condition as that presented in the lateral
+eyes of Limulus and Scorpio. (For details the reader is referred
+to Watase (<b>11</b>) and to Lankester and Bourne (<b>5</b>).) The structure of
+the central eyes of Scorpio and spiders and also of Limulus differs
+essentially from that of the lateral eyes in having two layers
+of cells (hence called diplostichous) beneath the lens, separated
+from one another by a membrane (figs. 24 and 25). The upper layer is the
+corneagen and secretes the lens, the lower is the retinal layer. The
+mass of soft cell-structures beneath a large lens of a central eye is
+called an &ldquo;ommatoeum.&rdquo; It shows in Scorpio and Limulus a
+tendency to segregate into minor groups or &ldquo;ommatidia.&rdquo; It is
+found that in embryological growth the retinal layer of the central
+eyes forms as a separate pouch, which is pushed in laterally beneath
+the corneagen layer from the epidermic cell layer. Hence it is in
+origin double, and consists of a true retinal layer and a post-retinal
+layer (fig. 24, B), though these are not separated by a membrane.
+Accordingly the diplostichous ommatoeum or soft tissue of the
+Arachnid&rsquo;s central eye should strictly be called &ldquo;triplostichous,&rdquo;
+since the deep layer is itself doubled or folded. The retinal cells of
+both the lateral and central eyes of Limulus and Scorpio produce
+cuticular structures on their sides; each such piece is a rhabdomere
+and a number (five or ten) uniting form a rhabdom (fig. 26). In
+the specialized ommatidia of the compound eyes of Crustacea and
+Hexapods the rhabdom is an important structure.<a name="fa2m" id="fa2m" href="#ft2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a> It is a very significant fact
+that the lateral and central eyes of Limulus and Scorpio not
+only agree each with each in regard to their monostichous and
+diplostichous structure, but also in the formation in both
+classes of eyes of rhabdomeres and rhabdoms in which the
+component pieces are five or a multiple of five (fig. 26).
+Whilst each unit of the lateral eye of Limulus has a rhabdom of ten<a name="fa3m" id="fa3m" href="#ft3m"><span class="sp">3</span></a> pieces
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page292" id="page292"></a>292</span>
+forming a star-like chitinous centre in section, each lateral eye of
+Scorpio has several rhabdoms of five or less rhabdomeres, indicating
+that the Limulus lateral eye-unit is more specialized than the detached
+lateral eyelet of Scorpio, so as to present a coincidence of one lens
+with one rhabdom. Numerous rhabdomeres (grouped as rhabdoms in
+Limulus) are found in the retinal layer of the central eyes also.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:604px; height:416px" src="images/img292a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.&mdash;The first three pairs of mesosomatic appendages
+of Scorpio and Limulus compared.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>VII, The genital operculum.</p>
+
+<p>VIII, The pectens of Scorpio and the
+first branchial plate of Limulus.</p>
+
+<p>IX, The first pair of lung-books of
+Scorpio and the second branchial
+plate of Limulus.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>gp</i>, Genital pore.</p>
+
+<p><i>epst</i>, Epistigmatic sclerite.</p>
+
+<p><i>stg</i>, Stigma or orifice of the hollow
+tendons of the branchial plates of
+Limulus.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(After Lankester, <i>loc. cit.</i>)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Whilst Limulus agrees thus closely with Scorpio in regard to the
+eyes, it is to be noted that no Crustacean has structures corresponding
+to the peculiar diplostichous central eyes, though these
+occur again (with differences in detail) in <i>Hexapoda</i>. Possibly,
+however, an investigation of the development of the median eyes of
+some Crustacea (Apus, Palaemon) may prove them to be diplostichous
+in origin.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>The so-called</i> &ldquo;<i>Coxal Glands</i>.&rdquo;&mdash;In 1882 (<i>Proc. Roy. Soc</i>.
+No. 221) Lankester described under the name &ldquo;coxal
+glands&rdquo; a pair of brilliantly white oviform bodies lying in
+the Scorpion&rsquo;s prosoma immediately above the coxae of
+the fifth and sixth pairs of legs (fig. 27). These bodies
+had been erroneously supposed by Newport (<b>12</b>) and
+other observers to be glandular outgrowths of the alimentary
+canal. They are really excretory glands, and
+communicate with the exterior by a very minute aperture
+on the posterior face of the coxa of the fifth limb on each
+side. When examined with the microscope, by means of
+the usual section method, they are seen to consist of a
+labyrinthine tube lined with peculiar cells, each cell having
+a deep vertically striated border on the surface farthest
+from the lumen, as is seen in the cells of some renal organs.
+The coils and branches of the tube are packed by connective
+tissue and blood spaces. A similar pair of coxal glands,
+lobate instead of ovoid in shape, was described by
+Lankester in Mygale, and it was also shown by him that
+the structures in Limulus called &ldquo;brick-red glands&rdquo; by
+Packard have the same structure and position as the coxal
+glands of Scorpio and Mygale. In Limulus these organs
+consist each of four horizontal lobes lying on the coxal
+margin of the second, third, fourth, and fifth prosomatic
+limbs, the four lobes being connected to one another by
+a transverse piece or stem (fig. 28). Microscopically their
+structure is the same in essentials as that of the coxal
+glands of Scorpio (<b>13</b>). Coxal glands have since been
+recognized and described in other Arachnida. In 1900 it
+was shown that the coxal gland of Limulus is provided
+with a very delicate thin-walled coiled duct which opens,
+even in the adult condition, by a minute pore on
+the coxa of the fifth leg (Patten and Hazen, <b><span class="scs">13A</span></b>).
+Previously to this, Lankester&rsquo;s pupil Gulland had shown (1885) that
+in the embryo the coxal gland is a comparatively simple tube,
+which opens to the exterior in this position and by its other extremity
+into a coelomic space. Similar observations were made by Laurie
+(<b>17</b>) in Lankester&rsquo;s laboratory (1890) with regard to the early
+condition of the coxal gland of Scorpio, and by Bertkau (<b>41</b>) as to
+that of the spider Atypus. H.M. Bernard (<b><span class="scs">13B</span></b>) showed that the
+opening remains in the adult scorpion. In all the embryonic or
+permanent opening is on the coxa of the fifth pair of prosomatic
+limbs. Thus an organ newly discovered in Scorpio was found to
+have its counterpart in Limulus.</p>
+
+<p>The name &ldquo;coxal gland&rdquo; needs to be carefully distinguished
+from &ldquo;crural gland,&rdquo; with which it is apt to be confused. The crural
+glands, which occur in many terrestrial Arthropods, are epidermal
+in origin and totally distinct from the coxal glands. The
+coxal glands of the Arachnida are structures of the same
+nature as the green glands of the higher Crustacea and
+the so-called &ldquo;shell glands&rdquo; of the Entomostraca. The
+latter open at the base of the fifth pair of limbs of the
+Crustacean, just as the coxal glands open on the coxal
+joint of the fifth pair of limbs of the Arachnid. Both
+belong to the category of &ldquo;coelomoducts,&rdquo; namely,
+tubular or funnel-like portions of the coelom opening to
+the exterior in pairs in each somite (potentially,) and
+usually persisting in only a few somites as either &ldquo;urocoels&rdquo;
+(renal organs) or &ldquo;gonocoets&rdquo; (genital tubes). In Peripatus
+they occur in every somite of the body. They have till
+recently been very generally identified with the nephridia
+of Chaetopod worms, but there is good reason for considering
+the true nephridia (typified by the nephridia
+of the earthworm) as a distinct class of organs (see
+Lankester in vol. ii. chap. in. of <i>A Treatise on Zoology</i>,
+1900). The genital ducts of Arthropoda are, like the
+green glands, shell glands and coxal glands, to be regarded
+as coelomoducts (gonocoels). The coxal glands
+do not establish any special connexion between Limulus
+and Scorpio, since <span class="correction" title="amended from thay">they</span> also occur in the same somite
+in the lower Crustacea, but it is to be noted that the
+coxal glands of Limulus are in minute structure and
+probably in function more like those of Arachnids than
+those of Crustacea.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:596px; height:406px" src="images/img292b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.&mdash;The remaining three pairs of mesosomatic appendages of Scorpio
+and Limulus. Letters as in fig. 14. <i>l</i>130 indicates that there are 130 lamellae
+in the scorpion&rsquo;s lung-book, whilst <i>l</i>150 indicates that 150 similar lamellae are
+counted in the gill of Limulus.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(After Lankester, <i>loc. cit.</i>)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>4. <i>The Entosternites and their Minute Structure.</i>&mdash;Strauss-Dürckheim
+(<b>1</b>) was the first to insist on the affinity
+between Limulus and the Arachnids, indicated by the
+presence of a free suspended entosternum or plastron
+or entosternite in both. We have figured here (figs. 1 to
+6) the entosternites of Limulus, Scorpio and Mygale.
+Lankester some years ago made a special study of the
+histology (<b>3</b>) of these entosternites for the purpose of
+comparison, and also ascertained the relations of the
+very numerous muscles which are inserted into them
+(<b>4</b>). The entosternites are cartilaginous in texture, but they
+have neither the chemical character nor the microscopic structure
+of the hyaline cartilage of Vertebrates. They yield chitin in
+place of chondrin or gelatin&mdash;as does also the cartilage of
+the Cephalopod&rsquo;s endoskeleton. In microscopic structure they all
+present the closest agreement with one another. We find a firm,
+homogeneous or sparsely fibrillated matrix in which are embedded
+nucleated cells (corpuscles of protoplasm) arranged in rows of three,
+six or eight, parallel with the adjacent lines of fibrillation.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:282px; height:419px" src="images/img293a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter" style="vertical-align: bottom;"><img style="width:264px; height:280px" src="images/img293b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90" style="vertical-align: top;">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.&mdash;Diagram to
+show the way in which an
+outgrowing gill-process
+bearing blood-holding
+lamellae, may give rise, if
+the sternal body wall sinks
+inwards, to a lung-chamber
+with air-holding lamellae.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p>I is the embryonic condition.</p>
+
+<p><i>bs</i>, Blood sinus.</p>
+
+<p>L is the condition of outgrowth
+with <i>gl</i>, gill lamellae.</p>
+
+<p>A is the condition of in-sinking
+of the sternal
+surface and consequent
+enclosure of the lamelligerous
+surface of the
+appendage in a chamber
+with narrow orifice&mdash;the
+pulmonary air-holding
+chamber.</p>
+
+<p><i>pl</i>, Pulmonary lamellae.</p>
+<p><i>bs</i>, Blood sinus.</p>
+
+<p class="center f90"><br />(After Kingsley.)</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="vertical-align: top;">
+<p><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 17.&mdash;Embryo of scorpion,
+ventral view showing somites and appendages.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<p><i>sgc</i>, Frontal groove.</p>
+
+<p><i>sa</i>, Rudiment of lateral eyes.</p>
+
+<p><i>obl</i>, Camerostome (upper lip).</p>
+
+<p><i>so</i>, Sense-organ of Patten.</p>
+
+<p>PrG<i>abp</i><span class="sp">1</span>, Rudiment of the appendage
+of the praegenital somite
+which disappears.</p>
+
+<p><i>abp</i><span class="sp">2</span>, Rudiment of the right half of
+the genital operculum.</p>
+
+<p><i>abp</i><span class="sp">3</span>, Rudiment of the right pecten.</p>
+
+<p><i>abp</i><span class="sp">4</span> to <i>abp</i><span class="sp">7</span>. Rudiments of the four
+appendages which carry the pulmonary lamellae.</p>
+
+<p>I to VI, Rudiments of the six limbs of the prosoma.</p>
+
+<p>VIIPrG, The evanescent praegenital somite.</p>
+
+<p>VIII, The first mesosomatic somite or genital somite.</p>
+
+<p>IX, The second mesosomatic somite or pectiniferous somite.</p>
+
+<p>X to XIII, The four pulmoniferous somites.</p>
+
+<p>XIV, The first metasomatic somite.</p>
+
+<p class="center f90"><br />(After Brauer, <i>Zeitsch. wiss. Zool</i>., vol. lix., 1895.)</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A minute entosternite having the above-described structure is
+found in the Crustacean Apus between the bases of the mandibles,
+and also in the Decapoda in a similar position, but in no Crustacean
+does it attain to any size or importance. On the other hand, the
+entosternite of the Arachnida is a very large and important feature
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page293" id="page293"></a>293</span>
+in the structure of the prosoma, and must play an important part
+in the economy of these organisms. In Limulus (figs. 1 and 2) it
+has as many as twenty-five pairs of muscles attached to it, coming
+to it from the bases of the surrounding limbs and from the dorsal
+carapace and from the pharynx. It consists of an oblong plate 2 in.
+in length and 1 in breadth, with a pair of tendinous outgrowths
+standing out from it at right angles on each side. It &ldquo;floats&rdquo;
+between the prosomatic nerve
+centres and the alimentary
+canal. In each somite of the
+mesosoma is a small, free entosternite
+having a similar position,
+but below or ventral to
+the nerve cords, and having a
+smaller number of muscles
+attached to it. The entosternite
+was probably in origin
+part of the fibrous connective
+tissue lying close to the integument
+of the sternal surface&mdash;giving attachment to muscles
+corresponding more or less to
+those at present attached to
+it. It became isolated and
+detached, why or with what
+advantage to the organism it
+is difficult to say, and at that
+period of Arachnidan development
+the great ventral nerve
+cords occupied a more lateral
+position than they do at
+present. We know that such
+a lateral position of the nerve
+cords preceded the median
+position in both Arthropoda
+and Chaetopoda. Subsequently
+to the floating off of
+the entosternite the approximation
+of the nerve cords took
+place in the prosoma, and thus
+they were able to take up a
+position below the entosternite.
+In the mesosoma the approximation
+had occurred before the
+entosternites were formed.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:204px; height:159px" src="images/img293c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 18.&mdash;Portion of a similar
+embryo at a later stage
+of growth. The praegenital
+somite, VII PrG, is still
+present, but has lost its
+rudimentary appendages;
+<i>go</i>, the genital operculum,
+left half; Km, the left
+pecten; <i>abp</i><span class="sp">4</span> to <i>abp</i><span class="sp">7</span>, the
+rudimentary appendages of
+the lung-sacs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(After Brauer, <i>loc. cit</i>.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:240px; height:190px" src="images/img293d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 19.&mdash;Section through an
+early embryo of <i>Limulus longispina</i>,
+showing seven transverse
+divisions in the region of the
+unsegmented anterior carapace.
+The seventh, VII, is anterior to
+the genital operculum, <i>op</i>, and
+is the cavity of the praegenital
+somite which is more or less
+completely suppressed in subsequent
+development, possibly
+indicated by the area marked
+VII in fig. 7 and by the great
+entopophyses of the prosomatic
+carapace.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(After Kishinouye, <i>Journ. Sci. Coll. Japan</i>, vol. v., 1892.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the scorpion (figs. 3 and 4)
+the entosternite has tough
+membrane-like outgrowths
+which connect it with the
+body-wall, both dorsally and
+ventrally forming an oblique
+diaphragm, cutting off the
+cavity of the prosoma from
+that of the mesosoma. It was
+described by Newport as &ldquo;the
+diaphragm.&rdquo; Only the central
+and horizontal parts of this structure correspond precisely to the entosternite
+of Limulus: the right and left anterior processes (marked <i>ap</i> in
+figs. 3 and 4, and RAP, LAP, in figs. 1 and 2) correspond in the two
+animals, and the median lateral process <i>lmp</i> of the scorpion represents
+the tendinous outgrowths ALR, PLR of Limulus. The scorpion&rsquo;s
+entosternite gives rise to outgrowths, besides the great posterior
+flaps, <i>pf</i>, which form the diaphragm, unrepresented in Limulus.
+These are a ventral arch forming a neural canal through which the
+great nerve cords pass (figs. 3 and 4, <i>snp</i>), and further a dorsal
+gastric canal and arterial canal which transmit the alimentary tract
+and the dorsal artery respectively (figs. 3 and 4, GC, DR).</p>
+
+<p>In Limulus small entosternites are found in each somite of the
+appendage-bearing mesosoma, and we
+find in Scorpio, in the only somite of
+the mesosoma which has a well-developed
+pair of appendages, that of
+the pectens, a small entosternite with
+ten pairs of muscles inserted into it.
+The supra-pectinal entosternite lies
+ventral to the nerve cords.</p>
+
+<p>In Mygale (figs. 5 and 6) the form
+of the entosternite is more like that
+of Limulus than is that of Scorpio.
+The anterior notch Ph.N. is similar
+to that in Limulus, whilst the imbricate
+triangular pieces of the posterior
+median region resemble the similarly-placed
+structures of Limulus in a
+striking manner.</p>
+
+<p>It must be confessed that we are
+singularly ignorant as to the functional
+significance of these remarkable organs&mdash;the
+entosternites. Their movement
+in an upward or downward direction
+in Limulus and Mygale must exert a
+pumping action on the blood contained
+in the dorsal arteries and the
+ventral veins respectively. In Scorpio
+the completion of the horizontal plate by oblique naps, so as to form
+an actual diaphragm shutting off the cavity of the prosoma from the
+rest of the body, possibly gives to the organs contained in the
+anterior chamber a physiological
+advantage in respect of the supply
+of arterial blood and its separation
+from the venous blood of the
+mesosoma. Possibly the movement
+of the diaphragm may
+determine the passage of air into
+or out of the lung-sacs. Muscular
+fibres connected with the suctorial
+pharynx are in Limulus inserted
+into the entosternite, and the
+activity of the two organs may be
+correlated.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>The Blood and the Blood-vascular
+System.</i>&mdash;The blood fluids
+of Limulus and Scorpio are very
+similar. Not only are the blood
+corpuscles of Limulus more like
+in form and granulation to those
+of Scorpio than to those of any
+Crustacean, but the fluid is in
+both animals strongly impregnated
+with the blue-coloured
+respiratory proteid, haemocyanin.
+This body occurs also in the blood
+of Crustacea and of Molluscs, but
+its abundance in both Limulus
+and Scorpio is very marked, and
+gives to the freshly-shed blood a
+strong indigo-blue tint.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="3"><img style="width:199px; height:222px" src="images/img293e.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 20.&mdash;View of the ventral surface
+of the mid-line of the prosomatic region
+of <i>Limulus polyphemus</i>. The coxae of
+the five pairs of limbs following the chelicerae
+were arranged in a series on each
+side between the mouth, M, and the metasternites, <i>mets</i>.<br /><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90">
+<p><i>sf</i>, The sub-frontal median sclerite.</p>
+
+<p>Ch, The chelicerae.</p>
+
+<p><i>cam</i>, The camerostome or upper lip.</p>
+
+<p>M, The mouth.</p>
+
+<p><i>pmst</i>, The promesosternal sclerite of
+chitinous plate, unpaired.</p>
+
+<p><i>mets</i>, The right and left metasternites
+(corresponding to the similarly placed
+pentagonal sternite of Scorpio). Natural size.</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(After Lankester.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:414px; height:161px" src="images/img294a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2l.&mdash;Development of the lateral eyes of a scorpion. <i>h</i>, Epidermic
+cell-layer; <i>mes</i>, mesoblastic connective tissue; <i>n</i>, nerves;
+II, III, IV, V, depressions of the epidermis in each of which a
+cuticular lens will be formed.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(<i>From Korschelt and Heider, after Laurie</i>.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="3"><img style="width:306px; height:255px" src="images/img294b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 22.&mdash;Section
+through the lateral eye of <i>Euscorpius italicus</i>.<br /><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90">
+<p><i>lens</i>, Cuticular lens.</p>
+<p><i>nerv c</i>, Retinal cells (nerve-end cells).</p>
+<p><i>rhabd</i>, Rhabdomes.</p>
+<p><i>nerv f</i>, Nerve fibres of the optic nerve.</p>
+<p><i>int</i>, Intermediate cells (lying between the bases
+   of the retinal cells).</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80">(After Lankester and Bourne
+from Parker and Habwell&rsquo;s <i>Text
+book of Zoology</i>, Macmillan &amp; Co.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:520px; height:398px" src="images/img294c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 23.&mdash;Section through a portion of the lateral eye of Limulus,
+showing three ommatidia&mdash;A, B and C. <i>hyp</i>, The epidermic cell-layer
+(so-called hypodermis), the cells of which increase in volume below
+each lens, <i>l</i>, and become nerve-end cells or retinula-cells, <i>rt</i>; in A,
+the letters <i>rh</i> point to a rhabdomere secreted by the cell <i>rt</i>; <i>c</i>, the
+peculiar central spherical cell; <i>n</i>, nerve fibres; <i>mes</i>, mesoblastic
+skeletal tissue; <i>ch</i>, chitinous cuticle.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From Korschelt and Heider after Watase.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The great dorsal contractile vessel or &ldquo;heart&rdquo; of Limulus is
+closely similar to that of Scorpio; its ostia or incurrent orifices are
+placed in the same somites as those of Scorpio, but there is one
+additional posterior pair. The origin of the paired arteries from the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294"></a>294</span>
+heart differs in Limulus from the arrangement obtaining in Scorpio,
+in that a pair of lateral commissural arteries exist in Limulus (as
+described by Alphonse Milne-Edwards (<b>6</b>)) leading to a suppression
+of the more primitive direct connexion of the four pairs of posterior
+lateral arteries and of the great median posterior arteries with the
+heart itself (fig. 29). The arterial system is very completely developed
+in both Limulus and Scorpio, branching repeatedly until minute
+arterioles are formed, not to be distinguished from true capillaries;
+these open into irregular swollen vessels which are the veins or
+venous sinuses. A very remarkable feature in Limulus, first described
+by Owen, is the close accompaniment of the prosomatic nerve centres
+and nerves by arteries, so close indeed that the great ganglion mass
+and its out-running nerves are actually sunk in or invested by
+arteries. The connexion is not so intimate in Scorpio, but is nevertheless
+a very close one, closer than we find in any other Arthropods
+in which the arterial system is well developed, <i>e.g.</i> the Myriapoda
+and some of the arthrostracous Crustacea. It seems that there is a
+primitive tendency in the Arthropoda for the arteries to accompany
+the nerve cords, and a &ldquo;supra-spinal&rdquo; artery&mdash;that is to say, an
+artery in close relation to the ventral nerve cords&mdash;has been described
+in several cases. On the other hand, in many Arthropods, especially
+those which possess tracheae, the arteries do not have a long course,
+but soon open into wide blood sinuses. Scorpio certainly comes
+nearer to Limulus in the high development of its arterial system,
+and the intimate relation of the anterior aorta and its branches
+to the nerve centres and great nerves, than does any other Arthropod.</p>
+
+<p>An arrangement of great functional importance in regard to the
+venous system must now be described, which was shown in 1883 by
+Lankester to be common to Limulus and Scorpio. This arrangement
+has not hitherto been detected in any other class than the Arachnida,
+and if it should ultimately prove to be peculiar to that group, would
+have considerable weight as a proof of the close genetic affinity of
+Limulus and Scorpio.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:386px; height:641px" src="images/img294d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 24.&mdash;Diagrams of the development and adult structure of one
+of the paired central eyes of a scorpion.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90">
+<p>A, Early condition before the lens is deposited, showing the folding
+  of the epidermic cell-layer into three.</p>
+<p>B, Diagram showing the nature of this infolding.</p>
+<p>C, Section through the fully formed eye.</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, Epidermic cell-layer.</p>
+<p><i>r</i>, The retinal portion of the same which, owing to the infolding,
+  lies between <i>gl</i>, the corneagen or lens-forming portion, and <i>pr</i>,
+  the post-retinal or capsular portion or fold.</p>
+<p><i>l</i>, Cuticular lens.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, Line separating lens from the lens-forming or corneagen cells
+  of the epidermis.</p>
+<p><i>n</i>, Nerve fibres.</p>
+<p><i>rh</i>, Rhabdomeres.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption">[How the inversion of the nerve-end-cells and their connexion with
+the nerve-fibres is to be reconciled with the condition found in the
+adult, or with that of the monostichous eye, has not hitherto been
+explained.]</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From Korschelt and Heider.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The great pericardial sinus is strongly developed in both animals.
+Its walls are fibrous and complete, and it holds a considerable volume
+of blood when the heart itself is contracted. Opening in pairs in
+each somite, right and left into the pericardial sinus are large veins,
+which bring the blood respectively from the gill-books and the lung-books
+to that chamber, whence it passes by the ostia into the heart.
+The blood is brought to the respiratory organs in both cases by a
+great venous collecting sinus having a ventral median position. In
+both animals <i>the wall of the pericardial sinus is connected by vertical
+muscular bands to the wall of the ventral venous sinus</i> (its lateral expansions
+around the lung-books in Scorpio) in each somite through
+which the pericardium passes. There are seven pairs of these <i>veno-pericardiac
+vertical muscles</i> in Scorpio, and eight in Limulus (see
+figs. 30, 31, 32). It is obvious that the contraction of these muscles
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id="page295"></a>295</span>
+must cause a depression of the floor of the pericardium and a rising
+of the roof of the ventral blood sinus, and a consequent increase of
+volume and flow of blood to each. Whether the pericardium and
+the ventral sinus are made to expand simultaneously or all the movement
+is made by one only of the surfaces concerned, must depend
+on conditions of tension. In any case it is clear that we have in
+these muscles an apparatus for causing the blood to flow differentially
+in increased volume into either the pericardium, through the veins
+leading from the respiratory organs, or from the body generally into
+the great sinuses which bring the blood to the respiratory organs.
+These muscles act so as to pump the blood through the respiratory
+organs.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:462px; height:571px" src="images/img295a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 25.&mdash;Section through one of the central eyes of a young
+Limulus.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+  <p>L, Cuticular or corneous lens.</p>
+  <p><i>hy</i>, Epidermic cell-layer.</p>
+  <p><i>corn</i>, Its corneagen portion immediately underlying the lens.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+  <p><i>ret</i>, Retinula cells.</p>
+  <p><i>nf</i>, Nerve fibres.</p>
+  <p><i>con. tiss</i>, Connective tissue (mesoblastic skeletal tissue).</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(After Lankester and Bourne, <i>Q. J. Mic. Sci.</i>, 1883.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>It is not surprising that with so highly developed an arterial
+system Limulus and Scorpio should have a highly developed mechanism
+for determining the flow of blood to the respiratory organs.
+That this is, so to speak, a need of animals with localized respiratory
+organs is seen by the existence of provisions serving a similar purpose
+in other animals, <i>e.g.</i> the branchial hearts of the Cephalopoda.</p>
+
+<p>The veno-pericardiac muscles of Scorpio were seen and figured by
+Newport but not described by him. Those of Limulus were described
+and figured by Alphonse Milne-Edwards, but he called them merely
+&ldquo;transparent ligaments,&rdquo; and did not discover their muscular
+structure. They are figured and their importance for the first time
+recognized in the memoir on the muscular and skeletal systems of
+Limulus and Scorpio by Lankester, Beck and Bourne (<b>4</b>).</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Alimentary Canal and Gastric Glands.</i>&mdash;The alimentary canal in
+Scorpio, as in Limulus, is provided with a powerful suctorial pharynx,
+in the working of which extrinsic muscles take a part. The mouth
+is relatively smaller in Scorpio than in Limulus&mdash;in fact is minute,
+as it is in all the terrestrial Arachnida which suck the juices of
+either animals or plants. In both, the alimentary canal takes a
+straight course from the pharynx (which bends under it downwards
+and backwards towards the mouth in Limulus) to the anus, and is
+a simple, narrow, cylindrical tube (fig. 33). The only point in which
+the gut of Limulus resembles that of Scorpio rather than that of
+any of the Crustacea, is in possessing more than a single pair of ducts
+or lateral outgrowths connected with ramified gastric glands or
+gastric caeca. Limulus has two pairs of these, Scorpio as many as
+six pairs. The Crustacea never have more than one pair. The
+minute microscopic structure of the gastric glands in the two animals
+is practically identical. The functions of these gastric diverticula
+have never been carefully investigated. It is very probable that in
+Scorpio they do not serve merely to secrete a digestive fluid (shown
+in other Arthropoda to resemble the pancreatic fluid), but that they
+also become distended by the juices of the prey sucked in by the
+scorpion&mdash;as certainly must occur in the case of the simple unbranched
+gastric caeca of the spiders.</p>
+
+<p>The most important difference which exists between the structure
+of Limulus and that of Scorpio is found in the hinder region of the
+alimentary canal. Scorpio is here provided with a single or double
+pair of renal excretory tubes, which have been identified by earlier
+authors with the Malpighian tubes of the Hexapod and Myriapod
+insects. Limulus is devoid of any such tubes. We shall revert to
+this subject below.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:390px; height:436px" src="images/img295b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 26.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>A, Diagram of a retinula of the
+central eye of a scorpion consisting
+of five retina-cells (<i>ret</i>),
+with adherent branched pigment
+cells (<i>pig</i>).</p>
+
+<p>B, Rhabdom of the same, consisting
+of five confluent rhabdomeres.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>C, Transverse section of the
+rhabdom of a retinula of the
+scorpion&rsquo;s central eye, showing
+its five constituent rhabdomeres
+as rays of a star.</p>
+
+<p>D, Transverse section of a
+retinula of the lateral eye of
+Limulus, showing ten retinula
+cells (<i>ret</i>), each bearing a
+rhabdomere (<i>rhab</i>).</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(After Lankester.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="3"><img style="width:227px; height:280px" src="images/img295c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="f90"><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 27.&mdash;Diagram showing
+the position of the coxal glands
+of a scorpion, <i>Buthus australis</i>,
+Lin., in relation to the legs,
+diaphragm (entosternal flap), and
+the gastric caeca.<br /><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90">
+<p>1 to 6, The bases of the six
+prosomatic limbs.</p>
+
+<p>A, prosomatic gastric gland
+(sometimes called salivary).</p>
+
+<p>B, Coxal gland.</p>
+
+<p>C, Diaphragm of Newport = fibrous
+flap of the entosternum.</p>
+
+<p>D, Mesosomatic gastric caeca
+(so-called liver).</p>
+
+<p>E, Alimentary canal.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From Lankester, <i>Q. J. Mic. Sci.</i>, vol.
+xxiv. N.S. p. 152.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">7. <i>Ovaries and Spermaries: Gonocoels and Gonoducts.</i>&mdash;The
+scorpion is remarkable for having the specialized portion of coelom
+from the walls of which egg-cells or sperm-cells are developed
+according to sex, in the form of a simple but extensive network.
+It is not a pair of simple tubes, nor of dendriform tubes, but a closed
+network. The same fact is true of Limulus, as was shown by Owen (<b>7</b>)
+in regard to the ovary, and by Benham (<b>14</b>) in regard to the testis.
+This is a very definite and remarkable agreement, since such a
+reticular gonocoel is not found in Crustacea (except in the male
+Apus). Moreover, there is a significant agreement in the character
+of the spermatozoa of Limulus and Scorpio. The Crustacea are&mdash;with
+the exception of the Cirrhipedia&mdash;remarkable for having stiff,
+motionless spermatozoids. In Limulus Lankester found (<b>15</b>) the
+spermatozoa to possess active flagelliform &ldquo;tails,&rdquo; and to resemble
+very closely those of Scorpio which, as are those of most terrestrial
+Arthropoda, are actively motile. This is a microscopic point of
+agreement, but is none the less significant.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the important structures concerned with the fertilization
+of the egg, Limulus and Scorpio differ entirely from one another.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page296" id="page296"></a>296</span>
+The eggs of Limulus are fertilized in the sea after they have been
+laid. Scorpio, being a terrestrial animal, fertilizes by copulation.
+The male possesses elaborate copulatory structures of a chitinous
+nature, and the eggs are fertilized in the female without even quitting
+the place where they are formed on the wall of the reticular gonocoel.
+The female scorpion is viviparous, and the young are produced in a
+highly developed condition as fully formed scorpions.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="3"><img style="width:288px; height:282px" src="images/img296a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="f90"><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 28.&mdash;The right coxal
+gland of <i>Limulus polyphemus</i>,
+Latr.<br /><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90">
+<p><i>a</i><span class="sp">2</span> to <i>a</i><span class="sp">5</span>, Posterior borders of
+the chitinous bases of the
+coxae of the second, third,
+fourth and fifth prosomatic
+limbs.</p>
+
+<p><i>b</i>, Longitudinal lobe or stolon
+of the coxal gland.</p>
+
+<p><i>c</i>. Its four transverse lobes or
+outgrowths corresponding
+to the four coxae.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From Lankester, <i>loc. cit.</i>, after
+Packard.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Differences between Limulus and Scorpio.</i>&mdash;We have now passed in
+review the principal structural features in which Limulus agrees
+with Scorpio and differs from other Arthropoda. There remains for
+consideration the one important structural difference between the
+two animals. Limulus agrees with the majority of the Crustacea in
+being destitute of renal excretory caeca or tubes opening into the
+hinder part of the gut. Scorpio, on the other hand, in common
+with all air-breathing Arthropoda except Peripatus, possesses these
+tubules, which are often called Malpighian tubes. A great deal has
+been made of this difference by some writers. It has been considered
+by them as proving that Limulus, in spite of all its special agreements
+with Scorpio (which, however, have scarcely been appreciated by the
+writers in question), really belongs to the Crustacean line of descent,
+whilst Scorpio, by possessing Malpighian tubes, is declared to be
+unmistakably tied together with the other Arachnida to the tracheate
+Arthropods, the Hexapods, Diplopods, and Chilopods, which all
+possess Malpighian tubes.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:228px; height:361px" src="images/img296b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="f90"><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 29.&mdash;Diagram of the
+arterial system of A, Scorpio,
+and B, Limulus. The Roman
+numerals indicate the body
+somites and the two figures
+are adjusted for comparison.
+<i>ce</i>, Cerebral arteries; <i>sp</i>,
+supra-spinal or medullary
+artery; <i>c</i>, caudal artery;
+<i>l</i>, lateral anastomotic artery
+of Limulus. The figure B
+also shows the peculiar neural
+investiture formed by the
+cerebral arteries in Limulus
+and the derivation from this
+of the arteries to the limbs,
+III, IV, VI, whereas in
+Scorpio the latter have a
+separate origin from the
+anterior aorta.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Lankester, &ldquo;Limulus an
+Arachnid.&rdquo;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">It must be pointed out that the presence or absence of such renal
+excretory tubes opening into the intestine appears to be a question
+of adaptation to the changed physiological conditions of respiration,
+and not of morphological significance, since a pair of renal excretory
+tubes of this nature is found in certain Amphipod Crustacea (Talorchestia,
+&amp;c.) which have abandoned a purely aquatic life. This view
+has been accepted and supported by Professors Korschelt and Heider
+(<b>16</b>). An important fact in its favour was discovered by Laurie (<b>17</b>),
+who investigated the embryology of two species of Scorpio under
+Lankester&rsquo;s direction. It appears that the Malpighian tubes of
+Scorpio are developed from the mesenteron, viz. that portion of the
+gut which is formed by the hypoblast, whereas in Hexapod insects
+the similar caecal tubes are developed from the proctodaeum or
+in-pushed portion of the gut which is formed from epiblast. In fact
+it is not possible to maintain that the renal excretory tubes of the
+gut are of one common origin in the Arthropoda. They have
+appeared independently in connexion with a change in the excretion
+of nitrogenous waste in Arachnids, Crustacea, and the other classes
+of Arthropoda when aerial, as opposed to aquatic, respiration has
+been established&mdash;and they have been formed in some cases from
+the mesenteron, in other cases from the proctodaeum. Their
+appearance in the air-breathing Arachnids does not separate those
+forms from the water-breathing Arachnids which are devoid of them,
+any more than does their appearance in certain Amphipoda separate
+those Crustaceans from the other members of the class.</p>
+
+<p>Further, it is pointed out by Korschelt and Heider that the hinder
+portion of the gut frequently acts in Arthropoda as an organ of
+nitrogenous excretion in the absence of any special excretory tubules,
+and that the production of such caeca from its surface in separate
+lines of descent does not involve any elaborate or unlikely process of
+growth. In other words, the Malpighian tubes of the terrestrial
+Arachnida are <i>homoplastic</i> with those of Hexapoda and Myriapoda,
+and not <i>homogenetic</i> with them. We are compelled to take a similar
+view of the agreement between the tracheal air-tubes of Arachnida
+and other tracheate Arthropods. They are homoplasts (see <b>18</b>) one
+of another, and do not owe their existence in the various classes
+compared to a common inheritance of an ancestral tracheal system.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:242px; height:375px" src="images/img296c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 30.&mdash;View from below of
+a scorpion (<i>Buthus occitanus</i>)
+opened and dissected so as to
+show the pericardium with its
+muscles, the lateral arteries, and
+the tergo-sternal muscles.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p>PRO, Prosoma.</p>
+
+<p><i>dpm</i>, Dorso-plastral muscle.</p>
+
+<p><i>art</i>, Lateral artery.</p>
+
+<p><i>tsm</i><span class="sp">1</span>, Tergo-sternal muscle (labelled
+<i>dv</i> in fig. 31) of the
+second (pectiniferous) mesosomatic
+somite; this is the most
+anterior pair of the series of
+six, none are present in the
+genital somite.</p>
+
+<p><i>tsm</i><span class="sp">4</span>, Tergo-sternal muscle of
+the fifth mesosomatic somite.</p>
+
+<p><i>tsm</i><span class="sp">6</span>, Tergo-sternal muscle of
+the enlarged first metasomatic
+somite.</p>
+
+<p><i>Per</i>, Pericardium.</p>
+
+<p>VPM<span class="sp">1</span> to VPM<span class="sp">7</span>, The series of
+seven pairs of veno-pericardiac
+muscles (labelled <i>pv</i> in fig. 31).</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption1">There is some reason to admit
+the existence of another more
+anterior pair of these muscles in
+Scorpio; this would make the
+number exactly correspond with
+the number in Limulus.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80">(After Lankester, <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i>
+vol. xi, 1883.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Conclusions arising from the Close Affinity of Limulus and
+Scorpio.</i>&mdash;When we consider the relationships of the various
+classes of Arthropoda, having
+accepted and established the
+fact of the close genetic affinity
+of Limulus and Scorpio, we are
+led to important conclusions.
+In such a consideration we have
+to make use not only of the fact
+just mentioned, but of three important
+generalizations which
+serve as it were as implements
+for the proper estimation of the
+relationships of any series of
+organic forms. First of all there
+is the generalization that the
+relationships of the various
+forms of animals (or of plants)
+to one another is that of the
+ultimate twigs of a much-branching
+genealogical tree. Secondly,
+identity of structure in two organisms
+does not necessarily
+indicate that the identical
+structure has been inherited from
+an ancestor common to the two
+organisms compared (homogeny),
+but may be due to
+independent development of a
+like structure in two different
+lines of descent (homoplasy).
+Thirdly, those members of a
+group which, whilst exhibiting
+undoubted structural characters
+indicative of their proper assignment
+to that group, yet are
+simpler than and inferior in
+elaboration of their organization
+to other members of the group,
+are not necessarily representatives
+of the earlier and primitive
+phases in the development of
+the group&mdash;but are very often
+examples of retrogressive change
+or degeneration. The second
+and third implements of analysis
+above cited are of the nature of
+cautions or checks. Agreements
+are not <i>necessarily</i> due to
+common inheritance; simplicity is not <i>necessarily</i> primitive and
+ancestral.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, we must not rashly set down agreements
+as due to &ldquo;homoplasy&rdquo; or &ldquo;convergence of development&rdquo; if
+we find two or three or more concurrent agreements. The probability
+is against agreement being due to homoplasy when the
+agreement involves a number of really separate (not correlated)
+coincidences. Whilst the chances are in favour of some <i>one</i>
+homoplastic coincidence or structural agreement occurring
+between some member or other of a large group <i>a</i> and some
+member or other of a large group <i>b</i>, the matter is very different
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page297" id="page297"></a>297</span>
+when by such an initial coincidence the two members have been
+particularized. The chances against these two selected members
+exhibiting <i>another</i> really independent homoplastic agreement
+are enormous: let us say 10,000 to 1. The chances against yet
+another coincidence are a hundred million to one, and against
+yet one more &ldquo;coincidence&rdquo; they are the square of a hundred
+million to one. Homoplasy can only be assumed when the coincidence
+is of a simple nature, and is such as may be reasonably
+supposed to have arisen by the action of like selective conditions
+upon like material in two separate lines of descent.<a name="fa4m" id="fa4m" href="#ft4m"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p>So, too, degeneration is not to be lightly assumed as the explanation
+of a simplicity of structure. There is a very definite
+criterion of the simplicity due to degeneration, which can in
+most cases be applied. Degenerative simplicity is never uniformly
+distributed over all the structures of the organism. It
+affects many or nearly all the structures of the body, but leaves
+some, it may be only one, at a high level of elaboration and
+complexity. Ancestral simplicity is more uniform, and does
+not co-exist with specialization and elaboration of a single organ.
+Further: degeneration cannot be inferred safely by the examination
+of an isolated case; usually we obtain a series of forms
+indicating the steps of a change in structure&mdash;and what we have
+to decide is whether the movement has been from the simple
+to the more complex, or from the more complex to the simple.
+The feathers of a peacock afford a convenient example of primitive
+and degenerative simplicity. The highest point of elaboration
+in colour, pattern and form is shown by the great eye-painted
+tail feathers. From these we can pass by gradual transitions
+in two directions, viz. either to the simple lateral tail feathers
+with a few rami only, developed only on one side of the shaft
+and of uniform metallic coloration&mdash;or to the simple contour
+feathers of small size, with the usual symmetrical series of
+numerous rami right and left of the shaft and no remarkable
+colouring. The one-sided specialization and the peculiar metallic
+colouring of the lateral tail feathers mark them as the extreme
+terms of a degenerative series, whilst the symmetry, likeness of
+constituent parts <i>inter se</i>, and absence of specialized pigment,
+as well as the fact that they differ little from any average feather
+of birds in general, mark the contour feather as primitively
+simple, and as the starting-point from which the highly elaborated
+eye-painted tail feather has gradually evolved.</p>
+
+<p>Applying these principles to the consideration of the Arachnida,
+we arrive at the conclusion that the smaller and simpler
+Arachnids are not the more primitive, but that the Acari or mites
+are, in fact, a degenerate group. This was maintained by
+Lankester in 1878 (<b>19</b>), again in 1881 (<b>20</b>); it was subsequently
+announced as a novelty by Claus in 1885 (<b>21</b>). Though the
+aquatic members of a class of animals are in some instances
+derived from terrestrial forms, the usual transition is from an
+aquatic ancestry to more recent land-living forms. There is no
+doubt, from a consideration of the facts of structure, that the
+aquatic water-breathing Arachnids, represented in the past by
+the Eurypterines and to-day by the sole survivor Limulus, have
+preceded the terrestrial air-breathing forms of that group.
+Hence we see at once that the better-known Arachnida form
+a series, leading from Limulus-like aquatic creatures through
+scorpions, spiders and harvest-men, to the degenerate Acari or
+mites. The spiders are specialized and reduced in apparent
+complexity, as compared with the scorpions, but they cannot be
+regarded as degenerate since the concentration of structure
+which occurs in them results in greater efficiency and power than
+are exhibited by the scorpion. The determination of the relative
+degree of perfection of organization attained by two animals
+compared is difficult when we introduce, as seems inevitable,
+the question of efficiency and power, and do not confine the
+question to the perfection of morphological development. We
+have no measure of the degree of power manifested by various
+animals&mdash;though it would be possible to arrive at some conclusions
+as to how that &ldquo;power&rdquo; should be estimated. It is not
+possible here to discuss that matter further. We must be content
+to point out that it seems that the spiders, the pedipalps, and
+other large Arachnids have not been derived from the scorpions
+directly, but have independently developed from aquatic
+ancestors, and from one of these independent groups&mdash;probably
+through the harvest-men from the spiders&mdash;the Acari have finally
+resulted.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:448px; height:152px" src="images/img297a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">After Beck, <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> <span class="sc">Vol.</span> xi., 1883.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 31.&mdash;Diagram of a lateral view of a longitudinal section of
+a scorpion.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+  <p><i>d</i>, Chelicera.</p>
+  <p><i>ch</i>, Chela.</p>
+  <p><i>cam</i>, Camerostome.</p>
+  <p><i>m</i>, Mouth.</p>
+  <p><i>ent</i>, Entosternum.</p>
+  <p><i>p</i>, Pecten.</p>
+  <p><i>stig</i><span class="sp">1</span>, First pulmonary aperture.</p>
+  <p><i>stig</i><span class="sp">4</span>, Fourth pulmonary aperture.</p>
+</td>
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+  <p><i>dam</i>, Muscle from carapace to a praeoral entosclerite.</p>
+  <p><i>ad</i>, Muscle from carapace to entosternum.</p>
+  <p><i>md</i>, Muscle from tergite of genital somite to entosternum (same as <i>dpm</i> in fig. 30).</p>
+  <p><i>dv</i><span class="sp">1</span> to <i>dv<span class="sp">6</span></i>, Dorso-ventral muscles (same as the series labelled <i>tsm</i> in fig. 30).</p>
+  <p><i>pv</i><span class="sp">1</span> to <i>pv<span class="sp">7</span></i>, The seven veno-pericardiac muscles of the right side (labelled VPM in fig. 30).</p>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:514px; height:214px" src="images/img297b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">After Benham, <i>Trans Zool. Soc.</i> vol. xi, 1883.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 32.&mdash;Diagram of a lateral view of a longitudinal section of
+Limulus.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+  <p><i>Suc</i>, Suctorial pharynx.</p>
+  <p><i>al</i>, Alimentary canal.</p>
+  <p><i>Ph</i>, Pharynx.</p>
+  <p><i>M</i>, Mouth.</p>
+  <p><i>Est</i>, Entosternum.</p>
+  <p>VS, Ventral venous sinus.</p>
+  <p><i>chi</i>, Chilaria.</p>
+  <p><i>go</i>, Genital operculum.</p>
+</td>
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+  <p><i>br</i><span class="sp">1</span> to <i>br</i><span class="sp">5</span>, Branchial appendages,</p>
+  <p><i>met</i>, Unsegmented metasoma.</p>
+  <p><i>Entap</i><span class="sp">4</span>, Fourth dorsal entapophysis of left side.</p>
+  <p><i>tsm</i>, Tergo-sternal muscles, six pairs as in Scorpio (labelled <i>dv</i> in fig. 31).</p>
+  <p>VPM<span class="sp">1</span> to VPM<span class="sp">8</span>, The eight pairs of veno-pericardiac muscles (labelled <i>pv</i> in
+   fig. 31). VPM<span class="sp">1</span> is probably represented in Scorpio, though not marked in figs. 30 and 31.</p>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:217px; height:514px" src="images/img298.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Lankester, &ldquo;Limulua an Arachnid.&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 33.&mdash;The alimentary canal and gastric
+glands of a scorpion (A) and of Limulus (B).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p><i>ps</i>, Muscular suctorial enlargement
+of the pharynx.</p>
+
+<p><i>sal</i>, Prosomatic pair of gastric caeca in Scorpio, called salivary glands
+by some writers.</p>
+
+<p><i>c</i><span class="sp">1</span>, and <i>c</i><span class="sp">2</span>,
+The anterior two pairs of gastric caeca and ducts of the mesosomatic region.</p>
+
+<p><i>c</i><span class="sp">3</span>, <i>c</i><span class="sp">4</span> and
+<i>c</i><span class="sp">5</span>. Caeca and ducts of Scorpio not represented
+in Limulus.</p>
+
+<p>M, The Malpighian or renal caecal diverticula of Scorpio.</p>
+
+<p><i>pro</i>, The proctodaeum or portion of gut leading to anus and formed
+embryologically by an inversion of the epiblast at that
+orifice.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Leaving that question for consideration in connexion with
+the systematic statement of the characters of the various groups
+of Arachnida which follows on p. 299, it is well now to consider
+the following question, viz., seeing that Limulus and Scorpio are
+such highly developed and specialized forms, and that they seem
+to constitute as it were the first and second steps in the series of
+recognized Arachnida&mdash;what do we know, or what are we led to
+suppose with regard to the more primitive Arachnida from which
+the Eurypterines and Limulus and Scorpio have sprung? Do
+we know in the recent or fossil condition any such primitive
+Arachnids? Such a question is not only legitimate, but
+prompted by the analogy of at least one other great class of
+Arthropods. The great Arthropod class, the Crustacea, presents
+to the zoologist at the present day an immense range of forms,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page298" id="page298"></a>298</span>
+comprising the primitive phyllopods, the minute copepods, the
+parasitic cirrhipedes and the powerful crabs and lobsters, and
+the highly elaborated sand-hoppers and slaters. It has been
+insisted, by those who accepted Lankester&rsquo;s original doctrine
+of the direct or genetic affinity of the Chaetopoda and Arthropoda,
+that Apus and Branchipus really come very near to the
+ancestral forms which connected those two great branches of
+Appendiculate (Parapodiate) animals. On the other hand, the
+land crabs are at an immense distance from these simple forms.
+The record of the Crustacean family-tree
+is, in fact, a fairly complete
+one&mdash;the lower primitive members
+of the group are still represented
+by living forms in great abundance.
+In the case of the Arachnida, if we
+have to start their genealogical
+history with Limulus and Scorpio,
+we are much in the same position
+as we should be in dealing with
+the Crustacea, were the whole of the
+Entomostraca and the whole of the
+Arthrostraca wiped out of existence
+and record.  There is no possibility
+of doubt that the series of forms
+corresponding in the Arachnidan
+line of descent, to the forms distinguished
+in the Crustacean line
+of descent as the lower grade&mdash;the
+Entomostraca&mdash;have ceased to
+exist, and not only so, but have
+left little evidence in the form of
+fossils as to their former existence
+and nature. It must, however, be
+admitted as probable that we should
+find some evidence, in ancient rocks
+or in the deep sea, of the early more
+primitive Arachnids. And it must
+be remembered that such forms
+must be expected to exhibit, when
+found, differences from Limulus and
+Scorpio as great as those which
+separate Apus and Cancer. The
+existing Arachnida, like the higher
+Crustacea, are &ldquo;nomomeristic,&rdquo;
+that is to say, have a fixed typical
+number of somites to the body.
+Further, they are like the higher
+Crustacea, &ldquo;somatotagmic,&rdquo; that is
+to say, they have this limited set of
+somites grouped in three (or more)
+&ldquo;tagmata&rdquo; or regions of a fixed
+number of similarly modified somites&mdash;each
+tagma differing in the modification
+of its fixed number of somites
+from that characterizing a neighbouring
+&ldquo;tagma.&rdquo;  The most
+primitive among the lower Crustacea,
+on the other hand, for
+example, the Phyllopoda, have
+not a fixed number of somites, some genera&mdash;even allied
+species&mdash;have more, some less, within wide limits; they are &ldquo;anomomeristic.&rdquo; They also, as is generally the case
+with anomomeristic animals, do not exhibit any conformity
+to a fixed plan of &ldquo;tagmatism&rdquo; or division of the
+somites of the body into regions sharply marked off from one
+another; the head or prosomatic tagma is followed by a trunk consisting of somites which either graduate in character as we
+pass along the series or exhibit a large variety in different genera, families and orders, of grouping of the somites. They are
+anomotagmic, as well as anomomeristic.</p>
+
+<p>When it is admitted&mdash;as seems to be reasonable&mdash;that the
+primitive Arachnida would, like the primitive Crustacea, be
+anomomeristic and anomotagmic, we shall not demand of
+claimants for the rank of primitive Arachnids agreement with
+Limulus and Scorpio in respect of the exact number of their
+somites and the exact grouping of those somites; and when
+we see how diverse are the modifications of the branches of
+the appendages both in Arachnida and in other classes of
+Arthropoda (<i>q.v.</i>), we shall not over-estimate a difference
+in the form of this or that appendage exhibited by the claimant as compared with
+the higher Arachnids. With those considerations in mind, the
+claim of the extinct group of the trilobites to be considered
+as representatives of the lower and more primitive steps in the
+Arachnidan genealogy must, it seems, receive a favourable
+judgment. They differ from the Crustacea in that they have only
+a single pair of prae-oral appendages, the second pair being
+definitely developed as mandibles. This fact renders their
+association with the Crustacea impossible, if classification is
+to be the expression of genetic affinity inferred from structural
+coincidence. On the contrary, this particular point is one in
+which they agree with the higher Arachnida. But little is known
+of the structure of these extinct animals; we are therefore
+compelled to deal with such special points of resemblance and
+difference as their remains still exhibit. They had lateral eyes<a name="fa5m" id="fa5m" href="#ft5m"><span class="sp">5</span></a>
+which resemble no known eyes so closely as the lateral eyes of
+Limulus. The general form and structure of their prosomatic
+carapace are in many striking features identical with that of
+Limulus. The trilobation of the head and body&mdash;due to the
+expansion and flattening of the sides or &ldquo;pleura&rdquo; of the tegumentary
+skeleton&mdash;is so closely repeated in the young of Limulus
+that the latter has been called &ldquo;the trilobite stage&rdquo; of Limulus
+(fig. 42 compared with fig. 41). No Crustacean exhibits this
+trilobite form. But most important of the evidences presented
+by the trilobites of affinity with Limulus, and therefore with the
+Arachnida, is the tendency less marked in some, strongly carried
+out in others, to form a pygidial or telsonic shield&mdash;a fusion of
+the posterior somites of the body, which is precisely identical
+in character with the metasomatic carapace of Limulus. When
+to this is added the fact that a post-anal spine is developed to
+a large size in some trilobites (fig. 38), like that of Limulus and
+Scorpio, and that lateral spines on the pleura of the somites are
+frequent as in Limulus, and that neither metasomatic fusion
+of somites nor post-anal spine, nor lateral pleural spines are
+found in any Crustacean, nor all three together in any Arthropod
+besides the trilobites and Limulus&mdash;the claim of the trilobites
+to be considered as representing one order of a lower grade
+of Arachnida, comparable to the grade Entomostraca of the
+Crustacea, seems to be established.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that the single pair of prae-oral appendages of
+trilobites, known only as yet in one genus, is in that particular
+case a pair of uni-ramose antennae&mdash;does not render the association
+of trilobites and Arachnids improbable. Although the
+prae-oral pair of appendages in the higher Arachnida is usually
+chelate, it is not always so; in spiders it is not so; nor in many Acari.
+The bi-ramose structure of the post-oral limbs, demonstrated by
+Beecher in the trilobite Triarthrus, is no more inconsistent with
+its claim to be a primitive Arachnid than is the foliaceous
+modification of the limbs in Phyllopods inconsistent with
+their relationship to the Arthrostracous Crustaceans such as
+Gammarus and Oniscus.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, then, it seems that we have in the trilobites the representatives
+of the lower phases of the Arachnidan pedigree. The
+simple anomomeristic trilobite, with its equi-formal somites
+and equi-formal appendages, is one term of the series which
+ends in the even more simple but degenerate Acari. Between the
+two and at the highest point of the arc, so far as morphological
+differentiation is concerned, stands the scorpion; near to it in
+the trilobite&rsquo;s direction (that is, on the ascending side) are
+Limulus and the Eurypterines&mdash;with a long gap, due to obliteration
+of the record, separating them from the trilobite. On the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id="page299"></a>299</span>
+other side&mdash;tending downwards from the scorpion towards the
+Acari&mdash;are the Pedipalpi, the spiders, the book-scorpions, the
+harvest-men and the water-mites.</p>
+
+<p>The strange nobody-crabs or Pycnogonids occupy a place on
+the ascending half of the arc below the Eurypterines and Limulus.
+They are strangely modified and degenerate, but seem to be (as
+explained in the systematic review) the remnant of an Arachnidan
+group holding the same relation to the scorpions which the
+Laemodipoda hold to the Podophthalmate Crustacea.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="pt1">We have now to offer a classification of the Arachnida and
+to pass in review the larger groups, with a brief statement of
+their structural characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>In the bibliography at the close of this article (referred to by
+leaded arabic numerals in brackets throughout these pages),
+the titles of works are given which contain detailed information
+as to the genera and species of each order or sub-order, their
+geographical distribution and their habits and economy so far
+as they have been ascertained. The limits of space do not permit
+of a fuller treatment of those matters here.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">Tabular Classification<a name="fa6m" id="fa6m" href="#ft6m"><span class="sp">6</span></a> of the Arachnida.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="sc">Class</span>. ARACHNIDA.</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+
+<p><i>Grade A. ANOMOMERISTICA.</i></p>
+<p class="i2"><b>Sub-Class. TRILOBITAE.</b></p>
+<p class="i4">Orders. Not satisfactorily determined.</p>
+
+<p class="s"><i>Grade B. NOMOMERISTICA.</i></p>
+<p class="i2"><b>Sub-Class I. PANTOPODA.</b></p>
+<p class="i4"><b>Order 1. Nymphonomorpha.</b></p>
+<p class="i4"><b>Order 2. Ascorhynchomorpha.</b></p>
+<p class="i4"><b>Order 3. Pycnogonomorpha.</b></p>
+
+<p class="i2"><b>Sub-Class II. EU-ARACHNIDA.</b></p>
+<p class="i6">Grade <i>a</i>. <span class="sc">delobranchia</span>, Lankester (<i>vel</i> <span class="sc">hydropneustea</span>, Pocock).</p>
+<p class="i4"><b>Order 1. Xiphosura.</b></p>
+<p class="i4"><b>Order 2. Gigantostraca.</b></p>
+<p class="i6">Grade <i>b.</i> <span class="sc">embolobranchia</span>, Lankester (<i>vel</i> <span class="sc">aeropneustea</span>, Pocock).</p>
+<p class="i10"><i>Section &alpha;. Pectinifera.</i></p>
+<p class="i4"><b>Order 1. Scorpionidea.</b></p>
+<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>a.</i> Apoxypoda.</p>
+<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>b.</i> Dionychopoda.</p>
+<p class="i10">Section &beta;. Epectinata.</p>
+<p class="i4"><b>Order 2. Pedipalpi.</b></p>
+<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>a.</i> Uropygi.</p>
+<p class="i12">Tribe 1. Urotricha.</p>
+<p class="i12">Tribe 2. Tartarides.</p>
+<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>b.</i> Amblypygi.</p>
+<p class="i4"><b>Order 3. Araneae.</b></p>
+<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>a.</i> Mesothelae.</p>
+<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>b.</i> Opisthothelae.</p>
+<p class="i12">Tribe 1. Mygalomorphae.</p>
+<p class="i12">Tribe 2. Arachnomorphae.</p>
+<p class="i4"><b>Order 4. Palpigradi (= Microthelyphonidae).</b></p>
+<p class="i4"><b>Order 5. Solifugae (= Mycetophorae).</b></p>
+<p class="i4"><b>Order 6. Pseudoscorpiones (= Chelonethi).</b></p>
+<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>a.</i> Panctenodactyli.</p>
+<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>b.</i> Hemirtenodactyli.</p>
+<p class="i4"><b>Order 7. Podogona (= Ricinulel).</b></p>
+<p class="i4"><b>Order 8. Opiliones.</b></p>
+<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>a.</i> Laniatores.</p>
+<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>b.</i> Palpatores.</p>
+<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>c.</i> Anepignathi.</p>
+<p class="i4"><b>Order 9. Rhynchostomi (= Acari).</b></p>
+<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>a.</i> Notostigmata.</p>
+<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>b.</i> Cryptostigmata.</p>
+<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>c.</i> Metastigmata.</p>
+<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>d.</i> Prostigmata.</p>
+<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>e.</i> Astigmata.</p>
+<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>f.</i> Vermiformia.</p>
+<p class="i6">Sub-order <i>g.</i> Tetrapoda.</p>
+
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Class</span>. ARACHNIDA.&mdash;Euarthropoda having two prosthomeres
+(somites which have passed from a post-oral to a prae-oral
+position), the appendages of the first represented by eyes,
+of the second by solitary rami which are rarely antenniform,
+more usually chelate. A tendency is exhibited to the formation
+of a metasomatic as well as a prosomatic carapace by fusion
+of the tergal surfaces of the somites. Intermediate somites
+forming a mesosoma occur, but tend to fuse superficially with
+the metasomatic carapace or to become co-ordinated with the
+somites of the metasoma, whether fused or distinct to form
+one region, the opisthosoma (abdomen of authors). In the most
+highly developed forms the two anterior divisions (tagmata)
+of the body, prosoma and mesosoma, each exhibit six pairs of
+limbs, pediform and plate-like respectively, whilst the metasoma
+consists of six limbless somites and a post-anal spine. The genital
+apertures are placed in the first somite following the prosoma,
+excepting where a praegenital somite, usually suppressed, is retained.
+Little is known of the form of the appendages in the lowest archaic
+Arachnida, but the tendency of those of the prosomatic somites has
+been (as in the Crustacea) to pass from a generalized bi-ramose or
+multi-ramose form to that of uni-ramose antennae, chelae and walking legs.</p>
+
+<p>The Arachnida are divisible into two grades of structure&mdash;according
+to the fixity or non-fixity of the number of somites building up
+the body:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Grade A</i> (<i>of the Arachnida</i>). <i>ANOMOMERISTICA.</i>&mdash;Extinct
+archaic Arachnida, in which (as in the Entomostracous Crustacea)
+the number of well-developed somites may be more or less than
+eighteen and may be grouped only as head (prosoma) and trunk or
+may be further differentiated. A telsonic tergal shield of greater
+or less size is always present, which may be imperfectly divided into
+well-marked but immovable tergites indicating incompletely differentiated
+somites. The single pair of palpiform appendages in front
+of the mouth has been found in one instance to be antenniform,
+whilst the numerous post-oral appendages in the same genus were
+bi-ramose. The position of the genital apertures is not known.
+Compound lateral eyes present; median eyes wanting. The body
+and head have the two pleural regions of each somite flattened and
+expanded on either side of the true gut-holding body-axis. Hence
+the name of the sub-class signifying tri-lobed, a condition realized
+also in the Xiphosurous Arachnids. The members of this group,
+whilst resembling the lower Crustacea (as all lower groups of a
+branching genealogical tree must do), differ from them essentially
+in that the head exhibits only one prosthomere (in addition to the
+eye-bearing prosthomere) with palpiform appendages (as in all
+Arachnida) instead of two. The Anomomeristic Arachnida form a
+single sub-class, of which only imperfect fossil remains are known.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 420px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:325px; height:1081px" src="images/img300a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 34.&mdash;Restoration of <i>Triarthrus
+Becki</i>, Green, as determined by Beecher
+from specimens obtained from the Utica
+Slates (Ordovician), New York. A, dorsal;
+B, ventral surface. In the latter the single
+pair of antennae springing up from each
+side of the camerostome or hypostome or
+upper lip-lobe are seen. Four pairs of
+appendages besides these are seen to belong
+to the cephalic tergum. All the appendages
+are pediform and bi-ramose; all have
+a prominent gnathobase, and in all the
+exopodite carries a comb-like series of
+secondary processes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80"></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><b>Sub-class (of the Anomomeristica). TRILOBITAE.</b>&mdash;The single
+sub-class Trilobitae constitutes the grade Anomomeristica. It has
+been variously divided into orders by a number of writers. The
+greater or less evolution and specialization of the metasomatic
+carapace appears to be the most important basis for classification&mdash;but
+this has not been made use of in the latest attempts at drawing
+up a system of the Trilobites. The form of the middle and lateral
+regions of the prosomatic shield has been used, and an excessive
+importance attached to the demarcation of certain areas in that
+structure. Sutures are stated to mark off some of these pieces, but
+in the proper sense of that term as applied to the skeletal structures
+of the Vertebrata, no sutures exist in the chitinous cuticle of Arthropoda.
+That any partial fusion of originally distinct chitinous
+plates takes place in the cephalic shield of Trilobites, comparable
+to the partial fusion of bony pieces by suture in Vertebrata, is a
+suggestion contrary to fact.</p>
+
+<p>The Trilobites are known only as fossils, mostly Silurian and
+prae-Silurian; a few are found in Carboniferous and Permian strata.
+As many as two thousand species are known. Genera with small
+metasomatic carapace, consisting of three to six fused segments
+distinctly marked though not separated by soft membrane, are
+<i>Harpes</i>, <i>Paradoxides</i> and <i>Triarthrus</i> (fig. 34). In <i>Calymene</i>, <i>Homalonotus</i>
+and <i>Phacops</i> (fig. 38) from six to sixteen segments are clearly
+marked by ridges and grooves in the metasomatic tagma, whilst in
+<i>Illaenus</i> the shield so formed is large but no somites are marked out
+on its surface. In this genus ten free somites (mesosoma) occur
+between the prosomatic and metasomatic carapaces. <i>Asaphus</i>
+and <i>Megalaspis</i> (fig. 39) are similarly constituted. In <i>Agnostus</i>
+(fig. 40) the anterior and posterior carapaces constitute almost the
+entire body, the two carapaces being connected by a mid-region of
+only two free somites. It has been held that the forms with a small
+number of somites marked in the posterior carapace and numerous
+free somites between the anterior and posterior carapace, must be
+considered as anterior to those in which a great number of posterior
+somites are traceable in the metasomatic carapace, and that those
+in which the traces of distinct somites in the posterior or metasomatic
+carapace are most completely absent must be regarded as
+derived from those in which somites are well marked in the posterior
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page300" id="page300"></a>300</span>
+carapace and similar in appearance to the free somites. The genus
+<i>Agnostus</i>, which belongs to the last category, occurs abundantly in Cambrian strata and is
+one of the earliest forms
+known. This would
+lead to the supposition
+that the great development
+of metasomatic
+carapace is a primitive
+and not a late character,
+were it not for the fact
+that <i>Paradoxides</i> and
+<i>Atops</i>, with an inconspicuous
+telsonic carapace
+and numerous free
+somites, are also Cambrian
+in age, the latter
+indeed anterior in
+horizon to <i>Agnostus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand,
+it may well be doubted
+whether the pygidial or
+posterior carapace is
+primarily due to a fusion
+of the tergites of somites
+which were previously
+movable and well developed.
+The posterior
+carapace of the Trilobites
+and of <i>Limulus</i> is
+probably enough in
+origin a telsonic carapace&mdash;that
+is to say, is
+the tergum of the last
+segment of the body
+which carries the anus.
+From the front of this
+region new segments are
+produced in the first
+instance, and are added
+during growth to the
+existing series. This
+telson may enlarge, it
+may possibly even become
+internally and
+sternally developed as
+partially separate somites,
+and the tergum
+may remain without
+trace of somite formation,
+or, as appears to
+be the case in <i>Limulus</i>,
+the telson gives rise to
+a few well-marked somites
+(mesosoma and two
+others) and then enlarges
+without further
+trace of segmentation,
+whilst the chitinous
+integument which develops
+in increasing
+thickness on the terga
+as growth advances
+welds together the unsegmented
+telson and
+the somites in front of
+it, which were previously
+marked by
+separate tergal thickenings.
+It must always be
+remembered that we are
+liable (especially in the
+case of fossilized integuments)
+to attach an
+unwarranted interpretation
+to the mere
+discontinuity or continuity
+of the thickened
+plates of chitinous
+cuticle on the back of
+an Arthropod. These
+plates may fuse, and yet
+the somites to which
+they belong may remain
+distinct, and each have
+its pair of appendages
+well developed. On the other hand, an unusually large tergal plate,
+whether terminal or in the series, is not always due to fusion
+of the dorsal plates of once-separate somites, but is often a case
+of growth and enlargement of a single somite without formation
+of any trace of a new somite. For the literature of Trilobites see
+(<b>22*</b>).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:392px; height:222px" src="images/img300b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 35.&mdash;<i>Triarthrus Becki</i>, Green. <i>a</i>, Restored thoracic limbs in
+transverse section of the animal; <i>b</i>, section across a posterior
+somite; <i>c</i>, section across one of the sub-terminal somites.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(After Beecher.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" style="vertical-align: bottom;"><img style="width:163px; height:145px" src="images/img300c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:199px; height:234px" src="images/img300d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 36.&mdash;<i>Triarthrus Becki</i>, Green.
+Dorsal view of second thoracic leg
+with and without setae. <i>en</i>, Inner
+ramus; <i>ex</i>, Outer ramus.</td>
+<td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 37.&mdash;<i>Deiphon Forbesii</i>,
+Barr. One of the Cheiruridae.
+Silurian Bohemia.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80">(After Beecher.)</td>
+<td class="caption80">(From Zittel&rsquo;s Palaeontology.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" style="vertical-align: bottom;"><img style="width:162px; height:352px" src="images/img300e.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:191px; height:392px" src="images/img300f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 38.&mdash;<i>Dalmanites
+Kmulurus</i>, Green. One of
+the <i>Phacopidae</i>, from the
+Silurian, New York.</td>
+<td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 39.&mdash;<i>Megalaspis extenuatus</i>.
+One of the <i>Asaphidae</i> allied to
+<i>Illaenus</i>, from the Ordovician of
+East Gothland, Sweden.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From Zittel.)</td>
+<td class="caption80">(From Zittel.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Grade B</i> (<i>of the Aracknida</i>) <i>NOMOMERISTICA.</i>&mdash;Arachnida
+in which, excluding from consideration the eye-bearing prosthomere,
+the somites are primarily (that is to say, in the common
+ancestor of the grade) grouped in three regions of six&mdash;(<i>a</i>) the
+&ldquo;prosoma&rdquo; with palpiform appendages, (<i>b</i>) the &ldquo;mesosoma&rdquo; with
+plate-like appendages, and (<i>c</i>) the &ldquo;metasoma&rdquo; with suppressed
+appendages. A somite placed between the prosoma and mesosoma
+&mdash;the prae-genital somite&mdash;appears to have belonged originally to
+the prosomatic series (which with its ocular prosthomere and palpiform
+limbs [Pantopoda], would thus consist of eight somites), but
+to have been gradually reduced. In living Arachnids, excepting
+the Pantopoda, it is either fused (with loss of its appendages) with
+the prosoma (<i>Limulus</i>,<a name="fa7m" id="fa7m" href="#ft7m"><span class="sp">7</span></a> <i>Scorpio</i>), after embryonic appearance, or is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page301" id="page301"></a>301</span>
+retained as a rudimentary, separate, detached somite in front of the
+mesosoma, or disappears altogether (excalation). The atrophy
+and total disappearance of ancestrally well-marked somites frequently
+take place (as in all Arthropoda) at the posterior extremity
+of the body, whilst excalation of somites may occur at the constricted
+areas which often separate adjacent &ldquo;regions,&rdquo; though there are
+very few instances in
+which it has been recognized.
+Concentration of
+the organ-systems by
+fusion of neighbouring
+regions (prosoma, mesosoma,
+metasoma), previously
+distinct, has
+frequently occurred,
+together with obliteration
+of the muscular
+and chitinous structures
+indicative of distinct
+somites. This concentration
+and obliteration of
+somites, often accompanied
+by dislocation
+of important segmental
+structures (such as appendages
+and nerve-ganglia),
+may lead to
+highly developed specialization
+(individuation,
+H. Spencer), as in the
+Araneae and Opiliones,
+and, on the other hand,
+may terminate in simplification
+and degeneration,
+as in the Acari.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:301px; height:190px" src="images/img301a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="f90"><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 40.&mdash;Four stages in
+the development of the
+trilobite <i>Agnostus nudus</i>.
+A, Youngest stage with
+no mesosomatic somites;
+B and C, stages with two
+mesosomatic somites between
+the prosomatic and
+telsonic carapaces; D,
+adult condition, still with
+only two free mesosomatic
+somites.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From Korschelt and Heider.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="3"><img style="width:315px; height:325px" src="images/img301b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="caption80"><br /><br />From Korschelt and Heider, after Barrande.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 41.&mdash;Five Stages in the development of the trilobite <i>Sao hirsuta</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90">
+<p>A, Youngest stage.</p>
+<p>B, Older stage with distinct pygidial carapace.</p>
+<p>C, Stage with two free mesosomatic somites between the prosomatic and telsonic carapaces.</p>
+<p>D, Stace with seven free intermediate somites.</p>
+<p>E, Stave with twelve free somites; the telsonic carapace has not increased in size.</p>
+<p><i>a</i>, Lateral eye.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, So-called facial &ldquo;suture&rdquo; (not really a suture).</p>
+<p><i>p</i>, Telsonic carapace.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:300px; height:180px" src="images/img301c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="caption"><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 42.&mdash;So-called
+&ldquo;trilobite stage&rdquo; of
+<i>Limulus polyphemus</i>.
+A, Dorsal; B, ventral
+view.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(from Korschelt and Heider,
+after Leuckart.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The most important
+general change which
+has affected the structure
+of the nomomeristic
+Arachnida in the course
+of their historic development
+is the transition
+from an aquatic to a
+terrestrial life. This has
+been accompanied by
+the conversion of the
+lamelliform gill-plates into lamelliform lung-plates, and later the
+development from the lung-chambers, and at independent sites,
+of tracheae or air-tubes (by adaptation of the vasifactive tissue of
+the blood-vessels) similar to those independently developed in
+<i>Peripatus</i>, Diplopoda, Hexapoda and Chilopoda. Probably tracheae
+have developed independently by the same process in several groups
+of tracheate Arachnids. The nomomeristic Arachnids comprise two
+sub-classes&mdash;one a very small degenerate offshoot from early ancestors;
+the other, the great bulk of the class.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sub-Class I. (of the Nomomeristica). PANTOPODA.</b>&mdash;Nomomeristic
+Arachnids, in which the somites corresponding to mesosoma
+and metasoma have entirely aborted. The seventh, and sometimes
+the eighth, leg-bearing somite is present and has its leg-like
+appendages fully developed. Monomeniscous eyes with a double (really
+triple) cell-layer formed by invagination, as in the Eu-arachnida,
+are present The Pantopoda stand in the same relation to <i>Limulus</i>
+and <i>Scorpio</i> that <i>Cyamus</i> holds to the thoracostracous Crustacea.
+The reduction of the organism to seven leg-bearing somites, of which
+the first pair, as in so many Eu-arachnida, are chelate, is a form of
+degeneration connected with a peculiar quasi-parasitic habit resembling
+that of the crustacean Laemodipoda. The genital pores
+are situate at the base of the 7th pair of limbs, and may be repeated
+on the 4th, 5th, and 6th. In all known Pantopoda the size of the
+body is quite minute as compared with that of the limbs: the alimentary
+canal sends a long caecum into each leg (cf. the Araneae)
+and the genital products are developed in gonocoels also placed in
+the legs.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:454px; height:271px" src="images/img301d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Parker and Harwell&rsquo;s <i>Text-book of Zoology</i>, after Hoek.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 43.&mdash;One of the Nymphonomorphous Pantopoda, <i>Nymphon
+hispidum</i>, showing the seven pairs of appendages 1 to 7; <i>ab</i>, the
+rudimentary opisthosoma; <i>s</i>, the mouth-bearing proboscis.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The Pantopoda are divided into three orders, the characters of
+which are dependent on variation in the presence of the full number
+of legs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Order 1. (of the Pantopoda). Nymphonomorpha,</b> Pocock (nov.)
+(fig. 43).&mdash;In primitive forms belonging to the family <i>Nymphonidae</i>
+the full complement of appendages is retained&mdash;the 1st (mandibular),
+the 2nd (palpiform), and the 3rd (ovigerous) pairs being well developed in both sexes. In certain derivative forms constituting
+the family <i>Pallenidae</i>, however, the appendages of the 2nd pair
+are either rudimentary or atrophied altogether.</p>
+
+<p>Two families: 1. Nymphonidae (genus <i>Nymphon</i>), and 2. Pallenidae
+(genus <i>Pallene</i>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Order 2. Ascorhynchomorpha,</b> Pocock (nov.).&mdash;Appendages of
+the 2nd and 3rd pairs retained and developed, as in the more primitive
+types of Nymphonomorpha; but those of the 1st pair are either
+rudimentary, as in the <i>Ascorhynchidae</i>, or atrophied, as in the
+<i>Colossendeidae</i>. In the latter a further specialization is shown in
+the fusion of the body segments.</p>
+
+<p>Two families. 1. Ascorhynchidae (genera <i>Ascorhynchus</i> and
+<i>Ammothea</i>); 2. Colossendeidae (genera <i>Colossendeis</i> and <i>Discoarachne</i>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Order 3. Pycnogonomorpha,</b> Pocock (nov.).&mdash;Derivative forms in
+which the reduction in number of the anterior appendages is carried
+farther than in the other orders, reaching its extreme in the <i>Pycnogonidae</i>,
+where the 1st and 2nd pairs are absent in both sexes, and the 3rd pair
+also are absent in the female. In the <i>Hannoniidae</i>,
+however, which resemble the <i>Pycnogonidae</i> in the absence of the
+3rd pair in the female and of the 2nd pair in both sexes, the 1st pair
+are retained in both sexes.</p>
+
+<p>Two families: 1. Hannoniidae (genus <i>Hannonia</i>); 2. Pycnogonidae
+(genera <i>Pycnogonum</i> and <i>Phoxichilus</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The Pantopoda are not known in the fossil condition.
+They are entirely marine, and are not uncommon in the coralline
+zone of the sea-coast. The species are few, not more than fifty (23).
+Some large species of peculiar genera are taken at great depths.
+Their movements are extremely sluggish. They are especially
+remarkable for the small size of the body and the extension of
+viscera into the legs. Their structure is eminently that of degenerate
+forms. Many frequent growths of coralline Algae and hydroid
+polyps, upon the juices of which they feed, and in some cases a
+species of gall is produced in hydroids by the penetration of the
+larval Pantopod into the tissues of the polyp.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sub-Class II. (of the Nomomeristic Arachnida). EU-ARACHNIDA.</b>&mdash;These
+start from highly developed and specialized aquatic
+branchiferous forms, exhibiting a prosoma with six pediform pairs of
+appendages, an intermediate prae-genital somite, a mesosoma of six
+somites bearing lamelliform pairs of appendages, and a metasoma
+of six somites devoid of appendages, and the last provided with
+a post-anal spine. Median eyes are present, which are monomeniscous,
+with distinct retinal and corneagenous cell-layers, and
+placed centrally on the prosoma. Lateral eyes also may be
+present, arranged in lateral groups, and having a single or double
+cell-layer beneath the lens. The first pair of limbs is often
+chelate or prehensile, rarely antenniform; whilst the second, third
+and fourth may also be chelate, or may be simple palps or walking
+legs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page302" id="page302"></a>302</span></p>
+
+<p>An internal skeletal plate, the so-called &ldquo;entosternite&rdquo; of fibro-cartilaginous
+tissue, to which many muscles are attached, is placed
+between the nerve-cords and the alimentary tract in the prosoma
+of the larger forms (<i>Limulus</i>, <i>Scorpio</i>, <i>Mygale</i>). In the same and
+other leading forms a pair of much-coiled glandular tubes, the coxal
+glands (coelomocoels in origin), is found with a duct opening on the
+coxa of the fifth pair of appendages of the prosoma. The vascular
+system is highly developed (in the non-degenerate forms); large
+arterial branches closely accompany or envelop the chief nerves;
+capillaries are well developed. The blood-corpuscles are large amoebiform
+cells, and the blood-plasma is coloured blue by haemocyanin.</p>
+
+<p>The alimentary canal is uncoiled and cylindrical, and gives rise
+laterally to large gastric glands, which are more than a single pair
+in number (two to six pairs), and may assume the form of simple
+caeca. The mouth is minute and the pharynx is always suctorial,
+never gizzard-like. The gonadial tubes (gonocoels or gonadial
+coelom) are originally reticular and paired, though they may be
+reduced to a simpler condition. They open on the first somite of
+the mesosoma. In the numerous degenerate forms simplification
+occurs by obliteration of the demarcations of somites and the
+fusion of body-regions, together with a gradual suppression of the
+lamelliferous respiratory organs and the substitution for them of
+tracheae, which, in their turn, in the smaller and most reduced
+members of the group, may also disappear.</p>
+
+<p>The Eu-arachnida are divided into two grades with reference to
+the condition of the respiratory organs as adapted to aquatic or
+terrestrial life.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">Grade <i>a</i> (of the Eu-arachnida). <span class="sc">delobranchia</span>
+(Hydropheustea).</p>
+
+<p>Mesosomatic segments furnished with large plate-like appendages,
+the 1st pair acting as the genital operculum, the remaining pairs
+being provided with branchial lamellae fitted for breathing oxygen
+dissolved in water. The prae-genital somite partially or wholly
+obliterated in the adult. The mouth lying far back, so that the
+basal segments of all the prosomatic appendages, excepting those
+of the 1st pair, are capable of acting as masticatory organs. Lateral
+eyes consisting of a densely packed group of eye-units (&ldquo;compound&rdquo;
+eyes).</p>
+
+<p><b>ORDER 1. XIPHOSURA.</b>&mdash;The prae-genital somite fuses in the
+embryo with the prosoma and disappears (see fig. 19). Not
+free-swimming,
+none of the prosomatic appendages modified to act as
+paddles; segments of the mesosoma and metasoma (= opisthosoma)
+not more than ten in number, distinct or coalesced.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+  <p>Family&mdash;Limulidae (<i>Limulus</i>).</p>
+  <p>&emsp;&rdquo; &emsp; *Belinuridae (<i>Belinurus</i>, <i>Aglaspis</i>, <i>Prestwichia</i>).</p>
+  <p>&emsp;&rdquo; &emsp; *Hemiaspidae (<i>Hemiaspis</i>, <i>Bunodes</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:280px; height:529px" src="images/img302a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="caption"><br /><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 44.&mdash;Dorsal view
+of <i>Limulus polyphemus</i>,
+Latr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From Parker and Haswell,
+<i>Text book of Zoology</i> after
+Leuckart.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Remarks</i>.-The Xiphosura are marine in habit, frequenting the
+shore. They are represented at the present day by the single genus
+<i>Limulus</i> (figs. 44 and 45; also figs. 7, 9, 11, to 15 and 20), often
+termed the king-crab, which occurs on the American coast of the
+Atlantic Ocean, but not on its eastern coasts, and on the Asiatic coast
+of the Pacific. The Atlantic species (<i>L. polyphemus</i>) is common on
+the coasts of the United States, and is known as the king-crab or
+horse-shoe crab. A single specimen was found in the harbour of
+Copenhagen in the 18th century, having presumably been carried
+over by a ship to which it clung.</p>
+
+<p>A species of <i>Limulus</i> is found in the Buntersandstein of the
+Vosges; <i>L. Walchi</i> is abundant in the Oolitic lithographic slates of
+Bavaria.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="3"><img style="width:342px; height:530px" src="images/img302b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="caption"><br /><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 45.&mdash;Ventral
+view of <i>Limulus polyphemus</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90">
+<p>1 to 6, The six prosomatic
+pairs of appendages.</p>
+
+<p><i>abd</i>, the solid opisthosomatic
+carapace.</p>
+
+<p><i>tels</i>, the post-anal spine
+(not the telson as the
+lettering would seem
+to imply, but only
+its post-anal portion).</p>
+
+<p><i>operc</i>, the fused first
+pair of mesosomatic
+appendages forming
+the genital operculum.</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From Parker and Haswell,
+<i>Text book of Zoology</i>, after
+Leuckart.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The genera <i>Belinurus</i>, <i>Aglaspis</i>, <i>Prestwichia</i>, <i>Hemiaspis</i> and
+<i>Bunodes</i> consist of small forms which occur in Palaeozoic rocks.
+In none of them are the appendages known, but in the form of the
+two carapaces and the presence of free somites they are distinctly
+intermediate between <i>Limulus</i> and the Trilobitae. The young form
+of <i>Limulus</i> itself (fig. 40) is also similar to a Trilobite so far as its
+segmentation and trilobation are concerned. The lateral eyes of
+<i>Limulus</i> appear to be identical in structure and position with those
+of certain Trilobitae.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:372px; height:589px" src="images/img302c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="f90"><br /><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 46.&mdash;<i>Eurypterus
+Fischeri</i>,
+Eichwald. Silurian
+of Rootzikil.
+Restoration after
+Schmidt. The
+dorsal aspect is
+presented showing
+the prosomatic
+shield with paired
+compound eyes
+and the prosomatic
+appendages
+II. to VI. The
+small first pair of
+appendages is concealed
+from view
+by the carapace,
+1 to 12 are the
+somites of the
+opisthosoma; 13,
+the post-anal
+spine.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From Zittel&rsquo;s <i>Text-book
+of Palaeontology</i>,
+The Macmillan Co,
+New York, 1896.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><b>Order 2. Gigantostraca</b> (figs. 46, 47).&mdash;Free-swimming forms, with
+the appendages of the 6th or 5th and 6th pairs flattened or lengthened
+to act as oars; segments of mesosoma and metasoma (= opisthosoma),
+twelve in number.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page303" id="page303"></a>303</span></p>
+
+<p class="noind">Appendages of anterior pair very large and chelate.</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>Sub-order Pterygotomorpha, Pterygotidae (<i>Pterygotus</i>).</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Appendages of anterior pair minute and chelate.</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+
+<p>Sub-order Eurypteromorpha</p>
+
+<p class="i6">Stylonuridae (<i>Stylonurus</i>).</p>
+<p class="i6">Eurypteridae (<i>Eurypterus</i>, <i>Slimonia</i>).</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:447px; height:450px" src="images/img303a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">From Zittel&rsquo;s <i>Palaeontology</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 47.&mdash;<i>Pterygotus osiliensis</i>, Schmidt. Silurian of Rootzikil.
+Restoration of the ventral surface, about a third natural size, after
+Schmidt.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>a</i>, Camerostome or epistoma.</p>
+<p><i>m</i>, Chilarium or metasternite of the prosoma (so-called metastoma).</p>
+<p><i>oc</i>, The compound eyes.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>1 to 8, Segments of the sixth prosomatic appendage.</p>
+<p>I&prime; to V&prime;, First five opisthosomatic somites.</p>
+<p>7&prime;, Sixth opisthosomatic somite.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2">[Observe the powerful gnathobases of the sixth pair of prosomatic
+limbs and the median plates behind <i>m</i>. The dotted line on somite I
+indicates the position of the genital operculum which was probably
+provided with branchial lamellae.]</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The Gigantostraca are frequently spoken of as &ldquo;the
+Eurypterines.&rdquo; Not more than thirty species are known. They
+became extinct in Palaeozoic times, and are chiefly found in the
+Upper Silurian, though extending upwards as far as the Carboniferous.
+They may be regarded as &ldquo;macrourous&rdquo; Xiphosura; that
+is to say, Xiphosura in which the nomomeristic number of eighteen
+well-developed somites is present and the posterior ones form a long
+tail-like region of the body. There still appears to be some doubt
+whether in the sub-order Eurypteromorpha the first pair of prosomatic
+appendages (fig. 46) is atrophied, or whether, if present, it has
+the form of a pair of tactile palps or of minute chelae. Though there
+are indications of lamelliform respiratory appendages on mesosomatic
+somites following that bearing the genital operculum, we
+cannot be said to have any proper knowledge as to such appendages,
+and further evidence with regard to them is much to be desired.
+(For literature see Zittel, <b>22*</b>.)</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">Grade <i>b</i> (of the Eu-arachnida). <span class="scs">EMBOLOBRANCHIA</span>
+(Aeropneustea).</p>
+
+<p>In primitive forms the respiratory lamellae of the appendages of
+the 3rd, 4th, 5th and eth, or of the 1st and 2nd mesosomatic somites
+are sunk beneath the surface of the body, and become adapted to
+breathe atmospheric oxygen, forming the leaves of the so-called
+lung-books. In specialized forms these pulmonary sacs are wholly
+or partly replaced by tracheal tubes. The appendages of the mesosoma
+generally suppressed; in the more primitive forms one or two
+pairs may be retained as organs subservient to reproduction or silk-spinning.
+Mouth situated more forwards than in Delobranchia, no
+share in mastication being taken by the basal segments of the 5th
+and 6th pairs of prosomatic appendages. Lateral eyes, when present,
+represented by separate ocelli.</p>
+
+<p>The prae-genital somite, after appearing in the embryo, either is
+obliterated (<i>Scorpio, Galeodes, Opilio</i>and others) or is retained as
+a reduced narrow region of the body, the &ldquo;waist,&rdquo; between prosoma
+and mesosoma. It is represented by a full-sized tergal plate in the
+Pseudo-scorpiones.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:230px; height:470px" src="images/img303b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">Restored after Thorell&rsquo;s indications
+by R.I. Pocock.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 48.&mdash;Dorsal view of a
+restoration of <i>Palaeophonus
+nuncius</i>, Thorell. The Silurian
+scorpion from Gothland.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Section &alpha;. <i>Pectinifera.</i>&mdash;The primitive distinction between the
+mesosoma and the metasoma retained, the latter consisting of six
+somites and the former of six somites in the adult, each of which
+is furnished during growth with a pair of appendages. Including
+the prae-genital somite (fig. 16), which is suppressed in the adult,
+there are thirteen somites behind the prosoma. The appendages of
+the 1st and 2nd mesosomatic somites persisting as the genital operculum
+and pectones respectively, those of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and
+6th somites (? in <i>Palaeophonus</i>) sinking below the surface during
+growth in connexion with the formation
+of the four pairs of pulmonary
+sacs (see fig. 17). Lateral eyes
+monostichous.</p>
+
+<p><b>Order 1. Scorpiones.</b>&mdash;Prosoma
+covered by a single dorsal shield,
+bearing typically median and lateral
+eyes; its sternal elements reduced
+to a single plate lodged between or
+behind the basal segments of the
+5th and 6th pairs of appendages.
+Appendages of 1st pair tri-segmented,
+chelate; of 2nd pair chelate, with
+their basal segments subserving
+mastication; of 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th
+pairs similar in form and function,
+except that in recent and Carboniferous
+forms the basal segments of
+the 3rd and 4th are provided with
+sterno-coxal (maxillary) lobes, those
+of the 4th pair meeting in the middle
+line and underlying the mouth. The
+five posterior somites of the metasoma
+constricted to form a &ldquo;tail,&rdquo;
+the post-anal sclerite persisting as a
+weapon of offence and provided with
+a pair of poison glands (see figs. 8,
+10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 21 and 22).</p>
+
+<p>Sub-order Apoxypoda.&mdash;The 3rd,
+4th, 5th and 6th pairs of appendages
+short, stout, tapering, the
+segments about as wide as long,
+except the apical, which is distally
+slender, pointed, slightly curved,
+and without distinct movable claws.</p>
+
+<p>Family&mdash;Palaeophonidae, <i>Palaeophonus</i>
+(figs. 48 and 49).</p>
+
+<p>Sub-order Dionychopoda.&mdash;The 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs of
+appendages slender, not evenly tapering, the segments longer than
+wide; the apical segment short, distally truncate, and provided with
+a pair of movable claws. Basal segments of the 5th and 6th pairs
+of appendages abutting against the sternum of the prosoma (see
+fig. 10 and figs. 51, 52 and 53).</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+  <p>Family&mdash;Pandinidae (<i>Pandinus, Opisthophthalmus, Urodacus</i>).</p>
+  <p>&emsp;&rdquo; &emsp; Vejovidae (<i>Vaejovis, Jurus, Euscorpius, Broteas</i>).</p>
+  <p>&emsp;&rdquo; &emsp; Bothriuridae (<i>Bothriurus, Cercophonius</i>).</p>
+  <p>&emsp;&rdquo; &emsp; Buthidae (<i>Buthus, Centrums</i>).</p>
+  <p>&emsp;&rdquo; &emsp; *Cyclophthalmidae (<i>Cydophthalmus</i>)&emsp;&emsp;Carboniferous.</p>
+  <p>&emsp;&rdquo; &emsp; *Eoscorpiidae (<i>Eoscorpius, Centromachus</i>)&emsp;&emsp;Carboniferous.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:246px; height:431px" src="images/img303c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="f90"><br /><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 49.&mdash;Ventral view of
+a restoration of <i>Palaeophonus
+Hunteri</i>, Pocock, the Silurian
+scorpion from Lesmahagow,
+Scotland. Restored by R.I.
+Pocock. The meeting of the
+coxae of all the prosomatic
+limbs in front of the pentagonal
+sternum; the space for
+a genital operculum; the pair
+of pectens, and the absence
+of any evidence of pulmonary
+stigmata are noticeable in this
+specimen.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(See Pocock, <i>Quart Jour. Micr.
+Sci.</i>, 1901.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Remarks on the Order Scorpiones.</i>&mdash;The Scorpion is one of the
+great animals of ancient lore and tradition. It and the crab are
+the only two invertebrates which had impressed the minds of early
+men sufficiently to be raised to the dignity of astronomical representation.
+It is all the more remarkable that the scorpion proves to be
+the oldest animal form of high elaboration which has persisted to
+the present day. In the Upper Silurian two specimens of a scorpion
+have been found (figs. 48, 49), one in Gothland and one in Scotland,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page304" id="page304"></a>304</span>
+which would be recognized at once as true scorpions by a child or a
+savage. The Silurian scorpion <i>Palaeophonus</i>, differs, so far as obvious
+points are concerned, from a modern scorpion only in the thickness
+of its legs and in their terminating in strong spike-like joints, instead
+of being slight and provided with a pair of terminal claws. The legs
+of the modern scorpion (fig. 10; fig. 51) are those of a terrestrial
+Arthropod, such as a beetle; whilst those of the Silurian scorpion
+are the legs of an aquatic Arthropod, such as a crab or lobster. It
+is probable that the Silurian scorpion was an aquatic animal, and
+that its respiratory lamellae were still projecting from the surface
+of the body to serve as branchiae. No trace of &ldquo;stigmata,&rdquo; the
+orifices of the lung-chambers of modern scorpions, can be found in
+the Scottish specimen of <i>Palaeophonus</i>, which presents the ventral
+surface of the animal to view. On the other hand, no trace of respiratory
+appendages excepting the pectens can be detected in the
+specimen (see fig. 49).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:299px; height:446px" src="images/img304a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="f90"><br /><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 50.&mdash;Comparison of
+the sixth prosomatic limb
+of a recent scorpion (B), of
+Palaeophonus (C), and of
+Limulus (A), showing their
+agreement in the number
+of segments; in the existence
+of a movable spine,
+Sp, at the distal border of
+the fifth segment; in the
+correspondence of the two
+claws at the free end of the
+limb of Scorpio with two
+spines similarly placed in
+Limulus; and, lastly, in
+the correspondence of the
+three talon-like spines carried
+on the distal margin
+of segment six of recent
+scorpions with the four
+larger but similarly situated
+spines on the leg of Limulus;
+<i>s</i>, groove dividing the ankylosed
+segments 4 and 5 of
+the Limulus leg into two.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(After Pocock, <i>Q. J. Mic. Sci.</i>, 1901.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:449px; height:314px" src="images/img304b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Lankester, <i>Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool</i>. vol. xvi., 1881.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 51.&mdash;Drawing from life of the desert scorpion, <i>Buthusaustralis</i>,
+Lin., from Biskra, N. Africa.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Fossil scorpions of the modern type are found in the Coal Measures.
+At the present day scorpions of various genera are found in all the
+warm regions of the world. In Europe they occur as far north as
+Bavaria and the south of France. The largest species measure 9 in.
+from the front of the head to the end of the sting, and occur in
+tropical India and Africa. Between 200 and 300 species are known.
+The scorpions use their large chelae for seizing prey and for fighting
+with one another. They never use the sting when (as frequently
+happens) they attack another scorpion, because, as was ascertained
+by A.G. Bourne (<b>24</b>), the poison exuded by the sting has no injurious
+effect on another scorpion nor on the scorpion itself. The
+stories of a scorpion stinging itself to death when placed in a circle
+of burning coals are due to erroneous observation. When placed in
+such a position the scorpion faints and becomes inert. It is found
+(Bourne, <b>24</b>) that some species of scorpion faint at a temperature
+of 40° Cent. They recover on being removed to cooler conditions.
+A scorpion having seized its prey (usually a large insect, or small
+reptile or mammal) with the large chelae brings its tail over its head,
+and deliberately punctures the struggling victim twice with its sting
+(fig. 52). The poison of the sting is similar to snake-poison
+(Calmette), and rapidly paralyses animals which are not immune
+to it. It is probably only sickly adults or young children of the
+human race who can be actually killed by a scorpion&rsquo;s sting. When
+the scorpion has paralysed its prey in this way, the two short chelicerae
+are brought into play (fig. 53). By the crushing action of their
+pincers, and an alternate backward and forward movement, they
+bring the soft blood-holding tissues of the victim close to the
+minute pin-hole aperture which is the scorpion&rsquo;s mouth. The
+muscles acting on the bulb-like pharynx now set up a pumping
+action (see Huxley, <b>26</b>); and the juices&mdash;but no solid
+matter, excepting such as is reduced to
+powder&mdash;are sucked into the scorpion&rsquo;s
+alimentary canal. A scorpion appears to
+prefer for its food another scorpion, and
+will suck out the juices of an individual as
+large as itself. When this has taken
+place, the gorged scorpion becomes
+distended and tense in the mesosomatic
+region. It is certain that the absorbed
+juices do not occupy the alimentary
+canal alone, but pass also into its caecal
+off-sets which are the ducts of the
+gastric glands (see fig. 33).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:246px; height:130px" src="images/img304c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:185px; height:338px" src="images/img304d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80">From Lankester, <i>Journ. Linn. Soc.</i></td>
+<td class="caption80">From Lankester, <i>Journ. Linn. Soc.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 52.&mdash;Drawing from life of the
+Italian scorpion <i>Euscorpius italicus</i>,
+Herbst, holding a blue-bottle fly with its
+left chela, and carefully piercing it between
+head and thorax with its sting.
+Two insertions of the sting are effected
+and the fly is instantly paralysed by the
+poison so introduced into its body.</td>
+<td class="f90" style="vertical-align: top;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 53.&mdash;The same
+scorpion carrying the
+now paralysed fly held
+in its chelicerae, the
+chelae liberated for
+attack and defence.
+Drawn from life.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>All Arachnida, including <i>Limulus</i>, feed by suctorial action in
+essentially the same way as <i>Scorpio</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Scorpions of various species have been observed to make a hissing
+noise when disturbed, or even when not disturbed. The sound is
+produced by stridulating organs developed on the basal joints of
+the limbs, which differ in position and character in different genera
+(see Pocock, <b>27</b>). Scorpions copulate with the ventral surfaces in
+contact. The eggs are fertilized, practically in the ovary, and develop
+<i>in situ</i>. The young are born fully formed and are carried by
+the mother on her back. As many as thirty have been counted in
+a brood. For information as to the embryology of scorpions, the
+reader is referred to the works named in the bibliography below.
+Scorpions do not possess spinning organs nor form either snares or
+nests, so far as is known. But some species inhabiting sandy deserts
+form extensive burrows. The fifth pair of prosomatic appendages
+is used by these scorpions when burrowing, to kick back the sand as
+the burrow is excavated by the great chelae.</p>
+
+<p>References to works dealing with the taxonomy and geographical
+distribution of scorpions are given at the end of this article (<b>28</b>).</p>
+
+<p>Section &beta;. <i>Epectinata.</i>&mdash;The primitive distinction between the
+mesosoma and the metasoma wholly or almost wholly obliterated,
+the two regions uniting to form an opisthosoma, which never consists
+of more than twelve somites and never bears appendages or breathing-organs
+behind the 4th somite. The breathing-organs of the
+opisthosoma, when present, represented by two pairs of stigmata,
+opening either upon the 1st and 2nd (Pedipalpi) or the 2nd and 3rd
+somites (Solifugae, Pseudo-scorpiones), or by a single pair upon the
+3rd (? 2nd) somite (Opiliones) of the opisthosoma, there being rarely
+an additional stigma on the 4th (some Solifugae). The appendages
+of the 2nd somite of the opisthosoma absent, rarely minute and bud-like
+(some Amblypygi), never pectiniform. A prae-genital somite
+is often present either in a reduced condition forming a waist (Pedipalpi,
+Araneae, Palpigradi) or as a full-sized tergal plate (Pseudo-scorpiones);
+in some it is entirely atrophied (Solifugae, Holosomata,
+and Rhynchostomi). Lateral eyes when present diplostichous.</p>
+
+<p><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The Epectinate Arachnids do not stand so close to the
+aquatic ancestors of the Embolobranchia as do the Pectiniferous
+scorpions. At the same time we are not justified in supposing that
+the scorpions stand in any way as an intermediate grade between
+any of the existing Epectinata and the Delobranchia. It is probable
+that the Pedipalpi, Araneae, and Podogona have been separately
+evolved as distinct lines of descent from the ancient aquatic Arachnida.
+The Holosomata and Rhynchostomi are probably offshoots
+from the stem of the Araneae, and it is not unlikely (in view of the
+structure of the prosomatic somites of the Tartarides) that the
+Solifugae are connected in origin with the Pedipalpi. The appearance
+of tracheae in place of lung-sacs cannot be regarded as a starting-point
+for a new line of descent comprising all the tracheate forms;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page305" id="page305"></a>305</span>
+tracheae seem to have developed independently in different lines of
+descent. On the whole, the Epectinata are highly specialized and
+degenerate forms, though there are few, if any, animals which
+surpass the spiders in rapidity of movement, deadliness of attack
+and constructive instincts.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:403px; height:482px" src="images/img305a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">From Lankester, <i>Q. J. Mic. Sci.</i> N.S. <i>vol</i>. xxi., 1881.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 54.&mdash;<i>Thelyphonus</i>, one of the Pedipalpi.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>A, Ventral view.</p>
+<p>I, Chelicera (detached).</p>
+<p>II, Chelae.</p>
+<p>III, Palpiform limb.</p>
+<p>IV to VI, The walking legs.</p>
+<p><i>stc</i>, Sterno-coxal process (gnathobase) of the chelae.</p>
+<p><i>st</i><span class="sp">1</span>, Anterior sternal plate of the prosoma.</p>
+<p><i>st</i><span class="sp">2</span>, Posterior sternal plate of the prosoma.</p>
+<p><i>pregen</i>, Position of the prae-genital somite (not seen).</p>
+<p><i>l, l</i>, Position of the two pulmonary sacs of the right side.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>1 to 11, Somites of the opisthosoma (mesosoma plus metasoma).</p>
+<p><i>msg</i>, Stigmata of the tergo-sternal muscles.</p>
+<p><i>an</i>, Anus.</p>
+<p>B, Dorsal view of the opisthosoma of the same.</p>
+<p><i>pregen</i>, The prae-genital somite.</p>
+<p><i>p</i>, The tergal stigmata of the tergo-sternal muscles.</p>
+<p><i>paf</i>, Post-anal segmented filament corresponding to the
+  post-anal spine of Limulus.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt1"><b>Order 2. Pedipalpi</b> (figs. 54 to 59).&mdash;Appendages of 1st pair
+bisegmented, without poison gland; of 2nd pair prehensile, their
+basal segments underlying the proboscis, and furnished with sterno-coxal
+(maxillary) process, the apical segment tipped with a single
+movable or immovable claw; appendages of 3rd pair different from
+the remainder, tactile in function, with at least the apical segment
+many-jointed and clawless. The ventral surface of the prosoma
+bears prosternal, metasternal and usually mesosternal chitine-plates
+(fig. 55). A narrow prae-genital somite is present between
+opisthosoma and prosoma (figs. 55, 57). Opisthosoma consisting
+of eleven somites, almost wholly without visible appendages. Intromittent
+organ of male beneath the genital operculum (= sternum
+of the 1st somite of opisthosoma).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:202px; height:224px" src="images/img305b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="f90"><br /><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 55.&mdash;<i>Thelyphonus
+sp</i>. Ventral view of the
+anterior portion of the
+body to show the three
+prosomatic sternal plates
+<i>a, b, c</i>, and the rudimentary
+sternal element of the prae-genital
+somite; <i>opisth</i> 1,
+first somite of the opisthosoma.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">From a drawing made by
+Pickard&mdash;Cambridge, under the
+direction of R.I. Pocock.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Note.</i>&mdash;The possibility of another interpretation of the anterior
+somites of the mesosoma and the prae-genital somite must be borne
+in mind. Possibly, though not probably, the somites carrying the
+two lung-sacs correspond to the first two lung-bearing somites of
+<i>Scorpio</i>, and it is the genital opening which has shifted. The same
+caution applies in the case of the Araneae. Excalation of one or of
+two anterior mesosomatic somites, besides the prae-genital somite,
+would then have to be supposed to have occurred also.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 450px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:346px; height:223px" src="images/img305e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Fig. 56&mdash;<i>Thelyphonus assamensis</i> &#9794;. Ventral
+surface of the anterior region of the opisthosoma,
+the first somite being pushed upwards and forwards
+so as to expose the subjacent structures.
+<i>opistho</i> 1, First somite of the opisthosoma;
+<i>opistho</i> 2, second do.; <i>g</i>, genital aperture;
+<i>l</i>, edges of the lamellae of the lung-books; <i>m</i>,
+stigmata of tergo-sternal muscles.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(Original drawing by Pocock.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Sub-order <i>a.</i> Uropygi.&mdash;Prosoma longer than wide, its sternal
+area very narrow, furnished with a large prosternal and metasternal
+plate, and often with a small mesosternal sclerite. Appendages of
+2nd pair with their basal segments united in the middle line and
+incapable of lateral
+movement; appendages
+of 3rd pair with
+only the apical segment
+many-jointed.
+Opisthosoma without
+trace of appendages;
+its posterior
+somites narrowed to
+form a movable tail
+for the support of
+the post-anal
+sclerite, which has
+no poison glands.</p>
+
+<p>Tribe 1. Urotricha.&mdash;Dorsal
+area
+of prosoma covered
+with a single shield
+(? two in <i>Geralinura</i>),
+bearing median
+and lateral eyes.
+Post-anal sclerite
+modified as a long,
+many-jointed feeler.
+Appendages of 2nd pair folding in a horizontal plane, completely
+chelate, the claw immovably united to the sixth segment.
+Respiratory organs present in the form of pulmonary sacs.</p>
+
+<p>Family&mdash;Thelyphonidae (<i>Thelyphonus</i> (fig. 54), <i>Hypoctonus</i>,
+*<i>Geralinura</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Tribe 2. Tartarides.&mdash;Small degenerate forms with the dorsal
+area of the prosoma furnished with two shields, a larger in front
+covering the anterior four somites, and a smaller behind covering
+the 5th and 6th somites; the latter generally subdivided into a
+right and left portion. There is also a pair of narrow tergal sclerites
+interposed between the anterior and posterior shields. Eyes evanescent
+or absent. Appendages of 2nd pair folding in a vertical plane,
+not chelate, the claw long and movable. Post-anal sclerite short
+and undivided. No distinct respiratory stigmata behind the sterna
+of the 1st and 2nd somites of the opisthosoma.</p>
+
+<p>Family-Hubbardiidae (<i>Schizomus</i>, <i>Hubbardia</i>) (figs. 57-59).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:197px; height:304px" src="images/img305c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:169px; height:300px" src="images/img305d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 57.&mdash;<i>Schizomus crassicaudatus</i>,
+one of the Tartarid
+Pedipalpi. Ventral view of a
+female with the appendages cut
+short near the base.</td>
+<td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 58.&mdash;<i>Schizomus crassicaudatus</i>,
+a Tartarid Pedipalp.
+Dorsal view of a male with the
+appendages cut short.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90"><br /><p><i>a</i>, Prosternum of prosoma.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Metasternum of prosoma.</p>
+<p><i>prae-gen</i>, The prae-genital somite.</p>
+<p>I <i>opisth</i>, First somite of the opisthosoma.</p>
+<p>II <i>opisth</i>, Eleventh somite of the opisthosoma.</p>
+<p><i>pa</i>, Post-anal lobe of the female (compare the jointed filament
+  in <i>Thelyphonus</i>, fig. 54).</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90"><br /><p>I to VI. The prosomatic appendages.</p>
+<p><i>a</i>, Anterior plate.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Posterior plate of the prosomatic carapace.</p>
+<p><i>prae-gen</i>, Tergum of the prae-genital somite.</p>
+<p>11, The eleventh somite of the opisthosoma.</p>
+<p><i>pa</i>, Post-anal lobe of the male&mdash;a conical body with narrow basal stalk.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80">(Original drawing by Pickard-Cambridge, directed by Pocock.)</td>
+<td class="caption80">(Original as preceding.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Sub-order <i>b</i>. Amblypygi.&mdash;Prosoma wider than long, covered
+above by a single shield bearing median and lateral eyes, which
+have diplostichous ommatea. Sternal area broad, with prosternal,
+two mesosternal, and metasternal plates, the prosternum projecting
+forwards beneath the coxae of the 2nd pair of appendages. Appendages
+of 2nd pair folding in a horizontal plane; their basal segments
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page306" id="page306"></a>306</span>
+freely movable; claw free or fused; basal segments of 4th and 5th
+pairs widely separated by the sternal area; appendages of 3rd pair
+with all the segments except the proximal three, forming a many-jointed
+flagellum. Opisthosoma without post-anal sclerite and
+posterior caudal elongation: with frequently a pair of small lobate
+appendages on the sternum of the 3rd somite. Respiratory organs,
+as in Urotricha.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+  <p>Family&mdash;Phrynichidae (<i>Phrynichus</i>, <i>Damon</i>).</p>
+  <p>&emsp;&rdquo; &emsp; Admetidae (<i>Admetus</i>, <i>Heterophrynus</i>).</p>
+  <p>&emsp;&rdquo; &emsp; Charontidae (<i>Charon</i>, <i>Sarax</i>).</p>
+  <p>(Family ?)&mdash;*<i>Graeophonus</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:299px; height:128px" src="images/img306a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 59.&mdash;<i>Schizomus crassicaudatus</i>, one of the Pedipalpi. Lateral
+view of a male. II to VI, the prosomatic appendages, the first being
+concealed (see fig. 58); 5, the fifth, and 11, the eleventh tergites of
+the opisthosoma; <i>pa</i>, the conical post-anal lobe.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(Original as preceding.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt1"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The Pedipalpi are confined to the tropics and warmer
+temperate regions of both hemispheres. Fossil forms occur in the
+Carboniferous. The small forms known as <i>Schizomus</i> and <i>Hubbardia</i>
+are of special interest from a morphological point of view.
+The Pedipalpi have no poison glands. (Reference to literature
+(<b>29</b>).)</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:473px; height:544px" src="images/img306b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 60.&mdash;<i>Liphistius desultor</i>, Schiödte, one of the Araneae Mesothelae.
+Dorsal view. I to VI, the prosomatic appendages; 4, 5, 6,
+the fourth, fifth and sixth tergites of the opisthosoma. Between
+the bases of the sixth pair of limbs and behind the prosomatic carapace
+is seen the tergite of the small prae-genital somite.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(Original by Pickard-Cambridge and Pocock.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><b>Order 3. Araneae</b> (figs. 60 to 64.).&mdash;Prosoma covered with a single
+shield and typically furnished with median and lateral eyes of
+diplostichous structure, as in the Amblypygi. The sternal surface
+wide, continuously chitinized, but with prosternal and metasternal
+elements generally distinguishable at the anterior and posterior
+ends respectively of the large mesosternurm. Prosternum underlying
+the proboscis. Appendages of 1st pair have two segments, as in
+Pedipalpi, but are furnished with poison gland, and are retroverts.
+Appendages of 2nd pair not underlying the mouth, but freely movable
+and, except in primitive forms, furnished with a maxillary lobe; the
+rest of the limb like the legs, tipped with a single claw and quite unmodified
+(except in &#9794;). Remaining pairs of appendages similar in
+form and function, each tipped with two or three claws. Opisthosoma
+when segmented showing the same number of somites as in the
+Pedipalpi; usually unsegmented, the prae-genital somite constricted
+to form the waist; the appendages of its 3rd and 4th somites retained
+as spinning mammillae. Respiratory organs (see fig. 63, <i>stg</i>), as
+in the Amblypygi, or with the posterior pair, rarely the anterior pair
+as well, replaced by tracheal tubes. Intromittent organ of male in
+the apical segment of the 2nd prosomatic appendage.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:184px; height:284px" src="images/img306c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="f90"><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 61.&mdash;<i>Liphistius desultor</i>. Ventral
+view with the prosomatic appendages cut
+short excepting the chelicerae (1) whose
+sharp retroverts are seen. Between the
+bases of the prosomatic limbs an anterior
+and a posterior sternal plate (black) are
+seen. 1, The sternum of the first opisthosomatic
+or genital somite covering the
+genital aperture and the first pair of lung-sacs.
+In front of it the narrow waist is
+formed by the soft sternal area of the
+praegenital somite; 2, the sternite of the
+second opisthosomatic somite covering
+the posterior pair of lung-sacs; 3 and 4,
+the spinning appendages (limbs) of the
+opisthosoma; <i>a</i>, inner, <i>b</i>, outer ramus of
+the appendage; 11, sternite of the eleventh
+somite of the opisthosoma: in front of it
+other rudimentary sternites; <i>an</i>, anus.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(Original as above.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Sub-order <i>a</i>. Mesothelae (see figs. 60 to 62).&mdash;Opisthosoma distinctly
+segmented, furnished with 11 tergal plates, as in the Amblypygi;
+the ventral surface of the 1st and 2nd somites with large
+sternal plates, covering the genital aperture and the two pairs of
+pulmonary sacs, the sternal plates from the 6th to the 11th somites
+represented by integumental ridges, weakly chitinized in the middle.
+The two pairs of spinning appendages retain their primitive position
+in the middle of the lower surface of the opisthosoma far in advance
+of the anus on the 3rd and 4th somites, each appendage consisting
+of a stout, many-jointed outer branch and a slender, unsegmented
+inner branch. Prosoma as in the Mygalomorphae, except that the
+mesosternal area is long and narrow.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Family&mdash;Liphistiidae (<i>Liphistius</i>, *<i>Arthrolycosa</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sub-order <i>b</i>. Opisthothelae (see fig. 63).&mdash;Opisthosoma without
+trace of separate terga and sterna, the segmentation merely represented
+posteriorly by slight integumental folds and the sterna of the
+1st and 2nd somites by the opercular plates of the pulmonary sacs.
+The spinning appendages migrate to the posterior end of the opisthosoma
+and take up a position close to the anus; the inner branches
+of the anterior pair either atrophy or are represented homogenetically
+by a plate, the cribellum, or by an undivided membranous lobe, the
+colulus.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:319px; height:163px" src="images/img306d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 62.&mdash;<i>Liphistius desultor</i>. Lateral
+view.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p>I to VI, Appendages of the prosoma cut off at the base.</p>
+<p><i>o</i>, Ocular tubercle.</p>
+<p><i>prae-gen</i>, The prae-genital somite.</p>
+<p>1 and 2, Sternites of the first and second opisthosomatic somites.</p>
+<p>3 and 4, Appendages of the third and fourth opisthosomatic somites, which are the
+ spinning organs, and in this genus occupy their primitive position instead of migrating
+ to the anal region as in other spiders.</p>
+<p>5, Tergite of the fifth opisthosomatic somite.</p>
+<p>11, Eleventh opisthosomatic somite; <i>an</i>, Anus.</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(Original.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Tribe 1. Mygalomorphae.&mdash;The plane of the articulation of the
+appendages of the 1st pair to the prosoma (the retrovert) vertical,
+the basal segment projecting
+straight forwards
+at its proximal end, the
+distal segment or fang
+closing backwards in a
+direction subparallel to
+the long axis of the body.
+Two pairs of pulmonary
+sacs.</p>
+
+<p>Families&mdash;Theraphosidae
+(<i>Avicularia</i>, <i>Poecilotheria</i>). Barychelidae
+(<i>Barychelus</i>, <i>Plagiobothrus</i>). Dipluridae
+(<i>Diplura</i>, <i>Macrothele</i>).
+Ctenizidae (<i>Cteniza</i>, <i>Nemesia</i>).
+Atypidae (<i>Atypus</i>, <i>Calommata</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Tribe 2. Arachnomorpnae.&mdash;The plane of
+the articulation of the
+appendages of the 1st
+pair to the prosoma
+horizontal, the basal
+segment projecting vertically
+downwards, at
+least at its proximal
+end, the distal segment
+or fang closing inwards
+nearly or quite at right
+angles to the long axis of the body. The posterior pulmonary sacs
+(except in <i>Hypochilus</i>) replaced by tracheal tubes; the anterior and
+posterior pairs replaced by tracheal tubes in the Caponiidae.</p>
+
+<p>Principal families&mdash;Hypochilidae (<i>Hypochilus</i>). Dysderidae (<i>Dysdera</i>,
+<i>Segestria</i>). Caponiidae (<i>Caponia</i>, <i>Nops</i>). Filistatidae (<i>Filistata</i>).
+Uloboridae (<i>Uloborus</i>, <i>Dinopis</i>). Argiapidae (<i>Nephila</i>,
+<i>Gasteracantha</i>). Pholcidae (<i>Pholcus</i>, <i>Artema</i>). Agelenidae (<i>Tegenuria</i>).
+Lycosidae (<i>Lycosa</i>). Clubionidae (<i>Clubiona</i>, <i>Olios</i>, <i>Sparassus</i>)
+Gnaphosidae (<i>Gnaphosa</i>, <i>Hemiclaea</i>). Thomisidae (<i>Thomisus</i>).
+Attidae (<i>Salticus</i>). Urocteidae (<i>Uroctea</i>). Eresidae (<i>Eresus</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Remarks on the Araneae.</i>&mdash;The Spiders are the most numerous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id="page307"></a>307</span>
+and diversified group of the Arachnida; about 2000 species are
+known. No noteworthy fossil spiders are known; the best-preserved
+are in amber of Oligocene age. <i>Protolycosa</i> and <i>Arthrolycosa</i>
+occur in the Carboniferous. Morphologically, the spiders are remarkable
+for the concentration and specialization of their structure,
+which is accompanied with high physiological efficiency. The larger
+species of Bird&rsquo;s Nest Spiders (<i>Avicularia</i>), the opisthosoma of which
+is as large as a bantam&rsquo;s egg, undoubtedly attack young birds, and
+M&rsquo;Cook gives an account of the capture in its web by an ordinary
+house spider of a small mouse. The &ldquo;retrovert&rdquo; or bent-back
+first pair of appendages is provided with a poison gland opening on
+the fang or terminal segment. Spiders form at least two kinds of
+constructions&mdash;snares for the capture of prey and nests for the
+preservation of the young. The latter are only formed by the female,
+which is a larger and more powerful animal than the male. Like
+the scorpions the spiders have a special tendency to cannibalism,
+and accordingly the male, in approaching the female for the purpose
+of fertilizing her, is liable to be fallen upon and sucked dry by the
+object of his attentions. The sperm is removed by the male from
+the genital aperture into a special receptacle on the terminal segment
+of the 2nd prosomatic appendage. Thus held out at some distance
+from the body, it is cautiously advanced by the male spider to the
+genital aperture of the female.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="3"><img style="width:295px; height:501px" src="images/img307a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="caption"><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 63.&mdash;Ventral view of
+a male mygalomorphous spider.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90"><p>I to VI, The six pairs of prosomatic appendages.</p>
+<p><i>a</i>, Copulatory apparatus of the second appendage.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Process of the fifth joint of the third appendage.</p>
+<p>M, Mouth.</p>
+<p><i>pro</i>, Prosternite of the prosoma.</p>
+<p><i>mes</i>, Mesosternite of the prosoma: observe the contact
+ of the coxae of the sixth pair of limbs behind it;
+ compare <i>Liphistius</i> (fig. 61) where this does not occur.</p>
+<p><i>stg</i>, Lung aperture.</p>
+<p><i>gn</i>, Genital aperture.</p>
+<p><i>a</i>, Anus with a pair of backwardly migrated spinning
+ appendages on each side of it; compare the position
+ of these appendages in <i>Liphistius</i> (fig. 61).</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From Lankester, &ldquo;Limulus an Arachnid.&rdquo;)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:368px; height:163px" src="images/img307b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 64.&mdash;<i>Liphistius desultor</i>. Under side of the uplifted genital
+or first opisthosomatic somite of the female; <i>g</i>, genital aperture;
+<i>p</i>, pitted plate, probably a gland for the secretion of adhesive material
+for the eggs; <i>l</i>, the edges of the lamellae of the lung-books of the
+first pair.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(Original drawing by Pocock.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>For an account of the courtship and dancing of spiders, of their
+webs and floating lines, the reader is referred to the works of
+M&#8219;Cook (<b>30</b>) and the Peckhams (<b>31</b>), whilst an excellent account of
+the nests of trap-door spiders is given by Moggridge (<b>32</b>). References
+to systematic works will also be found at the end of this article (<b>33</b>).</p>
+
+<p><b>Order 4. Palpigradi = Microthelyphonidae</b> (see fig. 65).&mdash;Prosoma
+covered above by three plates, a larger representing the dorsal elements
+of the first four somites, and two smaller representing the
+dorsal elements of the 5th and 6th.</p>
+
+<p>Its ventral surface provided with one prosternal, two mesosternal
+and one metasternal plate. Appendages of 1st pair consisting of
+three segments, completely chelate, without poison gland; of 2nd
+pair slender, leg-like, tipped with three claws, the basal segment
+without sterno-coxal process taking no share in mastication, and
+widely separated from its fellow of the opposite side; 3rd, 4th, 5th
+and 6th appendages similar in form to the 2nd and to each other.</p>
+
+<p>Proboscis free, not supported from below by either the prosternum
+or the basal segments of the appendages of the 2nd pair.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:344px; height:547px" src="images/img307c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 65.&mdash;<i>Koenenia mirabilis</i>, Grassi, one of the Palpigradi.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>A, Ventral view of prosoma and anterior region of opisthosoma
+with the appendages cut off near the base; <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>,
+prosternites; <i>c</i>, mesosternite; and <i>d</i>, metasternite of the
+prosoma; <i>f</i>, ventral surface of the prae-genital somite;
+<i>g</i>, sternite of the genital somite (first opisthosomatic somite).</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>B, Dorsal view. I to VI, prosomatic appendages; 1 <i>opisth</i>,
+genital somite (first opisthosomatic somite).</p>
+<p>C, Lateral view, I to VI, prosomatic appendages; <i>a, b, c</i>,
+the three tergal plates of the prosoma; <i>prae-gen</i>, the prae-genital
+somite; 1 to 10, the ten somites of the opisthosoma.</p>
+<p>D, Chelicera.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(Original drawing by Pocock and Pickard-Cambridge, after Hansen and Sörensen.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Opisthosoma consisting of only ten somites, which have no tergal
+and sternal elements, the prae-genital somite contracted to form a
+&ldquo;waist,&rdquo; as in the Pedipalpi; the last three narrowed to form a
+caudal support for the many-jointed flagelliform telson, as in the
+Urotricha. Respiratory organs atrophied.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>Family&mdash;Koeneniidae (<i>Koenenia</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;An extremely remarkable minute form originally
+described by Grassi (<b>34</b>) from Sicily, and since further described by
+Hansen (<b>35</b>). Recently the genus has been found in Texas, U.S.A.
+Only one genus of the order is known.</p>
+
+<p><b>Order 5. Solifugae = Mycetophorae</b> (see figs. 66 to 69).&mdash;Dorsal
+area of prosoma covered with three distinct plates, two smaller
+representing the terga of the 5th and 6th somites, and a larger
+representing those of the anterior four somites, although the reduced
+terga of the 3rd and 4th are traceable behind the larger plate. The
+latter bears a pair of median eyes and obsolete lateral eyes on each
+side. Sternal elements of prosoma almost entirely absent, traces
+of a prosternum and metasternum alone remaining. Rostrum free,
+not supported by either the prosternum or the basal segments of the
+appendages. Appendages of 1st pair large, chelate, bisegmented,
+articulated to the sides of the head-shield; appendages of 2nd pair
+simple, pediform, with protrusible (? suctorial) organ, and no claws
+at the tip; their basal segments united in the middle line and furnished
+with sterno-coxal process. Remaining pairs of appendages
+with their basal segments immovably fixed to the sternal surface,
+similar in form, the posterior three pairs furnished with two claws
+supported on long stalks; the basal segments of the 6th pair bearing
+five pairs of tactile sensory organs or malleoli. The prae-genital
+somite is suppressed. Opisthosoma composed of ten somites.
+Respiratory organs tracheal, opening upon the ventral surface of
+the 2nd and 3rd, and sometimes also of the 4th somite of the opisthosoma.
+A supplementary pair of tracheae opening behind the basal
+segment of the 4th appendage of the prosoma.</p>
+
+<p>(? Intromittent organ of male lodged on the dorsal side of the
+1st pair of prosomatic appendages.)</p>
+
+<p>Families&mdash;Hexisopodidae (<i>Hexisopus</i>). Solpugidae (<i>Solpuga</i>,
+<i>Rhagodes</i>). Galeodidae (<i>Galeodes</i>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id="page308"></a>308</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;These most strange-looking Arachnids occur in warmer
+temperate, and tropical regions of Asia, Africa and America. Their
+anatomy has not been studied, as yet, by means of freshly-killed
+material, and is imperfectly known, though the presence of the coxal
+glands was determined by Macleod in 1884. The proportionately
+enormous chelae (chelicerae) of the first pair of appendages are not
+provided with poison glands; their bite is not venomous.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="3"><img style="width:291px; height:495px" src="images/img308a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="caption"><br /><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 66.&mdash;<i>Galeodes sp.</i>,
+one of the Solifugae. Ventral view to show legs and somites.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90">
+<p>I to VI, The six leg-bearing somites of the prosoma.</p>
+<p><i>opisth</i> 1, First or genital somite of the opisthosoma.</p>
+<p><i>ge</i>, Site of the genital aperture.</p>
+<p><i>st</i>, Thoracic tracheal aperture.</p>
+<p><i>l</i><span class="sp">2</span>, Anterior tracheal aperture of the opisthosoma in somite 2 of the opisthosoma.</p>
+<p><i>l</i><span class="sp">3</span>, Tracheal aperture in somite 3 of the opisthosoma.</p>
+<p><i>a</i>, Anus.</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(From Lankester, &ldquo;Limulus an Arachnid.&rdquo;)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:193px; height:409px" src="images/img308b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:206px; height:450px" src="images/img308c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 67.&mdash;<i>Galeodes sp.</i>, one
+of the Solifugae. Ventral view with the appendages cut off at the base.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 68.&mdash;<i>Galeodes sp.</i>, one of the
+Solifugae. Dorsal view.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90"><p>I to VI, Prosomatic appendages.</p>
+<p><i>s</i>, Prosomatic stigma or aperture of the tracheal system.</p>
+<p>1, First opisthosomatic sternite covering the genital aperture <i>g</i>.</p>
+<p>2, Second opisthosomatic sternite covering the second pair of tracheal apertures <i>sp1</i>.</p>
+<p><i>sp2</i>, The third pair of tracheal apertures.</p>
+<p>10, The tenth opisthosomatic somite.</p>
+<p><i>an</i>, The anal aperture.</p></td>
+<td class="f90">
+<p>I to VI, Bases of the prosomatic appendages.</p>
+<p><i>o</i>, Eyes.</p>
+<p><i>a</i>, Lateral region of the cephalic plate
+   to which the first pair of appendages are articulated.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Cephalic plate with median eye.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Dorsal element of somites bearing third and fourth pairs of appendages.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Second plate of the prosoma with fifth pair of appendages.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Third or hindermost plate of the prosoma beneath which the sixth pair of legs is articulated.</p>
+<p>1, 2, 9, 10, First, second, ninth and tenth somites of the opisthosoma.</p>
+<p><i>an</i>, Anus.</p>
+</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80">(Original by Pickard-Cambridge and Pocock.)</td>
+<td class="caption80">(Original.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Galeodes</i> has been made the means of a comparison between the
+structure of the Arachnida and Hexapod insects by Haeckel and
+other writers, and it was at one time suggested that there was a
+genetic affinity between the two groups&mdash;through <i>Galeodes</i>, or
+extinct forms similar to it. The segmentation of the prosoma and
+the form of the appendages bear a homoplastic similarity to the
+head, pro-, meso-, and meta-thorax of a Hexapod with mandibles,
+maxillary palps and three pairs of walking legs; while the opisthosoma
+agrees in form and number of somites with the abdomen of
+a Hexapod, and the tracheal stigmata present certain agreements
+in the two cases. Reference to literature (<b>36</b>).</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:372px; height:126px" src="images/img308d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 69.&mdash;<i>Galeodes sp.</i>, one of the Solifugae.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>I to VI, The six prosomatic limbs cut short.</p>
+<p><i>o</i>, The eyes.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, Demarcated areae of the cephalic or first prosomatic plate
+   corresponding respectively to appendages I, II, III, and to appendage IV (see fig. 68).</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Second plate of the prosoma-carrying appendage V.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>e</i>, Third plate of the prosoma-carrying appendage VI. The prae-genital somite is absent.</p>
+<p>1, First somite of the opisthosoma.</p>
+<p>2, Second do.</p>
+<p>S, Prosomatic tracheal aperture between legs IV and V.</p>
+<p>S&prime; and S&Prime;, Opisthosomatic tracheal apertures.</p>
+<p>10, Tenth opisthosomatic somite.</p>
+<p><i>an</i>, Anus.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(Original.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:213px; height:360px" src="images/img308e.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:220px; height:360px" src="images/img308f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 70.&mdash;<i>Garypus litoralis</i>, one
+of the Pseudoscorpiones. Ventral view.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 71.&mdash;<i>Garypus litoralis</i>,
+one of the Pseudoscorpiones. Dorsal view.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90">
+<p>I to VI, Prosomatic appendages.</p>
+<p><i>o</i>, Sterno-coxal process of the basal segment of the second appendage.</p>
+<p>1, Sternite of the genital or first opisthosomatic somite; the prae-genital somite,
+   though represented by a tergum, has no separate ternal plate.</p>
+<p>2 and 3, Sternites of the second and third somites of the opisthosoma, each showing a tracheal stigma.</p>
+<p>10 and 11, Sternites of the tenth and eleventh somites of the opisthosoma.</p>
+<p><i>an</i>, Anus.</p></td>
+<td class="f90">
+<p>I to VI, The prosomatic appendages.</p>
+<p><i>o</i>, Eyes.</p>
+<p><i>prae-gen</i>, Prae-genital somite.</p>
+<p>1, Tergite of the genital or first opisthosomatic somite.</p>
+<p>10, Tergite of the tenthsomite of the opisthosoma.</p>
+<p>11, The evanescent eleventh somite of the opisthosoma.</p>
+<p><i>an</i>, Anus.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80">(Original by Pocock and Pickard-Cambridge.)</td>
+<td class="caption80">(Original.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><b>Order 6. Pseudoscorpiones = Chelonethi,</b> also called Chernetidia
+(see figs. 70, 71, 72).&mdash;Prosoma covered by a single dorsal shield, at
+most furnished with one or two diplostichous lateral eyes; sternal
+elements obliterated or almost obliterated. Appendages of the 1st
+pair bisegmented completely chelate, furnished with peculiar organs,
+the <i>serrula</i> and the <i>lamina</i>. Appendages of 2nd pair very large and
+completely chelate, their basal segments meeting in the middle line,
+as in the Uropygi, and provided in front with membranous lip-like
+processes underlying the proboscis. Appendages of the 3rd, 4th,
+5th and 6th pairs similar in form and function, tipped with two
+claws, their basal segments in contact in the median ventral line.
+The prae-genital somite wide, not constricted, with large tergal plate,
+but with its sternal plate small or inconspicuous. Opisthosoma
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id="page309"></a>309</span>
+composed, at least in many cases, of eleven somites, the 11th
+somite very small, often hidden within the both. Respiratory
+organs in the form of tracheal tubes opening by a pair of stigmata
+in the 2nd and 3rd somites of the opisthosoma. Intromittent organ
+of male beneath sternum of the 1st somite of the opisthosoma.</p>
+
+<p>Sub-order <i>a</i>. Panctenodactyli.&mdash;Dorsal plate of prosoma (carapace)
+narrowed in front; the appendages of the 1st pair small, much
+narrower, taken together, than the posterior border of the carapace.
+Serrula on movable digit of appendages of 1st pair fixed throughout
+its length, and broader at its proximal than at its distal end; the
+immovable digit with an external process.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+  <p>Family&mdash;Cheliferidae (<i>Chelifer</i> (figs. 70, 71, 72), <i>Chiridium</i>).</p>
+  <p>&emsp;&rdquo; &emsp; Garypidae (<i>Garypus</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:318px; height:131px" src="images/img309a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 72.&mdash;<i>Garypus litoralis</i>,
+one of the Pseudoscorpiones. Lateral view.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>I to VI, of the six prosomatic appendages.</p>
+<p><i>o</i>, Eyes.</p>
+<p><i>prae-gen</i>, Tergite of the prae-genital somite.</p>
+<p>1, Genital or first opisthosomatic somite.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>2, 3, 10, The second, third and tenth somites of the opisthosoma.</p>
+<p>11, The minute eleventh somite;</p>
+<p><i>an</i>, the anus.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(Original.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Sub-order <i>b</i>. Hemictenodactyli.&mdash;Dorsal plate of prosoma scarcely
+narrowed in front; the appendages of the 1st pair large, not much
+narrower, taken together, than the posterior border of the carapace.
+The serrula or the movable digit free at its distal end, narrowed at
+the base; no external lamina on the immovable digit.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+  <p>Family&mdash;Obisiidae (<i>Obisium, Pseudobisium</i>).</p>
+  <p>&emsp;&rdquo; &emsp; Chthoniidae (<i>Chthonius, Tridenchthonius</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The book-scorpions&mdash;so called because they were, in
+old times, found not unfrequently in libraries&mdash;are found in rotten
+wood and under stones. The similarity of the form of their appendages
+to those of the scorpions suggests that they are a degenerate
+group derived from the latter, but the large size of the prae-genital
+somite in them would indicate a connexion with forms preceding the
+scorpions. Reference to literature (<b>37</b>).</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:341px; height:230px" src="images/img309b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 73.&mdash;<i>Cryptostemma Karschii</i>,
+one of the Podogona. Dorsal view of male.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>III to VI, The third, fourth, fifth and sixth appendages of the prosoma.</p>
+<p><i>a</i>, Movable (hinged) sclerite (so-called hood) overhanging the first pair of appendages.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Fused terga of the prosoma followed by the opisthosoma of four visible somites.</p>
+</td>
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>an</i>, Orifice within which the caudal segments are withdrawn.</p>
+<p>E, Extremity of the fifth appendage of the male modified to subserve copulation.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(Original drawing by Pocock and Pickard-Cambridge.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><b>Order 7. Podogona = Ricinulei</b> (see figs. 73 to 76).&mdash;Dorsal area
+of prosoma furnished with two shields, a larger behind representing,
+probably, the tergal elements of the somites, and a smaller in
+front, which is freely articulated to the former and folds over the
+appendages of the 1st pair. Ventral area without distinct sternal
+plates. Appendages of 1st pair, bisegmented, completely chelate.
+Appendages of 2nd pair, with their basal segments uniting in the
+middle line below the mouth, weakly chelate at apex. Appendages
+of 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs similar in form; their basal segments
+in contact in the middle line and immovably welded, except those
+of the 3rd pair, which have been pushed aside so that the bases of
+the 2nd and 4th pairs are in contact with each other. A movable
+membranous joint between the prosoma and the opisthosoma, the
+generative aperture opening upon the ventral side of the membrane.
+Prae-genital somite suppressed; the opisthosma consisting of nine
+segments, whereof the first and second are almost suppressed and
+concealed within the joint between the prosoma and the opisthosoma;
+the following four large and manifest, and the remaining
+three minute and forming a slender generally-retracted tail like that
+of <i>Thelyphonus</i>. Respiratory organs tracheal, opening by a pair of
+spiracles in the prosoma above the base of the fifth appendage on
+each side. Intromittent organ of male placed at the distal end of
+the appendage of the 5th pair.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+  <p>Family&mdash;Cryptostemmidae (<i>Cryptostemma, Poliochera</i>), Carboniferous.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:208px; height:163px" src="images/img309c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="f90"><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 74.&mdash;<i>Cryptostemma Karschii</i>,
+anterior aspect of the prosoma with
+the &ldquo;hood&rdquo; removed. I to IV, first
+to fourth appendages of the prosoma;
+<i>a</i>, basal segment of the second pair
+of appendages meeting its fellow in
+the middle line (see fig. 75).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(Original drawing by Pocock and
+Pickard-Cambridge.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Remarks on the Podogona.</i>&mdash;The name given to this small but
+remarkable group has reference to the position of the male intromittent
+organ (fig. 73, <span class="scs">E</span>). They are small degenerate animals
+with a relatively firm integument. Not more than four species and
+twice that number of specimens are known. They have been found
+in West Africa and South America. A fact of special interest in
+regard to them is that the genus Poliochera, from the Coal Measures,
+appears to be a member of the same group. The name Cryptostemma,
+given to the first-known genus of the order, described by
+Guérin-Méneville, refers to the supposed
+concealment of the eyes by the movable
+cephalic sclerite. Reference to literature
+(<b>38</b>).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="3"><img style="width:191px; height:245px" src="images/img309d.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="caption"><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 75.&mdash;<i>Cryptostemma Karschii</i>, one of the Podogona. Ventral view.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90">
+<p>I to VI, The six pairs of appendages of the prosoma, the last three cut short.</p>
+<p>1, 2, 3, 4, The four somites of the opisthosoma.</p>
+<p><i>a</i>. Visible hood overhanging the first pair of appendages.</p>
+<p><i>b</i>, Position of the genital orifice.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Part of 3rd appendage.</p>
+<p><i>d</i>, Fourth segment of 2nd appendage. Observe that the basal segment
+    of appendage III does <i>not</i> meet its fellow in the middle line.</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(Original drawing by Pocock and Pickard-Cambridge.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 190px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:131px; height:149px" src="images/img309e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 76.&mdash;<i>Cryptostemma Karschii</i>. Extremity of the fifth
+pair of appendages of the female for comparison with that of the male E in fig. 73.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><b>Order 8. Opilione</b> (see fig. 77).&mdash;Dorsal
+area of prosoma covered by a single shield
+usually bearing a pair of eyes. Sternal
+elements much reduced. Appendages of
+1st pair large, three segmented and
+completely chelate; of 2nd pair either
+simple and pediform, or prehensile and
+subchelate; of remaining four pairs,
+similar in form, ambulatory in function;
+the basal segment of the 2nd, 3rd and
+sometimes of the 4th pairs of appendages
+furnished with sterno-coxal (maxillary)
+lobe. Opisthosoma confluent throughout
+its breadth with the prosoma, with the
+dorsal plate of which its anterior tergal
+plates are more or less fused; at most ten opisthosomatic somites
+traceable; the generative aperture thrust far forwards between
+the basal segments of the 6th appendages. Prae-genital somite
+suppressed. Respiratory organs tracheal, opening by a pair of stigmata
+situated immediately behind the basal segments of the 6th
+pair of appendages on what is probably the sternum of the 2nd
+opisthosomatic somite and also in some cases upon the 5th segment
+of the legs.</p>
+
+<p>Intromittent organ of male lying within the genital orifice.</p>
+
+<p>Sub-order <i>a</i>. Laniatores.&mdash;Orifice of foetid glands opening above
+the coxa of the 4th appendage, not raised upon a tubercle. Orifice
+of coxal gland situated just behind that of the foetid gland. Sternal
+plate of prosoma long and narrow, with a distinct prosternal element
+underlying the mouth. Coxae of 4th, 5th and 6th appendages
+immovable. Appendages of 2nd pair, strong, usually prehensile
+and spiny. Genital orifice covered by an operculum.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+  <p>Families&mdash;Gonoleptidae (<i>Gonoleptes, Goniasoma</i>).</p>
+  <p>&emsp; &emsp; &emsp; Biantidae (<i>Biantes</i>).</p>
+  <p>&emsp; &emsp; &emsp; Oncopodidae (<i>Oncopus, Pelitnus</i>).</p>
+  <p>&emsp; &emsp; &emsp; Trioenonychidae (<i>Trioenonyx, Acumontia</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sub-order <i>b</i>. Palpatores.&mdash;Orifice of foetid glands opening above
+the coxa of the 3rd appendage, not raised upon a tubercle. Orifice
+of coxal gland situated between the coxae of the 5th and 6th appendages.
+Sternal plate of prosoma usually short and wide, rarely longer
+than broad; with a larger or smaller prosternal element underlying
+the mouth. Coxae of 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th appendages movable
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page310" id="page310"></a>310</span>
+or immovable. Appendages of 2nd pair weak, pediform not prehensile.
+Genital orifice covered by an operculum.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+  <p>Families&mdash;Phalangiidae (<i>Phalangium, Gagrella</i>).</p>
+  <p>&emsp; &emsp; &emsp; Ischyropsalidae (<i>Ischyropsalis, Taracus</i>).</p>
+  <p>&emsp; &emsp; &emsp; Nemastomidae (<i>Nemastoma</i>).</p>
+  <p>&emsp; &emsp; &emsp; Trogulidae (<i>Trogulus, Anelasmocephalus</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sub-order <i>c. Cyphophthalmi</i> (<i>Anepignathi</i>).&mdash;Orifice of foetid
+glands opening on a tubercle situated near the lateral border of the
+carapace above the base of the 5th appendage. Orifice of coxal
+gland probably situated at base of coxa of 5th appendage; sternal
+plate of prosema minute or absent; no prosternal element underlying
+the mouth. Coxae of 5th and 6th, and usually also of 4th
+appendages immovable. Appendages of 2nd pair weak, pediform,
+not prehensile. Genital orifice not covered by an operculum.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+  <p>Families&mdash;Sironidae (<i>Siro, Pettalus</i>).</p>
+  <p>&emsp; &emsp; &emsp; Stylocellidae (<i>Stylocellus</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Remarks on the Opiliones.</i>&mdash;These include the harvest-men, sometimes
+called also daddy-long-legs, with round undivided bodies and
+very long, easily-detached legs. The intromittent organs of the
+male are remarkable for their complexity and elaboration. The
+confluence of the regions of the body and the dislocation of apertures
+from their typical position are results of degeneration. The Opiliones
+seem to lead on from the Spiders to the Mites. Reference to literature
+(<b>39</b>).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" rowspan="2"><img style="width:324px; height:390px" src="images/img310a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="caption"><br /><br /><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 77.&mdash;<i>Stylocellus
+sumatranus</i>, one of the
+Opiliones; after Thorell.
+Enlarged.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90">
+<p>A, Dorsal view; I to VI, the six prosomatic appendages.</p>
+
+<p>B, Ventral view of the prosoma and of the first
+somite of the opisthosoma, with the appendages
+I to VI cut off at the base; <i>a</i>, tracheal
+stigma; <i>mx</i>, maxillary processes of the coxae of
+the 3rd pair of appendages; <i>g</i>, genital aperture.</p>
+
+<p>C, Ventral surface of the prosoma and opisthosoma;
+<i>a</i>, tracheal stigma; <i>b</i>, last somite.</p>
+
+<p>D, Lateral view of the 1st and 2nd pair of appendages.</p>
+
+<p>E, Lateral view of the whole body and two 1st appendages, showing
+the fusion of the dorsal elements of the prosoma into a single
+plate, and of those of the opisthosoma into an imperfectly segmented
+plate continuous with that of the prosoma.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt1">Apparently related to the Opiliones are two extinct groups, the
+Anthracomarti and Phalangiotarbi, which are not known to have
+survived the Carboniferous period. In the Anthracomarti the
+opisthosoma was movably articulated to the prosoma, and consisted
+of from eight to ten segments furnished with movable lateral plates,
+the anal segment being overlapped dorsally by a laminate expansion
+of the preceding segment. The carapace of the prosoma was
+unsegmented and often bore a pair of eyes. The appendages of the
+2nd pair were slender and pediform; those of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and
+6th pairs were similar in form and ambulatory in function with
+their basal segments arranged round a sternal area as in the order
+Araneae. The best-known genera were <i>Anthracomartus</i> and
+<i>Eophognus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the Phalangiotarbi the appendages resembled those of the
+Anthracomarti, except that the basal segments of the last four pairs
+were usually approximated in the middle line leaving a long and
+narrow sternal area between; and the carapace of the prosoma was
+unsegmented. The prosoma and opisthosoma were broadly confluent
+and probably immovably welded together. The opisthosoma
+consisted of eight or nine segments, whereof the anterior five or six
+were very short in the dorsal region, and the posterior three
+exceptionally large with the anal orifice terminal.</p>
+
+<p>Several genera have been established, the best-characterized
+being <i>Geraphognus</i> and <i>Architarbus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Order 9. Rhynchostomi = Acari</b> (see fig. 78).&mdash;Degenerate Arachnids
+resembling the Opiliones in many structural points, but chiefly
+distinguishable from them by the following features:&mdash;The basal
+segments of the appendages of the 2nd pair are united in the middle
+line behind the mouth, those of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs are
+widely separated and not provided with sterno-coxal (maxillary)
+lobes, and take no share in mastication; the respiratory stigmata,
+when present, belong to the prosoma, and the primitive
+segmentation of the opisthosoma has entirely or almost entirely
+disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>Sub-order <i>a</i>. <i>Notostigmata.</i>&mdash;Opisthosoma consisting of ten
+segments defined by integumental grooves, each of the anterior four
+of these furnished with a single pair of dorsally-placed spiracles or
+tracheal stigmata.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+  <p>Family&mdash;Opilioacaridae (<i>Opilioacarus</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sub-order <i>b</i>. <i>Cryptostigmata.</i>&mdash;Integument hard, strengthened
+by a continuously chitinized dorsal and ventral sclerite. Tracheae
+typically opening by stigmata situated in the articular sockets
+(acetabula) of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs of appendages.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+ <p>Family&mdash;Oribatidae (<i>Oribata, Nothrus, Hoplophora</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sub-order <i>c</i>. <i>Metastigmata.</i>&mdash;Integument mostly like that of the
+Cryptostigmata. Tracheae opening by a pair of stigmata situated
+above and behind the base of the 4th or 5th or 6th pair of appendages.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+  <p>Families&mdash;Gamasidae (<i>Gamasus, Pteroptus</i>).</p>
+  <p>&emsp; &emsp; &emsp; Argasidae (<i>Argas, Ornithodoros</i>).</p>
+  <p>&emsp; &emsp; &emsp; Ixodidae (<i>Ixodes, Rhipicephalus</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sub-order <i>d</i>. <i>Prostigmata.</i>&mdash;Integument soft, strengthened by
+special sclerites, those on the ventral surface of the prosoma apparently
+representing the basal segments of the legs embedded in the
+skin. Tracheae, except in the aquatic species in which they are
+atrophied, opening by a pair of stigmata situated close to or above
+the base of the appendages of the 1st pair (mandibles).</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+  <p>Families&mdash;Trombidiidae (<i>Trombidium, Tetranychus</i>).</p>
+  <p>&emsp; &emsp; &emsp; Hydrachnidae (<i>Hydrachna, Atax</i>).</p>
+  <p>&emsp; &emsp; &emsp; Halacaridae (<i>Halacarus, Leptognathus</i>).</p>
+  <p>&emsp; &emsp; &emsp; Bdellidae (<i>Bdella, Eupodes</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:453px; height:355px" src="images/img310b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 78.&mdash;<i>Holothyrus nitidissimus</i>, one of the Acari; after Thorell.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90">
+<p>A, Lateral view with appendages III to VI removed; 1, plate
+covering the whole dorsal area, representing the fused tergal
+sclerites of the prosoma and opisthosoma; 2, similarly-formed
+ventral plate; 3, tracheal stigma.</p>
+
+<p>B, Dorsal view of the same animal; II to VI, 2nd to 6th pairs of
+appendages. The 1st pair of appendages both in this and in C
+are retracted.</p>
+
+<p>C, Ventral view of the same; II to VI as in B; <i>a</i>, genital orifice;
+<i>b</i>, anus; <i>c</i>, united basal segments of the second pair of appendages;
+<i>d</i>, basal segment of the 6th prosomatic appendage of the
+right side. The rest of the appendage, as also of app. Ill, IV
+and V, has been cut away.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt1">Sub-order <i>e</i>. <i>Astigmata.</i>&mdash;Degenerate, mostly parasitic forms
+approaching the Prostigmata in the development of integumental
+sclerites and the softness of the skin, but with the respiratory system
+absent.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+  <p>Families&mdash;Tyroglyphidae (<i>Tyroglyphus, Rhizoglyphus</i>).</p>
+  <p>&emsp; &emsp; &emsp; Sarcoptidae (<i>Sarcoptes, Analges</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sub-order <i>f</i>. <i>Vermiformia.</i>&mdash;Degenerate atracheate parasitic forms
+with the body produced posteriorly into an annulated caudal
+prolongation, and the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs of appendages short
+and only three-jointed.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+  <p>Family&mdash;Demodicidae (<i>Demodex</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sub-order <i>g</i>. <i>Tetrapoda.</i>&mdash;Degenerate atracheate gall-mites in which
+the body is produced posteriorly and annulated, as in <i>Demodex</i>, but in
+which the appendages of the 3rd and 4th pairs are long and normally
+segmented and those of the 5th and 6th pairs entirely absent.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+  <p>Family&mdash;Eriophyidae (<i>Eriophyes, Phyllocoptes</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Remarks on the Rhynchostomi.</i>&mdash;The Acari include a number of
+forms which are of importance and special interest on account of
+their parasitic habits. The ticks (<i>Ixodes</i>) are not only injurious
+as blood-suckers, but are now credited with carrying the germs
+of Texas cattle-fever, just as mosquitoes carry those of malaria.
+The itch-insect (<i>Sarcoptes scabiei</i>) is a well-known human parasite,
+so minute that it was not discovered until the end of the 18th century,
+and &ldquo;the itch&rdquo; was treated medicinally as a rash. The female
+burrows in the epidermis much as the female trap-door spider burrows
+in turf in order to make a nest in which to rear her young. The male
+does not burrow, but wanders freely on the surface of the skin.
+<i>Demodex folliculorum</i> is also a common parasite of the sebaceous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id="page311"></a>311</span>
+glands of the skin of the face in man, and is frequent in the skin
+of the dog. Many Acari are parasitic on marine and freshwater
+molluscs, and others are found on the feathers of birds and the hair
+of mammals. Others have a special faculty of consuming dry,
+powdery vegetable and animal refuse, and are liable to multiply
+in manufactured products of this nature, such as mouldy cheese.
+A species of Acarus is recorded as infesting a store of powdered
+strychnine and feeding on that drug, so poisonous to larger organisms.
+Reference to literature (<b>40</b>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span> cited by numbers in the text.&mdash;<b>1</b>. Strauss-Dürckheim
+(as reported by MM. Riester and Sanson in an appendix to the sixth
+volume of the French translation of Meckel&rsquo;s <i>Anatomy</i>, 1829); <b>2</b>.
+Lankester, &ldquo;Limulus an Arachnid,&rdquo; <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. xxi.
+N.S., 1881; <b>3</b>. <i>Idem</i>, &ldquo;On the Skeletotrophic Tissues of Limulus,
+Scorpio and Mygale,&rdquo; <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. xxiv. N.S., 1884;
+<b>4</b>. <i>Idem. Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> vol. xi., 1883; <b>5</b>. Lankester and A.G. Bourne,
+&ldquo;Eyes of Limulus and Scorpio,&rdquo; <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. xxiii.
+N.S., Jan. 1883; <b>6</b>. Milne-Edwards, A., &ldquo;Recherches sur l&rsquo;anatomie
+des Limules,&rdquo; <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> 5th Series, <i>Zoologie</i>, vol. xvii., 1873;
+<b>7</b>. Owen, Richard, &ldquo;Anatomy of the King-Crab,&rdquo; <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.
+Lond.</i>, vol. xxviii., 1872; <b>8</b>. Kishinouye, &ldquo;Development of <i>Limulus
+longispina</i>,&rdquo; <i>Journal of the Science College of Japan</i>, vol. v., 1892;
+<b>9</b>. Brauer, &ldquo;Development of Scorpion,&rdquo; <i>Zeitschrift für wiss. Zoologie</i>,
+vol. lix., 1895; <b>10</b>. Hansen, H.J., &ldquo;Organs and Characters in
+Different Orders of Arachnida,&rdquo; <i>Entomol. Meddel.</i> vol. iv. pp. 137-149;
+<b>11</b>. Watase, &ldquo;On the Morphology of the Compound Eyes of
+Arthropods,&rdquo; <i>Studies from the Biolog. Lab. Johns Hopkins University</i>,
+vol. iv. pp 287-334; <b>12</b>. Newport, George, &ldquo;Nervous and Circulatory
+Systems in Myriapoda and Macrourous Arachnids,&rdquo; <i>Phil.
+Trans. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1843; <b>13</b>. Lankester, &ldquo;Coxal Glands of Limulus,
+Scorpio and Mygale,&rdquo; <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. xxiv. N.S., 1884;
+<b>13<span class="scs">A</span></b>. W. Patten and A.P. Hazen, &ldquo;Development of the Coxal Glands
+of Limulus,&rdquo; <i>Journ. of Morphology</i>, vol. xvi., 1900; 13B. Bernard,
+&ldquo;Coxal Glands of Scorpio,&rdquo; <i>Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. xii., 1893,
+p. 55; <b>14</b>. Benham, &ldquo;Testis of Limulus,&rdquo; <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i>, 1882;
+<b>15</b>. Lankester, &ldquo;Mobility of the Spermatozoa of Limulus,&rdquo; <i>Quart.
+Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. xviii. N.S., 1878; <b>16</b>. Korschelt and Heider,
+<i>Entwickelungsgeschichte</i> (Jena, 1892), <i>ibique citata</i>; <b>17</b>. Laurie, M.,
+&ldquo;The Embryology of a Scorpion,&rdquo; <i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. xxxi.
+N.S., 1890, and &ldquo;On Development of <i>Scorpio fulvipes</i>,&rdquo; <i>ibid.</i> vol.
+xxxii., 1891; <b>18</b>. Lankester (Homoplasy and Homogeny), &ldquo;On
+the Use of the term Homology in Modern Zoology,&rdquo; <i>Ann. and Mag.
+Nat. Hist.</i>, 1870; <b>19</b>. <i>Idem</i>, &ldquo;Degeneration, a Chapter in Darwinism,&rdquo;
+1878, reprinted in the <i>Advancement of Science</i> (Macmillan, 1890);
+<b>20</b>. <i>Idem</i>, &ldquo;Limulus an Arachnid,&rdquo; <i>Q. J. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. xxi. N.S.;
+<b>21</b>. Claus, &ldquo;Degeneration of the Acari and Classification of Arthropoda,&rdquo;
+<i>Anzeiger d. k. k. Akad. Wissen. Wien</i>, 1885; see also <i>Ann. and
+Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> (5) vol. xvii., 1886, p. 364, and vol. xix. p. 225;
+<b>22</b>. Lindstrom, G., &ldquo;Researches on the Visual Organs of the Trilobites,&rdquo;
+<i>K. Svenska Vet. Akad. Handl.</i> xxxiv. No. 8, pp. 1-86, Pls. i.-vi.,
+1901; <b>22*</b>. Zittel, American edition of his <i>Palaeontology</i> (the Macmillan
+Co., New York), where ample references to the literature of
+Trilobitae and Eurypteridae will be found; also references to
+literature of fossil Scorpions and Spiders; <b>23</b>. Hoek, &ldquo;Report on the
+Pycnogonida,&rdquo; <i>Challenger Expedition Reports</i>, 1881; Meinert,
+&ldquo;Pycnogonida of the Danish Ingolf Expedition,&rdquo; vol. iii., 1899;
+Morgan, &ldquo;Embryology and Phylogeny of the Pycnogonids,&rdquo; <i>Biol.
+Lab. Baltimore</i>, vol. v., 1891; <b>24</b>. Bourne, A.G., &ldquo;The Reputed
+Suicide of the Scorpion,&rdquo; <i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> vol. xlii. pp. 17-22; <b>25</b>.
+Lankester, &ldquo;Notes on some Habits of Scorpions,&rdquo; <i>Journ. Linn. Soc.
+Zool.</i> vol. xvi. p. 455, 1882; <b>26</b>. Huxley, &ldquo;Pharynx of Scorpion,&rdquo;
+<i>Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. viii. (old series), 1860, p. 250; <b>27</b>.
+Pocock, &ldquo;How and Why Scorpions hiss,&rdquo; <i>Natural Science</i>, vol. ix.,
+1896; cf. <i>idem</i>, &ldquo;Stridulating Organs of Spiders,&rdquo; <i>Ann. and Mag.
+Nat. Hist.</i> (6), xvi. pp. 230-233; <b>28</b>. Kraepelin, <i>Das Thierreich
+(Scorpiones et Pedipalpi</i>) (Berlin, 1899); Peters, &ldquo;Eine neue Eintheilung
+der Skorpione,&rdquo; <i>Man. Akad. Wiss. Berlin</i>, 1861; Pocock,
+&ldquo;Classification of Scorpions,&rdquo; <i>Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> (6) xii.,
+1893; Thorell and Lindstrom, &ldquo;On a Silurian Scorpion,&rdquo; <i>Kongl.
+Svens. Vet. Akad. Handl.</i> xxi. No. 9, 1885; <b>29</b>. Cambridge, O.P.,
+&ldquo;A New Family (Tartarides) and Genus of Thelyphonidea,&rdquo; <i>Ann.
+and Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> (4) x., 1872, p. 413; Cook, &ldquo;Hubbardia, a New
+Genus of Pedipalpi,&rdquo; <i>Proc. Entom. Soc. Washington</i>, vol. iv., 1899;
+Thorell, &ldquo;Tartarides, &amp;c.&rdquo; <i>Ann. Mus. Genova</i>, vol. xxvii., 1889;
+<b>30</b>. M Cook, <i>American Spiders and their Spinning Work</i> (3 vols.;
+Philadelphia, 1889-1893); <b>31</b>. Peckham, &ldquo;On Sexual Selection in
+Spiders,&rdquo; <i>Occasional Papers Nat. Hist. Soc. Wisconsin</i>, vol. i. pp.
+1-113, 1889; <b>32</b>. Moggridge, <i>Harvesting Ants and Trap-Door Spiders</i>
+(1873); <b>33</b>. Bertkau, Ph., <i>Arch. f. Naturgesch.</i> vol. xlviii. pp. 316-362;
+<i>Idem</i>, same journal, 1875, p. 235, and 1878, p. 351; Cambridge,
+O.P., &ldquo;Araneidea&rdquo; in <i>Biologia Centr. Americana</i>, vols. i. and ii.
+(London, 1899); Keyserling, <i>Spinnen Amerikas</i> (Nuremberg, 1880-1892);
+Pocock, &ldquo;Liphistius and the Classification of Spiders,&rdquo;
+<i>Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> (6) x., 1892; Simon, <i>Hist. nat. des
+Araignées</i>, vols. i. and ii., 1892, 1897; Wagner, &ldquo;L&rsquo;Industrie des
+Araneína,&rdquo; <i>Mem. Acad. St-Pétersbourg</i>; <i>Idem</i>, &ldquo;La Mue des
+Araignées,&rdquo; <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> vol. vi.; <b>34</b>. Grassi, G.B. &ldquo;Intorno
+ad un nuovo Aracnide artrogastro (<i>Koenenia mirabilis</i>) &amp;c.&rdquo; <i>Boll.
+Soc. Ent. Ital.</i> vol. xviii., 1886; <b>35</b>. H.J. Hansen and Sörensen,
+&ldquo;The Order Palpigradi, Thorell (<i>Koenenia</i>), and its Relationships
+with other Arachnida,&rdquo; <i>Ent. Tidskr.</i> vol. xviii. pp. 233-240, 1898;
+Kraepelin, <i>Das Thierreich</i> (Berlin, 1901); <b>36</b>. Bernard. &ldquo;Compar.
+Morphol. of the Galeodidae,&rdquo; <i>Trans. Linn. Soc. Zool.</i> vol. vi., 1896,
+<i>ibique citata</i>; Dufour, &ldquo;Galeodes,&rdquo; <i>Mém. prés. Acad. Sci. Paris</i>,
+vol. xvii., 1862; Kraepelin, <i>Das Thierreich</i> (Berlin, 1901); Pocock,
+&ldquo;Taxonomy of Solifugae,&rdquo; <i>Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. xx.;
+<b>37</b>. Balzan, &ldquo;Voyage au Vénézuela (Pseudoscorpiones),&rdquo; <i>Ann. Soc.
+Entom. France</i>, 1891, pp. 497-522; <b>38</b>. Guérin-Méneville, <i>Rev. Zool.</i>,
+1838, p. II; Karsch, &ldquo;Ueber Cryptostemma Guer.&rdquo; <i>Berliner entom.
+Zeitschrift</i>, xxxviii. pp. 25-32, 1892; Thorell, &ldquo;On an apparently
+new Arachnid belonging to the family <i>Cryptostemmidae</i>,&rdquo; <i>Westv.
+Bihang Svenska Vet. Akad. Handligar</i>, vol. xvii. No. 9, 1892; <b>39</b>.
+Hansen and Sorensen, <i>On Two Orders of Arachnida</i> (Cambridge,
+1904); Sörensen, &ldquo;<i>Opiliones laniatores</i>,&rdquo; <i>Nat. Tidskr.</i> (3) vol. xiv.,
+1884; Thorell, &ldquo;Opilioni,&rdquo; <i>Ann. Mus. Genova</i>, vol. viii., 1876;
+<b>40</b>. Berlese, &ldquo;Acari, &amp;c., in Italia reperta&rdquo; (Padova, 1892); Canestrini,
+<i>Acarofauna Italiana</i> (Padova, 1885); Canestrini and Kramer,
+&ldquo;Demodicidae and Sarcoptidae&rdquo; in <i>Das Thierreich</i> (Berlin, 1899);
+Michael, &ldquo;British Oribatidae,&rdquo; <i>Ray Soc.</i>; <i>Idem</i>, &ldquo;Oribatidae&rdquo; in
+<i>Das Thierreich</i> (Berlin, 1898); <i>Idem</i>, &ldquo;Progress and Present State
+of Knowledge of Acari,&rdquo; <i>Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc.</i>, 1894; Nalepa,
+&ldquo;Phytoptidae,&rdquo; <i>Das Thierreich</i> (Berlin, 1898); Trouessart, &ldquo;Classification
+des Acariens,&rdquo; <i>Rev. Sci. Nat. de l&rsquo;ouest.</i> p. 289, 1892; Wagner,
+<i>Embryonal Entwick, von Ixodes</i> (St Petersburg, 1803); <b>41</b>. Bertkau,
+Ph., &ldquo;Coxaldrusen der Arachniden,&rdquo; <i>Sitzb. Niederl. Gesellsch.</i>, 1885;
+<b>42</b>. Patten, W., &ldquo;Brain and Sense Organs of Limulus,&rdquo; <i>Quart. Journ.
+Mic. Sci.</i> vol. xxxv., 1894; see also his &ldquo;Origin of Vertebrates from
+Arachnids,&rdquo; <i>ibid.</i> vol. xxxi.</p>
+
+<p>Authorities not cited by numbers in the text:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><b>Lung-books:</b>&mdash;Berteaux, &ldquo;Le Poumon des Arachnides,&rdquo; <i>La
+Cellule</i>, vol. v. 1891; Jawarowski, &ldquo;Die Entwick. d. sogen. Lunge
+bei der Arachniden,&rdquo; <i>Zeitsch. wiss. Zool.</i> vol. lviii., 1894; Macleod,
+&ldquo;Recherches sur la structure et la signification de l&rsquo;appareil respiratoire
+des Arachnides,&rdquo; <i>Arch. d. Biologie.</i> vol. v., 1884; Schneider,
+A., &ldquo;Mélanges arachnologiques,&rdquo; in <i>Tablettes zoologiques</i>, vol. ii.
+p. 135, 1892; Simmons, &ldquo;Development of Lung in Spiders,&rdquo;
+<i>Amer. Journ. Science</i>, vol. xlviii., 1894. <b>Coxal Glands:</b>&mdash;Bertkau,
+&ldquo;Ueber die Coxaldrusen der Arachniden,&rdquo; <i>Sitzb. d. Niederl. Gesellsch.</i>,
+1885; Loman, &ldquo;Altes und neues über das Nephridium (die Coxaldrüse)
+der Arachniden,&rdquo; <i>Bÿd. tot de Dierkunde</i>, vol. xiv., 1887;
+Macleod, &ldquo;Glande coxale chez les Galéodes,&rdquo; <i>Bull. Acad. Belg.</i> (3)
+vol. viii., 1884; Pelseneer, &ldquo;On the Coxal Glands of Mygale,&rdquo; <i>Proc.
+Zool. Soc.</i>, 1885; Tower, &ldquo;The External Opening of the brick-red
+Glands of Limulus,&rdquo; <i>Zool. Anzeiger</i>, vol. xviii. p. 471, 1895.
+<b>Ento-sternite:</b>&mdash;Schimkewitsch, &ldquo;Bau und Entwick. des Endosternites der
+Arachniden,&rdquo; <i>Zool. Jahrb.</i>, Anal. Abtheil., vol. viii., 1894. <b>Embryology:</b>&mdash;Balfour,
+&ldquo;Development of the Araneina,&rdquo; <i>Q. J. Micr. Sci.</i> vol. xx.,
+1880; Kingsley, &ldquo;The Embryology of Limulus,&rdquo; <i>Journ. Morphology</i>,
+vols. vii. and viii.; Kishinouye, &ldquo;Development of Araneina,&rdquo; <i>Journ.
+Coll. Sci. Univ. of Japan</i>, vol. iv., 1890; Locy, &ldquo;Development of
+Agelena,&rdquo; <i>Bull. Mus. Harvard</i>, vol. xii., 1885; Metchnikoff, &ldquo;Embryologie
+d. Scorpion,&rdquo; <i>Zeit. wiss. Zool.</i> vol. xxi., 1871; <i>Idem</i>,
+&ldquo;Embryol. Chelifer,&rdquo; <i>Zeit. wiss. Zool.</i> vol. xxi., 1871; Schimkewitsch,
+&ldquo;Développement des Araignées,&rdquo; <i>Archives d. Biologie</i>, vol. vi.
+1887. <b>Sense organs:</b>&mdash;Bertkau, &ldquo;Sinnesorgane der Spinnen,&rdquo;
+<i>Arch. f. mikros. Anat.</i> vol. xxvii. p. 589, 1886; Graber, &ldquo;Unicorneale
+Tracheaten Auge,&rdquo; <i>Arch. f. mikr. Anat.</i> vol. xvii., 1879;
+Grenacher, <i>Gehörorgane der Arthropoden</i> (Göttingen, 1879); Kishinouye,
+&ldquo;Lateral Eyes of Spiders,&rdquo; <i>Zool. Anz.</i> vol. xiv. p. 381, 1891;
+Purcell, &ldquo;Phalangiden Augen,&rdquo; <i>Zool. Anzeiger</i>, vol. xv. p. 461.</p>
+
+<p><b>General works on Arachnida:</b>&mdash;Blanchard, &ldquo;Les Arachnides&rdquo; in
+<i>L&rsquo;Organisation du regne animal</i>; Gaubert, &ldquo;Recherches sur les
+Arachnides,&rdquo; <i>Ann. Sci. Nat.</i> (7) vol. xiii., 1892; Koch, C., <i>Die
+Arachniden</i> (16 vols., Nuremberg, 1831-1848); Koch, Keyserling
+and Sörensen, <i>Die Arachniden Australiens</i> (Nuremberg, 1871-1890);
+Pocock, <i>Arachnida of British India</i> (London, 1900); <i>Idem</i>, &ldquo;On
+African Arachnida,&rdquo; in <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i> and <i>Ann. and Mag. Nat.
+Hist.</i>, 1897-1900; Simon, <i>Les Arachnides de la France</i> (7 vols.,
+Paris, 1874-1881); Thorell, &ldquo;Arachnida from the Oriental Region,&rdquo;
+<i>Ann. Mus. Genova</i>, 1877-1899.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. R. L.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arthropoda</a></span> for the use of the term &ldquo;prosthomere.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2m" id="ft2m" href="#fa2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See fig. 12 in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arthropoda</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3m" id="ft3m" href="#fa3m"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Though ten is the prevailing number of
+retinula cells and rhabdomeres in the lateral eye of Limulus,
+Watase states that they may be as few as nine and as many as eighteen.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4m" id="ft4m" href="#fa4m"><span class="fn">4</span></a> A great deal of superfluous hypothesis has lately been put forward
+in the name of &ldquo;the principle of convergence of characters&rdquo; by a
+certain school of palaeontologists. The horse is supposed by these
+writers to have originated by separate lines of descent in the Old
+World and the New, from five-toed ancestors! And the important
+consequences following from the demonstration of the identity in
+structure of Limulus and Scorpio are evaded by arbitrary and
+even phantastic invocations of a mysterious transcendental force
+which brings about &ldquo;convergence&rdquo; irrespective of heredity and
+selection. Morphology becomes a farce when such assumptions are
+made.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. R. L.)</div>
+
+<p><a name="ft5m" id="ft5m" href="#fa5m"><span class="fn">5</span></a> A pair of round tubercles on the labram (camerostome or hypostoma)
+of several species of Trilobites has been described and held to
+be a pair of eyes (<b>22</b>). Sense-organs in a similar position were
+discovered in Limulus by Patten (<b>42</b>) in 1894.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6m" id="ft6m" href="#fa6m"><span class="fn">6</span></a> The writer is indebted to R.I. Pocock, assistant in the Natural
+History departments of the British Museum, for valuable assistance
+in the preparation of this article and for the classification and definition
+of the groups of Eu-arachnida here given. The general
+scheme and some of the details have been brought by the writer into
+agreement with the views maintained in this article. Pocock accepts
+those views in all essential points and has, as a special student of
+the Arachnida, given to them valuable expansion and confirmation.
+The writer also desires to express his thanks to Messrs. Macmillan
+&amp; Co. for permission to use figs. 22, 43, 44 and 45, which are taken from
+Parker and Haswell&rsquo;s <i>Text-book of Zoology</i>; and to Messrs. Swan
+Sonnenschein &amp; Co. for the loan of several figures from the translations
+published by them of the admirable treatise on <i>Embryology</i>
+by Professors Korschelt and Heider; also to the publishers of the
+treatise on <i>Palaeontology</i> by Professor Zittel, Herr Oldenbourg and
+The Macmillan Co., New York, for several cuts of extinct forms.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7m" id="ft7m" href="#fa7m"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Pocock suggests that the area marked vii. in the outline figure
+of the dorsal view of <i>Limulus</i> (fig. 7) may be the tergum of the
+suppressed prae-genital somite. Embryological evidence must settle
+whether this is so or not.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARAD,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ó-Arad</span>, a town of Hungary, capital of the county
+of the same name, 159 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900)
+53,903. It is situated on the right bank of the river Maros, and
+consists of the inner town and five suburbs. Arad is a modern-built
+town, and contains many handsome private and public buildings,
+including a cathedral. It is the seat of a Greek-Orthodox
+bishop, and possesses a Greek-Orthodox theological seminary,
+two training schools for teachers&mdash;one Hungarian, and the other
+Rumanian&mdash;and a conservatoire for music. The town played
+an important part in the Hungarian revolution of 1848-49,
+and possesses a museum containing relics of this war of independence.
+One of the public squares contains a martyrs&rsquo;
+monument, erected in memory of the thirteen Hungarian
+generals shot here on the 6th of October 1849, by order of the
+Austrian general Haynau. It consists of a colossal figure of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id="page312"></a>312</span>
+Hungary, with four allegorical groups, and medallions of the
+executed generals. Arad is an important railway junction,
+and has become the largest industrial and commercial centre
+of south-eastern Hungary. Its principal industries are: distilling,
+milling, machinery-making, leather-working and saw-milling.
+A large trade is carried on in grain, flour, alcohol,
+cattle and wood. Arad was a fortified place, and was captured
+by the Turks during the wars of the 17th century, and kept by
+them till the end of that century. The new fortress, built in
+1763, although small, was formidable, and played a great role
+during the Hungarian struggle for independence in 1849.
+Bravely defended by the Austrian general Berger until the
+1st of July 1849, it was then captured by the Hungarian rebels,
+who made it their headquarters during the latter part of the
+insurrection. It was from it that Kossuth issued his famous
+proclamation (11th August 1849), and it was here that he handed
+over the supreme military and civil power to Görgei. The
+fortress was recaptured shortly after the surrender of Görgei
+to the Russians at Világos. The fortress is now used as an
+ammunition depot.</p>
+
+<p>The town of Uj-Arad, <i>i.e.</i> New Arad (pop. 6124), situated on
+the opposite bank of the Maros, is practically a suburb of Arad,
+with which it is connected by a bridge. The town was founded
+during the Turkish wars of the 17th century. The works erected
+by the Turks for the capture of the fortress of Arad formed
+the nucleus of the new town.</p>
+
+<p>Világos, the town where the famous capitulation of Görgei
+to the Russians took place on the 13th of August 1849, lies
+21 m. by rail north-east of Arad.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARAEOSTYLE<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="araios">&#7936;&#961;&#945;&#953;&#972;&#962;</span>, weak or widely spaced, and <span class="grk" title="stylos">&#963;&#964;&#8166;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+column), an architectural term for the intercolumniation (<i>q.v.</i>)
+given to those temples where the columns had only timber
+architraves to carry.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARAEOSYSTYLE<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="araios">&#7936;&#961;&#945;&#953;&#972;&#962;</span>, widely spaced, and <span class="grk" title="systylos">&#963;&#973;&#963;&#964;&#965;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+with columns set close together), an architectural term applied to
+a colonnade, in which the intercolumniation (<i>q.v.</i>) is alternately
+wide and narrow, as in the case of the western porch of St Paul&rsquo;s
+cathedral and the east front of the Louvre by Perrault.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARAGO, DOMINIQUE FRANÇOIS JEAN<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1786-1853), French
+physicist, was born on the 26th of February 1786, at Estagel, a
+small village near Perpignan, in the department of the eastern
+Pyrenees. He was the eldest of four brothers. Jean (1788-1836)
+emigrated to America and became a general in the Mexican
+army. Jacques Étienne Victor (1799-1855) took part in L.C.
+de S. de Freycinet&rsquo;s exploring voyage in the &ldquo;Uranie&rdquo; from
+1817 to 1821, and on his return to France devoted himself to
+journalism and the drama. The fourth brother, Étienne Vincent
+(1802-1892), is said to have collaborated with H. de Balzac in the
+<i>Héritière de Birague</i>, and from 1822 to 1847 wrote a great number
+of light dramatic pieces, mostly in collaboration. A strong
+republican, he was obliged to leave France in 1849, but returned
+after the amnesty of 1859. In 1879 he was nominated director
+of the Luxembourg museum.</p>
+
+<p>Showing decided military tastes François Arago was sent to
+the municipal college of Perpignan, where he began to study
+mathematics in preparation for the entrance examination of
+the polytechnic school. Within two years and a half he had
+mastered all the subjects prescribed for examination, and a
+great deal more, and, on going up for examination at Toulouse,
+he astounded his examiner by his knowledge of Lagrange.
+Towards the close of 1803 he entered the polytechnic school,
+with the artillery service as the aim of his ambition, and in 1804,
+through the advice and recommendation of S.D. Poisson, he
+received the appointment of secretary to the Observatory of
+Paris. He now became acquainted with Laplace, and through
+his influence was commissioned, with J.B. Biot, to complete
+the meridional measurements which had been begun by J.B.J.
+Delambre, and interrupted since the death of P.F.A. Méchain
+(1744-1804). The two left Paris in 1806 and began operations
+among the mountains of Spain, but Biot returned to Paris
+after they had determined the latitude of Formentera, the
+southernmost point to which they were to carry the survey,
+leaving Arago to make the geodetical connexion of Majorca
+with Ivica and with Formentera.</p>
+
+<p>The adventures and difficulties of the latter were now only
+beginning. The political ferment caused by the entrance of
+the French into Spain extended to these islands, and the ignorant
+populace began to suspect that Arago&rsquo;s movements and his
+blazing fires on the top of Mount Galatzo were telegraphic
+signals to the invading army. Ultimately they became so infuriated
+that he was obliged to cause himself to be incarcerated
+in the fortress of Belver in June 1808. On the 28th of July he
+managed to escape from the island in a fishing-boat, and after
+an adventurous voyage he reached Algiers on the 3rd of August.
+Thence he procured a passage in a vessel bound for Marseilles,
+but on the 16th of August, just as the vessel was nearing Marseilles,
+it fell into the hands of a Spanish corsair. With the rest
+of the crew, Arago was taken to Rosas, and imprisoned first in
+a windmill, and afterwards in the fortress of that seaport, until
+the town fell into the hands of the French, when the prisoners
+were transferred to Palamos. After fully three months&rsquo; imprisonment
+they were released on the demand of the dey of Algiers,
+and again set sail for Marseilles on the 28th of November, but
+when within sight of their port they were driven back by a
+northerly wind to Bougie on the coast of Africa. Transport
+to Algiers by sea from this place would have occasioned a weary
+stay of three months; Arago, therefore, set out for it by land
+under conduct of a Mahommedan priest, and reached it on
+Christmas day. After six months&rsquo; stay in Algiers he once again,
+on the 21st of June 1809, set sail for Marseilles, where he had to
+undergo a monotonous and inhospitable quarantine in the
+lazaretto, before his difficulties were over. The first letter he
+received, while in the lazaretto, was from A. von Humboldt;
+and this was the origin of a connexion which, in Arago&rsquo;s words,
+&ldquo;lasted over forty years without a single cloud ever having
+troubled it.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Through all these vicissitudes Arago had succeeded in preserving
+the records of his survey; and his first act on his return
+home was to deposit them in the Bureau des Longitudes at
+Paris. As a reward for his adventurous conduct in the cause
+of science, he was in September 1809 elected a member of the
+Academy of Sciences, in room of J.B.L. Lalande, at the remarkably
+early age of twenty-three, and before the close of
+the same year he was chosen by the council of the polytechnic
+school to succeed G. Monge in the chair of analytical geometry.
+About the same time he was named by the emperor one of the
+astronomers of the Royal Observatory, which was accordingly
+his residence till his death, and it was in this capacity that he
+delivered his remarkably successful series of popular lectures
+on astronomy, which were continued from 1812 to 1845.</p>
+
+<p>In 1816, along with Gay-Lussac, he started the <i>Annales de
+chimie et de physique</i>, and in 1818 or 1819 he proceeded along
+with Biot to execute geodetic operations on the coasts of France,
+England and Scotland. They measured the length of the
+seconds-pendulum at Leith, and in Unst, one of the Shetland
+isles, the results of the observations being published in 1821,
+along with those made in Spain. Arago was elected a member
+of the Board of Longitude immediately afterwards, and contributed
+to each of its <i>Annuals</i>, for about twenty-two years,
+important scientific notices on astronomy and meteorology
+and occasionally on civil engineering, as well as interesting
+memoirs of members of the Academy.</p>
+
+<p>In 1830, Arago, who always professed liberal opinions of the
+extreme republican type, was elected a member of the chamber
+of deputies for the Lower Seine, and he employed his splendid
+gifts of eloquence and scientific knowledge in all questions connected
+with public education, the rewards of inventors, and the
+encouragement of the mechanical and practical sciences. Many
+of the most creditable national enterprises, dating from this
+period, are due to his advocacy&mdash;such as the reward to L.J.M.
+Daguerre for the invention of photography, the grant for
+the publication of the works of P. Fermat and Laplace,
+the acquisition of the museum of Cluny, the development
+of railways and electric telegraphs, the improvement of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313"></a>313</span>
+navigation of the Seine, and the boring of the artesian wells at
+Grenelle.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 1830 also he was appointed director of the Observatory, and
+as a member of the chamber of deputies he was able to obtain grants of
+money for rebuilding it in part, and for the addition of magnificent
+instruments. In the same year, too, he was chosen perpetual secretary of
+the Academy of Sciences, in room of J.B.J. Fourier. Arago threw his
+whole soul into its service, and by his faculty of making friends he
+gained at once for it and for himself a world-wide reputation. As
+perpetual secretary it fell to him to pronounce historical <i>éloges</i> on
+deceased members; and for this duty his rapidity and facility of
+thought, his happy piquancy of style, and his extensive knowledge
+peculiarly adapted him.</p>
+
+<p>In 1834 he again visited England, to attend the meeting of the British
+Association at Edinburgh. From this time till 1848 he led a life of
+comparative quiet&mdash;not the quiet of inactivity, however, for his
+incessant labours within the Academy and the Observatory produced a
+multitude of contributions to all departments of physical science,&mdash;but
+on the fall of Louis Philippe he left his laboratory to join in forming
+the provisional government. He was entrusted with the discharge of two
+important functions, that had never before been united in one person,
+viz. the ministry of war and of marine; and in the latter capacity he
+effected some salutary reforms, such as the improvement of rations in
+the navy and the abolition of flogging. He also abolished political
+oaths of all kinds, and, against an array of moneyed interests,
+succeeded in procuring the abolition of negro slavery in the French
+colonies.</p>
+
+<p>In the beginning of May 1852, when the government of Louis Napoleon
+required an oath of allegiance from all its functionaries, Arago
+peremptorily refused, and sent in his resignation of his post as
+astronomer at the Bureau des Longitudes. This, however, the prince
+president, to his credit, declined to accept, and made &ldquo;an exception in
+favour of a <i>savant</i> whose works had thrown lustre on France, and whose
+existence his government would regret to embitter.&rdquo; But the tenure of
+office thus granted did not prove of long duration. Arago was now on his
+death-bed, under a complication of diseases, induced, no doubt, by the
+hardships and labours of his earlier years. In the summer of 1853 he was
+advised by his physicians to try the effect of his native air, and he
+accordingly set out for the eastern Pyrenees. But the change was
+unavailing, and after a lingering illness, in which he suffered first
+from diabetes, then from Bright&rsquo;s disease, complicated by dropsy, he
+died in Paris on the 2nd of October 1853.</p>
+
+<p>Arago&rsquo;s fame as an experimenter and discoverer rests mainly on his
+contributions to magnetism and still more to optics. He found that a
+magnetic needle, made to oscillate over nonferruginous surfaces, such as
+water, glass, copper, &amp;c., falls more rapidly in the extent of its
+oscillations according as it is more or less approached to the surface.
+This discovery, which gained him the Copley medal of the Royal Society
+in 1825, was followed by another, that a rotating plate of copper tends
+to communicate its motion to a magnetic needle suspended over it
+(&ldquo;magnetism of rotation&rdquo;). Arago is also fairly entitled to be regarded
+as having proved the long-suspected connexion between the aurora
+borealis and the variations of the magnetic elements.</p>
+
+<p>In optics we owe to him not only important optical discoveries of his
+own, but the credit of stimulating the genius of A.J. Fresnel, with
+whose history, as well as with that of E.L. Malus and of Thomas Young,
+this part of his life is closely interwoven. Shortly after the beginning
+of the 19th century the labours of these three philosophers were shaping
+the modern doctrine of the undulatory theory of light. Fresnel&rsquo;s
+arguments in favour of that theory found little favour with Laplace,
+Poisson and Biot, the champions of the emission theory; but they were
+ardently espoused by Humboldt and by Arago, who had been appointed by
+the Academy to report on the paper. This was the foundation of an
+intimate friendship between Arago and Fresnel, and of a determination to
+carry on together further researches in this subject, which led to the
+enunciation of the fundamental laws of the polarization of light known
+by their names (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Polarization</a></span>). As a result of this work Arago
+constructed a <i>polariscope</i>, which he used for some interesting
+observations on the polarization of the light of the sky. To him is also
+due the discovery of the power of <i>rotatory polarization</i> exhibited by
+quartz, and last of all, among his many contributions to the support of
+the undulatory hypothesis, comes the <i>experimentum crucis</i> which he
+proposed to carry out for comparing directly the velocity of light in
+air and in water or glass. On the emission theory the velocity should be
+accelerated by an increase of density in the medium; on the wave theory,
+it should be retarded. In 1838 he communicated to the Academy the
+details of his apparatus, which utilized the revolving mirrors employed
+by Sir C. Wheatstone in 1835 for measuring the velocity of the electric
+discharge; but owing to the great care required in the carrying out of
+the project, and to the interruption to his labours caused by the
+revolution of 1848, it was the spring of 1850 before he was ready to put
+his idea to the test; and then his eyesight suddenly gave way. Before
+his death, however, the retardation of light in denser media was
+demonstrated by the experiments of H.L. Fizeau and J.B.L. Foucault,
+which, with improvements in detail, were based on the plan proposed by
+him.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Arago&rsquo;s <i>&OElig;uvres</i> were published after his death under the direction of
+J.A. Barral, in 17 vols., 8vo, 1854-1862; also separately his
+<i>Astronomie populaire</i>, in 4 vols.; <i>Notices biographiques</i>, in 3 vols.;
+<i>Notices scientifiques</i>, in 5 vols.; <i>Voyages scientifiques</i>, in 1 vol.;
+<i>Mémoires scientifiques</i>, in 2 vols.; <i>Mélanges</i>, in 1 vol.; and <i>Tables
+analytiques et documents importants</i> (with portrait), in 1 vol. English
+translations of the following portions of his works have
+appeared:&mdash;<i>Treatise on Comets</i>, by C. Gold, C.B. (London, 1833); also
+translated by Smyth and Grant (London, 1861); <i>Hist. éloge of James
+Watt</i>, by James Muirhead (London, 1839); also translated, with notes, by
+Lord Brougham; <i>Popular Lectures on Astronomy</i>, by Walter Kelly and Rev.
+L. Tomlinson (London, 1854); also translated by Dr W.H. Smyth and Prof.
+R. Grant, 2 vols. (London, 1855); <i>Arago&rsquo;s Autobiography</i>, translated by
+the Rev. Baden Powell (London, 1855, 1858); <i>Arago&rsquo;s Meteorological
+Essays</i>, with introduction by Humboldt, translated under the
+superintendence of Colonel Sabine (London, 1855), and <i>Arago&rsquo;s
+Biographies of Scientific Men</i>, translated by Smyth, Powell and Grant,
+8vo (London, 1857).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARAGON,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Arragon</span> (in Span. <i>Aragón</i>), a captaincy-general, and
+formerly a kingdom of Spain; bounded on the N. by the Pyrenees, which
+separate it from France, on the E. by Catalonia and Valencia, S. by
+Valencia, and W. by the two Castiles and Navarre. Pop. (1900) 912,711;
+area, 18,294 sq. m. Aragon was divided in 1833 into the provinces of
+Huesca, Teruel and Saragossa; an account of its modern condition is
+therefore given under these names, which have not, however, superseded
+the older designation in popular usage.</p>
+
+<p>Aragon consists of a central plain, edged by mountain ranges. On the
+south, east and west, these ranges, though wild and rugged, are of no
+great elevation, but on the north the Pyrenees attain their greatest
+altitude in the peaks of Aneto (11,168 ft.) and Monte Perdido (10,998
+ft.)&mdash;also known as Las Tres Sorores, and, in French, as Mont Perdu. The
+central pass over the Pyrenees is the Port de Canfranc, on the line
+between Saragossa and Pau. Aragon is divided by the river Ebro (<i>q.v.</i>),
+which flows through it in a south-easterly direction, into two nearly
+equal parts, known as Trans-ibero and Cis-ibero. The Ebro is the
+principal river, and receives from the north, in its passage through the
+province, the Arba, the Gallego and the united waters of the Cinca,
+Esera, Noguera Ribagorzana, Noguera Pallaresa and Segre&mdash;the last three
+belonging to Catalonia. From the south it receives the Jalon and Jiloca
+(or <i>Xalon</i> and <i>Xiloca</i>) and the Guadalope. The Imperial Canal of
+Aragon, which was begun by the emperor Charles V. in 1529, but remained
+unfinished for nearly two hundred years, extends from Tudela to El Burgo
+de Ebro, a distance of 80 m.; it has a depth of 9 ft., and an average
+breadth of 69, and is navigable for vessels of about 80 tons. The Royal
+Canal of Tauste, which lies along the north side of the Ebro, was cut
+for purposes of irrigation, and gives fertility to the district. Two
+leagues north-north-east of Albarracin is the remarkable fountain called
+Cella, 3700 ft. above the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page314" id="page314"></a>314</span>
+sea, which forms the source of the Jiloca; and between this river
+and the Sierra Molina is an extensive lake called Gallocanta,
+covering about 6000 acres. The climate is characterized by
+extreme heat in the summer and cold in the winter; among the
+mountains the snowfall is heavy, and thunderstorms are frequent,
+but there is comparatively little rain.</p>
+
+<p>Within a recent geological period, central Aragon was
+undoubtedly submerged by the sea, and the parched chalky soil
+remains saturated with salt, while many of the smaller streams
+run brackish. As the mountains of Valencia and Catalonia
+effectually bar out the fertilizing moisture of the sea-winds,
+much of the province is a sheer wilderness, stony, ash-coloured,
+scarred with dry watercourses, and destitute of any vegetation
+except thin grass and heaths. In contrast with the splendid
+fertility of Valencia or the south of France, the landscape of
+this region, like the rest of central Spain, seems almost a continuation
+of the north African desert area. There are, however,
+extensive oak, pine and beech forests in the highlands, and many
+beautiful oases in the deeply sunk valleys, and along the rivers,
+especially beside the Ebro, which is, therefore, often called the
+&ldquo;Nile of Aragon.&rdquo; In such oases the flora is exceedingly rich.
+Wheat, maize, rice, oil, flax and hemp, of fine quality, are grown
+in considerable quantities; as well as saffron, madder, liquorice,
+sumach, and a variety of fruits. Merino wool is one of the chief
+products.</p>
+
+<p>In purity of race the Aragonese are probably equal to the
+Castilians, to whom, rather than to the Catalans or Valencians,
+they are also allied in character. The dress of the women is less
+distinctive than that of the men, who wear a picturesque black
+and white costume, with knee-breeches, a brilliantly coloured
+sash, black hempen sandals, and a handkerchief wound round
+the head.</p>
+
+<p>Three counties&mdash;Sobrarbe, situated near the headwaters of
+the Cinca, Aragon, to the west, and Ribagorza or Ribagorça,
+to the east&mdash;are indicated by tradition and the earliest chronicles
+as the cradle of the Aragonese monarchy. These districts were
+never wholly subdued when the Moors overran the country
+(711-713). Sobrarbe especially was for a time the headquarters
+of the Christian defence in eastern Spain. About 1035,
+Sancho III. the Great, ruler of the newly established kingdom
+of Navarre, which included the three counties above mentioned,
+bequeathed them to Gonzalez and Ramiro, his sons. Ramiro
+soon rid himself of his rival, and welded Sobrarbe, Ribagorza
+and Aragon into a single kingdom, which thenceforward grew
+rapidly in size and power and shared with Castile the chief part
+in the struggle against the Moors. The history of this period,
+which was terminated by the union of Castile and Aragon under
+Ferdinand and Isabella in 1479, is given, along with a full account
+of the very interesting constitution of Aragon, under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spain</a></span>
+(<i>q.v.</i>). At the height of its power under James I. (1213-1276),
+the kingdom included Valencia, Catalonia, the Balearic Islands
+and the considerable territory of Montpellier in France; while
+Peter III. (1276-1285) added Sicily to his dominions.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The literature relating to Aragon is very extensive. See, in
+addition to the works cited in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spain</a></span> (section <i>History</i>),
+&ldquo;Les Archives d&rsquo;Aragon et de Navarre,&rdquo; by L. Cadier, in <i>Bibliothèque
+de l&rsquo;École des Chartes</i>, 49 (Paris, 1888). Among the more important
+original authorities, the following may be selected:&mdash;for general
+history, <i>Anales de la corona de Aragón</i>, by G. Çurita, 3rd ed. in 7
+folio volumes (Saragossa, 1668-1671; 1st ed. 1562-1580);&mdash;for
+ecclesiastical history, <i>Teatro histórico de las iglesias de Aragón</i>
+(Pamplona, 1770-1807); for economic history, <i>História de la
+economia politica de Aragón</i>, by I.J. de Asso y del Rio (Saragossa,
+1798). For the constitution and laws of Aragon, see <i>Orígines del
+Justicia de Aragón</i>, &amp;c., by J. Ribera Tarrago (Saragossa, 1897), and
+<i>Instituciones y reyes de Aragón</i>, by V. Balaguér (Madrid, 1896). The
+topography, inhabitants, art, products, &amp;c., of the kingdom are
+described in a volume of the series <i>España</i> entitled <i>Aragón</i>, by J.M.
+Quadrado (Barcelona, 1886).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARAGONITE,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> one of the mineral forms of calcium carbonate
+(CaCO<span class="su">3</span>), the other form being the more common mineral calcite.
+It crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, and the crystals are
+either prismatic or acicular in habit. Simple crystals are, however,
+rare; twinning on the prism planes (<i>M</i> in the figures)
+being a characteristic feature of the mineral (fig. 1). This
+twinning is usually often repeated on the same plane (fig. 2),
+and gives rise to striations on the terminal faces (<i>k</i>) of the
+crystals; often, also, three crystals are twinned together on
+two of the prism planes of one of them, producing an apparently
+hexagonal prism. The mineral is colourless, white or yellowish,
+transparent or translucent, has a vitreous lustre, and, in fact, is
+not unlike calcite in general appearance. It may, however,
+always be readily distinguished from calcite by the absence of
+any marked cleavage, and by its greater hardness (H. = 3½ &minus; 4)
+and specific gravity (2.93); further, it is optically biaxial, whilst
+calcite is uniaxial. It is brittle and has a subconchoidal fracture;
+on a fractured surface the lustre is decidedly resinous in character.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:285px; height:216px" src="images/img314.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The mineral was first found, as reddish twinned crystals with
+the form of six-sided prisms, at Molina in Aragon, Spain, where
+it occurs with gypsum and
+small crystals of ferruginous
+quartz in a red clay. It is
+from this locality that the
+mineral takes its name,
+which was originally spelt
+arragonite. Fine groups of
+crystals of the same habit
+are found in the sulphur
+deposits of Girgenti in
+Sicily; also at Herrengrund
+near Neusohl in
+Hungary. At many other
+localities the mineral takes the form of radiating groups of
+acicular crystals, such as those from the haematite mines of
+west Cumberland: beautiful feathery forms have been found
+in a limestone cave in the Transvaal. Fibrous forms are also
+common. A peculiar coralloidal variety known as <i>flosferri</i>
+(&ldquo;flower of iron&rdquo;) consists of radially arranged fibres:
+magnificent snow-white specimens of this variety have long
+been known from the iron mines of Eisenetz in Styria. The
+calcareous secretions of many groups of invertebrate animals
+consist of aragonite (calcite is also common); pearls may be
+specially cited as an example.</p>
+
+<p>Aragonite is a member of the isomorphous group of minerals
+comprising witherite (BaCO<span class="su">3</span>), strontianite (SrCO<span class="su">3</span>), cerussite
+(PbCO<span class="su">3</span>) and bromlite ((Ba, Ca)CO<span class="su">3</span>); and crystals of aragonite
+sometimes contain small amounts of strontium or lead. A
+variety known as tarnowitzite, from Tarnowitz in Silesia,
+contains about 5% of lead carbonate.</p>
+
+<p>Aragonite is the more unstable of the two modifications of
+calcium carbonate. A crystal of aragonite when heated becomes
+converted into a granular aggregate of calcite individuals:
+altered crystals of this kind (paramorphs) are not infrequently
+met with in nature, whilst in fossil shells the original nacreous
+layer of aragonite has invariably been altered to calcite. From
+a solution of calcium carbonate in water containing carbon
+dioxide crystals of calcite are deposited at the ordinary temperature,
+but from a warm solution aragonite crystallizes
+out. The thermal springs of Carlsbad deposit spherical
+concretions of aragonite, forming masses known as pisolite or
+<i>Sprudelstein</i>.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARAGUA,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> one of the smaller states of Venezuela under the
+redivision of 1904, lying principally within the parallel ranges
+of the Venezuelan Cordillera, and comprising some of the most
+fertile and healthful valleys of the republic. It is bounded E.
+by the Federal District and Maturin, S. by Guárico and W. by
+Zamora and Carabobo. Pop. (1905, est.) 152,364. Aragua
+has a short coast-line on the Caribbean west of the Federal
+District, but has no port of consequence. Cattle, swine and goats
+are raised, and the state produces coffee, sugar, cacao, beans,
+cereals and cheese. The climate of the higher valleys is subtropical,
+the mean annual temperature ranging from 74° to 80° F.
+The capital, La Victoria (pop. 7800), is situated in the fertile
+Aragua valley, 1558 ft. above sea-level and 36 m. south-west of
+Carácas. Other important towns are Barbacoas (pop. 13,109) on
+the left bank of the Guarico in a highly fertile region, Ciudad
+de Cura and Maracay (pop. 7500), 56 m. west-south-west of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page315" id="page315"></a>315</span>
+Carácas near the north-east shore of Lake Valencia. The last
+two towns are on the railway between Carácas and Valencia.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARAGUAYA,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> <span class="sc">Araguay</span> or <span class="sc">Araguia</span>, a river of Brazil and
+principal affluent of the Tocantins, rising in the Serra do Cayapó,
+where it is known as the Rio Grande, and flowing in a north by
+east direction to a junction with the Tocantins at Sao Joao do
+Araguaya, or Sao Joao das Duas Barras. Its upper course forms
+the boundary line between Goyaz and Matto Grosso. The river
+divides into two branches at about 13° 20&prime; S. lat., and unites again
+at 10° 30&prime;, forming the large island of Santa Anna or Bananal.
+The eastern branch, called the Furo, is the one used by boats,
+as the main channel is obstructed by rapids. Its principal
+affluent is the Rio das Mortes, which rises in the Serra de Sao
+Jeronymo, near Cuyabá, Matto Grosso, and is utilized by
+boatmen going to Pará. Of other affluents, the Bonito, Garças,
+Cristallino and Tapirapé on the west, and the Pitombas, Claro,
+Vermelho, Tucupá and Chavante on the east, nothing definite is
+known as the country is still largely unexplored. The Araguaya
+has a course of 1080 m., considerable stretches of which are
+navigable for small river steamers, but as the river below Santa
+Anna Island is interrupted by reefs and rapids in two places&mdash;one
+having a fall of 85 ft. in 18 m., and the other a fall of 50 ft.
+in 12 m.&mdash;it affords no practicable outlet for the products of
+the state. It was explored in part by Henri Coudreau in 1897.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Coudreau&rsquo;s <i>Voyage au Tocantins-Araguaya</i> (Paris, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARAKAN,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> a division of Lower Burma. It consists of a strip
+of country running along the eastern seaboard of the Bay of
+Bengal, from the Naaf estuary, on the borders of Chittagong,
+to Cape Negrais. Length from northern extremity to Cape
+Negrais, about 400 m.; greatest breadth in the northern part,
+90 m., gradually diminishing towards the south, as it is hemmed
+in by the Arakan Yoma mountains, until, in the extreme south,
+it tapers away to a narrow strip not more than 15 m. across.
+The coast is studded with islands, the most important of which
+are Cheduba, Ramree and Shahpura. The division has its headquarters
+at Akyab and consists of four districts&mdash;namely, Akyab,
+Northern Arakan Hill Tracts, Sandoway and Kyaukpyu,
+formerly called Ramree. Its area is 18,540 sq. m. The population
+at the time of the British occupation in 1826 did not exceed
+100,000. In 1831 it amounted to 173,000; in 1839 to 248,000,
+and in 1901 to 762,102.</p>
+
+<p>The principal rivers of Arakan are&mdash;(1) the Naaf estuary, in
+the north, which forms the boundary between the division and
+Chittagong; (2) the Myu river, an arm of the sea, running a
+course almost parallel with the coast for about 50 m.; (3) the
+Koladaing river, rising near the Blue mountain, in the extreme
+north-east, and falling into the Bay of Bengal a few miles south
+of the Myu river, navigable by vessels of from 300 to 400 tons
+burden for a distance of 40 m. inland; and (4) the Lemyu river,
+a considerable stream falling into the bay a few miles south of
+the Koladaing. Farther to the south, owing to the nearness
+of the range which bounds Arakan on the east, the rivers are of
+but little importance. These are the Talak and the Aeng,
+navigable by boats; and the Sandoway, the Taungup and the
+Gwa streams, the latter of which alone has any importance,
+owing to its mouth forming a good port of call or haven for
+vessels of from 9 to 10 ft. draught. There are several passes over
+the Yoma mountains, the easiest being that called the Aeng
+route, leading from the village of that name into Upper Burma.
+The staple crop of the province is rice, along with cotton, tobacco,
+sugar, hemp and indigo. The forests produce abundance of
+excellent oak and teak timber.</p>
+
+<p>The natives of Arakan trace their history as far back as
+2666 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and give a lineal succession of 227 native princes down
+to modern times. According to them, their empire had at one
+period far wider limits, and extended over Ava, part of China,
+and a portion of Bengal. This extension of their empire is not,
+however, corroborated by known facts in history. At different
+times the Moguls and Pegus carried their arms into the heart of
+the country. The Portuguese, during the era of their greatness
+in Asia, gained a temporary establishment in Arakan; but in
+1782 the province was finally conquered by the Burmese, from
+which period until its cession to the British in 1826, under the
+treaty of Yandaboo, its history forms part of that of Burma.
+The old city of Arakan, formerly the capital of the province, is
+situated on an inferior branch of the Koladaing river. Its
+remoteness from the ports and harbours of the country, combined
+with the extreme unhealthiness of its situation, have led
+to its gradual decay subsequently to the formation of the comparatively
+recent settlement of Akyab, which place is now the
+chief town of the province. The old city (now Myohaung) lies 50
+m. north-east of Akyab. The Maghs, who form nearly the whole
+population of the province, follow the Buddhist doctrines, which
+are universally professed throughout Burma. The priests are
+selected from all classes of men, and one of their chief employments
+is the education of children. Instruction is consequently
+widely diffused, and few persons, it is said, can be found in the
+province who are unable to read. The qualifications for entering
+into the priestly order are good conduct and a fair measure of
+learning&mdash;such conduct at least as is good according to Buddhist
+tenets, and such learning as is esteemed among their votaries.</p>
+
+<p>The Arakanese are of Burmese origin, but separated from the
+parent stock by the Arakan Yoma mountains, and they have
+a dialect and customs of their own. Though conquered by the
+Burmese, they have remained distinct from their conquerors.</p>
+
+<p>The Northern Arakan Hill Tracts district is under a superintendent,
+who is usually a police officer, with headquarters
+at Paletwa. The area of the Hill Tracts is 5233 sq. m.; pop.
+(1901) 20,682.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. G. Sc.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARAKCHEEV, ALEKSYEI ANDREEVICH,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1769-1834),
+Russian soldier and statesman, was descended from an
+ancient family of Great Novgorod. From his mother, Elizabeth
+Vitlitsaya, he inherited most of his characteristics, an insatiable
+love of work, an almost pedantic love of order and the most
+rigorous sense of duty. In 1788 he entered the corps of noble
+cadets in the artillery and engineering department, where his
+ability, especially in mathematics, soon attracted attention.
+In July 1791 he was made an adjutant on the staff of Count
+N.I. Saltuikov, who (September 1792) recommended him to
+the cesarevich Paul Petrovich as the artillery officer most capable
+of reorganizing the army corps maintained by the prince at
+Gatchina. Arakcheev speedily won the entire confidence of
+Paul by his scrupulous zeal and undeniable technical ability.
+His inexorable discipline (magnified into cruelty by later legends)
+soon made the Gatchina corps a model for the rest of the
+Russian army. On the accession of Paul to the throne Arakcheev
+was promptly summoned to St Petersburg, appointed
+military commandant in the capital, and major-general in the
+grenadier battalion of the Preobrazhenskoe Guard. On the
+12th of December 1796, he received the ribbon of St Anne and
+a rich estate at Gruzina in the government of Novgorod, the
+only substantial gift ever accepted by him during the whole of
+his career. At the coronation (5th of April 1797) Paul created
+him a baron, and he was subsequently made quartermaster-general
+and colonel of the whole Preobrazhenskoe Guard. It
+was to Arakcheev that Paul entrusted the reorganization of the
+army, which during the latter days of Catherine had fallen into
+a state of disorder and demoralization. Arakcheev remorselessly
+applied the iron Gatchina discipline to the whole of the imperial
+forces, beginning with the Guards. He soon became generally
+detested by the army, but pursued his course unflinchingly
+and introduced many indispensable hygienic reforms. &ldquo;Clean
+barracks are healthy barracks,&rdquo; was his motto. Nevertheless,
+the opposition of the officers proved too strong for him, and on
+the 18th of March 1798 he was dismissed from all his appointments.
+Arakcheev&rsquo;s first disgrace only lasted six months. On
+the 11th of August he was received back into favour, speedily
+reinstated in all his former offices, and on the 5th of May 1799
+was created a count, the emperor himself selecting the motto:
+&ldquo;Devoted, not servile.&rdquo; Five months later he was again in
+disgrace, the emperor dismissing him on the strength of a
+denunciation subsequently proved to be false. It was a fatal
+step on Paul&rsquo;s part, for everything goes to prove that he would
+never have been assassinated had Arakcheev continued by his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page316" id="page316"></a>316</span>
+side. During the earlier years of Alexander, Arakcheev was
+completely overlooked. Only on the 27th of April 1803, was
+the count recalled to St Petersburg, and employed as inspector-general
+of the artillery. His wise and thorough reorganization
+of the whole department contributed essentially to the victories
+of the Russians during the Napoleonic wars. All critics agree,
+indeed, that the Arakcheev administration was the golden era
+of the Russian artillery. The activity of the inexhaustible
+inspector knew no bounds, and he neglected nothing which
+could possibly improve this arm. His principal reforms were
+the subdivision of the artillery divisions into separate independent
+units, the formation of artillery brigades, the establishment
+of a committee of instruction (1808), and the publishing
+of an <i>Artillery Journal</i>. At Austerlitz he had the satisfaction
+of witnessing the actual results of his artillery reforms. The
+commissariat scandals which came to light after the peace of
+Tilsit convinced the emperor that nothing short of the stern and
+incorruptible energy of Arakcheev could reach the sources of
+the evil, and in January 1808 he was appointed inspector-general
+and war minister. When, on the outbreak of the Swedish war
+of 1809, the emperor ordered the army to take advantage of an
+unusually severe frost and cross the ice of the Gulf of Finland,
+it was only the presence of Arakcheev that compelled an unwilling
+general and a semi-mutinous army to begin a campaign
+which ended in the conquest of Finland. On the institution of
+the &ldquo;Imperial Council&rdquo; (1st of January 1810), Arakcheev was
+made a member of the council of ministers and a senator, while
+still retaining the war office. Subsequently Alexander was
+alienated from him owing to the intrigues of the count&rsquo;s enemies,
+who hated him for his severity and regarded him as a dangerous
+reactionary. The alienation was not, however, for long. It is
+true, Arakcheev took no active part in the war of 1812, but
+all the correspondence and despatches relating to it passed
+through his hands, and he was the emperor&rsquo;s inseparable companion
+during the whole course of it. At Paris (31st of March
+1814) Alexander, with his own hand, wrote the <i>ukaz</i> appointing
+him a field-marshal, but he refused the dignity, accepting,
+instead, a miniature portrait of his master. From this time
+Alexander&rsquo;s confidence in Arakcheev steadily increased, and
+the emperor imparted to him, first of all, his many projects of
+reform, especially his project of military colonies, the carrying
+out of the details of which was committed to Arakcheev (1824).
+The failure of the scheme was due not to any fault of the count,
+but to the inefficiency and insubordination of the district
+officers. In Alexander&rsquo;s last years Arakcheev was not merely
+his chief counsellor, but his dearest friend, to whom he submitted
+all his projects for consideration and revision. The most interesting
+of these projects was the plan for the emancipation of the
+peasantry (1818). On the accession of Nicholas I., Arakcheev,
+thoroughly broken in health, gradually restricted his immense
+sphere of activity, and on the 26th of April 1826, resigned all his
+offices and retired to Carlsbad. The 50,000 roubles presented
+to him by the emperor as a parting gift he at once handed to
+the Pavlovsk Institute for the education of the daughters of
+poor gentlemen. His last days he spent on his estate at Gruzina,
+carefully collecting all his memorials of Alexander, whose memory
+he most piously cherished. He also set aside 25,000 roubles for
+the author of the best biography of his imperial friend. Arakcheev
+died on the 21st of April 1834, with his eyes fixed to the
+last on the late emperor&rsquo;s portrait. &ldquo;I have now done everything,&rdquo;
+he said, &ldquo;so I can go and make my report to the emperor
+Alexander.&rdquo; In 1806 he had married Natalia Khomutova, but
+they lived apart, and he had no children by her.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Vasily Ratch, <i>Memorials of Count Arakcheev</i> (Rus.) (St Petersburg,
+1864); Mikhail Ivanovich Semevsky, <i>Count Arakcheev and
+the Military Colonies</i> (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1871); Theodor Schiemann,
+<i>Gesch. Russland&rsquo;s unter Kaiser Nikolaus I.</i>, vol. i., <i>Alexander
+I.</i>, &amp;c. (Berlin, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ARAL,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> a lake or inland sea in the west of Asia, situated
+between lat. 43° 30&prime; and 46° 51&prime; N., and long. 58° 13&prime; and
+61° 56&prime; E. It was known to the ancient Arab and Persian
+geographers as the Sea of Khw&#257;rizm or Kharezm, from the neighbouring
+district of the Chorasmians, and derives its present name
+from the Kirghiz designation of Aral-denghiz, or Sea of Islands.
+In virtue of its area (26,233 sq. m.) it is the fourth largest inland
+sea of the world. It has nearly the same length as width,
+namely about 170 m., if its northern gulf (Kichkineh-denghiz)
+is left out of account. Its depth is insignificant, the maximum
+being 220 ft. in a depression in the north-west, and the mean
+depth only 50 ft., so that notwithstanding its area it contains
+only eleven times as much water as the Lake of Geneva. Its
+altitude is 242½ ft. above the Caspian, <i>i.e.</i> about 155 ft. above
+the ocean. The lake is surrounded on the north by steppes; on
+the west by the rocky plateau of Ust-Urt, which separates it from
+the Caspian; on the south by the alluvial district of Khiva; and
+on the east by the Kyzyl-kum, or Red Sand Desert. On the north
+the shores are comparatively low, and the coast-line is broken by
+a number of irregular bays, of which the most important are
+those of Sary-chaganak and Paskevich. On the west an almost
+unbroken wall of rock extends from Chernychev Bay southwards,
+rising towards the middle to 500 ft. The southern coast
+is occupied by the delta of the Oxus (J&#299;h&#363;n, Amu-darya), one
+of the arms of which, the Laudan, forms a swamp, 80 m. long
+and 20 broad, before it discharges into the sea. The only
+other tributary of any size that the sea receives is the Jaxartes
+(Sihun, Syr-darya) which enters towards the northern extremity
+of the east coast, and is suspected to be shifting its embouchure
+more and more to the north. This river, as well as the Amu,
+conveys vast quantities of sediment into the lake; the delta
+of the Syr-darya increased by 13¾ sq. m. between 1847 and 1900.
+The eastern coast is fringed with multitudes of small islands,
+and other islands, some of considerable size, are situated in the
+open towards the north and west. Kug-Aral, the largest, lies
+opposite the mouth of the Syr-darya, cutting off the Kichkineh-denghiz
+or Little Sea. The next largest island is the Nikolai,
+nearly in the middle. Navigation is dangerous owing to the
+frequency and violence of the storms, and the almost total
+absence of shelter. The north-east wind is the most prevalent,
+and sometimes blows for months together. The only other
+craft, except the steamships of the Russians, that venture on
+the waters, are the flat-bottomed boats of the Kirghiz.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the period of the formation of the Aral there were
+formerly two theories. According to Sir H.C. Rawlinson
+(<i>Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc.</i>, March 1867) the disturbances which
+produced the present lake took place in the course of the middle
+ages; while Sir Roderick Murchison contended (<i>Journ. of Roy.
+Geog. Soc.</i>, 1867, p. cxliv. &amp;c.) that the Caspian and Aral existed
+as separate seas before and during all the historic period, and
+that the main course of the rivers Jaxartes and Oxus was determined
+in a prehistoric era. The former based his opinion largely
+on historical evidence, and the latter trusted principally to
+geological data. There is no doubt that in recent historical
+times Lake Aral had a much greater extension than it has at the
+present time, and that its area is now diminishing. This is, of
+course, due to the excess of evaporation over the amount of
+water supplied by its two feeders, the Amu-darya and the Syr-darya,
+both of which are seriously drawn upon for irrigation in
+all the oases they flow through. Old shore lines and other
+indications point to the level of the lake having once been 50 ft.
+above the existing level. Nevertheless the general desiccation
+is subject to temporary fluctuations, which appear to correspond
+to the periods recently suggested by Eduard Brückner
+(b. 1862); for, whereas the lake diminished and shrank during
+1850-1880, since the latter year it has been rising again. Islands
+which were formerly connected with the shore are now some
+distance away from it and entirely surrounded by water. Moreover,
+on a graduated level, put down in 1874, there was a permanent
+rise of nearly 4 ft. by 1901. The temperature at the
+bottom was found (1900-1902) by Emil Berg to be 33.8° Fahr.,
+while that of the surface varied from 44.5° to 80.5° between
+May and September; the mean surface temperature for July
+was 75°. The salinity of the water is much less than that of
+the ocean, containing only 1.05% of salt, and the lake freezes
+every year for a great distance from its shores. The opinion
+that Lake Aral periodically disappeared, which was for a long
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page317" id="page317"></a>317</span>
+time countenanced by Western geographers, loses more and
+more probability now that it is evident that at a relatively
+recent period the Caspian Sea extended much farther eastward
+than it does now, and that Lake Aral communicated with it
+through the Sary-kamysh depression. The present writer is
+even inclined to think that, besides this southern communication
+with the Caspian, Lake Aral may have been, even in historical
+times, connected with the Mortvyi Kultuk (Tsarevich) Gulf of
+the Caspian, discharging part of its water into that sea through
+a depression of the Ust-Urt plateau, which is marked by a chain
+of lakes (Chumyshty, Asmantai). In this case it might have
+been easily confounded with a gulf of the Caspian (as by Jenkinson).
+That the level of Lake Aral was much higher in post-Pliocene
+times is proved by the discovery of shells of its characteristic
+species of <i>Pecten</i> and <i>Mytilus</i> in the Kara-kum Desert,
+33 m. south of the lake and at an altitude of 70 ft. above its
+present level, and perhaps even up to 200 ft. (by Syevertsov).</p>
+
+<p>The fish of Lake Aral belong to fresh-water species, and in
+some of its rapid tributaries the interesting <i>Scaphirhynchus</i>,
+which represents a survival from the Tertiary epoch, is found.
+The fishing is very productive, the fish being exported to Turkestan,
+Merv and Russia. The shores of the lake are uninhabited;
+the nearest settlements are Kazala, 55 m. east, on the Syr, and
+Chimbai and Kungrad in the delta of the Amu.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Makshéev&rsquo;s &ldquo;Description of Lake Aral,&rdquo; and
+Kaulbars&rsquo; &ldquo;Delta of the Amu,&rdquo; in <i>Zapiski of Russ. Geogr. Soc.</i>,
+1st series, v., and new series, ix.; <i>Grimm&rsquo;s Studies of the Aral-Caspian
+Expedition</i>; Nikolsky&rsquo;s &ldquo;Fishing in Lake Aral,&rdquo; in <i>Izvestia,
+Russ. Geogr. Soc.</i>, 1887; Prof. Mushketov, <i>Turkestan</i>, vol. i. (1886),
+which contains bibliographical references; Rösler, <i>Die Aralseefrage</i>
+(1873); Wood, <i>The Shores of the Aral Lake</i> (1876); and Berg in
+<i>Izvestia, Turkestan Branch of Russian Geog. Soc.</i> (vol. iii., Tashkent, 1902).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. A. K.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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@@ -0,0 +1,19495 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 2, Slice 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 2, Slice 3
+       "Apollodorus" to "Aral"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: October 8, 2010 [EBook #34047]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 2, SL 3 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) The following typographical error has been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE ARACHNIDA: "The coxal glands do not establish any special
+      connexion between Limulus and Scorpio, since they also occur in the
+      same somite in the lower Crustacea...." 'they' amended from 'thay'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME II, SLICE III
+
+            Apollodorus to Aral
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  APOLLODORUS (Athenian painter)    APPREHENSION
+  APOLLODORUS (Athenian grammarian) APPRENTICESHIP
+  APOLLODORUS (of Carystus)         APPROPRIATION
+  APOLLODORUS (Greek architect)     APPURTENANCES
+  APOLLONIA                         APRAKSIN, THEDOR MATVYEEVICH
+  APOLLONIUS (the Surly)            APRICOT
+  APOLLONIUS (Greek rhetorician)    APRIES
+  APOLLONIUS (the Sophist)          APRIL
+  APOLLONIUS MOLON                  APRIL-FOOLS' DAY
+  APOLLONIUS OF PERGA               A PRIORI
+  APOLLONIUS OF RHODES              APRON
+  APOLLONIUS OF TRALLES             APSARAS
+  APOLLONIUS OF TYANA               APSE
+  APOLLONIUS OF TYRE                APSE and APSIDES
+  APOLLOS                           APSINES
+  APOLLYON                          APT
+  APOLOGETICS                       APTERA
+  APOLOGUE                          APTERAL
+  APOLOGY                           APTIAN
+  APONEUROSIS                       APULEIUS, LUCIUS
+  APOPHTHEGM                        APULIA
+  APOPHYGE                          APURE
+  APOPHYLLITE                       APURIMAC (river of Peru)
+  APOPHYSIS                         APURIMAC (department of Peru)
+  APOPLEXY                          APYREXIA
+  APOROSE                          'AQIBA BEN JOSEPH
+  APOSIOPESIS                       AQUAE
+  APOSTASY                          AQUAE CUTILIAE
+  APOSTIL                           AQUAMARINE
+  APOSTLE                           AQUARELLE
+  APOSTLE SPOONS                    AQUARII
+  APOSTOLICAL CONSTITUTIONS         AQUARIUM
+  APOSTOLIC CANONS                  AQUARIUS
+  APOSTOLIC FATHERS                 AQUATINT
+  APOSTOLICI                        AQUAVIVA, CLAUDIO
+  APOSTOLIC MAJESTY                 AQUEDUCT
+  APOSTOLIUS, MICHAEL               AQUILA
+  APOSTROPHE                        AQUILA, CASPAR
+  APOTACTITES                       AQUILA, SERAFINO DELL'
+  APOTHECARY                        AQUILA (city of Italy)
+  APOTHEOSIS                        AQUILA (constellation)
+  APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS             AQUILA ROMANUS
+  APPANAGE                          AQUILEIA
+  APPAREL                           AQUILLIUS, MANIUS
+  APPARITIONS                       AQUINAS, THOMAS
+  APPARITOR                         AQUINO
+  APPEAL                            AQUITAINE
+  APPEARANCE                        ARABESQUE
+  APPENDICITIS                      ARABGIR
+  APPENDICULATA                     ARABIA
+  APPENDINI, FRANCESCO MARIA        ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY
+  APPENZELL (canton of Switzerland) ARABIAN SEA
+  APPENZELL (city of Switzerland)   ARABICI
+  APPERCEPTION                      ARABI PASHA
+  APPERLEY, CHARLES JAMES           ARABISTAN
+  APPERT, BENJAMIN NICOLAS MARIE    ARABS
+  APPIAN                            ARACAJU
+  APPIANI, ANDREA                   ARACATY
+  APPIA, VIA                        ARACHNE
+  APPIN                             ARACHNIDA
+  APPLAUSE                          ARAD
+  APPLE                             ARAEOSTYLE
+  APPLEBY                           ARAEOSYSTYLE
+  APPLETON, NATHAN                  ARAGO, DOMINIQUE FRANCOIS JEAN
+  APPLETON (city of U.S.A.)         ARAGON
+  APPOGGIATURA                      ARAGONITE
+  APPOINTMENT, POWER OF             ARAGUA
+  APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE            ARAGUAYA
+  APPONYI, ALBERT                   ARAKAN
+  APPORTIONMENT                     ARAKCHEEV, ALEKSYEI ANDREEVICH
+  APPORTIONMENT BILL                ARAL
+  APPRAISER
+
+
+
+
+APOLLODORUS, an Athenian painter, who flourished at the end of the 5th
+century B.C. He is said to have introduced great improvements in
+perspective and chiaroscuro. What these were it is impossible to say:
+perspective cannot have been in his day at an advanced stage. Among his
+works were an Odysseus, a priest in prayer, and an Ajax struck by
+lightning.
+
+
+
+
+APOLLODORUS, an Athenian grammarian, pupil of Aristarchus and Panaetius
+the Stoic, who lived about 140 B.C. He was a prolific and versatile
+writer. There is extant under his name a treatise on the gods and the
+heroic age, entitled [Greek: Bibliothaekae], a valuable authority on
+ancient mythology. Modern critics are of opinion that, if genuine, it is
+an abridgment of a larger work by him ([Greek: Peri theon]).
+
+  Edition, with commentary, by Heyne (1803); text by Wagner (1894)
+  (_Mythographi Graeci_, vol. i. Teubner series). Amongst other works by
+  him of which only fragments remain, collected in Muller, _Fragmenta
+  Historicorum Graecorum_, may be mentioned: [Greek: Chronika], a
+  universal history from the fall of Troy to 144 B.C.; [Greek:
+  Periaegaesis], a gazetteer written in iambics; [Greek: Peri Neon], a
+  work on the Homeric catalogue of ships; and a work on etymology
+  ([Greek: Etymologiai]).
+
+
+
+
+APOLLODORUS, of Carystus in Euboea, one of the most important writers of
+the New Attic comedy, who flourished at Athens between 300 and 260 B.C.
+He is to be distinguished from an older Apollodorus of Gela (342-290),
+also a writer of comedy, a contemporary of Menander. He wrote 47
+comedies and obtained the prize five times. Terence borrowed his
+_Hecyra_ and _Phormio_ from the [Greek: Hekyra] and [Greek:
+Epidikazomenos] of Apollodorus.
+
+  Fragments in Koch, _Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta_, ii. (1884); see
+  also Meineke, _Historia Critica Comicorum Graecorum_ (1839).
+
+
+
+
+APOLLODORUS, of Damascus, a famous Greek architect, who flourished
+during the 2nd century A.D. He was a favourite of Trajan, for whom he
+constructed the stone bridge over the Danube (A.D. 104-105). He also
+planned a gymnasium, a college, public baths, the Odeum and the Forum
+Trajanum, within the city of Rome; and the triumphal arches at
+Beneventum and Ancona. The Trajan column in the centre of the Forum is
+celebrated as being the first triumphal monument of the kind. On the
+accession of Hadrian, whom he had offended by ridiculing his
+performances as architect and artist, Apollodorus was banished, and,
+shortly afterwards, being charged with imaginary crimes, put to death
+(Dio Cassius lxix. 4). He also wrote a treatise on _Siege Engines_
+([Greek: Poliorkaetika]), which was dedicated to Hadrian.
+
+
+
+
+APOLLONIA, the name of more than thirty cities of antiquity. The most
+important are the following: (1) An Illyrian city (known as Apollonia
+[Greek: kat Epidamnon] or [Greek: pros Epidamno]) on the right bank of
+the Aous, founded by the Corinthians and Corcyraeans. It soon became a
+place of increasing commercial prosperity, as the most convenient link
+between Brundusium and northern Greece, and as one of the
+starting-points of the Via Egnatia. It was an important military post in
+the wars against Philip and during the civil wars of Pompey and Caesar,
+and towards the close of the Roman republic acquired fame as a seat of
+literature and philosophy. Here Augustus was being educated when the
+death of Caesar called him to Rome. It seems to have sunk with the rise
+of Aulon, and few remains of its ruins are to be found. The monastery of
+Pollina stands on a hill which probably is part of the site of the old
+city. (2) A Thracian city on the Black Sea (afterwards Sozopolis, and
+now Sizeboli), colonized by the Milesians, and famous for its colossal
+statue of Apollo by Calamis, which Lucullus removed to Rome.
+
+
+
+
+APOLLONIUS, surnamed [Greek: ho dyskolos] ("the Surly or Crabbed"), a
+celebrated grammarian of Alexandria, who lived in the reigns of Hadrian
+and Antoninus Pius. He spent the greater part of his life in his native
+city, where he died; he is also said to have visited Rome and attracted
+the attention of Antoninus. He was the founder of scientific grammar and
+is styled by Priscian _grammaticorum princeps_. Four of his works are
+extant: _On Syntax_, ed. Bekker, 1817; and three smaller treatises, on
+_Pronouns_, _Conjunctions_ and _Adverbs_, ed. Schneider, 1878.
+
+  _Grammatici Graeci_, i. in Teubner series; Egger, _Apollonius Dyscole_
+  (1854).
+
+
+
+
+APOLLONIUS, surnamed [Greek: ho malakos] ("the Effeminate"), a Greek
+rhetorician of Alabanda in Caria, who flourished about 120 B.C. After
+studying under Menecles, chief of the Asiatic school of oratory, he
+settled in Rhodes, where he taught rhetoric, among his pupils being Mark
+Antony.
+
+
+
+
+APOLLONIUS, surnamed "the Sophist," of Alexandria, a famous grammarian,
+who probably lived towards the end of the 1st century A.D. He was the
+author of a Homeric lexicon ([Greek: Lexeis Homaerikai]), the only work
+of the kind we possess. His chief authorities were Aristarchus and
+Apion's Homeric glossary.
+
+  Edition by Villoison (1773), I. Bekker (1833); Leyde, _De Apollonii
+  Sophistae Lexico Homerico_ (1885); E.W.B. Nicholson on a newly
+  discovered fragment in _Classical Review_ (Nov. 1897).
+
+
+
+
+APOLLONIUS MOLON (sometimes called simply MOLON), a Greek rhetorician,
+who flourished about 70 B.C. He was a native of Alabanda, a pupil of
+Menecles, and settled at Rhodes. He twice visited Rome as an ambassador
+from Rhodes, and Cicero and Caesar took lessons from him. He endeavoured
+to moderate the florid Asiatic style and cultivated an "Atticizing"
+tendency. He wrote on Homer, and, according to Josephus, violently
+attacked the Jews.
+
+  See C. Muller, _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, iii.; E. Schurer,
+  _History of the Jewish People_, iii. (Eng. tr. 1886).
+
+
+
+
+APOLLONIUS OF PERGA [PERGAEUS], Greek geometer of the Alexandrian
+school, was probably born some twenty-five years later than Archimedes,
+i.e. about 262 B.C. He flourished in the reigns of Ptolemy Euergetes and
+Ptolemy Philopator (247-205 B.C.). His treatise on _Conics_ gained him
+the title of The Great Geometer, and is that by which his fame has been
+transmitted to modern times. All his numerous other treatises have
+perished, save one, and we have only their titles handed down, with
+general indications of their contents, by later writers, especially
+Pappus. After the _Conics_ in eight Books had been written in a first
+edition, Apollonius brought out a second edition, considerably revised
+as regards Books i.-ii., at the instance of one Eudemus of Pergamum;
+the first three books were sent to Eudemus at intervals, as revised,
+and the later books were dedicated (after Eudemus' death) to King
+Attalus I. (241-197 B.C.). Only four Books have survived in Greek; three
+more are extant in Arabic; the eighth has never been found. Although a
+fragment has been found of a Latin translation from the Arabic made in
+the 13th century, it was not until 1661 that a Latin translation of
+Books v.-vii. was available. This was made by Giovanni Alfonso Borelli
+and Abraham Ecchellensis from the free version in Arabic made in 983 by
+Abu 'l-Fath of Ispahan and preserved in a Florence MS. But the best
+Arabic translation is that made as regards Books i.-iv. by Hilal ibn Abi
+Hilal (d. about 883), and as regards Books v.-vii. by Tobit ben Korra
+(836-901). Halley used for his translation an Oxford MS. of this
+translation of Books v.-vii., but the best MS. (Bodl. 943) he only
+referred to in order to correct his translation, and it is still
+unpublished except for a fragment of Book v. published by L. Nix with
+German translation (Drugulin, Leipzig, 1889). Halley added in his
+edition (1710) a restoration of Book viii., in which he was guided by
+the fact that Pappus gives lemmas "to the seventh and eighth books"
+under that one heading, as well as by the statement of Apollonius
+himself that the use of the seventh book was illustrated by the problems
+solved in the eighth.
+
+The degree of originality of the _Conics_ can best be judged from
+Apollonius' own prefaces. Books i.-iv. form an "elementary
+introduction," i.e. contain the essential principles; the rest are
+specialized investigations in particular directions. For Books i.-iv. he
+claims only that the generation of the curves and their fundamental
+properties in Book i. are worked out more fully and generally than they
+were in earlier treatises, and that a number of theorems in Book iii.
+and the greater part of Book iv. are new. That he made the fullest use
+of his predecessors' works, such as Euclid's four Books on Conics, is
+clear from his allusions to Euclid, Conon and Nicoteles. The generality
+of treatment is indeed remarkable; he gives as the fundamental property
+of all the conics the equivalent of the Cartesian equation referred to
+_oblique_ axes (consisting of a diameter and the tangent at its
+extremity) obtained by cutting an oblique circular cone in any manner,
+and the axes appear only as a particular case after he has shown that
+the property of the conic can be expressed in the same form with
+reference to any new diameter and the tangent at its extremity. It is
+clearly the form of the fundamental property (expressed in the
+terminology of the "application of areas") which led him to call the
+curves for the first time by the names _parabola_, _ellipse_,
+_hyperbola_. Books v.-vii. are clearly original. Apollonius' genius
+takes its highest flight in Book v., where he treats of normals as
+minimum and maximum straight lines drawn from given points to the curve
+(independently of tangent properties), discusses how many normals can be
+drawn from particular points, finds their feet by construction, and
+gives propositions determining the centre of curvature at any point and
+leading at once to the Cartesian equation of the evolute of any conic.
+
+The other treatises of Apollonius mentioned by Pappus are --1st, [Greek:
+Logou apotomae], _Cutting off a Ratio_; 2nd, [Greek: Choriou apotomae],
+_Cutting of an Area_; 3rd, [Greek: Dioris menae tomae], _Determinate
+Section_; 4th, [Greek: Epaphai], _Tangencies_; 5th, [Greek: Neuseis],
+_Inclinations_; 6th, [Greek: Topoi epipedoi], _Plane Loci_. Each of
+these was divided into two books, and, with the _Data_, the _Porisms_
+and _Surface-Loci_ of Euclid and the _Conics_ of Apollonius were,
+according to Pappus, included in the body of the ancient analysis.
+
+1st. _De Rationis Sectione_ had for its subject the resolution of the
+following problem: Given two straight lines and a point in each, to draw
+through a third given point a straight line cutting the two fixed lines,
+so that the parts intercepted between the given points in them and the
+points of intersection with this third line may have a given ratio.
+
+2nd. _De Spatii Sectione_ discussed the similar problem which requires
+the rectangle contained by the two intercepts to be equal to a given
+rectangle.
+
+An Arabic version of the first was found towards the end of the 17th
+century in the Bodleian library by Dr Edward Bernard, who began a
+translation of it; Halley finished it and published it along with a
+restoration of the second treatise in 1706.
+
+3rd. _De Sectione Determinata_ resolved the problem: Given two, three or
+four points on a straight line, to find another point on it such that
+its distances from the given points satisfy the condition that the
+square on one or the rectangle contained by two has to the square on the
+remaining one or the rectangle contained by the remaining two, or to the
+rectangle contained by the remaining one and another given straight
+line, a given ratio. Several restorations of the solution have been
+attempted, one by W. Snellius (Leiden, 1698), another by Alex. Anderson
+of Aberdeen, in the supplement to his _Apollonius Redivivus_ (Paris,
+1612), but by far the best is by Robert Simson, _Opera quaedam reliqua_
+(Glasgow, 1776).
+
+4th. _De Tactionibus_ embraced the following general problem: Given
+three things (points, straight lines or circles) in position, to
+describe a circle passing through the given points, and touching the
+given straight lines or circles. The most difficult case, and the most
+interesting from its historical associations, is when the three given
+things are circles. This problem, which is sometimes known as the
+Apollonian Problem, was proposed by Vieta in the 16th century to
+Adrianus Romanus, who gave a solution by means of a hyperbola. Vieta
+thereupon proposed a simpler construction, and restored the whole
+treatise of Apollonius in a small work, which he entitled _Apollonius
+Gallus_ (Paris, 1600). A very full and interesting historical account of
+the problem is given in the preface to a small work of J.W. Camerer,
+entitled _Apollonii Pergaei quae supersunt, ac maxime Lemmata Pappi in
+hos Libras, cum Observationibus, &c_. (Gothae, 1795, 8vo).
+
+5th. _De Inclinationibus_ had for its object to insert a straight line
+of a given length, tending towards a given point, between two given
+(straight or circular) lines. Restorations have been given by Marino
+Ghetaldi, by Hugo d'Omerique (_Geometrical Analysis_, Cadiz, 1698), and
+(the best) by Samuel Horsley (1770).
+
+6th. _De Locis Planis_ is a collection of propositions relating to loci
+which are either straight lines or circles. Pappus gives somewhat full
+particulars of the propositions, and restorations were attempted by P.
+Fermat (_Oeuvres_, i., 1891, pp. 3-51), F. Schooten (Leiden, 1656) and,
+most successfully of all, by R. Simson (Glasgow, 1749).
+
+Other works of Apollonius are referred to by ancient writers, viz. (1)
+[Greek: Peri tou pyriou], _On the Burning-Glass_, where the focal
+properties of the parabola probably found a place; (2) [Greek: Peri tou
+kochliou], _On the Cylindrical Helix_ (mentioned by Proclus); (3) a
+comparison of the dodecahedron and the icosahedron inscribed in the same
+sphere; (4) [Greek: Hae katholou pragmateia], perhaps a work on the
+general principles of mathematics in which were included Apollonius'
+criticisms and suggestions for the improvement of Euclid's _Elements_;
+(5) [Greek: Okutokion] (quick bringing-to-birth), in which, according to
+Eutocius, he showed how to find closer limits for the value of [pi] than
+the 3-1/7 and 3-10/71 of Archimedes; (6) an arithmetical work (as to
+which see PAPPUS) on a system of expressing large numbers in language
+closer to that of common life than that of Archimedes' _Sand-reckoner_,
+and showing how to multiply such large numbers; (7) a great extension of
+the theory of irrationals expounded in Euclid, Book x., from binomial to
+multinomial and from _ordered_ to _unordered_ irrationals (see extracts
+from Pappus' comm. on Eucl. x., preserved in Arabic and published by
+Woepcke, 1856). Lastly, in astronomy he is credited by Ptolemy with an
+explanation of the motion of the planets by a system of epicycles; he
+also made researches in the lunar theory, for which he is said to have
+been called Epsilon ([epsilon]).
+
+  The best editions of the works of Apollonius are the following: (1)
+  _Apollonii Pergaei Conicorum libri quatuor, ex versione Frederici
+  Commandini_ (Bononiae, 1566), fol.; (2) _Apollonii Pergaei Conicorum
+  libri octo, et Sereni Antissensis de Sectione Cylindri et Coni libri
+  duo_ (Oxoniae, 1710), fol. (this is the monumental edition of Edmund
+  Halley); (3) the edition of the first four books of the Conics given
+  in 1675 by Barrow; (4) _Apollonii Pergaei de Sectione, Rationis libri
+  duo: Accedunt ejusdem de Sectione Spatii libri duo Restituti:
+  Praemittitur, &c., Opera et Studio Edmundi Halley_ (Oxoniae, 1706),
+  4to; (5) a German translation of the _Conics_ by H. Balsam (Berlin,
+  1861); (6) the definitive Greek text of Heiberg (_Apollonii Pergaei
+  quae Graece exstant Opera_, Leipzig, 1891-1893); (7) T.L. Heath,
+  _Apollonius, Treatise on Conic Sections_ (Cambridge, 1896); see also
+  H.G. Zeuthen, _Die Lehre van den Kegelschnitten im Altertum_
+  (Copenhagen, 1886 and 1902).     (T. L. H.)
+
+
+
+
+APOLLONIUS OF RHODES (RHODIUS), a Greek epic poet and grammarian, of
+Alexandria, who flourished under the Ptolemies Philopator and Epiphanes
+(222-181 B.C.). He was the pupil of Callimachus, with whom he
+subsequently quarrelled. In his youth he composed the work for which he
+is known--_Argonautica_, an epic in four books on the legend of the
+Argonauts. When he read it at Alexandria, it was rejected through the
+influence of Callimachus and his party. Disgusted with his failure,
+Apollonius withdrew to Rhodes, where he was very successful as a
+rhetorician, and a revised edition of his epic was well received. In
+recognition of his talents the Rhodians bestowed the freedom of their
+city upon him--the origin of his surname. Returning to Alexandria, he
+again recited his poem, this time with general applause. In 196, Ptolemy
+Epiphanes appointed him librarian of the Museum, which office he
+probably held until his death. As to the _Argonautica_, Longinus' (_De
+Sublim_. p. 54, 19) and Quintilian's (_Instit_, x. 1, 54) verdict of
+mediocrity seems hardly deserved; although it lacks the naturalness of
+Homer, it possesses a certain simplicity and contains some beautiful
+passages. There is a valuable collection of scholia. The work, highly
+esteemed by the Romans, was imitated by Virgil (_Aeneid_, iv.), Varro
+Atacinus, and Valerius Flaccus. Marianus (about A.D. 500) paraphrased it
+in iambic trimeters. Apollonius also wrote epigrams; grammatical and
+critical works; and [Greek: Ktiseis] (the foundations of cities).
+
+  _Editio Princeps_ (Florence, 1496); Merkel-Keil (with scholia, 1854);
+  Seaton (1900). English translations: Verse, by Greene (1780); Fawkes
+  (1780); Preston (1811); Way (1901); Prose by Coleridge (1889); see
+  also Couat, _La Poesie alexandrine_; Susemihl, _Geschichte der griech.
+  Lit. in der alexandnnischen Zeit._
+
+
+
+
+APOLLONIUS OF TRALLES (in Caria), a Greek sculptor, who flourished in
+the 2nd century B.C. With his brother Tauriscus, he executed the marble
+group known as the Farnese Bull, representing Zethus and Amphion tying
+the revengeful Dirce to the tail of a wild bull.
+
+  See GREEK ART, pl. i. fig. 51.
+
+
+
+
+APOLLONIUS OF TYANA, a Greek philosopher of the Neo-Pythagorean school,
+born a few years before the Christian era. He studied at Tarsus and in
+the temple of Asclepius at Aegae, where he devoted himself to the
+doctrines of Pythagoras and adopted the ascetic habit of life in its
+fullest sense. He travelled through Asia and visited Nineveh, Babylon
+and India, imbibing the oriental mysticism of magi, Brahmans and
+gymnosophists. The narrative of his travels given by his disciple Damis
+and reproduced by Philostratus is so full of the miraculous that many
+have regarded him as an imaginary character. On his return to Europe he
+was saluted as a magician, and received the greatest reverence from
+priests and people generally. He himself claimed only the power of
+foreseeing the future; yet in Rome it was said that he raised from death
+the body of a noble lady. In the halo of his mysterious power he passed
+through Greece, Italy and Spain. It was said that he was accused of
+treason both by Nero and by Domitian, but escaped by miraculous means.
+Finally he set up a school at Ephesus, where he died, apparently at the
+age of a hundred years. Philostratus keeps up the mystery of his hero's
+life by saying, "Concerning the manner of his death, _if he did die_,
+the accounts are various." The work of Philostratus composed at the
+instance of Julia, wife of Severus, is generally regarded as a religious
+work of fiction. It contains a number of obviously fictitious stories,
+through which, however, it is not impossible to discern the general
+character of the man. In the 3rd century, Hierocles (q.v.) endeavoured
+to prove that the doctrines and the life of Apollonius were more
+valuable than those of Christ, and, in modern times, Voltaire and
+Charles Blount (1654-1693), the English freethinker, have adopted a
+similar standpoint. Apart from this extravagant eulogy, it is absurd to
+regard Apollonius merely as a vulgar charlatan and miracle-monger. If we
+cut away the mass of mere fiction which Philostratus accumulated, we
+have left a highly imaginative, earnest reformer who laboured to infuse
+into the flaccid dialectic of paganism a saner spirit of practical
+morality.
+
+  See L. Dyer, _Studies of the Gods in Greece_ (New York, 1891); A.
+  Chassang, _Le Merveilleux dans l'antiquite_ (1882); D.M. Tredwell,
+  _Sketch of the Life of Apollonius of Tyana_ (New York, 1886); F.C.
+  Baur, _Apollonius von Tyana und Christus_, ed. Ed. Zeller (Leipzig,
+  1876,--an attempt to show that Philostratus's story is merely a pagan
+  counterblast to the New Testament history); J. Jessen, _Apollonius v.
+  Tyana und sein Biograph Philostratos_ (Hamburg, 1885); J. Gottsching,
+  _Apollonius von Tyana_ (Berlin, 1889); J.A. Froude, _Short Studies_,
+  vol. iv.; G.R.S. Mead, _Apollonius of Tyana_ (London, 1901); B.L.
+  Gildersleeve, _Essays and Studies_ (New York, 1890); Philostratus's
+  _Life of Apollonius_ (Eng. trans. New York, 1905); O. de B. Priaulx,
+  _The Indian Travels of Apollonius_ (1873); F.W.G. Campbell, _Apoll. of
+  Tyana_ (1908); see also NEO-PYTHAGOREANISM.
+
+
+
+
+APOLLONIUS OF TYRE, a medieval tale supposed to be derived from a lost
+Greek original. The earliest mention of the story is in the _Carmina_
+(Bk. vi. 8, II. 5-6) of Venantius Fortunatus, in the second half of the
+6th century, and the romance may well date from three centuries earlier.
+It bears a marked resemblance to the _Antheia and Habrokomes_ of
+Xenophon of Ephesus. The story relates that King Antiochus, maintaining
+incestuous relations with his daughter, kept off her suitors by asking
+them a riddle, which they must solve on pain of losing their heads.
+Apollonius of Tyre solved the riddle, which had to do with Antiochus's
+secret. He returned to Tyre, and, to escape the king's vengeance, set
+sail in search of a place of refuge. In Cyrene he married the daughter
+of King Archistrates, and presently, on receiving news of the death of
+Antiochus, departed to take possession of the kingdom of Antioch, of
+which he was, for no clear reason, the heir. On the voyage his wife
+died, or rather seemed to die, in giving birth to a daughter, and the
+sailors demanded that she should be thrown overboard. Apollonius left
+his daughter, named Tarsia, at Tarsus in the care of guardians who
+proved false to their trust. Father, mother, and daughter were only
+reunited after fourteen years' separation and many vicissitudes. The
+earliest Latin MS. of this tale, preserved at Florence, dates from the
+9th or 10th century. The pagan features of the supposed original are by
+no means all destroyed. The ceremonies observed by Tarsia at her nurse's
+grave, and the preparations for the burning of the body of Apollonius's
+wife, are purely pagan. The riddles which Tarsia propounds to her father
+are obviously interpolated. They are taken from the _Enigmata_ of
+Caelius Firmianus Symposius. The many inconsistencies of the story seem
+to be best explained by the supposition (E. Rohde, _Der griechische
+Roman_, 2nd ed., 1900, pp. 435 _et seq_.) that the Antiochus story was
+originally entirely separate from the story of Apollonius's wanderings,
+and was clumsily tacked on by the Latin author. The romance kept its
+form through a vast number of medieval rearrangements, and there is
+little change in its outlines as set forth in the Shakespearian play of
+_Pericles_.
+
+  The Latin tale is preserved in about 100 MSS., and was printed by M.
+  Velser (Augsburg, 1595), by J. Lapaume in _Script. Erot_. (Didot,
+  Paris, 1856), and by A. Riese in the _Bibl. Teubneriana_ (1871, new
+  ed. 1893). The most widespread versions in the middle ages were those
+  of Godfrey of Viterbo in his _Pantheon_ (1185), where it is related as
+  authentic history, and in the _Gesta Romanorum_ (cap. 153), which
+  formed the basis of the German folk-tale by H. Steinhowel (Augsburg,
+  1471), the Dutch version (Delft, 1493), the French in _Le Violier des
+  histoires romaines_ (Paris, 1521), the English, by Laurence Twine
+  (London, 1576, new ed. 1607), also of the Scandinavian, Czech, and
+  Hungarian tales.
+
+  In England a translation was made as early as the 11th century (ed. B.
+  Thorpe, 1834, and J. Zupitza in _Archiv fur neuere Sprachen_, 1896);
+  there is a Middle English metrical version (J.O. Halliwell, _A New
+  Boke about Shakespeare_, 1850), by a poet who says he was vicar of
+  Wimborne; John Gower uses the tale as an example of the seventh deadly
+  sin in the eighth book of his _Confessio Amantis_; Robert Copland
+  translated a prose romance of _Kynge Apollyne of Thyre_ (Wynkyn de
+  Worde, 1510) from the French; _Pericles_ was entered at Stationers'
+  Hall in 1607, and was followed in the next year by George Wilkins's
+  novel, _The Painfull Adventures of Pericles, Prynce of Tyre_ (ed.
+  Tycho Mommsen, Oldenburg, 1857), and George Lillo drew his play
+  _Marina_ (1738) from the piece associated with Shakespeare; _Orendel_,
+  by a Middle High German minnesinger, contains some of the episodes of
+  _Apollonius_; Heinrich von Neustadt wrote a poem of 20,000 lines on
+  _Apollonius von Tyrland_ (c. 1400); the story was well known in
+  Spanish, _Libre de Apolonio_ (verse, c. 1200), and in J. de Timoneda's
+  _Patranuelo_ (1576); in French much of it was embodied in _Jourdain de
+  Blaives_ (13th cent.), and it also appears in Italian and medieval
+  Greek. See A.H. Smyth, _Shakespeare's Pericles and Apollonius of Tyre_
+  (Philadelphia, 1898); Elimar Klebs, _Die Erzahlung van A. aus Tyrus_
+  (Berlin, 1899); S. Singer, _Apollonius van Tyrus_ (Halle, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+APOLLOS ([Greek: Apollos]; contracted from Apollonius), an Alexandrine
+Jew who after Paul's first visit to Corinth worked there in a similar
+way (1 Cor. iii. 6). He was with Paul at a later date in Ephesus (1 Cor.
+xvi. 12). In 1 Cor. i. 10-12 we read of four parties in the Corinthian
+church, of which two attached themselves to Paul and Apollos
+respectively, using their names, though the "division" can hardly have
+been due to conflicting doctrines. (See PAUL.) From Acts xviii. 24-28 we
+learn that he spoke and taught with power and success. He may have
+captivated his hearers by teaching "wisdom," as P.W. Schmiedel suggests,
+in the allegorical style of Philo, and he was evidently a man of unusual
+magnetic force. There seems to be some contradiction between Acts xviii.
+25 a b and Acts xviii. 25 c, 26 b c; and it has been suggested that
+these latter passages are subsequent accretions. Since Apollos was a
+Christian and "taught exactly," he could hardly have been acquainted
+only with John's baptism or have required to be taught Christianity more
+thoroughly by Aquila and Priscilla. Martin Luther regarded Apollos as
+the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, and many scholars since have
+shared his view.
+
+  Jerome says that Apollos was so dissatisfied with the division at
+  Corinth, that he retired into Crete with Zenas, a doctor of the law;
+  and that the schism having been healed by Paul's letter to the
+  Corinthians, Apollos returned to the city, and became its bishop. Less
+  probable traditions assign to him the bishopric of Duras, or of
+  Iconium in Phrygia, or of Caesarea.
+
+  See the articles in the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_; Herzog-Hauck,
+  _Realencyklopadie_; _The Jewish Encyclopaedia_; Hastings' _Dictionary
+  of the Bible_; and cf. Weizsacker, _Das apostolische Zeitalter_; A.C.
+  McGiffert, _History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age_.
+
+
+
+
+APOLLYON, the "foul fiend" who assaulted Christian on his pilgrimage
+through the Valley of Humiliation in John Bunyan's great allegory. The
+name (Gr. [Greek: Apollyon]), which means "destroyer" ([Greek:
+apollyein], to destroy), is taken from Rev. ix. 11, where it represents
+the Hebrew word _Abaddon_ (lit. "place of destruction," but here
+personified). The identification with the Asmodeus (q.v.) of Tobit iii.
+8 is erroneous.
+
+
+
+
+APOLOGETICS, in theology, the systematic statement of the grounds which
+Christians allege for belief in (at least) a _supernatural revelation_
+and a _divine redemption_ (cf. e.g. Heb. i. 1-3). The majority of
+apologists in the past have further believed in an _infallible Bible_;
+but they admit this position can only be reached at a late stage in the
+argument. We should note, however, that even a liberal orthodoxy, while
+saying nothing about infallibility, is pledged to the _essential_
+authority of the Bible; it cannot e.g. simply ignore the Old Testament
+with F.E.D. Schleiermacher. Catholic apologetics must further give a
+central position to _Church_ authority, which Roman Catholics explicitly
+define as infallible; but this position too is debated in a late section
+of their system. On the other hand, there may be a Christianity which
+seeks to extricate the "spiritual" from the "supernatural" (Arnold
+Toynbee, characterizing T.H. Green). It would only lead to confusion,
+however, if we called this method "apologetic." Any _single_ effort in
+apologetics may be termed "an apology." More elaborate contrasts have
+been proposed between the two words, but are of little practical
+importance.
+
+I. _The Word itself._--In Greek, [Greek: apologia] is the defendant's
+reply (personally, not through a lawyer) to the speech for the
+prosecution--[Greek: kataegoria]. Sometimes defendants' speeches passed
+into literature, e.g. Plato's splendid version of the _Apology_ of
+Socrates. Thus, in view of persecution or slander, the Christian church
+naturally produced literary "Apologies," The word has never quite lost
+this connotation of standing on the defensive and rebutting criticism;
+e.g. Anselm's _Apologia contra insipientem Gaunilonem_ (c. 1100); or the
+Lutheran _Apology for the Augsburg Confession_ (1531); or J.H. Newman's
+_Apologia pro vita sua_ (1864); or A.B. Bruce's _Apologetics; or
+Christianity Defensively Stated_ (1892). Of course, defence easily
+passes into counterattack, as when early apologists denounce Greek and
+Roman religion. Yet the purpose may be defence even then. And there is
+perhaps a reason of a deeper kind for holding Apologetics to the
+defensive. Christianity is a prophetic religion. Now a prophet does not
+argue; he declares what he feels to be God's will. For himself, he
+rests, like the mystic, upon an immediate vision of truth; but he
+differs from most mystics in having a message for others; and--again
+unlike most mystics--he addresses the hearer's _conscience_, which we
+might call (in one sense) the mystic element in every man--or better,
+perhaps, the prophetic. Can the positive grounds for a prophet's message
+be analysed and stated in terms of argument? If so, apologetics is
+literally a science, and it is pedantry to claim the defensive and
+pretend to throw the _onus probandi_ upon objectors. But, if not, then
+apologetics is a mere auxiliary, and is only "a science" in so far as it
+presents a _conscious_ and _systematic_ plea. Bruce's title, and his
+programme of "succouring distressed faith," imply the latter
+alternative; the moral appeal of Christianity, primary and essential;
+its confirmation by argument, secondary. The view has its difficulties;
+but it is hignly suggestive.
+
+The word [Greek: apologia] is used by Origen (_Contra Cel._ ii. 65, v.
+19) of the general Christian defence. But the introduction of the
+adjective "apologetic" and of the substantive "apologetics" is recent.
+They are serviceable as bracketing together (1) Natural Theology or
+Theism, (2) Christian Evidences--chiefly "miracles" and "prophecy"; or,
+on a more modern view, chiefly the character and personality of Christ.
+The lower usage of Apology (as expression of regret for a fault) has
+tipped many a sarcasm besides George III.'s on the occasion of Bishop
+Watson's book, "I did not know that the Bible needed an apology!"
+
+II. _Apologetics in the Bible._--The Old Testament does not argue in
+support of its beliefs, unless when (chiefly in parts of the Wisdom
+literature) it seeks to rebut moral difficulties (cf. T.K. Cheyne, _Job
+and Solomon_; A.S. Peake, _Problem of Suffering in the Old Testament_,
+1904). The New Testament reflects chiefly controversy with Jews. Great
+emphasis is laid upon alleged fulfilments--striking or fanciful, but
+very generally striking to that age--of Old Testament prophecy (Matt.
+especially; rather differently Ep. to Heb.). The miracles of Jesus are
+also canvassed. Jews do not deny their wonderful character, but
+attribute them to black art (Mark iii. 22 &c., &c.). On the other hand,
+Christians and Jews are pretty well agreed on natural theology; so the
+New Testament tends to take its theism for granted. However, Rom. i. 20
+has had great influence on Christian theology (e.g. Thomas Aquinas) in
+leading it to base theism upon reason or argument. One apologetic
+contention, aimed at Gentile readers, is found among the motives of
+Acts. Christianity is not a lawless but an excellent law-abiding faith.
+So (it is alleged) rulers, both Jewish and Gentile, have often admitted
+(xviii. 14; xix. 37; xxiii. 9; xxvi. 32).
+
+III. _Early Christian._--When we leave the New Testament, apologetics
+becomes conspicuous until the political triumph of Christianity, and
+even somewhat later. The atmosphere is no longer Jewish but fully Greek.
+True there are, as always, Jewish controversialists. Justin Martyr
+writes a _Dialogue with Trypho_; Origen deals with many anti-Christian
+arguments borrowed by Celsus from a certain nameless Jew. Yet Greece was
+the sovereign power in all the world of ancient culture. And so
+Christianity was necessarily Hellenized, necessarily philosophized. One
+result was to bring natural theology into the forefront. A pure
+morality, belief in one God, hopes extending beyond death--these
+appealed to the age; the Church taught them as philosophically true
+_and_ divinely revealed. But, further still, philosophy offered a
+vehicle which could be applied to the contents of Christianity. The
+Platonic or eclectic theism, which adopted the conception of the Logos,
+made a place for Christ in terms of philosophy within the Godhead. (John
+i. 1 may or may not be affected by Philo; it is almost or quite solitary
+in the N.T.) Similarly, the immortality of the soul may be maintained on
+Platonic or quasi-Platonic lines, as by St Athanasius (_Contra Gentes_,
+S 33)--a writer who repeatedly quotes the Alexandrian Book of Wisdom, in
+which Platonism and the Old Testament had already joined partnership.
+This phase of Platonism, however, was much more slowly adopted. The
+earlier apologists dispute the natural immortality of the soul;
+Athanasius himself, in _De Incarnatione Dei_, SS 4, 5, tones down the
+teaching of _Wisdom_; and the somewhat eccentric writer Arnobius, a
+layman--from Justin Martyr downwards apologetics has always been largely
+in the hands of laymen--stands for what has recently been called
+"conditional immortality"--eternal life for the righteous, the children
+of God, alone.
+
+Allied with this more empiricist stand-point is the assertion that Greek
+philosophy borrowed from Moses; but in studying the Fathers we
+constantly find that groundless assertion uttered in the same breath
+with the dominant Idealist view, according to which Greek philosophy was
+due to incomplete revelation from the divine Logos.
+
+On purely defensive lines, early apologists rebut charges of cannibalism
+and sexual promiscuity; the Christians had to meet in secret, and the
+gossip of a rotten age drew malignant conclusions. They make counter
+attacks on polytheism as a folly and on the shamefulness of obscene
+myths. Here they are in line with non-Christian writers or
+culture-mockers like Lucian of Samosata; or graver spirits like
+Porphyry, who champions Neo-Platonism as a rival to Christianity, and
+does pioneer work in criticism by attacks on some of the Old Testament
+books. Turning to Christian evidence proper, we are struck with the
+continued prominence of the argument from prophecy. The Old Testament
+was an immense religious asset to the early church. Their enemies had
+nothing like it; and--the N.T. canon being as yet but half formed--the
+Old Testament was pushed into notice by dwelling on this imperfect
+"argument," which grew more extravagant as the partial control exercised
+by Jewish learning disappeared. An argument from miracles is also urged,
+though with more reserve. Formally, every one in that age admitted the
+supernatural. The question was, whose supernatural? And how far did it
+carry you? Miracle could not be to a 3rd century writer what it was to
+W. Paley--a conclusive and well-nigh solitary proof. Other apologies are
+by Aristides (recently recovered in translation), Athenagoras
+("elegant"), Eusebius of Caesarea, Cyril of Alexandria; in Latin by
+Minucius Felix, Tertullian (a masculine spirit and phrase-coiner like T.
+Carlyle, if bitterer still), Lactantius Firmianus, &c., &c.[1]
+
+As Christianity wins the day, a new objection is raised to it. The age
+is full of troubles; Christianity is ruining the empire! Besides notices
+elsewhere, we find the charge specially dealt with by St Augustine and
+his friends. Paulus Orosius argues that the world has always been a vale
+of tears. Salvian contends that not the acceptance of Christianity, but
+the sins of the people are bringing trouble upon them; and he gives ugly
+evidence of the continued prevalence of vice. Most impressive of all was
+Augustine's own contribution in _The City of God_. Powers created by
+worldliness and sin are crumbling, as they well may; "the city of God
+remaineth!" Whether he meant it so or not, the saint's argument became a
+programme and an apologia for the imperializing of the Western Church
+under the leadership of Rome during the middle ages.
+
+IV. _Middle Ages._--From the point of view of apologetics, we may mass
+together the long stretch of history which covers the period between the
+disappearance and the re-appearance of free discussion. When emperors
+became converts, the church, so lately a victim and a pleader for
+liberty, readily learned to persecute. Under such conditions there is
+little scope for apologetics. Force kills argument and drives doubt
+below the smooth surface of a nominal conformity. But there were two
+influences beyond the bounds or beyond the power of the christianized
+empire. The Jew remained, as always, stubbornly unconvinced, and, as
+often, fond of slanders. Many of the principal medieval attempts in
+apologetics are directed chiefly against him, e.g. the _Pugio Fidei_ of
+Raymond Martini (c. 1280), which became one of Pascal's sources (see V.
+below), or Peter Abelard's _Dialogus inter Judaeum Philosophum et
+Christianum_. And the Moslem came on the scenes bringing, as a gift for
+Christendom, fuller knowledge of classical, especially Aristotelian,
+texts. The Jews, less bitterly opposed to Mahommedanism than the
+Christians were, caught fire more rapidly, and in some cases served as
+an intermediate link or channel of communication. These two religions
+anticipated the discussion of the problem of faith and reason in the
+Christian church. According to the great Avicenna and Maimonides, faith
+and the highest reason are sure to coincide (see ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY).
+According to Ghazali, in his _Destruction of Philosophers_, the various
+schools of philosophy cancel each other; reason is bankrupt; faith is
+everything. (So nearly Jehuda Halevi.) According to Averroes, reason
+suffices, and faith, with (what he considers) its dreams of immortality
+and the like, is useful only for the ignorant masses. Christian
+theology, however, strikes out a line of its own. Moslems and Jews were
+applying Aristotelian philosophy to rigorously monotheistic faiths;
+Christianity had been encouraged by Platonism in teaching a trinity of
+divine persons, and Platonism of a certain order long dominated the
+middle ages as part of the Augustinian tradition. In sympathy with this
+Platonism, the medieval church began by assuming the entire mutual
+harmony of faith and reason. Such is the teaching, along different
+lines, alike of St Anselm and of Abelard. But, when increased knowledge
+of Aristotle's texts (and of the commentaries) led to the victory of a
+supposed Aristotelianism over a supposed Platonism, Albertus Magnus, and
+his still more distinguished pupil Thomas Aquinas, mark certain
+doctrines as belonging to faith but not to reason. They adhere to the
+general position with exceptions (in the case of what had been
+considered Platonic doctrines). From the point of view of philosophy,
+this was a compromise. Faith and reason partly agree, partly diverge.
+The tendency of the later middle ages is to add to the number of the
+doctrines with which philosophy cannot deal. Thomas's great rival, Duns
+Scotus, does this to a large extent, at times affirming "two truths."
+The latter position, ascribed by the schoolmen to the Averroists,
+becomes dominant among the later Nominalists, William of Occam and his
+disciples, who withdraw _all_ doctrines of faith from the sphere of
+reason. This was a second and a more audacious compromise. It is not
+exactly an attempt to base Christian faith on rational scepticism. It is
+a consistent policy of harbouring inconsistencies in the same mind. A
+statement may be true in philosophy and false in theology, or vice
+versa. To the standpoint of Aquinas, however, the Church of Rome (at
+least in regard to the basis of doctrine) has more and more returned.
+The councils of Trent and of the Vatican mark the Two Truths hypothesis
+as heretical, when they affirm that there _is_ a natural knowledge of
+God and natural certainty of immortality. Along with this affirmation,
+the Church of Rome (if less decisively) has adopted the limitations of
+the Thomist theory by the condemnation of "Ontologism"; certain
+mysterious doctrines are beyond reason. This cautious compromise
+sanctioned by the Church does not represent the _extremest_ reaction
+against nominalism. Even in the nominalistic epoch we have Raymond of
+Sabunde's _Natural Theology_ (according to the article in Herzog-Hauck,
+not the title of the oldest Paris MS., but found in later MSS. and
+almost all the printed editions) or _Liber Creaturarum_ (c. 1435). The
+book is not what moderns (schooled unconsciously in post-Reformation
+developments of Thomist ideas) expect under the name of natural
+theology. It is an attempt once more to demonstrate _all_ scholastic
+dogmas out of the book of creation or on principles of natural reason.
+At many points it follows Anselm closely, and, of course, very often
+"makes light work" of its task.
+
+The Thomist compromise--or even the more sceptical view of "two
+truths"--has the merit of giving filling _of a kind_ to the formula
+"supernatural revelation"--mysteries inaccessible to reason, beyond
+discovery and beyond comprehension. According to earlier
+views--repeatedly revived in Protestantism--revelation is just
+philosophy over again. Can the choice be fairly stated? If revelation
+is thought of as God's personal word, and redemption as his personal
+deed, is it reasonable to view them either as open to a sort of
+scientific prediction or as capricious and unintelligible? Even in the
+middle ages there were not wanting those--the St Victors,
+Bonaventura--who sought to vindicate mystical if not moral redemption as
+the central thought of Christianity.
+
+V. _Earlier Modern Period._--It will be seen that apologetics by no
+means reissued unchanged from the long period of authority. The
+compromise of Aquinas, though not unchallenged, holds the field and that
+even with Protestants. G.W. Leibnitz devotes an introductory chapter in
+his _Theodicee_, 1710 (as against Pierre Bayle), to faith and reason. He
+is a good enough Lutheran to quote as a "mystery" the Eucharist no less
+than the Trinity, while he insists that truths _above_ are not _against_
+reason. Stated thus baldly, has the distinction any meaning? The more
+celebrated and central thesis of the book--this finite universe, the
+best of all such that are possible--also restates positions of Augustine
+and Aquinas.
+
+Before modern philosophy began its career, there was a great revival of
+ancient philosophy at the Renaissance; sometimes anti-Christian,
+sometimes pro-Christian. The latter furnishes apologies by Marsilio
+Ficino, Agostino Steuco, J.L. Vives.
+
+Early in the modern period occurs the great name of Blaise Pascal
+(1623-1662). A staunch Roman Catholic, but belonging to a school of
+Augustinian enthusiasts (the Jansenists), whom the Church put down as
+heretics, he stands pretty much apart from the general currents. His
+_Pensees_, published posthumously, seems to have been meant for a
+systematic treatise, but it has come to us in fragments. Once again, a
+lay apologist! A layman's work may have the advantage of originality or
+the drawback of imperfect knowledge. Pascal's work exhibits both
+characters. It has the originality of rare genius, but it borrows its
+material (as industrious editors have shown) from very few sources--the
+_Pugio Fidei_, M. de Montaigne, P. Charron. Ideas as well as learning
+are largely Montaigne's. The latter's cheerful man-of-the-world
+scepticism is transfigured in Pascal to a deep distrust of human reason,
+in part, perhaps, from anti-Protestant motives. But this attitude, while
+not without parallels both earlier (Ghazali, Jehuda Halevi) and later
+(H.L. Mansel), has peculiarities in Pascal. It is _fallen_ man whom he
+pursues with his fierce scorn; his view of man's nature--intellect as
+well as character--is to be read in the light of his unflinching
+Augustinianism. Again, Pascal, unlike most apologists, belongs to the
+small company of saintly souls. This philosophical sceptic is full of
+humble joy in salvation, of deep love for the Saviour.
+
+Another French Roman Catholic apologist, P.D. Huet (1630-1721)--within
+the conditions of his age a prodigy of learning (in apologetics see his
+_Demonstratio Evangelica_)--is not uninfluenced by Pascal (_Traite de la
+faiblesse de l'esprit humaine_).
+
+As we might expect, Protestant lands are more busily occupied with
+apologetics. Intolerant reliance upon _force_ presents greater
+difficulties to them; soon it grows quite obsolete. Benedict Spinoza,
+the eminent Jewish pantheist (1632-1677), to whom miracle is impossible,
+revelation a phrase, and who renews pioneer work in Old Testament
+criticism, finds at least a fair measure of liberty and comfort in
+Holland (his birth-land). Bayle, the historical sceptic, lectured and
+published his learned _Dictionnaire_ (1696) at Rotterdam. From Holland,
+earlier, had proceeded an apologetic work by a man of European fame.
+Hugo Grotius's _De Veritate Christianae Religionis_ (1627) is partly the
+medieval tradition:--Oppose Mahommedans and Jews! It is partly
+practical:--Arm Christian sailors against religious danger! But in its
+cool spirit it forecasts the coming age, whose master is John Locke. His
+_Reasonableness of Christianity_ (1695) is the thesis of "a whole
+century" of theologians. And his _Essay on the Human Understanding_
+(1690) is almost a Bible to men of education during the same period; its
+lightest word treasured. Locke does not break with the compromise of
+Aquinas. But he transfers attention from _contents_ to _proof_. Reason
+proves that a revelation has been made-and then submits. Leibnitz has to
+supplement rather than correct Locke on this point.
+
+In such an atmosphere, deism readily uttered its protest against
+mysterious revelation. Deism is, in fact, the Thomist natural theology
+(more clearly distinguished from dogmatic theology than in the middle
+ages, alike by Protestants and by the post-Tridentine Church of Rome)
+now dissolving partnership with dogmatic and starting in business for
+itself. Or it is the doctrine of unfallen man's "natural state"--a
+doctrine intensified in Protestantism--separating itself from the
+theologians' grave doctrine of sin. If Socinianism had challenged
+natural theology--Christ, according to it, was the prophet who first
+revealed the way to eternal life--it had glorified the natural powers of
+man; and the learning of the Arminian divines (friends of Grotius and
+Locke) had helped to modernize Christian apologetics upon rational
+lines. Deism now taught that reason, or "the light of nature," was
+all-sufficient.
+
+Not to dwell upon earlier continental "Deists" (mentioned by Viret as
+quoted first in Bayle's _Dictionary_ and again in the introduction to
+Leland's _View of the Deistical Writers_), Lord Herbert of Cherbury (_De
+Veritate_, 1624; _De Religione Gentilium_, 1645?--according to J.G.
+Walch's _Bibliotheca Theologica_ (1757) not published complete until
+1663) was universally understood as hinting conclusions hostile to
+Christianity (cf. also T. Hobbes, _Leviathan_, 1651, ch. xxxi.; Spinoza,
+_Tractatus Theologico-Politicus_, 1670, ch. xiv.). Professedly,
+Herbert's contention merely is that non-Christians feeling after the
+"supreme God" and the law of righteousness must have a chance of
+salvation. Herbert was also epoch-making for the whole 18th century in
+teaching that _priests_ had _corrupted_ this primitive faith. During the
+18th century deism spread widely, though its leaders were "irrepressible
+men like Toland, men of mediocre culture and ability like Anthony
+Collins, vulgar men like Chubb, irritated and disagreeable men like
+Matthew Tindal, who conformed that he might enjoy his Oxford fellowship
+and wrote anonymously that he might relieve his conscience" (A.M.
+Fairbairn). More distinguished sympathizers are Edward Gibbon, who has
+the deistic spirit, and David Hume, the historian and philosophical
+sceptic, who has at least the letter of the deistic creed (_Dialogues
+Concerning Natural Religion_), and who uses Pascal's appeal to "faith"
+in a spirit of mockery (_Essay on Miracles_). In France the new school
+found powerful speaking-trumpets, especially Voltaire, the idol of his
+age--a great denier and scoffer, but always sincerely a believer in the
+God of reason--and the deeper but wilder spirit of J.J. Rousseau. Others
+in France developed still more startling conclusions from Locke's
+principles, E.B. Condillac's sensationalism--Locke's philosophy purged
+of its more ideal if less logical elements--leading on to materialism in
+J.O. de la Mettrie; and at least one of the Encyclopedists (P.H. von
+Holbach) capped materialism with confessed atheism.
+
+In Germany the parallel movement of "illumination" (H.S. Reimarus; J.S.
+Semler, pioneer in N.T. criticism; and a layman, the great Lessing) took
+the form of "rationalism" within the church--interpreting Bible texts by
+main force in a way which the age thought "enlightened" (H.E.G. Paulus,
+1761-1851, &c.).
+
+Among the innumerable English anti-deistic writers (see W. Law, The
+_Case of Reason_; R. Bentley, or "Phileleutherus Lipsiensis"; &c., &c.),
+three are of chief importance. Nathaniel Lardner (Arian, 1684-1768)
+stands in the front rank of the scholarship of his time, and uses his
+vast knowledge to maintain the genuineness of all books of the New
+Testament and the perfect accuracy of its history. Joseph Butler, a very
+original, careful and honest thinker, lifts controversy with deists from
+details to principles in his _Analogy of Religion both Natural and
+Revealed to the Constitution and Course of Nature_ (1736). This title
+introduces us to a new conception. Deists and orthodox in those days
+agreed in recognizing not merely natural theology but natural
+religion--"essential religion," Butler more than once styles it; the
+expression shows how near he stood intellectually to those he
+criticized. But morally he stood aloof. In part i.--on Natural
+Religion--he defends a moral or punishing Deity against the sentimental
+softness of the age. The God of Nature, whom deists confess does punish
+in time, if they will but look at the facts; why not in eternity?
+"Morality," as others have confessed, is "the nature of things"! Not the
+Being of God is discussed--Butler will not waste words on triflers (as
+he thinks them) who deny that--but God's character. Unfortunately
+(perhaps) Butler prefers to argue on _admitted principles_; holds much
+of his own moral belief in reserve; tries to reduce everything to a
+question of _probable fact_. If this hampers him in part i., the
+situation appears still worse in part ii., which is directly occupied
+with the defence of Christianity. Butler says nothing about
+incomprehensible mysteries, and protests that reason is the only ground
+we have to proceed upon. But by treating the atonement simply as
+revealed (and unexplained) matter of fact--in spite of some partial
+analogies in human experience, a thing essentially anomalous--Butler
+repeats, and applies to the _moral_ contents of Christianity, what
+Aquinas said of its speculative doctrines. (Whether one calls the
+unknowable a revealed mystery or an unexplained and inexplicable fact
+makes little difference.) William Paley (1743-1805) borrows from many
+writers; he borrows Lardner's learning and Butler's "particular evidence
+for Christianity," viz. miracles, prophecy and "history"; and he states
+his points with perfect clearness. No man ever filled a typical position
+more exactly than Paley. Eighteenth-century ethics--Hedonism, with a
+theological background. Empiricist Natural Theology--the argument from
+Design. Christian Evidences--the strong probability of the resurrection
+of Christ and the consequent authority of his teaching. _Horae
+Paulinae_--mutual confirmations of _Acts_ and Epistles; better, though
+one-sided. When such exclusively "external" arguments are urged, the
+contents of Christianity go for next to nothing.
+
+VI. _Later Modern Period._--Towards the end of the 18th century a new
+epoch of reconstruction begins in the thought and life of civilization.
+The leader in speculative philosophy is Immanuel Kant, though he
+includes many agnostic elements, and draws the inference (which some
+things in the letter of Butler might seem to warrant) that the essence
+of Christianity is an ethical theism. While he thus created a new and
+more ethical "rationalism," Kant's many-sided influence, alike in
+philosophy and in theology, worked to further issues. He (and other
+Germans, but not G.W.F. Hegel) was represented in England in a
+fragmentary way by S.T. Coleridge (1772-1834), probably the most typical
+figure of his period--another layman. His general thought was that
+"rationalism" represents an uprising of the lower reason or
+"understanding" against the higher or true "reason." The mysteries of
+theology are its best part--not alien to reason but of its substance,
+the "logos." This is to upset the compromise of Aquinas and go back to a
+Christian platonism. Of course the difficulty revives again: If a
+philosophy, why supernaturally revealed? Thomas Arnold, criticizing
+Edward Hawkins, appeals rather to the atonement as deeper neglected
+truth. So in Scotland, Thomas Erskine and Thomas Chalmers--the latter in
+contradiction to his earlier position--hold that the doctrine of
+salvation, when translated into experience, furnishes "internal
+evidence"--a somewhat broader use of the phrase than when it applies
+merely to evidence of date or authorship drawn from the contents of a
+book. This gives a new and moral filling to the conception of
+"supernatural revelation" The attempt to work out either of the
+reactions against Thomism in new theological systems is pretty much
+confined to Germany. Hegel's theological followers, of every shade and
+party, represent the first, and Schleiermacher's the second.
+Schleiermacher rejects natural religion in favour of the positive
+religions, while the school of A. Ritschl and W. Herrmann reject natural
+theology outright in favour of revelation--a striking external parallel
+to early Socinianism. British and American divines, on the other hand,
+are slow to suspect that a new apologetic principle may mean a new
+system of apologetics, to say nothing of a new dogmatic. Among the
+evangelicals, for the most part, natural theology, far from being
+rejected, is not even modified, and certain doctrines continue to be
+described as incomprehensible mysteries. No Protestant, of course, can
+agree with Roman Catholic theology that (supernatural) faith is an
+obedient assent to church authority and the mysteries it dictates. To
+Protestantism, faith is personal trust. But the principle is hardly ever
+carried out to the end. Mysterious doctrines are ascribed by Protestants
+to _scripture_; so half of revelation is regarded as matter for blind
+assent, if another half is luminous in experience. The movement of
+German philosophy which led from Kant to Hegel has indeed found powerful
+British champions (T.H. Green, J. and E. Caird, &c.), but less churchly
+than Coleridge (or F.D. Maurice or B.F. Westcott), though churchly again
+in J.R. Illingworth and other contributors to _Lux Mundi_ (1890). Before
+this wave of thought, H.L. Mansel tried (1858) to play Pascal's game on
+Kantian principles, developing the sceptical side of Kant's many-faceted
+mind. But as he protested against relying on the human conscience--the
+one element of positive conviction spared by Kant--his ingenuity found
+few admirers except H. Spencer, who claims him as justifying
+anti-Christian agnosticism. Butler's tradition was more directly
+continued by J.H. Newman--with modifications on becoming a Roman
+Catholic in the light of the church's decision in favour of Thomism.
+A.M. Fairbairn (_Catholicism, Roman and Anglican_, ch. v., and
+elsewhere) and E.A. Abbott (_Philomythus_, and elsewhere) suspect Newman
+of a sceptical leaven and extend the criticism to Butler's doctrine of
+"probability." Yet it seems plain that any theology, maintaining
+redemption as historical fact (and not merely ideal), must attach
+religious importance to conclusions which are technically probable
+rather than proven. If we transfer Christian evidence from the
+"historical" to the "philosophical" with H. Rashdall--we surely cut down
+Christianity to the limits of theism. And the _inner_ mind of Butler has
+moral anchorage in the _Analogy_, quite as much as in the _Sermons_. It
+is in part ii. more than in part i. of his masterpiece that the light
+seems to grow dim. Another of the Oxford converts to Rome, W.G. Ward,
+made vigorous contributions to natural theology.
+
+VII. _Contents of Modern Apologetics._--Superficially regarded,
+philosophy ebbs and flows, whatever progress the debate may reveal to
+speculative insight. Old positions re-emerge from forgetfulness, and
+there is always a philosophy to back every "case." More visible dangers
+arise for the apologist in the region of science, historical or
+physical. There the progress of truth, within whatever limits, is
+manifest. _Essays and Reviews_ (1860) was a vehement announcement of
+scientific results--startling English conservatism awake for the first
+time. And in the scientific region the great apologetic classics, like
+Butler, are hopelessly out of date. The modern apologist must do
+ephemeral work--unless it should chance that he proves to be the
+skirmisher, pioneering for a modified dogmatic. He holds a watching
+brief. While he must beware of hasty speech, he has often to plead that
+new knowledge does not really threaten faith; or that it is not
+genuinely established knowledge at all; or else, that faith has mistaken
+its own grounds, and will gain strength by concentrating on its true
+field. The work is not always well done; but the Christian church needs
+it.
+
+1. _Apologetics and Philosophy._--The main part of this subject is
+discussed under THEISM. Some notes may be added on special points, (a)
+Freewill is generally assumed on the Christian side (R.C. Church;
+Scottish philosophy; H. Lotze; J. Martineau; W.G. Ward. Not in a
+libertarian sense; Leibnitz. New and obscure issues raised by Kant). But
+there is no continuous tradition or steady trend of discussion. (b)
+Personal immortality is affirmed as philosophically certain by the
+Church of Rome and many Protestant writers. Others teach "conditional
+immortality." Others base the hope on belief in the resurrection of
+Christ, (c) Theodicy--the tradition of Leibnitz is preserved (on
+libertarian lines) by Martineau (_A Study of Religion_, 1883). See also
+F.R. Tennant's _Origin and Propagation of Sin_ (1902)--sin a
+"bye-product" of a generally good evolution. Others find in the gospel
+of redemption the true theodicy. (d) The problem of Christian apologetic
+has been simplified in the past by the prevalence of the Christian
+ethics and temper even among many non-Christians (e.g. J.S. Mill). But
+hereafter it may not prove possible for the apologist to assume as
+unchallenged the Christian moral outlook. Germans have suspected an
+anti-Christian strain in Goethe; all the world knows of it in E. von
+Hartmann or F. Nietzsche.
+
+2. _Apologetics and Physical Science._--(a) Copernicanism has won its
+battles and the Church of Rome would fain have its error forgotten. The
+admission is now general that the Bible cannot be expected to use the
+language of scientific astronomy. Still, it is not certain that the
+shock of Copernicanism on supernatural Christianity is exhausted. (b)
+Geology has also won its battles, and few now try to harmonize it with
+Genesis. (c) Evolution came down from the clouds when C. Darwin and A.R.
+Wallace succeeded in displacing the naif conception of special creation
+by belief in the origin of species out of other species through a
+process of natural law. This gave immense vogue to wider and vaguer
+theories of evolutionary process, notably to H. Spencer's grandiose
+cosmic formula in terms of mechanism. Here the apologist has more to
+say. The special Darwinian hypothesis--natural "selection"--may or may
+not be true; it was at least a fruitful suggestion. If true, it need not
+be exhaustive. Again, evolution itself need not apply everywhere. We are
+offered a philosophical rather than a scientific speculation when E.
+Caird (_Evolution of Religion_, 1893) tries to vindicate Christianity as
+the highest working of nature--true just _because_ evolved from lower
+religions. The Christian apologist indeed may himself seek, following
+John Fiske, to philosophize evolution as a restatement of natural
+theology--"one God, one law, one element and one far-off divine
+event"--and as at least pointing _towards_ personal immortality. But if
+evolution is to be the whole truth regarding Christianity, we should
+have to surrender both _supernatural revelation_ and _divine
+redemption_. And these, it may be strongly urged, contain the magic of
+Christianity. Losing them it might sink into a lifeless theory.
+
+As far as pure science goes, the inference from science in favour of
+materialism has visibly lost much of its plausibility, and Protestant
+apologists would probably be prepared to accept in advance all verified
+discoveries as belonging to a different region from that of faith. Roman
+Catholic apologetic prefers to negotiate in detail.
+
+3. _Apologetics and History._--History brings us nearer the heart of the
+Christian position. (a) Old Testament criticism won startling victories
+towards the end of the 19th century. It blots out much supposed
+knowledge, but throws a vivid and interesting light on the reconstrued
+process of history. Most Protestants accept the general scheme of
+criticism; those who hang back make not a few concessions (e.g. J. Orr,
+_Problem of the O.T._, 1906). The Roman Catholic Church again prefers an
+attitude of reserve, (b) New Testament criticism raises even more
+delicate issues. Positively it may be affirmed that the recovered figure
+of the historical Jesus is the greatest asset in the possession of
+modern Christian theology and apologetics. The "Lives" of Christ, Roman
+Catholic and Protestant; "critical" (D.F. Strauss, A. Renan, &c., &c.)
+and "believing," imply this at least. Negatively, "unchallenged
+historical certainties" are becoming few in number, or are disappearing
+altogether, through the industry of modern minds. True, the Tubingen
+criticism of F.C. Baur and his school--important as the first scientific
+attempt to conceive New Testament conditions and literature as a
+whole--has been abandoned. (A. Ritschl's _Entstehung der
+alt-katholischen Kirche_, 2nd edition, 1857, was an especially telling
+reply.) The synoptic gospels are now treated with considerable respect.
+It is no longer suggested in responsible quarters that they are party
+documents sacrificing truth to "tendency." But not all quarters are
+responsible; and in the effort to grasp scientifically, i.e. accurately,
+the amazing facts of Christ and primitive Christianity, every imaginable
+hypothesis is canvassed. Even the Roman Catholic Church produced the
+Abbe Loisy (though he undertakes to play off church certainties against
+historical uncertainties). Hitherto at least the fourth gospel has been
+the touchstone. The authorship of the epistles is in many cases a matter
+of subordinate importance; at least for Protestants or for those
+surrendering Bible infallibility, which Rome can hardly do. (c) New
+Testament history, The apologist must maintain (1) that Jesus of
+Nazareth is a real historical figure--a point well-nigh overlooked by
+Strauss, and denied by some modern advocates of a mythical theory; (2)
+that Jesus is knowable (not one "of whom we really know very little"--B.
+Jowett) in his teaching, example, character, historical personality; and
+that he is full of moral splendour. On the other hand, faith has no
+special interest in claiming that we can compose a biographical study of
+the development of Jesus. Certainly no early writer thought of providing
+material for such use. It is a common opinion in Germany that our
+material is in fact too scanty or too self-contradictory. Yet the
+fascination of the subject will always revive the attempt. If it
+succeeds, there will be a new line of communication along which that
+great personality will tell on men's minds and hearts. If it
+fails--there are other channels; character can be known and trusted even
+when we are baffled by a thing necessarily so full of mystery as the
+development of a personality. Notably, the manifest _non-consciousness
+of personal guilt_ in Jesus suggests to us his sinlessness. (3)
+Apologists maintain that Jesus "claimed" Messiahship. There are
+speculative constructions of gospel history which eliminate that claim;
+and no doubt apologetics could--with more or less difficulty--restate
+its position in a changed form if the paradox of to-day became accepted
+as historical fact to-morrow. The central apologetic thesis is the
+_uniqueness_ of the "only-begotten"; it is here that "the supernatural"
+passes into the substance of Christian faith. But most probably the
+description of Jesus as thus unique will continue to be associated with
+the allegation--He told us so; he claimed Messiahship and "died for the
+claim." (See preface to 5th ed. of _Ecce Homo_.) Nor did so superhuman a
+claim crush him, or deprive his soul of its balance. He imparted to the
+title a grander significance out of the riches of his personality. (4)
+In the light of this the "argument from prophecy" is reconstructed. It
+ceases to lay much stress upon coincidences between Old Testament
+predictions or "types" and events in Christ's career. It becomes the
+assertion; historically, providentially, the expectation of a _unique
+religious figure_ arose--"the" Messiah; and Jesus gave himself to be
+thought of as that great figure. (5) It is also claimed as certain that
+Jesus had marvellous powers of healing. More reserve is being shown
+towards the other or "nature" miracles. These latter, it may be
+remarked, are more unambiguously supernatural. But, if Jesus really
+cured leprosy or really restored the dead to life, we have miracle
+plainly enough in the region of healing. (6) For Jesus' own resurrection
+several lines of evidence are alleged. (i.) All who believe that in any
+sense Christ rose again insist upon the impression which his personality
+made during life. It was _he_ whose resurrection seemed credible! Some
+practically stop here; the apologist proceeds. (ii.) There is the report
+of the empty grave; historically, not easily waved aside. (iii.) We have
+New Testament reports of appearances of the risen Jesus; subjective? the
+mere clothing of the impression made by his personality during life? or
+objective? "telegrams" from heaven (Th. Keim)--"Veridical
+Hallucinations"? or something even more, throwing a ray of light perhaps
+on the state and powers of the happy dead? (iv.) There is the immense
+influence of Jesus Christ in history, _associated with belief in him_ as
+the risen Son of God.
+
+In view of the claims of Jesus, different possibilities arise, (i.) The
+evangelists impute to him a higher claim than he made. This may be
+called the rationalistic solution; with sympathy in Christ's ethical
+teaching, there is relief at minimizing his great claim. So,
+brilliantly, Wellhausen's Gospel commentaries and Introduction. (Mark
+fairly historical; other gospels' fuller account of Christ's teaching
+and claims unreliable.) (ii.) The claim was fraudulent (Reimarus; Renan,
+ed. 1; popular anti-Christian agitation). This is a counsel of despair.
+(iii.) He was an enthusiastic dreamer, expecting the world's end. This
+the apologist will recognize as the most plausible hostile alternative.
+He may feel bound to admit an element of illusion in Christ's vision' of
+the future; but he will contend that the apocalyptic form did not
+destroy the spiritual content of Christ's revelations--nay, that it was
+itself the vehicle of great truths. So he will argue as the essence of
+the matter that (iv.) he who has occupied Christ's place in history, and
+won such reverence from the purest souls, was what he claimed to be, and
+that his many-sidedness comes to focus and harmony when we recognize him
+as the Christ of God and the Saviour of the world.
+
+To a less extent, similar problems and alternatives arise in regard to
+the church:--Catholicism a compromise between Jewish Christianity and
+Pauline or Gentile Christianity (F.C. Baur, &c.); Catholicism the
+Hellenizing of Christianity (A. Ritschl, A. Harnack); the Catholic
+church for good and evil the creation of St Paul (P. Wernle, H. Weinel);
+the church supernaturally guided (R.C. apologetic; in a modified degree
+High Church apologetic); essential--not necessarily exclusive--truth of
+Paulinism, essential error in first principles of Catholicism
+(Protestant apologetic).
+
+  LITERATURE.--Omitting the Christian fathers as remote from the present
+  day, we recognize as works of genius Pascal's _Pensees_ and Butler's
+  _Analogy_, to which we might add J.R. Seeley's _Ecce Homo_ (1865). The
+  philosophical, Platonist, or Idealist line of Christian defence is
+  represented among recent writers by J.R. Illingworth [Anglican], in
+  _Personality, Human and Divine_ (1894), _Divine Immanence_ (1898),
+  _Reason and Revelation_ (1902), who at times seems rather to
+  presuppose the Thomist compromise, and A.M. Fairbairn
+  [Congregationalist], in _Place of Christ in Modern Theology_ (1893),
+  _Philosophy of the Christian Religion_ (1902). The appeal to ethical
+  or Christian experience--"internal evidence"--is found especially in
+  E.A. Abbott [Christianity supernatural and divine, but not
+  miraculous], _Through Nature to Christ_ (1877), _The Kernel and the
+  Husk_ (1886), _The Spirit on the Waters_ (1897), &c., or A.B. Bruce,
+  _Chief End of Revelation_ (1881), _The Miraculous Element in the
+  Gospels_ (1886), _Apologetics_ (1892), and other works; Bruce's
+  posthumous article, "Jesus" in _Encyc. Bib._, was understood by some
+  as exchanging Christian orthodoxy for bare theism, but probably its
+  tone of aloofness is due to the attempt to keep well within the limits
+  of what the author considered pure scientific history. Scholarly and
+  apologetic discussion on the gospels and life of Jesus is further
+  represented by the writings of W. Sanday or (earlier) of J.B.
+  Lightfoot. Much American work of merit on the character of Christ is
+  headed by W. E Channing, and by H. Bushnell (in _Nature and the
+  Supernatural_). For defence of Christ's resurrection, reference may be
+  made to H. Latham's _The Risen Lord_ and R. Mackintosh's _First Primer
+  of Apologetics_. For modification in light of recent scholarship of
+  argument from prophecy, to Riehm's _Messianic Prophecy_, Stanton's
+  _Jewish and Christian Messiah_, and Woods's _Hope of Israel_. Roman
+  Catholic apologetics--of necessity, Thomist--is well represented by
+  Professor Schanz of Tubingen. The whole Ritschl movement is apologetic
+  in spirit; best English account in A.E. Garvie's _Ritschlian Theology_
+  (1899). See also the chief church histories or histories of doctrine
+  (Harnack; Loofs; Hagenbach; Shedd); A.S. Farrar's _Critical History of
+  Free_ (i.e. anti-Christian) _Thought_ (Bampton Lectures, 1862); R.C.
+  Trench's Introduction to _Notes on the Miracles_, and F.W. Macran's
+  _English Apologetic Theology_ (1905). For the 18th century, G.V.
+  Lechler's _Geschichte des englischen Deismus_ (1841); Mark Pattison in
+  _Essays and Reviews_ (1860); Leslie Stephen's _English Thought in 18th
+  Century_ (agnostic); John Hunt, _Religious Thought in England_ (3
+  vols., 1870-1873).     (R. Ma.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] While these writings are of great historical value, they do not,
+    of course, represent the Christian argument as conceived to-day. The
+    Church of Rome prefers medieval or modern statements of its position;
+    Protestantism can use only modern statements.
+
+
+
+
+APOLOGUE (from the Gr. [Greek: apologos], a statement or account), a
+short fable or allegorical story, meant to serve as a pleasant vehicle
+for some moral doctrine or to convey some useful lesson. One of the best
+known is that of Jotham in the Book of Judges (ix. 7-15); others are
+"The City Rat and Field Rat," by Horace, "The Belly and its Members," by
+the patrician Menenius Agrippa in the second book of Livy, and perhaps
+most famous of all, those of Aesop. The term is applied more
+particularly to a story in which the actors or speakers are taken from
+the brute creation or inanimate nature. An apologue is distinguished
+from a fable in that there is always some moral sense present, which
+there need not be in a fable. It is generally dramatic, and has been
+defined as "a satire in action." It differs from a parable in several
+respects. A parable is equally an ingenious tale intended to correct
+manners, but it can be _true_, while an apologue, with its introduction
+of animals and plants, to which it lends our ideas and language and
+emotions, is necessarily devoid of real truth, and even of all
+probability. The parable reaches heights to which the apologue cannot
+aspire, for the points in which brutes and inanimate nature present
+analogies to man are principally those of his lower nature, and the
+lessons taught by the apologue seldom therefore reach beyond prudential
+morality, whereas the parable aims at representing the relations between
+man and God. It finds its framework in the world of nature as it
+actually is, and not in any grotesque parody of it, and it exhibits real
+and not fanciful analogies. The apologue seizes on that which man has in
+common with creatures below him, and the parable on that which he has in
+common with God. Still, in spite of the difference of moral level,
+Martin Luther thought so highly of apologues as counsellors of virtue
+that he edited and revised Aesop and wrote a characteristic preface to
+the volume. The origin of the apologue is extremely ancient and comes
+from the East, which is the natural fatherland of everything connected
+with allegory, metaphor and imagination. Veiled truth was often
+necessary in the East, particularly with the slaves, who dared not
+reveal their minds too openly. It is noteworthy that the two fathers of
+apologue in the West were slaves, namely Aesop and Phaedrus. La Fontaine
+in France; Gay and Dodsley in England; Gellert, Lessing and Hagedorn in
+Germany; Tomas de Iriarte in Spain, and Krilov in Russia, are leading
+modern writers of apologues. Length is not an essential matter in the
+definition of an apologue. Those of La Fontaine are often very short,
+as, for example, "Le Coque et la Perle." On the other hand, in the
+romances of Reynard the Fox we have medieval apologues arranged in
+cycles, and attaining epical dimensions. An Italian fabulist, Corti, is
+said to have developed an apologue of "The Talking Animals" to the bulk
+of twenty-six cantos. La Motte, writing at a time when this species of
+literature was universally admired, attributes its popularity to the
+fact that it _menage et flatte l'amour-propre_ by inculcating virtue in
+an amusing manner without seeming to dictate or insist. This was the
+ordinary 18th-century view of the matter, but Rousseau contested the
+educational value of instruction given in this indirect form.
+
+  A work by P. Soulle, _La Fontaine et ses devanciers_ (1866), is a
+  history of the apologue from the earliest times until its final
+  triumph in France.
+
+
+
+
+APOLOGY (from Gr. [Greek: apologia], defence), in its usual sense, an
+expression of regret for something which has been wrongfully said or
+done; a withdrawal or retraction of some charge or imputation which is
+false. In an action for libel, the fact that an apology has been
+promptly and fully made is a plea in mitigation of damages. The apology
+should have the same form of publicity as the original charge. If made
+publicly, the proper form is an advertisement in a newspaper; if made
+within the hearing of a few only, a letter of apology, which may be read
+to those who have heard what was said, should be sufficient. By the
+English Libel Act 1843, s. 2, it was enacted that in an action for libel
+contained in a newspaper it is a defence for the defendant to plead that
+the libel was inserted without actual malice and without gross
+negligence, and that before the commencement of the action and at the
+earliest opportunity afterwards he inserted in the newspaper a full
+apology for the libel, or, where the newspaper in which the libel
+appeared was published at intervals exceeding one week, he offered to
+publish the apology in any newspaper selected by the plaintiff. The
+apology must be full and must be printed in as conspicuous a place and
+manner as the libel was.
+
+The word "apology" or "apologia" is also used in the sense of defence or
+vindication, the only meaning of the Greek [Greek: apologia], especially
+of the defence of a doctrine or system, or of religious or other
+beliefs, &c., e.g. Justin Martyr's _Apology_ or J.H. Newman's _Apologia
+pro vita sua_. (See APOLOGETICS.)
+
+
+
+
+APONEUROSIS ([Greek: apo], away, and [Greek: neuron], a sinew), in
+anatomy, a membrane separating muscles from each other.
+
+
+
+
+APOPHTHEGM (from the [Greek: apophthegma]), a short and pointed
+utterance. The usual spelling up to Johnson's day was _apothegm_, which
+Webster and Worcester still prefer; it indicates the pronunciation--i.e.
+"apothem"--better than the other, which, however, is more usual in
+England and follows the derivation. Such sententious remarks as
+"Knowledge is Power" are apophthegms. They become "proverbs" by age and
+acceptance. Plutarch made a famous collection in his _Apophthegmata
+Laconica_.
+
+
+
+
+APOPHYGE (Gr. [Greek: apophugae], a flying off), in architecture, the
+lowest part of the shaft of an Ionic or Corinthian column, or the
+highest member of its base if the column be considered as a whole. The
+apophyge is the inverted cavetto or concave sweep, on the upper edge of
+which the diminishing shaft rests.
+
+
+
+
+APOPHYLLITE, a mineral often classed with the zeolites, since it behaves
+like these when heated before the blowpipe and has the same mode of
+occurrence; it differs, however, from the zeolites proper in containing
+no aluminium. It is a hydrous potassium and calcium silicate,
+H7KCa4(SiO3)8 + 4-1/2(H2O). A small amount of fluorine is often present,
+and it is one of the few minerals in which ammonium has been detected.
+The temperature at which the water is expelled is higher than is usually
+the case with zeolites; none is given off below 200 deg., and only about
+half at 250 deg.; this is slowly reabsorbed again from moist air, and is
+therefore regarded as water of crystallization, the remainder being
+water of constitution. When heated before the blowpipe, the mineral
+exfoliates, owing to loss of water, and on this account was named
+apophyllite by R.J. Hauy in 1806, from the Greek [Greek: apo], from, and
+[Greek: phullon], a leaf.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+Apophyllite always occurs as distinct crystals, which belong to the
+tetragonal system. The form is either a square prism terminated by the
+basal planes (fig. 2), or an acute pyramid (fig. 1). A prominent feature
+of the mineral is its perfect basal cleavage, on which the lustre is
+markedly pearly, presenting, in white crystals, somewhat the appearance
+of the eye of a fish after boiling, hence the old name fish-eye-stone or
+ichthyophthalmite for the mineral. On other surfaces the lustre is
+vitreous. The crystals are usually transparent and colourless, sometimes
+with a greenish or rose-red tint. Opaque white crystals of cubic habit
+have been called albine; xylochlore is an olive-green variety. The
+hardness is 4-1/2, and the specific gravity 2.35.
+
+The optical characters of the mineral are of special interest, and have
+been much studied. The sign of the double refraction may be either
+positive or negative, and some crystals are divided into optically
+biaxial sectors. The variety known as leucocyclite shows, when examined
+in convergent polarized light, a peculiar interference figure, the rings
+being alternately white and violet-black and not coloured as in a normal
+figure seen in white light.
+
+Apophyllite is a mineral of secondary origin, commonly occurring, in
+association with other zeolites, in amygdaloidal cavities in basalt and
+melaphyre. Magnificent groups of greenish and colourless tabular
+crystals, the crystals several inches across, were found, with flesh-red
+stilbite, in the Deccan traps of the Western Ghats, near Bombay, during
+the construction of the Great Indian Peninsular railway. Groups of
+crystals of a beautiful pink colour have been found in the silver veins
+of Andreasberg in the Harz and of Guanaxuato in Mexico. Crystals of
+recent formation have been detected in the Roman remains at the hot
+springs of Plombieres in France.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+APOPHYSIS (Gr. [Greek: apophysis], offshoot), a bony protuberance, in
+human physiology; also a botanical term for the swelling of the
+spore-case in certain mosses.
+
+
+
+
+APOPLEXY (Gr. [Greek: apoplaexia], from [Greek: apoplaessein], to strike
+down, to stun), the term employed by Galen to designate the "sudden loss
+of feeling and movement of the whole body, with the exception of
+respiration," to which, after the time of Harvey, was added "and with
+the exception of the circulation." Although the term is occasionally
+employed in medicine with other significations, yet in its general
+acceptation apoplexy may be defined as a sudden loss of consciousness,
+of sensibility, and of movement without any _essential_ modification of
+the respiratory and circulatory functions occasioned by some brain
+disease. It was discovered that the majority of the cases of apoplexy
+were due to cerebral haemorrhage, and what looked like cerebral
+haemorrhage, red softening; and the idea for a long time prevailed that
+apoplexy and cerebral haemorrhage could be employed as synonymous terms,
+and that an individual who, in popular parlance, "had an apoplectic
+stroke," had necessarily suffered from haemorrhage into his brain. A
+small haemorrhage may not, however, cause an apoplectic fit, nor is an
+apoplectic fit always caused by haemorrhage; it may be due to sudden
+blocking of a large vessel by a clot from a distant part (embolism), or
+by a sudden clotting of the blood in the vessel itself (thrombosis).
+Owing to the prevailing idea in former times that cerebral haemorrhage
+and apoplexy were synonymous terms, the word apoplexy was applied to
+haemorrhage into other organs than the brain; thus the terms pulmonary
+apoplexy, retinal apoplexy and splenic apoplexy were used.
+
+The term "apoplexy" is now used in clinical medicine to denote that form
+of coma or deep state of unconsciousness which is due to sudden
+disturbance of the cerebral circulation occasioned by a local cause
+within the cranial cavity, as distinct from the loss of consciousness
+due to sudden failure of the heart's action (syncope) or the coma of
+narcotic or alcoholic poisoning, of _status epilepticus_, of uraemia or
+of head injury.
+
+The sudden coma of sunstroke and heat-stroke might be included, although
+owing to the suddenness with which a person may be struck down, the term
+_heat apoplexy_ is frequently used, and, from an etymological point of
+view, quite justifiably. The older writers use the term _simple
+apoplexy_ for a sudden attack which could not be explained by any
+visible disease. Again, _congestive apoplexy_ was applied to those cases
+of coma where, at the autopsy, nothing was found to account for the coma
+and death except engorgement of the vessels of the brain and its
+membranes. In senile dementia and in general paralysis the brain is
+shrunken and the convolutions atrophied, the increased space in the
+ventricles and between the convolutions being filled up with the
+cerebro-spinal fluid. In these diseases apoplectic states may arise,
+terminating fatally; the excess of fluid found in such cases was
+formerly thought to be the cause of the symptoms, consequently the
+condition was called _serous apoplexy_. Such terms are no longer used,
+owing to the better knowledge of the pathology of brain disease.
+
+Having thus narrowed down the application of the term "apoplexy," we are
+in a position to consider its chief features, and the mechanism by which
+it is produced. Apoplexy may be rapidly fatal, but it is very seldom
+_instantly_ fatal. The onset is usually sudden, and sometimes the
+individual may be struck down in an instant, senseless and motionless,
+"warranting those epithets, which the ancients applied to the victims of
+this disease, of _attoniti_ and _siderati_, as if they were
+thunder-stricken or planet-struck" (Sir Thomas Watson). The attack,
+however, may be less sudden and, not infrequently, attended by a
+convulsion; while occasionally, in the condition termed _ingravescent
+apoplexy_, the coma is gradual in its onset, occupying hours in its
+development. Although unexpected, various warning symptoms, sometimes
+slight, sometimes pronounced, occur in the majority of cases. Such are,
+fulness in the head, headache, giddiness, noises in the ears, mental
+confusion, slight lapses of consciousness, numbness or tingling in the
+limbs. A characteristic apoplectic attack presents the following
+phenomena: the individual falls down suddenly and lies without sense or
+motion, except that his pulse keeps beating and his breathing continues.
+He appears to be in a deep sleep, from which he cannot be roused; the
+breathing is laboured and stertorous, and is accompanied with puffing
+out of the cheeks; the pulse may be beating more strongly than natural,
+and the face is often flushed and turgid. The reflexes are abolished.
+Although apoplexy may occur without paralysis, and paralysis without
+apoplexy, the two, owning the same cause, very frequently co-exist, or
+happen in immediate sequence and connexion; consequently there is in
+most cases definite evidence of paralysis affecting usually one side of
+the body in addition to the coma. Thus the pupils are unequal; there may
+be asymmetry of the face, or the limbs may be more rigid or flaccid on
+one side than on the other. These signs of localized disease enable a
+distinction to be made from the coma of narcotic poisoning and
+alcoholic intoxication. It must be borne in mind that a person smelling
+strongly of liquor and found lying in the street in a comatose state may
+be suffering from apoplexy, and the error of sending a dying man to a
+police cell may be avoided by this knowledge.
+
+If the fit is only moderately severe, the reflexes soon return, and the
+patient may in a few hours show indications of returning consciousness
+by making some movements or opening his eyes when spoken to, although
+later it may be found that he is unable to speak, or may be paralysed or
+mentally afflicted (see PARALYSIS). In severe cases the coma deepens and
+the patient dies, usually from interference with the breathing, or, less
+commonly, from arrest of the heart's action.
+
+The mechanism by which apoplexy is produced has been a matter of much
+dispute; the condition was formerly ascribed to the pressure exerted by
+the clot on the rest of the brain, but there is no increase of
+intracranial pressure in an apoplectic fit occurring as a result of the
+sudden closure of a large vessel by embolism or thrombosis. Suddenness
+of the lesion appears to be, then, the essential element common to all
+cases of apoplexy from organic brain disease. It is the sudden shock to
+the delicate mechanism that produces the unconsciousness; but seeing
+that the coma is usually deeper and more prolonged in cerebral
+haemorrhage than when occasioned by vascular occlusion, and that an
+ingravescent apoplexy coma gradually develops and deepens as the amount
+of haemorrhage increases, we may presume that increase of intracranial
+pressure does play an important part in the degree and intensity of the
+coma caused by the rupture of a vessel. Apoplexy seldom occurs under
+forty years of age, but owing to the fact that disease of the cerebral
+vessels may exist at any age, from causes which are fully explained in
+the article NEUROPATHOLOGY, no period of life is exempt; consequently
+cases of true apoplexy are not wanting even in very young children.
+Recognizing that there are two causes of apoplexy in advanced life, viz.
+(1) sudden rupture of a diseased vessel usually associated with high
+arterial pressure, enlarged, powerfully acting heart and chronic renal
+disease, and (2) the sudden clotting of blood in a large diseased vessel
+favoured by a low arterial pressure due to a weak-acting heart, it is
+obvious that the character of the pulse forms a good guide to the
+diagnosis of the cause, the prevention and warding off of an attack, and
+the treatment of such should it occur.
+
+Anything which tends directly or indirectly to increase arterial
+pressure within the cerebral blood-vessels may bring on an attack of
+cerebral haemorrhage; and although the identification of an apoplectic
+habit of body with a stout build, a short neck and florid complexion is
+now generally discredited, it being admitted that apoplexy occurs as
+frequently in thin and spare persons who present no such peculiarity of
+conformation, yet a plethoric habit of body, occasioned by immoderate
+eating or drinking associated with the gouty diathesis, leads to a
+general arterio-sclerosis and high arterial pressure. All conditions
+which can give rise to a local intracranial or a general bodily increase
+of the arterial pressure, i.e. severe exertion of body and mind, violent
+emotions, much stooping, overheated rooms, exposure to the sun, sudden
+shocks to the body, constipation and straining at stool, may, by
+suddenly increasing the strain on the wall of a diseased vessel, lead to
+its rupture.
+
+The outlook of apoplexy is generally unfavourable in cases where the
+coma is profound; death may take place at different intervals after the
+onset. If the patient, after recovering from the initial coma, suffers
+with continual headache and lapses into a drowsy state, the result is
+likely to be serious; for such a condition probably indicates that an
+inflammatory change has taken place about the clot or in the area of
+softening.
+
+_Treatment._--The patient should be placed in the recumbent position
+with the head and shoulders slightly raised. He should be moved as
+little as possible from the place where the attack occurred. The medical
+man who is summoned will probably give the following directions: an
+ice-bag to be applied to the head; a few grains of calomel or a drop of
+croton oil in butter to be placed on the tongue, or an enema of castor
+oil to be administered. He may find it necessary to draw off the water
+with a catheter. The practice of blood-letting, once so common in this
+disease, is seldom resorted to, although in some cases, where there is
+very high arterial tension and a general state of plethora, it might be
+beneficial. Depletives are not employed where there is evidence of
+failure of the heart's action; indeed the cautious administration of
+stimulants may be necessary, either subcutaneously or by the mouth (if
+there exist a power of swallowing), together with warm applications to
+the surface of the body; a water-bed may be required, and careful
+nursing, is essential to prevent complications, especially the formation
+of bedsores.     (F. W. Mo.)
+
+
+
+
+APOROSE (from Gr. [Greek: ha], without, and [Greek: poros], passage), a
+biological term meaning imperforate, or not porous: there is a group of
+corals called _Aporosa_.
+
+
+
+
+APOSIOPESIS (the Greek for "becoming silent"), a rhetorical device by
+which the speaker or writer stops short and leaves something
+unexpressed, but yet obvious, to be supplied by the imagination. The
+classical example is the threat, "Quos ego----!" of Neptune (in Virgil,
+_Aen._ i. 135).
+
+
+
+
+APOSTASY ([Greek: apostasis], in classical Greek a defection or revolt
+from a military commander), a term generally employed to describe a
+complete renunciation of the Christian faith, or even an exchange of one
+form of it for another, especially if the motive be unworthy. In the
+first centuries of the Christian era, apostasy was most commonly induced
+by persecution, and was indicated by some outward act, such as offering
+incense to a heathen deity or blaspheming the name of Christ.[1] In the
+Roman Catholic Church the word is also applied to the renunciation of
+monastic vows (_apostasis a monachatu_), and to the abandonment of the
+clerical profession for the life of the world (_apostasis a clericatu_).
+Such defection was formerly often punished severely.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The readmission of such apostates to the church was a matter that
+    occasioned serious controversy. The emperor Julian's "Apostasy" is
+    discussed under JULIAN.
+
+
+
+
+APOSTIL, or APOSTILLE (possibly connected with Lat. _appositum_, placed
+near), a marginal note made by a commentator.
+
+
+
+
+APOSTLE ([Greek: apostolos], one sent forth on a mission, an envoy, as
+in Is. xviii. 2; Symmachus, [Greek: apostellein apostolous]; Aquila,
+[Greek: presbentas]), a technical term used in the New Testament and in
+Christian literature generally for a special envoy of Jesus Christ. How
+far it had any similar use in Judaism in Christ's day is uncertain; but
+in the 4th century A.D., at any rate, it denoted responsible envoys from
+the central Jewish authority, especially for the collection of religious
+funds. In its first and simplest Christian form, the idea is present
+already in Mark iii. 14 f., where from the general circle of his
+disciples Jesus "made twelve ('whom he also named apostles,' Luke vi.
+13, but doubtful in Mark), that they should be with him, and that he
+might from time to time send them forth ([Greek: hina apostellae]) to
+preach and to have authority to cast out demons." Later on (vi. 6 ff.),
+in connexion with systematic preaching among the villages of Galilee,
+Jesus begins actually to "send forth" the twelve, two by two; and on
+their return from this mission (vi. 30) they are for the first time
+described as "apostles" or missionary envoys. Matthew (x. 1 ff.) blends
+the calling of the twelve with their actual sending forth, while Luke
+(vi. 13) makes Jesus himself call them "apostles" (for Luke's usage cf.
+xi. 49, "prophets and apostles," where Matthew, xxiii. 34, has "prophets
+and wise men and scribes"). But it is doubtful whether Jesus ever used
+the term for the Twelve, in relation to their temporary missions, any
+more than for the "seventy others" whom he "sent forth" later (Luke x.
+1). Even the Fourth Gospel never so describes them. It simply has "a
+servant is not greater than his lord, neither an apostle (envoy) greater
+than he that sent him" (xiii. 16); and applies the idea of "mission"
+alike to Jesus (cf. Heb. iii. 1, "Jesus, the apostle ... of our
+profession") and to his disciples, generally, as represented by the
+Twelve (xvii. 18, with 3, 6 ff.). But while ideally all Christ's
+disciples were "sent" with the Father's Name in charge, there were
+different degrees in which this applied in practice; and so we find
+"apostle" used in several senses, once it emerges as a technical term.
+
+1. In the Apostolic age itself, "apostle" often denotes simply an
+"envoy," commissioned by Jesus Christ to be a primary witness and
+preacher of the Messianic Kingdom. This wide sense was shown by
+Lightfoot (in his commentary on _Galatians_, 1865) to exist in the New
+Testament, e.g. in 1 Cor. xii. 28 f., Eph. iv. ii, Rom. xvi. 7; and his
+view has since been emphasized[1] by the discovery of the _Teaching of
+the Twelve Apostles_ (see DIDACHE), with its itinerant order of
+"apostles," who, together with "prophets" (cf. Eph. ii. 20, iii. 5) and
+"teachers," constituted a _charismatic_ and seemingly unordained
+ministry of the Word, in some part of the Church (in Syria?) during the
+early sub-apostolic age. Paul is our earliest witness, as just cited;
+also in 1 Cor. xv. 5 ff., where he seems to quote the language of
+Palestinian tradition, in saying that Christ "appeared to Cephas; then
+to the Twelve; then ... to James; then to the apostles one and all
+([Greek: tois apostolois pasin]); and last of all ... to me also." The
+appearance to "_all_ the Apostles" must refer to the final commission
+given by the risen Christ to certain assembled disciples (Acts i. 6 ff.,
+cf. Luke xxiv. 33), including not only the Twelve and the Lord's
+brethren (i. 13 f.), but also some at least of the Seventy. Of this
+wider circle of witnesses, taken from among personal disciples during
+Jesus's earthly ministry, we get a further glimpse in the election of
+one from their number to fill Judas's place among the Twelve (i. 21
+ff.), as the primary official witnesses of Messiah and his resurrection.
+Many of the 120 then present (Acts i. 15), and not only the two set
+forward for final choice, must have been personal disciples, who by the
+recent commission had been made "apostles." Among such we may perhaps
+name Judas Barsabbas and Silas (Acts xv. 22, cf. i. 23), if not also
+Barnabas (1 Cor. ix. 6) and Andronicus and Junia (Rom. xvi. 7).
+
+So far, then, we gather that the original Palestinian type of
+apostleship meant simply (a) personal mission from the risen Christ (cf.
+I Cor. ix. i), following on (b) some preliminary intercourse with Jesus
+in his earthly ministry. It was pre-eminence in the latter qualification
+that gave the Twelve their special status among apostles (Acts i. 26,
+ii. 14, vi. 2; in Acts generally they are simply "the apostles").
+Conversely, it was Paul's lack in this respect which lay at the root of
+his difficulties as an apostle.
+
+  It is possible, though not certain, that even those Judaizing
+  missionaries at Corinth whom Paul styles "false-apostles" or,
+  ironically, "the superlative apostles" (2 Cor. xi. 5, 13; xii. 11),
+  rested part of their claim to superiority over Paul on (b), possibly
+  even as having done service to Christ when on earth (2 Cor. xi. 18,
+  23). There is no sign in 2 Cor. that they laid claim to (a). If this
+  be so, they were "Christ's apostles" only indirectly, "through men"
+  (as some had alleged touching Paul, cf. Gal. i. 1), i.e. as sent forth
+  on mission work by certain Jerusalem leaders with letters of
+  introduction (2 Cor. iii. 1; E. von Dobschutz, _Problems der apost.
+  Zeitalters_, p. 106).
+
+2. _The Twelve._--When Jesus selected an inner circle of disciples for
+continuous training by personal intercourse, his choice of "twelve" had
+direct reference to the tribes of Israel (Matt. xix. 28; Luke xxii. 30).
+This gave them a symbolic or representative character as a closed body
+(cf. Rev. xxi. 14), marking them off as the primary religious authority
+(cf. Acts ii. 42, "the apostles' teaching") among the "disciples" or
+"brethren," when these began to assume the form of a community or
+church. The relationship which other "apostles" had enjoyed with the
+Master had been uncertain; _they_ had been his recognized intimates, and
+that as a body. Naturally, then, they took the lead, collectively--in
+form at least, though really the initiative lay with one or two of their
+own number, Peter in particular. The process of practical
+differentiation from their fellow apostles was furthered by the
+concentration of the Twelve, or at least of its most marked
+representatives, in Jerusalem, for a considerable period (Acts viii. 1,
+cf. xii. 1 ff.; an early tradition specifies twelve years). Other
+apostles soon went forth on their mission to "the cities of Israel" (cf.
+Acts ix. 31), and so exercised but little influence on the central
+policy of the Church. Hence their shadowy existence in the New
+Testament, though the actual wording of Matt. x. 5-42, read in the light
+of the _Didachi_, may help us to conceive their work in its main
+features.
+
+3. _"Pillar" Apostles._--But in fact differentiation between apostles
+existed among the Twelve also. There were "pillars," like Peter and John
+(and his brother James until his death), who really determined matters
+of grave moment, as in the conference with Paul in Gal. ii. 9--a
+conference which laid the basis of the latter's status as an apostle
+even in the eyes of Jewish Christians. Such pre-eminence was but the
+sequel of personal distinctions visible even in the preparatory days of
+discipleship, and it warns us against viewing the primitive facts
+touching apostles in the official light of later times.
+
+Consciousness of such personal pre-eminence has left its marks on the
+lists of the Twelve in the New Testament. Thus (1) Peter, James, John,
+Andrew, always appear as the first four, though the order varies, Mark
+representing relative prominence during Christ's ministry, and Acts
+actual influence in the Apostolic Church (cf. Luke viii. 51, ix. 28).
+(2) The others also stand in groups of four, the first name in each
+being constant, while the order of the rest varies.
+
+The same lesson emerges when we note that one such apostolic "pillar"
+stood outside the Twelve altogether, viz. James, the Lord's brother
+(Gal. ii. 9, cf. i. 19); and further, that "the Lord's brethren" seem to
+have ranked above "apostles" generally, being named between them and
+Peter in 1 Cor. ix. 5. That is, they too were apostles with the addition
+of a certain personal distinction.
+
+4. _Paul, the "Apostle of the Gentiles."_--So far apostles are only of
+the Palestinian type, taken from among actual hearers of the Messiah and
+with a mission primarily to Jews--apostles "of the circumcision" (Gal.
+ii. 7-9). Now, however, emerges a new apostleship, that to the Gentiles;
+and with the change of mission goes also some change in the type of
+missionary or apostle. Of this type Paul was the first, and he remained
+its primary, and in some senses its only, example. Though he could
+claim, on occasion, to satisfy the old test of having seen the risen
+Lord (1 Cor. ix. 1, cf. xv. 8), he himself laid stress not on this, but
+on the revelation within his own soul of Jesus as God's Son, and of the
+Gospel latent therein (Gal. i. 16). This was his divine call as "apostle
+of the Gentiles" (Rom. xi. 13); here lay both his qualification and his
+credentials, once the fruits of the divine inworking were manifest in
+the success of his missionary work (Gal. ii. 8 f.; 1 Cor. xi. 1 f.; 2
+Cor. in. 2 f., xii. 12). But this new criterion of apostleship was
+capable of wider application, one dispensing altogether with vision of
+the risen Lord--which could not even in Paul's case be proved so fully
+as in the case of the original apostles--but appealing to the "signs of
+an apostle" (1 Cor. ix. 2; 2 Cor. xii. 12), the tokens of spiritual gift
+visible in work done, and particularly in the planting of the Gospel in
+fresh fields (2 Cor. x. 14-18). It may be in this wide charismatic sense
+that Paul uses the term in 1 Cor. xii. 28 f., Eph. ii. 20, iii. 5, iv.
+11, and especially in Rom. xvi. 7, "men of mark among the apostles" (cf.
+2 Cor. xi. 13, "pseudo-apostles" masquerading as "apostles of Christ,"
+and perhaps 1 Thess. ii, 6, of himself and Silas). That he used it in
+senses differing with the context is proved by 1 Cor. xv. 9, where he
+styles himself "the least of apostles," although in other connexions he
+claims the very highest rank, co-ordinate even with the Twelve as a body
+(Gal. ii. 7 ff.), in virtue of his distinctive Gospel.
+
+This point of view was not widely shared even in circles appreciative of
+his actual work. To most he seemed but a fruitful worker within lines
+determined by "the twelve apostles of the Lamb" as a body (Rev. xxi.
+14). So we read of "the plant (Church) which the twelve apostles of the
+Beloved shall plant" (_Ascension of Isaiah_, iv. 3); "those who preached
+the Gospel to us (especially Gentiles) ... unto whom He gave authority
+over the Gospel, being twelve for a witness to the tribes" (Barn. viii.
+3, cf. v. 9); and the going forth of the Twelve, after twelve years,
+beyond Palestine "into the world," to give it a chance to hear
+(_Preaching of Peter_, in Clem. Alex. _Strom._ vi. 5.43; 6.48). Later
+on, however, his own claim told on the Church's mind, when his epistles
+were read in church as a collection styled simply "the Apostle."
+
+As the primary medium of the Gentile Gospel (Gal. i. 16, cf. i. 8, ii.
+2) Paul had no peers as an "apostle of the Gentiles" (Rom. xi. 13, cf.
+XV. 15-20, and see 1 Cor. xv. 8, "last of all to me"), unless it were
+Barnabas who shares with him the title "apostle" in Acts xiv. 4,
+14--possibly with reference to the special "work" on which they had
+recently been "sent forth by the Spirit" (xiii. 2, 4). Yet such as
+shared the spiritual gift (_charisma_) of missionary power in sufficient
+degree, were in fact apostles of Christ in the Spirit (1 Cor. xii. 28,
+II). Such a secondary type of apostolate--answering to "apostolic
+missionaries" of later times (cf. the use of [Greek: hierapostolos] in
+this sense by the Orthodox Eastern Church to-day)--would help to account
+for the apostolic claims of the missionaries censured in Rev. ii. 2, as
+also for the "apostles" of the second generation implied in the Didache.
+
+In the _sub-apostolic age_, however, the class of "missionaries"
+enjoying a _charisma_ such as was conceived to convey apostolic
+commission through the Spirit, soon became distinguished from "apostles"
+(cf. Hennas, _Sim._ ix. 15.4, "the apostles and teachers of the message
+of the Son of God," so 25.2; in 17.1 the apostles are reckoned as
+twelve), as the title became more and more confined by usage to the
+original apostles, particularly the Twelve as a body (e.g. _Ascension of
+Isaiah_ and the _Preaching of Peter_), or to them and Paul (e.g. in
+Clement and Ignatius), and as reverence for these latter grew in
+connexion with their story in the Gospels and in Acts.[2] Thus Eusebius
+describes as "evangelists" (cf. Philip the Evangelist in Acts xxi. 8,
+also Eph. iv. 11, 2 Tim. iv. 5) those who "occupied the first rank in
+the succession to the Apostles" in missionary work (_Hist. Eccl._ iii.
+37, cf. v. 10). Yet the wider sense of "apostle" did not at once die out
+even in the third and fourth generations. It lingered on as applied to
+the Seventy[3]--by Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement and Origen--and even to
+Clement of Rome, by Clem. Alex. (? as a "fellow-worker" of Paul, Phil.
+iv. 3); while the adjective "apostolic" was applied to men like Polycarp
+(in his contemporary _Acts of Martyrdom_) and the Phrygian, Alexander,
+martyred at Lyons in A.D. 177 (Eus. v. 1), who was "not without share of
+apostolic _charisma_."
+
+The _authority_ attaching to apostles was essentially spiritual in
+character and in the conditions of its exercise. Anything like autocracy
+among his followers was alien to Jesus's own teaching (Matt, xxiii.
+6-11). All Christians were "brethren," and the basis of pre-eminence
+among them was relative ability for service. But the personal relation
+of the original Palestinian apostles to Jesus himself as Master gave
+them a unique fitness as authorized witnesses, from which flowed
+naturally, by sheer spiritual influence, such special forms of authority
+as they came gradually to exercise in the early Church. "There is no
+trace in Scripture of a formal commission of authority for government
+from Christ Himself" (Hort, _Chr. Eccl._ p. 84) given to apostles, save
+as representing the brethren in their collective action. Even the
+"resolutions" ([Greek: dogmata]) of the Jerusalem conference were not
+set forth by the apostles present simply in their own name, nor as _ipso
+facto_ binding on the conscience of the Antiochene Church. They
+expressed "a claim to deference rather than a right to be obeyed" (Hort,
+_op. cit._ 81-85). Such was the kind of authority attaching to apostles,
+whether collectively or individually. It was not a fixed notion, but
+varied in quantity and quality with the growing maturity of converts.
+This is how Paul, from whom we gather most on the point, conceives the
+matter. The exercise of his spiritual authority is not absolute, lest he
+"lord it over their faith"; consent of conscience or of "faith" is ever
+requisite (2 Cor. i. 24; cf. Rom. xiv. 23). But the principle was
+elastic in application, and would take more patriarchal forms in
+Palestine than in the Greek world. The case was essentially the same as
+on the various mission-fields to-day, where the position of the
+"missionary" is at first one of great spiritual initiative and
+authority, limited only by his own sense of the fitness of things, in
+the light of local usages. So the notion of formal or constitutional
+authority attaching to the apostolate, in its various senses, is an
+anachronism for the apostolic age. The tendency, however, was for their
+authority to be conceived more and more on formal lines, and,
+particularly after their deaths, as absolute.
+
+The authority attaching to apostles as writers, which led gradually to
+the formation of a New Testament Canon--"the Apostles" side by side with
+"the Books" of the Old Testament (so 2 Clement xiv., c. A.D.
+120-140)--is a subject by itself (see BIBLE).
+
+This change of conception helped to further the notion of a certain
+devolution of apostolic powers to successors constituted by act of
+ordination. The earliest idea of an _apostolical succession_ meant
+simply the re-emergence in others of the apostolic spirit of missionary
+enthusiasm. "The first rank in the succession of the apostles" consisted
+of men eminent as disciples of theirs, and so fitted to continue their
+labours (Euseb. iii. 37); and even under Commodus (A.D. 180-193) there
+were "evangelists of the word" possessed of "inspired zeal to emulate
+apostles" (v. 10). Such were perhaps the "apostles" of the _Didache_. Of
+the notion of apostolic succession in ministerial grace conferred by
+ordination, there is little or no trace before Irenaeus. The famous
+passage in Clement of Rome (xliv. 2) refers simply to the succession of
+one set of men to another in an office of apostolic institution. The
+grace that makes Polycarp "an apostolic and prophetic teacher" (_Mart.
+Polyc._ 16) is peculiar to him personally. But Irenaeus holds,
+apparently on _a priori_ grounds, that "elders" who stand in orderly
+succession to the apostolic founders of the true tradition in the
+churches, have, "along with the succession of oversight," also an
+"assured gift of (insight into) truth" by the Father's good pleasure
+("cum episcopatus successione charisma veritatis certum secundum
+placitum Patris acceperunt"), in contrast to heretics who wilfully stand
+outside this approved line of transmission (_adv. Haer._ iv. 26. 2). So
+far, indeed, the succession is not limited to the monarchical episcopate
+as distinct from the presbyteral order to which it belonged (cf.
+"presbyterii ordo, principalis consessio" in the same context, and see
+iii. 14. 2), though the bishops of apostolic churches, as capable of
+being traced individually (iii. 3. 1), are specially appealed to as
+witnesses (cf. iv. 33. 8, v. 19. 2)--as earlier by Hegesippus (Euseb.
+iv. 22). Nor is there mention of sacerdotal grace attaching to the
+succession in apostolic truth.[4] But once the idea of supernatural
+grace going along with office as such (of which we have already a trace
+in the Ignatian bishop, though without the notion of actual apostolic
+succession) arose in connexion with _successio ab apostolis_, the full
+development of the doctrine was but a matter of time.[5]
+
+  LITERATURE.--In England the modern treatment of the subject dates from
+  J.B. Lightfoot's dissertation in his _Commentary on Galatians_, to
+  which Dr F.J.A. Hort's _The Christian Ecclesia_ added elements of
+  value; see also T.M. Lindsay, _The Church and the Ministry_, and
+  articles in Hastings' _Dictionary of the Bible_ and the _Ency.
+  Biblica_; A. Harnack, _Die Lehre der Apostel_, pp. 93 ff., and
+  _Dogmengeschichte_ (3rd ed.), i. 153 ff.; E. Haupt, _Zum Verstandnis
+  d. Apostolats in NT._ (Halle, 1896); and especially H. Monnier, _La
+  Notion de l'apostolat, des origines a Irenee_ (Paris, 1903). The later
+  legends and their sources are examined by T. Schermann, _Propheten-
+  und Apostellegenden_ (Leipzig, 1907).     (J. V. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] By analogy, that is; for the wider sense of "apostle" in the
+    Apostolic age need not be identical with a sub-apostolic use of the
+    term (see below, 4 _fin_.).
+
+  [2] The tendency is already visible in the Lucan writings. An
+    anologous process is seen in the use of "disciple," applicable in the
+    apostolic age to Christians at large, but in the course of the
+    sub-apostolic age restricted to personal "disciples of the Lord" or
+    to martyrs (Papias in Eus. iii. 39, cf. Ignatius, _Ad Eph._ i. 2).
+
+  [3] In the Edessene legend of Abgar, in Eus. i. 12, we read that
+    "Judas, who is also Thomas, sent Thaddaeus as apostle--one of the
+    Seventy," where simply an authoritative envoy of Jesus seems
+    intended. For traces of the wider sense of "apostle" in Gnostic,
+    Marcionite and Montanist circles, see Monnier (as below).
+
+  [4] The above is substantially the view taken by J.B. Lightfoot in
+    his essay on "The Christian Ministry" (_Comm. on Philippians_, 6th
+    ed., pp. 239, 252 f.), and by T.M. Lindsay, _The Church and the
+    Ministry_ (1902), pp. 224-228, 278 ff. Even C. Gore, _The Church and
+    the Ministry_ (1889), pp. 119 ff., while inferring a sacerdotal
+    element in Irenaeus's conception of the episcopate, says: "But it is
+    mainly as preserving the catholic traditions that Irenaeus regards
+    the apostolic succession" (p. 120).
+
+  [5] See Lightfoot's essay for Cyprian's contribution, as also for
+    that of the Clementines, which fix on the twofold position of James
+    at Jerusalem, as apostle and bishop, as bearing on apostolic
+    succession in the episcopate.
+
+
+
+
+APOSTLE SPOONS, a set of spoons, usually of silver or silver gilt, with
+the handles terminating in figures of the apostles, each bearing their
+distinctive emblem. They were common baptismal gifts during the 15th and
+16th centuries, but were dying out by 1666. Often single spoons were
+given, bearing the figure of the patron or name saint of the child. Sets
+of the twelve apostles are not common, and complete sets of thirteen,
+with the figure of our Lord on a larger spoon, are still rarer. The
+Goldsmiths' Company in London has one such set, all by the same maker
+and bearing the hall-mark of 1626, and a set of thirteen was sold at
+Christie's in 1904 for L4900.
+
+  See William Hone, _The Everyday Book_ and _Table Book_ (1831); and
+  W.J. Cripps, _Old English Plate_ (9th ed., 1906).
+
+
+
+
+APOSTOLICAL CONSTITUTIONS ([Greek: Diatagai] _or_ [Greek: Diataxeis ton
+agion apostolon dia Klaementos tou Rhomaion episkopou te kai politou.
+Katholikae didaskalia]), a collection of ecclesiastical regulations in
+eight books, the last of which concludes with the eighty-five _Canons of
+the Holy Apostles_. By their title the Constitutions profess to have
+been drawn up by the apostles, and to have been transmitted to the
+Church by Clement of Rome; sometimes the alleged authors are represented
+as speaking jointly, sometimes singly. From the first they have been
+very variously estimated; the _Canons_, as a rule, more highly than the
+rest of the work. For example, the Trullan Council of Constantinople
+(_quini-sextum_), A.D. 692, accepts the Canons as genuine by its second
+canon, but rejects the Constitutions on the ground that spurious matter
+had been introduced into them by heretics; and whilst the former were
+henceforward used freely in the East, only a few portions of the latter
+found their way into the Greek and oriental law-books. Again, Dionysius
+Exiguus (c. A.D. 500) translated fifty of the Canons into Latin,[1]
+although under the title _Canones qui dicuntur Apostolorum_, and thus
+they passed into other Western collections; whilst the Constitutions as
+a whole remained unknown in the West until they were published in 1563
+by the Jesuit Turrianus. At first received with enthusiasm, their
+authenticity soon came to be impugned; and their true significance was
+largely lost sight of as it began to be realized that they were not what
+they claimed to be. Vain attempts were still made to rehabilitate them,
+and they were, in general, more highly estimated in England than
+elsewhere. The most extravagant estimate of all was that of Whiston, who
+calls them "the most sacred standard of Christianity, equal in authority
+to the Gospels themselves, and superior in authority to the epistles of
+single apostles, some parts of them being our Saviour's own original
+laws delivered to the apostles, and the other parts the public acts of
+the apostles" (Historical preface to _Primitive Christianity Revived_,
+pp. 85-86). Others, however, realized their composite character from the
+first, and by degrees some of the component documents became known.
+Bishop Pearson was able to say that "the eight books of the Apostolic
+Constitutions have been after Epiphanius's time compiled and patched
+together out of the _didascaliae_ or doctrines which went under the
+names of the holy apostles and their disciples or successors" (_Vind.
+Ign._ i. cap. 5); whilst a greater scholar still, Archbishop Usher, had
+already gone much further, and concluded, forestalling the results of
+modern critical methods, that their compiler was none other than the
+compiler of the spurious Ignatian epistles (_Epp. Polyc. et Ign._ p.
+lxiii. f., Oxon. 1644). The Apostolical Constitutions, then, are
+spurious, and they are one of a long series of documents of like
+character. But we have not really gauged their significance by saying
+that they are spurious. They are the last stage and climax of a gradual
+process of compilation and crystallization, so to speak, of unwritten
+church custom; and a short account of this process will show their real
+importance and value.
+
+
+  Origin and real nature.
+
+These documents are the outcome of a tendency which is found in every
+society, religious or secular, at some point in its history. The society
+begins by living in accordance with its fundamental principles. By
+degrees these translate themselves into appropriate action. Difficulties
+are faced and solved as they arise; and when similar circumstances recur
+they will tend to be met in the same way. Thus there grows up by degrees
+a body of what may be called customary law. Plainly, there is no
+particular point of time at which this customary law can be said to have
+begun. To all appearance it is there from the first in solution and
+gradually crystallizes out; and yet it is being continually modified as
+time goes on. Moreover, the time comes when the attempt is made, either
+by private individuals or by the society itself, to put this "customary
+law" into writing. Now when this is done, two tendencies will at once
+show themselves. (a) This "customary law" will at once become more
+definite: the very fact of putting it into writing will involve an
+effort after logical completeness. There will be a tendency on the part
+of the writer to fill up gaps; to state local customs as if they
+obtained universally; to introduce his personal equation, and to add to
+that which is the custom that which, in his opinion, _ought_ to be. (b)
+There will be a strong tendency to fortify that which has been written
+with great names, especially in days when there is no very clear notion
+of literary property. This is done, not always with any deliberate
+consciousness of fraud (although it must be clearly recognized that
+truth is not one of the "natural virtues," and that the sense of the
+obligations of truthfulness was far from strong), but rather to
+emphasize the importance of what was written, and the fact that it was
+no new invention of the writer's. In a non-literary age fame gathers
+about great names; and that which, _ex hypothesi_, has gone on since the
+beginning of things is naturally attributed to the founders of the
+society. Then come interpolations to make this ascription more probable,
+and the prefixing of a title, then or subsequently, which states it as a
+fact. This is precisely the way in which the Apostolical Constitutions
+and other kindred documents have come into being. They are attempts,
+made in various places and at different times, to put into writing the
+order and discipline and character of the Church; in part for private
+instruction and edification, but in part also with a view to actual use;
+frequently even with an actual reference to particular circumstances. In
+this lies their importance, to a degree which is only just being
+adequately realized. They contain evidence of the utmost value as to the
+order of the Church in early days; evidence, however, which needs to be
+sifted with the greatest care, since the personal preferences of the
+writer and the customs of the local church to which he belongs are
+continually mixed up with things which have a wider prevalence. It is
+only by careful investigation, by the method of comparisons, that these
+elements can be disentangled; but as the number of documents of this
+class known to us is continually increasing, their value increases even
+more than proportionately. And whilst their local and fugitive character
+must be fully recognized and allowed for, is it unjustifiable to set
+them aside or leave them out of account as heretical, and therefore
+negligible.
+
+
+  Other collections.
+
+It will be sufficient here to mention shortly the chief collections of
+this kind which came into existence during the first four centuries;
+generally as the work of private individuals, and having, at any rate,
+no more than a local authority of some kind, (a) The earliest known to
+us is the _Didache_ or _Teaching of the Twelve Apostles_, itself
+compiled from earlier materials, and dating from about 120 (see
+DIDACHE). (b) _The Apostolic Church Order_ (_apostolische
+Kirchenordnung_ of German writers); _Ecclesiastical Canons of the Holy
+Apostles_ of one MS.; _Sententiae Apostolorum_ of Pitra: of about 300,
+and emanating probably from Asia Minor. Its earlier part, cc. 1-14,
+depends upon the _Didache_, and the rest of it is a book of discipline
+in which Harnack has attempted to distinguish two older fragments of
+church law (_Texte u. Unters_. ii. 5). (c) The so-called _Canones
+Hippolyti_, probably Alexandrian or Roman, and of the first half of the
+3rd century. It will be observed that these make no claim to apostolic
+authorship; but otherwise their origin is like that of the rest, unless
+indeed, as has been suggested, they represent the work of an actual
+Roman synod, (d) The so-called _Egyptian Church Order_, in Coptic from a
+Greek pre-Nicene original (c. 310). It is part of the Egyptian
+Heptateuch and contains neither communion nor ordination forms, (e) The
+_Ethiopic Church Order_, perhaps twenty years later than (d), and
+forming part of the _Ethiopic Statutes_. (f) The _Verona Latin
+Fragments_, discovered and published by Hauler, portions of a form akin
+to (e), which may be dated c. 340, though possibly earlier. It has a
+preface which refers to a treatise _Concerning Spiritual Gifts_ as
+having immediately preceded it. (g) The recently discovered _Testament
+of the Lord_, which is somewhat later in date (c. 350), and likewise
+depends upon the _Canones Hippolyti_. (h) The so-called _Canons of
+Basil_. This is an Arabic work perhaps based on a Coptic and ultimately
+on a Greek original, embodying with modifications large portions of the
+Canons of Hippolytus. (On the relations between the six last-named, see
+HIPPOLYTUS, CANONS of.)
+
+  Here also may be noticed the _Didascalia Apostolorum_, originally
+  written in Greek, but known through a Syriac version and a fragmentary
+  Latin one published by Hauler. It is of the middle of the 3rd
+  century--in fact, a passage in the Latin translation seems to give us
+  the date A.D. 254. It emanates from Palestine or Syria, and is
+  independent of the documents already mentioned; and upon it the
+  _Constitutions_ themselves very largely depend. It is a mixture of
+  moral and ecclesiastical instruction. The _Sacramentary of Serapion_
+  (c. 350), _The Pilgrimage of Etheria_ (_Silvia_) (c. 385), and _The
+  Catechetical Lectures of Cyril of Jerusalem_ (348) are also of value
+  in this connexion. In the (so-called) _Constitutions through
+  Hippolytus_ we have possibly a preliminary draft of the famous 8th
+  book of the _Apostolical Constitutions_.[2]
+
+
+  Contents.
+
+The Constitutions themselves fall into three main divisions. (i.) The
+first of these consists of books i.-vi., and throughout runs parallel to
+the _Didascalia_. Bickell, indeed, held that this latter was an
+abbreviated form of books i.-vi.; but it is now agreed on all hands that
+the Constitutions are based on the _Didascalia_ and not vice versa.
+(ii.) Then follows book vii., the first thirty-one chapters of which are
+an adaptation of the _Didache_, whilst the rest contain various
+liturgical forms of which the origin is still uncertain, though it has
+been acutely suggested by Achelis, and with great probability, that they
+originated in the schismatical congregation of Lucian at Antioch. (iii.)
+Book viii. is more composite, and falls into three parts. The first two
+chapters, [Greek: peri charismaton], may be based upon a lost work of St
+Hippolytus, otherwise known only by a reference to it in the preface of
+the _Verona Latin Fragments_; and an examination shows that this is
+highly probable. The next section, cc. 3-27, [Greek: peri cheirotoyioy],
+and cc. 28-46, [Greek: peri kayoyoy], is twofold, and is evidently that
+upon which the writer sets most store. The apostles no longer speak
+jointly, but one by one in an apostolic council, and the section closes
+with a joint decree of them all. They speak of the ordination of bishops
+(the so-called Clementine Liturgy is that which is directed to be used
+at the consecration of a bishop, cc. 5-15), of presbyters, deacons,
+deaconesses, sub-deacons and lectors, and then pass on to confessors,
+virgins, widows and exorcists; after which follows a series of canons on
+various subjects, and liturgical formulae. With regard to this section,
+all that can be said is that it includes materials which are also to be
+found elsewhere--in the _Egyptian Church Order_ and other documents
+already spoken of--and that the precise relation between them is at
+present not determined. The third section consists of the Apostolic
+Canons already referred to, the last and most significant of which
+places the Constitutions and the two epistles of Clement in the canon of
+Scripture, and omits the Apocalypse. They are derived in part from the
+preceding Constitutions, in part from the canons of the councils of
+Antioch, 341, Nicaea, 325, and possibly Laodicaea, 363.
+
+A comparison of the Constitutions with the material upon which they are
+based will illustrate the compiler's method. (a) To begin with the
+_Didascalia_ already mentioned. It is unmethodical and badly digested,
+homiletical in style, and abounding in biblical quotations. There is no
+precise arrangement; but the subjects, following a general introduction,
+are the bishop and his duties, penance, the administration of the
+offerings, the settlement of disputes, the divine service, the order of
+widows, deacons and deaconesses, the poor, behaviour in persecution, and
+so forth. The compiler of the Constitutions finds here material after
+his own heart. He is even more discursive and more homiletical in style;
+he adds fresh citations of the Scriptures, and additional explanations
+and moral reflexions; and all this with so little judgment that he often
+leaves confusion worse confounded (e.g. in ii. 57, where, upon a
+symbolical description of the Church as a sheepfold, he has superimposed
+the further symbolism of a ship). (b) Passing on to books vii. and
+viii., we observe that the compiler's method of necessity changes with
+his new material. In the former book he still makes large additions and
+alterations, but there is less scope for his prolixity than before; and
+in the latter, where he is no longer dealing with generalities, but
+making actual definitions, the Constitutions of necessity become more
+precise and statutory in form. Throughout he adopts and adapts the
+language of his sources as far as possible, "only pruning in the most
+pressing cases," but towards the end he cannot avoid making larger
+alterations from time to time. And his alterations throughout are not
+made aimlessly. Where he finds things which would obviously clash with
+the customs of his own day, he unhesitatingly modifies them. An account
+of the Passion, with a curiously perverted chronology, the object of
+which was to justify the length of the Passion-tide fast, is entirely
+revised for this reason (v. 14); the direction to observe Easter
+according to the Jewish computation is changed into the exact contrary
+for the same reason (v. 17); and where his archetype lapses into
+speaking of a lull in persecution he naively informs us that the Romans
+have now given up persecuting and have adopted Christianity (vi. 26),
+forgetting altogether that he is speaking in the character of the
+apostles. Above all, he both magnifies the office of the Christian
+ministry as a whole and alters what is said of it in detail (for
+example, the deaconess loses rank not a little), to make it agree with
+the circumstances of his day in general, and with his own ideas of
+fitness in particular. It is here that his evidence is at once most
+valuable and needs to be used with the greatest care. To give one
+striking example of the value of these documents. The _Canones
+Hippolyti_ (vi. 43) provide that one who has been a confessor for the
+faith may be received as a presbyter by virtue of his confessorship and
+not by the laying on of the bishop's hands; but if he be chosen a
+bishop, he is to be ordained. This provision passes on into the Egyptian
+_Ecclesiastical Canons_ and other kindred documents, and even into the
+_Testamentum Domini_. But the corresponding passage in the Apostolical
+Constitutions (viii. 23) entirely reverses it: "A confessor is not
+ordained, for he is so by choice and patience, and is worthy of great
+honour.... But if there be occasion, he is to be ordained either a
+bishop, priest, or deacon. But if any one of the confessors who is not
+ordained snatches to himself any such dignity upon account of his
+confession, let the same person be deprived and rejected; for he is not
+in such an office, since he has denied the constitution of Christ, and
+is worse than an infidel."
+
+
+  Authorship, place, and date.
+
+Who, then, is the author of the Constitutions, and what can be inferred
+with regard to him? (i.) By separating off the sources which he used
+from his own additions to them, it at once becomes clear that the latter
+are the work of one man: the style is unmistakable, and the method of
+working is the same throughout. The compiler of books i.-vi. is also the
+compiler of books vii., viii. (ii.) As to his theological position,
+different views have been held. Funk suggests Apollinarianism, which is
+the refuge of the destitute; and Achelis inclines in the same direction.
+But the affinities of the author are quite otherwise, the most
+pronounced of them being a strong subordinationist tendency, denial of a
+human soul to Christ, and the like, which suggest not indeed Arianism
+but an inclination towards Arianism. Above all, his polemic is directed
+against the dying heresies of the 3rd century; and he writes with an
+absence of constraint which is not the language of one who lives amidst
+violent controversies or who is conscious of being in a minority. All
+this points to the position of a "conservative" or semi-Arian of the
+East, one who belongs, perhaps, to the circle of Lucian of Antioch and
+writes before the time of Julian. It is hard to think of any other time
+or circumstances in which a man could write like this, (iii.) The
+indications of _time_ have been held to point to a different conclusion.
+On the one hand, the fact that the attempt to rebuild the temple by
+Julian in 363 is not mentioned in vi. 24 points to an earlier date; and
+the fact that the [Greek: kopiatai] are not mentioned amongst the church
+officers points in the same direction, for elsewhere they are first
+mentioned in a rescript of Constantius in A.D. 357. On the other hand,
+in the cycle of feasts occur the names of several which are probably of
+later date--e.g. Christmas and St Stephen, which were introduced at
+Antioch c. A.D. 378 and 379 respectively. Again, Epiphanius (c. A.D.
+374) appears to be unacquainted with it; he still quotes from the
+_Didascalia_, and elaborately explains it away where it is contrary to
+the usages of his own day. But as regards the former point, it is
+possible that the Apostolical Constitutions constantly gave rise to
+these festivals; or, on the other hand, that the two passages were
+subsequently introduced either by the writer himself or by some other
+hand, when the last book of the Constitutions was being used as a
+law-book. And as regards the latter, the fact that Epiphanius does not
+use the Constitutions is no proof that they had not yet been compiled.
+(iv.) As to the region of composition there is no real doubt. It was
+clearly the East, Syria or Palestine. Many indications are against the
+latter, and Syria is strongly suggested by the use of the
+Syro-Macedonian calendar. Moreover, the writer represents the Roman
+Clement as the channel of communication between the apostles and the
+Church. This fact both supplies him with the name by which he is
+commonly known, Pseudo-Clement, and also furnishes corroboration of his
+Syrian birth; since the other spurious writings bearing the name of
+Clement, the _Homilies_ and _Recognitions_, are likewise of Syrian
+origin. Moreover, the spurious Ignatian epistles, which are also Syrian,
+depend throughout upon the Constitutions, (v.) But this is not all. It
+was long ago noticed that Pseudo-Clement bears a very close resemblance
+to Pseudo-Ignatius, the interpolator of the Ignatian Epistles in the
+longer Greek recension. Usher, as we have seen, identified them, and
+modern criticism accepts this identification as a fact (Lagarde,
+Harnack, Funk, Brightman). Lightfoot, indeed, still hesitated (_Ap.
+Fathers_, II. i. 266 n.) on the ground that Pseudo-Ignatius occasionally
+misunderstands the Constitutions, that the two writings give the Roman
+succession differently, and that Pseudo-Clement shows no knowledge of
+the Christological controversies of Nicaea. But as regards the first of
+these, it is rather a case of condensed citation than of
+misinterpretation; the second is explained by the writer's carelessness
+as shown in other passages, and all are solved if a considerable
+interval of time elapsed between the compilation of the Constitutions
+and the spurious Ignatian epistles.
+
+It seems clear then that the compiler was a Syrian, and that he also
+wrote the spurious Ignatian epistles; he was likewise probably a
+semi-Arian of the school of Lucian of Antioch. His date is given by
+Harnack as A.D. 340-360, with a leaning to 340-343; by Lightfoot as the
+latter half of the 4th century; by Brightman, 370-380; by Maclean, 375;
+and by Funk as the beginning of the 5th century.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--W. Ueltzen, _Constitutiones Apostolicae_ (Schwerin,
+  1853); P.A. de Lagarde, _Didascalia Apostolorum Syriace_ (Leipz.,
+  1854); _Constitutiones Apostolorum_ (Leipz. and Lond., 1862); M.D.
+  Gibson, _Didascalia Apost. Syriace_, with Eng. trans. (_Horae
+  Semiticae_, i. and ii., Cambridge, 1903); J.B. Pitra, _Juris
+  Ecclesiastici Graecorum Historia et Monumenta_, i. (Rome, 1864);
+  Hauler, _Didascaliae Apostolorum Fragmenta Ueronensia Latina_,
+  (Leipzig, 1900); Bickell, _Geschichte des Kirchenrechts_, i. (Giessen,
+  1843); F.X. Funk, _Die apostolischen Konstitutionen_ (Rottenb., 1891);
+  A. Harnack, _Geschichte d. altchristl. Litteratur_, i. 515 ff.
+  (Leipz., 1893); F.E. Brightman, _Liturgies Eastern and Western_, I.
+  xvii. ff. (Oxford, 1896); H. Achelis, in Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_,
+  i. 734 f., art. "Apostolische Konstitutionen und Kanones" (Leipz.,
+  1896); A.S. Maclean, _Recent Discoveries illustrating Early Christian
+  Worship_ (Lond., 1904); J. Wordsworth, _The Ministry of Grace_, pp. 18
+  ff; J.P. Arendzen, "The Apostolic Church Order" (Syriac Text, Eng.
+  trans. and notes) in _Journ. of Theol. Studies_, iii. 59. Trans. of
+  _Apost. Constitutions_, book viii., in Ante-Nicene Christian Library.
+       (W. E. Co.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Why he did not go on to give the remaining thirty-five is not
+    clear; they belong to the same date as, and are not inferior to, the
+    first fifty.
+
+  [2] At a later date various collections were made of the documents
+    above mentioned, or some of them, to serve as law-books in different
+    churches--e.g. the Syrian Octateuch, the Egyptian Heptateuch, and the
+    Ethiopic Sinodos. These, however, stand on an entirely different
+    footing, since they are simply collections of existing documents, and
+    no attempt is made to claim apostolic authorship for them.
+
+
+
+
+APOSTOLIC CANONS, a collection of eighty-five rules for the regulation
+of clerical life, appended to the eighth book of the _Apostolical
+Constitutions_ (q.v.). They are couched in brief legislative form though
+on no definite plan, and deal with the vexed questions of ecclesiastical
+discipline as they were raised towards the end of the 4th century. At
+least half of the canons are derived from earlier constitutions, and
+probably not many of them are the actual productions of the compiler,
+whose aim was to gloss over the real nature of the _Constitutions_, and
+secure their incorporation with the Epistles of Clement in the New
+Testament of his day. The _Codex Alexandrinus_ does indeed append the
+Clementine Epistles to its text of the New Testament. The Canons may be
+a little later in date than the preceding _Constitutions_, but they are
+evidently from the same Syrian theological circle.
+
+
+
+
+APOSTOLIC FATHERS, a term used to distinguish those early Christian
+writers who were believed to have been the personal associates of the
+original Apostles. While the title "Fathers" was given from at least the
+beginning of the 4th century to church writers of former days, as being
+the parents of Christian belief and thought for later times, the
+expression "Apostolic Fathers" dates only from the latter part of the
+17th century. The idea of recognizing these "Fathers" as a special group
+exists already in the title "Patres aevi apostolici, sive SS. Patrum qui
+temporibus apostolicis floruerunt ... opera," under which in 1672 J.B.
+Cotelier published at Paris the writings current under the names of
+Barnabas, Clement of Rome, Hermas, Ignatius and Polycarp. But the name
+itself is due to their next editor, Thomas Ittig (1643-1710), in his
+_Bibliotheca Patrum Apostolicorum_ (1699), who, however, included under
+this title only Clement, Ignatius and Polycarp. Here already appears the
+doubt as to how many writers can claim the title, a doubt which has
+continued ever since, and makes the contents of the "Apostolic Fathers"
+differ so much from editor to editor. Thus the Oratorian Andrea Gallandi
+(1700-1779), in re-issuing Cotelier's collection in his _Bibliotheca
+Veterum Patrum_ (1765-1781), included the fragments of Papias and the
+Epistle to Diognetus, to which recent editors have added the citations
+from the "Elders" of Papias's day found in Irenaeus and, since 1883, the
+_Didache_.
+
+The degree of historic claim which these various writings have to rank
+as the works[1] of Apostolic Fathers varies greatly on any definition of
+"apostolic." Originally the epithet was meant to be taken strictly, viz.
+as denoting those whom history could show to have been personally
+connected, or at least coeval, with one or more apostles; and an effort
+was made, as by Cotelier, to distinguish the writings rightly and
+wrongly assigned to such. Thus editions tended to vary with the
+historical views of editors. But the convenience of the category
+"Apostolic Fathers" to express not only those who might possibly have
+had some sort of direct contact with apostles--such as "Barnabas,"
+Clement, Ignatius, Papias, Polycarp--but also those who seemed specially
+to preserve the pure tradition of apostolic doctrine during the
+sub-apostolic age, has led to its general use in a wide and vague sense.
+
+Conventionally, then, the title denotes the group of writings which,
+whether in date or in internal character, are regarded as belonging to
+the main stream of the Church's teaching during the period between the
+Apostles and the Apologists (i.e. to c. A.D. 140). Or to put it more
+exactly, the "Apostolic Fathers" represent, chronologically in the main
+and still more from the religious and theological standpoint, the
+momentous process of transition from the type of teaching in the New
+Testament to that which meets us in the early Catholic Fathers, from the
+last quarter of the 2nd century onwards. The Apologists no doubt show us
+certain fresh factors entering into this development; but on the whole
+the Apostolic Fathers by themselves go a long way to explain the
+transition in question, so far as knowledge of this _saeculum obscurum_
+is within our reach at all. It is true that they do not include the
+whole even of the ecclesiastical literature of the sub-apostolic age,
+not to mention what remains of Gnostic and other minority types. The
+_Preaching and Apocalypse_ of Peter, for instance, are quite typical of
+the same period, and help us to read between the lines of the Apostolic
+Fathers. Yet they do not really add much to what is there already, and
+they have the drawbacks of pseudonymity; they lack concrete and personal
+qualities; they are general expressions of tendencies which we cannot
+well locate or measure, save by means of the Apostolic Fathers
+themselves or of their earliest Catholic successors.
+
+(A) In _external features_ the group is far from homogeneous, a fact
+which has led to their being disintegrated as a group in certain
+histories of early Christian literature (e.g. those of Harnack and
+Kruger), and classed each under its own literary type--so sacrificing to
+outer form, which is quite secondary in primitive Christian writings,
+the more significant fact of religious affinity. Its original members,
+those still best entitled to their name in any strict sense, are
+epistles, and in this respect also most akin to Apostolic writings.
+Indeed Ignatius takes pleasure in saluting his readers "after the
+apostolic stamp" (_ad Troll._ inscr.), while yet disclaiming all desire
+to emulate the apostolic manner in other respects, being fully conscious
+of the gulf between himself and apostles like Peter and Paul in claim to
+authority (_ib._ in. 3, _ad Rom._ iv. 3). The like holds of Polycarp,
+who, in explaining that he writes to exhort the Philippians only at
+their own request, adds, "for neither am I, nor is any other like me,
+able to follow the wisdom of the blessed and glorious Paul" (in. 2).
+Clement's epistle, indeed, conforms more to the elaborate and
+treatise-like form of the Epistle to the Hebrews, on which it draws so
+largely; and the same is true of "Barnabas." But one and all are
+influenced by study of apostolic epistles, and witness to the impression
+which these produced on the men of the next generation. Unconsciously,
+too, they correspond to the apostolic type of writing in another
+respect, viz. their occasional and practical character. They are evoked
+by pressing needs of the hour among some definite body of Christians and
+not by any literary motive.[2] This is a universal trait of primitive
+Christian writings; so that to speak of primitive Christian "literature"
+at all is hardly accurate, and tends to an artificial handling of their
+contents. These sub-apostolic epistles are veritable "human documents,"
+with the personal note running through them. They are after all personal
+expressions of Christianity, in which are discernible also specific
+types of local tradition. To such spontaneous actuality a large part of
+their interest and value is due.
+
+Nor is this pre-literary and vital quality really absent even from the
+writing which is least entitled to a place among "Apostolic Fathers,"
+the Epistle to Diognetus. This beautiful picture of the Christian life
+as a realized ideal, and of Christians as "the soul" of the world, owes
+its inclusion to a double error: first, to the accidental attachment at
+the end of another fragment (S ii), which opens with the writer's claim
+to stand forth as a teacher as being "a disciple of apostles"; and next,
+to mistaken exegesis of this phrase as implying personal relations with
+apostles, rather than knowledge of their teaching, written or oral.
+Whether in form addressed to Diognetus, the tutor of Marcus Aurelius, as
+a typical cultured observer of Christianity, or to some other eminent
+person of the same name in the locality of its origin, or, as seems more
+likely, to cultured Greeks generally, personified under the significant
+name "Diognetus" ("Heaven-born," of. Acts xvii. 28 along with S iii.
+4)--the epistle is in any case an "open letter" of an essentially
+literary type. Further, its opening seems modelled on the lines of the
+preface to Luke's Gospel, to which, along with Acts, it may owe
+something of its very conception as a reasoned appeal to the lover of
+truth. But while literary in form and conception, its appeal is in
+spirit so personal a testimony to what the Gospel has done for the
+writer and his fellow Christians, that it is akin to the piety of the
+Apostolic Fathers as a group. It is true that it has marked affinities,
+e.g. in its natural theology, with the earliest Apologists, Aristides
+and Justin, even as it is itself in substance an apology addressed not
+to the State, but to thoughtful public opinion. But this only means that
+we cannot draw a hard and fast line between groups of early Christian
+writings at a time when practical religious interests overshadowed all
+others.
+
+If thus related to the Apologists of the middle of the 2nd century, the
+Epistle to Diognetus has also points of contact with one of the most
+practical and least literary writings found among our Apostolic Fathers,
+viz. the homily originally known as the Second Epistle of Clement (for
+this ascription, as for other details, see CLEMENTINE LITERATURE). The
+recovery of its concluding sections in the same MS. which brought the
+_Didache_ to light, proves beyond question that we have here the
+earliest extant sermon preached before a Christian congregation, about
+A.D. 120-140 (so J.B. Lightfoot). Its opening section, recalling to its
+hearers the passing of the mists of idolatry before the revelation in
+Jesus Christ, is markedly similar in tone and tenor to passages in the
+Epistle to Diognetus. Far closer, however, are the affinities between
+the homily and the _Shepherd of Hermas_, "the first Christian allegory,"
+which as a literary whole dates from about A.D. 140, but probably
+represents a more or less prolonged prophetic activity on the part of
+its author, the brother of Pius, the Roman bishop of his day (c.
+139-154). In both the primary theme is repentance, as called for by
+serious sins, after baptism has placed the Christian on his new and
+higher level of responsibility. Thus both are hortatory writings, the
+one argumentative in form, the other prophetic, after the manner of
+later Old Testament prophets whose messages came in visions and
+similitudes. This prophetic and apocalyptic note, which characterizes
+Hermas among the Apostolic Fathers (though there are traces of it also
+in the _Didache_ and in Ignatius, _ad Eph._ xx.), is a genuinely
+primitive trait and goes far to explain the vogue which the _Shepherd_
+enjoyed in the generations immediately succeeding, as also the influence
+of its disciplinary policy, which is its prophetic "burden" (see HERMAS,
+SHEPHERD OF).
+
+We come finally to the anonymous _Teaching of the Twelve Apostles_ and
+Papias's _Exposition of Oracles of the Lord_, so far as this is known to
+us. The former, besides embodying catechetical instruction in Christian
+conduct (the "Two Ways"), which goes back in substance to the early
+apostolic age and is embodied also in "Barnabas," depicts in outline the
+fundamental usages of church life as practised in some conservative
+region (probably within Syria) about the last quarter of the 1st century
+and perhaps even later. The whole is put forth as substantially the
+apostolic teaching (_Didache_) on the subjects in question. This is
+probably a _bona fide_ claim. It expresses the feeling common to the
+Apostolic Fathers and general in the sub-apostolic age, at any rate in
+regions where apostles had once laboured, that local tradition, as held
+by the recognized church leaders, did but continue apostolic doctrine
+and practice. Into later developments of this feeling an increasing
+element of illusion entered, and all other written embodiments of it
+known to us take the form of literary fictions, more or less bold. It is
+in contrast to these that the _Didache_ is justly felt to be genuinely
+primitive and of a piece with the Apostolic Fathers. Thus while its form
+would by analogy tend _per se_ to awaken suspicion, its contents remove
+this feeling; and we may even infer from this surviving early
+formulation of local ecclesiastical tradition, that others of somewhat
+similar character came into being in the sub-apostolic age, but failed
+to survive save as embodied in later local teaching, oral or written,
+very much as if the _Didache_ had perished and its literary offspring
+alone remained (see DIDACHE).
+
+As regards Papias's _Exposition_, which Lightfoot describes as "among
+the earliest forerunners of commentaries, partly explanatory, partly
+illustrative, on portions of the New Testament," we need here only
+remark that, whatever its exact form may have been--as to which the
+extant fragments still leave room for doubt--it was in conception
+expository of the historic meaning of Christ's more ambiguous Sayings,
+viewed in the light of definitely ascertained apostolic traditions
+bearing on the subject. The like is true also of the fragments of the
+Elders preserved in Irenaeus (so far as these do not really come from
+Papias). Both bodies of exposition represent the traditional principle
+at work in the sub-apostolic age, making for the preservation in
+relative purity, over against merely subjective interpretations--those
+of the Gnostics in particular--of the historic or original sense of
+Christ's teaching, just as Ignatius stood for the historicity of the
+facts of His earthly career in their plain, natural sense.
+
+(B) Here the question of external form passes readily over into that of
+the _internal character and spirit_. Indeed much has already been said
+or suggested bearing on these. The relation of these writers to the
+apostolic teaching generally has become pretty evident. It is one of
+absolute loyalty and deference, as to the teaching of inspiration. They
+are conscious, as are we in reading them, that they are not moving on
+the same level of insight as the Apostles; they are sub-apostolic in
+that sense also. Hence there appear constant traces of study of the
+Apostolic writings, so far as these were accessible in the locality of
+each writer at his date of writing (for the details of this subject, and
+its bearing on the history of the Canonical Scriptures of the New
+Testament, see _The New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers_, Oxford,
+1905). As Lightfoot points out (_Apostolic Fathers_, pt. i. vol. i. p.
+7), however, personality, with its variety of temperament and emphasis,
+largely colours the Apostolic Fathers, especially the primary group.
+Clement has all the Roman feeling for duly constituted order and
+discipline; Ignatius has the Syrian or semi-oriental passion of
+devotion, showing itself at once in his mystic love for his Lord and his
+over-strained yearning to become His very "disciple" by drinking the
+like cup of martyrdom; Polycarp is, above all things, steady in his
+allegiance to what had first won his conscience and heart, and his
+"passive and receptive character" comes out in the contents of his
+epistle. Of the rest, whose personalities are less known to us, Papias
+shares Polycarp's qualities and their limitations, the anonymous
+homilist and Hermas are marked by intense moral earnestness, while the
+writer to Diognetus joins to this a profound religious insight. These
+personal traits determine by selective affinity, working under
+conditions given by the special local type of tradition and piety, the
+elements in the Apostolic writings which each was able to assimilate and
+express--though we must allow also for variety in the occasions of
+writing. Thus one New Testament type is echoed in one and another in
+another; or it may be several in turn. The latter is the case in
+Clement, Ignatius and Polycarp; perhaps also in "Barnabas." In Hermas
+there is special affinity to the language and thought of the epistle of
+James, and in the homilist to those of Paul. Yet their very use of the
+same terms or ideas makes us the more aware of "a marked contrast to the
+depth and clearness of conception with which the several Apostolic
+writers place before us different aspects of the Gospel" (Lightfoot).
+While Apostolic phrases are used, the sense behind them is often
+different and less evangelic. They have not caught the Apostolic
+meaning, because they have not penetrated to the full religious
+experience which gave to the words, often words with long and varied
+history both in the Septuagint and in ordinary Greek usage, their
+specific meaning to each apostle and especially to Paul. This phenomenon
+was noted particularly by E. Reuss, in his _Histoire de la theologie
+chretienne an siecle apostolique_ (3rd ed., 1864). Take for instance
+Clement. Lightfoot, indeed, dwells on the all-round "comprehensiveness"
+with which Clement, as the mouthpiece of the early Roman Church, utters
+in succession phrases or ideas borrowed impartially from Peter and Paul
+and James and the Epistle to Hebrews. He admits, however, that such mere
+co-ordination of the language of Paul and James, for instance, as
+appears in his twice bracketing "faith and hospitality" as grounds of
+acceptance with God (the cases are those of Abraham and Rahab, in chs.
+x. and xii.), is "from a strictly dogmatic point of view" his weakness.
+But the weakness is more than a dogmatic one; it is one of religious
+experience, as the source of spiritual insight. It is not merely that
+"there is no _dogmatic system_ in Clement" or in any other of the
+Apostolic Fathers; that may favour, not hinder, religious insight. There
+is a want of depth in Christian experience, in the power of realizing
+relative spiritual values in the light of the master principle involved
+in the distinctively Christian consciousness, such as could raise
+Clement above a verbal eclecticism, rather than comprehensiveness, in
+the use of Apostolic language. As R.W. Dale remarks, in a note on
+Reuss's too severe words (Eng. trans. ii. 295): "The vital force of the
+Apostolic convictions gave to Apostolic thought a certain organic and
+consistent form." It is lack of this organic quality in the thought, not
+only of Clement but also of the Apostolic Fathers generally--with the
+possible exception of Ignatius, who seems to share the Apostolic
+experience more fully than any other, to which Reuss rightly directs
+attention. In virtue of this defect, due largely to the failure to enter
+into the Apostolic experience of mystic union with Christ, he can
+rightly speak of "an immense retrogression" in theology visible "at the
+end of the century, and in circles where it might have been least
+expected" (ii. p. 294, cf. 541).
+
+In fact the perspective of the Gospel was seriously changed and its most
+distinctive features obscured. This was specially the case with the
+experimental doctrines of grace. Here the central glory of the Cross as
+"the power of God unto salvation" suffered some eclipse, although the
+passion of Christ was felt to be a transcendent act of Divine Grace in
+one way or another. But even more serious was the loss of an adequate
+sense of the contrast between "grace" and "works" as conditions of
+salvation. There was little or no sense of the danger of the _legal
+principle_, as related to human egoism and the instinct to seek
+salvation as a reward for merit. The passages in which these things are
+laid bare by Paul's remorseless analysis of his own experience "under
+Law" seem to have made practically no impression on the Apostolic
+Fathers as a whole. Gentile Christians had not felt the fang of the Law
+as the ex-Pharisee had occasion to feel it. Even if first trained in the
+Hellenistic synagogues of the Dispersion, as was often the case, they
+apprehended the Law on its more helpful and less exacting side, and had
+not been brought "by the Law to die unto the Law," that they might "live
+unto God." The result was too great a continuity between their religious
+conceptions before and after embracing the Gospel. Thus the latter
+seemed to them simply to bring forgiveness of past sins for Christ's
+sake, and then an enhanced moral responsibility to the New Law revealed
+in Him. Hence a new sort of legalism, known to recent writers as
+Moralism, underlies much of the piety of the Apostolic Fathers, though
+Ignatius is quite free from it, while Polycarp and "Barnabas" are less
+under its influence than are the _Didache_, Clement, the Homilist and
+Hermas. It conceives salvation as a "wages" ([Greek: osthos]) to be
+earned or forfeited; and regards certain good works, such as prayer,
+fasting, alms--especially the last--as efficacious to cancel sins. The
+reality of this tendency, particularly at Rome, betrays itself in
+Hermas, who teaches the supererogatory merit of alms gained by the
+self-denial of fasting (_Sim_. v. 3. 3 ff.). Marcion's reaction, too,
+against the Judaic temper in the Church as a whole, in the interests of
+an extravagant Paulinism, while it suggests that Paul's doctrines of
+grace generally were inadequately realized in the sub-apostolic age,
+points also to the prevalence of such moralism in particular.
+
+(C) In attempting a final estimate of the value of the Apostolic Fathers
+for the historian to-day, we may sum up under these heads:
+ecclesiastical, theological, religious. (a) As a mine of materials for
+reconstructing the history of Church institutions, they are invaluable,
+and that largely in virtue of their spontaneous and "esoteric"
+character, with no view to the public generally or to posterity. (b)
+Theologically, as a stage in the history of Christian doctrine, their
+value is as great negatively as positively. Impressive as is their
+witness to the persistence of the Apostolic teaching in its essential
+features, amidst all personal and local variations, perhaps the most
+striking thing about these writings is the degree in which they fail to
+appreciate certain elements of the Apostolic teaching as embodied in the
+New Testament, and those its higher and more distinctively Christian
+elements.[3] This negative aspect has a twofold bearing. Firstly, it
+suggests the supernormal level to which the Apostolic consciousness was
+raised at a bound by the direct influence of the Founder of
+Christianity, and justifies the marking-off of the Apostolic writings as
+a Canon, or body of Christian classics of unique religious authority. To
+this principle Marcion's Pauline Canon is a witness, though in too
+one-sided a spirit. Secondly, it means that the actual development of
+ecclesiastical doctrine began, not from the Apostolic consciousness
+itself, but from a far lower level, that of the inadequate consciousness
+of the sub-apostolic Church, even when face to face with their written
+words. This theological "retrogression" is of much significance for the
+history of dogma, (c) On the other hand, there is great religious and
+moral continuity, beneath even theological discontinuity, in the life
+working below all conscious apprehension of the deeper ideas involved
+(E. von Dobschutz, _Christian Life in the Primitive Church_, 1905).
+There is continuity in character; the Apostolic Fathers strike us as
+truly good men, with a goodness raised to a new type and power. This is
+what the Gospel of Christ aims chiefly at producing as its proper fruit;
+and the Apostolic Fathers would have desired no better record than that
+they were themselves genuine "epistles of Christ."
+
+  LITERATURE.--This is too large to indicate even in outline, but is
+  given fully in the chief modern editions, viz. of Gebhardt, Harnack
+  and Zahn jointly (1875-1877), J.B. Lightfoot (1885-1890) and F.X. Funk
+  (1901); also in O. Bardenhewer, _Gesch. der altkirchlichen Litteratur_
+  (1902), Band i., and in _Neutestamentliche Apokryphen_, with
+  _Handbuch_ thereto, edited by E. Hennecke (Tubingen, 1904). The
+  fullest discussion in English of the teaching of Barnabas, Clement,
+  Ignatius and Polycarp is by J. Donaldson, _The Apostolical Fathers_
+  (1874), which, however, suffers from the imperfect state of the texts
+  when he wrote. The most useful edition for ready reference, containing
+  critical texts (up to date) and good translations, is Lightfoot's
+  one-volume edition, _The Apostolic Fathers_ (London, 1891).
+       (J. V. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Cotelier included the Acts of Martyrdom of Clement, Ignatius and
+    Polycarp; and those of Ignatius and Polycarp are still often printed
+    by editors.
+
+  [2] See G.A. Deissmann, _Bible Studies_, pp. 1-60, for this
+    distinction between the genuine "letter" and the literary "epistle,"
+    as applied to the New Testament in particular.
+
+  [3] One result is their inability to form a true theory of Judaism
+    and of the Old Testament in relation to the Gospel, a matter of great
+    moment for them and for their successors.
+
+
+
+
+APOSTOLICI, APOSTOLIC BRETHREN, or APOSTLES, the names given to various
+Christian heretics, whose common doctrinal feature was an ascetic
+rigidity of morals, which made them reject property and marriage. The
+earliest Apostolici appeared in Phrygia, Cilicia, Pisidia and Pamphylia
+towards the end of the 2nd century or the beginning of the 3rd.
+According to the information given by Epiphanius (_Haer._ 61) about the
+doctrines of these heretics, it is evident that they were connected with
+the Encratites and the Tatianians. They condemned individual property,
+hence the name sometimes given to them of _Apotactites_ or
+_Renuntiatores_. They preserved an absolute chastity and abstained from
+wine and meat. They refused to admit into their sect those Christians
+whom the fear of martyrdom had once restored to paganism. As late as the
+4th century St Basil (_Can_. i and 47) knew some Apostolici. After that
+period they disappeared, either becoming completely extinct, or being
+confounded with other sects (see St Augustine, _Haer._ 40; John of
+Damascus, _Haer._ 61).
+
+Failing a more exact designation, the name of Apostolici has been given
+to certain groups of Latin heretics of the 12th century. It is the
+second of the two sects of Cologne (the first being composed very
+probably of Cathari) that is referred to in the letter addressed in 1146
+by Everwin, provost of Steinfeld, to St Bernard (Mabillon, _Vet. Anal._
+iii. 452). They condemned marriage (save, perhaps, first marriages), the
+eating of meat, baptism of children, veneration of saints, fasting,
+prayers for the dead and belief in purgatory, denied transubstantiation,
+declared the Catholic priesthood worthless, and considered the whole
+church of their time corrupted by the "negotia saecularia" which
+absorbed all its zeal (of. St Bernard, _Serm._ 65 and 66 _in Cantic._).
+They do not seem to have been known as Apostles or Apostolici: St
+Bernard, in fact, asks his hearers: "Quo nomine istos titulove
+censebis?" (_Serm. 66 in Cantic._). Under this designation, too, are
+included the heretics of Perigueux in France, alluded to in the letter
+of a certain monk Heribert (Mabillon, _Vet. Anal._ iii. 467). Heribert
+says merely: "Se dicunt apostolicam vitam ducere." It is possible that
+they were Henricians (see HENRY OF LAUSANNE). During his mission in the
+south-east of France in 1146-1147 St Bernard still met disciples of
+Henry of Lausanne in the environs of Perigueux. The heretics of whom
+Heribert speaks condemned riches, denied the value of the sacraments and
+of good works, ate no meat, drank no wine and rejected the veneration of
+images. Their leader, named Pons, gathered round him nobles, priests,
+monks and nuns.
+
+In the second half of the 13th century appeared in Italy the _Order of
+the Apostles_ or _Apostle Brethren_ (see especially the _Chron._ of Fra
+Salimbene). This was a product of the mystic fermentation which
+proceeded from exalted Franciscanism and from Joachimism (see FRATICELLI
+and JOACHIM). It presents great analogies with groups of the same
+character, e.g. Sachets, Bizocchi, Flagellants, &c. The order of the
+Apostles was founded about 1260 by a young workman from the environs of
+Parma, Gerard Segarelli, who had sought admission unsuccessfully to the
+Franciscan order. To make his life conform to that of Christ, his
+contemporaries say that he had himself circumcised, wrapped in swaddling
+clothes and laid in a cradle, and that he then, clad in a white robe and
+bare-footed, walked through the streets of Parma crying "Penitenz
+agite!" ("Poenitentiam agite!"). He was soon followed by a throng of men
+and women, peasants and mechanics. All had to live in absolute poverty,
+chastity and idleness. They begged, and preached penitence. Opizo,
+bishop of Parma, protected them until they caused trouble in his
+diocese. Their diffusion into several countries of Christendom disturbed
+Pope Honorius IV., who in 1286 ordered them to adhere to an already
+recognized rule. On their refusal, the pope condemned them to banishment
+and Opizo imprisoned Segarelli. The councils of Wurzburg (1287) and
+Chichester (1289) took measures against the Apostles of Germany and
+England. But in 1291 the sect reappeared, sensibly increased, and Pope
+Nicholas IV. published anew the bull of Honorius IV. From that day the
+Apostles, regarded as rebels, were persecuted pitilessly. Four were
+burned in 1294, and Segarelli, as a relapsed heretic, went to the stake
+at Parma in 1300.
+
+They had had close relations with the dissident Franciscans, but the
+Spirituals often disavowed them, especially when the sect, which in
+Segarelli's time had had no very precise doctrinal character, became
+with Dolcino frankly heterodox. Dolcino of Novara was brought up at
+Vercelli, and had been an Apostle since 1291. Thrice he fell into the
+hands of the Inquisition, and thrice recanted. But immediately after
+Segarelli's death he wrote an epistle, soon followed by a second, in
+which he declared that the third Joachimite age began with Segarelli and
+that Frederick of Sicily was the expected conqueror (_Hist. Dulcini_ and
+_Addit. ad Hist. Dulcini_ in Muratori, _Scriptores_, vol. ix.). He gave
+himself out as an angel sent from God to elucidate the prophecies. Soon
+he founded an _Apostolic congregation_ at whose head he placed himself.
+Under him were his four lieutenants, his "mystic sister," Margherita di
+Franck, and 4000 disciples. He taught almost the same principles of
+devotion as Segarelli, but the Messianic character which he attributed
+to himself, the announcement of a communistic millennial kingdom, and,
+besides, an aggressive anti-sacerdotalism, gave to Dolcino's sect a
+clearly marked character, analogous only to the theocratic community of
+the Anabaptists of Munster in the 16th century. On the 5th of June 1305
+Pope Clement V., recognizing the impotence of the ordinary methods of
+repression, issued bulls for preaching a crusade against the Dolcinists.
+But four crusades, directed by the bishop of Vercelli, were required to
+reduce the little army of the heresiarch, entrenched in the mountains in
+the neighbourhood of Vercelli. Not till the 23rd of March 1307 were the
+sectaries definitively overcome. The Catholic crusaders seized Dolcino
+in his entrenchments on Mount Rubello, and the pope at once announced
+the happy event to King Philip the Fair. At Vercelli Dolcino suffered a
+horrible punishment. He was torn in pieces with red-hot pincers--the
+torture lasting an entire day--while Margherita was burned at a slow
+fire. Dante mentions Dolcino's name (_Inferno_, c. xxviii.), and his
+memory is not yet completely effaced in the province of Novara. The
+Apostles continued their propaganda in Italy, Languedoc, Spain and
+Germany. In turn they were condemned by the councils of Cologne (1306),
+Treves (1310) and Spoleto (1311). The inquisitor of Languedoc, Bernard
+Gui, persecuted them unremittingly (see Gui's _Practica Inquisitionis_).
+From 1316 to 1323 the condemnations of Apostles increased at Avignon and
+Toulouse. They disappeared, however, at a comparatively late date from
+those regions (council of Lavaur, 1368; council of Narbonne, 1374). In
+Germany two Apostles were burned at Lubeck and Wismar at the beginning
+of the 15th century (1402-1403) by the inquisitor Eylard.
+
+Several controversialists, including Gotti, Krohn and Stockmann, have
+mentioned among the innumerable sects that have sprung from Anabaptism a
+group of individuals whose open-air preaching and rigorous practice of
+poverty gained them the name of Apostolici. These must be carefully
+distinguished from the _Apostoolians_, Mennonites of Frisia, who
+followed the teachings of the pastor Samuel Apostool (1638-beginning of
+18th century). In the Mennonite church they represent the rigid,
+conservative party, as opposed to the Galenists, who inclined towards
+the Arminian latitudinarianism and admitted into their community all
+those who led a virtuous life, whatever their doctrinal tendencies.
+     (P. A.)
+
+
+
+
+APOSTOLIC MAJESTY, a title borne by the kings of Hungary. About A.D.
+1000 it was conferred by Pope Silvester II. upon St Stephen (975-1038),
+the first Christian king of Hungary, in return for his zeal in seeking
+the conversion of the heathen. It was renewed by Pope Clement XIII. in
+1758 in favour of the empress Maria Theresa and her descendants. The
+emperor of Austria bears the title of apostolic king of Hungary.
+
+
+
+
+APOSTOLIUS, MICHAEL (d. c. 1480), a Greek theologian and rhetorician of
+the 15th century. When, in 1453, the Turks conquered Constantinople, his
+native city, he fled to Italy, and there obtained the protection of
+Cardinal Bessarion. But engaging in the great dispute that then raged
+between the upholders of Aristotle and Plato, his zeal for the latter
+led him to speak so contemptuously of the more popular philosopher and
+of his defender, Theodorus Gaza, that he fell under the severe
+displeasure of his patron. He afterwards retired to Crete, where he
+earned a scanty living by teaching and by copying manuscripts. Many of
+his copies are still to be found in the libraries of Europe. One of
+them, the _Icones_ of Philostratus at Bologna, bears the inscription:
+"The king of the poor of this world has written this book for his
+living." Apostolius died about 1480, leaving two sons, Aristobulus
+Apostolius and Arsenius. The latter became bishop of Malvasia
+(Monemvasia) in the Morea.
+
+  Of his numerous works a few have been printed: [Greek: Paroimiai]
+  (Basel, 1538), now exceedingly rare; a collection of proverbs in
+  Greek, of which a fuller edition appeared at Leiden, "Curante
+  Heinsio," in 1619; "Oratio Panegyrica ad Fredericum III." in Freher's
+  _Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum_, vol. ii. (Frankfort, 1624); Georgii
+  Gemisthi Plethonis et Mich. Apostolii _Orationes funebres duae in
+  quibus de Immortalitate Animae exponitur_ (Leipzig, 1793); and a work
+  against the Latin Church and the council of Florence in Le Moine's
+  _Varia Sacra_.
+
+
+
+
+APOSTROPHE (Gr. [Greek: apostrophe], turning away; the final e being
+sounded), the name given to an exclamatory rhetorical figure of speech,
+when a speaker or writer breaks off and addresses some one directly in
+the vocative. The same word (representing, through the French, the Greek
+[Greek: apostrophos prosudia], the accent of elision) means also the
+sign (') for the omission of a letter or letters, e.g. in "don't." In
+physiology, "apostrophe" is used more precisely in connexion with its
+literal meaning of "turning away," e.g. for movement away from the
+light, in the case of the accumulation of chlorophyll-corpuscles on the
+cells of leaves.
+
+
+
+
+APOTACTITES, or APOTACTICI (from Gr. [Greek: apotaktos], set apart), a
+sect of early Christians, who renounced all their worldly possessions.
+(See APOSTOLICI _ad init._)
+
+
+
+
+APOTHECARY (from the Lat. _apothecarius_, a keeper of an _apotheca_, Gr.
+[Greek: apotheke], a store), a word used by Galen to denote the
+repository where his medicines were kept, now obsolete in its original
+sense. An apothecary was one who prepared, sold and prescribed drugs,
+but the preparing and selling of drugs prescribed by others has now
+passed into the hands of duly qualified and authorized persons termed
+"chemists and druggists," while the apothecary, by modern legislation,
+has become a general medical practitioner, and the word itself, when
+used at all, is applied, more particularly in the United States and in
+Scotland, to those who in England are called "pharmaceutical chemists."
+The Apothecaries' Society of London is one of the corporations of that
+city, and both by royal charters and acts of parliament exercises the
+power of granting licences to practise medicine. The members of this
+society do not possess and never have possessed any exclusive power to
+deal in or sell drugs; and until 1868 any person whatever might open
+what is called a chemist's shop, and deal in drugs and poisons. In that
+year, however, the Pharmacy Act was passed, which prohibits any person
+from engaging in this business without being registered.
+
+From early records we learn that the different branches of the medical
+profession were not regularly distinguished till the reign of Henry
+VIII., when separate duties were assigned to them, and peculiar
+privileges were granted to each. In 1518 the physicians of London were
+incorporated, and the barber-surgeons in 1540. But, independently of the
+physicians and the surgeons, there were a great number of irregular
+practitioners, who were more or less molested by their legitimate
+rivals, and it became necessary to pass an act in 1543 for their
+protection and toleration. As many of these practitioners kept shops for
+the sale of medicines, the term "apothecary" was used to designate their
+calling.
+
+In April 1606 James I. incorporated the apothecaries as one of the city
+companies, uniting them with the grocers. On their charter being renewed
+in 1617 they were formed into a separate corporation, under the title of
+the "Apothecaries of the City of London." These apothecaries appear to
+have prescribed medicines in addition to dispensing them, and to have
+claimed an ancient right of acting in this double capacity; and it may
+be mentioned that Henry VIII., after the grant of the charter to the
+College of Physicians, appointed an apothecary to the Princess Mary, who
+was delicate and unhealthy, at a salary of 40 marks a year, "_pro
+meliore cura, et consideratione sanitatis suae_." During the 17th
+century, however, there arose a warm contest between the physicians and
+the apothecaries,--the former accusing the latter of usurping their
+province, and the latter continuing and justifying the usurpation until
+the dispute was finally set at rest by a judgment of the House of Lords
+in 1703 (_Rose v. College of Physicians_, 5 Bro. P. C. 553), when it was
+decided that the duty of the apothecary consisted not only in
+compounding and dispensing, but also in directing and ordering the
+remedies employed in the treatment of disease. In 1722 an act was
+obtained empowering the Apothecaries' Company to visit the shops of all
+apothecaries practising in London, and to destroy such drugs as they
+found unfit for use. In 1748 great additional powers were given to the
+company by an act authorizing them to appoint a board of ten examiners,
+without whose licence no person should be allowed to dispense medicines
+in London, or within a circuit of 7 m. round it. In 1815, however, an
+act of parliament was passed which gave the Apothecaries' Society a new
+position, empowering a board, consisting of twelve of their members, to
+examine and license all apothecaries throughout England and Wales. It
+also enacted that, from the 1st of August of that year, no persons
+except those who were so licensed should have the right to act as
+apothecaries, and it gave the society the power of prosecuting those who
+practised without such licence. But the act expressly exempted from
+prosecution all persons who were then in actual practice, and it
+distinctly excluded from its operation all persons pursuing the calling
+of chemists and druggists. It was also provided that the act should in
+no way interfere with the rights or privileges of the English
+universities, or of the English College of Surgeons or the College of
+Physicians; and indeed a clause imposed severe penalties on any
+apothecaries who should refuse to compound and dispense medicines on the
+order of a physician, legally qualified to act as such. It is therefore
+clear that the act contemplated the creation of a class of practitioners
+who, while having the right to practise medicine, should assist and
+co-operate with the physicians and surgeons.
+
+Before this act came into operation the education of the medical
+practitioners of England and Wales was entirely optional on their own
+part, and although many of them possessed degrees or licences from the
+universities or colleges, the greater number possessed no such
+qualification, and many of them were wholly illiterate and uneducated.
+The court of examiners of the Apothecaries' Society, being empowered to
+enforce the acquisition of a sufficient medical education upon its
+future licentiates, specified from time to time the courses of lectures
+or terms of hospital practice to be attended by medical students before
+their examination, and in the progress of years regular schools of
+medicine were organized throughout England.
+
+As it was found that, notwithstanding the stringent regulations as to
+medical acquirements, the candidates were in many instances deficient in
+preliminary education, the court of examiners instituted, about the year
+1850, a preliminary examination in arts as a necessary and indispensable
+prerequisite to the medical curriculum, and this provision has been so
+expanded that, at the present day, all medical students in the United
+Kingdom are compelled to pass a preliminary examination in arts, unless
+they hold a university degree. An act of parliament, passed in 1858, and
+known as the Medical Act, made very little alteration in the powers
+exercised by the Apothecaries' Society, and indeed it confirmed and in
+some degree amplified them, for whereas by the act of 1815, the
+licentiates of the society were authorized to practise as such only in
+England and Wales, the new measure gave them the same right in Scotland
+and Ireland. The Medical Act 1886 extended the qualifications necessary
+for registration under the medical acts, by making it necessary to pass
+a qualifying examination in medicine, surgery and midwifery. (See
+MEDICAL EDUCATION.)
+
+An act, passed in 1874, related exclusively to the Apothecaries'
+Society, and is termed the Apothecaries' Act Amendment Act. By this
+measure some provisions of the act of 1815, which had become obsolete or
+unsuitable, were repealed, and powers were given to the society to unite
+or co-operate with other medical licensing bodies in granting licences
+to practise. The act of 1815 had made it compulsory on all candidates
+for a licence to have served an apprenticeship of five years to an
+apothecary, and although by the interpretation of the court of examiners
+of the society this term really included the whole period of medical
+study, yet the regulation was felt as a grievance by many members of the
+medical profession. It was accordingly repealed, and no apprenticeship
+is now necessary. The restriction of the choice of examiners to the
+members of the society was also repealed, and the society was given the
+power (which it did not before possess) to strike off from the list of
+its licentiates the names of disreputable persons. The act of 1874 also
+specified that the society was not deprived of any right or obligation
+they may have to admit women to examination, and to enter their names on
+the list of licentiates if they acquit themselves satisfactorily.
+
+The Apothecaries' Society is governed by a master, two wardens and
+twenty-two assistants. The members are divided into THREE grades,
+yeomanry or freemen, the livery, and the court. Women are not, however,
+admitted to the freedom. The hall of the society, situated in Water
+Lane, London, and covering about three-quarters of an acre, was acquired
+in 1633. It was destroyed by the great fire, but was rebuilt about ten
+years later and enlarged in 1786. This is the only property possessed by
+the society. In 1673, the society established a botanic and physic
+garden at Chelsea, and in 1722 Sir Hans Sloane, who had become the
+ground owner, gave it to the society on the condition of presenting
+annually to the Royal Society fifty dried specimens of plants till the
+number should reach 2000. This condition was fulfilled in 1774. Owing to
+the heavy cost of maintenance and other reasons, the "physic garden" was
+handed over in 1902, with the consent of the Charity Commissioners, to a
+committee of management, to be maintained in the interests of botanical
+study and research.
+
+  See C.R.B. Barrett, _The History of the Society of Apothecaries of
+  London_ (1905).
+
+
+
+
+APOTHEOSIS (Gr. [Greek: apotheoun], to make a god, to deify), literally
+deification. The term properly implies a clear polytheistic conception
+of gods in contrast with men, while it recognizes that some men cross
+the dividing line. It is characteristic of polytheism to blur that line
+in several ways. Thus the ancient Greek religion was especially disposed
+to belief in heroes and demigods. Founders of cities, and even of
+colonies, received worship; the former are, generally speaking, mythical
+personages and, in strictness, heroes. But the worship after death of
+historical persons, such as Lycurgus, or worship of the living as true
+deities, e.g. Lysander and Philip II. of Macedon, occurred sporadically
+even before Alexander's conquests brought Greek life into contact with
+oriental traditions. It was inevitable, too, that ancient monarchies
+should enlist polytheistic conceptions of divine or half-divine men in
+support of the dynasties; "_Seu deos regesve canit deorum Sanguinem_,"
+Horace (_Odes_, iv. 2, 11. 12, 13) writes of Pindar; though the
+reference is to myths, yet the phrase is significant. In the East all
+such traits are exaggerated, a result perhaps rather of the statecraft
+than of the religions of Egypt and Persia. Whatever part vanity or the
+flattery of courtiers may have played with others, or with Alexander, it
+is significant that the dynasties of Alexander's various successors all
+claim divine honours of some sort (see PTOLEMIES, SELEUCID DYNASTY,
+&c.). Theocritus (_Idyll_ 17) hails Ptolemy Philadelphus as a demigod,
+and speaks of his father as seated among the gods along with Alexander.
+Ancestor worship, or reverence for the dead, was a third factor. It may
+work even in Cicero's determination that his daughter should enjoy
+"[Greek: apotheosis]"--as he writes to Atticus--or receive the "honour"
+of _consecratia_ (fragment of his _De Consolatione_). Lastly, we need
+not speak of mere sycophancy. Yet it was common; Verres was worshipped
+before he was impeached!
+
+The Romans had, up to the end of the Republic, accepted only one
+official apotheosis; the god Quirinus, whatever his original meaning,
+having been identified with Romulus. But the emperor Augustus carried on
+the tradition of ancient statecraft by having Julius Caesar recognized
+as a god (_divus Julius_), the first of a new class of deities proper
+(_divi_). The tradition was steadily followed and was extended to some
+ladies of the imperial family and even to imperial favourites. Worship
+of an emperor during his lifetime, except as the worship of his
+_genius_, was, save in the cases of Caligula and Domitian, confined to
+the provinces. Apotheosis after his death, being in the hands of the
+senate, did not at once cease, even when Christianity was officially
+adopted. The Latin term is _consecratio_, which of course has a variety
+of senses, including simple burial. (Inscription in G. Boissier, _La
+Religion romaine_; Renier, _Inscriptions d'Algiers_, 2510.) The Greek
+term Apotheosis, probably a coinage of the Hellenistic epoch, becomes
+more nearly technical for the deification of dead emperors. But it is
+still used simply for the erection of tombs (clearly so in some Greek
+inscriptions, _Corpus Inscript. Graec._ 2831, 2832, quoted in
+Pauly-Wissowa, _s.v. Apotheosis_). Possibly there is a trace of ancestor
+worship even here; but the two usages have diverged. The squib of the
+philosopher Seneca on the memory of Claudius (d. A.D. 54),
+_Apocolocyntosis_ ("pumpkinification"), is evidence that, as early as
+Seneca's lifetime, apotheosis was in use for the recognition of a
+departed emperor as a god. It also indicates how much contempt might be
+associated with this pretended worship. The people, says Suetonius
+(_Jul. Caes._ c. 88), fully believed in the divinity of Julius Caesar,
+hinting at the same time that this was by no means the case with the
+majority of the apotheoses subsequently decreed by the senate. Yet we
+learn from Capitolinus that Marcus Aurelius was still worshipped as a
+household divinity in the time of Diocletian, and was believed to impart
+revelations in dreams (Vit. M. Ant. c. 18). Antinous, the favourite of
+Hadrian, was adored in Egypt a century after his death (Origen, _Contra
+Celsum_, iii. 36), though, according to Boissier, his worship never had
+official sanction. The ceremonies attendant on an imperial apotheosis
+are very fully described by Herodianus (bk. iv. c. 2) on occasion of the
+obsequies of Severus, which he appears to have witnessed. The most
+significant was the liberation, at the moment of kindling the funeral
+pyre, of an eagle which was supposed to bear the emperor's soul to
+heaven. Sharp-sighted persons had actually beheld the ascension of
+Augustus (Suet. _August_, c. 100), and of Drusilla, sister of Caligula.
+Representations of apotheoses occur on several works of art; the most
+important are the apotheosis of Homer on a relief in the Townley
+collection of the British Museum, that of Titus on the arch of Titus,
+and that of Augustus on a magnificent cameo in the Louvre.
+
+In China at the present day many Taoist gods are (or are given out as)
+men deified for service to the state. This again may be statecraft. In
+India, the (still unexplained) rise of the doctrine of transmigration
+hindered belief. Apotheosis can mean nothing to those who hold that a
+man may be reborn as a god, but still needs redemption, and that men on
+earth may win redemption, if they are brave enough. Curiously, Buddhism
+itself is ruled by the ghost or shadowy remainder of belief in
+transmigration--Karma.
+
+Apotheosis may also be used in wider senses. (a) Some (e.g. Herbert
+Spencer) hold that most gods are deified men, and most myths historical
+traditions which have been grotesquely distorted. This theory is known
+as Euhemerism (see EUHEMERUS). It is needless to say that the attitude
+of those holding the Euhemerist theory is at the farthest pole from
+belief in apotheosis. According to the latter, some men may become gods.
+According to the former, all gods are but men; or, some men have been
+erroneously supposed to become gods. The Euhemerist theory mainly
+appeals to ancestor worship--a fact of undoubted importance in the
+history of religion, especially in China and in ancient Rome. In India,
+too, a dead person treated with funeral honours becomes a guardian
+spirit--if neglected, a tormenting demon. But whether the great gods of
+polytheism were really transfigured ancestors is very doubtful. (b)
+Again, there is a tendency to offer something like worship to the
+founders of religions. Thus more than human honour is paid to Zoroaster
+and Buddha and even to the founders of systems not strictly religious,
+e.g. to Confucius and Auguste Comte. It is noticeable that this kind of
+worship is not accorded in rigidly monotheistic systems, e.g. to Moses
+and Mahomet. Nor is it accurate to speak of apotheosis in cases where
+the founder is in his lifetime regarded as the incarnation of a god (cf.
+Ali among Shi'ite Mahommedans; the Bab in Babism; the Druse Hakim). Most
+Christians on this ground repudiate the application of the term to the
+worship of Jesus Christ. Curiously, _Apotheosis_ is used by the Latin
+Christian poet, Prudentius (c. 400), as the title of a poem defending
+orthodox views on the person of Christ and other points of doctrine--the
+affectation of a decadent age. (c) The worship paid to Saints, in those
+Christian churches which admit it, is formally distinguished as _dulia_
+([Greek: douleia]) from true worship or _latria_ ([Greek: latreia]).
+Even the Virgin Mary, though she is styled Mother of God and Queen of
+Heaven, receives only _dulia_ or at most _hyperdulia_.
+     (R. G.; R. Ma.)
+
+
+
+
+APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS, the general name given to a vast system of
+elevations in North America, partly in Canada, but mostly in the United
+States, extending as a zone, from 100 to 300 m. wide, from Newfoundland,
+Gaspe Peninsula and New Brunswick, 1500 m. south-westward to central
+Alabama. The whole system may be divided into three great sections: the
+_Northern_, from Newfoundland to the Hudson river; the _Central_, from
+the Hudson Valley to that of New river (Great Kanawha), in Virginia and
+West Virginia; and the _Southern_, from New river onwards. The northern
+section includes the Shickshock Mountains and Notre Dame Range in
+Quebec, scattered elevations in Maine, the White Mountains and the Green
+Mountains; the central comprises, besides various minor groups, the
+Valley Ridges between the Front of the Allegheny Plateau and the Great
+Appalachian Valley, the New York-New Jersey Highlands and a large
+portion of the Blue Ridge; and the southern consists of the prolongation
+of the Blue Ridge, the Unaka Range, and the Valley Ridges adjoining the
+Cumberland Plateau, with some lesser ranges.
+
+_The Chief Summits._--The Appalachian belt includes, with the ranges
+enumerated above, the plateaus sloping southward to the Atlantic Ocean
+in New England, and south-eastward to the border of the coastal plain
+through the central and southern Atlantic states; and on the north-west,
+the Allegheny and Cumberland plateaus declining toward the Great Lakes
+and the interior plains. A remarkable feature of the belt is the
+longitudinal chain of broad valleys--the Great Appalachian
+Valley--which, in the southerly sections divides the mountain system
+into two subequal portions, but in the northernmost lies west of all the
+ranges possessing typical Appalachian features, and separates them from
+the Adirondack group. The mountain system has no axis of dominating
+altitudes, but in every portion the summits rise to rather uniform
+heights, and, especially in the central section, the various ridges and
+intermontane valleys have the same trend as the system itself. None of
+the summits reaches the region of perpetual snow. Mountains of the Long
+Range in Newfoundland reach heights of nearly 2000 ft. In the
+Shickshocks the higher summits rise to about 4000 ft. elevation. In
+Maine four peaks exceed 3000 ft., including Katahdin (5200 ft.), Mount
+Washington, in the White Mountains (6293 ft.), Adams (5805), Jefferson
+(5725), Clay (5554), Monroe (5390), Madison (5380), Lafayette (5269);
+and a number of summits rise above 4000 ft. In the Green Mountains the
+highest point, Mansfield, is 4364 ft.; Lincoln (4078), Killington
+(4241), Camel Hump (4088); and a number of other heights exceed 3000 ft.
+The Catskills are not properly included in the system. The Blue Ridge,
+rising in southern Pennsylvania and there known as South Mountain,
+attains in that state elevations of about 2000 ft.; southward to the
+Potomac its altitudes diminish, but 30 m. beyond again reach 2000 ft. In
+the Virginia Blue Ridge the following are the highest peaks east of New
+river: Mount Weather (about 1850 ft.), Mary's Rock (3523), Peaks of
+Otter (4001 and 3875), Stony Man (4031), Hawks Bill (4066). In
+Pennsylvania the summits of the Valley Ridges rise generally to about
+2000 ft., and in Maryland Eagle Rock and Dans Rock are conspicuous
+points reaching 3162 ft. and 2882 ft. above the sea. On the same side of
+the Great Valley, south of the Potomac, are the Pinnacle (3007 ft.) and
+Pidgeon Roost (3400 ft.). In the southern section of the Blue Ridge are
+Grandfather Mountain (5964 ft.), with three other summits above 5000,
+and a dozen more above 4000. The Unaka Ranges (including the Black and
+Smoky Mountains) have eighteen peaks higher than 5000 ft., and eight
+surpassing 6000 ft. In the Black Mountains, Mitchell (the culminating
+point of the whole system) attains an altitude of 6711 ft., Balsam Cone,
+6645, Black Brothers, 6690, and 6620, and Hallback, 6403. In the Smoky
+Mountains we have Clingman's Peak (6611), Guyot (6636), Alexander
+(6447), Leconte (6612), Curtis (6588), with several others above 6000
+and many higher than 5000.
+
+In spite of the existence of the Great Appalachian Valley, the master
+streams are transverse to the axis of the system. The main watershed
+follows a tortuous course which crosses the mountainous belt just north
+of New river in Virginia; south of this the rivers head in the Blue
+Ridge, cross the higher Unakas, receive important tributaries from the
+Great Valley, and traversing the Cumberland Plateau in spreading gorges,
+escape by way of the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers to the Ohio and
+Mississippi, and thus to the Gulf of Mexico; in the central section the
+rivers, rising in or beyond the Valley Ridges, flow through great
+gorges (water gaps) to the Great Valley, and by south-easterly courses
+across the Blue Ridge to tidal estuaries penetrating the coastal plain;
+in the northern section the water-parting lies on the inland side of the
+mountainous belt, the main lines of drainage running from north to
+south.
+
+_Geology._--The rocks of the Appalachian belt fall naturally into two
+divisions; ancient (pre-Cambrian) crystallines, including marbles,
+schists, gneisses, granites and other massive igneous rocks, and a great
+succession of Paleozoic sediments. The crystallines are confined to the
+portion of the belt east of the Great Valley where Paleozoic rocks are
+always highly metamorphosed and occur for the most part in limited
+patches, excepting in New England and Canada, where they assume greater
+areal importance, and are besides very generally intruded by granites.
+The Paleozoic sediments, ranging in age from Cambrian to Permian, occupy
+the Great Valley, the Valley Ridges and the plateaus still farther west.
+They are rarely metamorphosed to the point of recrystallization, though
+locally shales are altered to roofing slates, sandstones are indurated,
+limestones slightly marblized, and coals, originally bituminous, are
+changed to anthracite in northern Pennsylvania, and to graphite in Rhode
+Island. Igneous intrusions consist only of unimportant dikes of trap.
+The most striking and uniformly characteristic geologic feature of the
+mountains is their internal structure, consisting of innumerable
+parallel, long and narrow folds, always closely appressed in the eastern
+part of any cross-section (Piedmont Plateau to Great Valley), less so
+along a central zone (Great Valley and Valley Ridges), and increasingly
+open on the west (Allegheny and Cumberland Plateaus). Asymmetry of the
+folds is a marked characteristic in the zones of closer folding, the
+anticlines having long gently inclined easterly limbs, and short, steep
+and even overturned limbs upon the west. The effect of such folds is
+often exaggerated by thrusts, and faulting of this sort is prominent in
+the southern section, where the existence of over-thrusts measured by
+several miles has been established.
+
+What may be termed the ancestral Appalachian system was formed during
+the post-carboniferous revolution, though certain of its elements had
+been previously outlined, and perhaps at different dates. Folding of the
+rocks resulted from the operation of great compressive forces acting
+tangentially to the figure of the earth. Extensive and deep-seated
+crumpling was necessarily accompanied by vertical uplift throughout the
+zone affected, but once at least since their birth the mountains have
+been worn down to a lowland, and the mountains of to-day are the
+combined product of subsequent uplift of a different sort, and
+dissection by erosion. Produced by long-continued subaerial decay and
+erosion, in later Cretaceous times this lowland extended from the
+Atlantic Ocean well toward the interior of North America; since then the
+whole continent has been generally elevated, and by successive steps the
+Appalachian belt has been raised to form a wide but relatively low arch.
+The crosswise courses of the greater rivers result from the rivers being
+older than the mountains, which indeed have been produced by
+circumdenudation. The master streams of the present have inherited their
+channels from the drainage systems of the Cretaceous lowland, and though
+raised athwart the courses of the lowland trunk streams the great arch
+was developed so slowly that these channels could be maintained through
+_pari passu_ deepening. Former tributaries have given place to others
+developed with reference to the distribution of more or less easily
+eroded strata, the present longitudinal valleys being determined by the
+out-crop of soft shales or soluble limestones, and the parallel ridges
+upheld by hard sandstones or schists. Parallelism of mountain ridges and
+intervening valleys is thus attributable to the folding of the rocks,
+but the origin of the interior structure of the mountains is to be kept
+distinct from the origin of the mountains as features of topography.
+
+_Flora and Fauna._--Much of the region is covered with forest yielding
+quantities of valuable timber, especially in Canada and northern New
+England. The most valuable trees for lumber are spruce, white pine,
+hemlock, cedar, white birch, ash, maple and basswood; all excepting pine
+and hemlock and poplar in addition are ground into wood pulp for the
+manufacture of paper. In the central and southern parts of the belt oak
+and hickory constitute valuable hard woods, and certain varieties of the
+former furnish quantities of tan bark. The tulip tree produces a good
+clear lumber known as white wood or poplar, and is also a source of
+pulp. In the south both white and yellow pine abounds. Many flowering
+and fruit-bearing shrubs of the heath family add to the beauty of the
+mountainous districts, rhododendron and kalmia often forming
+impenetrable thickets. Bears, mountain lions (pumas), wild cats (lynx)
+and wolves haunt the more remote fastnesses of the mountains; foxes
+abound; deer are found in many districts and moose in the north.
+
+_Influence on History._--For a century the Appalachians were a barrier
+to the westward expansion of the English colonies; the continuity of the
+system, the bewildering multiplicity of its succeeding ridges, the
+tortuous courses and roughness of its transverse passes, a heavy forest
+and dense undergrowth all conspired to hold the settlers on the
+seaward-sloping plateaus and coastal plains. Only by way of the Hudson
+and Mohawk valleys, and round about the southern termination of the
+system were there easy routes to the interior of the country, and these
+were long closed by hostile aborigines and jealous French or Spanish
+colonists. In eastern Pennsylvania the Great Valley was accessible by
+reason of a broad gateway between the end of South Mountain and the
+Highlands, and here in the Lebanon Valley settled German Moravians,
+whose descendants even now retain the peculiar patois known as
+"Pennsylvania Dutch." These were late comers to the New World forced to
+the frontier to find unclaimed lands. With their followers of both
+German and Scotch-Irish origin, they worked their way southward and soon
+occupied all of the Virginia Valley and the upper reaches of the Great
+Valley tributaries of the Tennessee. By 1755 the obstacle to westward
+expansion had been thus reduced by half; outposts of the English
+colonists had penetrated the Allegheny and Cumberland plateaus,
+threatening French monopoly in the transmontane region, and a conflict
+became inevitable. Making common cause against the French to determine
+the control of the Ohio valley, the unsuspected strength of the
+colonists was revealed, and the successful ending of the French and
+Indian War extended England's territory to the Mississippi. To this
+strength the geographic isolation enforced by the Appalachian mountains
+had been a prime contributor. The confinement of the colonies between an
+ocean and a mountain wall led to the fullest occupation of the coastal
+border of the continent, which was possible under existing conditions of
+agriculture, conducing to a community of purpose, a political and
+commercial solidarity, which would not otherwise have been developed. As
+early as 1700 it was possible to ride from Portland, Maine, to southern
+Virginia, sleeping each night at some considerable village. In contrast
+to this complete industrial occupation, the French territory was held by
+a small and very scattered population, its extent and openness adding
+materially to the difficulties of a disputed tenure. Bearing the brunt
+of this contest as they did, the colonies were undergoing preparation
+for the subsequent struggle with the home government. Unsupported by
+shipping, the American armies fought toward the sea with the mountains
+at their back protecting them against Indians leagued with the British.
+The few settlements beyond the Great Valley were free for self-defence
+because debarred from general participation in the conflict by reason of
+their position.
+
+  See the separate articles on the states, and also the following
+  references:--Topographic maps and Geologic Folios of the United States
+  Geological Survey; Bailey Willis, "The Northern Appalachians," and
+  C.W. Hayes, "The Southern Appalachians," both in _National Geographic
+  Monographs_, vol. i.; and chaps, iii., iv. and v. of Miss E.C.
+  Semple's _American History and its Geographic Conditions_ (Boston,
+  1903).     (A. C. Sp.)
+
+
+
+
+APPANAGE, or APANAGE (a French word from the late Lat. _apanagium_,
+formed from _apanare, i.e. panem porrigere_, to give bread, i.e.
+sustenance), in its original sense, the means of subsistence given by
+parents to their younger children as distinct from the rights secured
+to the eldest born by the custom of primogeniture. In its modern usage
+it is practically confined to the money endowment given to the younger
+children of reigning or mediatized houses in Germany and Austria, which
+reverts to the state or to the head of the family on the extinction of
+the line of the original grantee. In English history the system of
+appanages never played any great part, and the term is now properly
+applied only to the appanages of the crown: the duchy of Cornwall,
+assigned to the king's eldest son at birth, or on his father's accession
+to the crown, and the duchy of Lancaster. In the history of France,
+however, the appanage was a very important factor. The word denotes in
+very early French law the portion of lands or money given by fathers and
+mothers to their sons or daughters on marriage, and usually connotes a
+renunciation by the latter of any future inheritance; or it may denote
+the portion given by the eldest son to his brothers and sisters when he
+was sole inheritor. The word _apanage_ is still employed in this sense
+in French official texts of some _Customs_; but it was in old public law
+that it received its definite meaning and importance. Under the kings of
+the third dynasty, the division of the kingdom among the sons of the
+dead monarch which had characterized the Merovingian and Carolingian
+dynasties, ceased. The eldest son alone succeeded to the crown; but at
+the same time a custom was established by which the king made
+territorial provision suitable to their rank for his other children or
+for his brothers and sisters; custom forbade their being left landless.
+Lands and lordships thus bestowed constituted the appanages, which
+interfered so greatly with the formation of ancient France. While the
+persevering policy of the Capets, which aimed at reuniting the great
+fiefs, duchies, countships, baronies, &c., to the domain of the crown,
+gradually reconstructed for their benefit a territorial sovereignty over
+France, the institution of the appanage periodically subtracted large
+portions from it. Louis XI., in particular, had to struggle against the
+appanaged nobles. The old law, however, never abolished this
+institution. The edict of Moulins (1566) maintained it, as one of the
+exceptions to the inalienability of the crown-lands; only it was then
+decided that daughters of France should be appanaged in money, or that
+if, in default of coin, lands were assigned to them, these lands should
+be redeemable by the crown in perpetuity. The efforts of the kings to
+minimize this evil, and of the old jurisprudence to deal with the
+matter, resulted in two expedients: (1) the reversion of the appanage to
+the crown was secured as far as possible, being declared inalienable and
+transmissible only to male descendants in the male line of the person
+appanaged; (2) originally the person appanaged had possessed all the
+rights of a duke or count--that is to say, in the middle ages nearly all
+the attributes of sovereignty; the more important of these attributes
+were now gradually reserved to the monarch, including public authority
+over the inhabitants of the appanage in all essential matters. However,
+it is evident from the letters of appanage, dated April 1771, in favour
+of the count of Provence, how many functions of public authority an
+appanaged person still held. The Constituent Assembly, by the law dated
+the 22nd of November 1790, decided that in future there should be no
+appanages in real estate, and that younger sons of monarchs, married and
+over twenty-five years of age, should be provided for by yearly grants
+(_rentes apanageres_) from the public funds. The laws of the 13th of
+August and the 21st of December 1790 revoked all the existing appanages,
+except those of the Luxembourg Palace and the Palais Royal. To each
+person hitherto appanaged an annual income of one million _livres_ was
+assigned, and two millions for the brothers of the king. All this came
+to an end with the monarchy. Napoleon, by the _senatus-consulte_ of the
+30th of January 1810, resolved to create appanages for the emperor's
+princely descendants, such appanages to consist for the most part of
+lands on French soil. The fall of the empire again annulled this
+enactment. The last appanage known in France was that enjoyed by the
+house of Orleans. Having been re-established, or recognized as still
+existing, by the Restoration, it was formally confirmed by the law of
+the 15th of January 1825. On the accession of Louis Philippe it was
+united to the national property by the law of the 2nd of March 1832.
+
+  For appanages in ancient law see the _Essai sur les apanages ou
+  memoires historiques de leur etablissement_, attributed to Du Vaucel,
+  about 1780.     (J. P. E.)
+
+
+
+
+APPAREL (from O. Fr. _aparail_, _aparailler_, mod. _appareil_, from Low
+Lat. _adpariculare_, to make fit or equal), equipment, outfit, things
+furnished for the proper performance of anything, now chiefly used of
+dress. The word is also applied to the "orphreys," i.e. embroidered
+strips or borders, on ecclesiastical vestments.
+
+
+
+
+APPARITIONS. An apparition, strictly speaking, is merely an appearance
+(Lat. _apparere_, to appear), the result of perception exercised on any
+stimulus of any of the senses. But in ordinary usage the word apparition
+denotes a perception (generally through the sense of sight) which
+cannot, as a rule, be shown to be occasioned by an object in external
+nature. We say "as a rule" because many so-called apparitions are merely
+illusions, i.e. misconstructions of the perceptive processes, as when a
+person in a bad light sees a number of small children leading a horse,
+and finds, on nearer approach, that he sees two men carrying bee-hives
+suspended from a pole. Again, Sir Walter Scott's vision of Byron, then
+lately dead, proved to be a misconstruction of certain plaids and cloaks
+hanging in the hall at Abbotsford, or so Sir Walter declared. Had he not
+discovered the physical basis of this illusion (which, while it lasted,
+was an apparition, technically speaking), he and others might have
+thought that it was an apparition in the popular sense of the word, a
+ghost. In popular phraseology a ghost is understood to be a phantasm
+produced in some way by the spirit of a dead person, the impression
+being usually visual, though the ghost, or apparition, may also affect
+the sense of hearing (by words, knocks, whistles, groans and so forth),
+or the sense of touch, or of weight, as in the case of the "incubus." In
+ordinary speech an apparition of a person not known to the percipient to
+be dead is called a wraith, in the Highland phrase, a spirit of the
+living. The terms _ghost_ and _wraith_ involve the hypothesis that the
+false perceptions are caused by spirits, a survival of the archaic
+animistic hypothesis (see ANIMISM), an hypothesis as difficult to prove
+as to disprove. Apparitions, of course, are not confined to
+anthropomorphic phantasms; we hear of phantom coaches (sometimes seen,
+but more frequently heard), of phantom dogs, cats, horses, cattle, deer,
+and even of phantom houses.
+
+Whatever may be the causes of these and other false perceptions,--most
+curious when the impression is shared by several witnesses,--they may
+best be considered under the head of hallucination (q.v.).
+Hallucinations may be pathological, i.e. the result of morbid conditions
+of brain or nerve, of disease, of fever, of insanity, of alcoholism, of
+the abuse of drugs. Again, they may be the result of dissociation, or
+may occur in the borderland of sleep or waking, and in this case they
+partake of the hallucinatory nature of dreams (q.v.). Again,
+hallucinations may, once or twice in a lifetime, come into the
+experience of the sane, the healthy, and, as far as any tests can be
+applied, of the wide-awake. In such instances the apparition (whether it
+take the form of a visual phantasm, of a recognized voice, of a touch,
+or what not) may be coincidental or non-coincidental. The phantasm is
+called coincidental if it represents a known and distant person who is
+later found to have been dying or in some other crisis at the moment of
+the percipient's experience. When the false perception coincides with
+nothing of the sort, it is styled non-coincidental. Coincidental
+apparitions have been explained by the theory of telepathy (q.v.), one
+mind or brain impressing another in some unknown way so as to beget an
+hallucinatory apparition or phantasm. On the evidence, so far as it has
+been collected and analysed, it seems that the mind which, on the
+hypothesis, begets the hallucinations, usually does so without
+_conscious_ effort (see SUBLIMINAL SELF). There are, however, a few
+cases in which the experiment of begetting, in another, an hallucination
+from a distance, is said to have been experimentally and consciously
+made, with success.
+
+If the telepathic theory of coincidental hallucinations be accepted, we
+have still to account for the much more common non-coincidental
+apparitions of the living who do not happen to be in any particular
+crisis. In these instances it cannot be demonstrated that telepathy has
+_not_ been at work, as when a person is seen at a place which he thought
+of visiting, but did not visit. F.W. Myers even upheld a theory of
+psychorhagy, holding that the spirits of some persons have a way of
+manifesting themselves at a distance by a psychic invasion. This
+involves, as he remarked, paleolithic psychology, and the old savage
+doctrine of animism, rather than telepathy (see Myers, _Human
+Personality_). Of belief in coincidental hallucinations or wraiths among
+savages, records are scanty; the belief, however, is found among Maoris
+and Fuegians (see Lang, _Making of Religions_). The perception of
+apparitions of distant but actual scenes and occurrences is usually
+called clairvoyance (q.v.). The belief is also familiar under the name
+of second sight (see SECOND SIGHT), a term of Scots usage, though the
+belief in it, and the facts if accepted, are of world-wide diffusion.
+The apparitions may either represent actual persons and places, or may
+be symbolical, taking the form of phantasmic lights, coffins, skeletons,
+shrouds and so forth. Again, the appearances may either represent
+things, persons and occurrences of the past (see RETROCOGNITION), or of
+the present (clairvoyance), or of the future (see PREMONITION). When the
+apparitions produce themselves in given rooms, houses or localities, and
+are exhibited to various persons at various times, the locality is
+popularly said to be haunted by spirits, that is, of the dead, on the
+animistic hypothesis (see HAUNTINGS). Like the other alleged facts,
+these are of world-wide diffusion, or the belief in them is world-wide,
+and peculiar to no race, age, or period of culture. A haunted place is a
+centre of permanent possibilities of hallucinations, or is believed to
+be so. A distinct species of hauntings are those in which unexplained
+sounds and movements of objects, apparently untouched, occur. The German
+term _Poltergeist_ (q.v.) has been given to the supposed cause of these
+occurrences where the cause is not ascertained to be sportive imposture.
+In the performances of modern spiritualists the Poltergeist appears, as
+it were, to be domesticated, and to come at the call of the medium.
+
+An intermittent kind of ominous haunting attached, not to places, but to
+families, is that of the banshee (Celtic) or family death omen, such as
+the white bird of the Oxenhams, the Airlie drummer, the spectral rider
+of Clan Gilzean, the rappings of the Woodde family. These apparitions,
+with fairies and _djinns_ (the Arab form of fairy), haunt the borderland
+between folk-lore and psychical research.
+
+So far we have been concerned with spontaneous apparitions, or with the
+belief in them. Among induced apparitions may be reckoned the
+materialized forms of spiritual _seances_, which have a material basis
+of veils, false moustaches, wigs and the _corpus vile_ of the medium. It
+is also possible that mere expectancy and suggestion induce
+hallucinatory perceptions among the members of the circle. That
+apparitions of a sort can be induced by hypnotic and posthypnotic
+suggestion is certain enough (see HYPNOTISM). Savages produce
+apparitions in similar ways by suggestion, accompanied by dances,
+fumigations, darkness, fasting, drugs, and whatever can affect the
+imaginations of the onlookers (see MAGIC). Both in savage and civilized
+life, some persons can provoke themselves into beholding apparitions
+usually fantastic, but occasionally coincidental, by sedulously staring
+into any clear deep water, a fragment of rock crystal, a piece of
+polished basalt or obsidian, a mirror, a ring, a sword blade, or a glass
+of sherry (see CRYSTAL GAZING). Indeed any object, a wall, the palm of
+the hand, the shoulder-blade-bone of a sheep, may be, and has been used
+to this end (see DIVINATION).
+
+Almost all known apparitions may accommodate themselves to one or other
+of the categories given, whether they be pathological, coincidental or
+spontaneous, induced, permanently localized, or sporadic.
+
+  See generally, SPIRITUALISM and PSYCHICAL RESEARCH.     (A. L.)
+
+
+
+
+APPARITOR, or APPARATOR (Latin for a servant of a public official, from
+_apparere_, to attend in public), an attendant who executed the orders
+of a Roman magistrate; hence a beadle in a university, a pursuivant or
+herald; particularly, in English ecclesiastical courts, the official who
+serves the processes of the court and causes defendants to appear by
+summons.
+
+
+
+
+APPEAL, in law. In the old English common law the term "appeal" was used
+to describe a process peculiar to English criminal procedure. It was a
+right of prosecution possessed as a personal privilege by a party
+individually aggrieved by a felony, a privilege of which the crown could
+not directly or indirectly deprive him, since he could use it alike when
+the prisoner was tried and acquitted, and when he was convicted and
+pardoned. It was chiefly known in practice as the privilege of the
+nearest relation of a murdered person. When in 1729 (after Colonel
+Oglethorpe's inquiry and report on the London prisons) Banbridge and
+other gaolers were indicted for their treatment of prisoners, but were
+acquitted for deficiency of evidence, appeals for murder were freely
+brought by relatives of deceased prisoners. In the case of Slaughterford
+(1708) the accused was charged with murdering a woman whom he had
+seduced; the evidence was very imperfect, and he was acquitted on
+indictment. But public indignation being aroused by the atrocities
+alleged to have been perpetrated, an appeal was brought, and on
+conviction he was hanged, as his execution was a privilege belonging to
+the prosecutor, of which the crown could not deprive him by a pardon. In
+1818 an appeal was ingeniously met by an offer of battle, since if the
+appellee were an able-bodied man he had the choice between combat or a
+jury (see WAGER). This neutralizing of one obsolete and barbarous
+process by another called the attention of the legislature to the
+subject, and appeal in criminal cases, along with trial by battle, was
+abolished in 1819. The history of this appeal is fully dealt with in
+Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_, 1898.
+
+In its usual modern sense the term appeal is applied to the proceeding
+by which the decision of a court of justice is brought for review before
+another tribunal of higher authority. In Roman jurisprudence it was used
+in this and in other significations; it was sometimes equivalent to
+prosecution, or the calling up of an accused person before a tribunal
+where the accuser appealed to the protection of the magistrate against
+injustice or oppression. The derivation from _appellare_ ("call")
+suggests that its earliest meaning was an urgent outcry or prayer
+against injustice. During the republic the magistrate was generally
+supreme within his sphere, and those who felt themselves outraged by
+injustice threw themselves on popular protection by _provocatio_,
+instead of looking to redress from a higher official authority. Under
+the empire different grades of jurisdiction were established, and the
+ultimate remedy was an appeal to the emperor; thus Paul, when brought
+before Festus, appealed unto Caesar. Such appeals were, however, not
+heard by the emperor in person but by a supreme judge representing him.
+In the _Corpus Juris_ the appeal to the emperor is called
+indiscriminately _appellatio_ and _provocatio_. A considerable portion
+of the 49th book of the _Pandects_ is devoted to appeals; but little of
+the practical operation of the system is to be deduced from the
+propositions there brought together.
+
+During the middle ages full scope was afforded for appeals from the
+lower to the higher authorities in the church. In matters
+ecclesiastical, including those matrimonial, testamentary and other
+departments, which the church ever tried to bring within the operation
+of the canon law, there were various grades of appeal, ending with the
+pope. The claims of the church to engross appeals in matters trenching
+on the temporal rights of princes led to continual conflicts between
+church and state, terminated in England at the reformation by the
+suppression in 1534 of appeals to Rome, which had previously been
+discouraged by legislation of Edward III. and Richard II.
+
+In temporal, as distinct from spiritual matters, it became customary for
+ambitious sovereigns to encourage appeals from the courts of the crown
+vassals to themselves as represented by the supreme judges, and
+Charlemagne usually enjoys the credit of having set the example of this
+system of centralization by establishing _missi dominici_. It is not
+improbable that his claim was suggested or justified by the practice of
+the Roman empire, to the sovereignty whereof he claimed to be
+successor.
+
+_England._--When the royal authority in England grew strong as against
+that of the tenants _in capite_, the king's courts in England were more
+effectively organized, and their net swept wider so as to draw within
+their cognizance matters previously adjudged in courts baron or courts
+leet or in the county court, and they acquired authority to supervise
+and review the decisions of the inferior and local courts, to control
+and limit their claims to exercise jurisdiction, and to transfer causes
+from the local to the royal courts. The machinery by which this process
+was usually effected, under the common law, was not by what is now known
+as appeal, but by the process of _certiorari_ or writs of error or
+prohibition. Recourse was also had against the decisions of the royal
+courts by appeal to the great council of the king, or to parliament as a
+whole. The supremacy of the king's courts over all causes, as well
+ecclesiastical as civil, has been completely established since the reign
+of Henry VIII., and they have effectually asserted the power to regulate
+and keep within their proper jurisdiction all other tribunals within the
+realm. Since that date the organization of judicial tribunals has
+gradually been changed and improved with the object (1) of creating a
+judicial hierarchy independent of executive control; (2) of ensuring
+that all decisions on questions of law shall be co-ordinated and
+rendered systematic by correction of the errors and vagaries of
+subordinate tribunals; and (3) of securing so far as possible uniformity
+in the judicial interpretation and administration of the law, by
+creating a supreme appellate tribunal to whose decisions all other
+tribunals are bound to conform. It would be undesirable to detail at
+length the history of appellate jurisdiction in England, involving as it
+would the discussion in great detail of the history and procedure of
+English law, and it may suffice to indicate the system of appeals as at
+present organized, beginning with the lowest courts.
+
+_Justices of the Peace._--The decisions of justices of the peace sitting
+as courts of summary jurisdiction are subject to review on questions of
+law only by the High Court of Justice. This review is in a sense
+consultative, because it is usually effected by means of a case
+voluntarily stated by the justices at the request of the aggrieved
+party, in which are set forth the facts as determined by the justices,
+the questions of law raised and their decision thereon, as to the
+correctness whereof the opinion of the High Court is invited. The
+procedure is equally open in criminal and civil matters brought before
+the justices. But when the justices decline to state a case for the
+opinion of the High Court, the latter, if review seems desirable, may
+order the justices to state a case. And the High Court has also power to
+control the action of justices by prohibiting them from acting in a case
+beyond their jurisdiction, ordering them to exercise jurisdiction where
+they have improperly declined (_mandamus_), or bringing up for review
+and quashing orders or convictions which they have made in excess of
+jurisdiction, or in cases in which interested or biassed justices have
+adjudicated (_certiorari_). None of these regulative processes exactly
+corresponds to what is popularly known as an appeal, but in effect if
+not in form an appeal is thus given.
+
+There is also another form of appeal, in the fullest sense of the term,
+from the decision of justices sitting as a court of summary jurisdiction
+to the justices of the same county sitting in general or quarter
+sessions, or in the case of a borough to the recorder as judge of the
+borough court of quarter sessions. This form of appeal is in every case
+the creation of statute: and even in text-books it is hardly possible to
+find a really complete list of the matters in respect of which such
+appeal lies. But as regards criminal cases there is an approximately
+general rule, given by S 19 of the Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879, viz.
+that an appeal to quarter sessions lies from the conviction or order of
+a court of summary jurisdiction directing imprisonment without the
+option of a fine as a punishment for an offence, or for failing to do or
+to abstain from doing any act required to be done or left undone other
+than an order for the payment of money, or to find sureties or give
+security or to enter into a recognizance, or a conviction made on a plea
+of guilty or admission of the truth of the matter of complaint.
+
+As a general rule, subject to particular statutory exceptions, appeals
+of this kind are by way of rehearing, i.e. the actor or prosecutor must
+before the appellate tribunal call his witnesses and prove his case just
+as if no previous hearing had taken place before the court appealed from
+(Pritchard, _Quarter Sessions Practice_, 2nd ed., 461). The only limit
+is that the appellant must confine himself to the grounds of appeal
+stated in the notice of appeal given by him.
+
+_Justices in Quarter Sessions._--This tribunal has under the commission
+of the peace and under statute power to refer questions of difficulty
+arising before it for decision to the High Court. The old mode of
+exercising this power was by sending on to assizes indictments raising
+difficult questions which had been presented at quarter sessions. The
+High Court has _ex officio_ power to transfer such indictments where the
+nature of the case and the demands of justice call for such transfer.
+The quarter sessions had also power under statute on trying an
+indictment to refer to the court for crown cases reserved (Crown Cases
+Act 1848), abolished by the Criminal Appeal Act 1907, questions of law
+which had arisen at the trial, and in all civil cases the quarter
+sessions has power of its own volition and subject to no direct
+compulsion to consult the High Court on legal questions of difficulty
+which have arisen. Until 1894 this jurisdiction was regarded as
+consultative only. It was and is exercised by stating the facts, of
+which the court of quarter sessions is the sole judge, and indicating
+the questions of law arising on the facts, and the view of quarter
+sessions thereon, and inviting the opinion of the High Court. Under the
+Judicature Act 1894 cases stated in this way are now treated as
+"appeals" in the popular sense.
+
+_Inferior Courts of purely Civil Jurisdiction._--An appeal also lies as
+a general rule to the High Court from the judgment of a county court or
+of any inferior tribunal having civil jurisdiction.
+
+(a) County Courts. Any party to an action or matter in a county court
+who is dissatisfied with the determination or direction of the judge in
+law or equity, or upon the admission or rejection of any evidence, may
+appeal against the decision in the following cases: (1) if the amount of
+claim or counter-claim in the proceeding exceeds L20; or (2) in all
+equity matters or cases in which an injunction has been given; or (3) in
+actions to recover possession of land where questions of title are
+involved (County Courts Act 1888, S 120). In the case of a claim below
+L20 no appeal lies except by the leave of the county court. The old
+practice of appeal by way of special case as in appeals from justices
+has been abolished, and the present procedure is by notice of motion
+(R.S.C. O. LIX. rr. 10-18).
+
+These appeals are heard in the king's bench division, except in the case
+of appeals from judgments of a county court sitting in the exercise of
+admiralty jurisdiction, which are heard by two or more judges sitting in
+the probate, divorce and admiralty division. The chancery division has
+never sat to hear "appeals" from a county court exercising equity
+jurisdiction; but at times, by _prohibition_ or _certiorari_, has, in
+effect, reviewed or restrained excess of jurisdiction by county courts
+in equity matters.
+
+The decision of the High Court on county court appeals is final unless
+an appeal to the court of appeal is brought by leave of that court or of
+the High Court (Judicature Act 1894, S 1, sub. sect. 5; Judicature Act
+1873, S 45).
+
+(b) Other inferior courts of civil jurisdiction. Appeals from the local
+courts of record which still survive in certain cities, towns and
+districts are in a somewhat anomalous position. The general rule is
+that, unless a statute regulates such appeal, it may be brought in the
+king's bench division of the High Court on notice of motion in any case
+in which, before the Judicature Acts, the court of king's bench could
+have reviewed the decision of the inferior court by writ of error. The
+history of this question is dealt with in _Darlow v. Shuttleworth_,
+1902, 1 K.B. 721.
+
+In the case of the mayor's court of London, under the local and general
+statutes regulating that court, the appeal is usually to the king's
+bench division, but where there is what is termed "error" on the face of
+the proceedings of the mayor's court, the appeal lies direct to the
+court of appeal as successor of the court of exchequer chamber. Appeals
+from the Liverpool court of passage and from the chancery courts of the
+duchies of Lancaster and Durham lie by statute direct to the court of
+appeal.
+
+_High Court of Justice._--Until the Supreme Court of Judicature Acts of
+1873 and 1875 came into operation, the superior courts in England were
+imperfectly co-ordinated both as to jurisdiction and appeals. The effect
+of these acts was to create a Supreme Court of Judicature divided into
+two main branches, the High Court of Justice, which is an appellate
+court with respect to the inferior courts already mentioned, and to
+certain other special courts and persons; and the court of appeal, which
+is mainly concerned with appeals from the High Court of Justice.
+
+The High Court of Justice acts as an appellate court or court of
+consultation with reference to courts of summary jurisdiction or quarter
+sessions and to county courts and other inferior courts of civil
+jurisdiction in the cases already indicated. The three divisions of the
+court are somewhat differently placed with reference to appeals.
+
+In the chancery division (made up, in 1908, of six single judge courts)
+no appeals are heard except from subordinate officials (masters) of the
+court, or an occasional interference by _certiorari_ or _prohibition_
+with a county court.
+
+In the probate, divorce and admiralty division, besides the supervision
+which may be exercised by a single judge over the subordinate officers
+of the court (registrars), divisional courts (of two judges) hear
+appeals from decisions of the county court in admiralty causes, and
+appeals from justices in cases between husband and wife under the
+Summary Jurisdiction (Married Women) Act 1895, as amended by the
+Licensing Act 1902. In the first of these cases the appeal is on law
+only as in the case of other county court appeals; in the second, the
+procedure is by rehearing, or reconsideration of the facts as minuted in
+the court appealed from, and of the law there applied to these facts.
+
+The bulk of the appellate work of the High Court is conducted in the
+king's bench division--which, as successor of the old court of king's
+bench in the duties of _custos morum_ of the realm, still retains
+supervisory power over all inferior courts in all cases in which that
+supervision has not been transferred to the other divisions of the High
+Court or to the court of appeal, or to the court of criminal appeal.
+
+The king's bench division exercises appellate jurisdiction in the
+following cases.
+
+With respect to decisions of justices of the peace sitting at quarter
+sessions, or as a court of summary jurisdiction, except in the case
+above stated, the subject matter of appeal is for the most part of a
+criminal or quasi-criminal character, the civil jurisdiction of justices
+being comparatively limited. The appeal in such cases is as to matters
+of law only, the justices' decision on facts not being subject to
+review.
+
+In the case of the courts above named, the appeal is brought by writ of
+_certiorari_, where the jurisdiction of quarter sessions to give the
+judgment challenged is denied _in toto_, or in some cases by writ of
+_habeas corpus_, where the appellant is in custody under an order of the
+court appealed from (Judicature Act 1894, S 2). The best example of this
+is the right of a fugitive criminal committed for extradition to
+challenge the legality of the decision of the committing magistrate by
+writ of _habeas corpus_. Save in cases of want of jurisdiction or
+refusal to exercise it, no appeal lies from quarter sessions except by
+consent of the court appealed from, which states the facts as
+ascertained by the inferior court, and invites the review of the
+superior court upon the questions of law raised by the facts as found.
+
+Decisions of justices sitting in the exercise of summary jurisdiction
+are subject to review by a special case in which the justices state the
+facts found by them and their decision on the points of law, and invite
+the review of the appellate court on these grounds. Such cases for
+appeal are usually stated by consent of the justices, but in the event
+of their refusal the appellate court may order that a case shall be
+stated.
+
+Decisions of justices in the exercise of summary jurisdiction may also
+be challenged by writ of _certiorari_ as having been wholly outside
+their jurisdiction; and in such proceeding the appellate tribunal may
+review the evidence taken below so far as to ascertain whether the
+justices have by an erroneous finding of fact enabled themselves to
+assume a jurisdiction which upon the true facts they did not possess.
+
+Where the decision appealed from is in a criminal cause or matter the
+decision of the High Court is final. Where it is in a civil matter a
+further appeal also lies to the court of appeal by leave of the High
+Court or of the court of appeal (Judicature Act 1873, S 45).
+
+Appeals in criminal cases tried on indictment, criminal information or
+coroner's inquisition, stand on a different footing from other appeals.
+
+For many years the question of criminal appeal in general had been a
+matter of great controversy. As early as 1844 a bill had been
+unsuccessfully introduced for the purpose of establishing appeal in
+criminal cases, and from that time up to 1906 nearly thirty bills were
+brought forward with the same object, but none succeeded in passing. In
+1892 the question was referred to the council of judges and favourably
+reported upon by them. It may be remarked that England was practically
+the only civilized country in which there was no appeal in criminal
+cases. It is true there was an appeal on questions of law arising at the
+trial. But the procedure was intricate and technical, being either (1)
+by writ of error, issued by the consent of the attorney-general
+(expressed by his _fiat_), to review errors of law appearing in the
+record of the trial, or (2) by special case, stated by the judge
+presiding at the trial, with respect to a question of law raised at the
+trial. These appeals were heard by the king's bench division. Meanwhile
+there had been a considerable development of public opinion in favour of
+the establishment of criminal appeal, a development undoubtedly hastened
+by the report of a committee of inquiry in the case of Adolf Beck
+(1904), showing clearly that the home office was not a satisfactory
+tribunal of final appeal. In 1906 the lord chancellor (Lord Loreburn)
+introduced another criminal appeal bill, which passed the House of
+Lords, but was dropped in the House of Commons after a first reading.
+The next year the act (Criminal Appeal Act 1907), which was ultimately
+carried, was introduced into the House of Commons. By this act a court
+is established consisting of the lord chief justice and eight judges of
+the king's bench division, the jurisdiction of the court for crown cases
+reserved being transferred to the new court. The court to be duly
+constituted must consist of not less than three judges and of an uneven
+number of judges. The court may sit in two or more divisions if the lord
+chief justice so directs. Its sittings are held in London unless special
+directions are given by the lord chief justice that it shall sit at some
+other place. The opinion of the majority of those hearing the case
+determines any question before the court, and judgment is pronounced by
+the president (who is the lord chief justice or senior member present),
+unless in questions of law, when, if it is convenient that separate
+judgments should be pronounced by the members of the court, they may be
+so pronounced. The judgment of the court of criminal appeal is final,
+except where the decision involves a point of law of exceptional public
+importance, and a certificate must be obtained from the attorney-general
+to that effect. The court of criminal appeal is a superior court of
+record. An appeal may be made either against conviction or against
+sentence. A person convicted on indictment may appeal either on a
+question of law alone or of fact alone, or on a question of mixed law
+and fact. On a point of law a prisoner has an unqualified right of
+appeal, on a question of fact or of mixed law and fact there is a right
+of appeal only if leave be obtained from the court of criminal appeal or
+a certificate be granted by the judge who tried the prisoner that it is
+a fit case for appeal. The court is given a wide discretion as to
+whether a conviction may be sustained or set aside. The court may allow
+the appeal if they think that the verdict of the jury should be set
+aside because it is unreasonable, or because it cannot be supported
+having regard to the evidence, or that the judgment should be set aside
+on the ground of a wrong decision on any point of law, or that on any
+ground there was a miscarriage of justice. Power is given to the court
+to dismiss the appeal if they consider that no substantial miscarriage
+of justice has occurred, even though they are of opinion that the point
+raised in the appeal might be decided in favour of the appellant. The
+sentence passed at the trial may be quashed by the appeal court and such
+other sentence (whether more or less severe) warranted in law by the
+verdict substituted. Notice of appeal or notice of application for leave
+to appeal must be given within ten days of the date of conviction; where
+a conviction involves sentence of death or corporal punishment the
+sentence must not be executed until after the expiration of ten days,
+and, if notice of appeal is given, not until after the determination of
+the appeal or the final dismissal of the application for leave to
+appeal. The act gives the court power to order any witnesses who would
+have been compellable witnesses at the trial to attend and be examined
+before the court, and to receive the evidence, if tendered, of any
+witness who is a competent but not compellable witness. If any question
+arises on the appeal involving prolonged examination of documents or
+accounts or any scientific or local investigation, which the court
+thinks cannot be conveniently conducted before it, the matter may be
+referred to a special commissioner appointed by the court, and the court
+may act on the report of that commissioner if it thinks fit. An
+appellant is given the right to be present on the hearing of his appeal,
+if he desires it, except where the appeal is on some ground involving a
+question of law alone, but rules of court may provide for his presence
+in such a case, or the court may give him leave. The act requires
+shorthand notes to be taken of the proceedings at the trial of any
+person, who, if convicted, would have a right to appeal under the act.
+Nothing in the act affects the prerogative of mercy, and the home
+secretary may, if he thinks fit, at any time refer a case to the court
+of criminal appeal.
+
+_The Court of Appeal._--The court of appeal, constituted under the
+Judicature Acts, is one of the two permanent divisions of the Supreme
+Court of Judicature. As now constituted the court consists of _ex
+officio_ members and five ordinary members, styled lords justices of
+appeal. The _ex officio_ members are the lord chancellor, every person
+who has held that office, the lord chief justice, the master of the
+rolls, and the president of the probate, &c., division.
+
+The ordinary business of the court is carried on by the lords justices
+under the presidency of the master of the rolls, who in 1881 ceased to
+be a judge of the High Court (Judicature Act 1881, S 2). The court
+usually sits in two divisions of three judges, but on occasion a third
+court can be formed, with the assistance of the other _ex officio_
+judges, in the absence of the ordinary judges from illness or public
+engagements, or to deal with arrears of business. The quorum for final
+appeals is three, for interlocutory appeals two judges.
+
+The court of appeal has succeeded to the appellate authority exercised
+(1) in the case of equity and bankruptcy matters by the lord chancellor
+and the lords justices of appeal in chancery (Judicature Act 1873, S
+18); (2) in the case of common law matters, by the court of exchequer
+chamber, as a court of error, and the superior courts of common law
+sitting to review the decisions of single judges of these courts sitting
+with or without a jury at first instance in civil actions; (3) in the
+case of divorce or probate causes by the full court of divorce
+(Judicature Act 1881, S 9); (4) in the case of admiralty causes by the
+king in council or the judicial committee of the privy council; (5) in
+the case of applications for new trials in jury actions by the king's
+bench division (Judicature Act 1890, S 1).
+
+The court never had jurisdiction to hear an appeal in any criminal cause
+or matter, but was able to review by writ of error decisions of the
+king's bench division in such cases, unless the court for crown cases
+reserved had dealt with the question under the Crown Cases Act 1848.
+This procedure has been abolished by the Criminal Appeal Act 1907.
+Instances of procedure by writ of error were rare. Those best worth
+notice are the cases of the Tichborne claimant on his conviction of
+perjury, and the case of C. Bradlaugh on the sufficiency of the
+indictment against him for publishing the _Fruits of Philosophy_.
+
+The appellate jurisdiction of the court as now exercised entitles the
+court to hear and determine (1) appeals from every judgment or decree of
+every division of the High Court in all civil cases in which such
+judgment is not declared final by statute; (2) applications for a new
+trial in civil cases tried in the king's bench division by judge and
+jury which, until 1890, were dealt with by two or more judges in that
+division; (3) appeals in matters of civil practice and procedure from
+decisions of a single judge in chambers, which, until 1894, were dealt
+with in a divisional court or by a judge in open court; (4) appeals from
+the chancery courts of Durham (Palatine Court of Durham Act 1889) and
+Lancaster (act of 1890, c. 23) and the Liverpool court of passage
+(_Anderson v. Dean_, 1894, 2 Q.B. 222), and on error in a record of the
+mayor's court of London (_Le Blanche_ v. _Heaton Telegram Co._, 1876, 1
+Ex.D. 408); and from county courts under the Agricultural Holdings Acts
+and Workmen's Compensation Acts; (5) appeals on questions of law from
+decisions of the railway commissioners in England (Railway and Canal
+Traffic Act 1888).
+
+The court of appeal also exercises the lunacy jurisdiction of the lord
+chancellor, but in regard to this the jurisdiction of the court is for
+the most part original and not appellate.
+
+The jurisdiction of the court of appeal is excluded or limited in the
+following cases:--(1) judgments of the High Court--(a) where its
+jurisdiction is consultative only; (b) where there is an appeal to the
+High Court from an inferior court of civil jurisdiction; (c) where there
+is an appeal to the High Court from any court of person, unless in cases
+(b) and (c) leave be obtained of the court by which the order is made,
+or of the court of appeal; (2) orders of the High Court in registration
+and election cases except with the like leave; (3) orders made by
+consent of parties, or as to costs only which by law are left to the
+discretion of the court; (4) certain interlocutory orders mentioned in S
+1 of the Supreme Court of Judicature (Procedure) Act 1894, except by
+leave of the judge appealed from or of the court of appeal (5) orders of
+the admiralty division in cases of prize, the appeal from which lies to
+His Majesty in Council; (6) where the decision of any court whose
+jurisdiction was transferred to the High Court is declared by statute to
+be final; (7) matters which from their nature were not appealable to any
+court before the Judicature Acts, or in which the court of appeal has no
+means of enforcing or executing its judgment. For example, it was held
+in the House of Lords, in _Cox_ v. _Hakes_, 1890, 15 A.C. 506, that no
+appeal lies from the order of a judge discharging a prisoner under a
+writ of _habeas corpus_. "If," said Lord Herschell, "the contention of
+the respondent is to prevail, the statute has effected a grave
+constitutional change"; and later, "if" the High Court "has inherited
+the combined powers of the courts whose functions were transferred to
+it, but none of them had any jurisdiction or authority to review a
+discharge by a competent court under a writ of _habeas corpus_, or to
+enforce the arrest of one thus freed from custody ... it seems to me to
+follow, that however wrong the court of appeal might think a discharge
+to have been, it would have been powerless to order a rearrest, or at
+least to enforce such an order."
+
+The procedure of the court of appeal is regulated by the rules of the
+Supreme Court. A distinction is drawn between appeals from a final
+judgment or order (which, unless the parties consent to a smaller
+quorum, must be heard by three judges) and an appeal from an
+interlocutory order (which may be determined by two judges of the court
+of appeal).
+
+In the case of appeals from a final or interlocutory "judgment," or from
+an order, including applications for a new trial, the appeal must be
+brought within three months from the time when the judgment or order is
+signed, entered or otherwise perfected, or in the case of refusal of an
+application from the date of refusal. The appeal is by notice of motion,
+which except in cases of application for a new trial, need not state
+the grounds of appeal. Fourteen clear days' notice of the motion must be
+given by the appellant to the other party, the respondent.
+
+In the case of appeals from an interlocutory order, or from a final
+order, or from an order made in any matter which is not an action, or
+from an order made in chambers, the appeal must be brought within
+fourteen days by motion, of which four clear days' notice must be given
+by the appellant to all parties directly affected by the appeal.
+Controversies have arisen as to the meaning of the term "interlocutory,"
+which (in the absence of any authoritative definition) the court of
+appeal settles as they arise. The test most generally accepted is that a
+judgment or order is final if, as made, it finally disposes of the
+rights of the parties in a manner equally conclusive between them. The
+court may by special leave allow appeals of either class to be brought
+after the time above limited. The respondent may by proper notice bring
+a cross appeal against any portion of the judgment or order made below
+with which he is dissatisfied. The court has power to order the
+appellant to find security for the costs of an appeal, if special
+circumstances, such as insolvency or poverty or foreign domicile or the
+like, make the giving of security desirable. The court of appeal
+"rehears" the case. Under ordinary circumstances it does not permit a
+new case to be set up inconsistent with the case as presented below; and
+it is content with the judges' notes, or a transcript of the evidence
+given below, and with a note or transcript of the judgment appealed
+from, but has power on special grounds to receive fresh evidence either
+_viva voce_ or on affidavit. The court may call in for its assistance
+assessors who are experts on the matters of fact or science involved in
+the appeal, and usually does so in cases arising out of collisions at
+sea.
+
+The court of appeal may make any order which it deems just as to the
+costs of the whole or any part of an appeal, except possibly in the case
+of certain appeals in matters on the crown side of the High Court, as to
+which some doubt still exists. In practice the costs follow the event,
+unless the court in a particular case makes an order to the contrary.
+
+A decision of the court of appeal is final in appeals from the High
+Court in bankruptcy, unless leave be given to appeal to the House of
+Lords (S 104, Bankruptcy Act 1883), and in divorce appeals, except where
+the decision either is upon the grant or refusal of a decree for
+dissolution or nullity of marriage, or for a declaration of legitimacy,
+or is upon any question of law on which the court gives leave to appeal
+(Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1881, S 9); but no further appeal to
+the House of Lords lies, even with leave of the court of appeal, on
+appeals from the High Court sitting as a court of appeal from county
+courts in bankruptcy. With these exceptions there is now a right of
+appeal from every order of the court of appeal to the House of Lords.
+
+_The House of Lords._--The House of Lords has for centuries been the
+court of last resort, and is still the final court of appeal from the
+chief courts in the United Kingdom. The origin of the appellate
+jurisdiction of the House of Lords was undoubtedly of that partly feudal
+and partly popular character already alluded to, which made the suitor
+seek from the high court of parliament the justice denied elsewhere in
+the baronial courts or by the king's judges. The lords exercised the
+mixed function of jurymen and judges, and, as in judgments on
+impeachment, might be influenced by private or party considerations,
+debating and dividing on the question before the House. A revolution was
+silently accomplished, however, by which the function of reviewing the
+decisions of the courts fell entirely to the lawyers raised to the
+peerage, while the unprofessional lords only attended to give the
+sanction of a quorum to the proceedings, and the House has always had
+the right to invoke the assistance of the judges of the superior courts
+to advise on the questions of law raised by an appeal. The letters and
+memoirs, so late as Queen Anne's reign, show that party or personal
+influence and persuasion were employed to procure votes on appeals, as
+they have been in later times on railway or other local bills. The last
+instance probably in which a strong division of opinion was manifested
+among the unprofessional lords was the celebrated Douglas cause in 1769,
+when the House was addressed by the dukes of Newcastle and Bedford, but
+was led by the authoritative opinion of Lord Mansfield on the effect of
+the evidence--an opinion which was treated rather as that of a political
+partisan than of a judge. The case of Daniel O'Connell and others,
+brought up on writ of error from the queen's bench in Ireland in 1844,
+may be said to have finally established the precedent that the judgments
+of the House of Lords were to be given solely by the law lords. On that
+occasion there was a difference of opinion among the law lords
+themselves. The judgment of the majority of the House was strongly
+against the political feeling of the government and of the peers as a
+body, while the law lords who carried the decision had been appointed by
+previous governments opposed in politics to the existing cabinet. But
+all these temptations to a party vote by the unprofessional members were
+resisted.
+
+By S 20 of the act of 1873, the appellate jurisdiction of the House of
+Lords (so far as it affects England) was abolished, but this section was
+repealed by the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876. Under that act and an
+amending act of 1887, the appellate business of the House of Lords is
+conducted solely by the law lords, though lay peers may still sit
+(_Bradlaugh_ v. _Clarke_, 1882, 8 App. Cas. 354). No appeal may be heard
+or determined except in the presence of not less than three of the
+following persons:--(1) the lord chancellor; (2) the lords of appeal,
+four of whom are appointed under the act from among persons who hold, or
+have held, high judicial office, or, at the date of appointment, have
+been in practice for not less than fifteen years as barristers in
+England or Ireland, or as advocates in Scotland; (3) such peers of
+parliament as hold, or have held, high judicial office. By "high
+judicial office" is meant the office of lord chancellor of Great Britain
+or Ireland, lord of appeal in ordinary, paid judge of the judicial
+committee or member of that committee, or judge of one of the superior
+courts of Great Britain or Ireland.
+
+An appeal lies to the House of Lords (1) from any order or judgment of
+the court of appeal in England except as above stated; (2) from a
+judgment or order of any court in Scotland or Ireland from which error
+or an appeal to the House of Lords lay by common law or statute
+immediately before the 1st of November 1876. No appeals are heard from
+the decision of courts in criminal cases. The House of Lords has an
+indirect power by standing orders to admit appeals from Scotland or
+Ireland which under former law or practice could not be admitted
+(Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, S 12). The procedure on appeals is
+regulated by standing orders of the House. The proceedings are commenced
+by petition of appeal, which must be lodged with the clerk of the
+parliaments within one year from the date of the last judgment it
+appealed from. Security for costs (L200) must be given by bond or
+lodgment of the money, unless dispensed with by the House on the ground
+of poverty (act of 1893). Each party lodges a printed case signed and
+certified by counsel, containing a resume of the matters to be discussed
+and of the contentions for or against the allowance of the appeal. The
+hearing is before three or more law lords, who may call in nautical
+assessors in admiralty cases (acts of 1893 and 1894). It is not public
+in the full sense of the term, as persons not concerned in the appeal
+can attend only by consent of the House. The House pronounces the
+judgment which in the opinion of the majority of the law lords should
+have been pronounced below, and has jurisdiction in the case of all
+appeals to give or refuse costs to the successful party. The costs of
+the appeal if given are taxed by the officers of the House. The
+jurisdiction as to costs does not directly arise under any statute (see
+_West Ham Guardians_ v. _Bethnal Green Churchwardens_, 1896, A.C. 477).
+
+_Appeals to the King in Council._--The decisions of ecclesiastical
+courts when acting within the limits of their jurisdiction, and the
+decisions of courts in the king's dominions outside the United Kingdom,
+and of courts in foreign countries set up under the Foreign Jurisdiction
+Acts, cannot be dealt with by the House of Lords or any of the ordinary
+tribunals of any part of the United Kingdom. The power once claimed by
+the court of king's bench in England to control the courts of Ireland
+has lapsed, and its power to intervene in colonial cases is limited to
+the grant of the writ of _habeas corpus_ to a possession in which no
+court exists having power to issue that writ or one of like effect
+(Habeas Corpus Act 1862). As regards all British possessions, the appeal
+to the king in council is in its origin and nature like that of the
+provincials unto Caesar, and flows from the royal prerogative to admit
+appeals. With the growth of the British empire it has been found
+necessary to create a comparatively constant and stable tribunal to
+advise the king in the exercise of this prerogative. For this purpose
+the judicial committee of the privy council was created in 1833. In
+1851, and again in 1870, it was reorganized, and by acts of 1876, 1887
+and 1898 it received its present form. The committee consists of the
+president of the council, and of the following persons, if privy
+councillors--the lord chancellor and ex-chancellors of Great Britain and
+of Ireland, the four lords of appeal in ordinary, the lords justices of
+appeal in England or retired lords justices of appeal in England, and
+persons who hold or have held the office (a) of judge of the High Court
+of Justice or the court of appeal in England or Ireland, or of the court
+of session in Scotland; (b) any person who is or has been chief justice
+or a judge of the Supreme Court of Canada or of a superior court of any
+province of Canada, of any of the Australian states (except Fiji and
+Papua), or of New Zealand or the Cape of Good Hope or Natal. The number
+of persons of this class who may be members at once is limited to five
+(1895, c. 44); (c) provision is also made for the payment of two privy
+councillors who have been judges in India who attend the privy council.
+
+Numerous as are the members of the committee, the quorum is three. One
+or more of the lords of appeal in ordinary usually attend at every
+hearing, but the composition of the committee is very fluctuating.
+Appeals from the British dominions abroad lie in criminal as well as
+civil matters. The right of appeal is regulated as to most possessions
+by order in council, and in some cases is limited by imperial or
+colonial statute. Appeals are on fact as well as on law, but the
+committee rarely if ever disturbs the concurrent judgments on facts of
+two colonial courts. In the case of admiralty appeals from colonial or
+consular courts, naval assessors may be called in. The committee also
+hears (with the aid of ecclesiastical assessors) appeals from
+ecclesiastical courts. The judgment of the committee is in the form of a
+report and advice to the king, which is read by one of the members
+sitting, and no indication is given as to whether the members present
+are unanimous. Effect is given to the advice by orders in council
+dismissing or allowing the appeal, and giving direction as to the
+payment of costs and as to the further proceedings to be taken in the
+colonial courts.
+
+The procedure of the committee is on the same lines as that on appeals
+to the House of Lords; no well-arranged code of practice existed however
+up to the end of 1908, and new rules were then being proposed on the
+subject. The appeal is commenced by a petition of appeal, and by the
+giving of security for costs. In colonial appeals printed cases are
+lodged containing a summary of the contentions of the parties, and with
+this a printed copy of the record of the proceedings and documents used
+in the courts appealed from. The hearing is in the privy council chamber
+and is not public. When an appeal is called on, the counsel and parties
+are summoned into the chamber, and when the arguments are concluded they
+are requested to retire. The appeals to the king in council from
+colonial states having a federal constitution, like Canada and
+Australia, stand in an exceptional position. The act creating the
+Supreme Court of Canada purports to make the decision of that court
+final. But it is still the practice to admit by special leave a
+prerogative appeal from the court, and to entertain appeals from courts
+of the provinces of Canada direct to the king in council, without
+requiring them to go to the Supreme Court. The constitution of the
+Australian Commonwealth contemplates (S 73) the possibility of
+restricting appeals to the king in council from the supreme courts of
+Australia, and sec. 74 forbids appeals to the king in council except by
+leave of the High Court of Australia from decision of that court on any
+question however arising as to the limits _inter se_ of the
+constitutional powers of the commonwealth and those of any state or
+states, or as to the limits _inter se_ of the constitutional powers of
+any two or more states. The exact effect of these enactments and of
+Australian legislation under S 73 is a matter of controversy.
+
+_Scotland._--In Scotland the ordinary appellate tribunal for decisions
+of inferior courts and of the lords ordinary is the court of session,
+which for appellate purposes sits in two divisions. Appeals from
+inferior tribunals in criminal cases go before the judges of the court
+of session sitting in the High Court of Justiciary. The court of session
+was in its original constitution a committee of parliament for the
+performance of its judicial functions, and an appeal to parliament was
+consequently anomalous. In the reign of Charles II., however, the courts
+grew so intolerably corrupt that a determined effort was made to have
+their judgments overturned, by an appeal which was strictly of the old
+character of a cry for protection against flagrant injustice. It was
+called a "protest for remeid of law," and was inserted as one of the
+national claims in the Petition of Right at the revolution. The treaty
+of union is silent as to appeals, though definitely excluding the right
+of English courts to interfere with Scottish courts or cases. The House
+of Lords has since the Union acted without challenge as the final
+appellate tribunal for Scotland in civil causes; but has always declined
+jurisdiction in Scottish criminal cases.
+
+_Ireland._--The Supreme Court of Judicature (Ireland) Acts have
+remodelled the courts and appellate system of Ireland on the same lines
+as those of England. The High Court of Justice in Ireland now consists
+of two divisions only, the chancery division, which has little or no
+appellate functions, and the king's bench division, which has for
+Ireland substantially the same power of reviewing and correcting the
+decisions of inferior courts as has the corresponding court in England.
+To this there is one exception, that appeals from a county court in
+Ireland may be heard on circuit by a single judge of assize. In Ireland
+there is also a court of appeal, created in 1877, whose jurisdiction and
+procedure follow the same lines as that of the English court of appeal.
+
+_France._--The court of last resort in France for all cases, whether
+civil or criminal (_en matiere criminelle, correctionnelle et de
+police_), is the _cour de cassation_, which sits in Paris. It is a court
+of error for the review of all judgments of tribunals of last resort
+(except _juges de paix_ in certain cases), and for the transfer of
+causes from one court to another when justice so demands, and to
+determine conflicts of jurisdiction (Law 1 Dec. 1790). Ordinarily it is
+confined to errors of law and procedure, but where evidence not
+available below is brought before the court, it may send the case back
+for retrial or give the appropriate final judgment, as in the case of
+Dreyfus (1906). It also hears appeals from courts martial.
+
+Next to the _cour de cassation_ are the courts of appeal, which have
+jurisdiction to hear appeals (1) in civil matters from courts of first
+instance, _juges de paix_, and where the amount in dispute exceeds L60
+from commercial courts, _tribunaux de commerce_ (Civil Proc. Code, arts.
+443-475); (2) in criminal matters from _tribunaux correctionnels_ (Com.
+Proc. Code, arts. 202-235). The appeal is both on fact and on law, and
+applies to interlocutory or preparatory as well as to final judgments.
+
+_Spain._--In Spain the jurisdiction and procedure with reference to
+appeals is on the same lines as in France. As regards civil matters it
+is regulated by title 21 of the Civil Procedure Code. The appeal to the
+supreme court is for the most part on questions of law (_por infraccion
+de ley o de doctrina_); but the court has also power to review judgments
+on materials not available at the first hearing (arts. 1796, 1801).
+
+_British India._--In British India complete and systematic provision is
+made for appeals both in civil and in criminal cases by the Procedure
+Codes (Civil of 1882, with subsequent amendments, and Criminal of 1898),
+and also to some extent by the charters of the high courts of Calcutta,
+Bombay and Madras (see Ilbert, _Government of India_, Oxford, 1898, p.
+137). In addition, the decisions of subordinate tribunals may be revised
+by a superior tribunal _proprio motu_, or reviewed in a proper case by
+the tribunal which has given them; and provision is made for the
+consultation of a superior by an inferior tribunal in cases of legal
+difficulty. The policy of admitting so many appeals has been criticized.
+But with an enormous population which has no representative institutions
+it has been deemed wise to provide ample means of correcting judicial
+errors at the instance not only of the aggrieved person but also at the
+instance of the supervising judicial authorities, as a means of ensuring
+regularity and propriety in the conduct of judicial business by
+subordinate judges in out-of-the-way districts.
+
+_Civil Appeals._--(1) Except where otherwise expressly provided by the
+Civil Procedure Code, or by any other law for the time being in force,
+an appeal lies from the whole or part of any decree, whether made _ex
+parte_ or _inter partes_, of a court exercising original jurisdiction
+(Civil Procedure Code, S 540). By "decree" is meant the final expression
+of an adjudication upon a right claimed or defence set up in a civil
+court, when such adjudication, so far as regards the court expressing
+it, decides the suit (S 2). The appeal is both on facts and on law. The
+procedure on the appeal is prescribed by c. 41 of the Civil Procedure
+Code, and the directions of the code deal even with the language of the
+judgment on appeal and the matters to be stated therein. (2) Decrees
+passed on an appeal to any court in India subordinate to a High Court
+are as a general rule subject to appeal to the High Court on the grounds
+(a) that they are contrary to a specified law, or usage having the force
+of law; (b) that they have failed to determine some material issue of
+law, or usage having the force of law; (c) of substantial error or
+defect in procedure prescribed by the code or other law which might
+possibly have produced error or defect in the decision of the case upon
+the merits (S 584). The procedure on these appeals is regulated by c. 42
+of the Civil Procedure Code. (3) Appeals from orders which do not fall
+within the definition of decrees are allowed in the cases specified in S
+588 of the code. The procedure with respect to these appeals is on the
+same lines as that on appeals against decrees (S 590). Provision is made
+(by c. 44) for allowing appeals _in forma pauperis_ after certain
+preliminary inquiries. In the High Courts appeals lie from the decision
+of one judge to two or more judges of the High Court, whose decision has
+effect as a judgment of the full court. Appeals, in civil cases, from
+the courts of India to the king in council are regulated by c. 45 of the
+Civil Procedure Code. The appealable amount is for most cases Rs. 10,000
+or a claim or question as to property of like amount.
+
+Besides the provisions stated as to appeals, Indian courts have power in
+certain contingencies to review their own decisions (S 623). An inferior
+court may also refer cases of difficulty to the High Court on a
+statement of the facts as found in the referring court and of the
+opinion thereon of that Court (SS 617-620); and in cases in which no
+appeal lies to the High Court, that court may call for the record of any
+case in which the court below appears to have acted without jurisdiction
+or failed to exercise its jurisdiction, or to have exercised its
+jurisdiction illegally or with material illegality (S 622).
+
+_Criminal Matters._--Criminal jurisdiction in India is exercised by
+magistrates of the first, second and third class, by sessions courts,
+and the high or chief courts of the presidencies or provinces (Criminal
+Procedure Code of 1898). The higher judges in a district have the power
+of revising those decisions which are not absolutely summary of the
+judges of the classes below them in the same district; i.e. the sessions
+judge can revise the decisions of a first-class magistrate, and the High
+Court those of a sessions judge (S 435). Inferior tribunals can also
+refer questions of law to the High Court (SS 432, 433); and where a
+sentence of death is passed, or a sessions judge differs from the jury
+(S 307), the matter must be referred to the High Court. On matters of
+reference or revision the parties have no right to be heard.
+
+Provision is also made for appeals by c. 31 of the Code. Appeals from
+second- or third-class magistrates are dealt with by the district
+(first-class) magistrate (S 407). Persons convicted on trial by
+assistant sessions judges or first-class magistrates, except in cases
+where the punishment is very small, have an appeal to the sessions judge
+(SS 408, 413). A person convicted on trial by the sessions judge has an
+appeal to the High Court (S 410), but where he has pleaded guilty the
+only point on which appeal is open is the legality or extent of sentence
+(S 412). Special provision is made as to appeals by persons born in
+Europe (whether British subjects or not) and Americans (SS 408, 415, and
+c. 33).
+
+In criminal cases there is a right of appeal to the king in council in
+certain cases provided for by the charters of the chartered high courts
+(see Ilbert, _Government of India_, Oxford, 1898, p. 137).
+
+An appeal also lies in certain cases from the courts of British officers
+in feudatory states of India to a high court in India, and from the
+courts of Aden and Zanzibar and British East Africa to the High Court of
+Bombay. Appeals do not lie from the courts of native states to British
+courts in India, though in some cases there is an appeal of a political
+rather than judicial nature from the judicial tribunals of feudatory
+states; e.g. in the case of Kathiawar (_Hemchand Derchand_ v. _Azam
+Sakarlal_; 1906. L.R. A.C. 212).
+
+_Canada._--In Canada each province has the regulation of its own courts
+of justice. In Ontario the judiciary are organized, under the Provincial
+Judicature Acts, in much the same manner as in England; and the review
+of decisions of inferior courts (by appeal or other proceedings based on
+English practice) is in the hands of the High Court of Justice, subject
+to appeal to the provincial court of appeal. In Quebec the highest court
+(king's bench), besides its original jurisdiction, has appellate
+jurisdiction over the superior court (see Quebec Civil Procedure Code,
+art. 1114 _et seq_.). The jurisdiction is exercised by writ of error or
+by appeal, according to the nature of the decision appealed from. The
+judges of the superior court have also, under art. 494, power to review
+before three judges decisions of a judge of that court or of a circuit
+court (arts. 494-504). Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Manitoba and British
+Columbia have supreme courts with appellate authority over decisions of
+single judges of the court and over inferior tribunals in the province.
+Appeals lie from the highest courts of each province, in civil matters,
+to the Supreme Court of Canada, or to the king in council in cases
+falling within the orders in council applying to each province, but in
+criminal matters to the king in council. From the Supreme Court of
+Canada no appeal lies as of right to the king in council (Dominion Act
+1875, 38 Vic. c. 11, S 47), and the royal prerogative of granting
+special leave to appeal is sparingly exercised. The principles on which
+the judicial committee acts in advising for or against the grant of
+special leave in civil case& are stated in _Daily Telegraph Newspaper
+Co._ v. _M'Laughlin_, 1904, L.R. A.C. 776. It is, however, as before,
+quite common for appeals to be brought direct to the privy council from
+the provincial courts without resort to the Dominion court (see Wheeler,
+_Privy Council Law_, p. 955).
+
+_Australia._--Each of the states of the Australian Commonwealth has its
+own supreme court. The Commonwealth parliament constituted in 1903 a
+High Court for Australia, which, besides its original federal
+jurisdiction, is also a court of appeal from the supreme courts of the
+constitutional states, or from any state court from which an appeal lay
+to the king in council at the establishment of the Commonwealth. The
+jurisdiction of the court is defined by the Judiciary Act of 1903, by
+which it is created. The right of appeal is given both as to criminal
+and civil matters.
+
+_South Africa._--In Cape Colony and Natal the appellate courts are the
+supreme courts, subject to further appeal in certain cases to the king
+in council. The superior courts of Cape Colony are empowered to review
+the proceedings of all inferior courts in the colony and its
+dependencies in cases where no appeal lies. There was for a time an
+appeal from the High Court of Orange River Colony to the supreme court
+of the Transvaal, and from that court (whether acting for its own colony
+or on appeal from the Orange Colony), an appeal to the king in council.
+In other colonies the provisions as to appeal follow more or less
+closely the lines of English law and procedure as to appeals, and in all
+cases the ultimate appeal is to the king in council.
+
+_United States._--In the American courts the term "appeal" covers (1) a
+removal of a cause to a higher court for retrial on all the questions of
+law or fact involved, or (2) taking up points of law only by proceedings
+in error, for revision by a higher court. Decrees in admiralty,
+bankruptcy and equity, in the federal courts, are the subjects of an
+appeal; judgments in actions at law, of a writ of error. On an equity
+appeal the evidence taken at the original hearing is reported at length
+to the appellate court, and it has the right to review the conclusions
+of fact reached by the court below and come to different ones. This,
+however, is seldom done, the appeal being almost always decided on
+points of law based upon the conclusions of fact reached in the original
+hearing. In admiralty appeals the conclusions of fact reached by the
+trial court are specially set forth, and are final.
+
+"Appeal" in many of the states is the general term for reviewing any
+judgment of an inferior court on assignments of error. It is also often
+used to signify a mode of reviewing proceedings of municipal bodies,
+affecting the interests of particular persons, e.g. in matters of
+licences or assessments.
+
+In criminal prosecutions an appeal, or writ of error on points of law,
+is almost everywhere allowed by statute to the defendant, and often to
+the state. (_United States_ v. _Sanges_, 144 United States Reports, 310;
+_State_ v. _Lee_, 65 Connecticut Reports, 265.)
+
+By the constitution of the United States the Supreme Court is vested
+with "appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such
+exceptions, and under such regulations, as the Congress shall make."
+This provision is held not to create but only to authorize the creation
+of the jurisdiction. In the words of Chancellor Kent, "If congress had
+not provided any rule to regulate the proceedings in appeal, the court
+could not exercise an appellate jurisdiction: and, if a rule be
+provided, the court could not depart from it." In pursuance of this
+principle, the Supreme Court decided in _Clarke_ v. _Bazadone_ that a
+writ of error did not lie to that court from a court of the United
+States territory north-west of the Ohio, because the act had not
+authorized an appeal or writ of error from such a court (_Commentaries_,
+i. 324). The appellate jurisdiction of the court is now regulated by
+title 13 chap. ii. of the Revised Statutes of the United States (1873),
+SS 690-710; and by the acts enumerated at p. 901 of the Revised
+Statutes, United States, 1873 to 1891. Under these statutes the Supreme
+Court may entertain appeals from the highest court of a state of the
+Union, but only (1) where the state court has decided against the
+validity of a treaty or statute of the United States, or of an authority
+exercised under the United States; (2) where a state court has affirmed
+the validity of a statute, or of an authority exercised which has been
+challenged on the ground of repugnance to the constitution, laws or
+treaties of the United States; (3) where the state court has decided
+against the existence of a title, right, privilege, or immunity claimed
+or set up under the constitution of, or under any statute, treaty,
+commission or authority of the United States.
+
+The appeal from state courts is by writ of error, i.e. on law only; and
+applies as well in criminal as in civil cases. The Supreme Court will
+not act unless the federal question was raised in the court below
+(_Chicago U.S. Mail Co._ v. _McGuire_, 1904, 196, U.S. 128). The circuit
+court of appeals, established in 1891, deals with appeals from the
+district and circuit courts of the United States, except where other
+provision is made, e.g. where the jurisdiction of the court appealed
+from is in question; in prize causes and convictions of capital crimes
+(U.S. Statutes, 1801, c. 54. S 5); in cases involving the construction
+or application of the constitution; in cases arising in district or
+circuit courts involving the constitutional questions already stated as
+subject of appeal from state courts.
+
+The review by the circuit court of appeals is effected by appeal or by
+writ of error, and its decision is final, with certain exceptions but
+with power to certify cases to the Supreme Court for instructions (1891,
+c. 511, S 6).
+
+The Supreme Court hears appeals from the circuit court of appeals within
+the limits above stated, and appeals from the circuit and district
+courts in cases in which an appeal does not lie to the circuit court of
+appeals, and has power to issue a _certiorari_ to transfer a case from
+the circuit court of Appeals.     (W. F. C.)
+
+
+
+
+APPEARANCE (from Lat. _apparere_, to appear), in law, the coming into
+court of either of the parties to a suit; the formal act by which a
+defendant submits himself to the jurisdiction of the court. The
+defendant in an action in the High Court of England enters his
+appearance to the writ of summons by delivering, either at the central
+office of the Supreme Court, or a district registry, a written
+memorandum either giving his solicitor's name or stating that he defends
+in person. He must also give notice to the plaintiff of his appearance,
+which ought, according to the time limited by the writ, to be within
+eight days after service; a defendant may, however, appear any time
+before judgment. The _Rules of the Supreme Court_, orders xii. and
+xiii., regulate the procedure with respect to the entering of an
+appearance, the giving of notice, the limit of time, the setting aside
+and the general effect of default of appearance. In county courts there
+is no appearance other than the coming into court of the parties to the
+suit. In criminal cases the accused appears in person. In civil cases
+infants appear by their guardians _ad litem_; lunatics by their
+committee; companies by a solicitor; friendly societies by the trustee
+or other officer appointed to sue or be sued on behalf thereof.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDICITIS, the modern medical term for inflammation of that part of
+the intestine which is known as the "appendix." Though not a new
+disease, there can be no doubt that it is far commoner than it used to
+be, though the explanation of this increased frequency is not yet
+forthcoming. Amongst the virulent micro-organisms associated with the
+disease no one specific germ has hitherto been found. It may be remarked
+that the theories that influenza, or the use of preserved foods, may be
+connected with the disease as cause and effect, have supporters.
+Sometimes the disease is due to the impaction of a pin, shot-corn,
+tooth-brush bristle, or fish-bone in the appendix, which has set up
+inflammation and ulceration. In many cases a patch of mortification with
+perforation of the appendix is caused by the presence of a hard faecal
+concretion, or "stercolith," which from its size, shape and appearance
+has been mistaken by a casual observer for a date-stone or cherry-stone.
+
+Apart from the fact of the more frequent occurrence of appendicitis, the
+disease is now better understood and more promptly recognized. It was
+formerly included under the term "perityphlitis"--that is, inflammation
+connected with the caecum or _blind_ portion of the large intestine. But
+in the vast majority of cases the inflammation begins in the appendix,
+not in the intestine proper. It is apt to extend and set up a localized
+peritonitis, which in the worst cases may become general.
+
+Appendicitis is more often met with in the young than the old, and in
+boys rather than girls; and in some families there is a strange
+predisposition towards it. It is often started by a chill, or by
+over-exertion, and sometimes the attack follows a blow or strain, or
+some other direct injury, after which the virulent micro-organisms seize
+on the mucous membrane and involve the appendix in acute inflammation.
+
+The appendix is a narrow tube, about the size of a goose-quill, with an
+average length of 3 in. It terminates in a blunt point, and from its
+worm-like shape is called _vermiformis_. It is an appendage of the large
+intestine, into which it opens, and is regarded as the degenerate relic,
+surviving in man and other mammals, of an earlier form of intestine.
+Foreign bodies passing down the intestinal canal may find their way into
+the appendix and lodge there. Frequently the diseased appendix is found
+blocked by hard faeces or undigested particles of food, such as nuts,
+fibrous vegetable matter, and other imperfectly masticated substances;
+inflammation may occur, however, without the presence of any impacted
+material. The appendix may be twisted, bent, or otherwise strangulated,
+or its orifice may be blocked, so that the tube is distended with mucus
+which can find no outlet; or ulceration of tuberculous or malignant
+origin may occur. Inflammation started in the appendix is liable to
+spread to the peritoneum, and herein lies the gravity of the affection
+and the indication for treatment. The symptoms vary from "indigestion,"
+and slight pain and sickness, which pass off in a few short days, to an
+exceedingly violent illness, which may cause death in a few hours. Pain
+is usually first felt in the belly, low down on the right side or across
+the region of the navel; sometimes, however, it is diffuse, and at other
+times it is scarcely complained of. There is some fever, the temperature
+rising to 101 deg. or 102 deg. F., with nausea, and very likely with
+vomiting. The abdomen is tender to pressure, and the tenderness may be
+referred to the spot mentioned above. Some swelling may also be made out
+in that region. The attack may last for two, three or four days, and
+then subside. There are, however, other cases less well defined, in
+which the mischief pursues a latent course, producing little more than a
+vague abdominal uneasiness, until it suddenly advances into a violent
+stage. In some chronic cases the trouble continues, on and off, for
+months or even for years.
+
+[Illustration: Large Intestine showing Vermiform Appendix (v.a.) and
+Caecum (c)]
+
+On paper it is easy to arrange cases of appendicitis into three
+classes--catarrhal, ulcerative and mortifying--but in actual practice
+this is neither desirable nor possible. Such classification is based
+upon the symptoms, and in appendicitis symptoms may be actually
+misleading. The three conditions to which the surgeon chiefly looks for
+guidance are the aspect of the patient, the rate of his pulse and the
+degree of fever as shown by the thermometer. But in certain cases of
+appendicitis, though the surgeon knows intuitively, or, at least,
+suspects, that the general condition is extremely serious, the patient
+looks fairly well and says that he is not in pain, his pulse-rate being
+but little quickened and his temperature being but slightly above
+normal. Nevertheless, when the surgeon has opened the belly in the
+appendix region, he finds the appendix swollen, perforated and
+mortified, and lying in a stinking abscess, whilst inflammation has
+already spread to the neighbouring coils of intestine. Unfortunately,
+the surgeon can no more tell what he is going to find at his operation
+in some of these cases than he can foretell the course which any
+particular case is going to run.
+
+We may most usefully give here the symptoms as they are likely to be
+found in an ordinary case of appendicitis, and as they may be observed
+by one who is not a member of the medical profession, in a way that may
+prove helpful to him when circumstances have awakened his interest in
+the disease.
+
+The case taken shall be that of a boy at school, for, as already stated,
+boys are more prone to the disease than girls. The boy has had, may be,
+occasional attacks of "indigestion" which have duly passed away under
+the influence of aperient medicines, and, being heated at play, he has
+sat down upon the cold ground. Or he has got wet through or over-tired
+during a long walk or ride. At any rate, his vital powers have been
+suddenly lowered, and the micro-organisms teeming in his bowel have
+seized upon the lining membrane of the appendix. He feels out of sorts,
+and if he manages to eat a meal he very likely vomits it soon after, for
+the whole nervous system of his abdomen is disturbed by the local
+inflammation. The act of vomiting gives slight relief, however, and
+probably he begins to complain of pains in his head as well as in his
+abdomen, and possibly he has an attack of shivering--the result of
+disturbance of his general nervous system. By this time he may be
+attacked with intense pain in the part of his abdomen a little above the
+middle of the right groin, and at that spot there may be a tenderness,
+and a feeling of resistance may be made out by the gentle pressure of
+the finger. In order to relax the pressure upon the tender area he
+probably lies with his right thigh slightly bent. By this time he may
+look ill, his face being slightly flushed, or pale and anxious. If the
+clinical thermometer is placed under his tongue, the index may rise a
+degree or two, perhaps several degrees, above normal, and his pulse may
+be quickened to 90 or 100 beats a minute. Perhaps it is a good deal
+quicker than this. Later, the skin of the lower part of the right side
+of the abdomen may be flushed or reddened.
+
+This clinical picture leaves no room for doubt. The boy has an attack of
+acute septic inflammation of his appendix. Let it be that the symptoms
+have come on quickly, and that the affection is not more than ten or
+twelve hours old; no one can tell precisely what course the disease is
+going to run. It may be that with rest in bed, constant fomentations,
+and absolute starvation, the inflammation will subside; but it is just
+as likely that in spite of this judicious treatment the symptoms will go
+from bad to worse, and that a belated operation will fail to rescue the
+boy from a general peritonitis which may end fatally. But at present, so
+far as one can tell, the disease is still limited to the appendix. And
+what, at this moment, is the best line of treatment? Some practitioners
+would answer--"Let the acute attack settle down, and then, after a week
+or ten days, when everything is quiet, remove the appendix, for
+statistics show that when the operation is done in the quiet interval
+the results are extremely favourable, whilst if it is done in the acute
+stage the outlook is not so bright." This is quite right. But one cannot
+be sure that the "quiet interval" will ever arrive. The case in question
+may be one of those which rapidly go on from bad to worse, and
+mortification and perforation of the appendix having taken place over
+some hard faecal concretion, general peritonitis is inevitable, with
+distension of the bowel and hopeless blood-poisoning. If it were certain
+that the attack of appendicitis would subside and become quiescent, it
+would be wise to wait. But it too often happens that the first attack
+is, indeed, the last. Acute appendicitis is one thing; relapsing
+appendicitis is another. The latter condition is very manageable.
+
+Inasmuch, then, as it is impossible to know what direction the disease
+will take, whether to quiescence or to disaster, it is for the greatest
+good in the greatest number of cases that the inflamed appendix be
+removed by operation whilst the disease is still limited to the
+appendix. It is highly probable that if every available hospital surgeon
+were asked if he had ever had cause to regret having advised early
+operation in a case of appendicitis the answer would be "No"; on the
+other hand, every surgeon would be able to recall cases in which delay
+had been followed by disaster--which an early resort to operation would,
+in all probability, have prevented.
+
+If the disease is going to assume the severe form, all the symptoms, as
+a rule, increase in severity. The facial expression becomes more
+anxious, and the accumulation of gas in the paralysed intestine causes
+an increase in the abdominal distension, so that the patient lies with
+his knees drawn up. The vomiting continues. The pulse quickens to 120 or
+140 a minute, and the temperature rises, perhaps to 104 deg. F. The
+swelling and tenderness increase on the right side of the abdomen, and
+if the abscess does not find escape externally it probably bursts into
+the general peritoneal cavity, and the patient becomes bathed in profuse
+sweat, the result of blood-poisoning. Death is likely to follow within
+two days, the result of blood-poisoning and exhaustion.
+
+_Catarrhal and Relapsing Appendicitis._--Some cases of appendicitis run
+a mild course, giving rise to no worse symptoms, perhaps, than those of
+"indigestion" and nausea, with a feeling of general discomfort in the
+abdomen, and, probably, some local tenderness. The attack may be
+preceded or accompanied by constipation. The administration of a mild
+aperient or an enema, rest, starvation and fomentation will probably put
+matters right again--at any rate for a time.
+
+This form of the disease may be due to the presence of "bolted,"
+unchewed or indigestible food in that part of the large intestine into
+which the appendix opens. And these mild recurrent attacks may sometimes
+be got rid of altogether by having the teeth put in order, and by
+inducing the individual to choose his food with discretion, to chew it
+carefully, to take his meals regularly and to eat slowly.
+
+Obviously, these attacks are very different from those of the acute
+septic form of the disease described above, though there is no telling
+that one of them may not develop into the acute form. Some of the mild
+attacks are due to a kink in the appendix, or to some other condition
+which temporarily prevents the secretions of the appendix from finding
+their way into the large intestine. Others of them are caused by a
+passing catarrhal inflammation of the lining of the appendix and have a
+distant resemblance to a recurring "sore throat."
+
+After undergoing one or two of these mild attacks the patient would be
+well advised to have his appendix removed when it has once more got into
+the "quiet stage." Experience abundantly shows that the operation can
+then be performed with but slight disturbance of the patient, and with
+the smallest possible amount of risk. And until his vulnerable appendix
+has been removed he is never safe.
+
+In the _chronic_ form of the disease though the patient is never
+desperately ill he is never quite well. He has pains and discomfort in
+the abdomen, with slight tenderness and nausea, with "indigestion," as
+he may call it. And as one can never tell when the smouldering
+inflammation may break out into conflagration, he is well advised to
+submit himself to operation without further delay. To carry about a
+diseased appendix is to run the constant risk of being laid up at a time
+most inconvenient, as when travelling or when staying in some place
+where skilled assistance is far distant or absolutely unobtainable. But
+having made up his mind that the appendix had better be removed, the
+patient can choose time, place and surgeon, and, having undergone a
+week's careful training for the ordeal, can safely count on being back
+at work again in a month or six weeks' time.
+
+As regards _treatment_, the greatest safety consists in the prompt
+removal of the inflamed appendix, and statistics show that if the
+operation can be done in the first or second day of even an acute
+attack, the result is generally favourable--that is to say, if the
+appendix can be removed whilst the disease is still shut up within its
+tissues. But in some cases ulceration and perforation, or mortification,
+may have taken place over a hard faecal concretion within the first
+twenty-four or forty-eight hours, and, the septic germs having been let
+loose, peritonitis may have already set in, and operation may be
+followed by disappointment. Still, if the case had been left unoperated
+on, no other result could have been expected. It was not to the
+operation, but to the intensely acute disease that the calamity must be
+attributed.
+
+Nature is marvellously clever in some of these cases in shutting off the
+area of the disease by glueing together the neighbouring coils of
+intestine, the limited local peritonitis causing the tissues to build
+themselves into a wall which securely shuts in the abscess cavity. But
+in other cases she seems helpless, no barrier being formed for limiting
+the area of disturbance. In such a case it is inevitable that
+disappointment must result from the surgeon delaying operation in the
+hope that delimitation might take place. And when at last he makes his
+incision he sees that the disease has had so long a start that his own
+chance of success is but a poor one. In a less severe attack, under the
+influence of rest, starvation and fomentation, and in cases of chronic
+and of relapsing disease, the surgeon may watch and wait and choose his
+own time for operating. But when the symptoms are steadily increasing in
+severity he should urge an immediate incision. When, as often happens,
+the inflammation begins suddenly and severely, and, under the influence
+of treatment, steadily quiets down, the surgeon does well to delay
+operation. But in a fortnight or so, when everything has become once
+more quiet, he will urge the removal of the appendix, for this one
+attack is more than likely to be the forerunner of other attacks if the
+diseased appendix is left.
+
+The most serious cases are those in which the aspect, the pulse, and the
+temperature of the patient fail to give warning of a very advanced state
+of disease. Every surgeon of experience has met with cases in which,
+though there is nothing pointing to the fact that the patient is on the
+brink of a disaster, the operation has shown that the appendix is
+mortified, and that it is surrounded with abundant foul matter. It is
+then that he regrets not having operated a day or two earlier.
+Consequently it is a good rule to operate in all doubtful cases. In
+cases in which one happens to know that previous attacks have passed off
+under palliative treatment, there is no need for immediate operation;
+the quiet interval may be safely waited for. But in cases in which there
+is "no history," and in which the surgeon has nothing to guide him, the
+greatest safety is in prompt operation.
+
+If an attack of acute appendicitis is allowed to take its course
+unoperated on, abscess forms in the peritoneal cavity in the region of
+the appendix, but if already inflammation has happily glued the
+intestines together around that area, the pus is confined within
+definite limits. But as the abscess increases in size the demand for its
+evacuation becomes urgent. The pus, under the influence of a natural
+law, seeks its escape by the path of least resistance; sometimes this is
+into the intestine, and occasionally into the bladder. The most
+satisfactory course which it can take is through the wall of the abdomen
+and out above the right groin. As it is making its way in this direction
+the skin over that part becomes red, swollen, hot and tender, and the
+tissues between it and the skin become swollen and brawny. Rarely is
+_fluctuation_ to be made out until the pus has worked its way close to
+the surface. Later, ulceration takes place in the undermined skin, and
+the stinking contents of the abscess escape, greatly to the relief of
+the patient. But long before this could happen the surgeon should have
+made an incision through the inflamed tissues in order to give nature
+some greatly needed help. For in many cases she allows the pus blindly
+to discover that the course of least resistance is not towards the
+surface of the abdomen but through the inflammatory barrier formed by
+the adherent coils of bowel, and so into the general peritoneal cavity.
+This unfortunate issue may give temporary relief to the patient, so that
+he says that he feels much better, and that his pain has nearly gone.
+But though his temperature may fall, his pulse is apt to quicken--an
+ominous coupling of symptoms; the paralysed bowels become further
+distended, so that the lungs are pressed upon and breathing is
+embarrassed; hiccough comes on; and whether operation is now resorted to
+or not, a fatal end is highly probable. In other cases, the escaping pus
+finds its way up towards the liver and forms an abscess below the base
+of the lungs.
+
+If operation is performed when appendicitis has run on to the formation
+of abscess, and the diseased appendix presents itself, it should of
+course be removed; but if it does not present itself the surgeon should
+abstain from making a determined search for it, as in so doing he may
+break down the barrier which nature has provided, and thus himself
+become the means of spreading a septic peritonitis. Nor should he
+attempt to make clean the foul abscess cavity. All that he should do is
+to provide for efficient drainage. A large proportion of these cases do
+extremely well with incision and drainage, and in the subsequent healing
+of the cavity the wreckage of the appendix either undergoes
+disintegration or is rendered harmless for further anxiety.
+
+In some cases, however, the damaged appendix remains as a smouldering
+ember, ready at any moment to cause further conflagration. This is made
+manifest by lingering pains, and by tenderness and warnings after the
+abscess has healed, and the patient will be well advised to have what is
+left of the appendix removed by operation at a time of quiescence. The
+operation, however, may turn out to be a very difficult one. Sometimes
+the wound by which the abscess has been evacuated, by nature or by art,
+refuses to heal completely, a little discharge of a faecal odour
+continuing to escape. The small wound leads into a faecal fistula, and
+a bent probe passed along it would probably find its way into the bowel.
+The wound is likely to close of itself in due course; but if after many
+weeks of disappointment it still continues to discharge, the surgeon may
+advise an operation for its obliteration.
+
+It occasionally happens that after operation the scar of the wound in
+the abdominal wall yields under the pressure from within, and a bulging
+of the intestines beneath the skin occurs. This is called a _ventral
+hernia_, and if the patient cannot be made comfortable by wearing a
+truss with a large flat pad, an operation may be deemed advisable.
+
+If, in a case of appendicitis, for one reason or another operation is to
+be delayed, what treatment should be resorted to? The patient should be
+put to bed with his knees resting over a pillow, and a large fomentation
+under oil silk should be laid over the lower part of the abdomen. No
+food should be given beyond an occasional sip of hot water. Purgatives
+should not be administered, as this would be to set in movement an
+inflamed piece of bowel. If the case is not acute, a large enema of soap
+and water with turpentine may be given, or, possibly, a dose of castor
+oil by the mouth. As a rule, however, it is unwise to set the bowels in
+vigorous action until the diseased appendix has been removed. No opium
+should be given.
+
+Acute intestinal obstruction, cancer of the intestine, inflammation of
+the ovary, typhoid fever and renal and gallstone colic, are affections
+which are apt to be mistaken for appendicitis. The first of these
+resembles it most closely, and diagnosis is sometimes impossible without
+resort to operation. And it is a fortunate thing that, when error of
+diagnosis has been made, the operation which was designed for dealing
+with an inflamed appendix may be directed with equal advantage to the
+morbid condition which is found on opening the abdomen. In typhoid fever
+the characteristic temperature, the general condition of the patient,
+and the presence of delirium are differentiating signs of importance; in
+renal and gallstone colic the situation and the more paroxysmal
+character of the pain are usually distinctive.     (E. O.*)
+
+
+
+
+APPENDICULATA, a zoological name introduced by E. Ray Lankester (preface
+to the English edition of C. Gegenbaur's _Comparative Anatomy_), and
+employed by the same writer in the 9th edition of this encyclopaedia
+(article "Zoology") to denote the eighth phylum, or major division, of
+coelomate animals. The animals thus associated, the Rotifera, Chaetopoda
+and Arthropoda, are composed of a larger or smaller number of hollow
+rings, each ring possessing typically a pair of hollow lateral
+appendages, moved by intrinsic muscles and penetrated by blood-spaces.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDINI, FRANCESCO MARIA (1768-1837), Italian historian and
+philologist, was born at Poirino, near Turin, on the 4th of November
+1768. Educated at Rome, he took orders and was sent to Ragusa, where he
+was appointed professor of rhetoric. When the French seized Ragusa,
+Napoleon placed Appendini at the head of the Ragusan academy. After the
+Austrian occupation he was appointed principal of a college at Zara,
+where he died in 1837. Appendini's chief work was his _Notizie
+Istorico-critiche sulle Antichita, Storia, e Letteratura dei Ragusci_
+(1802-1803).
+
+
+
+
+APPENZELL, one of the cantons of north-east Switzerland, entirely
+surrounded by the canton of St Gall; both were formed out of the
+dominions of the prince abbots of St Gall, whence the name Appenzell
+(_abbatis cello_). It is an alpine region, particularly in its south
+portion, where rises the Alpstein limestone range (culminating in the
+Santis, 8216 ft.), though towards the north the surface is composed
+rather of green hills, separating green hollows in which nestle neat
+villages and small towns. It is mainly watered by two streams that
+descend from the Santis, the Urnasch joining the Sitter (on which is the
+capital, Appenzell), which later flows into the Thur. There are light
+railways from Appenzell to St Gall either (12-1/2 m.) past Gais or
+(20-1/2 m.) past Herisau, as well as lines from St Gall to Trogen (6 m.)
+and from Rorschach to Heiden (4-1/4 m.). Since 1597 it has been divided,
+for religious reasons, into two half-cantons, which are quite
+independent of each other, and differ in many points.
+
+The north and west portion or _Ausser Rhoden_ has a total area of 93.6
+sq. m. (of which 90.6 are classed as "productive"; forests covering 22.5
+sq. m. and glaciers .038 sq. m.), with a population (in 1900) of 55,281,
+mainly German-speaking, and containing 49,797 Protestants as against
+5418 Romanists. Its political capital is Trogen (q.v.), though the
+largest town is Herisau (q.v.), while Teufen has 4595 inhabitants, and
+Heiden (3745 inhabitants) in the north-east corner is the most
+frequented of the many goats' whey cure resorts for which the entire
+canton is famous (Urnasch and Gais are also in Ausser Rhoden). This
+half-canton is divided into three administrative districts, comprising
+twenty communes, and is mainly industrial, the manufacture of cotton
+goods, muslins, and embroidery being very flourishing. It sends one
+member (elected by the _Landsgemeinde_) to the federal _Standerath_ and
+three to the federal _Nationalrath_ (elected by a direct popular vote).
+
+The south or more mountainous portion of Appenzell forms the half-canton
+of Appenzell, _Inner Rhoden_. It has a total area of 66.7 sq. m. (of
+which 62.8 sq. m. are classed as "productive," forests covering 12.8 sq.
+m. and glaciers .38 sq. m.), and a total population of 13,499,
+practically all German-speaking, and all but 833 Romanists. Its
+political capital is Appenzell (q.v.), which is also the largest
+village, while Weissbad (near it) and Gonten are the best-known goats'
+whey cure resorts. Embroidery and muslins are made in this half-canton,
+though wholly at home by the work-people. But it is very largely
+pastoral, containing 168 mountain pastures or "alps," maintaining each
+summer 4000 cows, and of an estimated capital value of 2,682,955 francs
+(the figures for Ausser Rhoden are respectively 100 alps, 2800 cows, and
+1,749,900 francs). Inner Rhoden is extremely conservative, and has the
+reputation of always rejecting any federal _Referendum_. For similar
+reasons it has preserved many old customs and costumes, those of the
+women being very elaborate and picturesque, while the herdsmen have
+retained their festival attire of red waistcoats, embroidered braces and
+canary-coloured shorts. It sends one member (named by the
+_Landsgemeinde_) to the federal _Standerath_, and one also to the
+federal _Nationalrath_, while it forms but a single administrative
+district, though divided into six communes.
+
+To the outer world the canton of Appenzell is best known by its
+institution of _Landsgemeinden_, or primitive democratic assemblies held
+in the open air, in which every male citizen (not being disqualified)
+over twenty years of age must (under a money penalty) appear personally:
+each half-canton has such an assembly of its own, that of Inner Rhoden
+always meeting at Appenzell, and that of Ausser Rhoden in the odd years
+at Hundwil (near Herisau) and in the even years at Trogen. This
+institution is of immemorial antiquity, and the meetings in either case
+are always held on the last Sunday in April. The _Landsgemeinde_ is the
+supreme legislative authority, and elects both the executive (in Inner
+Rhoden composed of nine members and called _Standeskommission_, and in
+Ausser Rhoden of seven members and called _Regierungsrath_) and the
+president or _Landammann_; in each half-canton there is also a sort of
+standing committee (composed of the members of the executive and
+representatives from the communes--in Inner Rhoden one member per 250 or
+fraction over 125 of the population, and in Ausser Rhoden one member per
+1000 of the inhabitants) which prepares business for the _Landsgemeinde_
+and decides minor matters; in Inner Rhoden it is named the _Grossrath_
+and in Ausser Rhoden the _Kantonsrath_. As various old-fashioned
+ceremonies are observed at the meetings and the members each appear with
+his girded sword, the sight of a meeting of the _Landsgemeinde_ is most
+striking and interesting. The existing constitution of Inner Rhoden
+dates mainly from 1872, and that of Ausser Rhoden from 1876.
+
+By the middle of the 11th century the abbots of St Gall had established
+their power in the land later called Appenzell, which, too, became
+thoroughly teutonized, its early inhabitants having probably been
+romanized Raetians. But as early as 1377, this portion of the abbots'
+domains formed an alliance with the Swabian free imperial cities and
+adopted a constitution of its own. The repeated attempts of the abbots
+to put down this independence of their rule were defeated in the
+battles of Vogelinsegg (1403), north-west of Trogen, and of the Stoss
+(1405), the pass leading from Gais over to Altstatten in the Rhine
+valley. In 1411 Appenzell was placed under the "protection" of the Swiss
+Confederation, of which, in 1452, it became an "allied member," and in
+1513 a full member. Religious differences broke up the land after the
+Reformation into two portions, each called _Rhoden_, a term that in the
+singular is said to mean a "clearing," and occurs in 1070, long before
+the final separation. From 1798 to 1803 Appenzell, with the other
+domains of the abbot of St Gall, was formed into the canton Santis of
+the Helvetic Republic, but in 1803, on the creation of the new canton of
+St Gall, shrank back within its former boundaries. The oldest codes of
+the laws and customs of the land date from 1409 and 1585, the original
+MS. of the latter (called the "Silver Book" from its silver clasps)
+being still used in Inner Rhoden when, at the close of the annual
+_Landsgemeinde_, the newly elected _Landammann_ first takes the oath of
+office, and the assembled members then take that of obedience to him, in
+either case with uplifted right hands.
+
+  See also _Appenzellische Jahrbucher_ (3 series from 1854, Trogen); G.
+  Baumberger, "_Juhu-Juuhu_"--_Appenzellerland und Appenzellerleut_
+  (Einsiedeln, 1903); J.G. Ebel, _Schilderung d. Gebirgsvolker d.
+  Schweiz_, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1798); W. Kobelt, _Die Alpwirthschaft im
+  Kant. App. Inner Rhoden_ (Soleure, 1899); I.B. Richman, _Appenzell_
+  (London, 1895); H. Ryffel, _Die schweiz. Landsgemeinden_ (Zurich,
+  1903); J.J. Tobler and A. Struby, _Die Alpwirthschaft im Kant. App.
+  Ausser Rhoden_ (Soleure, 1900); J.C. Zellweger, _Geschichte d. app.
+  Volkes_ (to 1597), 6 vols in 11 parts (Trogen, 1830-1838); J.C.
+  Zellweger, junior, _Der Kant. App._. (Trogen, 1867); A. Tobler, _Das
+  Volkslied im Appenzellerland_ (Basel, 1906); J.J. Blumer, _Staats- und
+  Rechtsgeschichte d. schweiz. Demokratien_ (3 vols. St Gall,
+  1850-1859).     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+APPENZELL, the political capital of the Inner Rhoden half of the Swiss
+canton of Appenzell. It is built in a smiling green hollow on the left
+bank of the Sitter stream, which is formed by the union of several
+mountain torrents descending from the Santis. By light railways it is
+12-1/2 m. from St Gall past Gais or 20-1/2 m. past Herisau. Its chief
+streets are paved, but it is rather a large village than a town, though
+in 1900 it had 4574 inhabitants, practically all German-speaking and
+Romanists. It has a stately modern parish church (attached to a Gothic
+choir), a small but very ancient chapel of the abbots of St Gall (whose
+summer residence was this village), and two Capuchin convents (one for
+men, founded in 1588, and one for women, founded in 1613). Among the
+archives, kept in the sacristy of the church, are several banners
+captured by the Appenzellers in former days, among them one taken in
+1406 at Imst, near Lanedeck, with the inscription _Hundert Teufel_,
+though popularly this number is multiplied a thousandfold. In the
+principal square the _Landsgemeinde_ (or cantonal democratic assembly)
+is held annually in the open air on the last Sunday in April. The
+inhabitants are largely employed in the production of embroidery, though
+also engaged in various pastoral occupations. About 2-1/2 m. by road
+south-east of Appenzell is Weissbad, a well-known goat's whey cure
+establishment, while 1-1/2 hours above it is the quaint little chapel of
+Wildkirchli, built (1648) in a rock cavern, on the way to the Santis.
+     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+APPERCEPTION (Lat. _ad_ and _percipere_, perceive), in psychology, a
+term used to describe the presentation of an object on which attention
+is fixed, in relation to the sum of consciousness previous to the
+presentation and the mind as a whole. The word was first used by
+Leibnitz, practically in the sense of the modern Attention (q.v.), by
+which an object is apprehended as "not-self" and yet in relation to the
+self. In Kantian terminology apperception is (1) _transcendental_--the
+perception of an object as involving the consciousness of the pure self
+as subject, and (2) _empirical_,--the cognition of the self in its
+concrete existence. In (1) apperception is almost equivalent to
+self-consciousness; the existence of the ego may be more or less
+prominent, but it is always involved. According to J.F. Herbart (q.v.)
+apperception is that process by which an aggregate or "mass" of
+presentations becomes systematized (_apperceptions-system_) by the
+accretion of new elements, either sense-given or product of the inner
+workings of the mind. He thus emphasizes in apperception the connexion
+with the self as resulting from the sum of antecedent experience. Hence
+in education the teacher should fully acquaint himself with the mental
+development of the pupil, in order that he may make full use of what the
+pupil already knows.
+
+Apperception is thus a general term for all mental processes in which a
+presentation is brought into connexion with an already existent and
+systematized mental conception, and thereby is classified, explained or,
+in a word, understood; e.g. a new scientific phenomenon is explained in
+the light of phenomena already analysed and classified. The whole
+intelligent life of man is, consciously or unconsciously, a process of
+apperception, inasmuch as every act of attention involves the
+appercipient process.
+
+  See Karl Lange, _Ueber Apperception_ (6th ed. revised, Leipzig, 1899;
+  trans. E.E. Brown, Boston, 1893); G.F. Stout, _Analytic Psychology_
+  (London, 1896), bk. ii. ch. viii., and in general text-books of
+  psychology; also PSYCHOLOGY.
+
+
+
+
+APPERLEY, CHARLES JAMES (1777-1843), English sportsman and sporting
+writer, better known as "Nimrod," the pseudonym under which he published
+his works on the chase and the turf, was born at Plasgronow, near
+Wrexham, in Denbighshire, in 1777. Between the years 1805 and 1820 he
+devoted himself to fox-hunting. About 1821 he began to contribute to the
+_Sporting Magazine_, under the pseudonym of "Nimrod," a series of racy
+articles, which helped to double the circulation of the magazine in a
+year or two. The proprietor, Mr Pittman, kept for "Nimrod" a stud of
+hunters, and defrayed all expenses of his tours, besides giving him a
+handsome salary. The death of Mr Pittman, however, led to a law-suit
+with the proprietors of the magazine for money advanced, and Apperley,
+to avoid imprisonment, had to take up his residence near Calais (1830),
+where he supported himself by his writings. He died in London on the
+19th of May 1843. The most important of his works are: _Remarks on the
+Condition of Hunters, the Choice of Horses_, &c. (1831); _The Chase, the
+Turf, and the Road_ (originally written for the _Quarterly Review_),
+(1837); _Memoirs of the Life of the Late John Mytton_ (1837); _Nimrod's
+Northern Tour_ (1838); _Nimrod Abroad_ (1842); _The Horse and the Hound_
+(a reprint from the seventh edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_)
+(1842); _Hunting Reminiscences_ (1843).
+
+
+
+
+APPERT, BENJAMIN NICOLAS MARIE (1797-1847), French philanthropist, was
+born in Paris on the 10th of September 1797. While a young man he
+introduced a system of mutual instruction into the regimental schools of
+the department of the Nord. The success which it obtained induced him to
+publish a _Manual_ setting forth his system. While engaged in teaching
+prisoners at Montaigu, he fell under the suspicion of having connived at
+the escape of two of them, and was thrown into the prison of La Force.
+On his release he resolved to devote the rest of his life to bettering
+the condition of those whose lot he had for a time shared, and he
+travelled much over Europe for the purpose of studying the various
+systems of prison discipline, and wrote several books on the subject.
+After the revolution of 1830 he became secretary to Queen Marie Amelie,
+and organized the measures taken for the relief of the needy. He was
+decorated with the Legion of Honour in 1833.
+
+His brother, FRANCOIS APPERT (d. 1840), was the inventor of the method
+of preserving food by enclosing it in hermetically sealed tins; he left
+a work entitled _Art de conserver les substances animales et
+vegetables_.
+
+
+
+
+APPIAN (Gr. [Greek: Appianos]), of Alexandria, Roman historian,
+flourished during the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. He
+tells us that, after having filled the chief offices in his native
+place, he repaired to Rome, where he practised as an advocate. When
+advanced in years, he obtained, by the good offices of his friend
+Fronto, the dignity of imperial procurator--it is supposed in Egypt. His
+work ([Greek: Rumaika]) in twenty-four books, written in Greek, is
+rather a number of monographs than a connected history. It gives an
+account of various peoples and countries from the earliest times down to
+their incorporation into the Roman empire. Besides a preface, there are
+extant eleven complete books and considerable fragments. In spite of its
+unattractive style, the work is very valuable, especially for the period
+of the civil wars.
+
+  Editio princeps, 1551; Schweighauser, 1785; Bekker, 1852; Mendelssohn,
+  1878-1905. English translations: by W. B., 1578 (black letter); J.
+  D[avies], 1679; H. White, 1899 (Bohn's Classical Library); bk. i. ed.
+  by J.L. Strachan-Davidson, 1902.
+
+
+
+
+APPIANI, ANDREA (1754-1817), the best fresco painter of his age, was
+born at Milan. He was made pensioned artist to the kingdom of Italy by
+Napoleon, but lost his allowance after the events of 1814 and fell into
+poverty. Correggio was his model, and his best pieces, which are in the
+church of Santa Maria presso San Celso and the royal palace at Milan,
+almost rival those of his great master. He also painted Napoleon and the
+chief personages of his court. Among the most graceful of his
+oil-paintings are his "Venus and Love," and "Rinaldo in the Garden of
+Armida." He is known as "the elder," to distinguish him from his
+great-nephew Andrea Appiani (1817-1865), an historical painter at Rome.
+Other painters of the same name were Niccolo Appiani (fl. 1510) and
+Francesco Appiani (1704-1792).
+
+
+
+
+APPIA, VIA, a high-road leading from Rome to Campania and lower Italy,
+constructed in 312 B.C. by the censor Appius Claudius Caecus. It
+originally ran only as far as Capua, but was successively prolonged to
+Beneventum, Venusia, Tarentum and Brundusium, though at what dates is
+unknown. Probably it was extended as far as Beneventum not long after
+the colonization of this town in 268 B.C., and it seems to have reached
+Venusia before 190 B.C. Horace, in the journey to Brundusium described
+in _Sat_. i. 5, followed the Via Appia as far as Beneventum, but not
+beyond.
+
+The original road was no doubt only gravelled (_glarea strata_); in 298
+B.C. a footpath was laid _saxo quadrato_ from the Porta Capena, by which
+it left Rome, to the temple of Mars, about 1 m. from the gate. Three
+years later, however, the whole road was paved with _silex_ from the
+temple to Bovillae, and in 191 B.C. the first mile from the gate to the
+temple was similarly treated. The distance from Rome to Capua was 132 m.
+For the first few miles the road is flanked by an uninterrupted series
+of tombs and other buildings (see L. Canina, _Via Appia_, Rome, 1853).
+As far as Terracina it ran in an almost entirely straight line, even
+through the Alban Hills, where the gradients are steep. A remarkably
+fine embankment belonging to it still exists at Aricia. At Forum Appii
+it entered the Pomptine Marshes; that this portion (19 m. long, hence
+called Decennovium) belonged to the original road was proved by the
+discovery at Ad Medias (Mesa) of a milestone of about 250 B.C. (Ch.
+Hulsen, in _Romische Mitteilungen_, 1889, 83; 1895, 301). A still older
+road ran along the foot of the Volscian mountains past Cora, Norba and
+Setia; this served as the post road until the end of the 18th century.
+At the time of Strabo and Horace, however, it was the practice to travel
+by canal from Forum Appii to Lucus Feroniae; to Nerva and Trajan were
+due the paving of the road and the repair of the bridges along this
+section. Theodoric in A.D. 486 ordered the execution of similar repairs,
+the success of which is recorded in inscriptions, but in the middle ages
+it was abandoned and impassable, and was only renewed by Pius VI. The
+older road crossed the back of the promontory at the foot of which
+Terracina stands; in imperial times, probably, the rock was cut away
+perpendicularly for a height of 120 ft. to allow the road to pass.
+Beyond Fundi it passed through the mountains to Formiae, the engineering
+of the road being noteworthy; and thence by Minturnae and Sinuessa
+(towns of the Aurunci which had been conquered in 314 B.C.)[1] to Capua.
+The remains of the road in this first portion are particularly striking.
+
+Between Capua and Beneventum, a distance of 32 m., the road passed near
+the defile of Caudium (see CAUDINE FORKS). The modern highroad follows
+the ancient line, and remains of the latter, with the exception of three
+well-preserved bridges, which still serve for the modern highroad, are
+conspicuous by their absence. The portion of the road from Rome to
+Beneventum is described by Sir R. Colt Hoare, _Classical Tour through
+Italy_, 57 seq. (London, 1819). He was accompanied on his journey, made
+in 1789, by the artist Carlo Labruzzi, who executed a series of 226
+drawings, the greater part of which have not been published; they are
+described by T. Ashby in _Melanges de l'Ecole Francaise de Rome_ (1903),
+p. 375 seq., and _Atti del Congresso Internazionale per le Scienze
+Storiche_, vol. v. (Rome, 1904), p. 125 seq.
+
+From Beneventum to Brundusium by the Via Appia, through Venusia and
+Tarentum, was 202 m. A shorter route, but more fitted for mule traffic,
+though Horace drove along part of it,[2] ran by Aequum Tuticum, Aecae,
+Herdoniae, Canusium, Barium, and Gnatia (Strabo vi. 282); it was made
+into a main road by Trajan, and took the name Via Traiana. The original
+road, too, adopted in imperial times a more devious but easier route by
+Aeclanum instead of by Trevicum. This was restored by Hadrian for the 15
+m. between Beneventum and Aeclanum. Under Diocletian and Maximian a road
+(the Via Herculia) was constructed from Aequum Tuticum to Pons Aufidi
+near Venusia, where it crossed the Via Appia and went on into Lucania,
+passing through Potentia and Grumentum, and joining the Via Popilia near
+Nerulum. Though it must have lost much of its importance through the
+construction of the Via Traiana, the last portion from Tarentum to
+Brundusium was restored by Constantine about A.D. 315.
+
+  The Via Appia was the most famous of Roman roads; Statius, _Silvae_,
+  ii. 2. 12, calls it _longarum regina viarum_. It was administered
+  under the empire by a curator of praetorian rank, as were the other
+  important roads of Italy. A large number of milestones and other
+  inscriptions relating to its repair at various times are known. See
+  Ch. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, ii. 238 seq.
+  (Stuttgart, 1896).     (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] It is important to note how the Romans followed up every victory
+    with a road.
+
+  [2] From Beneventum he followed the older line of the Via Appia to
+    Trevicum; thence, leaving the main road at Aquilonia, he went to
+    Ausculum ("quod versu dicere non est"), the mod. Ascoli Satriano, by
+    a by-road, for the milestones which have been found there, though
+    they probably belong to the Via Traiana, cannot be in their original
+    position, but must have been transplanted thither (Th. Mommsen in
+    _Corp. Inscrip. Lat._, ix. 1883, No. 6016)--and on to Herdoniae (why
+    Mommsen says that he left Herdoniae on the left, _op. cit._ p. 592,
+    is not clear), where he joined the line of the later Via Traiana.
+
+
+
+
+APPIN, a coast district of Argyllshire, Scotland, bounded W. by Loch
+Linnhe, S. by Loch Creran, E. by the districts of Benderloch and Lorne,
+and N. by Loch Leven. It lies north-east to south-west, and measures 14
+m. in length by 7 m. in breadth. The scenery of the coast is extremely
+beautiful, and inland the country is rugged and mountainous. The
+principal hills are the double peaks of Ben Vair (3362 ft. and 3284 ft.)
+and Creag Ghorm (2372 ft.) in the north, and Fraochie (2883 ft.), Meall
+Ban (2148 ft.) and Ben Mhic na Ceisich (2093 ft.) near the right flank
+of Glen Creran. The chief streams are the Coe and Laroch, flowing into
+Loch Leven, the Duror and Salachan flowing into Loch Linnhe, and the
+lola and Creran flowing into Loch Creran. The leading industries
+comprise slate and granite quarries and lead mining. Ballachulish,
+Duror, Portnacroish, Appin and Port Appin are the principal villages.
+Ballachulish and Port Appin are ports of call for steamers, and the
+Caledonian railway company's branch line from Connel Ferry to
+Ballachulish runs through the coast land and has stations at Creagan,
+Appin, Duror, Kentallen and Ballachulish Ferry. Appin was the country of
+a branch of the Stewarts.
+
+
+
+
+APPLAUSE (Lat. _applaudere_, to strike upon, clap), primarily the
+expression of approval by clapping of hands, &c.; generally any
+expression of approval. The custom of applauding is doubtless as old and
+as widespread as humanity, and the variety of its forms is limited only
+by the capacity for devising means of making a noise. Among civilized
+nations, however, it has at various times been subject to certain
+conventions. Thus the Romans had a set ritual of applause for public
+performances, expressing degrees of approval: snapping the finger and
+thumb, clapping with the flat or hollow palm, waving the flap of the
+toga, for which last the emperor Aurelian substituted a handkerchief
+(_orarium_), distributed to all Roman citizens (see STOLE). In the
+theatre, at the close of the play, the chief actor called out "Valete et
+plaudite!", and the audience, guided by an unofficial choregus, chaunted
+their applause antiphonally. This was often organized and paid for
+(Bottiger, _Uber das Applaudieren im Theater bei den Alten_, Leipz.,
+1822). When Christianity became fashionable the customs of the theatre
+were transferred to the churches. Eusebius (_Hist. Eccl._ vii. 30) says
+that Paul of Samosata encouraged the congregation to applaud his
+preaching by waving linen cloths ([Greek: othonais]), and in the 4th and
+5th centuries applause of the rhetoric of popular preachers had become
+an established custom. Though, however, applause may provide a healthy
+stimulus, its abuse has led to attempts at abolishing or restricting it
+even in theatres. The institution of the _claque_, people hired by
+performers to applaud them, has largely discredited the custom, and
+indiscriminate applause has been felt as an intolerable interruption to
+serious performances. The reverential spirit which abolished applause in
+church has tended to spread to the theatre and the concert-room, largely
+under the influence of the quasi-religious atmosphere of the Wagner
+performances at Baireuth. In Germany (e.g. the court theatres at Berlin)
+applause during the performance and "calling before the curtain" have
+been officially forbidden, but even in Germany this is felt to be in
+advance of public opinion. (See also ACCLAMATION and CHEERING.)
+
+
+
+
+APPLE (a common Teut. word, A.S. _aepl, aeppel_, O.H.G. _aphul, aphal,
+apfal_, mod. Ger. _Apfel_), the fruit of _Pyrus Malus_, belonging to the
+sub-order _Pomaceae_, of the natural order _Rosaceae_. It is one of the
+most widely cultivated and best-known and appreciated of fruits
+belonging to temperate climates. In its wild state it is known as the
+crab-apple, and is found generally distributed throughout Europe and
+western Asia, growing in as high a latitude as Trondhjem in Norway. The
+crabs of Siberia belong to different species of _Pyrus_. The apple-tree
+as cultivated is a moderate-sized tree with spreading branches, ovate,
+acutely serrated or crenated leaves, and flowers in corymbs. The fruit
+is too well known to need any description of its external
+characteristics. The apple is successfully cultivated in higher
+latitudes than any other fruit tree, growing up to 65 deg. N., but
+notwithstanding this, its blossoms are more susceptible of injury from
+frost than the flowers of the peach or apricot. It comes into flower
+much later than these trees, and so avoids the night frost which would
+be fatal to its fruit-bearing. The apples which are grown in northern
+regions are, however, small, hard, and crabbed, the best fruit being
+produced in hot summer climates, such as Canada and the United States.
+Besides in Europe and America, the fruit is now cultivated at the Cape
+of Good Hope, in northern India and China, and in Australia and New
+Zealand.
+
+Apples have been cultivated in Great Britain probably since the period
+of the Roman occupation, but the names of many varieties indicate a
+French or Dutch origin of much later date. In 1688 Ray enumerated
+seventy-eight varieties in cultivation in the neighbourhood of London,
+and now it is calculated that about 2000 kinds can be distinguished.
+According to the purposes for which they are suitable, they can be
+classed as--1st, dessert; 2nd, culinary; and 3rd, cider apples. The
+principal dessert apples are the Pippins (_pepins_, seedlings), of which
+there are numerous varieties. As culinary apples, besides Rennets and
+other dessert kinds, Codlins and Biffins are cultivated. In England,
+Herefordshire and Devonshire are famous for the cultivation of apples,
+and in these counties the manufacture of cider (q.v.) is an important
+industry. Cider is also extensively prepared in Normandy and in Holland.
+Verjuice is the fermented juice of crab apples.
+
+A large trade in the importation of apples is carried on in Britain,
+imports coming chiefly from French, Belgian and Dutch growers, and from
+the United States and British North America. Dried and pressed apples
+are imported from France for stewing, under the name of Normandy
+Pippins, and similarly prepared fruits come also from America.
+
+The apple may be propagated by seeds to obtain stocks for grafting, and
+also for the production of new varieties. The established sorts are
+usually increased by grafting, the method called whip-grafting being
+preferred. The stocks should be at least as thick as the finger; and
+should be headed back to where the graft is to be fixed in January,
+unless the weather is frosty, but in any case before vegetation becomes
+active. The scions should be cut about the same time, and laid in firmly
+in a trench, in contact with the moist soil, until required.
+
+The tree will thrive in any good well-drained soil, the best being a
+good mellow calcareous loam, while the less iron there is in the subsoil
+the better. The addition of marl to soils that are not naturally
+calcareous very much improves them. The trees are liable to canker in
+undrained soils or those of a hot sandy nature. Where the soil is not
+naturally rich enough, it should be well manured, but not to the extent
+of encouraging over-luxuriance. It is better to apply manure in the form
+of a compost than to use it in a fresh state or unmixed.
+
+To form an orchard, standard trees should be planted at from 25 to 40
+ft. between the rows, according to the fertility of the soil and other
+considerations. The trees should be selected with clean, straight,
+self-supporting stems, and the head should be shapely and symmetrical,
+with the main branches well balanced. In order to obtain such a stem,
+all the leaves on the first shoot from the graft or bud should be
+encouraged to grow, and in the second season the terminal bud should be
+allowed to develop a further leading shoot, while the lateral shoots
+should be allowed to grow, but so that they do not compete with the
+leader, on which the growth of leaves should be encouraged in order that
+they may give additional strength to the stem below them. The side
+shoots should be removed gradually, so that the diminution of foliage in
+this direction may not exceed the increase made by the new branches and
+shoots of the upper portion. Dwarf pyramids, which occupy less space
+than open dwarfs, if not allowed to grow tall, may be planted at from 10
+to 12 ft. apart. Dwarf bush trees may be planted from 10 to 15 ft.
+apart, according to the variety and the soil. Dwarf bushes on the
+Paradise stock are both ornamental and useful in small gardens, the
+trees being always conveniently under control. These bush trees, which
+must be on the proper stock--the French Paradise--may be planted at
+first 6 ft. apart, with the same distance between the rows, the space
+being afterwards increased, if desired, to 12 ft. apart, by removing
+every alternate row.
+
+"Cordons" are trees trained to a single shoot, the laterals of which are
+kept spurred. They are usually trained horizontally, at about 1-1/2 ft.
+from the ground, and may consist of one stem or of two, the stems in the
+latter case being trained in opposite directions. In cold districts the
+finer sorts of apples may be grown against walls as upright or oblique
+cordons. From these cordon trees very fine fruit may often be obtained.
+The apple may also be grown as an espalier tree, a form which does not
+require much lateral space. The ordinary trained trees for espaliers and
+walls should be planted 20 ft. apart.
+
+The fruit of the apple is produced on spurs which form on the branchlets
+of two years old and upwards, and continue fertile for a series of
+years. The principal pruning should be performed in summer, the young
+shoots if crowded being thinned out, and the superabundant laterals
+shortened by breaking them half through. The general winter pruning of
+the trees may take place any time from the beginning of November to the
+beginning of March, in open weather. The trees are rather subject to the
+attacks of the American blight, the white cottony substance found on the
+bark and developed by an insect (_Eriosoma, mali_), somewhat similar to
+the green-fly of the garden, but not a true aphis. It may be removed by
+scrubbing with a hard brush, by painting the affected spots with any
+bland oil, or by washing them with dilute paraffin and soft soap.
+
+The apple-blossom weevil (_Anthonomus pomorum_), a small reddish-brown
+beetle, often causes serious damage to the flowers. The female bores and
+lays an egg in the unopened bud, and the maggot feeds on the stamens and
+pistil. The weevil hibernates in the crannies of the bark or in the soil
+at the base of the trees, and bandages of tarred doth placed round the
+stem in spring will prevent the female from crawling up.
+
+The codlin moth (_Carpocapsa pomonana_) lays its eggs in May in the
+calyx of the flowers. The young caterpillar, which is white with black
+head and neck, gnaws its way through the fruit, and pierces the rind.
+When nearly full grown it attacks the core, and the fruit soon drops.
+The insect emerges and spins its cocoon in a crack of the bark.
+
+To check this disease the apples which fall before ripening should be
+promptly removed. A loosely made hay-band twisted round the stem about a
+foot from the ground is of use. The grubs will generally choose the
+bands in which to make their cocoon; at the end of the season the bands
+are collected and burned.
+
+The following are a few of the most approved varieties of the apple
+tree, arranged in order of their ripening, with the months in which they
+are in use:--
+
+    Dessert Apples.
+
+  White Juneating.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . July
+  Early Red Margaret.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Aug.
+  Irish Peach .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Aug.
+  Devonshire Quarrenden.  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Aug., Sept.
+  Duchess of Oldenburg .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Aug., Sept.
+  Red Astrachan  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Sept.
+  Kerry Pippin.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Sept., Oct.
+  Peasgood's Nonesuch  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Sept.-Nov.
+  Sam Young.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Oct.-Dec.
+  King of the Pippins  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Oct.-Jan.
+  Cox's Orange Pippin  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Oct.-Feb.
+  Court of Wick  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Oct.-Mar.
+  Blenheim Pippin.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Feb.
+  Sykehouse Russet  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Feb.
+  Fearn's Pippin .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Mar.
+  Mannington's Pearmain.  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Mar.
+  Margil.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Mar.
+  Ribston Pippin .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Mar.
+  Golden Pippin  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Jan.
+  Reinette de Canada.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Apr.
+  Ashmead's Kernel  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Apr.
+  White Winter Calville (grown under glass) . Dec.-Mar.
+  Braddick's Nonpareil .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Dec.-Apr.
+  Court-pendu Plat  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Dec.-Apr.
+  Northern Spy.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Dec.-May
+  Cornish Gilliflower  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Dec.-May
+  Scarlet Nonpareil .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Jan.-Mar.
+  Cockle's Pippin.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Jan.-Apr.
+  Lamb Abbey Pearmain  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Jan.-May
+  Old Nonpareil  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Jan.-May
+  Duke of Devonshire.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Feb.-May
+  Sturmer Pippin .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Feb.-June
+
+    Kitchen Apples.
+
+  Keswick Codlin .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Aug.-Sept.
+  Lord Suffield  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Aug.-Sept.
+  Manks Codlin.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Aug.-Oct.
+  Ecklinville Seedling .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Aug.-Nov.
+  Stirling Castle.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Aug.-Nov.
+  New Hawthornden.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Sept.-Oct.
+  Stone's Seedling  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Sept.-Nov.
+  Emperor Alexander .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Sept.-Dec.
+  Waltham Abbey Seedling  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Sept.-Jan.
+  Cellini  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Oct., Nov.
+  Gravenstein .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Oct.-Dec.
+  Hawthornden .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Oct.-Dec.
+  Baumann's Red Winter Reinette .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Mar.
+  Mere de Menage .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Oct.-Mar.
+  Beauty of Kent .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Oct.-Feb.
+  Yorkshire Greening.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Oct.-Feb.
+  Gloria Mundi.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Jan.
+  Blenheim Pippin.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Feb.
+  Tower of Glammis  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Feb.
+  Warner's King  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Mar.
+  Alfriston.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Apr.
+  Northern Greening .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Apr.
+  Reinette de Canada.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-Apr.
+  Bess Pool.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-May
+  Winter Queening.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-May
+  Lane's Prince Albert .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Oct.-May
+  Norfolk Beaufin.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . Nov.-July
+
+Apples for table use should have a sweet juicy pulp and rich aromatic
+flavour, while those suitable for cooking should possess the property of
+forming a uniform soft pulpy mass when boiled or baked. In their
+uncooked state they are not very digestible, but when cooked they form a
+very safe and useful food, exercising a gentle laxative influence.
+
+According to Hutchison their composition is as follows:--
+
+  +-------+-------+---------+--------+--------+------+--------+------+
+  |       |Water. | Proteid.| Ether  | Carbo- | Ash. | Cellu- |Acids.|
+  |       |       |         |Extract.|hydrate.|      |  lose. |      |
+  |       +-------+---------+--------|--------|------+--------+------+
+  | Fresh | 82.5  |   0.4   |  0.5   |  12.5  | 0.4  |  2.7   | 1.0  |
+  | Dried | 36.2  |   1.4   |  3.0   |  49.1  | 1.8  |  4.9   | 3.6  |
+  +-------+-------+---------+--------+--------+------+--------+------+
+
+Many exotic fruits, having nothing in common with the apple; are known
+by that name, e.g. the Balsam apple, _Momordica Balsamina_; the custard
+apple (q.v.), _Anona reticulata_; the egg apple, _Solanum esculentum_;
+the rose apple, various species of _Eugenia_; the pineapple (q.v.),
+_Ananas sativus_; the star apple, _Chrysophyllum Cainito_; and the
+apples of Sodom, _Solanum sodomeum_.     (A. B. R.)
+
+
+
+
+APPLEBY, a market town and municipal borough, and the county town of
+Westmorland, England, in the Appleby parliamentary division, 276 m.
+N.N.W. from London, on the Midland and a branch of the North Eastern
+railways. Pop. (1901) 1764. It is picturesquely placed in the valley of
+the Eden, which is richly wooded, and flanked on the north-east by spurs
+of Milburn Forest and Dufton and other fells, which rise up to 2600 ft.
+On a hill above the town stands the castle, retaining a fine Norman keep
+and surrounded by a double moat, now partly laid out as gardens. The
+remainder of the castle was rebuilt as a mansion in the 17th century. It
+was held for the royalists in the civil wars by Sir Philip Musgrave, and
+was the residence of Anne, countess of Pembroke, the last of the family
+of Clifford, which had great estates in this part of England. St Ann's
+hospital for thirteen poor women (1654) was of her foundation. The
+grammar school (1453) was refounded by Queen Elizabeth. The modern
+incorporation dates from 1885, with a mayor, four aldermen and twelve
+councillors. Area, 1876 acres.
+
+Appleby is not mentioned in any Saxon records, but after the Conquest it
+rose to importance as the head of the barony of Appleby which extended
+over the eastern portion of the present county of Westmorland. This
+barony formed part of the province of Carlisle granted by Henry I. to
+Ranulf Meschin, who erected the castle at Appleby and made it his place
+of residence. Appleby is a borough by prescription, and the old charter
+of incorporation, granted in the first year of James II., was very
+shortly abandoned. In 1292 we find the mayor and commonalty claiming the
+right to elect a coroner and to have tolls of markets and fairs. In 1685
+the governing body comprised a mayor, aldermen, a town clerk, burgesses
+of the common council, a coroner and subordinate officers. An undated
+charter from Henry II. conceding to the burgesses the customs of York,
+Was confirmed in 1 John, 16 Henry III., 14 Edward I., and 5 Edward III.
+John granted the borough to the burgesses for a fee-farm rent. The
+impoverishment caused by the Scottish raids led to its seizure by Edward
+II. for arrears of payment, but Edward III. restored it on the same
+terms as before. Henry VIII. reduced the fee-farm rent from 20 marks to
+2 marks, after an inquisition which found that Appleby was burnt by the
+Scots in 1388 and that part of it still lay in ruins. The town, however,
+never seems to have regained its prosperity, and 16th and 17th century
+writers speak of it as a poor and insignificant village. Appleby
+returned two members to parliament from 1295 until disfranchised by the
+Reform Act of 1832. The market and the St Lawrence fair are held by
+prescription. James I. granted an additional fair on the second Thursday
+in April. In the early 18th century Appleby was celebrated for the best
+corn-market in the country.
+
+  See _Victoria County History, Westmorland_; W. Hewitson, _Appleby
+  Charters_ (Cumberl. and Westm. Antiq. and Archaeol. Soc.,
+  Transactions, xi. 279-285; Kendal, 1891).
+
+
+
+
+APPLETON, NATHAN (1770-1861) American merchant and politician, was born
+in New Ipswich, New Hampshire, on the 6th of October 1779. He was
+educated in the New Ipswich Academy, and in 1794 entered mercantile life
+in Boston, in the employment of his brother, Samuel (1766-1853), a
+successful and benevolent man of business, with whom he was in
+partnership from 1800 to 1809. He co-operated with Francis C. Lowell
+and others in introducing the power-loom and the manufacture of cotton
+on a large scale into the United States, a factory being established at
+Waltham, Massachusetts, in 1814, and another in 1822 at Lowell,
+Massachusetts, of which city he was one of the founders. He was a member
+of the general court of Massachusetts in 1816, 1821, 1822, 1824 and
+1827, and in 1831-1833 and 1842 of the national House of
+Representatives, in which he was prominent as an advocate of protective
+duties. He died in Boston on the 14th of July 1861.
+
+His son, THOMAS GOLD APPLETON (1812-1884), who graduated at Harvard in
+1831, had some reputation as a writer, an artist and a patron of the
+fine arts, but was better known for his witticisms, one of which, the
+oft-quoted "Good Americans, when they die, go to Paris," is sometimes
+attributed to Oliver Wendell Holmes. He published some poems and, in
+prose, _Nile Journal_ (1876), _Syrian Sunshine_ (1877), _Windfalls_
+(1878), and _Chequer-Work_ (1879).
+
+  See the memoir of Nathan Appleton by Robert C. Winthrop (Boston,
+  1861); and Susan Hale's _Life and Letters of Thomas Gold Appleton_
+  (New York, 1885).
+
+
+
+
+APPLETON, a city and the county-seat of Outagamie county, Wisconsin,
+U.S.A., on the lower Fox river, about 90 m. N. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890)
+11,869; (1900) 15,085, of whom 3605 were foreign-born; (1910, census)
+16,773. It is served by the Chicago & North-Western, and the Chicago,
+Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by steamboats on the Fox river, by
+means of which it meets lake transportation at De Pere and Green Bay.
+Appleton was one of the first cities in the United States to have an
+electric street railway line in operation; and electric street railways
+now traverse the entire Fox river valley as far as Fond du Lac on the
+south and Green Bay on the north. The city is attractively laid out on
+high bluffs above the river. It has several beautiful parks, two
+hospitals, a number of fine churches and school buildings, and a public
+library. The city is the seat of Lawrence college (changed from
+university in 1908), an interdenominational (originally a Methodist
+Episcopal) co-educational institution, founded in 1847 as the Lawrence
+Institute of Wisconsin and named in honour of Amos Adams Lawrence
+(1814-1886) of Boston, son of Amos Lawrence, and giver of $10,000 for
+the founding of the Institute. The college comprises an academy, a
+college of liberal arts, a school of expression, a school of commerce,
+schools of music and of art, and a school of correspondence; and in
+1907-1908 had 33 instructors, 575 students and a library of 24,400
+volumes. The Fox river furnishes about 10,000 h.p., which is largely
+utilized for the manufacture of paper (of which Appleton is one of the
+largest producers in the United States), wood-pulp, sulphite fibre,
+machinery, wire screens, woollen goods, knit goods, furniture, dyes and
+flour. The total value of factory products in 1905 was $6,672,457, an
+increase of 72.8% over the product value of 1900. Appleton was first
+permanently settled in 1833, and was named in honour of Samuel Appleton
+of Massachusetts, who owned part of the original town plot. It was
+incorporated as a village in 1853, and received in 1857 a city charter,
+which was revised in 1887 and in 1905.
+
+
+
+
+APPOGGIATURA (from Ital. _appoggiare_, to lean upon), a musical term for
+a melodic ornament, a grace-note prefixed to a principal note and
+printed in small character. The effect is to suspend the principal note,
+by taking away the time-value of the _appoggiatura_ prefixed to it.
+There are two kinds, the long _appoggiatura_, now usually printed as
+played, and the short, where the suspension of the principal note is
+scarcely perceptible; this is often called _acciatura_, a word properly
+applied to an ornament now obsolete, in which a principal note in a
+melody is struck together with the note immediately below, the lower
+note being at once released and the other held on.
+
+
+
+
+APPOINTMENT, POWER OF, in English law, an authority reserved by or
+limited to a person, to dispose, either wholly or partially, of real or
+personal property, either for his own benefit or for that of others.
+Thus if A settle property upon trustees to such uses as B shall by deed
+or will appoint and in default of and until such appointment to the use
+of C and his heirs, B, though he has no interest in the property, can at
+any time appoint the property to any one he pleases, including himself,
+and C's interest which has hitherto been vested in him will be divested.
+In the above case A is said to be the donor, B the donee, and the
+persons in whose favour the appointment is exercised are called the
+appointees. Such powers are either general or limited. A general power
+is one which the appointor may exercise in favour of any person he
+pleases. It is obvious that such a power is very nearly equivalent to
+ownership, and consequently property which is the subject of a general
+power has been made to share the liabilities of ownership. By the
+Judgments Act 1838 all hereditaments over which a judgment debtor has
+such a power may be seized by the sheriff under a writ of _elegit_, and
+by the Bankruptcy Act 1883 similar property will vest in the trustees of
+a bankrupt. By the Finance Act 1894 property of which the deceased had a
+general power of appointment is subject to the payment of estate duty,
+even though the power has not been exercised. A limited power is one
+which can only be exercised in favour of certain specified persons or
+classes; such a power is frequently inserted in marriage settlements in
+which after life estates to the husband and wife a power is given to
+appoint among the children of the marriage. In such a case no
+appointment to any one but children of the marriage is valid. Formerly
+it was held that the intention of the donor of such a power was that
+each of the class which are the objects of the power should take some
+part of the fund, and from this arose the equitable doctrine of illusory
+appointments, by which the courts of equity set aside an appointment
+which was good at law on the ground that a merely nominal share had been
+appointed to one of the objects. The great difficulty of deciding what
+was a nominal or illusory share caused the passing of the Illusory
+Appointments Act of 1830, whereby it was enacted that no appointment
+should be set aside merely on the ground that a share appointed was
+illusory. It was still necessary, however, that some share should be
+appointed to each object, and consequently it was possible in the
+popular phrase to be "cut off with a shilling," but now by the Powers
+Amendment Act 1874 the appointor is no longer obliged to appoint a share
+to each object of the power.
+
+It is a general rule that every circumstance required by the instrument
+creating the power to accompany the execution of it must be strictly
+observed. Thus it might be required that the appointment should be by an
+instrument witnessed by four witnesses, or that the consent in writing
+of some third party should be signified. The general rule, however, has
+been modified both by statute and by the rules of equity. By the Wills
+Act 1837 a will made pursuant to the requirements of that statute shall
+be a valid execution of a power of appointment by will, notwithstanding
+that some additional form or solemnity shall have been required by the
+instrument creating the power, and by the Wills Act 1861 a will made out
+of the United Kingdom by a British subject according to the forms
+required by the law of the place where the will was made shall, as
+regards personal estate, be held to be well executed and admitted to
+probate; consequently it has been held that an appointment made by such
+a will is a valid exercise of the power. As regards appointments by deed
+the Law of Property Amendment Act 1859 enacts that a deed attested by
+two witnesses shall, so far as execution and attestation go, be a valid
+exercise of a power to appoint by deed. The courts of equity also will
+interfere in some cases of defective execution in order to carry out the
+intentions of the settlor. The principle upon which the court acts is
+obscure, but the rule has been thus stated:--"Whenever a man having
+power over an estate, whether ownership or not, in discharge of moral or
+natural relations, shows an intention to execute such power, the court
+will operate upon the conscience of the heir (or of the persons entitled
+in default) to make him perfect this intention." Equity, however, only
+relieves against defects not of the essence of the power, such as the
+absence of seal or execution by will instead of deed, but where the
+defect is of the essence of the power, as where a consent is not
+obtained, equity will not assist, nor will it relieve where a power to
+appoint by will is purported to be exercised by deed. A power of
+appointment if exercised must be exercised bona fide, otherwise it will
+be void as fraudulent; thus it has been frequently decided that where a
+father, having a limited power of appointment among his children,
+appoints the whole fund to an infant child, who is in no need of the
+appointment and who is ill, in the expectation of the death of the child
+whereby the fund will come to him as next of kin, such appointment is
+void as a fraud upon the power. Where an execution is partly fraudulent
+and partly valid the court will, if possible, separate the two and only
+revoke that which is fraudulent; if, however, the two parts are not
+separable the whole is void. The same rule is applied in cases of
+excessive execution where the power is exercised in favour of persons
+some of whom are and some of whom are not objects of the power. The
+doctrine of _Election_ (q.v.) applies to appointments under powers, but
+there must be a gift of free and disposable property to the persons
+entitled in default of appointment.
+
+The appointment must in law be read into the instrument creating the
+power in lieu of the power itself. Thus an appointor under a limited
+power cannot appoint to any person to whom the donor could not have
+appointed by reason of the rule against perpetuities, but this is not so
+in the case of a general power, for there the appointor is virtually
+owner of the property appointed. In applying this rule to appointments a
+distinction arises between powers created by deed and will, for a deed
+speaks from the date of its execution but a will from the death of the
+testator, and so limitations bad when the will was made may have become
+good when it comes into operation. Since the Conveyancing Act 1881 all
+powers may be released by the donees thereof, unless the power is
+coupled with a trust in respect of which there is a duty cast on the
+donee to exercise it; and this is so even though the donee gets a
+benefit by such release as one entitled in default of appointment, for
+this is not a fraud upon the power.     (E. S. M. B.)
+
+
+
+
+APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE, a village of Appomattox county, Virginia,
+U.S.A., 25 m. E. of Lynchburg, in the S. part of the state. It is served
+by the Norfolk & Western railway. The village was the scene of the
+surrender of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia under General
+Robert E. Lee to the Federal forces under Lieutenant-General U.S. Grant
+on Sunday the 9th of April 1865. The terms were: "the officers to give
+their individual paroles not to take up arms against the government of
+the United States until properly exchanged, and each company or
+regimental commander to sign a like parole for the men of their
+commands," ... neither "side arms of the officers nor their private
+horses or baggage" to be surrendered; and, as many privates in the
+Confederate Army owned horses and mules, all horses and mules claimed by
+men in the Confederate Army to be left in their possession.
+
+
+
+
+APPONYI, ALBERT, COUNT (1846-   ), Hungarian statesman, the most
+distinguished member of an ancient noble family, dating back to the 13th
+century, and son of the chancellor Gyorgy Apponyi (1808-1899) and the
+accomplished and saintly Countess Julia Sztaray, was born at Pesth on
+the 29th of May 1846. Educated at the Jesuit seminary at Kalksburg and
+at the universities of Vienna and Pesth, a long foreign tour completed
+his curriculum, and at Paris he made the acquaintance of Montalembert, a
+kindred spirit, whose influence on the young Apponyi was permanent. He
+entered parliament in 1872 as a liberal Catholic, attaching himself at
+first to the Deak party; but the feudal and ultramontane traditions of
+his family circle profoundly modified, though they could never destroy,
+his popular ideals. On the break up of the Deak party he attached
+himself to the conservative group which followed Baron Pal Senynyey
+(1824-1888) and eventually became its leader. Until 1905 Count Albert
+was constantly in opposition, but in May of that year he consented to
+take office in the second Wekerle ministry. A lofty and magnetic orator,
+his speeches were published at Budapest in 1896; and he is the author of
+an interesting dissertation, _Esthetics and Politics, the Artist and the
+Statesman_ (Hung.) (Budapest, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+APPORTIONMENT (Fr. _apportionement;_ Med. Lat. _apportionamentum;_
+derived from Lat. portio, share), distribution or allotment in proper
+shares; a term used in law in a variety of senses, (1) Sometimes it is
+employed roughly and with no technical meaning to indicate the
+distribution of a benefit (e.g. salvage or damages under the Fatal
+Accidents Act 1846, S 2), or liability (e.g. general average
+contributions, or tithe rent-charge), or the incidence of a duty (e.g.
+obligations as to the maintenance of highways). (2) In its strict legal
+interpretation apportionment falls into two classes, "apportionment in
+respect of estate" and "apportionment in respect of time."
+
+1. _Apportionment in respect of Estate_ may result either from the act
+of the parties or from the operation of law. Where a lessee is evicted
+from, or surrenders or forfeits possession of part of the property
+leased to him, he becomes liable at common law to pay only a rent
+apportioned to the value of the interest which he still retains. So
+where the person entitled to the reversion of an estate assigns part of
+it, the right to an apportioned part of the rent incident to the whole
+reversion passes to his assignee. The lessee is not bound, however, by
+an apportionment of rent made upon the grant of part of the reversion
+unless it is made either with his consent or by the verdict of a jury.
+The assignee of the reversion of part of demised premises could not, at
+common law, re-enter for breach of a condition, inasmuch as a condition
+of re-entry in a lease could not at common law be apportioned. But this
+has now been altered by statute both in England (Law of Property
+Amendment Act 1859, S 3; Conveyancing Act 1881, S 12) and in many of the
+British colonies (e.g. Ontario, Rev. Stats., 1897, c. 170, S 9;
+Barbados, No. 12 of 1891, S 9). In the cases just mentioned there is
+apportionment in respect of estate by act of the parties.
+
+  _Apportionment by operation of law_ may be brought about where by act
+  of law a lease becomes inoperative as regards its subject-matter, or
+  by the "act of God" (as, for instance, where part of an estate is
+  submerged by the encroachments of the sea). To the same category
+  belongs the apportionment of rent which takes place under various
+  statutes (e.g. the Lands Clauses Consolidation Act 1845, S 119, when
+  land is required for public purposes; the Agricultural Holdings Act
+  1883, S 41, in the case of a tenant from year to year receiving notice
+  to quit part of a holding; and the Irish Land Act 1903, S 61,
+  apportionment of quit and crown rents).
+
+_2. Apportionment in respect of Time._--At common law, there was no
+apportionment of rent in respect of time. Such apportionment was,
+however, in ceftain cases allowed in England by the Distress for Rent
+Act 1737, and the Apportionment Act 1834, and is now allowed generally
+under the Apportionment Act 1870. Under that statute (S 2) all rents,
+annuities, dividends and other periodical payments in the nature of
+income are to be considered as accruing from day to day and to be
+apportionable in respect of time accordingly. It is provided, however,
+that the apportioned part of such rents, &c., shall only be payable or
+recoverable in the case of a continuing payment, when the entire portion
+of which it forms part itself becomes payable, and, in the case of a
+payment determined by re-entry, death or otherwise, only when the next
+entire portion would have been payable if it had not so determined (S
+3). Persons entitled to apportioned parts of rent have the same remedies
+for recovering them when payable as they would have had in respect of
+the entire rent; but a lessee is not to be liable for any apportioned
+part specifically. The rent is recoverable by the heir or other person
+who would, but for the apportionment, be entitled to the entire rent,
+and he holds it subject to distribution (S 4). The Apportionment Act
+1870 extends to payments not made under any instrument in writing (S 2),
+but not to annual sums made payable in policies of insurance (S 6).
+Apportionment under the act can be excluded by express stipulation.
+
+The apportionment created by this statute is "apportionment in respect
+of time." The cases to which it applies are mainly cases of either (A)
+apportionment of rent due under leases where at a time between the dates
+fixed for payment the lessor or lessee dies, or some other alteration in
+the position of parties occurs; or (B) apportionment of income between
+the representatives of a limited owner and the remainder-man when the
+limited interest determines at a time between the date when such income
+became due.
+
+  (A) With regard to the former of these classes, it may be noticed that
+  although apportioned rent becomes payable only when the whole rent is
+  due, the landlord, in the case of the bankruptcy of an ordinary
+  tenant, may prove for a proportionate part of the rent up to the date
+  of the receiving order (Bankruptcy Act 1883, Sched. ii. r. 19); and
+  that a similar rule holds good in the winding up of a company (_in re
+  South Kensington Co-operative Stores_, 1881, 17 Ch.D. 161); and
+  further that the act of 1870 applies to the liability to pay, as well
+  as to the right to receive, rent (_in re Wilson_, 1893, 62 L.J.Q.B.
+  628, 632). Accordingly where an assignment of a lease is made between
+  two half-yearly rent-days, the assignee is not liable to pay the full
+  amount of the half-year's rent falling due on the rent-day next after
+  the date of the assignment, but only an apportioned part of that
+  half-year's rent, computed from the last mentioned date (_Glass_ v.
+  _Patterson_, 1902, 2 Ir.R. 660).
+
+  (B) With regard to the apportionment of income, the only points
+  requiring notice here are that all dividends payable by public
+  companies are apportionable, whether paid at fixed periods or not,
+  unless the payment is, in effect, a payment of capital (S 5).
+
+The Apportionment Act 1870 extends to Scotland and Ireland. It has been
+followed in many of the British colonies (e.g. Ontario, Rev. Stats.,
+1897, c. 170, SS 4-8; New Zealand, No. 4 of 1886; Tasmania, No. 8 of
+1871; Barbados, No. 12 of 1891, SS 9-12). Similar legislation has been
+adopted in many of the states of the American Union, where, as in
+England, rent was not, at common law, apportionable as to time (Kent,
+_Comm_. iii. 469-472).
+
+An _equitable apportionment_, apart from statute law, arises where
+property is bequeathed on trust to pay the income to a tenant for life
+and the reversion to others, and the realization of the property in the
+form of a fund capable of producing income is postponed for the benefit
+of the estate. In such cases there is an ultimate apportionment between
+the persons entitled to the income and those entitled to the capital of
+the accumulations for the period of such postponement. The rule followed
+is this: the proceeds, when realized, are apportionable between capital
+and income by ascertaining the sum which, put out and accumulated at 3%
+_per annum_ from the day of the testator's death (with yearly rents and
+deducting income tax) would have produced at the day of receipt the sum
+actually received. The sum so ascertained should be treated as capital
+and the residue as income. (_In re Earl of Chesterfield's Trusts_, 1883,
+24 Ch.D. 643; _In re Goodenough_, 1895, 2 Ch. 537; _Rowlls_ v. _Bebb_,
+1900, 2 Ch. 107.)
+
+  In addition to the authorities cited in the text, see Stroud, _Jud.
+  Dict._ (2nd ed., London, 1903), s.v. "Apportion"; Bouvier, _Law Dict._
+  (London and Boston, 1897), s.v. "Apportionment"; _Ruling Cases_
+  (London, 1895), tit. "Apportionment"; Fawcett, _Landlord and Tenant_
+  (London, 1905), pp. 238 et seq.; Foa, _Landlord and Tenant_ (3rd ed.,
+  London, 1901), pp. 112 et seq.     (A. W. R.)
+
+
+
+
+APPORTIONMENT BILL, an act passed by the Congress of the United States
+after each decennial census to determine the number of members which
+each state shall send to the House of Representatives. The ratio of
+representation fixed by the original constitution was 1 to 30,000 of the
+free population, and the number of the members of the first House was
+65. As the House would, at this ratio, have become unmanageably large,
+the ratio, which is first settled by Congress before apportionment, has
+been raised after each census, as will be seen from the accompanying
+table.
+
+  +-----------------+-------------------+------+---------+-----------+
+  |                 |       Census      |  Apportionment |   Whole   |
+  |     Under       +------+------------+------+---------+ Number of |
+  |                 | Year | Population | Year |   Ratio | Represe-  |
+  |                 |      |            |      |         | ntatives  |
+  +-----------------+------+------------+------+---------+-----------+
+  | Constitution    |  ..  |     ..     | 1789 |  30,000 |     65    |
+  | First Census    | 1790 |  3,929,214 | 1793 |  33,000 |    105    |
+  | Second Census   | 1800 |  5,308,483 | 1803 |  33,000 |    141    |
+  | Third Census    | 1810 |  7,239,881 | 1813 |  35,000 |    181    |
+  | Fourth Census   | 1820 |  9,633,822 | 1823 |  40,000 |    213    |
+  | Fifth Census    | 1830 | 12,866,020 | 1833 |  47,700 |    240    |
+  | Sixth Census    | 1840 | 17,069,453 | 1843 |  70,680 |    223    |
+  | Seventh Census  | 1850 | 23,191,876 | 1853 |  93,423 |    234    |
+  | Eighth Census   | 1860 | 31,443,321 | 1863 | 127,381 |    241    |
+  | Ninth Census    | 1870 | 38,558,371 | 1873 | 131,425 |    292    |
+  | Tenth Census    | 1880 | 50,155,783 | 1883 | 151,911 |    325    |
+  | Eleventh Census | 1890 | 62,622,250 | 1893 | 173,901 |    356    |
+  | Twelfth Census  | 1900 | 75,568,686 | 1903 | 194,182 |    386    |
+  +-----------------+------+------------+------+---------+-----------+
+
+The same term is applied to the acts passed by the state legislatures
+for correcting and redistributing the representation of the counties.
+Such acts are usually passed at decennial intervals, more often after
+the federal census, but the dates may vary in different states. The
+state representatives are usually apportioned among the several counties
+according to population and not by geographical position. The electoral
+districts so formed are expected to be equal in proportion to the number
+of inhabitants; but this method has led to much abuse in the past,
+through the making of unequal districts for partisan purposes. (See
+GERRYMANDER.)
+
+If a state has received an increase in the number of its representatives
+and its legislature does not pass an apportionment bill before the next
+congressional election, the votes of the whole state elect the
+additional members on a general ticket and they are called
+"congressmen-at-large."
+
+
+
+
+APPRAISER (from Lat. _appretiare_, to value), one who sets a value upon
+property, real or personal. In England the business of an appraiser is
+usually combined with that of an auctioneer, while the word itself has
+given place, to a great extent, to that of "valuer." (See the articles
+AUCTIONS AND AUCTIONEERS, and VALUATION AND VALUERS.)
+
+In the United States appraiser is a term often used to describe a person
+specially appointed by a judicial or quasi-judicial authority to put a
+valuation on property, e.g. on the items of an inventory of the estate
+of a deceased person or on land taken for public purposes by the right
+of eminent domain. Appraisers of imported goods and boards of general
+appraisers have extensive functions in administering the customs laws of
+the United States. Merchant appraisers are sometimes appointed
+temporarily under the revenue laws to value where there is no resident
+appraiser without holding the office of appraiser (U.S. Rev. Stats. S
+2609).
+
+
+
+
+APPREHENSION (Lat. _ad_, to; _prehendere_, to seize), in psychology, a
+term applied to a mode of consciousness in which nothing is affirmed or
+denied of the object in question, but the mind is merely aware of
+("seizes") it. "Judgment" (says Reid, ed. Hamilton, i. p. 414) "is an
+act of the mind specifically different from simple apprehension or the
+bare conception of a thing"; and again, "Simple apprehension or
+conception can neither be true nor false." This distinction provides for
+the large class of mental acts in which we are simply aware of or "take
+in" a number of familiar objects, about which we in general make no
+judgment unless our attention is suddenly called by a new feature. Or
+again two alternatives may be apprehended without any resultant judgment
+as to their respective merits. Similarly G.F. Stout points out that
+while we have a very vivid idea of a character or an incident in a work
+of fiction, we can hardly be said in any real sense to have any belief
+or to make any judgment as to its existence or truth. With this mental
+state may be compared the purely aesthetic contemplation of music,
+wherein apart from, say, a false note, the faculty of judgment is for
+the time inoperative. To these examples may be added the fact that one
+can fully understand an argument in all its bearings without in any way
+judging its validity.
+
+Without going into the question fully, it may be pointed out that the
+distinction between judgment and apprehension is relative. In every kind
+of thought there is judgment of some sort in a greater or less degree of
+prominence. Judgment and thought are in fact psychologically
+distinguishable merely as different, though correlative, activities of
+consciousness. Professor Stout further investigates the phenomena of
+apprehension, and comes to the conclusion that "it is possible to
+distinguish and identify a whole without apprehending any of its
+constituent details." On the other hand, if the attention focuses
+itself for a time on the apprehended object, there is an expectation
+that such details will as it were emerge into consciousness. Hence he
+describes such apprehension as "implicit," and in so far as the implicit
+apprehension determines the order of such emergence he describes it as
+"schematic." A good example of this process is the use of formulae in
+calculations; ordinarily the formula is used without question; if
+attention is fixed upon it, the steps by which it is shown to be
+universally applicable emerge and the "schema" is complete in detail.
+
+With this result may be compared Kant's theory of apprehension as a
+synthetic act (the "synthesis of apprehension") by which the sensory
+elements of a perception are subjected to the formal conditions of time
+and space.
+
+  See G.F. Stout, _Analytic Psychology_ (London, 1896); F. Brentano,
+  _Psychologie_ (bk. ii. ch. vii.), and _Vom Ursprung sittlicher
+  Erkenntnis_; B. Titchener, _Outlines of Psychology_ (New York, 1902),
+  and text-books of psychology. Also PSYCHOLOGY.
+
+
+
+
+APPRENTICESHIP (from Fr. _apprendre_, to learn), a contract whereby one
+person, called the master, binds himself to teach, and another, called
+the apprentice, undertakes to learn, some trade or profession, the
+apprentice serving his master for a certain time.
+
+Roman law is silent on the subject on this contract, nor does it seem to
+have had any connexion with the division of the Roman citizens into
+tribes or colleges. So far as can be seen it arose in the middle ages,
+and formed an integral part of the system of trade gilds and
+corporations by which skilled labourers of all kinds sought protection
+against the feudal lords, and the maintenance of those exclusive
+privileges with which in the interests of the public they were favoured.
+In those times it was believed that neither arts nor sciences would
+flourish unless such only were allowed to practise them as had given
+proofs of reasonable proficiency and were formed into bodies corporate,
+with certain powers of self-government and the exclusive monopoly of
+their respective arts within certain localities; and the medieval
+_universitas_ (corporation)--whether of smiths and tailors or of
+scholars--included both such as were entitled to practise and teach and
+such as were in course of learning. The former were the masters, the
+latter the apprentices. Hence the term _apprentice_ was applied
+indifferently to such as were being taught a trade or a learned
+profession, and even to undergraduates or scholars who were qualifying
+themselves for the degree of doctor or master in the liberal arts. When
+barristers were first appointed by Edward I. of England they were styled
+_apprenticii ad legem_--the serjeants-at-law being _servientes ad
+legem_; and these two terms corresponded respectively to the trade names
+of apprentices and journeymen. During the middle ages the term of
+apprenticeship was seven years, and this period was thought no more than
+sufficient to instruct the learner in his profession, craft or mystery
+under a properly qualified master, teacher or doctor--for these names
+were synonymous--and to reimburse the latter by service for the training
+received. After this the apprentice became himself a master and a member
+of the corporation, with full rights to practise the business and to
+teach others in his turn; so also it would seem that undergraduates had
+to pass through a curriculum of seven years before they could attain the
+degree of doctor or master in the liberal arts. On the continent of
+Europe these rules were observed with considerable rigour, both in the
+learned professions and in those which we now designate as trades. In
+England they made their way more slowly and did not receive much
+countenance, there being always a jealousy of anything savouring of
+interference with the freedom of trade. Nevertheless the formation of
+gilds and companies of tradesmen in England dates probably from the 12th
+century, and the institution of apprenticeships cannot be of much later
+date. In 1388 and 1405 it is noticed in acts of parliament. By various
+subsequent statutes provisions were made for the regulation of the
+institution, and from them it appears that seven years was its ordinary
+and normal term in the absence of special arrangement. By a statute of
+1562 this was made the law of the land, and it was enacted that no
+person should exercise any "trade or mystery" without having served a
+seven years' apprenticeship. In no place did the apprentices become so
+formidable by their numbers and organization as in London. During the
+Great Rebellion they took an active part as a political body, and were
+conspicuous after the Restoration by being frequently engaged in
+tumults. It was probably owing to this circumstance, quite as much as to
+economic considerations of freedom of trade, that the act of Elizabeth
+never found much favour with the courts of law. Soon after the Great
+Rebellion we find the apprentice laws strongly reprobated by the judges,
+who endeavoured, on the theory that the act of Elizabeth could apply to
+no trades which were not in existence at its date, to limit its
+operation as far as possible. Such limitation of the act gave rise to
+many absurd anomalies and inconsistencies, e.g. that a coachmaker could
+not make his own wheels but must buy them of a wheelwright, while the
+latter might make both wheels and coaches, because coach-making was not
+a trade in England when the act of Elizabeth was passed. For the like
+reason the great textile and metal manufactures which arose at
+Manchester and Birmingham were held exempt from the operation of the
+statute. Concurrently with the dislike to the apprentice laws which such
+anomalies generated, the doctrines of Adam Smith, that all monopolies or
+restrictions on the freedom of trade were injurious to the public
+interest, had gradually been making their way, and notwithstanding much
+opposition an act was passed in 1814 by which the statute of Elizabeth,
+in so far as it enacts that no person shall engage in any trade without
+a seven years' apprenticeship, was wholly repealed. The effect of this
+act was to give every person the fullest right to exercise any
+occupation or calling of a mechanical or trading kind for which he
+deemed himself qualified.
+
+Apprenticeship, therefore, which was formerly a compulsory, now became a
+voluntary contract. In the case of the learned professions the
+principles and theories which gave birth to corporations with
+monopolies, and required apprenticeship or its equivalents,
+have--contrary to what has taken place in trade--been not only
+maintained but intensified; that is to say, not only have such bodies
+retained and even extended in some cases their exclusive privileges, but
+in general no one is allowed to practise in such professions unless his
+capabilities have been tested and approved by public authority. Thus no
+man is allowed to practise law or medicine in any of their branches who
+has not undergone the appropriate training by attendance at a university
+or by apprenticeship--sometimes by both combined--and passed certain
+examinations. Entrance to the church is guarded by similar checks. In
+such instances the old principle--now generally abandoned in trade--of
+granting a monopoly to those possessing a certain standard of
+qualification is maintained in greater vigour than ever.
+
+In some kinds of manufacture the old conditions have been modified by
+the subdivisions of labour or by the introduction of machinery, which
+have reduced the amount of skill which formerly was requisite, and thus
+they have passed out of the category of the higher skilled handicrafts,
+as only a very slight or short training is necessary to make an
+efficient worker; but a large number of the higher skilled trades remain
+which require a long period of training at the bench, and a careful
+inquiry into this subject has shown that in nearly all of such trades
+there is a scarcity of skilled workers, which is due to the falling off
+in the number of apprenticeships. Many persons qualified to form an
+opinion deplore that something in the nature of the old standard of
+qualification is not still applied to those trades, and consider that
+the only method of restoring a high standard of skill is by
+apprenticeship. The decay of apprenticeship in these trades is due, not
+to any inherent defect in the system, nor to its having been superseded
+by any other form of technical education, but to difficulties,
+especially in London and some other large towns, which place it beyond
+the reach of that class of persons who have the greatest need of it.
+Among these difficulties are:--first, insufficient organization, and
+secondly, want of funds to pay premiums where such are required. These
+difficulties are accentuated in London and some other large towns, but
+in many other districts apprenticeship is actively proceeded with.
+Efforts are being made, notably by the National Institution of
+Apprenticeship, to meet these difficulties. The Charity Commissioners in
+their report for 1905 recognized the value of this institution, and
+stated that they would in future enable the trustees of charity
+endowments for apprenticeship to avail themselves of the practical
+co-operation of the institution. The modern trade unions, on the other
+hand, have done nothing to assist in restoring apprenticeship to its
+proper place; on the contrary, they have hampered it by restrictions
+which they have imposed, limiting the number of apprentices who may be
+taken. The result of fewer apprentices has been not only to lower the
+standard of skill in the higher trades, but to reduce the productive
+capacity of the artisans. The altered conditions now attending
+apprenticeship are, mainly, that the apprentice does not live with the
+master, and that the term is generally five years instead of a longer
+period; but the principle remains precisely the same, and the fact that
+it is applied more and more largely in Austria, Germany and other
+countries is an evidence of its necessity.
+
+The contract of apprenticeship is generally created by indenture, but
+any writing properly expressed and attested will do. The full
+consideration must be set out, and the instrument, whether a premium is
+paid or not, must be duly stamped, except in the case of parish
+apprentices and apprentices to the sea service (see SEAMEN, LAWS
+RELATING TO). Where a charity or institution intervenes, it retains
+control over the indentures until the end of the term of apprenticeship,
+when the indenture should be cancelled and given up to the apprentice.
+Any one who is capable of making a contract can take an apprentice, and
+the law does not limit the number which may be taken by any master. Any
+person of legal capacity can bind himself as an apprentice, provided he
+is over seven years of age, though, as he is by the common law exempt
+from all liability _ex contractu_, it is usual for the apprentice's
+relations or friends to become bound for his service and good conduct
+during the period of his apprenticeship. The consent of the apprentice,
+however, must be expressed by his executing the indenture. No child
+under nine can be bound as a parish apprentice. The master must teach
+the apprentice the agreed trade or trades; should the master exercise
+two trades (which he has agreed to teach) and give up one, it would be
+good ground for dissolving the contract by the apprentice. An apprentice
+is not bound to work on Sundays, but he may be required to work on bank
+holidays. He cannot become a volunteer (soldier) without his master's
+consent. It is usual in the indenture to state whether the apprentice is
+to be paid wages or otherwise. If the contract is to pay wages, no
+deduction can be made owing to illness or accident, unless it has been
+so provided for in the indentures. Nor is the apprentice liable for
+breakages or similar faults. The master has been supposed to have a
+right to administer moderate corporal punishment, though he may not
+delegate it. But this right is really obsolete. According to old custom
+a master provided proper food for his apprentices, and medical
+attendance when required; but the modern practice is for apprentices to
+reside with their parents or friends who maintain them. A master cannot
+assign indentures without the approval of the apprentice or such parties
+as are named in the contract for this purpose, even if he should
+transfer his business. The contract of apprenticeship may be dissolved
+by (1) efflux of time; (2) by death (if the master dies, some part of
+the premium is usually returnable, but if the apprentice dies no part is
+returnable); (3) by consent; (4) in case of grave misconduct; (5) under
+the Bankruptcy Act 1883, providing for discharge of the indentures of
+apprenticeship and for payment on account of premium. Disputes between
+master and apprentice, in cases where no premium has been paid, or where
+the premium does not exceed L25, are dealt with by courts of summary
+jurisdiction. Apprentices bound according to the "custom of London," who
+are infants above the age of fourteen years and under twenty-one and
+unmarried, are responsible upon covenants contained in indentures
+executed by them just as if they were of full age. The term of
+apprenticeship is usually not less than four years. Apprentices by the
+custom of London in agreements made at the Guildhall are subject to the
+jurisdiction of the chamberlain of London.
+
+Parish apprentices are those bound out by guardians of the poor in
+England. By the Poor Relief Act 1601, overseers of the poor were
+empowered, with the consent of two justices, to put out poor children as
+apprentices "where they shall be convenient." Owing to the
+disinclination to receive such apprentices it became necessary to make
+the reception compulsory (1696), but this compulsion to receive them was
+abolished in 1844. Many statutes have been passed from time to time
+regulating the apprenticing of parish children, but it is now under the
+control of the Local Government Board, which issues rules specifying
+fully the manner in which such children are to be bound, assigned and
+maintained.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--See E. Austin, _Law Relating to Apprentices_ (1890);
+  Addison, _On Contracts_ (1905). For the state of apprenticeship in
+  European countries, and, more particularly in France, see
+  _Apprentissage, enquete et documents_ (Paris, 1904, Conseil Superieur
+  du Travail, Ministere du Commerce, de l'Industrie, des Postes et des
+  Telegraphes, session de 1902). See also the literature issued by the
+  National Institution of Apprenticeship, London.     (J. S. B.)
+
+
+
+
+APPROPRIATION (from Lat. _appropriare_, to set aside), the act of
+setting apart and applying to a particular use to the exclusion of all
+other. In ecclesiastical law, appropriation is the perpetual annexation
+of an ecclesiastical benefice to the use of some spiritual corporation,
+either aggregate or sole. In the middle ages in England the custom grew
+up of the monasteries reserving to their own use the greater part of the
+tithes of their appropriated benefices, leaving only a small portion to
+their vicars in the parishes. On the dissolution of the monasteries
+these "great tithes" were often granted, with the monastic lands, to
+laymen, whose successors, known as "lay impropriators" or "lay rectors,"
+still hold them, the system being known as _impropriation_.
+Appropriation may be severed and the church become disappropriate, by
+the presentation of a clerk, properly instituted and inducted, or by the
+dissolution of the corporation possessing the benefice.
+
+In the law of debtor and creditor, appropriation of payments is the
+application of a particular payment for the purpose of paying a
+particular debt. When a creditor has two debts due to him from the same
+debtor on distinct accounts, the general law as to the appropriation of
+payments made by the debtor is that the debtor is entitled to apply the
+payments to such account as he thinks fit; _solvitur in modum
+solventis_. In default of appropriation by the debtor the creditor is
+entitled to determine the application of the sums paid, and may
+appropriate them even to the discharge of debts barred by the Statute of
+Limitations. In default of appropriation by either debtor or creditor,
+the law implies an appropriation of the earlier payments to the earlier
+debts.
+
+In constitutional law, appropriation is the assignment of money for a
+special purpose. In the United Kingdom an Appropriation Bill is a bill
+passed at the end of each session of parliament, enumerating the money
+grants made during the session, and appropriating the various sums, as
+voted by committee of supply, to the various purposes for which it is to
+be applied. The United States constitution (art. I. S 9) says: "No money
+shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations
+made by law." Bills for appropriating money originate in the House of
+Representatives, but may be amended in the Senate.
+
+
+
+
+APPURTENANCES (from late Lat. _appertinentia_, from _appertinere_, to
+appertain), a legal term for what belongs to and goes with something
+else, the accessories or things usually conjoined with the substantive
+matter in question.
+
+
+
+
+APRAKSIN, THEDOR MATVYEEVICH (1671-1728), Russian soldier, began life as
+one of the pages of Tsar Theodore III., after whose death he served the
+little tsar Peter in the same capacity. The playfellowship of the two
+lads resulted in a lifelong friendship. In his twenty-first year
+Apraksin was appointed governor of Archangel, then the most important
+commercially of all the Russian provinces, and built ships capable of
+weathering storms, to the great delight of the tsar. He won his
+colonelcy at the siege of Azov (1696). In 1700 he was appointed chief of
+the admiralty, in which post (from 1700 to 1706) his unusual technical
+ability was of great service. While Peter was combating Charles XII.,
+Apraksin was constructing fleets, building fortresses and havens
+(Taganrog). In 1707 he was transferred to Moscow. In 1708 he was
+appointed commander-in-chief in Ingria, to defend the new capital
+against the Swedes, whom he utterly routed, besides capturing Viborg in
+Carelia. He held the chief command in the Black Sea during the campaign
+of the Pruth (1711), and in 1713 materially assisted the conquest of
+Finland by his operations from the side of the sea. In 1710-1720 he
+personally conducted the descents upon Sweden, ravaging that country
+mercilessly, and thus extorting the peace of Nystad, whereby she
+surrendered the best part of her Baltic provinces to Russia. For these
+great services he was made a senator and admiral-general of the empire.
+His last expedition was to Reval in 1726, to cover the town from an
+anticipated attack by the English government, with whom the relations of
+Russia at the beginning of the reign of Catharine I. were strained
+almost to breaking-point. Though frequently threatened with terrible
+penalties by Peter the Great for his incurable vice of peculation,
+Apraksin, nevertheless, contrived to save his head, though not his
+pocket, chiefly through the mediation of the good-natured empress,
+Catharine, who remained his friend to the last, and whom he assisted to
+place on the throne on the death of Peter. Apraksin was the most genial
+and kind-hearted of all Peter's pupils. He is said to have never made an
+enemy. He died on the 10th of November 1728.
+
+  See R. Nisbet Bain, _The Pupils of Peter the Great_ (London, 1897).
+       (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+APRICOT (from the Lat. _praecox_, or _praecoquus_, ripened early,
+_coquere_, to cook, or ripen; the English form, formerly "apricock" and
+"abrecox," comes through the Fr. _abricot_, from the Span.
+_albaricoque_, which was an adaptation of the Arabic _al-burquk_, itself
+a rendering of the late Gr. [Greek: prekokkia] or [Greek: praikokion],
+adapted from the Latin; the derivation from _in aprico cactus_ is a mere
+guess), the fruit of _Prunus armeniaca_, also called _Armeniaca
+vulgaris_. Under the former name it is regarded as a species of the
+genus to which the plums belong, the latter establishes it as a distinct
+genus of the natural order _Rosaceae_. The apricot is, like the plum, a
+stone fruit, cultivated generally throughout temperate regions, and used
+chiefly in the form of preserves and in tarts. The tree has long been
+cultivated in _Armenia_ (hence the name _Armeniaca_); it is a native of
+north China and other parts of temperate Asia. It flowers very early in
+the season, and is a hardy tree, but the fruit will scarcely ripen in
+Britain unless the tree is trained against a wall. A great number of
+varieties of the apricot, as of most cultivated fruits, are
+distinguished by cultivators. The kernels of several varieties are
+edible, and in Egypt those of the Musch-Musch variety form a
+considerable article of commerce. The French liqueur _Eau de noyaux_ is
+prepared from bitter apricot kernels. Large quantities of fruit are
+imported from France into the United Kingdom.
+
+The apricot is propagated by budding on the mussel or common plum stock.
+The tree succeeds in good well-drained loamy soil, rather light than
+heavy. It is usually grown as a wall tree, the east and west aspects
+being preferred to the south, which induces mealiness in the fruit,
+though in Scotland the best aspects are necessary. The most usual and
+best mode of training is the fan method. The fruit is produced on shoots
+of the preceding year, and on small close spurs formed on the
+two-year-old wood. The trees should be planted about 20 ft. apart. The
+summer pruning should begin early in June, at which period all the
+irregular foreright and useless shoots are pinched off; and, shortly
+afterwards, those which remain are fastened to the wall. At the winter
+pruning all branches not duly furnished with spurs and fruit buds are
+removed. The young bearing shoots are moderately pruned at the points,
+care being, however, taken to leave a terminal shoot or leader to each
+branch. The most common error in the pruning of apricots is laying in
+the bearing shoots too thickly; the branches naturally diverge in fan
+training, and when they extend so as to be about 15 in. apart, a fresh
+branch should be laid in, to be again subdivided as required. The
+blossoms of the apricot open early in spring, but are more hardy than
+those of the peach; the same means of protection when necessary may be
+employed for both. If the fruit sets too numerously, it is thinned out
+in June and in the beginning of July, the later thinnings being used for
+tarts. In the south of England, where the soil is suitable, the hardier
+sorts of apricot, as the Breda and Brussels, bear well as standard trees
+in favourable seasons. In such cases the trees may be planted from 20 to
+25 ft. apart.
+
+The ripening of the fruit of the apricot is accelerated by culture under
+glass, the trees being either planted out like peaches or grown in pots
+on the orchard-house system. They must be very gently excited, since
+they naturally bloom when the spring temperature is comparatively low.
+At first a maximum of 40 deg. only must be permitted; after two or three
+weeks it may be raised to 45 deg., and later on to 50 deg. and 55 deg.,
+and thus continued till the trees are in flower, air being freely
+admitted, and the minimum or night temperature ranging from 40 deg. to
+45 deg. After the fruit is set the temperature should be gradually
+raised, being kept higher in clear weather than in dull. When the fruit
+has stoned, the temperature may be raised to 60 deg. or 65 deg. by day
+and 60 deg. by night; and for ripening off it may be allowed to reach 70
+deg. or 80 deg. by sun heat.
+
+The Moorpark is one of the best and most useful sorts in cultivation,
+and should be planted for all general purposes; the Peach is a very
+similar variety, not quite identical; and the Hemskerk is also similar,
+but hardier. The Large Early, which ripens in the end of July and
+beginning of August, and the Kaisha, a sweet-kernelled variety, which
+ripens in the middle of August, are also to be recommended. For standard
+trees in favourable localities the Breda and Brussels may be added.
+
+
+
+
+APRIES ([Greek: Apries]), the name by which Herodotus (ii. 161) and
+Diodorus (i. 68) designate _Uehabre'_, [Greek: Onaphres]
+(Pharaoh-Hophra), the fourth king (counting from Psammetichus I.) of the
+twenty-sixth Egyptian dynasty. He reigned from 589 to 570 B.C. See EGYPT
+and AMASIS.
+
+
+
+
+APRIL, the second month of the ancient Roman, and the fourth of the
+modern calendar, containing thirty days. The derivation of the name is
+uncertain. The traditional etymology from Lat. _aperire_, "to open," in
+allusion to its being the season when trees and flowers begin to "open,"
+is supported by comparison with the modern Greek use of [Greek: anoixis]
+(opening) for spring. This seems very possible, though, as all the Roman
+months were named in honour of divinities, and as April was sacred to
+Venus, the _Festum Veneris et Fortunae Virilis_ being held on the first
+day, it has been suggested that Aprilis was originally her month
+Aphrilis, from her Greek name Aphrodite. Jacob Grimm suggests the name
+of a hypothetical god or hero, _Aper_ or _Aprus_. On the fourth and the
+five following days, games (_Ludi Megalenses_) were celebrated in honour
+of Cybele; on the fifth there was the _Festum Fortunae Publicae_; on the
+tenth (?) games in the circus, and on the nineteenth equestrian combats,
+in honour of Ceres; on the twenty-first--which was regarded as the
+birthday of Rome--the _Vinalia urbana_, when the wine of the previous
+autumn was first tasted; on the twenty-fifth, the _Robigalia_, for the
+averting of mildew; and on the twenty-eighth and four following days,
+the riotous _Floralia_. The Anglo-Saxons called April _Oster-monath_ or
+_Eostur-monath_, the period sacred to _Eostre_ or _Ostara_, the pagan
+Saxon goddess of spring, from whose name is derived the modern Easter.
+St George's day is the twenty-third of the month; and St Mark's Eve,
+with its superstition that the ghosts of those who are doomed to die
+within the year will be seen to pass into the church, falls on the
+twenty-fourth. In China the symbolical ploughing of the earth by the
+emperor and princes of the blood takes place in their third month, which
+frequently corresponds to our April; and in Japan the feast of Dolls is
+celebrated in the same month. The "days of April" (_journees d'avril_)
+is a name appropriated in French history to a series of insurrections at
+Lyons, Paris and elsewhere, against the government of Louis Philippe in
+1834, which led to violent repressive measures, and to a famous trial
+known as the _proces d'avril_.
+
+  See Chambers's _Book of Days_; Grimm's _Geschichte der deutschen
+  Sprache_. Cap. "Monate"; also APRIL-FOOLS' DAY.
+
+
+
+
+APRIL-FOOLS' DAY, or ALL-FOOLS' DAY, the name given to the 1st of April
+in allusion to the custom of playing practical jokes on friends and
+neighbours on that day, or sending them on fools' errands. The origin of
+this custom has been much disputed, and many ludicrous solutions have
+been suggested, e.g. that it is a farcical commemoration of Christ being
+sent from Annas to Caiaphas, from Caiaphas to Pilate, from Pilate to
+Herod, and from Herod back again to Pilate, the crucifixion having taken
+place about the 1st of April. What seems certain is that it is in some
+way or other a relic of those once universal festivities held at the
+vernal equinox, which, beginning on old New Year's day, the 25th of
+March, ended on the 1st of April. This view gains support from the fact
+that the exact counterpart of April-fooling is found to have been an
+immemorial custom in India. The festival of the spring equinox is there
+termed the feast of Huli, the last day of which is the 31st of March,
+upon which the chief amusement is the befooling of people by sending
+them on fruitless errands. It has been plausibly suggested that Europe
+derived its April-fooling from the French. They were the first nation to
+adopt the reformed calendar, Charles IX. in 1564 decreeing that the year
+should begin with the 1st of January. Thus the New Year's gifts and
+visits of felicitation which had been the feature of the 1st of April
+became associated with the first day of January, and those who disliked
+the change were fair butts for those wits who amused themselves by
+sending mock presents and paying calls of pretended ceremony on the 1st
+of April. Though the 1st of April appears to have been anciently
+observed in Great Britain as a general festival, it was apparently not
+until the beginning of the 18th century that the making of April-fools
+was a common custom. In Scotland the custom was known as "hunting the
+gowk," i.e. the cuckoo, and April-fools were "April-gowks," the cuckoo
+being there, as it is in most lands, a term of contempt. In France the
+person befooled is known as _poisson d'avril_. This has been explained
+from the association of ideas arising from the fact that in April the
+sun quits the zodiacal sign of the fish. A far more natural explanation
+would seem to be that the April fish would be a young fish and therefore
+easily caught.
+
+
+
+
+A PRIORI (Lat. a, from, _prior, prius_, that which is before, precedes),
+(1) a phrase used popularly of a judgment based on general
+considerations in the absence of particular evidence; (2) a logical term
+first used, apparently, by Albert of Saxony (14th century), though the
+theory which it denotes is as old as Aristotle. In the order of human
+knowledge the particular facts of experience come first and are the
+basis of generalized laws or causes (the Scholastic _notiora nobis_);
+but in the order of nature the latter rank first as the self-existent,
+fundamental truths of existence (_notiora naturae_). Thus to Aristotle
+the _a priori_ argument is from law or cause to effect, as opposed to
+what we call _a posteriori_ (_posterior_, subsequent, derived), from
+effect to cause. Since Kant the two phrases have become purely
+adjectival (instead of adverbial) with a technical controversial sense,
+closely allied to the Aristotelian, in relation to knowledge and
+judgments generally. _A priori_ is applied to judgments which are
+regarded as independent of experience, and belonging to the essence of
+thought; _a posteriori_ to those which are derived from particular
+observations. The distinction is analogous to that between analysis and
+synthesis, deduction and induction (but there may be a synthesis of _a
+priori_ judgments, cf. Kant's "Synthetic Judgment _a priori_"). Round
+this distinction a rather barren controversy has raged, and almost all
+modern philosophers have labelled themselves either "Intuitionalist" (_a
+priori_) or "Empiricist" (_a posteriori_) according to the view they
+take of knowledge. In fact, however, the rival schools are generally
+arguing at cross purposes; there is a knowledge based on particulars,
+and also a knowledge of laws or causes. But the two work in different
+spheres, and are complementary. The observation of isolated particulars
+gives not necessity, but merely strong probability; necessity is purely
+intellectual or "transcendental." If the empiricist denies the
+intellectual element in scientific knowledge, he must not claim absolute
+validity for his conclusions; but he may hold against the intuitionalist
+that absolute laws are impossible to the human intellect. On the other
+hand, pure _a priori_ knowledge can be nothing more than form without
+content (e.g. formal logic, the laws of thought). The simple fact at the
+bottom of the controversy is that in all empirical knowledge there is an
+intellectual element, without which there is no correlation of empirical
+data, and every judgment, however simple, postulates a correlation of
+some sort if only that between the predicate and its contradictory.
+
+
+
+
+APRON (a corruption arising from a wrong division of "a napron" into "an
+apron," from the Fr. _naperon, napperon_, a diminutive of _nappe_, Lat.
+_mappa_, a napkin), an article of costume used to protect the front of
+the clothes. It forms part of the ceremonial dress of Freemasons. The
+"apron" worn by church dignitaries is a shortened cassock (q.v.). The
+word has many technical uses, as for the protecting slope in front of
+the sill of dock-gates, or at the foot of weirs.
+
+
+
+
+APSARAS, in Hindu mythology, a female spirit of the clouds and waters.
+In the Rig-Veda there is one Apsaras, wife of Gandharva; in the later
+scriptures there are many Apsaras who act as the handmaidens of Indra
+and dance before his throne. They are able to change their form, and
+specially rule over the fortunes of gaming. One of their duties is to
+guide to paradise the heroes who fall in battle, whose wives they then
+become. They are distinguished as _daivika_ ("divine") or _laukika_
+("worldly").
+
+
+
+
+APSE (Gr. [Greek: apsis], a fastening, especially the felloe of a wheel;
+Lat. _absis_), in architecture, a semicircular recess covered with a
+hemispherical vault. The term is applied also to the termination to the
+choir, transept or aisle of any church which is either semicircular or
+polygonal in plan, whether vaulted or covered with a timber roof; a
+church is said to be "apsidal" when it terminates in an apse.
+
+The earliest example of an apse is found in the temple of Mars Ultor at
+Rome (2 B.C.), and it formed afterwards the favourite feature
+terminating the rear of any temple, and one which gave importance to the
+statue of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated. Its use by the
+Romans was not confined to the temples, as it is found in the palaces on
+the Palatine Hill, the great Thermae (Baths) and other monuments. In the
+civil basilicas the apse was screened off by columns, and constituted
+the court of justice. In the Ulpian (Trajan's) Basilica the apses at
+each end were of such great dimensions as to come better under the
+definition of hemicycles (q.v.). In these apses the floor was raised,
+and had an altar placed in the centre of its chord, where sacrifices
+were made prior to the sittings. The only other two Roman basilicas in
+which the semicircular apse can still be traced are that commenced by
+Maxentius and completed by Constantine at Rome and the basilica at Trier
+(Treves).
+
+In the earliest Christian basilica, St Peter's at Rome, built 330 A.D.,
+the apse, 57 ft. in diameter, raised above the confessio or crypt, was
+placed at the west end of the church. This orientation was originally
+followed in the churches of St Paul and St Lawrence (S. Lorenzo fuori le
+Mura), both outside the walls of Rome, and is found in most of the
+churches at Rome. On the other hand, in the Byzantine church, the apse
+was built at the east end of the church.
+
+During the reign of Justin the Second (A.D. 565-574), owing to a change
+in the liturgy, two more apses were added, one on each side of the
+central apse. These in the Greek Church were provided not to hold altars
+but for ceremonial purposes. One of the earliest examples is found in
+the church of St Nicholas at Myra of the 6th century, and the basilica
+erected in the great court of the temple at Baalbek shows the triple
+apse. The earliest example in Rome is found in the church of Sta Maria
+in Cosmedin (772-795), built probably by Greek craftsmen, who had been
+exiled by the Iconoclasts. Other triapsal choirs are found in the
+cathedral of Parenzo (542 A.D.), in St Mark's, Venice, in Sta Fosca and
+the Duomo at Torcello, and in numerous examples throughout Italy and
+Germany. In central Syria there is one example only, at Kalat Seman,
+where the side apses were a later addition.
+
+There is one important distinction to be drawn between the Byzantine and
+the Latin apses; they are both semicircular internally, but externally
+the former are nearly always polygonal. It follows, therefore, that in
+those churches in Italy where the apse is polygonal externally, it is a
+sign of direct Byzantine influence. This is found in St Mark's, Venice;
+Sta Fosca, Torcello; Murano; nearly all the churches at Ravenna; and in
+the Crusaders' churches throughout Syria.
+
+In the Coptic church in Egypt we find other characteristics; in the
+churches of the Red and White Monasteries, attributed to St Helena, an
+unusual depth is given to the apse, in the walls of which niches are
+sunk; in the church of St John at Antinoe there are no fewer than seven.
+Similar niches are found in the apses of St Mark's, Venice, built in
+A.D. 828, it is said in imitation of St Mark's in Alexandria, to receive
+the relics of St Mark brought over from there.
+
+[Illustration: Apse of the White Monastery.]
+
+In a large number of the apses in the Coptic churches the seats round
+the apse with the bishop's throne in the centre are still preserved; of
+these the best examples are at Abu Sargah, Al 'Adra and Abu-s-Sifain.
+Unfortunately there are no remains of the fittings in the tribunes of
+the ancient Roman basilicas, but those in St Peter's at Rome, which were
+probably copied from them, are recorded in drawings, there being two or
+three rows of stone seats with the papal throne in the centre. It is
+possible also that some may still exist in the other early Christian
+basilicas at Rome, but there have been so many changes that it is not
+possible to trace them. In the cathedral of Parenzo in Istria (A.D.
+532-535), the hemicycle of marble seats for the clergy with the
+episcopal chair in the centre still exists. A similar arrangement is
+found in the apse of the church of the 6th century attached to the
+church of St Helena in the island of Paros, where there are eight steep
+grades of semicircular stone seats with the bishop's chair in the
+centre. The aspect of the interior of this apse has in consequence very
+much the appearance of a Roman theatre. A third example, better known,
+exists at Torcello, with six concentric seats rising one above the
+other, and in the centre the episcopal chair with a flight of thirteen
+steps down in front of it.
+
+In the basilica at Bethlehem, the east end of which was reconstructed
+probably in the 5th century, apses of similar dimensions to the eastern
+apse were built at the north and south end of the transept. The same
+disposition is found in the Coptic churches of the Red and White
+Monasteries just referred to, in the church of St Elias at Salonica (c.
+1012), the cathedral of Echmiadzin in Armenia, at Vatopedi, Mt. Athos,
+and some other Byzantine churches. An early example in France exists in
+the church of Germigny-des-Pres on the Loire (806; rebuilt 1868), where
+the three apses are horseshoe on plan, and the same is found in the
+church at Oberzell in the island of Reichenau, Lake of Constance, except
+that the eastern apse there is square. Small examples also are found at
+Querqueville and at St Wandrille near Caudebec, both in Normandy, but
+the finest development takes place in the church of St Maria im Capitol
+at Cologne, where the aisles are carried round both the northern and
+southern apses. The same feature exists in the cathedral of Tournai in
+Belgium and the churches at Cambrai, Soissons and Valenciennes (the last
+destroyed at the Revolution) in France, and also in the cathedrals of
+Como and of Pisa in Italy. Without aisles, there are examples in the
+churches of the Apostles and of St Martin at Cologne; St Quirinus at
+Neuss; at Roermond; St Cross, Breslau; the cathedral of Bonn; and, at a
+later date, in the Marienkirche at Trier; S. Elizabeth at Marburg; the
+church of Sta Maria-del-Fiore at Florence; and the cathedral of Parma.
+
+In consequence of a change made in the orientation of apses in the 6th
+or 7th century, others were subsequently added at the west end of
+existing churches, and this is considered to have been the case at
+Canterbury; but in the German churches sometimes apses were built from
+the first at both ends, such as are shown on the manuscript plan of St
+Gall, of the 9th century. Western apses exist at Gernrode; Drubeck;
+Huyseburg; the Obermunster of Regensburg; St Godehard in Hildesheim; the
+cathedrals of Worms and Trier; the Abbey church of Laach; the Minster at
+Bonn; and in St Pietro-in-Grado near Pisa.
+
+The triapsal churches, to which we have referred, are those in which the
+side apses form the termination of the side aisles; but where there are
+transepts, the aisles are sometimes not continued beyond them, and the
+expansion of the transept to north and south gives more ample space for
+apses; of these there are many examples, as in the Abbey church of Laach
+in Germany; at Romsey; Christchurch, Hants; Gloucester, Ely, Norwich and
+Canterbury cathedrals, in England; and at St Georges de Boscherville in
+France; sometimes there being space for two apses on each side.
+
+In the beginning of the 13th century in France, the apses became
+radiating chapels outside the choir aisle, henceforth known as the
+chevet. These radiating chapels would seem to have been suggested in
+Norwich and Canterbury cathedrals, but the feature is essentially a
+French one and in England is found only in Westminster Abbey, into which
+it was introduced by Henry III., to whom the chevets of Amiens, Beauvais
+and Reims were probably well known.     (R. P. S.)
+
+
+
+
+APSE and APSIDES, in mechanics, either of the two points of an orbit
+which are nearest to and farthest from the centre of motion. They are
+called the lower or nearer, and the higher or more distant apsides
+respectively. The "line of apsides" is that which joins them, forming
+the major axis of the orbit.
+
+
+
+
+APSINES of Gadara, a Greek rhetorician, who flourished during the 3rd
+century A.D. After studying at Smyrna, he taught at Athens, and gained
+such a reputation that he was raised to the consulship by the emperor
+Maximinus (235-238). He was the friend of Philostratus, the author of
+the _Lives of the Sophists_, who speaks of his wonderful memory and
+accuracy. Two rhetorical treatises by him are extant: [Greek: technae
+raetorikae], a handbook of rhetoric greatly interpolated, a considerable
+portion being taken from the _Rhetoric_ of Longinus; and a smaller work,
+[Greek: perhi eschaematismenon problaematon], on Propositions maintained
+figuratively.
+
+  Editions by Bake, 1849; Spengel-Hammer in _Rhetores Graeci_, ii.
+  (1894): see also Hammer, _De Apsine Rhetore_ (1876); Volkmann,
+  _Rhetorik der Griechen und Romer_ (1885).
+
+
+
+
+APT, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of Vaucluse, on
+the left bank of the Coulon, 41 m. E. of Avignon by rail. Pop. (1906)
+4990. The town was formerly surrounded by massive ancient walls, but
+these have now been for the most part replaced by boulevards; many of
+its streets are narrow and irregular. The chief object of interest is
+the church of Sainte-Anne (once the cathedral), the building of which
+was begun about the year 1056 on the site of a much older edifice, but
+not completed until the latter half of the 17th century. Many Roman
+remains have been found in and near the town. A fine bridge, the Pont
+Julien, spanning the Coulon below the town, dates from the 2nd or 3rd
+century. A tribunal of first instance and a communal college are the
+chief public institutions. The chief manufactures are silk,
+confectionery and earthenware; and there is besides a considerable trade
+in fruit, grain and cattle. Apt was at one time the chief town of the
+Vulgientes, a Gallic tribe; it was destroyed by the Romans about 125
+B.C. and restored by Julius Caesar, who conferred upon it the title
+_Apta Julia_; it was much injured by the Lombards and the Saracens, but
+its fortifications were rebuilt by the counts of Provence. The
+bishopric, founded in the 3rd century, was suppressed in 1790.
+
+
+
+
+APTERA (Greek for "wingless"), a term in zoological classification
+applied by Linnaeus to various groups of wingless arthropods, including
+some of the insects, the centipedes, the millipedes, the Arachnida
+(scorpions, spiders, &c.) and the Crustacea. In modern zoology the term
+has become restricted to the lowest order of the class Hexapoda or true
+insects. This order includes the bristle-tails and the springtails.
+
+[Illustration: From _Knowledge_
+
+FIG. 1.--A typical Thysanuran (_Machilus maritima_). Female, ventral
+view.
+
+  ii.-x., Appendages on 2nd to 10th abdominal segments. The eversible
+    sacs on the abdominal segments are shown, some protruded and some
+    retracted.
+  Ovp, Ovipositor.
+  Mn, Mandible, and Mxl, maxillula, dissected out of head.]
+
+Many wingless insects--such as lice, fleas and certain earwigs and
+cockroaches--are placed in various orders together with winged insects
+to which they show evident relationships. In such cases the absence of
+wings must be regarded as secondary--due to a parasitic or other special
+manner of life. But the bristle-tails and springtails, which form the
+modern order Aptera, are all without any trace of wings, and, on account
+of several remarkable archaic characters which they exhibit, there is
+reason for believing that they are primitively wingless--that they
+represent an early offshoot which sprang from the ancestral stock of the
+Hexapoda before organs of flight had been acquired by the class.
+
+_Characters._--In addition to the complete absence of wings and of
+metamorphosis, the Aptera are characterized by peculiar elongate
+mandibles (figs. 1, Mn.; 2, 4), with toothed apex and sub-apical
+grinding surface, like those of certain Crustacea; by the presence
+between the mandibles and maxillae of a pair of appendages (superlinguae
+or maxillulae), fig. 1, Mxl., which are absent or vestigial in all other
+insects; and, in most genera, by the presence in the adult of abdominal
+appendages used for locomotion, these latter varying in number from one
+to nine pairs. Among peculiarities of the internal organs the segmental
+arrangement of the ovaries in most members of the order is noteworthy.
+Many Aptera are covered with flattened scales like those of moths.
+
+_Classification._--The Aptera are divided into two divergent sub-orders,
+the _Thysanura_ (q.v.) or bristle-tails, and the _Collembola_ or
+springtails.
+
+_Thysanura._--The bristle-tails have an abdomen of eleven segments, the
+tenth usually carrying a pair of long many-jointed tail-feelers (cerci,
+fig. 1, x.); sometimes a median, jointed tail-appendage is also present.
+To these feelers the popular name is due. There may also be abdominal
+appendages--in the form of simple unjointed stylets (fig. 1, ii.-ix.),
+accompanied by paired eversible sacs, probably respiratory in
+function--on eight (or fewer) other abdominal segments. The head of a
+bristle-tail carries a pair of compound eyes and a pair of elongate
+many-jointed feelers.
+
+The air-tube system is developed in varying degree in different
+bristle-tails, the number of pairs of spiracles being three
+(_Campodea_), nine (_Machilis_), ten (_Lepisma_), or eleven (_Japyx_).
+
+Four families of Thysanura are usually recognized. In the _Machilidae_
+and _Lepismidae_ (these two families are known as the Ectotrophi) the
+maxillae are like those of typical biting insects, and there is a median
+tail-bristle in addition to the paired cerci; while in the _Campodeidae_
+and _Japygidae_ (which form the group Entotrophi) the jaws are
+apparently sunk in the head, through a deep inpushing at the mouth, and
+there is no median tail-bristle. The cerci in _Japyx_ are not, as usual,
+jointed feelers, but strong, curved appendages forming a forceps as in
+earwigs.
+
+[Illustration: From Carpenter, _Proc. R. Dub. Soc._, vol. xi.
+
+FIG. 2.--Structure of Collembola.
+
+  1. _Isotoma hibernica_. Side view.
+  2.        "             Ocelli and post-antennal organ of right side.
+  3.        "             Tip of terminal antennal segment with antennal
+                            organ.
+  4.        "             Mandible.
+  5.        "             Tip of left dens with mucro. Outer view.
+  6.        "             Hind-foot with claws. X 240.
+  7. _Entomobrya anomala_. Catch.]
+
+_Collembola._--In springtails, or _Collembola_, the jaws are sunk into
+the head, as in the entotrophous Thysanura; the head carries a pair of
+feelers with not more than six (usually four) segments, and there are
+eight (or fewer) distinct simple eyes on each side of the head (fig. 2,
+1, 2). These are in some genera like the single elements (_ommatidia_)
+of a compound insect eye, in others like simple ocelli. The abdomen
+consists of six segments only. The first of these usually carries a
+ventral tube, furnished with paired eversible sacs which assist the
+insects in walking on smooth surfaces, and perhaps serve also as organs
+for breathing. From the researches of V. Willem it appears that the
+viscid fluid which causes the adherence of the ventral tube is secreted
+by a pair of glands in the head whose ducts open into a superficial
+groove leading from the second maxillae backward to the tube on the
+first abdominal segment. The third abdominal segment usually carries a
+pair of short appendages whose basal segments are fused together; this
+is the "catch" (fig. 2, 7), whose function is to hold in place the
+"spring," which is formed by the fourth pair of abdominal
+appendages--also with fused basal segments. In most Collembola the
+spring appears to belong to the fifth abdominal somite, but Willem, by
+study of the muscles, has shown that it really belongs to the fourth.
+The fused basal segments of the appendages form the "manubrium" of the
+spring, which carries the two "dentes" (usually elongate and flexible),
+each with a "mucro" at its tip (fig. 2, 5). The fifth abdominal segment
+is the genital, and the sixth the anal somite.
+
+The spring serves the Collembola which possess it as an efficient
+leaping-organ (see SPRINGTAIL). But in some genera it is greatly reduced
+and in many quite vestigial.
+
+Most springtails are without air-tubes, and breathe through the general
+cuticle of the body. But in one family (_Sminthuridae_) a spiracle,
+opening on either side between the head and the prothorax, leads to a
+branching system of air-tubes. The _Sminthuridae_ are further
+characterized by the globular abdomen, which shows but little external
+trace of segmentation, and by the well-developed spring.
+
+In the _Entomobryidae_ the body is elongate and clearly segmented, but
+the dorsal region (tergum) of the prothorax is much reduced and the head
+downwardly directed; the spring is well developed. In the _Achorutidae_
+the head is forwardly directed, the tergum of the prothorax conspicuous,
+and the spring small or vestigial.
+
+In many genera of springtails a curious post-antennal organ, consisting
+of sensory structures (often complex in form) surrounded by a firm ring,
+is to be noticed on the cuticle of the head between the eyes and the
+feelers. It may be of use as an organ of smell. Other sensory organs
+occur on the third and fourth antennal segments in the _Achorutidae_ and
+_Entomobryidae_ (fig. 2, 3).
+
+_Distribution and Habits._--The Aptera are probably the most widely
+distributed of all insects. Among the bristle-tails we find the genus
+_Machilis_, represented in Europe (including the Faeroe Islands) and in
+Chile; while _Campodea_ lives high on the mountains and in the deepest
+caves. The springtails have even a wider distribution. The genus
+_Isotoma_, for example, has some of its numerous species in regions so
+remote as Alaska, Franz Josef Land, the Sandwich Islands, the South
+Orkneys, Graham Land, Kerguelen and South Victoria Land. As it is
+unlikely that these delicate insects could be transported across
+sea-channels, their wide and discontinuous range suggests both their
+great antiquity and the former existence of continental tracts over
+which they may have travelled to their present stations.
+
+Springtails and bristle-tails live in damp concealed places--under
+stones or tree-bark, in moss, and in the decaying vegetable or animal
+matter which serves as food for most of them. Some species, however, eat
+fresh plant-tissues. A species of bristle-tail (_Machilis maritima_) and
+quite a number of springtails haunt the sea-coast at or below high-water
+mark. In such localities many thousands of individuals may sometimes be
+found associated together. The insect fauna of limestone caves both in
+Europe and North America is largely composed of Aptera, especially
+Collembola.
+
+_Geological History._--A supposed Thysanuran from the Silurian of New
+Brunswick has been described by G.F. Matthew, and another genus from the
+French Carboniferous by C. Brongniart. Not till the Tertiary do we find
+remains of Aptera in any quantity, species both of living and extinct
+genera being represented in the amber.
+
+_Development._--The embryonic development of several genera of Aptera,
+which has been carefully studied, will be more suitably described in
+comparison with that of other insects than here (see HEXAPODA).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The modern study of the Aptera may be said to date from
+  the classical memoirs of T. Tullberg, "Sveriges Podurider," in _Kongl.
+  Svensk Vetensk. Akad. Handl._ x., 1872, and Sir J. Lubbock (Lord
+  Avebury), "Monograph of the Collembola and Thysanura," _Ray Society_,
+  1873. In these, full references to the older literature will be found.
+  Subsequently our knowledge of the Thysanura has been markedly advanced
+  by J.T. Oudemans, _Bijdrage tot de Kennis den Thysanura en Collembola_
+  (Amsterdam, 1888); B. Grassi, who published between 1885 and 1889 a
+  series of memoirs entitled "I progenitori dei Miriapodi e degli
+  Insetti," in the _Atti Accad. di Scienz. Nat. Catania_, and the
+  _Memor. R. Accad. dei Lincei_; and V. Willem, whose "Recherches sur
+  les Collemboles et les Thysanoures," in _Mem. Cour. Acad. Roy.
+  Belgique_, lviii., 1900, are indispensable to the student. In addition
+  to this work of Willem, valuable anatomical papers on Collembola have
+  been published by H.J. Hansen (_Zool. Anz._ xvi., 1893), J.W. Folsom
+  (_Bull. Mus. Comp. Anat. Harv._ xxxv., 1899), C. Borner (_Zool. Anz._
+  xxiii., 1900), and K. Absolon (_Zool. Anz._ xxiii. and xxiv., 1900,
+  1901), the two latter writers having paid especial attention to the
+  peculiar post-antennal and antennal sense-organs of springtails.
+  Absolon has also written on the Collembola of caves. These writers,
+  with H. Schott, C. Schaffer and others, have published many systematic
+  papers on Collembola, as has F. Silvestri on Thysanura. British
+  species are mentioned in Lubbock's monograph; for recent additions see
+  G.H. Carpenter and W. Evans (_Proc. R. Phys. Soc. Edinb._ xiv., 1899,
+  and xv., 1903).     (G. H. C.)
+
+
+
+
+APTERAL (from the Gr. [Greek: apteros], wingless, [Greek: a-], privative
+and [Greek: pteros], a wing), an architectural term applied to
+amphiprostyle temples which have no columns on the sides; in the Ionic
+temple on the Acropolis at Athens known as Nike Apteros, the adjective
+is used, not as applying to the goddess of victory but to the absence of
+any peristyle on the sides.
+
+
+
+
+APTIAN (Fr. _Aptien_, from Apt in Vaucluse, France), in geology, the
+term introduced in 1843 by A. d'Orbigny (_Pal. France Cret._ ii.) for
+the upper stage of the Lower Cretaceous rocks. In England it comprises
+the Lower Greensand and part of the Speeton beds; in France it is
+divided into two sub-stages, the lower, "Bedoulian," of Bedoule in
+Provence, with _Hoplites deshayesei_ and _Ancyloceras Matheroni_; and an
+upper, "Gargasian," from Gargas near Apt, with _Hoplites furcatus_
+(_Dufrenoyi_) and _Phylloceras Guettardi_. To this stage belong the
+_Toucasia_ limestone and _Orbitolina_ marls of Spain; the
+_Schrattenkalk_ (part) of the Alpine and Carpathian regions; and the
+_Terebrirostra_ limestone of the same area. Parts of the Flysch of the
+eastern Alps, the Biancone of Lombardy, and _argile scagliose_ of
+Emilia, are of Aptian age; so also are the "Trinity Beds" of North
+America. Deposits of bauxite occur in the Aptian hippurite limestone at
+Les Baux near Aries, and in the Pyrenees. The Aptian rocks are generally
+clays, marls and green glauconitic sands with occasional limestones.
+(See GREENSAND and CRETACEOUS.)
+
+
+
+
+APULEIUS, LUCIUS, Platonic philosopher and rhetorician, was born at
+Madaura in Numidia about A.D. 125. As the son of one of the principal
+officials, he received an excellent education, first at Carthage and
+subsequently at Athens. After leaving Athens he undertook a long course
+of travel, especially in the East, principally with the view of
+obtaining initiation into religious mysteries. Having practised for some
+time as an advocate at Rome, he returned to Africa. On a journey to
+Alexandria he fell sick at Oea (Tripoli), where he made the acquaintance
+of a rich widow, Aemilia Pudentilla, whom he subsequently married. The
+members of her family disapproved of the marriage, and indicted Apuleius
+on a charge of having gained her affections by magical arts. He easily
+established his innocence, and his spirited, highly entertaining, but
+inordinately long defence (_Apologia_ or _De Magia_) before the
+proconsul Claudius Maximus is our principal authority for his biography.
+From allusions in his subsequent writings, and the mention of him by St.
+Augustine, we gather that the remainder of his prosperous life was
+devoted to literature and philosophy. At Carthage he was elected
+provincial priest of the imperial cult, in which capacity he occupied a
+prominent position in the provincial council, had the duty of collecting
+and managing the funds for the temples of the cult, and the
+superintendence of the games in the amphitheatre. He lectured on
+philosophy and rhetoric, like the Greek sophists, apparently with
+success, since statues were erected in his honour at Carthage and
+elsewhere. The year of his death is not known.
+
+The work on which the fame of Apuleius principally rests has little
+claim to originality. The _Metamorphoses_ or _Golden Ass_ (the latter
+title seems not to be the author's own, but to have been bestowed in
+compliment, just as the _Libri Rerum Quotidianarum_ of Gaius were called
+_Aurei_) was founded on a narrative in the _Metamorphoses_ of Lucius of
+Patrae, a work extant in the time of Photius. From Photius's account
+(impugned, however, by Wieland and Courier), this book would seem to
+have consisted of a collection of marvellous stories, related in an
+inartistic fashion, and in perfect good faith. The literary capabilities
+of this particular narrative attracted the attention of Apuleius's
+contemporary, Lucian, who proceeded to work it up in his own manner,
+adhering, as Photius seems to indicate, very closely to the original,
+but giving it a comic and satiric turn. Apuleius followed this
+rifacimento, making it, however, the groundwork of an elaborate romance,
+interspersed with numerous episodes, of which the beautiful story of
+Cupid and Psyche is the most celebrated, and altering the _denouement_
+to suit the religious revival of which he was an apostle.
+
+The adventures of the youthful hero in the form of an ass are much the
+same in both romances, but in Apuleius he is restored to human shape by
+the aid of Isis, into whose mysteries he is initiated, and finally
+becomes her priestess. The book is a remarkable illustration of the
+contemporary reaction against a period of scepticism, of the general
+appetite for miracle and magic, and of the influx of oriental and
+Egyptian ideas into the old theology. It is also composed with a
+well-marked literary aim, defined by Kretzschmann as the emulation of
+the Greek sophists, and the transplantation of their _tours de force_
+into the Latin language. Nothing, indeed, is more characteristic of
+Apuleius than his versatility, unless it be his ostentation and
+self-confidence in the display of it. The dignified, the ludicrous, the
+voluptuous, the horrible, succeed each other with bewildering rapidity;
+fancy and feeling are everywhere apparent, but not less so affectation,
+meretricious ornament, and that effort to say everything finely which
+prevents anything being said well. The Latinity has a strong African
+colouring, and is crammed with obsolete words, agreeably to the taste of
+the time. When these defects are mitigated or overlooked, the _Golden
+Ass_ will be pronounced a most successful work, invaluable as an
+illustration of ancient manners, and full of entertainment from
+beginning to end. The most famous and poetically beautiful portion is
+the episode of Cupid and Psyche, adapted from a popular legend of which
+traces are found in most fairy mythologies, which explains the seeming
+incongruity of its being placed in the mouth of an old hag. The
+allegorical purport he has infused into it is his own, and entirely in
+the spirit of the Platonic philosophy. Don Quixote's adventure with the
+wine-skins, and Gil Blas's captivity among the robbers, are palpably
+borrowed from Apuleius; and several of the humorous episodes, probably
+current as popular stories long before his time, reappear in Boccaccio.
+
+Of Apuleius's other writings, the _Apology_ has been already mentioned.
+The _Florida_ (probably meaning simply "anthology," without any
+reference to style) consists of a collection of excerpts from his
+declamations, ingenious but highly affected, and in general perfect
+examples of the sophistical art of saying nothing with emphasis. They
+deal with the most varied subjects, and are intended to exemplify the
+author's versatility. The pleasing little tract _On the God of Socrates_
+expounds the Platonic doctrine of beneficent daemons, an intermediate
+class between gods and men. Two books on Plato (_De Platone et Ejus
+Dogmate_) treat of his life, and his physical and ethical philosophy; a
+third, treating of logic, is generally considered spurious. The _De
+Mundo_ is an adaptation of the [Greek: Peri kosmou] wrongly attributed
+to Aristotle. Apuleius informs us that he had also composed numerous
+poems in almost all possible styles, and several works on natural
+history, some in Greek. In the preparation of these he seems to have
+attended more closely to actual anatomical research than was customary
+with ancient naturalists. Some other works--dealing with theology, the
+properties of herbs, medical remedies and physiognomy, are wrongly
+attributed to him.
+
+The character of Apuleius, as delineated by himself, is attractive; he
+appears vehement and passionate, but devoid of rancour; enterprising,
+munificent, genial and an enthusiast for the beautiful and good. His
+vanity and love of display are conspicuous, but are extenuated by a
+genuine thirst for knowledge and a surprising versatility of
+attainments. He prided himself on his proficiency in both Greek and
+Latin. His place in letters is accidentally more important than his
+genius strictly entitles him to hold. He is the only extant example in
+Latin literature of an accomplished sophist in the good sense of the
+term. The loss of other ancient romances has secured him a peculiar
+influence on modern fiction; while his chronological position in a
+transitional period renders him at once the evening star of the
+Platonic, and the morning star of the Neo-Platonic philosophy.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Complete works: Editio princeps, ed. Andreas (1469);
+  Oudendorp (1786-1823); Hildebrand (1842); Helm (1905 et seq.); P.
+  Thomas (vol. iii. 1908). _Metamorphoses_, Eyssenhardt (1869), van der
+  Vliet (1897). _Psyche et Cupido_, Jahn-Michaelis (1883); Beck (1902).
+  _Apologia_, I. Casaubon (1594); Kruger (1864); (with the _Florida_),
+  van der Vliet (1900). _Florida_, Kruger (1883). _De Deo Socratis_,
+  Buckley (1844), Lutjohann (1878). _De Platone et ejus Dogmate_,
+  Goldbacher (1876) (including _De Mundo_ and _De Deo Socratis_). For
+  the relation between Lucian's [Greek: Ovos] and the _Metamorphoses_ of
+  Apuleius, see Rohde, _Uber Lucians Schrift [Greek: Loukios]_ (1869),
+  and Burger, _De Lucio Patrensi_ (1887). On the style of Apuleius
+  consult Kretzschmann, _De Latinitate L. Apulei_ (1865), and Koziol,
+  _Der Stil des A._ (1872). There is a complete English translation of
+  the works of Apuleius in Bohn's Classical Library. The translations
+  and imitations of the _Golden Ass_ in modern languages are numerous:
+  in English, by Adlington, 1566 and later eds. (reissued in the Tudor
+  translations and Temple Classics), Taylor (1822) (including the
+  philosophical works), Head (1851). Of the Cupid and Psyche episode
+  there are recent translations by Robert Bridges (1895) (in verse),
+  Stuttaford (1903); and it is beautifully introduced by Walter Pater
+  into his _Marius the Epicurean_. This episode has afforded the subject
+  of a drama to Thomas Heywood, and of narrative poems to Shakerley
+  Marmion, Mrs. Tighe, and William Morris (in the _Earthly Paradise_).
+
+
+
+
+APULIA (sometimes APPULIA in manuscripts but never in inscriptions), the
+district inhabited in ancient times by the Apuli. Strictly a Samnite
+tribe (see SAMNITES) settled round Mount Garganus on the east coast of
+Italy (Strabo vi. 3. 11), the Apuli mingled with the Iapygian tribes of
+that part of the coast (Dauni, Peucetii, Poediculi) who, like the
+Messapii, had come from Illyria, so that the name Apulia reached down to
+the border of the ancient Calabria. Almost the only monument of Samnite
+speech from the district is the famous _Tabula Bantina_ from Bantia, a
+small city just inside the Peucetian part of Apulia, on the Lucanian
+border. This inscription is one of the latest and in some ways the most
+important monument of Oscan, though showing what appear to be some
+southern peculiarities (see OSCA LINGUA). Its date is almost certainly
+between 118 and 90 B.C., and it shows that Latin had not even then
+spread over the district (cf. LUCANIA). Far older than this are some
+coins from Ausculum and Teate (later known as Teanum Apulum), of which
+the earliest belong to the 4th century B.C. Roman or Latin colonies were
+few, Luceria (planted 314 B.C.) in the north and Brundisium (soon after
+268) being the chief. (See R.S. Conway, _Italic Dialects_, xxviii.-xxx.
+pp. 15 f.; and Mommsen's introduction to the opening sections of
+_C.I.L._ ix.)     (R. S. C.)
+
+The wars of the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C. brought a great part of the
+pastures of the Apulian plain into the hands of the Roman state, and a
+tax was paid on every head of cattle and every sheep, at first to the
+tax farmer and later to the imperial procurator. It was under the Romans
+that the system of migration for the flocks reached its full
+development, and the practice is still continued; the sheep-tracks
+(_tratturi_), 350 ft. wide, leading from the mountains of the Abruzzi to
+the plain of Apulia date in the main at least from the Roman period, and
+are mentioned in inscriptions. The plain, however, which once served as
+winter grazing ground for a million sheep, now gives pasture to about
+one-half of that number.[1] The shepherds, who were slaves, often gave
+considerable trouble; we hear that some 7000 of them, who had made the
+whole country unsafe, were condemned to death in 185 B.C. (Livy xxxix.
+29). Sheep-farming on a large scale was no doubt detrimental to the
+interests of the towns. We hear of repeated risings, for the last time
+in the Social War. Even in the 4th century B.C. the then chief town of
+Apulia, Teate or Teanum Apulum (see above), suffered in this way.
+Luceria subsequently took its place, largely owing to its military
+importance; but under the Empire it was succeeded by Canusium.
+
+The road system of Apulia, which touched all the important towns,
+consisted of three main lines, the Via Appia (see APPIA, VIA), the Via
+Traiana, and the coast road, running more or less parallel in an
+east-south-east direction. The first (the southernmost), coming east
+from Beneventum, entered Apulia at the Pons Aufidi, and ran through
+Venusia to Tarentum, and thence, turning north-east, to Brundusium. The
+second, coming north-east from Beneventum, turned east at Aecae, and ran
+through Herdoniae, Canusium, Butuntum, Barium and Gnathia (Gnatia) to
+Brundusium. There was also a short cut from Butuntum to Gnathia through
+Caelia, keeping inland. The third parallel line ran to the north of the
+Via Traiana, in continuation of the road along the north-east coast of
+Picenum and Samnium; it entered Apulia near Larinum (whence a branch ran
+south to Bovianum Undecimanorum), and thence, keeping in the plain to
+the south of the Mons Garganus, rejoined the coast at Sipontum, where it
+received a branch road from the Via Traiana at Aecae, passing through
+Luceria and Arpi. It then passed through Barduli (where it was joined by
+a road from Canusium by way of Cannae) to Barium, where it joined the
+Via Traiana. From Barium a road probably ran direct to Caelia, and
+thence south-south-east to join the Via Appia some 25 m. north-west of
+Tarentum.
+
+Barium was an important harbour, though less so than Brundusium and
+Tarentum, which, however, belonged to Calabria in the Roman sense.
+Apulia, with Calabria, formed the second region of Augustus, though we
+once find Calabria treated as a part of the third region, Lucania
+(_C.I.L._ ix. 2213). The Hannibalic and later wars had, Strabo tells us,
+destroyed the former prosperity of the country; in imperial times we
+hear little or nothing of it. Both were governed by a _corrector_ from
+the time of Constantine onwards, but in 668 the Lombards conquered
+Calabria and Apulia, and it was then that the former name was
+transferred to Bruttium, the meaning of the latter being extended to
+include Calabria also. In the 10th century the greater part of this
+territory was recovered by the Byzantine emperors, whose governor was
+called [Greek: Katapanos], a name which, under the corrupt form
+Capitanata, belonged to the province of Foggia till 1861. It was
+conquered by the Normans under William Bras-de-fer, who took the title
+of _comes Apuliae_ in 1042; it was raised to a dukedom with Calabria by
+Robert Guiscard in 1059, and united to the Sicilian monarchy in 1127.
+Many of the important towns possess fine Romanesque cathedrals,
+constructed under the Normans and the Hohenstaufen rulers. It shared the
+subsequent fate of Sicily, becoming a part of the kingdom of the Two
+Sicilies in 1734, and being united with Italy in 1861.
+
+
+  Modern Apulia.
+
+Modern Apulia comprises the three provinces of Foggia, Bari and Lecce
+(the latter corresponding roughly with the ancient Calabria, which,
+however, extended somewhat farther north inland), and is often known as
+Le Puglie; it stretches from Monte Gargano to the south-east extremity
+of Italy, with an area of 7376 sq. m.; it is bounded on the north and
+east by the Adriatic, on the south-east by the Gulf of Taranto, on the
+south by Basilicata and on the west by Campania and the Abruzzi. The
+three provinces correspond to the three natural divisions into which it
+falls. That of Foggia, though it has mountains on the west and
+south-west boundary, and the Monte Gargano at its north-east extremity,
+is in the main a great plain called the Tavoliere (chessboard) di
+Puglia, with considerable lagoons on its north and east coast. That of
+Bari, east-south-east of Foggia and divided from it by the Ofanto
+(Aufidus), the only considerable river of Apulia, 104 m. long, is a
+hilly district with a coast strip along which are the majority of the
+towns--the lack of villages is especially noticeable; in the
+_circondario_ of Barletta, the north-east portion of the province, there
+are only eleven communes, with a total population of 335,934. That of
+Lecce, to the east-south-east again, is a low flat limestone terrace.
+
+The industries of Apulia are mainly pastoral or agricultural. Besides
+sheep, a considerable number of horses, cattle and swine are bred; while
+despite the lack of water, which is the great need of modern Apulia (in
+1906 arrangements were made for a great aqueduct, to supply the three
+provinces from the headwaters of the Sele), cultivation is actively
+carried on, especially in the province of Bari, where grain, wine,
+olives, almonds, lemons, oranges, tobacco, &c., are produced in
+abundance, and the export of olive oil is attaining considerable
+importance. The salt works of Margherita di Savoia produce large
+quantities of salt, and nitre is extracted near Molfetta.
+
+Railway communications are fairly good, the main line from Bologna to
+Brindisi passing through the whole length of Apulia, by way of Foggia
+and Bari, and having branches from Foggia (the main railway centre of
+Apulia) to Benevento and Caserta, to Manfredonia, to Lucera and to
+Rocchetta S. Antonio (and thence to either Avellino, Potenza or Gioia
+del Colle), from Ofantino to Margherita di Savoia, from Barletta to
+Spinazzola (between Rocchetta S. Antonio and Gioia del Colle), from Bari
+to Putignano, and via Gioia del Colle to Taranto, and from Brindisi to
+Taranto, and to Lecce and Otranto; besides which, there is a steam
+tramway from Barletta to Bari via Andria.
+
+The most important harbours of Apulia are Brindisi, Bari, Taranto,
+Barletta, Molfetta and Gallipoli. The export of olive oil to foreign
+countries from the province of Lecce in 1905 amounted to 1048 tons, as
+against 3395 in 1901; but that to home ports increased from 7077 to 9025
+tons in the same period. The production of wine was 358,953 tons in 1905
+as against 203,995 tons in 1901 (an exceptionally bad year) and 284,156
+tons in 1902. Of this 211,872 tons were forwarded by rail and sea, in
+the proportion of five to two respectively, the rest being used for home
+consumption and as a reserve. The cultivation of oriental tobacco is
+extending in the province (see _Consular Report_, No. 3672, July 1906).
+
+The population of the province of Foggia was 425,450 (1901) as against
+322,755 in 1871, the chief towns being Foggia (53,151), Cerignola
+(34,195), S. Severo (30,040), Monte S. Angelo (21,870), S. Marco in
+Lamis (17,309), Lucera (17,515); that of Bari, 827,698 (1901) as against
+604,540 in 1871, the chief towns being Bari (77,478), Andria (49,569),
+Barletta (42,022), Corato (41,573), Molfetta (40,135), Trani (31,800),
+Bisceglie (30,885), Bitonto (30,617), Canosa (24,169), Ruvo (23,776),
+Terlizzi (23,232), Altamura(22,729), Monopoli (22,545), Gioia del Colle
+(21,721); that of Lecce, 706,520 (1901) as against 493,594 in 1871, the
+chief towns being Taranto (60,733), Lecce (32,687), Brindisi (25,317),
+Martina Franca (25,007), Ostuni (22,997), Francavilla Fontana (20,422),
+Ceglie Messapica (16,867), Nardo (14,387), Galatina (14,071), Gallipoli
+(13,552), Manduria (13,113).     (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The migration was made compulsory by Alphonso I. in 1442, and
+    remained so until 1865. Since that time the _tratturi_ have been to
+    some extent absorbed by private proprietors.
+
+
+
+
+APURE, a river of western Venezuela, formed by the confluence of the
+Sarare and Uribante at 6 deg. 45' N. lat. and 71 deg. W. long., and
+flowing eastward across the Venezuelan _llanos_ to a junction with the
+Orinoco at about 7 deg. 40' N. lat. and 66 deg. 45' W. long. Its
+drainage area includes the slopes of both the Colombian and Venezuelan
+Andes. It has a sluggish course across the _llanos_ for about 300 m.,
+and is navigable throughout its length. Its principal tributaries are
+the Caparro, Portuguesa and Guarico on the north, and the Caucagua on
+the south. Its lateral channels on the south mingle with those of the
+Arauca for many miles, forming an extensive district subject to annual
+inundations.
+
+
+
+
+APURIMAC, a river of central Peru, rising in the Laguna de Villafra in
+the western Cordilleras, 7 m. from Caylloma, a village in the department
+of Arequipa, and less than 100 m. from the Pacific coast. It flows first
+north-easterly, then north-westerly past Cuzco to the mouth of the
+Perene tributary, thence east and north to its junction with the Ucayali
+at 10 deg. 41' S. lat., and 73 deg. 34' W. long. It is known as the
+Apurimac only down to the mouth of the Mantaro tributary, 11 deg. 45' S.
+lat. and 1325 ft. above sea-level. Thence to the mouth of the Perene
+(984 ft.) it is known as the Ene, and from that point to its junction
+with the Ucayali (859 ft.) as the Tambo.
+
+
+
+
+APURIMAC, an interior department of southern Peru, bounded N. by the
+department of Ayacucho, E. by Cuzco, S. and W. by Cuzco and Ayacucho.
+Area, 8187 sq. m.; pop. (1896) 177,387. The department was created in
+1873 and comprises five provinces. Its physical features and productions
+are very similar to those of Ayacucho (q.v.), with the exception that
+sugar-cane is cultivated with noteworthy success in the low valley of
+the province of Abancay. The capital, Abancay, 110 m. south-west of
+Cuzco, which is only a village in size but is rich in historical
+associations and Andahuaylas, in the north-west part of the department,
+are its principal towns.
+
+
+
+
+APYREXIA (Gr. [Greek: apyrexia], from [Greek: a-], privative, [Greek:
+pyressein], to be in a fever, [Greek: pyr], fire, fever), in pathology,
+the normal interval or period of intermission in a fever.
+
+
+
+
+'AQIBA BEN JOSEPH (c. 50-132), Jewish Palestinian rabbi, of the circle
+known as _tana_ (q.v.). It is almost impossible to separate the true
+from the false in the numerous traditions respecting his life. He became
+the chief teacher in the rabbinical school of Jaffa, where, it is said,
+he had 24,000 scholars. Whatever their number, it seems certain that
+among them was the celebrated Rabbi Meir, and that through him and
+others 'Aqiba exerted a great influence on the development of the
+doctrines embodied in the Mishnah. He sided with Bar Cochebas in the
+last Jewish revolt against Rome, recognized him as the Messiah, and
+acted as his sword-bearer. Being taken prisoner by the Romans under
+Julius Severus, he was flayed alive with circumstances of great cruelty,
+and met his fate, according to tradition, with marvellous steadfastness
+and composure. He is said by some to have been a hundred and twenty
+years old at the time of his death. He is one of the ten Jewish martyrs
+whose names occur in a penitential prayer still used in the synagogue
+service. 'Aqiba was among the first to systematize the Jewish tradition,
+and he paved the way for the compilation of the Mishnah. From his school
+emanated the Greek translation of the scriptures by Aquila.
+
+
+
+
+AQUAE (Lat. for "waters"), a name given by the Romans to sites where
+mineral springs issued from the earth. Over a hundred can be identified,
+some declaring by their modern names their ancient use: Aix-les-Bains in
+Savoy (_Aquae Sabaudicae_), Aix-en-Provence (_Aquae Sextiae_),
+Aix-la-Chapelle or Aachen (_Aquae Grani_), &c. Only two occur in
+Britain: _Aquae Sulis_--less correctly _Aquae Solis_--at Bath in
+Somerset, which was famous, and Buxton (called _Aquae_ simply), which
+seems to have been far less important. Aquae Sulis was occupied by the
+Romans almost as soon as they entered the island in A.D. 43, and
+flourished till the end of the Roman period. It was frequented by
+soldiers quartered in Britain, by the Britons, and by visitors from
+north Gaul, and its name was known in Italy, though patients probably
+seldom travelled so far. Like most mineral springs known to the
+ancients, it was under the protection of a local deity, the Celtic Sul,
+whom the Romans equated with their Minerva. Stately remains of its baths
+and temple have been found at various times, especially in 1790 and
+1878-1895, and may still be seen there.
+
+
+
+
+AQUAE CUTILIAE, a mineral spring in Italy, near the modern Cittaducale,
+9 m. E. of Rieti. The lake near it was supposed by classical writers to
+be the central point of Italy, and was renowned for its floating
+islands, which, as in other cases, were formed from the partial
+petrification of plants by the mineral substances contained in the
+water. Considerable remains of baths may still be seen there--they were
+apparently resorted to by both Vespasian and Titus in their last
+illnesses, for both died there.
+
+
+
+
+AQUAMARINE (Lat. _aqua marina_, "water of the sea"), a transparent
+variety of beryl (q.v.), having a delicate blue or bluish-green colour,
+suggestive of the tint of sea-water. It occurs at most localities which
+yield ordinary beryl, some of the finest coming from Russia. The
+gem-gravels of Ceylon contain aquamarine. Clear yellow beryl, such as
+occurs in Brazil, is sometimes called aquamarine chrysolite. When
+corundum presents the bluish tint of typical aquamarine, it is often
+termed Oriental aquamarine.
+
+
+
+
+AQUARELLE (from Ital. _acquarella_, water-colour), a form of painting
+with thin water-colour or ink.
+
+
+
+
+AQUARII, a name given to the Christians who substituted water for wine
+in the Eucharist. They were not a sect, for we find the practice widely
+in vogue at an early time, even among the orthodox. In Greek they were
+called _Hydroparastatae_, or those who offer water. Theodosius, in his
+persecuting edict of 382, classes them as a special sect with the
+Manicheans, who also eschewed wine. See EUCHARIST.
+
+
+
+
+AQUARIUM (plural _aquaria_), the name given to a receptacle for a marine
+flora and fauna. Until comparatively recently, aquaria were little more
+than domestic toys, or show-places of a popular character, but they have
+now not only assumed a profound scientific importance for the convenient
+study of anatomical and physiological problems in marine botany and
+zoology, but have also attained an economic value, as offering the best
+opportunities for that study of the habits and environment of marketable
+food-fish without which no steps for the improvement of sea-fisheries
+can be safely taken. The numerous "zoological stations" which have
+sprung up, chiefly in Europe and the United States, but also in the
+British colonies and Japan, often endeavour to unite these two aims, and
+have in many cases become centres of experimental work in problems
+relating to fisheries, as well as in less directly practical subjects.
+Of these stations, the oldest and the most important is that at Naples,
+which, though designed for purely scientific objects, also encourages
+popular study by means of a public aquarium. The following account
+(1902) of this station by Dr W. Giesbrecht, a member of the staff, will
+serve to show the methods and aims, and the complex and expensive
+equipment, of a modern aquarium:--
+
+"The zoological station at Naples is an institution for the advancement
+of biological science--that is, of comparative anatomy, zoology, botany,
+physiology. It serves this end by providing the biologist with the
+various objects of his study and the necessary appliances; it is not a
+teaching institution. The station was founded by Dr Anton Dohrn, and
+opened in the spring of 1874; it is the oldest and largest of all
+biological stations, of which there are now about thirty in existence.
+Its two buildings are situated near the seashore in the western town
+park (Villa Nazionale) of Naples. The older and larger one, 33 metres
+long, 24 m. deep, 16 m. high, contains on the ground floor the aquarium,
+which is open to the public. On the first floor there is, facing south,
+the principal library, ornamented with fresco paintings, and, facing
+north, a large hall containing twelve working tables, several smaller
+rooms and the secretarial offices. On the second floor is the
+physiological laboratory, and on the third floor the small library, a
+hall with several working tables, and the dark rooms used in developing
+photographs. The ground floor of the smaller building, which was
+finished in 1887, contains the rooms in which the animals are delivered,
+sorted and preserved, and the fishing tackle kept, together with the
+workshop of the engineer; on the first and second floors are workrooms,
+amongst others the botanical laboratory; on the third floor are
+store-rooms. In the basement of both buildings, which is continued
+underneath the court, there are sea-water cisterns and filters, engines
+and store-rooms. The materials for study which the station offers to the
+biologist are specimens of marine animals and plants which abound in the
+western part of the Mediterranean, and especially in the Gulf of Naples.
+To obtain these, two screw-steamers and several rowing boats are
+required, which are moored in the harbour of Mergellina, situated close
+by. The larger steamer, 'Johannes Muller' (15 m. long, 2-1/2 m. wide, 1
+m. draught), which can steam eight to ten English miles per hour, is
+provided with a steam dredge working to a depth of eighty fathoms. From
+the small steamer, 'Frank Balfour,' and the rowing boats, the fishing is
+done by means of tow-nets. Besides these there are fishermen and others
+who daily supply living material for study. The plankton (small floating
+animals) is distributed in the morning, other animals as required. The
+animals brought in by the fishermen are at once distributed amongst the
+biologists, whereas the material brought up by the dredges is placed in
+flat revolving wooden vessels, so as to give the smaller animals time to
+come out of their hiding-places. The students who work in the station
+have the first claim on specimens of plants and animals; but specimens
+are also supplied to museums, laboratories and schools, and to
+individuals engaged in original research elsewhere. Up to the present
+time about 4000 such parcels have been despatched, and not infrequently
+live specimens of animals are sent to distant places. This side of the
+work has been of very great value to science. The principal appliances
+for study with which the station provides the biologist are workrooms
+furnished with the apparatus and chemicals necessary for anatomical
+research and physiological experiments and tanks. Every student receives
+a tank for his own special use. The large tanks of the principal
+aquarium are also at his disposal for purposes of observation and
+experiment if necessary.
+
+"The water in the tanks is kept fresh by continual circulation, and is
+thus charged with the oxygen necessary to the life of the organisms. It
+is not pumped into the tanks directly from the sea, but from three large
+cisterns (containing 300 cubic metres), to which it again returns from
+the tanks. The water wasted or evaporated during this process is
+replaced by new water pumped into the cisterns directly from the sea.
+The water flows from the large cisterns into a smaller cistern, from
+which it is distributed by means of an electric pump through vulcanite
+or lead pipes to the various tanks. The water with which the tanks on
+the upper floors are filled is first pumped into large wooden tanks
+placed beneath the roof, thence it flows, under almost constant
+pressure, into the tanks. The water circulated in this manner contains
+by far the largest number of such animals as are capable of living in
+captivity in good condition. Some of them even increase at an
+undesirable rate, and it sometimes happens that young Mytilus or Ciona
+stop up the pipes; in laying these, therefore, due regard must be had to
+the arrangements for cleaning. For the cultivation of very delicate
+animals it is necessary to keep the water absolutely free from harmful
+bacteria; for this purpose large sand-filters have lately been placed in
+the system, through which the water passes after leaving the cisterns.
+Each of the smaller cisterns, which are fixed in the workrooms, consist
+of two water-tanks, placed one above the other; their frames are of
+wrought iron and the walls generally of glass. Vessels containing minute
+animals can be placed between these two tanks, receiving their water
+through a siphon from the upper tank; the water afterwards flows away
+into the lower tank.
+
+"The twenty-six tanks of the public aquarium (the largest of which
+contains 112 cubic metres of water) have stone walls, the front portion
+alone being made of glass. As the tanks hold a very large number of
+animals in proportion to the quantity of water, they require to be well
+aerated. The pipes through which the water is conducted are therefore
+placed above the surface of the water, and the fresh supply is driven
+through them under strong pressure. A large quantity of air in the form
+of fine bubbles is thus taken to the bottom of the tank and distributed
+through the entire mass of water. Should the organisms which it is
+desired to keep alive be very minute, there is a danger of their being
+washed away by the circulating water. To obviate this, either the water
+which flows away is passed through a strainer, or the water is not
+changed at all, air being driven through it by means of an apparatus put
+into motion by the drinking-water supply.
+
+"The library contains about 9000 volumes, which students use with the
+help of a slip catalogue, arranged according to authors. The station has
+published at intervals since 1879 two periodicals treating of the
+organisms of the Mediterranean. One is _Fauna und Flora des Golfes van
+Neapel_, the other _Mittheilungen aus der zoologischen Station zu
+Neapel_. The former consists of monographs in which special groups of
+animals and plants are most exhaustively treated and the Mediterranean
+species portrayed according to life in natural colours; up to the
+present time twenty-one zoological and five botanical monographs have
+appeared, making altogether 1200 4to sheets with about 400 plates. Of
+the Mittheilungen, which contain smaller articles on organisms of the
+Mediterranean, fourteen volumes in 8vo have been published. The station
+also publishes a _Zoologischer Jahresbericht_, which at first treated of
+the entire field of zoology, but since 1886 has been confined
+principally to comparative anatomy and ontogeny; it appears eight to
+nine months after the end of the year reported. The _Guide to the
+Aquarium_, with its descriptions and numerous pictures, is meant to give
+the lay visitor an idea of the marine animal world.
+
+"There are about forty officials, amongst them six zoologists, one
+physiologist, one secretary, two draughtsmen, one engineer. The station
+is a private institution, open to biologists of all nations under the
+following conditions: there are agreements with the governments of
+Austria, Baden, Bavaria, Belgium, Hamburg, Holland, Hesse, Italy,
+Prussia, Russia, Saxony, Switzerland, Hungary, Wurttemberg, the province
+of Naples, and the universities of Cambridge, Oxford, Strassburg,
+Columbia College (New York), and the British Association for the
+Advancement of Science, the Smithsonian Institution, and a society of
+women in the United States of North America (formerly also with
+Bulgaria, Rumania, Spain, the Academy of Sciences in Berlin, Williams
+College, University of Pennsylvania), by virtue of which the governments
+and corporate bodies named have the right, on payment of L100 per annum,
+to send a worker to the station; this places at his disposal a 'table'
+or workplace, furnished with all the necessary appliances and materials
+as set down in the agreement. At present there are agreements for
+thirty-three tables, and since the foundation of the station nearly 1200
+biologists have worked there. The current expenses are paid out of the
+table-rents, the entrance fees to the public aquarium, and an annual
+subvention paid by the German empire."
+
+In England a station on similar lines, but on a smaller scale, is
+maintained at Plymouth by the Marine Biological Association of the
+United Kingdom, with the help of subsidies from the government and the
+Fishmongers' Company.
+
+Little difficulty is experienced in maintaining, breeding and rearing
+fresh-water animals in captivity, but for many various reasons it is
+only by unremitting attention and foresight that most marine animals can
+be kept even alive in aquaria, and very few indeed can be maintained in
+a condition healthy enough to breed. Much experience, however, has been
+gained of late years at considerable expense, both in England and
+abroad. In starting a marine aquarium of whatever size, it should be
+obvious that the first consideration must be a supply of the purest
+possible water, as free as may be, not only from land-drainage and
+sewage, but also from such suspended matters as chalk, fine sand or mud.
+This is most ideally and economically secured by placing the station a
+few feet above high-water mark, in as sheltered a position as possible,
+on a rocky coast, pumping from the sea to a large reservoir above the
+station, and allowing the water to circulate gently thence through the
+tanks by gravity (Banyuls). At an inland aquarium (Berlin, Hamburg),
+given pure water in the first instance, excellent if less complete
+results may nevertheless, be obtained. The next consideration is the
+method by which oxygen is to be supplied to the organisms in the
+aquarium. Of the two methods hitherto in use, that of pumping a jet of
+air into tanks otherwise stagnant or nearly so (Brighton), while
+supplying sufficient oxygen, has so many other disadvantages, that it
+has not been employed regularly in any of the more modern aquaria. It
+is, however, still useful in aerating quite small bodies of water in
+which hardy and minute organisms can be isolated and kept under control.
+In the other method, now in general use, a fine jet of water under
+pressure falls on to the surface of the tank; this carries down with it
+a more than sufficient air-supply, analysis showing in some cases a
+higher percentage of oxygen in aquarium water than in the open sea.
+
+The water supply is best effected by gravity from reservoirs placed
+above the tanks, but may be also achieved by direct pumping from low
+reservoirs or from the sea to the tanks. Provided that an unlimited
+supply of pure water can be obtained cheaply, the overflow from the
+tanks is best run to waste; but in aquaria less fortunately placed, it
+returns to a storage low-level reservoir, from which it is again pumped,
+thus circulating round and round (Naples, Plymouth). The storage
+reservoirs should be in all cases very large in comparison with the bulk
+of water in circulation; if practicable, they should be excavated in
+rock, and lined with the best cement. Thera is no reason why they should
+not be shallow, exposed to light and air, and cultivated as rock-pools
+by the introduction of seaweeds and small animals, but they must then be
+screened from rain, cold and dust. The pumps used in circulation will be
+less likely to kill minute animals if of the plunger or ram type, rather
+than rotary, and should be of gun-metal or one of the new bronze-alloys
+which take a patina in salt water. For the circulating pipes many
+materials have been tried. Vulcanite is not only expensive and brittle,
+but has other disadvantages; common iron pipes, coated internally with
+cement or asphalt or glazed internally, with all unions and joints
+cemented, have been used with more or less success. Probably best of all
+is common lead piping, the joints being served with red-lead; water
+should be circulated through such pipes till they become coated with
+insoluble carbonate, for some time before animals are put into the
+tanks. For small installations glass may be used, the joints being made
+with marine glue or other suitable cement.
+
+In building the tanks themselves, regard must be had to their special
+purposes. If intended for show-tanks for popular admiration, or for the
+study of large animals, they must be large with a plate-glass front; for
+ordinary scientific work small tanks with all sides opaque are
+preferable from every point of view. According to their character, size
+and position, fixed tanks may be of brickwork, masonry or rock, coated
+in each case with cement; asphalting the sides offers no particular
+advantages, and often gives rise to great trouble and expense. All
+materials, and especially the cements, must be of the finest quality
+procurable. For smaller and movable tanks, slate slabs bolted or screwed
+together have some disadvantages, notably those of expense, weight and
+brittleness, but are often used. Better, cheaper and lighter, if less
+permanent, are tanks of wood bolted together, pitched internally. Glass
+bell-jars, useful in particular cases, should generally have their sides
+darkened, except when required for observation. Provision should always
+be made for cleaning every part of the tanks, pipes and reservoirs; all
+rock-work in tanks should therefore be removable. As regards the
+lighting of fixed tanks, it should always be directly from above. In all
+tanks with glass sides, whether large or small, as much light as
+possible should be kept from entering through the glass; otherwise, with
+a side-light, many animals become restless, and wear themselves out
+against the glass, affected by even so little light as comes through an
+opposite tank.
+
+In cases where distance from the sea or other causes make it
+impracticable to allow the overflow from the tanks to run to waste,
+special precautions must be taken to keep the water pure. Chemically
+speaking, the chief character of the water in an aquarium circulation,
+when compared with that of the open sea, lies in the excessive quantity
+of nitrogen present in various forms, and the reduced alkalinity; these
+two being probably connected. The excess of nitrogen is referable to
+dead animals, to waste food and to the excreta of the living organisms.
+The first two of these sources of contamination may be reduced by care
+and cleanliness, and by the maintenance of a flow of water sufficient to
+prevent the excessive accumulation of sediment in the tanks. The
+following experiment shows the rapid rise of nitrogen if unchecked. A
+tank with a considerable fauna was isolated from the general circulation
+and aerated by four air-jets, except during hours 124-166 of the
+experiment; column I. shows per 100,000 the nitrogen estimated as
+ammonia, column II. the total inorganic nitrogen:--
+
+                                            I.    II.
+  Sea-water at source of original
+    supply                                0.001  0.003
+  Aquarium water in tank at
+    commencement of experiment            0.012  0.400
+  After  22-1/2 hours                     0.020    ..
+    "    75       "                       0.025  1.200
+    "    93       "                       0.019    ..
+    "   121-1/2   "                       0.012    ..
+    "   141       "                       0.015  2.200
+    "   165       "                       0.025    ..
+    "   169       "                       0.025    ..
+    "   189       "                       0.012    ..
+
+During this time the alkalinity was reduced to the equivalent of 30 mg.
+CaCO3 per litre, ocean water having an alkalinity equivalent to 50-55
+mg. per litre. It has been suggested that the organic nitrogen becomes
+oxidized into nitrous, then into nitric acid, which lowers the carbonate
+values. A great deal of reduction of this nitrogenous contamination can
+be effected by filtration, a method first introduced successfully at
+Hamburg, where a most thriving aquarium has been maintained by the local
+Zoological Society for many years on the circulation principle, new
+water being added only to compensate for waste and evaporation. The
+filters consist of open double boxes, the inner having a bottom of
+perforated slate on which rests rough gravel; on the latter is fine
+gravel, then coarse, and finally fine sand. Filtration may be either
+upwards or downwards through the inner box to the outer. Such filters,
+intercalated between tanks and reservoir, have been shown by analysis to
+stop a very large proportion of nitrogenous matter. It is doubtful
+whether aquarium water will not always show an excess of nitrogenous
+compounds, but they must be kept down in every way possible. In small
+tanks, well lighted, seaweeds can be got to flourish in a way that has
+not been found practicable in large tanks with a circulation; these,
+with Lamellibranchs and small Crustacea as scavengers, will be found
+useful in this connexion. Slight or occasional circulation should be
+employed here also, to remove the film of dust and other matters, which
+otherwise covers the surface of the water and prevents due oxygenation.
+
+In such small tanks for domestic use the fauna must be practically
+limited to bottom-living animals, but for purposes of research it is
+often desired to keep alive larval and other surface-swimming animals
+(plankton). In this case a further difficulty is presented, that of
+helping to suspend the animals in the water, and thus to avoid the
+exhaustion and death which soon follow their unaided efforts to keep off
+the bottom; this duty is effected in nature by specific gravity, tide
+and surface current. In order to deal with this difficulty a simple but
+efficient apparatus has been devised by Mr E.T. Browne; a "plunger,"
+generally a glass plate or filter funnel, moves slowly up and down in a
+bell-jar or other small tank, with a period of rest between each stroke;
+the motive power is obtained through a simple bucket-and-siphon
+arrangement worked by the overflow from other tanks. This apparatus
+(first used at the Plymouth Laboratory of the Marine Biological
+Association in 1897, and since introduced into similar institutions), by
+causing slight eddies in the water, keeps the floating fauna in
+suspension, and has proved very successful in rearing larvae and in
+similar work.     (G. H. Fo.)
+
+
+
+
+AQUARIUS (the "Water-bearer" or "Cup-bearer"), in astronomy, the
+eleventh sign of the zodiac (q.v.), situated between Capricornus and
+Pisces. Its symbol is [symbol], representing part of a stream of water,
+probably in allusion to the fact that when the sun is in this part of
+the heavens (January, February) the weather is rainy. It is also a
+constellation mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd
+century B.C.); Ptolemy catalogued forty-five stars, Tycho Brahe
+forty-one, Hevelius forty-seven. [Zeta] _Aquarii_ is a well-defined
+binary, having both components of the fourth magnitude; it is probably
+of long period.
+
+
+
+
+AQUATINT (Lat. _aqua_, water, and _tincta_, dyed), a kind of etching
+(q.v.) which imitates washes with a brush. There are many ways of
+preparing a plate for aquatint, the following being recommended by P.G.
+Hamerton. Have three different solutions of rosin in rectified alcohol,
+making them of various degrees of strength, but always thin enough to be
+quite fluid, the weakest solution being almost colourless. First pour
+the strongest solution on the plate. When it dries it will produce a
+granulation; and you may now bite as in ordinary etching for your darker
+tones, stopping out what the acid is not to operate upon, or you may use
+a brush charged with acid, perchloride of iron being a very good mordant
+for the purpose. After cleaning the plate, you proceed with the weaker
+solutions in the same way, the weakest giving the finest granulation for
+skies, distances, &c. The process requires a good deal of stopping-out,
+and some burnishing, scraping, &c., at last. Aquatint may be effectively
+used in combination with line etching, and still more harmoniously with
+soft ground etching in which the line imitates that of the lead pencil.
+
+
+
+
+AQUAVIVA, CLAUDIO (1542-1615), fifth general of the Jesuits, the
+youngest son of the duke d'Altri, was born at Naples. He joined the
+Jesuits at Rome in 1567, and his high administrative gifts marked him
+out for the highest posts. He was soon nominated provincial of Naples
+and then of Rome; and during this office he offered to join the Jesuit
+mission to England that set out under Robert Parsons (q.v.) in the
+spring of 1580. The following year, being then only thirty-seven years
+old, he was elected, by a large majority, general of the society in
+succession to Mercurian, to the great surprise of Gregory XIII.; but the
+extraordinary political ability he displayed, and the vast increase that
+came to the Society during his long generalate, abundantly justified the
+votes of the electors. He, together with Lainez, may be regarded as the
+real founder of the Society as it is known to history. A born ruler, he
+secured all authority in his own hands, and insisted that those who
+prided themselves on their obedience should act up to the profession. In
+his first letter "On the happy increase of the Society" (25th of July
+1581), he treats of the necessary qualifications for superiors, and
+points out that government should be directed not by the maxims of human
+wisdom but by those of supernatural prudence. He successfully quelled a
+revolt among the Spanish Jesuits, which was supported by Philip II., and
+he made use in this matter of Parsons. A more difficult task was the
+management of Sixtus V., who was hostile to the Society. By consummate
+tact and boldness Aquaviva succeeded in playing the king against the
+pope, and Sixtus against Philip. For prudential reasons, he silenced
+Mariana, whose doctrine on tyrannicide had produced deep indignation in
+France; and he also appears to have discountenanced the action of the
+French Jesuits in favour of the League, and was thus able to secure
+solid advantages when Henry IV. overcame the confederacy. To him is due
+the Jesuit system of education in the book _Ratio atque institutio
+studiorum_ (Rome, 1586). But the Dominicans denounced it to the
+Inquisition, and it was condemned both in Spain and in Rome, on account
+of some opinions concerning the Thomist doctrines of the divine physical
+premotion in secondary causes and predestination. The incriminated
+chapters were withdrawn in the edition of 1591. In the fierce disputes
+that arose between the Jesuit theologians and the Dominicans on the
+subject of grace, Aquaviva managed, under Clement VIII. and Paul V., to
+save his party from a condemnation that at one time seemed probable. He
+died at Rome on the 31st of January 1615, leaving the Society numbering
+13,000 members in 550 houses and 15 provinces. The subsequent influence
+exercised by the Jesuits, in their golden age, was largely due to the
+far-seeing policy of Aquaviva, who is undoubtedly the greatest general
+that has governed the Society.     (E. Tn.)
+
+
+
+
+AQUEDUCT (Lat. _aqua_, water, and _ducere_, to lead; Gr. [Greek:
+hydragogeion], [Greek: hydragogion], [Greek: hyponomos]), a term
+properly including artificial works of every kind by means of which
+water is conveyed from one place to another, but generally used in a
+more limited sense. It is, in fact, rarely employed except in cases
+where the work is of considerable magnitude and importance, and where
+the water flows naturally by gravitation. The most important purpose for
+which aqueducts are constructed is that of conveying pure water, from
+sources more or less distant, to large masses of population. Aqueducts
+are either below ground, on the surface, or raised on walls either solid
+or pierced with arches; to the last the term is often confined in
+popular language. The choice of method naturally depends on the contour
+of the country.
+
+
+  Phoenician.
+
+I. _Ancient Aqueducts._--In Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria--flat countries
+traversed by big rivers and subject to floods--water was supplied by
+means of open canals with large basins. In Persia devices of all kinds
+were adopted according to the nature of the country. In relation to the
+achievements of Greece and Rome, the Phoenicians are the most important
+among pre-classical engineers. In Cyprus water was supplied to temples
+by rock-cut subterranean conduits carried across intervening valleys in
+siphons. Such conduits have been found near Citium, Amathus, &c.
+(Cesnola, _Cyprus_, pp. 187, 341). In Syria the most striking of
+Phoenician waterworks is the well of Ras-el-Ain near Tyre, which
+consisted of four strong octagonal towers through which rises to a
+height of 18 to 20 ft. the water from four deep artesian wells. The
+water thus accumulated was carried off in conduits to reservoirs near
+the shore, and thence in vessels or skins to the island. The aqueduct
+across to the island is, of course, of Roman work.
+
+
+  Jerusalem.
+
+It is not possible in all cases to find a satisfactory date for the
+numerous conduits which have supplied Jerusalem; some probably go back
+to the times of the kings of Judah. The principal reservoir consists of
+the three Pools of Solomon which supplied the old aqueduct; the highest
+is about 20 ft. above the middle one and 40 above the lowest. These
+pools collected the water from Ain Saleh and other springs, and sent it
+to the city by two conduits. The higher of these--probably the
+older--was partly a rock-cut canal, partly carried on masonry; the
+siphon-pipe system was adopted across the lower ground near Rachel's
+Tomb, where the pipe (15 in. wide) is formed of large pierced stones
+embedded in rubble masonry. The lower conduit is still complete; it
+winds so much as to be altogether some 20 m. long. Near the
+Birket-es-Sultan it passes over the valley of Hinnom on nine low arches
+and reaches the city on the hill above the Tyropeon valley. It enters
+the Haram enclosure at the Gate of the Chain (Bab es-Silsila), outside
+which is a basin 84 ft. by 42 by 24 deep. It is interesting to note in
+the case of the underground tunnel which brought water from the Virgin's
+Fountain to the pool of Siloam, that the two boring parties had no
+certain means of keeping the line; there is evidence that they had to
+make shafts to discover their position, and that ultimately the parties
+almost passed one another. Though the direct distance is 1100 ft., the
+length of the conduit is over 1700 ft. Perrot and Chipiez incline to
+attribute the Pools of Solomon to the Asmonaeans, followed by Roman
+governors, whereas the earlier tunnels of the Kedron and Tyropeon valley
+may be Punic-Jewish (see also _Palest. Explor. Fund Mem._, "Jerusalem,"
+pp. 346-365). Besides these conduits excavation has discovered traces of
+many other cisterns, tunnels and conduits of various kinds. Many of them
+point to periods of great prosperity and engineering enterprise which
+gave to the city a water-supply far superior to that which exists at
+present.
+
+  See the publications of the Palestine Exploration Fund; A.S. Murray's
+  _Handbook to Syria and Palestine_ (1903), pp. 63-67; Perrot and
+  Chipiez, _History of Art in Sardinia, Judaea, &c._ (Eng. trans.,
+  1890), pp. 321 ff.; other authorities quoted under JERUSALEM.
+
+
+  Greek
+
+The earliest attempts in Europe to solve the problems of water-supply
+were made by the Greeks, who perhaps derived their ideas from the
+Phoenicians. It has generally been held, partly on the strength of a
+passage in Strabo (v. 3. 8, p. 235), and partly owing to the comparative
+unimportance of the remains discovered, that the Greek works were
+altogether inferior to the Roman. Research in the Greek towns of Asia
+Minor, together with a juster appreciation of the remains as a whole,
+must be held to modify this view. Among the earliest examples of Greek
+work are the tunnels or _emissaria_ which drained Lake Copais in
+Boeotia; these, though not strictly aqueducts, were undoubtedly the
+precursors of such works, consisting as they did of subterranean tunnels
+([Greek: hyponomoi]) with vertical shafts ([Greek: phreatiai]), sixteen
+of which are still recognizable, the deepest being about 150 ft. They
+may be compared with that described by Polybius as conveying water from
+Taurus to Hecatompylos, and with numerous other remains in Asia Minor,
+Syria, Phoenicia and Palmyra. Popular legend ascribed them to Cadmus,
+just as Argos referred the irrigation of its lands to Danaus. They are
+undoubtedly of great antiquity.
+
+The insufficiency of water, supplied by natural springs and cisterns
+hewn in the rock, which in an early age had satisfied the small
+communities of Greece, had become a pressing public question by the time
+of the Tyrants, of whom Polycrates of Samos and Peisistratus of Athens
+were distinguished for their wisdom and enterprise in this respect. The
+former obtained the services of Eupalinus, an engineer celebrated for
+the skill with which he had carried out the works for the water-supply
+of Megara (see _Athen. Mittheil._ xxv., 1900, 23) under the direction of
+the Tyrant Theagenes (c. 625 B.C.). At Samos the difficulty lay in a
+hill which rose between the town and the water source. Through this hill
+Eupalinus cut a tunnel 8 ft. broad, 8 ft. high and 4200 ft. long,
+building within the tunnel a channel 3 ft. broad and 11 ells deep. The
+water, flowing by an accurately reckoned declivity, and all along open
+to the fresh air, was received at the lower end by a conduit of masonry,
+and so led into the town, where it supplied fountains, pipes, baths,
+cloacae, &c., and ultimately passed into the harbour (Herod, iii. 60).
+In Athens, under the rule of the Peisistratids (c. 560-510 B.C.), a
+similarly extensive, if less difficult, series of works was completed to
+bring water from the neighbouring hills to supplement the inadequate
+supply from the springs. From Hymettus were two conduits passing under
+the bed of the Ilissus, most of the course being cut in the rock.
+Pentelicus, richer in water, supplied another conduit, which can still
+be traced from the modern village of Chalandri by the air shafts built
+several feet above the ground, and at a distance apart of 130-160 ft.;
+the diameter of these shafts is 4-5 ft., and the number of them still
+preserved is about sixty. Tributary channels conveyed into the main
+stream the waters of the district through which it passed. Outside
+Athens, those two conduits met in a large reservoir, from which the
+water was distributed by a ramification of underground channels
+throughout the city. These latter channels vary in form, being partly
+round, partly square, and generally walled with stone; the chief one is
+sufficiently large for two men to pass in it. The precise location of
+the reservoir depends on the value of Dr Wilhelm Dorpfeld's theory as to
+the site of the Enneacrunus of Thucydides and Pausanias (see ATHENS:
+_Topography and Antiquity_). Dorpfeld places it south-west of the
+Acropolis, where there is a cistern connected with an aqueduct which
+passed under the theatre of Dionysus and on towards the Ilissus (see map
+under ATHENS). Others have placed it south of the Olympieum in the
+Ilissus bed. Beside these works water was brought from Pentelicus in an
+underground conduit begun by the emperor Hadrian and completed by
+Antoninus Pius. This aqueduct is still in use, having been repaired in
+1869.
+
+In Sicily, the works by which Empedocles, it is said, brought the water
+into the town of Selinus, are no longer visible; but it is probable
+that, like those of Syracuse, they consisted chiefly of tunnels and
+pipes laid under the ground. Syracuse was supplied by two aqueducts, one
+of which the Athenians destroyed (Thuc. vi. 100). One was fed by an
+affluent (the mod. Buttigliara) of the Anapus (mod. Anapo); it carried
+the water up to the top of Epipolae, where the channel was open, and
+thence down to the city and finally into the harbour. The other also
+ascends to the top of Epipolae, skirts the city on the north, and then
+proceeds along the coast. Its course is marked by rectangular shafts
+(_spiragli_) at the bottom of which water is still visible.
+
+An example of what appears to have been the earliest form of aqueduct in
+Greece was discovered in the island of Cos beside the fountain Burinna
+(mod. Fountain of Hippocrates) on Mount Oromedon. It consists of a
+bell-shaped chamber, built underground in the hill-side, to receive the
+water of the spring and keep it cool; a shaft from the top of the
+chamber supplied fresh air. From this reservoir the water was led by a
+subterranean channel, 114 ft. long and 6-1/2 ft. high.     (J. M. M.)
+
+
+  Roman.
+
+In comparing Greek and Roman aqueducts, many writers have enlarged on
+the greatness of the latter as an example of Roman contempt for natural
+obstacles, or even of Roman ignorance of the laws of nature. Now, in the
+first place, the Romans were not unacquainted with the law that water
+finds its own level (see Pliny, _Hist. Nat._ xxxi. 57, "subit
+altitudinem exortus sui"), and took full advantage of it in the
+construction of lofty fountains and the supplying of the upper floors of
+houses. That they built aqueducts across valleys in preference to
+carrying pipes underground was due simply to economy. Pipes had to be
+made of lead which was weak, or of bronze which was expensive; and the
+Romans were not sufficiently expert in the casting of large pipes which
+would stand a very great pressure to employ them for the whole course of
+a great aqueduct. Secondly, the water was so extremely hard that it was
+important that the channels should be readily accessible for repair as
+well as for the detection of leakage.[1] Moreover, as we shall see, the
+Roman aqueducts did not, in fact, preserve a straight line regardless of
+the configuration of the country. A striking example is the aqueduct of
+Nemausus (Nimes), the springs of which are some 10 m. from the town,
+though the actual distance traversed is about 25. Other devices, such as
+changing the level and then modifying the slope, and siphon arrangements
+of various kinds, were adopted (as in the aqueduct at Aspendus).
+
+Sextus Julius Frontinus, appointed _curator aquarum_ in A.D. 97,
+mentions in his treatise _de aquaeductibus urbis Romae_ (on the
+aqueducts of the city of Rome) nine aqueducts as being in use in his
+time (the lengths of the aqueducts as given here follow his
+measurements). These are: (1) AQUA APPIA, which took its rise between
+the 6th and 7th milestones of the Via Collatina, and measured from its
+source to the Porta Trigemina 11 Roman miles, of which all but about 300
+ft. were below ground. It appears to have been the first important
+enterprise of the kind at Rome, and was the work of the censor Appius
+Claudius Caecus, from whom it derived its name. The date of its
+construction was 312 B.C. (2) ANIO VETUS, constructed in 272-269 B.C. by
+the censor Manius Curius Dentatus. From its source near Tivoli, on the
+left side of the Anio, it flowed some 43 m.,[2] of which only 1100 ft.
+was above ground. At the distance of 2 m. from Rome (Frontinus, i. 21),
+it parted into two courses, one of which led to the _horti Asiniani_,
+and was thence distributed; while the other (_rectus ductus_) led by the
+temple of Spes to the Porta Esquilina. (3) AQUA MARCIA, reconstructed in
+1869-1870 under the name of Acqua Pia or Marcia-Pia after Pius IX.
+(though from Tivoli to Rome the modern aqueduct takes an entirely
+different course), rising on the left side of the Via Valeria near the
+36th milestone. It traversed 61-3/4 m., of which 54-1/4 were
+underground, and for the remaining distance was carried partly on
+substructions and partly on arches. It was the work of the praetor
+Quintus Marcius Rex (144-140 B.C.), not of Ancus Marcius, the fourth
+king of Rome, as Pliny (_N.H._ xxxi. 3) fancied, and took its name from
+its constructor. Its waters were celebrated for their coolness and
+excellent quality. Its volume was largely increased by Augustus, who
+added to it the Aqua Augusta; and it was repaired and restored by Titus,
+Septimus Severus, Caracalla and Diocletian. (4) AQUA TEPULA, from its
+source (now known as Sorgente Preziosa) in the district of Tusculum, to
+Rome, was some 11 m. in length. The first portion of its course must
+have been almost entirely subterranean and is not now traceable. For the
+last 6-1/2 m. it ran on the same series of arches that carried the Aqua
+Marcia, but at a higher level. It was the work of the censors Cn.
+Servilius Caepio and L. Cassius Longinus, and was completed in the year
+125 B.C. Its water is warm (about 63 deg. Fahr.) and not of the best
+quality. (5) The AQUA JULIA, from a source 2 m. from that of the Tepula,
+joined its course at the 10th milestone of the Via Latina. The combined
+stream, after a distance of 4 m., was received in a reservoir, and then
+once more divided into two channels. The entire length of the Julia was
+15-1/2 m. It was constructed in the year 33 B.C. by M. Vipsanius
+Agrippa, who also built the (6) AQUA VIRGO which, from its origin at a
+copious spring in a marsh on the Via Collatina, measured 14 m. in
+length; it was conveyed in a channel, partly under and partly above
+ground. It was begun in the year 33 B.C. and was celebrated for the
+excellence of its waters. It was restored to use by Pius V. in 1570. (7)
+AQUA ALSIETINA or AUGUSTA, the source of which is the Lacus Alsietinus
+(mod. Lago di Martignano), to the north of Rome, was over 22 m. in
+length, of which 358 paces were on arches. It was the work of Augustus,
+probably with the object of furnishing water for his _naumachia_ (a
+basin for sham sea-fights), and not for drinking purposes. Its course is
+unknown, as no remains of it exist, but an inscription relating to it
+is given in _Notizie d. Scant_ (1887), p. 182. (8, 9) The AQUA CLAUDIA
+and ANIO NOVUS were two aqueducts begun by Caligula in A.D. 38 and
+completed by Claudius in A.D. 52. The springs of the former belonged to
+the same group as those of the Marcia, and were situated near the 38th
+milestone of the Via Sublacensis, not far from its divergence from the
+Via Valeria, while the original intake of the latter from the river Anio
+was 4 m. farther along the same road. As the water was thick it was
+collected in a purifying tank, and 4 m. below, a branch stream, the
+Rivus Herculaneus, was added to it. According to Frontinus, over 10 m.
+of the course of the Claudia and nearly 9-1/2 of that of the Anio Novus
+were above ground. Seven miles out of Rome they united and ran from that
+point into Rome, following a natural isthmus formed by a lava stream
+from the Alban volcano, upon a line of arches, which still forms one of
+the most conspicuous features of the Campagna. The original inscription
+of Claudius (A.D. 52) on the Porta Maggiore, by which the Aqua Claudia
+and Anio Novus crossed the Via Praenestina and the Via Labicana, gives
+the length of the Aqua Claudia as 45 m., and that of the Anio Novus as
+62 m. Frontinus, on the other hand, gives 46.406 m. (i.e. about 43
+English miles) and 58.700 m. (i.e. about 54 English miles). Albertini
+(_Melanges de l'Ecole Francaise_, 1906, 305) explains the difference as
+due to the fact that Frontinus was calculating the length of the Claudia
+from the farthest spring, the Fons Albudinus, and that of the Anio Novus
+from the new intake constructed by Trajan in one of the three lakes
+constructed by Nero for the adornment of his villa above Subiaco. Two
+other inscriptions on the Porta Maggiore record restorations by
+Vespasian in A.D. 70, and by Titus in A.D. 80. That the aqueducts should
+be spoken of as _vetustate dilapsi_ so soon after their construction is
+not a little surprising, and may be attributed either to hasty
+construction in order to complete them by a fixed date, or to jobbery by
+the imperial freedmen who under Claudius were especially powerful, or to
+the fact that a line of arches intended originally in all probability
+for the Aqua Claudia alone was made to carry the Anio Novus as well.
+
+The size of the channels (_specus_) of the principal aqueducts varies
+considerably at different points of their course. The Anio Novus has the
+largest of them all, measuring 3 to 4 ft. wide and 9 ft. high to the top
+of the roof, which is pointed. They are lined with hard cement (_opus
+signinum_) containing fragments of broken brick. Those aqueducts of
+which the most conspicuous remains exist in the neighbourhood of Rome
+are the four from the upper valley of the Anio, the two which took their
+supply and their name from the river itself, and the Marcia and the
+Claudia, which originated from the same group of springs, in the floor
+of the Anio valley 6 m. below Subiaco. Those of the Anio Vetus, which
+travelled at a considerably lower level than the other three, are the
+least conspicuous, while the Claudia and Anio Novus as a rule kept close
+together, the latter at the highest level of all. The ruins of bridges
+and substructions in the Anio valley down to Tivoli, though
+comparatively little known, are of great importance. In all the
+aqueducts the original construction of the bridges was in _opus
+quadratum_ (masonry), while the substructions are in brick-faced
+concrete; but the bridges are as a rule strengthened (and often several
+times) with reinforcing walls of concrete faced with _opus reticulatum_
+or brickwork. Below Tivoli, where the Anio leaves its narrow valley, the
+aqueducts sweep round towards the Alban hills, and pass through some
+very difficult country between Tivoli and Gallicano, alternately
+crossing ravines, some of which are as much as 300 ft. deep, and
+tunnelling through hills.[3]
+
+The engineering skill displayed is remarkable, and one wonders what
+instruments were employed--probably the so-called _chorobates_, an
+improvement upon the ordinary water-level (Vitruvius viii. 6), though
+this would be slow and complicated. The optical properties of glass
+lenses were, however, unknown to the ancients, and the _dioptra_, or
+angle measure, was considered by Vitruvius less trustworthy than the
+_chorobates_ for the planning of aqueducts (cf. E. Hultsch, _s.v_. in
+Pauly-Wissowa, _Real-encyclopadie_). The aqueducts as a rule were
+carried on separate bridges, though all four united at the Ponte Lupo, a
+huge structure, which after the addition of all the four, and with the
+inclusion of all the later strengthening walls that were found necessary
+in course of time, measures 105 ft. in height, 508 in length, and 46 in
+thickness at the bottom, without including the buttresses. From
+Gallicano onwards the course of these four aqueducts follows the lower
+slopes of the Alban Hills. Previous writers on the subject have been
+unable to determine their course, which is largely subterranean; but it
+can be followed step by step with the indications given by the presence
+of the calcareous deposit which was thrown out at the _putei_ or shafts
+(which were, as a rule, placed at intervals of 240 ft., as were the
+_cippi_) when the _specus_ was cleaned; and remains of bridges, though
+less important, owing to the less difficult character of the country,
+are not entirely absent (cf. the works by T. Ashby cited in
+bibliography).[4] Near the 7th milestone of the Via Latina at Le
+Capanelle, the Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus emerge from their underground
+course, and run into Rome upon the long series of arches already
+mentioned, passing over the Porta Maggiore. The Claudia sent off an
+important branch from the Porta Maggiore over the Caclian to the
+Palatine, but the main aqueduct soon reached its termination. A mile
+farther on the Aqua Marcia also, owing to the gradual slope of the
+ground towards Rome, begins to be supported on arches, which were also
+used to carry the Aqua Tepula and the Aqua Julia (of the two latter,
+before their junction with the Marcia, no remains exist above ground,
+but inscribed _cippi_ of the last named and its underground channel have
+been found at Le Capanelle, and _cippi_ also close to its springs, which
+are a little way above Grottaferrata at Gli Squarciarelli). The Anio
+Vetus followed the same line, but kept underground (as was natural at
+the early period at which it was constructed) until the immediate
+neighbourhood of Rome, near the locality known as "ad Spem veterem"
+(from a temple of Spes, of which no remains are known) close to the
+Porta Maggiore. At this point, besides the aqueducts named, the Aqua
+Appia, as we are told by Frontinus, entered the city, and received an
+important branch, the Appia Augusta. No remains of either have been
+discovered outside the city.
+
+The Aqua Alexandrina must also have entered the city here, though its
+channel, which lay at some depth below ground, has not been discovered.
+Considerable remains of its brick aqueducts exist in the district
+between the Via Praenestina and the Via Labicana.
+
+Of the two aqueducts on the right bank of the Tiber, the Alsietina, as
+we have said, has no remains at all, while those of the Traiana are not
+of great importance. The line of the aqueducts was marked by _cippi_,
+inscribed (in the case of the Anio Vetus, Marcia, Tepula, Julia and
+Virgo--those of the Claudia and Anio Novus are uninscribed, and those of
+the Traiana are differently worded) with the name of the aqueduct, the
+distance from the next _cippus_ (generally 240 ft.) and the number,
+counting from Rome (not from the springs). These boundary stones were
+erected in pairs, to mark off the strip of land 30 ft. in width reserved
+for the aqueduct, and for the road or path which generally followed it.
+The shafts (_putei_) often stood, but not necessarily, at the same
+points as the _cippi_.
+
+To these nine must be added the two following, constructed after
+Frontinus's time: (10) AQUA TRAIANA, from springs to the north-west of
+the Lacus Sabatinus (Lago di Bracciano), constructed by Trajan in A.D.
+109, about 36-1/2 English miles in length. It was restored by Paul V. in
+1611, who made use of and largely transformed the remains of the ancient
+aqueduct; he allowed some of the inferior water of the lake to flow into
+the channel, and it is thus no longer used for drinking. (11) AQUA
+ALEXANDRINA, rising about 14 English miles from Rome, between the Via
+Praenestina and the Via Labicana, the work of Alexander Severus (A.D.
+226). The springs now supply the modern Acqua Felice, constructed by
+Sixtus V. in 1585, but the course of the latter is mainly subterranean
+and not identical with that of the former.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I.
+
+  _Photo, Altnari._
+  AQUA CLAUDIA, ROME.
+
+  _Photo, Neurdein._
+  PONT DU CARD, NIMES (NEMAUSUS).]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II.
+
+  _Photo, Laureat y Cia._
+  ROMAN AQUEDUCT AT SEGOVIA.
+
+  AQUEDUCT OF ROQUEFAVOUR, MARSEILLES.
+  Early nineteenth century.
+
+  _Photo, Brogi._
+  PISCINA MIRABILIS AT BAIAE.
+
+  _Photo, Dr T. Ashby._
+  AQUA MARCIA, ROME.]
+
+It is agreed that these eleven are all that were constructed. Procopius
+speaks of fourteen (and the Regionary catalogues mention others), but
+this number includes branch conduits. All the aqueducts ended in the
+city in huge _castella_ or reservoirs for the purpose of distribution.
+Vitruvius recommends the division of these into three parts--one for the
+supply of fountains, &c., one for the public baths and one for private
+consumers. In the Piazza Vittorio Emmanuele at Rome there are still to
+be seen the remains of a large ornamental fountain built probably for
+the Aqua Julia by Domitian or Alexander Severus (Jordan-Hulsen,
+_Topographie_, i. 3350). Besides these main _castella_ there were also
+many minor _castella_ in various parts of the city for sub-distribution.
+To allow the water to purify itself before being distributed in the
+city, filtering and settling tanks (_piscinae limariae_) were built
+outside the walls. These _piscinae_ were covered in with a vaulted roof,
+and were sometimes on a very large scale, as in the example still
+preserved at Fermo, which consists of two stories, each having three
+oblong basins communicating with each other; or the Piscina Mirabilis at
+Baiae, which is covered in by a vaulted roof, supported on forty-eight
+pillars and perforated to permit the escape of foul air. Two stairs lead
+by forty steps to the bottom of the reservoir. In the middle of the
+basin is a sinking to collect the deposit of the water. The walls and
+pillars are coated with a stucco so hard as to resist a tool.
+
+The oversight of aqueducts was placed, in the times of the republic,
+under the aediles, who were not, however, the constructors of them; of
+the four aqueducts built during this period, three are the work of
+censors, one (the Marcia) of a praetor. Under the empire this task
+devolved on special officials styled _Curatores Aquarum_, instituted by
+Augustus, who, as he himself says, "rivos aquarum omnium refecit"
+(inscription on the arch by which the Aqua Marcia crossed the Via
+Tiburtina).     (T. As.)
+
+Among the aqueducts outside Italy, constructed in Roman times and
+existing still, the most remarkable are: (1) the aqueduct at Nimes
+(Nemausus), erected probably by Vipsanius Agrippa in the time of
+Augustus, which rose to 160 ft. The Pont du Card, as this aqueduct is
+now called, consists of three tiers of arches across the valley of the
+river Gardon. In the lowest tier are six arches, of which one has a span
+of 75 ft., the others each 60 ft. In the second tier are eleven arches,
+each with a span of 75 ft. In the third tier are thirty-five smaller
+arches which carried the _specus_. As a bridge, the Pont du Gard has no
+rival for lightness and boldness of design among the existing remains of
+works of this class carried out in Roman times. (2) The aqueduct bridges
+at Segovia (Merckel, _Ingenieurtechnik_, pp. 566-568), Tarragona
+(_ibid._ 565-566), and Merida in Spain, the former being 2400 ft. long,
+with 109 arches of fine masonry, in two tiers, and reaching the height
+of 102 ft. The bridge at Tarragona is 876 ft. long and 83 ft. high. (3)
+At Mainz are the ruins of an aqueduct 7000 yds. long, about half of
+which is carried on from 500 to 600 pillars (_Archaeological Journal_,
+xlvii., 1890, pp. 211-214). This aqueduct was built by the XIVth legion
+and was for the use of the camp, not for the townspeople. For the
+similar aqueduct at Luynes see _Arch. Journ._ xlv. (1888), pp. 235-237.
+Similar witnesses of Roman occupation are to be seen in Dacia, Africa
+(see especially under CARTHAGE), Greece and Asia Minor. (4) The aqueduct
+at Jouy-aux-Arches, near Metz, which originally extended across the
+Moselle, here very broad, conveyed to the city an abundance of excellent
+water from Gorze. From a large reservoir at the source of the aqueduct
+the water passed along subterranean channels built of hewn stone, and
+sufficiently spacious for a man to walk in them upright. Similar
+channels received the water after it had crossed the Moselle by this
+bridge, at the distance of about 6 m. from Metz, and conveyed it to the
+city. The bridge consisted of only one row of arches nearly 60 ft. high.
+The middle arches have given way under the force of the water, but the
+others are still perfectly solid. This aqueduct is probably to be
+attributed to the latter half of the 4th century A.D. It is for the use
+of the town; hence its size. (5) One of the principal bridges of the
+aqueduct of Antioch in Syria is 700 ft. long, and at the deepest point
+200 ft. high. The lower part consists almost entirely of solid wall, and
+the upper part of a series of arches with very massive pillars. The
+masonry and design are rude. The water supply was drawn from several
+springs at a place called Beit el-Ma (anc. Daphne) about 4 or 5 m. from
+Antioch. From these separate springs the water was conducted by channels
+of hewn stone into a main channel, similarly constructed, which
+traversed the rest of the distance, being carried across streams and
+valleys by means of arches or bridges. (6) At the village of Moris,
+about an hour's distance north-west from the town of Mytilene, is the
+bridge of an aqueduct, carried by massive pillars built of large hewn
+blocks of grey marble, and connected by means of three rows of arches,
+of which the uppermost is of brick. The bridge extended about 500 ft. in
+length, and at the deepest point was from 70 to 80 ft. high. Judged by
+the masonry and the graceful design, it has been thought to be a work of
+the age of Augustus. Remains of this aqueduct are to be seen at Larisson
+Lamarousia, an hour's distance from Moris, and at St Demetri, two hours
+and a half from Ayasos, on the road to Vasilika.
+
+
+  Asia Minor.
+
+The whole subject of the ancient and medieval aqueducts of Asia Minor
+has been considered in great detail by G. Weber ("Wasserleitungen in
+kleinasiatischen Stadten," in the _Jahrbuch des kaiserl. deutsch.
+archaolog. Instit._ xix., 1904; see also earlier articles in _Jahrbuch_,
+1892, 1899). The aqueducts examined are those at Pergamum, Laodicea and
+Smyrna (in the earlier articles), and those at Metropolis (Ionia),
+Tralles (Aidin), Antioch-on-Maeander, Aphrodisias, Trapezopolis,
+Hierapolis, Apamea Cibotus and Antioch in Pisidia. In most of these
+cases it is difficult or even impossible to decide whether the work is
+Hellenistic or Roman; to the Romans Weber inclines to attribute, e.g.
+those at Metropolis, Tralles (perhaps), Aphrodisias; to the Greeks, e.g.
+those at Antioch-on-Maeander and Antioch in Pisidia. Since, therefore, a
+detailed description of these remains does not provide material for any
+satisfactory generalizations as to the distinctive features of
+Hellenistic and Roman work, it will be sufficient here to mention a few
+of the more interesting discoveries.
+
+In the case of Metropolis, the aqueduct in the valley of the Astraeus
+consisted of an arcade about 13 to 16 ft. high. Nearer to the town in
+the hills there are distinct traces of a canal with brick walls. It is
+clear that the water could not have served more than the lower parts of
+the town, the acropolis of which is nearly 200 ft. above the level of
+the conduit. In the case of Tralles the water was supplied by a high
+pressure conduit and distributed from the acropolis, where there are the
+remains of a basin (13 ft. by 10) arched over with brick. The ancient
+aqueduct is to be distinguished from a later, probably Byzantine, canal
+conduit, the course of which avoids the deeper depressions, crossed by
+the old aqueduct. Of the Antioch-on-Maeander aqueduct only a few
+clay-pipes remain, and the same is true of the aqueduct which was built
+by Carminius in the 2nd century A.D. to supply the community when
+reinforced by the amalgamation of Plarasa and Tauropolis; two of its
+basins are still distinguishable, but the two water-towers which are
+still standing belong to a later Byzantine structure. Trapezopolis was
+supplied from Mt. Salbacus (Baba Dagh): some twenty stone-pipes have
+been found built into a low wall which varies from 3-1/4 to about 5 ft.
+wide. Of the pillars which carried the conduit-pipe to Antioch in
+Pisidia, nineteen are still standing. Each arch consists of eleven
+keystones; no cement was used. The conduit, which was high-pressure,
+ends in a distributing tower and reservoir.     (J. M. M.)
+
+II. _Medieval._--The aqueduct near Spoleto, which now serves also as a
+bridge, is deserving of notice as an early instance of the use of the
+pointed arch, belonging as it does to the 7th or 8th century. It has
+ten arches, remarkable for the elegance of their design and the airy
+lightness of their proportions, each over 66 ft. in span, and about 300
+ft. in height.
+
+
+  Constantinople.
+
+The aqueduct of Pyrgos, near Constantinople, is a remarkable example of
+works of this class carried out in the later times of the Roman empire,
+and consisted of two branches. From this circumstance it was called Egri
+Kemer ("the Crooked Aqueduct"), to distinguish it from the Long
+Aqueduct, situated near the source of the waters. One of the branches
+extends 670 ft. in length, and is 106 ft. in height at the deepest part.
+It is composed of three tiers of arches, those in each row increasing in
+width from the bottom to the top--an arrangement very properly
+introduced with the view of saving materials without diminishing the
+strength of the work. The two upper rows consisted of arches of
+semicircles, the lower of Gothic arches; and this circumstance leads to
+the belief that the date of the structure is about the 10th century. The
+breadth of the building at the base was 21 ft., and it diminished with a
+regular batter on each side to the top, where it was only 11 ft. The
+base also was protected by strong buttresses or counterforts, erected
+against each of the pillars. The other branch of the aqueduct was 300
+ft. long, and consisted of twelve semicircular arches. This aqueduct
+serves to convey to Constantinople the waters of the valley of Belgrad,
+one of the principal sources from which the city is supplied. These are
+situated on the heights of Mount Haemus, the extremity of the Balkan
+Mountains, which overhangs the Black Sea. The water rises about 15 m.
+from the city, and between 3 and 4 m. west of the village of Belgrad, in
+three sources, which run in three deep and very confined valleys. These
+unite a little below the village, and then are collected into a large
+reservoir. After flowing a mile or two from this reservoir, the waters
+are augmented by two other streams, and conveyed by a channel of stone
+to the Crooked Aqueduct. From this they are conveyed to another which is
+the Long Aqueduct; and then, with various accessions, into a third,
+termed the Aqueduct of Justinian. From this they enter a vaulted
+conduit, which skirts the hills on the left side of the valley, and
+crosses a broad valley 2 m. below the Aqueduct of Justinian, by means of
+an aqueduct, with two tiers of arches of a very beautiful construction.
+The conduit then proceeds onward in a circuitous route, till it reaches
+the reservoir of Egri Kapu, situated just without and on the walls of
+the city. From this the water is conducted to the various quarters of
+the city, and also to the reservoir of St Sophia, which supplies the
+seraglio of the grand signior. The Long Aqueduct (Usun Kemer) is more
+imposing by its extent than the Crooked one, but is far inferior in the
+regularity of design and disposition of the materials. It is evidently a
+work of the Turks. It consists of two tiers of arches, the lower being
+forty-eight in number, and the upper fifty. The whole length was about
+2200 ft., and the height 80 ft. The aqueduct of Justinian (Muallak Kemer
+or "Hanging Aqueduct") is without doubt one of the finest monuments
+which remain to us of the middle ages. It consists of two tiers of large
+pointed arches, pierced transversely. Those of the lower story have 55
+ft. of span, the upper ones 40 ft. The piers are supported by strong
+buttresses, and at different heights they have little arches passing
+through them laterally, which relieve the deadness of the solid pillar.
+The length of this aqueduct is 720 ft. and the height 108 ft. This
+aqueduct has been attributed both to Constantine I. and to Justinian,
+the latter being perhaps the more probable.
+
+Besides the waters of Belgrad, Constantinople was supplied from several
+other principal sources, one of which took its rise on the heights of
+the same mountains, 3 or 4 m. east of Belgrad. This was conveyed in a
+similar manner by an arched channel elevated, when it was necessary, on
+aqueduct bridges, till it reached the northern parts of the city. It was
+in the course of this aqueduct that the contrivance of the _souterasi_
+or hydraulic obelisks, described by Andreossy (on his voyage to the
+Black Sea, the account of the Thracian Bosporus), was constructed, which
+excited some attention, as being an improvement on the method of
+conducting water by aqueduct bridges. "The souterasi," says Andreossy,
+"are masses of masonry, having generally the form of a truncated pyramid
+or an Egyptian obelisk. To form a conduit with souterasi, we choose
+sources of water, the level of which is several feet higher than the
+reservoir by which it is to be distributed over the city. We bring the
+water from its sources in subterranean canals, slightly declining until
+we come to the borders of a valley or broken ground. We there raise on
+each side a souterasi, to which we adapt vertically leaden pipes of
+determinate diameters, placed parallel to the two opposite sides of the
+building. These pipes are disjoined at the upper part of the obelisk,
+which forms a sort of basin, with which the pipes are connected. The one
+permits the water to rise to the level from whence it had descended; by
+the other, the water descends from this level to the foot of the
+souterasi, where it enters another canal underground, which conducts it
+to a second and to a third souterasi, where it rises and again descends,
+as at the last station. Here a reservoir receives it and distributes it
+in different directions by orifices of which the discharge is known."
+Again he says, "it requires but little attention to perceive that this
+system of conducting tubes is nothing but a series of siphons open at
+their upper part, and communicating with each other. The expense of a
+conduit by souterasi is estimated at only one-fifth of that of an
+aqueduct with arcades." There seems to be really no advantage in these
+pyramids, further than as they serve the purpose of discharging the air
+which collects in the pipes. They are in themselves an evident
+obstruction, and the water would flow more freely without any
+interruption of the kind. In regard to the leaden pipes, again, they
+would have required, with so little head pressure as is stated, to be
+used of very extraordinary dimensions to pass the same quantity of water
+as was discharged along the arched conduits (see also works quoted under
+CONSTANTINOPLE). The other principal source from which Constantinople is
+supplied, is from the high grounds 6 or 8 m. west of the town, from
+which it is conducted by conduits and arches, in the same manner as the
+others. The supply drawn from all these sources, as detailed by
+Andreossy, amounted to 400,000 cubic ft. per day.
+     (A. S. M.; J. M. M.)
+
+
+  Aqueducts and water supply.
+
+III. _Modern Construction._--Where towns are favourably situated the
+aqueduct may be very short and its cost bear a relatively small
+proportion to the total outlay upon a scheme of water supply, but where
+distant sources have to be relied upon the cost of the aqueduct becomes
+one of the most important features in the scheme, and the quantity of
+water obtainable must be considerable to justify the outlay. Hence it is
+that only very large towns can undertake the responsibility for this
+expenditure. In Great Britain it has in all large schemes become a
+condition that, when a town is permitted to go outside its own
+watershed, it shall, subject to a priority of a certain number of
+gallons per day per head of its own inhabitants, allow local
+authorities, any part of whose district is within a certain number of
+miles of the aqueduct, to take a supply on reasonable terms. The first
+case in which this principle was adopted on a large scale was the
+Thirlmere scheme sanctioned by parliament in 1879, for augmenting the
+supply of Manchester. The previous supply was derived from a source only
+about 15 m. distant, and the cost of the aqueduct, chiefly cast-iron
+pipes, was insignificant compared with the cost of the impounding
+reservoirs. But Thirlmere is 96 m. distant from the service reservoir
+near Manchester, and the cost of the aqueduct was more than 90% of the
+total cost. As a supply of about 50,000,000 gallons a day is available
+the outlay was justifiable, and the water is in fact very cheaply
+obtained. Liverpool derives a supply of about 40,000,000 gallons a day
+from the river Vyrnwy in North Wales, 68 m. distant, and Birmingham has
+constructed works for impounding water in Radnorshire, and conveying it
+a distance of 74 m., the supply being about 75,000,000 gallons a day. In
+the year 1899 an act of parliament was passed authorizing the towns of
+Derby, Leicester, Sheffield and Nottingham, jointly to obtain a supply
+of water from the head waters of the river Derwent in Derbyshire.
+Leicester is 60 m. distant from this source, and its share of the supply
+is about 10,000,000 gallons a day. For more than half the distance,
+however, the aqueduct is common to Derby and Nottingham, which together
+are entitled to about 16,000,000 gallons a day, and the expense to
+Leicester is correspondingly reduced. These are the most important cases
+of long aqueducts in England, and all are subsequent to 1879. It is
+obvious, therefore, how greatly the design and construction of the
+aqueduct have grown in importance, and what care must be Exercised in
+order that the supply upon which such large populations depend may not
+be interrupted, and that the country through which such large volumes of
+water are conveyed may not be flooded in consequence of the failure of
+any of the works.
+
+
+  Construction.
+
+Practically only two types of aqueduct are used in England. The one is
+built of concrete, brickwork, &c., the other of cast-iron (or, in
+special circumstances, steel) pipes. In the former type the water
+surface coincides with the hydraulic gradient, and the conditions are
+those of an artificial river; the aqueduct must therefore be carefully
+graded throughout, so that the fall available between source and
+termination may be economically distributed. This condition requires
+that the ground in which the work is built shall be at the proper
+elevation; if at any point this is not the case, the aqueduct must be
+carried on a substructure built up to the required level. Such large
+structures are, however, extremely expensive, and require elaborate
+devices for maintaining water-tightness against the expansion and
+contraction of the masonry due to changes of temperature. They are now
+only used where their length is very short, as in cases where mountain
+streams have to be crossed, and even these short lengths are avoided by
+some engineers, who arrange that the aqueduct shall pass, wherever
+practicable, under the streams. Where wide valleys interrupt the course
+of the built aqueduct, or where the absence of high ground prevents the
+adoption of that type at any part of the route, the cast-iron pipes
+hereafter referred to are used.
+
+
+  Masonry aqueducts.
+
+The built aqueduct may be either in tunnel, or cut-and-cover, the latter
+term denoting the process of cutting the trench, building the floor,
+side-walls, and roof, and covering with earth, the surface of the ground
+being restored as before. For works conveying water for domestic supply,
+the aqueduct is in these days, in England, always covered. Where, as is
+usually the case, the water is derived from a tract of mountainous
+country, the tunnel work is sometimes very heavy. In the case of the
+Thirlmere aqueduct, out of the first 13 m. the length of the tunnelled
+portions is 8 m., the longest tunnel being 3 m. in length. Conditions of
+time, and the character of the rock, usually require the use of
+machinery for driving, at any rate in the case of the longer tunnels.
+For the comparatively small tunnels required for aqueducts, two
+percussion drilling machines are usually mounted on a carriage, the
+motive power being derived from compressed air sent up the tunnel in
+pipes. The holes when driven are charged with explosives and fired. In
+the Thirlmere tunnels, driven through very hard Lower Silurian strata,
+the progress was about 13 yds. a week at each face, work being carried
+on continuously day and night for six days a week. Where the character
+of the country through which the aqueduct passes is much the same as
+that from which the supply is derived, the tunnels need not be lined
+with concrete, &c., more than is absolutely necessary for retaining the
+water and supporting weak places in the rock; the floor, however, is
+nearly always so treated. The lining, whether in tunnel or
+cut-and-cover, may be either of concrete, or brickwork, or of concrete
+faced with brickwork. To ensure the impermeability of work constructed
+with these materials is in practice somewhat difficult, and no matter
+how much care is taken by those supervising the workmen, and even by the
+workmen themselves, it is impossible to guarantee entire freedom from
+trouble in this respect. With a wall only about 15 in. thick, any
+neglect is certain to make the work permeable; frequently the labourers
+do not distribute the broken stone and fine material of the concrete
+uniformly, and no matter how excellent the design, the quality of
+materials, &c., a leak is sure to occur at such places (unless, indeed,
+the pressure of the outside water is superior and an inflow occurs). A
+further cause of trouble lies in the water which flows from the strata
+on to the concrete, and washes away some of the cement upon which the
+work depends for its watertightness, before it has time to set. For this
+reason it is advisable to put in the floor before, and not after, the
+sidewalls and arch have been built, otherwise the only outlet for the
+water in the strata is through the ground on which the floor has to be
+laid. Each length of about 20 ft. should be completely constructed
+before the next is begun, the water then having an easy exit at the
+leading end. Manholes, by which the aqueduct can be entered, are usually
+placed in the roof at convenient intervals; thus, in the case of the
+Thirlmere aqueduct, they occur at every quarter of a mile.
+
+
+  Timber aqueducts.
+
+In some parts of America aqueducts are frequently constructed of wood,
+being then termed flumes. These are probably more extensively used in
+California than in any other part of the world, for conveying large
+quantities of water which is required for hydraulic mining, for
+irrigation, for the supply of towns and for transporting timber. The
+flumes are frequently carried along precipitous mountain slopes, and
+across valleys, supported on trestles. In Fresno county, California,
+there is a flume 52 m. in length for transporting timber from the Sierra
+Nevada Mountains to the plain below; it has a rectangular V-shaped
+section, 3 ft. 7 in. wide at the top, and 21 in. deep vertically. The
+boards which form the sides are 1-1/4 in. thick, and some of the
+trestlework is 130 ft. high. The steepest grade occurs where there is a
+fall of 730 ft. in a length of 3000 ft. About 9,000,000 ft. of timber
+were used in the construction. At San Diego there is a flume 35 m. long
+for irrigation and domestic supply, the capacity being 50 ft. per
+second; it has 315 trestle bridges (the longest of which is that across
+Los Coches Creek, 1794 ft. in length and 65 ft. in height) and 8
+tunnels, and the cost was $900,000. The great bench flume of the
+Highline canal, Colorado, is 2640 ft. in length, 28 ft. wide, and 7 ft.
+deep; the gradient is 5.28 ft. per mile, and the discharge 1184 ft. per
+second.
+
+
+  Aqueduct in iron piping.
+
+As previously stated, the type of aqueduct built of concrete, &c., can
+only be adopted where the ground is sufficiently elevated to carry it,
+and where the quantity of water to be conveyed makes it more economical
+than piping. Where the falling contour is interrupted by valleys too
+wide for a masonry structure above the surface of the ground, the
+detached portions of the built aqueduct must be connected by rows of
+pipes laid beneath, and following the main undulations of, the surface.
+In such cases the built aqueduct terminates in a chamber of sufficient
+size to enclose the mouths of the several pipes, which, thus charged,
+carry the water under the valley up to a corresponding chamber on the
+farther hillside from which the built aqueduct again carries on the
+supply. These connecting pipes are sometimes called siphons, although
+they have nothing whatever to do with the principle of a siphon, the
+water simply flowing into the pipe at one end and out at the other under
+the influence of gravity, and the pressure of the atmosphere being no
+element in the case. The pipes are almost always made of cast-iron,
+except in such cases as the lower part of some siphons, where the
+pressure is very great, or where they are for use abroad, when
+considerations of weight are of importance, and when they are made of
+rolled steel with riveted or welded seams. It is frequently necessary to
+lay them in deep cuttings, in which case cast-iron is much better
+adapted for sustaining a heavy weight of earth than the thinner steel,
+though the latter is more adapted to resist internal pressure. Mr D.
+Clarke (_Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ vol. xxxviii. p. 93) gives some
+particulars of a riveted steel pipe 24 m. long, 33 to 42 in. diameter,
+varying in thickness from 0.22 in. to 0.375 in. After a length of 9 m.
+had been laid, and the trench refilled, it was found that the crown of
+the pipe had been flattened by an amount varying from 1/2 in. to 4 in.
+Steel pipes suffer more from corrosion than those made of cast-iron, and
+as the metal attacked is much thinner the strength is more seriously
+reduced. These considerations have prevented any general change from
+cast-iron to steel.
+
+  Mr. Clemens Herschel has made some interesting remarks (_Proc. Inst.
+  C.E._ vol. cxv. p. 162) as to the circumstances in which steel pipes
+  have been found preferable to cast-iron. He says that it had been
+  demonstrated by practice that cast-iron cannot compete with
+  wrought-iron or steel pipes in the states west of the Rocky Mountains,
+  on the Pacific slope. This is due to the absence of coal and iron ore
+  in these states, and to the weight of the imported cast-iron pipes
+  compared with steel pipes of equal capacity and strength. The works of
+  the East Jersey Water Company for the supply of Newark, N.J., include
+  a riveted steel conduit 48 in. in diameter and 21 m. long. This
+  conduit is designed to resist only the pressure due to the hydraulic
+  gradient, in contradistinction to that which would be due to the
+  hydrostatic head, this arrangement saving 40% in the weight and cost
+  of the pipes. For the supply of Rochester, N.Y., there is a riveted
+  steel conduit 36 in. in diameter and 20 m. long; and for Allegheny
+  City, Pennsylvania, there is a steel conduit 5 ft. in diameter and
+  nearly 10 m. long. The works for bringing the water from La Vigne and
+  Verneuil to Paris include a steel main 5 ft. in diameter between St.
+  Cloud and Paris.
+
+  Cast-iron pipes rarely exceed 48 in. in diameter, and even this
+  diameter is only practicable where the pressure of the water is low.
+  In the Thirlmere aqueduct the greatest pressure is nearly 180 lb. on
+  the square inch, the pipes where this occurs being 40 in. in diameter
+  and 1-3/4 in. thick. These large pipes, which are usually made in
+  lengths of 12 ft., are generally cast with a socket at one end for
+  receiving the spigot end of the next pipe, the annular space being run
+  with lead, which is prevented from flowing into the interior of the
+  pipe by a spring ring subsequently removed; the surface of the lead is
+  then caulked all round the outside of the pipe. A wrought-iron ring is
+  sometimes shrunk on the outer rim of the socket, previously turned to
+  receive it, in order to strengthen it against the wedging action of
+  the caulking tool. Sometimes the pipes are cast as plain tubes and
+  joined with double collars, which are run with lead as in the last
+  case. The reason for adopting the latter type is that the stresses set
+  up in the thicker metal of the socket by unequal cooling are thereby
+  avoided, a very usual place for pipes to crack under pressure being at
+  the back of the socket. The method of turning and boring a portion,
+  slightly tapered, of spigot and socket so as to ensure a watertight
+  junction by close annular metallic contact, is not suitable for large
+  pipes, though very convenient for smaller diameters in even ground.
+  Spherical joints are sometimes used where a line of main has to be
+  laid under a large river or estuary, and where, therefore, the pipes
+  must be jointed before being lowered into the previously dredged
+  trench. This was the case at the Willamette river, Portland, Oregon,
+  where a length of 2000 ft. was required. The pipes are of cast-iron 28
+  in. in diameter, 1-1/2 in. thick, and 17 ft. long. The spigots were
+  turned to a spherical surface of 20 in. radius outside, the inside of
+  the sockets being of a radius 3/8 in. greater. After the insertion of
+  the spigot into the socket, a ring, 3 in. deep, turned inside to
+  correspond with the socket, was bolted to the latter, the annular
+  space then being run with lead. These pipes were laid on an inclined
+  cradle, one end of which rested on the bed of the river and the other
+  on a barge where the jointing was done; as the pipes were jointed the
+  barge was carefully advanced, thus trailing the pipes into the trench
+  (_Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ vol. xxxiii. p. 257). As may be conjectured
+  from the pressure which they have to stand, very great care has to be
+  taken in the manufacture and handling of cast-iron pipes of large
+  diameter, a care which must be unfailing from the time of casting
+  until they are jointed in their final position in the ground. They are
+  cast vertically, socket downwards, so that the densest metal may be at
+  the weakest part, and it is advisable to allow an extra head of metal
+  of about 12 in., which is subsequently cut off in a lathe. An
+  inspector representing the purchaser watches every detail of the
+  manufacture, and if, after being measured in every part and weighed,
+  they are found satisfactory they are proved with internal fluid
+  pressure, oil being preferable to water for this purpose. While under
+  pressure, they are rapped from end to end with a hand hammer of about
+  5 lb. in weight, in order to discover defects. The wrought-iron rings
+  are then, if required, shrunk on to the sockets, and the pipes, after
+  being made hot in a stove, are dipped vertically in a composition of
+  pitch and oil, in order to preserve them from corrosion. All these
+  operations are performed under cover. A record should be kept of the
+  history of the pipe from the time it is cast to the time it is laid
+  and jointed in the ground, giving the date, number, diameter, length,
+  thickness, and proof pressure, with the name of the pipe-jointer whose
+  work closes the record. Such a history sometimes enables the cause
+  (which is often very obscure) of a burst in a pipe to be ascertained,
+  the position of every pipe being recorded.
+
+  Cast-iron pipes, even when dipped in the composition referred to,
+  suffer considerably from corrosion caused by the water, especially
+  soft water, flowing through them. One pipe may be found in as good a
+  condition as when made, while the next may be covered with nodules of
+  rust. The effect of the rust is twofold; it reduces the area of the
+  pipe, and also, in consequence of the resistance offered by the rough
+  surface, retards the velocity of the water. These two results,
+  expecially the latter, may seriously diminish the capability of
+  discharge, and they should always be allowed for in deciding the
+  diameter. Automatic scrapers are sometimes used with good results, but
+  it is better to be independent of them as long as possible. In one
+  case the discharge of pipes, 40 in. in diameter, was found after a
+  period of about twelve years to have diminished at the rate of about
+  1% per year; in another case, where the water was soft and where the
+  pipes were 40 in. in diameter, the discharge was diminished by 7% in
+  ten years. An account of the state of two cast-iron mains supplying
+  Boston with water is given in the _Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ vol. xxxv. p.
+  241. These pipes, which were laid in 1877, are 48 in. in diameter and
+  1800 ft. long. When they were examined in 1894-1895, it was estimated
+  that the tubercles of rust covered nearly one-third of the interior
+  surfaces, the bottom of the pipe being more encrusted than the sides
+  and top. They had central points of attachment to the iron, at which
+  no doubt the coating was defective, and from them the tubercles spread
+  over the surface of the surrounding coating. In this case they were
+  removed by hand, and the coating of the pipes was not injured in the
+  process. Cast-iron pipes must not be laid in contact with cinders from
+  a blast furnace with which roads are sometimes made, because these
+  corrode the metal. Mr Russell Aitken (_Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. cxv. p.
+  93) found in India that cast-iron pipes buried in the soil rapidly
+  corroded, owing to the presence of nitric acid secreted by bacteria
+  which attacked the iron. The large cast-iron pipes conveying the water
+  from the Tansa reservoir to Bombay are laid above the surface of the
+  ground. Cast-iron pipes of these large diameters have not been in
+  existence sufficiently long to enable their life to be predicted. A
+  main, 40 in. in diameter, conveying soft water, after being in
+  existence fifty years at Manchester, was apparently as good as ever.
+  In 1867 Mr J.B. Francis found that no apparent deterioration had taken
+  place in a cast-iron main, 8 in. diameter, which was laid in the year
+  1828, a period of thirty-nine years (_Trans. Soc. Am. C.E._ vol. i. p.
+  26). These two instances are probably not exceptional.
+
+
+  Methods of laying.
+
+Pipes in England are usually laid with not less than 2 ft. 6 in. of
+cover, in order that the water may not be frozen in a severe winter.
+Where they are laid in deep cutting they should be partly surrounded
+with concrete, so that they may not be fractured by the weight of earth
+above them. Angles are turned by means of special bend pipes, the curves
+being made of as large a radius as convenient. In the case of the
+Thirlmere aqueduct, double socketed castings about 12 in. long
+(exclusive of the sockets) were used, the sockets being inclined to each
+other at the required angle. They were made to various angles, and for
+any particular curve several would be used connected by straight pipes 3
+ft. long. As special castings are nearly double the price of the regular
+pipes, the cost was much diminished by making them as short as possible,
+while a curve, made up of the slight angles used, offered practically no
+more impediment to the flow of water in consequence of its polygonal
+form, than would be the case had special bend pipes been used. In all
+cases of curves on a line of pipes under internal fluid pressure, there
+exists a resultant force tending to displace the pipes. When the curve
+is in a horizontal plane and the pipes are buried in the ground, the
+side of the pipe trench offers sufficient resistance to this force.
+Where, however, the pipes are above ground, or when the curve is in a
+vertical plane, it is necessary to anchor them in position. In the case
+of the Tansa aqueduct to Bombay, there is a curve of 500 ft. radius near
+Bassein Creek. At this point the hydrostatic head is about 250 ft., and
+the engineer, Mr Clerke, mentions that a tendency to an outward movement
+of the line of pipes was observed. At the siphon under Kurla Creek the
+curves on the approaches as originally laid down were sharp, the
+hydrostatic head being there about 210 ft.; here the outward movement
+was so marked that it was considered advisable to realign the approaches
+with easier curves (_Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. cxv. p. 34). In the case of
+the Thirlmere aqueduct the greatest hydrostatic pressure, 410 ft.,
+occurs at the bridge over the river Lune, where the pipes are 40 in. in
+diameter, and in descending from the bridge make reverse angles of
+31-1/2 deg. The displacing force at each of these angles amounts to 54
+tons, and as the design includes five lines of pipes, it is obvious that
+the anchoring arrangements must be very efficient. The steel straps used
+for anchoring these and all other bends were curved to fit as closely as
+possible the castings to be anchored. Naturally the metal was not in
+perfect contact, but when the pipes were charged the disappearance of
+all the slight inequalities showed that the straps were fulfilling their
+intended purpose. At every summit on a line of pipes one or more valves
+must be placed in order to allow the escape of air, and they must also
+be provided on long level stretches, and at changes of gradient where
+the depth of the point of change below the hydraulic gradient is less
+than that at both sides, causing what may be called a virtual summit.
+It is better to have too many than too few, as accumulations of air may
+cause an enormous diminution in the quantity of water delivered. In all
+depressions discharge valves should be placed for emptying the pipes
+when desired, and for letting off the sediment which accumulates at such
+points. Automatic valves are frequently placed at suitable distances for
+cutting off the supply in case of a burst. At the inlet mouth of the
+pipe they may depend for their action on the sudden lowering of the
+water (due to a burst in the pipe) in the chamber from which they draw
+their supply, causing a float to sink and set the closing arrangement in
+motion. Those on the line of main are started by the increased velocity
+in the water, caused by the burst on the pipe at a lower level. The
+water, when thus accelerated, is able to move a disk hung in the pipe at
+the end of a lever and weighted so as to resist the normal velocity;
+this lever releases a catch, and a door is then gradually revolved by
+weights until it entirely closes the pipe. Reflux valves on the
+ascending leg of a siphon prevent water from flowing back in case of a
+burst below them; they have doors hung on hinges, opening only in the
+normal direction of flow. Due allowance must be made, in the amount of
+head allotted to a pipe, for any head which may be absorbed by such
+mechanical arrangements as those described where they offer opposition
+to the flow of the water. These large mains require most careful and
+gradual filling with water, and constant attention must be given to the
+air-valves to see that the gutta-percha balls do not wedge themselves in
+the openings. A large mass of water, having a considerable velocity, may
+cause a great many bursts by water-ramming, due to the admission of the
+water at too great a speed. In places where iron is absent and timber
+plentiful, as in some parts of America, pipes, even of large diameter
+and in the most important cases, are sometimes made of wooden staves
+hooped with iron. A description of two of these will be found below.
+
+
+    Thirlmere.
+
+  The _Thirlmere Aqueduct_ is capable of conveying 50,000,000 gallons a
+  day from Thirlmere, in the English lake district, to Manchester. The
+  total length of 96 m. is made up of 14 m. of tunnels, 37 m. of
+  cut-and-cover, and 45 m. of cast-iron pipes, five rows of the latter
+  being required. The tunnels where lined, and the cut-and-cover, are
+  formed of concrete, and are 7 ft. in height and width, the usual
+  thickness of the concrete being 15 in. The inclination is 20 in. per
+  mile. The floor is flat from side to side, and the side-walls are 5
+  ft. high to the springing of the arch, which has a rise of 2 ft. The
+  water from the lake is received in a circular well 65 ft. deep and 40
+  ft. in diameter, at the bottom of which there is a ring of wire-gauze
+  strainers. Wherever the concrete aqueduct is intersected by valleys,
+  cast-iron pipes are laid; in the first instance only two of the five
+  rows 40 in. in diameter were laid, the city not requiring its supply
+  to be augmented by more than 20,000,000 gallons a day, but in 1907 it
+  was decided to lay a third line. All the elaborate arrangements
+  described above for stopping the water in case of a burst have been
+  employed, and have perfectly fulfilled their duties in the few cases
+  in which they have been called into action. The water is received in a
+  service reservoir at Prestwich, near Manchester, from which it is
+  supplied to the city. The supply from this source was begun in 1894.
+  The total cost of the complete scheme may be taken at about
+  L5,000,000, of which rather under L3,000,000 had been spent up to the
+  date of the opening, at which time only one line of pipes had been
+  laid.
+
+
+    Vyrnwy.
+
+  The _Vyrnwy Aqueduct_ was sanctioned by parliament in 1880 for the
+  supply of Liverpool from North Wales, the quantity of water obtainable
+  being at least 40,000,000 gallons a day. A tower built in the
+  artificial lake from which the supply is derived, contains the inlet
+  and arrangements for straining the water. The aqueduct is 68 m. in
+  length, and for nearly the whole distance will consist of three lines
+  of cast-iron pipes, two of which, varying in diameter from 42 in. to
+  39 in., are now in use. As the total fall between Vyrnwy and the
+  termination at Prescot reservoirs is about 550 ft., arrangements had
+  to be made to ensure that no part of the aqueduct be subjected to a
+  greater pressure than is required for the actual discharge. Balancing
+  reservoirs have therefore been constructed at five points on the line,
+  advantage being taken of high ground where available, so that the
+  total pressure is broken up into sections. At one of these points,
+  where the ground level is 110 ft. below the hydraulic gradient, a
+  circular tower is built, making a most imposing architectural feature
+  in the landscape. At the crossing of the river Weaver, 100 ft. wide
+  and 15 ft. deep, the three pipes, here made of steel, were connected
+  together laterally, floated into position, and sunk into a dredged
+  trench prepared to receive them. Under the river Mersey the pipes are
+  carried in a tunnel, from which, during construction, the water was
+  excluded by compressed air.
+
+
+    Denver.
+
+  _Denver Aqueduct._--The supply to Denver City, initiated by the
+  Citizens Water Company in 1889, is derived from the Platte river,
+  rising in the Rocky Mountains. The first aqueduct constructed is
+  rather over 20 m. in length, of which a length of 16-1/2 m. is made of
+  wooden stave pipe, 30 in. in diameter. The maximum pressure is that
+  due to 185 ft. of water; the average cost of the wooden pipe was
+  $1.36-1/2 per foot, and the capability of discharge 8,400,000 gallons
+  a day. Within a year of the completion of the first conduit, it became
+  evident that another of still greater capacity was required. This was
+  completed in April 1893; it is 34 in. in diameter and will deliver
+  16,000,000 gallons a day. By increasing the head upon the first pipe,
+  the combined discharge is 30,000,000 gallons a day. An incident in
+  obtaining a temporary supply, without waiting for the completion of
+  the second pipe, was the construction of two wooden pipes, 13 in. in
+  diameter, crossing a stream with a span of 104 ft., and having no
+  support other than that derived from their arched form. One end of the
+  arch is 24-1/2 ft. above the other end, and, when filled with water,
+  the deflection with eight men on it was only 7/8 of an inch. A
+  somewhat similar arch, 60 ft. span, occurs on the 34-in. pipe where it
+  crosses a canal. Schuyler points out (_Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ vol.
+  xxxi. p. 148) that the fact that the entire water supply of a city of
+  150,000 inhabitants is conveyed in wooden mains, is so radical a
+  departure from all precedents, that it is deserving of more than a
+  passing notice. He says that it is manifestly and unreservedly
+  successful, and has achieved an enormous saving in cost. The sum saved
+  by the use of wooden, in preference to cast-iron pipes, is estimated
+  at $1,100,000. It is perhaps necessary to state that the pipe is
+  buried in the ground in the same way as metal pipes. The edges of the
+  staves are dressed to the radius with a minute tongue 1/16 in. high on
+  one edge of each stave, but with no corresponding groove in the next
+  stave; its object is to ensure a close joint when the bands are
+  tightened up. Leaks seldom or never occur along the longitudinal
+  seams, but the end shrinkage caused troublesome joint leaks. The
+  shrinkage in California redwood, which had seasoned 60 to 90 days
+  before milling, was frequently as much as 3 in. in the 20 staves that
+  formed the 34-in. pipe, and the space so formed had to be filled by a
+  special closing stave. Metallic tongues, 3/4 in. deep, are inserted at
+  the ends of abutting staves, in a straight saw cut. The bands, which
+  are of mild steel, have a head at one end and a nut and washer at the
+  other; the ends are brought together on a wrought-iron shoe, against
+  which the nut and washer set. The staves forming the lower half of the
+  pipe are placed on an outside, and the top staves on an inside, mould.
+  While the bands are being adjusted the pipe is rounded out to bring
+  the staves out full, and the staves are carefully driven home on to
+  the abutting staves. The spacing of the bands depends on
+  circumstances, but is about 150 bands per 100 ft. With low heads the
+  limit of spacing was fixed at 17 in. The outer surface of the pipe,
+  when charged, shows moisture oozing slightly over the entire surface.
+  This condition Schuyler considers an ideal one for perfect
+  preservation, and the staves were kept as thin as possible to ensure
+  its occurrence. Samples taken from pipes in use from three to nine
+  years are quite sound, and it is concluded that the wood will last as
+  long as cast-iron if the pipe is kept constantly charged. The bands
+  are the only perishable portion, and their life is taken at from
+  fifteen to twenty years. Other portions of the second conduit for a
+  length of nearly 3 m. were formed of concrete piping, 38 in. diameter,
+  formed on a mould in the trench, the thickness being 2-1/2 to 3 in. So
+  successful an instance of the use of wooden piping on a large scale is
+  sure to lead to a large development of this type of aqueduct in
+  districts where timber is plentiful and iron absent.
+
+
+    Pioneer, Utah.
+
+  _Pioneer Aqueduct, Utah._--The construction of the Pioneer Aqueduct,
+  Utah, was begun in 1896 by the Pioneer Electric Power Company, near
+  the city of Ogden, 35 m. north of Salt Lake City. The storage
+  reservoir, from which it draws its water, will coyer an area of 2000
+  acres, and contain about 15,000 million gallons of water. The aqueduct
+  is a pipe 6 ft. in diameter, and of a total length of 6 m.; for a
+  distance of rather more than 5 m. it is formed of wooden staves, the
+  remainder, where the head exceeds 117 ft., being of steel. It is laid
+  in a trench and covered to a depth of 3 ft. The greatest pressure on
+  the steel pipe is 200 lb. per sq. in., and the thickness varies from
+  3/8 to 11/16 in. The pipe was constructed according to the usual
+  practice of marine boiler-work for high pressures, and each section,
+  about 9 ft. long, was dipped in asphalt for an hour. These sections
+  were supported on timber blocking, placed from 5 to 9 ft. apart, and
+  consisting of three to six pieces of 6 X 6 in. timbers laid one on the
+  top of the other; they were then riveted together in the ordinary way.
+  The wooden stave-pipe is of the type successfully used in the Western
+  States for many years, but its diameter is believed to be unequalled
+  for any but short lengths. There were thirty-two staves in the circle,
+  2 in. in thickness, and about 20 ft. long, hooped with round steel
+  rods 5/8 in. in diameter, each hoop being in two pieces. The pipe is
+  supported at intervals of 8 ft. by sills 6 X 8 in. and 8 ft. long. The
+  flow through it is 250 cubic ft. per second.
+
+
+    Santa Ana.
+
+  The _Santa Ana Canal_ was constructed for irrigation purposes in
+  California, and is designed to carry 240 cub. ft. of water per second
+  (_Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ vol. xxxiii. p. 99). The cross section of the
+  flumes shows an elliptical bottom and straight sides consisting of
+  wooden staves held together by iron and steel ribs. The width and
+  depth are each 5 ft. 6 in., the intended depth of water being 5 ft.
+  The staves are held by T-iron supports resting on wooden sills spaced
+  8 ft. apart, and are compressed together by a framework. They were
+  caulked with oakum, on the top of which, to a third of the total
+  depth, hot asphalt was run. The use of nails was altogether avoided
+  except in parts of the framework, it being noticed that decay usually
+  starts at nail-holes. It was found possible to make the flume
+  absolutely watertight, and in case of repair being necessary at any
+  part the framework is easily taken to pieces so that new staves can be
+  inserted. The water in the flume has a velocity of 9.6 ft. per second.
+  The Warm Springs, Deep, and Morton canons on the line are crossed by
+  wooden stave pipes 52 in. in diameter, bound with round steel rods,
+  and laid above the surface of the ground. The work is planned for two
+  rows of pipes, each capable of carrying 123 cub. ft. per second; of
+  these one so far has been laid. The lengths of the pipes at each of
+  the three canons are 551, 964 and 756 ft. respectively, and the
+  maximum head at any place is 160 ft. The pipes are not painted, and it
+  has been suggested that they would suffer in their exposed position in
+  case of a bush fire, a contingency to which, of course, flumes are
+  also liable.
+
+
+    New York.
+
+  _Aqueducts of New York._--There are three aqueducts in New York--the
+  Old Croton Aqueduct (1837-1843), the Bronx River Conduit (1880-1885),
+  and the New Croton Aqueduct (1884-1893), discharging respectively 95,
+  28, and 302 million U.S. gallons a day; their combined delivery is
+  therefore 425 million gallons a day. The Old Croton Aqueduct is about
+  41 m. in length, and was constructed as a masonry conduit, except at
+  the Harlem and Manhattan valleys, where two lines of 36-in. pipe were
+  used. The inclination of the former is at the rate of about 13 in. per
+  mile. The area of the cross-section is 53.34 sq. ft., the height is
+  8-1/2 ft., and the greatest width 7 ft. 5 in.; the roof is
+  semicircular, the floor segmental, and the sides have a batter on the
+  face of 1/2 in. per foot. The sides and invert are of concrete, faced
+  with 4 in. of brickwork, the roof being entirely of brickwork. There
+  is a bridge over the Harlem river 1450 ft. in length, consisting of
+  fifteen semicircular arches; its soffit is 100 ft. above high water,
+  and its cost was $963,427. The construction of the New Croton Aqueduct
+  was begun in 1885, and the works were sufficiently advanced by the
+  15th of July 1890 to allow the supply to be begun. The lengths of the
+  various parts of the aqueduct are as follows:--
+
+                                             Miles.
+  Tunnel                                     29.75
+  Cut-and-cover                               1.12
+  Cast-iron pipes, 48 in. diameter, 8 rows.   2.38
+                                             -----
+      Croton Inlet to Central Park.          33.25
+                                             =====
+
+  The length of tunnel under pressure (circular form) is 7.17 m., and
+  that not under pressure (horse-shoe form) 23.70 m. The maximum
+  pressure in the former is 55 lb. per sq. in. The width and height of
+  the horse-shoe form are each 13 ft. 7 in., and the diameter of the
+  circular form (with the exception of two short lengths) is 12 ft. 3
+  in. The reason for constructing the aqueduct in tunnel for so long a
+  distance was the enhanced value of the low-lying ground near the old
+  aqueduct. The tunnel deviates from a straight line only for the
+  purpose of intersecting a few transverse valleys at which it could be
+  emptied. For 25 m. the gradient is 0.7 foot per mile; the tunnel is
+  then depressed below the hydraulic gradient, the maximum depth being
+  at the Harlem river, where it is 300 ft. below high water. The depth
+  of the tunnel varies from 50 to 500 ft. from the surface of the
+  ground. Forty-two shafts were sunk to facilitate driving, and in four
+  cases where the surface of the ground is below the hydraulic gradient
+  these are closed by watertight covers. The whole of the tunnel is
+  lined with brickwork from 1 to 2 ft. in thickness, the voids behind
+  the lining being filled with rubble-in-mortar. The entry to the old
+  and new aqueducts is controlled by a gatehouse of elaborate and
+  massive design, and the pipes which take up the supply at the end of
+  the tunnel are also commanded by a gate-house. The aqueduct, where it
+  passes under the Harlem river, is worthy of special notice. As it
+  approaches the river it has a considerable fall, and eventually ends
+  in a vertical shaft 12 ft. 3 in. in diameter (where the water has a
+  fall of 174 ft.), from the bottom of which, at a depth of 300 ft.
+  below high-water level, the tunnel under the river starts. The latter
+  is circular in form, the diameter being 10 ft. 6 in., and the length
+  is 1300 ft.; it terminates at the bottom of another vertical shaft
+  also 12 ft. 3 in. in diameter. The depth of this shaft, measured from
+  the floor of the lower tunnel to that of the upper tunnel leading away
+  from it, is 321 ft.; it is continued up to the surface of the ground,
+  though closed by double watertight covers a little above the level of
+  the upper tunnel. Adjoining this shaft is another shaft of equal
+  diameter, by means of which the water can be pumped out, and there is
+  also a communication with the river above high-water level, so that
+  the higher parts can be emptied by gravitation. The cost of the Old
+  Croton Aqueduct was $11,500,000; that of the new aqueduct is not far
+  short of $20,000,000.
+
+
+    Nadrai.
+
+  The _Nadrai Aqueduct Bridge_, in India, opened at the end of 1889, is
+  the largest structure of its kind in existence. It was built to carry
+  the water of the Lower Ganges canal over the Kali Naddi, in connexion
+  with the irrigation canals of the north-west provinces. In the year
+  1888-1889 this canal had 564 m. of main line, with 2050 m. of minor
+  distributaries, and irrigated 519,022 acres of crops. The new bridge
+  replaces one of much smaller size (five spans of 35 ft.), which was
+  completely destroyed by a high flood in July 1885. It gives the river
+  a waterway of 21,000 sq. ft., and the canal a waterway of 1040 sq.
+  ft., the latter representing a discharge of 4100 cub. ft. per second.
+  Its length is 1310 ft., and it is carried on fifteen arches having a
+  span of 60 ft. The width between the faces of the arches is 149 ft.
+  The foundations below the river-bed have a depth of 52 ft., and the
+  total height of the structure is 88 ft. It cost 44-1/2 lakhs of
+  rupees, and occupied four years in building. The foundations consist
+  of 268 circular brick cylinders, and the fifteen spans are arranged in
+  three groups, divided by abutment piers; the latter are founded on a
+  double row of 12-ft. cylinders, and the intermediate piers on a single
+  row of 20-ft. cylinders, all the cylinders being hearted with
+  hydraulic lime concrete filled in with skips. This aqueduct-bridge has
+  a very fine appearance, owing to its massive proportions and design.
+       (E. P. H.*)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For ancient aqueducts in general: Curt Merckel, _Die
+  Ingenieurtechnik im Alterthum_ (Berlin, 1899); ch. vi. contains a very
+  full account from the earliest Assyrian aqueducts onwards, with
+  illustrations, measurements and an excellent bibliography. For Greek
+  aqueducts see E. Curtius, "Uber stadtische Wasserbauten der Hellenen,"
+  in _Archaeologische Zeitung_ (1847); G. Weber (as above); papers in
+  _Athen. Mittheil._ (Samos), 1877, (Enneacrunus) 1892, 1893, 1894,
+  1905, and articles on ATHENS, PERGAMUM, &c. For Roman aqueducts: R.
+  Lanciani, "I Commentari di Frontino intorno le acque e gli
+  acquedotti," in _Memorie dei Lincei_, serie iii. vol. iv. (Rome,
+  1880), 215 sqq., and separately; C. Herschel, _The Two Books on the
+  Water Supply of the City of Rome of Sextus Julius Frontinus_ (Boston,
+  1899); T. Ashby in _Classical Review_ (1902), 336, and articles in
+  _The Builder_; cf. also the maps to T. Ashby's "Classical Topography
+  of the Roman Campagna," in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, i.,
+  in., iv. (in progress).
+
+  For modern aqueducts, see Rickman's _Life of Telford_ (1838);
+  Schramke's _New York Croton Aqueduct; Second Annual Report of the
+  Department of Public Works of the City of New York in 1872; Report of
+  the Aqueduct Commissioners_ (1887-1895), and _The Water Supply of the
+  City of New York_ (1896), by Wegmann; _Memoires sur les eaux de
+  Paris_, presentes par le Prefet de la Seine au Conseil Municipal (1854
+  and 1858); _Recherches statistiques sur les sources du bassin de la
+  Seine_, par M. Belgrand, Ingenieur en chef des ponts et chaussees
+  (1854); "Descriptions of Mechanical Arrangements of the Manchester
+  Waterworks," by John Frederic Bateman, F.R.S., Engineer-in-chief, from
+  the _Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
+  Engineers_ (1866); _The Glasgow Waterworks_, by James M. Gale, Member
+  Inst. C.E. (1863 and 1864); _The Report of the Royal Commission on
+  Water Supply, and the Minutes of Evidence_ (1867 and 1868). For
+  accounts of other aqueducts, see the Transactions of the Societies of
+  Engineers in the different countries, and the Engineering Journals.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] There have been found at Caerwent, in Monmouthshire, clear traces
+    of wooden pipes (internal diameter about 2 in.) which must have
+    carried drinking-water, and almost certainly a pressure supply from
+    the surrounding hills. Some patches of lead also have been found
+    obviously nailed on to the pipes at points where they had burst (see
+    _Archaeologia_, 1908).
+
+  [2] This distance will not agree with the length given on some of the
+    _cippi_ (Lanciani, _Bull. Com._, 1899, 38).
+
+  [3] The course of the Aqua Claudia was considerably shortened by the
+    cutting of a tunnel 3 m. long under the Monte Affliano in the time of
+    Domitian (T. Ashby, in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, iii,
+    133).
+
+  [4] About 3 m. south-east of this point the presence of large
+    quantities of deposit and a sudden fall in the level of the channels
+    seems to indicate the existence of settling tanks, of which no actual
+    traces can be seen.
+
+
+
+
+AQUILA [Greek: Akulas], (1) a Jew from Rome, who with his wife Prisca or
+Priscilla had settled in Corinth, where Paul stayed with them (Acts
+xviii. 2,3). They became Christians and fellow-workers with Paul, to
+whom they seem to have shown their devotion in some special way (Rom.
+xvi. 3, 4). (2) A native of Pontus, celebrated for a very literal and
+accurate translation of the Old Testament into Greek. Epiphanius (_De
+Pond. et Mens._ c. 15) preserves a tradition that he was a kinsman of
+the emperor Hadrian, who employed him in rebuilding Jerusalem (Aelia
+Capitolina, q.v.), and that he was converted to Christianity, but, on
+being reproved for practising pagan astrology, apostatized to Judaism.
+He is said also to have been a disciple of Rabbi 'Aqiba (d. A.D. 132),
+and seems to be referred to in Jewish writings as [Hebrew: akiles].
+Aquila's version is said to have been used in place of the Septuagint in
+the synagogues. The Christians generally disliked it, alleging without
+due grounds that it rendered the Messianic passages incorrectly, but
+Jerome and Origen speak in its praise. Origen incorporated it in his
+_Hexapla_.
+
+  It was thought that this was the only copy extant, but in 1897
+  fragments of two codices were brought to the Cambridge University
+  Library. These have been published--the fragments containing 1 Kings
+  xx. 7-17; 2 Kings xxiii. 12-27 by F.C. Burkitt in 1897, those
+  containing parts of Psalms xc.-ciii. by C. Taylor in 1899. See F.C.
+  Burkitt's article in the _Jewish Encyclopaedia_.
+
+
+
+
+AQUILA, CASPAR [KASPAR ADLER] (1488-1560), German reformer, was born at
+Augsburg on the 7th of August 1488, educated there and at Ulm (1502), in
+Italy (he met Erasmus in Rome), at Bern (1508), Leipzig (1510) and
+Wittenberg (1513). According to his son, he entered the ministry in
+August 1514, at Bern. He was for some time a military chaplain. In 1516
+he became pastor of Jenga, near Augsburg. Openly proclaiming his
+adhesion to Luther's doctrine, he was imprisoned for half a year (1520
+or 1522) at Dillingen, by order of the bishop of Augsburg; a death
+sentence was commuted to banishment through the influence of Isabella,
+wife of Christian II. of Denmark and sister of Charles V. Returning to
+Wittenberg he met Luther, acted as tutor to the sons of Franz von
+Sickingen at Ebernburg, taught Hebrew at Wittenberg, and aided Luther in
+his version of the Old Testament. The dates and particulars of his
+career are uncertain till 1527, when he became pastor at Saalfeld, and
+in 1528, superintendent. His vehement opposition to the Augsburg Interim
+(1548) led him to take temporary shelter at Rudolstadt with Catherine,
+countess of Schwarzburg. In 1550 he was appointed dean of the
+Collegiatstift in Schmalkalden. Here he had a controversy with Andreas
+Osiander. Restored to Saalfeld, not without opposition, in 1552, he
+remained there, still engaged in controversy, till his death on the 12th
+of November 1560. He was twice married, and left four sons. He published
+numerous sermons, a few Old Testament expositions and some controversial
+tracts.
+
+  See G. Kawerau, in A. Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1896); _Allgemeine
+  deutsche Biog._ (1875); Lives by J. Avenarius (1718); J.G. Hillinger
+  (1731); Chr. Schlegel (1737); Fr. Gensler (1816).
+
+
+
+
+AQUILA, SERAFINO DELL' (1466-1500), Italian poet and improvisatore, was
+born in 1466 at the town of Aquila, from which he took his name, and
+died in the year 1500. He spent several years at the courts of Cardinal
+Sforza and Ferdinand, duke of Calabria; but his principal patrons were
+the Borgias at Rome, from whom he received many favours. Aquila seems to
+have aimed at an imitation of Dante and Petrarch; and his poems, which
+were extravagantly praised during the author's lifetime, are
+occasionally of considerable merit. His reputation was in great measure
+due to his remarkable skill as an improvisatore and musician. His works
+were printed at Venice in 1502, and there have been several subsequent
+editions.
+
+
+
+
+AQUILA, a city of the Abruzzi, Italy, the capital of the province of
+Aquila, and the seat of an archbishop, 2360 ft. above sea-level, 50 m.
+directly N.E. of Rome, and 145 m. by rail. Pop. (1901) town, 18,494;
+commune, 21,261. It lies on a hill in the wide valley of the Aterno,
+surrounded by mountains on all sides, the Gran Sasso d'Italia being
+conspicuous on the north-east. It is a favourite summer resort of the
+Italians, but is cold and windy in winter. In the highest part of the
+town is the massive citadel, erected by the Spanish viceroy Don Pedro de
+Toledo in 1534. The church of S. Bernardino di Siena (1472) has a fine
+Renaissance facade by Nicolo Filotesio (commonly called Cola dell'
+Amatrice), and contains the monumental tomb of the saint, decorated with
+beautiful sculptures, and executed by Silvestro Ariscola in 1480. The
+church of S. Maria di Collemaggio, just outside the town, has a very
+fine Romanesque facade of simple design (1270-1280) in red and white
+marble, with three finely decorated portals and a rose-window above
+each. The two side doors are also fine. The interior contains the
+mausoleum of Pope Celestine V. (d. 1296) erected in 1517. Many smaller
+churches in the town have similar facades (S. Giusta, S. Silvestro,
+&c.). The town also contains some fine palaces: the municipality has a
+museum, with a collection of Roman inscriptions and some illuminated
+service books. The Palazzi Dragonetti and Persichetti contain private
+collections of pictures. Outside the town is the _Fontana delle
+novantanove cannelle_, a fountain with ninety-nine jets distributed
+along three walls, constructed in 1272. Aquila has some trade in lace
+and saffron, and possesses other smaller industries. It was a university
+town in the middle ages, but most of its chairs have now been
+suppressed.
+
+Aquila was founded by Conrad, son of the emperor Frederick II., about
+1250, as a bulwark against the power of the papacy. It was destroyed by
+Manfred in 1259, but soon rebuilt by Charles I. of Anjou. Its walls were
+completed in 1316; and it maintained itself as an almost independent
+republic until it was subdued in 1521 by the Spaniards, who had become
+masters of the kingdom of Naples in 1503. It was twice sacked by the
+French in 1799.
+
+  See V. Bindi, _Monumenti storici ed artistici degli Abruzzi_ (Naples,
+  1889), pp. 771 seq.
+
+
+
+
+AQUILA, in astronomy, the "Eagle," sometimes named the "Vulture," a
+constellation of the northern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th
+cent. B.C.) and Aratus (3rd cent. B.C.). Ptolemy catalogued nineteen
+stars jointly in this constellation and in the constellation _Antinous_,
+which was named in the reign of the emperor Hadrian (A.D. 117-138), but
+sometimes, and wrongly, attributed to Tycho Brahe, who catalogued twelve
+stars in Aquila and seven in Antinous; Hevelius determined twenty-three
+stars in the first, and nineteen in the second. The most brilliant star
+of this constellation, [alpha]-_Aquilae_ or Altair, has a parallax of
+0.23", and consequently is about eight times as bright as the sun;
+[eta]-_Aquilae_ is a short-period variable, while _Nova Aquilae_ is a
+"temporary" or "new" star, discovered by Mrs Fleming of Harvard in 1899.
+
+
+
+
+AQUILA ROMANUS, a Latin grammarian who flourished in the second half of
+the 3rd century A.D. He was the author of an extant treatise _De Figuris
+Sententiarum et Elocutionis_, written as an instalment of a complete
+rhetorical handbook for the use of a young and eager correspondent.
+While recommending Demosthenes and Cicero as models, he takes his own
+examples almost exclusively from Cicero. His treatise is really adapted
+from that by Alexander, son of Numenius, as is expressly stated by
+Julius Rufinianus, who brought out a supplementary treatise, augmented
+by material from other sources. Aquila's style is harsh and careless,
+and the Latin is inferior.
+
+  Halm, _Rhetores Latini minores_ (1863); Wensch, _De Aquila Romano_
+  (1861).
+
+
+
+
+AQUILEIA, an ancient town of Italy, at the head of the Adriatic at the
+edge of the lagoons, about 6 m. from the sea, on the river Natiso (mod.
+Natisone), the course of which has changed somewhat since Roman times.
+It was founded by the Romans in 181 B.C. as a frontier fortress on the
+north-east, not far from the site where, two years before, Gaulish
+invaders had attempted to settle. The colony was led by two men of
+consular and one of praetorian rank, and 3000 _pedites_ formed the bulk
+of the settlers. It was probably connected by road with Bononia in 175
+B.C.; and subsequently with Genua in 148 B.C. by the Via Postumia, which
+ran through Cremona, Bedriacum and Altinum, joining the first-mentioned
+road at Concordia, while the construction of the Via Popilia from
+Ariminum to Ad Portum near Altinum in 132 B.C. improved the
+communications still further. In 169 B.C., 1500 more families were
+settled there as a reinforcement to the garrison. The discovery of the
+goldfields near the modern Klagenfurt in 150 B.C. (Strabo iv. 208)
+brought it into notice, and it soon became a place of importance, not
+only owing to its strategic position, but as a centre of trade,
+especially in agricultural products. It also had, in later times at
+least, considerable brickfields. It was originally a Latin colony, but
+became a _municipium_ probably in 90 B.C. The customs boundary of Italy
+was close by in Cicero's day. It was plundered by the Iapydes under
+Augustus, but, in the period of peace which followed, was able to
+develop its resources. Augustus visited it during the Pannonian wars in
+12-10 B.C. and it was the birthplace of Tiberius's son by Julia, in the
+latter year. It was the starting-point of several important roads
+leading to the north-eastern portion of the empire--the road (Via Iulia
+Augusta) by Iulium Carnicum to Veldidena (mod. Wilten, near Innsbruck),
+from which branched off the road into Noricum, leading by Virunum
+(Klagenfurt) to Lauricum (Lorch) on the Danube, the road into Pannonia,
+leading to Emona (Laibach)[1] and Sirmium (Mitrowitz), the road to
+Tarsatica (near Fiume) and Siscia (Sissek), and that to Tergeste
+(Trieste) and the Istrian coast.
+
+In the war against the Marcomanni in A.D. 167, the town was hard
+pressed; the fortifications had fallen into disrepair during the long
+peace. In A.D. 238, when the town took the side of the senate against
+the emperor Maximinus, they were hastily restored, and proved of
+sufficient strength to resist for several months, until Maximinus
+himself was assassinated. The 4th century marks, however, the greatest
+importance of Aquileia; it became a naval station and, probably, the
+seat of the _corrector Venetiarum et Histriae_; a mint was established
+here, the coins of which are very numerous, and the bishop obtained the
+rank of patriarch. An imperial palace was constructed here, in which the
+emperors after the time of Diocletian frequently resided; and the city
+often played a part in the struggles between the rulers of the 4th
+century. At the end of the century, Ausonius enumerated it as the ninth
+among the great cities of the world, placing Rome, Mediolanum and Capua
+before it, and called it "moenibus et portu celeberrima." In A.D. 452,
+however, it was destroyed by Attila, though it continued to exist until
+the Lombard invasion of A.D. 568. After this the patriarchate was
+transferred to Grado. In 606 the diocese was divided into two parts, and
+the patriarchate of Aquileia, protected by the Lombards, was revived,
+that of Grado being protected by the exarch of Ravenna and later by the
+doges of Venice. In 1027 and 1044 Patriarch Poppo of Aquileia entered
+and sacked Grado, and, though the pope reconfirmed the patriarch of the
+latter in his dignities, the town never recovered, though it continued
+to be the seat of the patriarchate until its formal transference to
+Venice in 1450. The seat of the patriarchate of Aquileia had been
+transferred to Udine in 1238, but returned in 1420 when Venice annexed
+the territory of Udine. It was finally suppressed in 1751, and the sees
+of Udine and Gorizia (Gorz) established in its stead. Its buildings
+served as stone quarries for centuries, and no edifices of the Roman
+period remain above ground. Excavations have revealed one street and the
+north-west angle of the town walls, while the local museum contains over
+2000 inscriptions, besides statues and other antiquities. The cathedral,
+a flat-roofed basilica, was erected by Patriarch Poppo in 1031 on the
+site of an earlier church, and rebuilt about 1379 in the Gothic style by
+Patriarch Marquad. The narthex and baptistery belong to an earlier
+period. Of the palace of the patriarchs only two isolated columns remain
+standing. The modern village (pop. 2300) is rendered unhealthy by
+rice-fields.
+
+  See T.W. Jackson, _Dalmatia, Istria and the Quarnero_ (Oxford, 1887),
+  iii. 377 seq.; H. Maionica, _Aquileia zur Romerzeit_ (Gorz, 1881),
+  _Fundkarte van Aquileia_ (Gorz, 1893), "Inschriften in Grado" (Roman
+  inscriptions removed thither from Aquileia) in _Jahreshefte des
+  Osterr. Arch. Instituts_, i. (1898), Beiblatt, 83, 125. (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] This road is described in detail by O. Cuntz in _Jahreshefte des
+    Osterr. Arch. Inst._ v. (1902), Beiblatt, pp. 139 seq.
+
+
+
+
+AQUILLIUS, MANIUS, Roman general, consul in 101 B.C. He successfully put
+down a revolt of the slaves under Athenion in Sicily. After his return,
+being accused of extortion, he was acquitted on account of his military
+services, although there was little doubt of his guilt. In 88 he acted
+as legate against Mithradates the Great, by whom he was defeated and
+taken prisoner. Mithradates treated him with great cruelty, and is said
+to have put him to death by pouring molten gold down his throat.
+
+  Diodorus Siculus xxxvi. 3; Appian, _Mithrid_. ii. 17. 21; Vell.
+  Paterculus ii. 18; Cicero, _Verres_, iii. 54, _De Officiis_, ii. 14,
+  _Tusc_. v. 5.
+
+
+
+
+AQUINAS, THOMAS [THOMAS OF AQUIN or AQUINO], (c. 1227-1274), scholastic
+philosopher, known as _Doctor Angelicus, Doctor Universalis_, was of
+noble descent, and nearly allied to several of the royal houses of
+Europe. He was born in 1225 or 1227, at Roccasecca, the castle of his
+father Landulf, count of Aquino, in the territories of Naples. Having
+received his elementary education at the monastery of Monte Cassino, he
+studied for six years at the university of Naples, leaving it in his
+sixteenth year. While there he probably came under the influence of the
+Dominicans, who were doing their utmost to enlist within their ranks the
+ablest young scholars of the age, for in spite of the opposition of his
+family, which was overcome only by the intervention of Pope Innocent
+IV., he assumed the habit of St Dominic in his seventeenth year.
+
+His superiors, seeing his great aptitude for theological study, sent him
+to the Dominican school in Cologne, where Albertus Magnus was lecturing
+on philosophy and theology. In 1245 Albertus was called to Paris, and
+there Aquinas followed him, and remained with him for three years, at
+the end of which he graduated as bachelor of theology. In 1248 he
+returned to Cologne with Albertus, and was appointed second lecturer and
+_magister studentium_. This year may be taken as the beginning of his
+literary activity and public life. Before he left Paris he had thrown
+himself with ardour into the controversy raging between the university
+and the Friar-Preachers respecting the liberty of teaching, resisting
+both by speeches and pamphlets the authorities of the university; and
+when the dispute was referred to the pope, the youthful Aquinas was
+chosen to defend his order, which he did with such success as to
+overcome the arguments of Guillaume de St Amour, the champion of the
+university, and one of the most celebrated men of the day. In 1257,
+along with his friend Bonaventura, he was created doctor of theology,
+and began to give courses of lectures upon this subject in Paris, and
+also in Rome and other towns in Italy. From this time onwards his life
+was one of incessant toil; he was continually engaged in the active
+service of his order, was frequently travelling upon long and tedious
+journeys, and was constantly consulted on affairs of state by the
+reigning pontiff.
+
+In 1263 we find him at the chapter of the Dominican order held in
+London. In 1268 he was lecturing now in Rome and now in Bologna, all the
+while engaged in the public business of the church. In 1271 he was again
+in Paris, lecturing to the students, managing the affairs of the church
+and consulted by the king, Louis VIII., his kinsman, on affairs of
+state. In 1272 the commands of the chief of his order and the request of
+King Charles brought him back to the professor's chair at Naples. All
+this time he was preaching every day, writing homilies, disputations,
+lectures, and finding time to work hard at his great work the _Summa
+Theologiae_. Such rewards as the church could bestow had been offered to
+him. He refused the archbishopric of Naples and the abbacy of Monte
+Cassino. In January 1274 he was summoned by Pope Gregory X. to attend
+the council convened at Lyons, to investigate and if possible settle the
+differences between the Greek and Latin churches. Though suffering from
+illness, he at once set out on the journey; finding his strength failing
+on the way, he was carried to the Cistercian monastery of Fossa Nuova,
+in the diocese of Terracina, where, after a lingering illness of seven
+weeks, he died on the 7th of March 1274, Dante (_Purg_. xx. 69) asserts
+that he was poisoned by order of Charles of Anjou. Villani (ix. 218)
+quotes the belief, and the _Anonimo Fiorentino_ describes the crime and
+its motive. But Muratori, reproducing the account given by one of
+Thomas's friends, gives no hint of foul play. Aquinas was canonized in
+1323 by Pope John XXII., and in 1567 Pius V. ranked the festival of St
+Thomas with those of the four great Latin fathers, Ambrose, Augustine,
+Jerome and Gregory. No theologian save Augustine has had an equal
+influence on the theological thought and language of the Western Church,
+a fact which was strongly emphasized by Leo XIII. (q.v.) in his
+_Encyclical_ of August 4, 1879, which directed the clergy to take the
+teachings of Aquinas as the basis of their theological position. In 1880
+he was declared patron of all Roman Catholic educational establishments.
+In a monastery at Naples, near the cathedral of St Januarius, is still
+shown a cell in which he is said to have lived.
+
+The writings of Thomas are of great importance for philosophy as well as
+for theology, for by nature and education he is the spirit of
+scholasticism incarnate. The principles on which his system rested were
+these. He held that there were two sources of knowledge--the mysteries
+of Christian faith and the truths of human reason. The distinction
+between these two was made emphatic by Aquinas, who is at pains,
+especially in his treatise _Contra Gentiles_, to make it plain that each
+is a distinct fountain of knowledge, but that revelation is the more
+important of the two. Revelation is a source of knowledge, rather than
+the manifestation in the world of a divine life, and its chief
+characteristic is that it presents men with mysteries, which are to be
+believed even when they cannot be understood. Revelation is not
+Scripture alone, for Scripture taken by itself does not correspond
+exactly with his description; nor is it church tradition alone, for
+church tradition must so far rest on Scripture. Revelation is a divine
+source of knowledge, of which Scripture and church tradition are the
+channels; and he who would rightly understand theology must familiarize
+himself with Scripture, the teachings of the fathers, and the decisions
+of councils, in such a way as to be able to make part of himself, as it
+were, those channels along which this divine knowledge flowed. Aquinas's
+conception of reason is in some way parallel with his conception of
+revelation. Reason is in his idea not the individual reason, but the
+fountain of natural truth, whose chief channels are the various systems
+of heathen philosophy, and more especially the thoughts of Plato and the
+methods of Aristotle. Reason and revelation are separate sources of
+knowledge; and man can put himself in possession of each, because he can
+bring himself into relation to the church on the one hand, and the
+system of philosophy, or more strictly Aristotle, on the other. The
+conception will be made clearer when it is remembered that Aquinas,
+taught by the mysterious author of the writings of the pseudo-Dionysius,
+who so marvellously influenced medieval writers, sometimes spoke of a
+natural revelation, or of reason as a source of truths in themselves
+mysterious, and was always accustomed to say that reason as well as
+revelation contained two kinds of knowledge. The first kind lay quite
+beyond the power of man to receive it, the second was within man's
+reach. In reason, as in revelation, man can only attain to the lower
+kind of knowledge; there is a higher kind which we may not hope to
+reach.
+
+But while reason and revelation are two distinct sources of truths, the
+truths are not contradictory; for in the last resort they rest on _one_
+absolute truth--they come from the one source of knowledge, God, the
+Absolute One. Hence arises the compatibility of philosophy and theology
+which was the fundamental axiom of scholasticism, and the possibility of
+a Summa Theologiae, which is a Summa Philosophiae as well. All the many
+writings of Thomas are preparatory to his great work the _Summa
+Theologiae_, and show us the progress of his mind training for this his
+life work. In the _Summa Catholicae Fidei contra Gentiles_ he shows how
+a Christian theology is the sum and crown of all science. This work is
+in its design apologetic, and is meant to bring within the range of
+Christian thought all that is of value in Mahommedan science. He
+carefully establishes the necessity of revelation as a source of
+knowledge, not merely because it aids us in comprehending in a somewhat
+better way the truths already furnished by reason, as some of the
+Arabian philosophers and Maimonides had acknowledged, but because it is
+the absolute source of our knowledge of the mysteries of the Christian
+faith; and then he lays down the relations to be observed between reason
+and revelation, between philosophy and theology. This work, _Contra
+Gentiles_, may be taken as an elaborate exposition of the method of
+Aquinas. That method, however, implied a careful study and comprehension
+of the results which accrued to man from reason and revelation, and a
+thorough grasp of all that had been done by man in relation to those two
+sources of human knowledge; and so, in his preliminary writings, Thomas
+proceeds to master the two provinces. The results of revelation he found
+in the Holy Scriptures and in the writings of the fathers and the great
+theologians of the church; and his method was to proceed backwards. He
+began with Peter of Lombardy (who had reduced to theological order, in
+his famous book on the _Sentences_, the various authoritative statements
+of the church upon doctrine) in his _In Quatuor Sententiarum P. Lombardi
+libros_. Then came his deliverances upon undecided points in theology,
+in his _XII. Quodlibeta Disputata_, and his _Quaestiones Disputatae_.
+His _Catena Aurea_ next appeared, which, under the form of a commentary
+on the Gospels, was really an exhaustive summary of the theological
+teaching of the greatest of the church fathers. This side of his
+preparation was finished by a close study of Scripture, the results of
+which are contained in his commentaries, _In omnes Epistolas Dim
+Apostoli Expositio_, his _Super Isaiam et Jeremiam_, and his _In
+Psalmos_. Turning now to the other side, we have evidence, not only from
+tradition but from his writings, that he was acquainted with Plato and
+the mystical Platonists; but he had the sagacity to perceive that
+Aristotle was _the_ great representative of philosophy, and that his
+writings contained the best results and method which the natural reason
+had as yet attained to. Accordingly Aquinas prepared himself on this
+side by commentaries on Aristotle's _De Interpretatione_, on his
+_Posterior Analytics_, on the _Metaphysics_, the _Physics_, the _De
+Anima_, and on Aristotle's other psychological and physical writings,
+each commentary having for its aim to lay hold of the material and grasp
+the method contained and employed in each treatise. Fortified by this
+exhaustive preparation, Aquinas began his _Summa Theologiae_, which he
+intended to be the sum of all known learning, arranged according to the
+best method, and subordinate to the dictates of the church. Practically
+it came to be the theological dicta of the church, explained according
+to the philosophy of Aristotle and his Arabian commentators. The _Summa_
+is divided into three great parts, which shortly may be said to treat of
+God, Man and the God-Man. The first and the second parts are wholly the
+work of Aquinas, but of the third part only the first ninety quaestiones
+are his; the rest of it was finished in accordance with his designs. The
+first book, after a short introduction upon the nature of theology as
+understood by Aquinas, proceeds in 119 questions to discuss the nature,
+attributes and relations of God; and this is not done as in a modern
+work on theology, but the questions raised in the physics of Aristotle
+find a place alongside of the statements of Scripture, while all
+subjects in any way related to the central theme are brought into the
+discourse. The second part is divided into two, which are quoted as
+_Prima Secundae_ and _Secunda Secundae_. This second part has often been
+described as ethic, but this is scarcely true. The subject is man,
+treated as Aristotle does, according to his [Greek: telos], and so
+Aquinas discusses all the ethical, psychological and theological
+questions which arise; but any theological discussion upon man must be
+mainly ethical, and so a great proportion of the first part, and almost
+the whole of the second, has to do with ethical questions. In his
+ethical discussions (a full account of which is given under ETHICS)
+Aquinas distinguishes theological from natural virtues and vices; the
+theological virtues are faith, hope and charity; the natural, justice,
+prudence and the like. The theological virtues are founded on faith, in
+opposition to the natural, which are founded on reason; and as faith
+with Aquinas is always belief in a proposition, not trust in a personal
+Saviour, conformably with his idea that revelation is a new knowledge
+rather than a new life, the relation of unbelief to virtue is very
+strictly and narrowly laid down and enforced. The third part of the
+_Summa_ is also divided into two parts, but by accident rather than by
+design. Aquinas died ere he had finished his great work, and what has
+been added to complete the scheme is appended as a _Supplementum Tertiae
+Partis_. In this third part Aquinas discusses the person, office and
+work of Christ, and had begun to discuss the sacraments, when death put
+an end to his labours.
+
+The purely philosophical theories of Aquinas are explained in the
+article SCHOLASTICISM. In connexion with the problem of universals, he
+held that the diversity of individuals depends on the quantitative
+division of matter (_materia signata_), and in this way he attracted the
+criticism of the Scotists, who pointed out that this very matter is
+individual and determinate, and, therefore, itself requires explanation.
+In general, Aquinas maintained in different senses the real existence of
+universals _ante rem_, _in re_ and _post rem_.
+
+  The best modern edition of the works of Aquinas is that prepared at
+  the expense of Leo XIII. (Rome, 1882-1903). The Abbe Migne published a
+  very useful edition of the _Summa Theologiae_, in four 8vo vols., as
+  an appendix to his _Patrologiae Cursus Completus_; English editions,
+  J. Rickaby (London, 1872), J.M. Ashley (London, 1888). See _Acta
+  Sanct_., vii. Martii; A. Touron, _La Vie de St Thomas d'Aquin, avec un
+  expose de sa doctrine et de ses ouvrages_ (Paris, 1737); Karl Werner,
+  _Der Heilige Thomas van Aquino_ (1858); and R.B. Vaughan, _St Thomas
+  of Aquin, his Life and Labours_ (London, 1872): other lives by P.
+  Cavanagh (London, 1890); E. Desmousseaux de Giure (Paris, 1888); M.
+  Didot (Louvain, 1894). For the philosophy of Aquinas, see Albert
+  Stockl, _Geschichte der Philosophie des Mittelalters_, ii.; B.
+  Haureau, _De la philosophie scolastique_, vol. ii.; J. Frohschammer,
+  _Die Philos. d. Th. van A_. (Leipzig, 1889); K. Prantl, _Geschichte d.
+  Logik_, vol. iii.; C.M. Schneider, _Natur, Vernunft, Gott_
+  (Regensburg, 1883), _Das Wissen Gottes nach d. Lehre des Th. v. A_. (4
+  vols. Regensburg, 1884-1886), _Die socialistische Staatsidee
+  beleuchtet durch Th. v. A_. (Paderborn, 1894); A. Harnack, _Hist, of
+  Dogma_ (trans. Wm. Gilchrist, London, 1899); Ueberweg's _History of
+  Philosophy_, vol. i. See also H.C. O'Neill, _New Things and Old in St
+  Thomas Aquinas_ (1909), with biography.     (T. M. L.; J. M. M.)
+
+
+
+
+AQUINO, a town and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, in the province of
+Caserta; it is 56 m. N.W. by rail from the town of Caserta, and 7-1/2 m.
+N.W. of Cassino. Pop. (1901) 2672. The modern town, close to the
+ancient, is unimportant, though the canons of the cathedral have the
+privilege of wearing the mitre and _cappa magna_ at great festivals. It
+is close to the site of the ancient Aquinum, a _municipium_ in the time
+of Cicero, and made a colony by the Triumviri, the birthplace of Juvenal
+and of the emperor Pescennius Niger. The Via Latina traversed it; one of
+the gates through which it passed, now called Porta S. Lorenzo, is still
+well preserved, and there are remains within the walls (portions of
+which, built of large blocks of limestone, still remain) of two (so
+called) temples, a basilica and an amphitheatre (see R. Delbruck in
+_Rom. Mitteilungen_, 1903, p. 143). Outside, on the south is a
+well-preserved triumphal arch with composite capitals, and close to it
+the 11th-century basilica of S. Maria Libera, a handsome building in the
+Romanesque style, but now roofless. Several Roman inscriptions are built
+into it, and many others that have been found indicate the ancient
+importance of the place, which, though it does not appear in early
+history, is vouched for by Cicero and Strabo.[1] A colony was planted
+here by the Triumviri. St Thomas Aquinas was born in the castle of
+Roccasecca, 5 m. N.
+
+  See E. Grossi, _Aquinum_ (Rome, 1907).     (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] According to H. Nissen, _Ital. Landeskunde_ (Berlin, 1902), ii.
+    665, a road ran from here to Minturnae; but no traces of it are to be
+    seen.
+
+
+
+
+AQUITAINE, the name of an ancient province in France, the extent of
+which has varied considerably from time to time. About the time of
+Julius Caesar the name _Aquitania_ was given to that part of Gaul lying
+between the Pyrenees and the Garonne, and its inhabitants were a race,
+or races, distinct from the Celts. The name Aquitania is probably a form
+of Auscetani, which in its turn is a lengthened form of Ausces, and is
+thus cognate with the words Basque and Wasconia, i.e. Gascony. Although
+many of the tribes of Aquitania submitted to Julius Caesar, it was not
+until about 28 B.C. that the district was brought under the Roman yoke.
+In keeping with the Roman policy of denationalization, the term
+Aquitania was extended, and under Augustus it included the whole of Gaul
+south and west of the Loire and the Allier, and thus ceased to possess
+ethnographical importance. In the 3rd century A.D. this larger Aquitania
+was divided into three parts: _Aquitania Prima_, the eastern part of the
+district between the Loire and the Garonne; _Aquitania Secunda_, the
+western part of the same district; and _Aquitania Tertia_, or
+_Novempopulana_, the region between the Garonne and the Pyrenees, or the
+original Aquitania. The seats of government were respectively Bourges,
+Bordeaux and Eauze; the province contained twenty-six cities, and was in
+the diocese of Vienne. Like the rest of Gaul, Aquitania absorbed a large
+measure of Roman civilization, and this continued to distinguish the
+district down to a late period. In the 5th century the Visigoths
+established themselves in Aquitania Secunda, and also in parts of
+Aquitania Prima and Novempopulana, but after the defeat of their king
+Alaric II. by the Franks under Clovis in 507, they were supplanted by
+their conquerors. Clovis and his successors extended their authority
+nominally to the Pyrenees, but, as Guizot has remarked, "the conquest of
+Aquitania by Clovis left it almost as alien to the people and king of
+Franks as it had formerly been." Subsequently during the Merovingian
+period it was contended for by the feeble rulers of the various Frankish
+kingdoms, and was frequently partitioned among them; but the Aquitanians
+had little difficulty in effectually resisting this authority, although
+they did not establish themselves as a separate kingdom. About 628,
+indeed, they gathered around Charibert, or Haribert, a brother of the
+Frankish king, Dagobert I., in the hope of national independence; but
+after his death in 630 they returned to their former condition. But this
+effort, although a failure, brought about a certain measure of concord
+between the two principal races inhabiting the district, and so prepared
+the way for the stubborn resistance which, subsequently, the Aquitanians
+were able to offer to the Franks.
+
+The first line of dukes began about 660 with one Felix, who, like his
+successor, Lupus, probably owned allegiance to the Frankish kings, and
+whose seat of government was Toulouse. About the end of the 7th century
+an adventurer named Odo, or Eudes, made himself master of this region.
+Attacked by the Saracens he inflicted on them a crushing defeat, but
+when they reappeared, he was obliged to invoke the aid of Charles
+Martel, who, as the price of his support, claimed and received the
+homage of his ally. Odo was succeeded by his son Hunald, who after
+carrying on a war against the Franks under Pippin the Short, retired to
+a convent, leaving both the kingdom and the conflict to Waifer, or
+Guaifer. For some years Waifer strenuously carried on an unequal
+struggle with the Franks, but he was assassinated in 768, and with him
+perished the national independence, although not the national
+individuality, of the Aquitanians. In 781 Charlemagne bestowed Aquitaine
+upon his young son, Louis, and as Louis was generally described as a
+king, Aquitaine is referred to during the Carolingian period as a
+kingdom, and not as a duchy. When Louis succeeded Charlemagne as emperor
+in 814, he granted Aquitaine to his son Pippin, on whose death in 838
+the Aquitanians chose his son Pippin II. (d. 865) as their king. The
+emperor Louis I., however, opposed this arrangement and gave the kingdom
+to his youngest son Charles, afterwards the emperor Charles the Bald.
+Now followed a time of confusion and conflict which resulted eventually
+in the success of Charles, although from 845 to 852 Pippin was in
+possession of the kingdom. In 852 Pippin was imprisoned by Charles the
+Bald, who soon afterwards gave to the Aquitanians his own son Charles as
+their king. On the death of the younger Charles in 866, his brother
+Louis the Stammerer succeeded to the kingdom, and when, in 877, Louis
+became king of the Franks, Aquitaine was united to the Frankish crown.
+
+A new period now begins in the history of Aquitaine. By a treaty made in
+845 between Charles the Bald and Pippin II. the kingdom had been
+diminished by the loss of Poitou, Saintonge and Angoumois, which had
+been given to Rainulf I., count of Poitiers. Somewhat earlier than this
+date the title of duke of the Aquitanians had been revived, and this was
+now borne by Rainulf, although it was also claimed by the counts of
+Toulouse. The new duchy of Aquitaine, comprising the three districts
+already mentioned, remained in the hands of Rainulf's successors, in
+spite of some trouble with their Frankish overlords, until 893 when
+Count Rainulf II. was poisoned by order of King Charles III. the Simple.
+Charles then bestowed the duchy upon William the Pious, count of
+Auvergne, the founder of the abbey of Cluny, who was succeeded in 918 by
+his nephew, Count William II., who died in 926. A succession of dukes
+followed, one of whom, William IV., fought against Hugh Capet, king of
+France, and another of whom, William V., called the Great, was able
+considerably to strengthen and extend his authority, although he failed
+in his attempt to secure the Lombard crown. William's duchy almost
+reached the limits of the Roman Aquitania Prima and Secunda, but did not
+stretch south of the Garonne, a district which was in the possession of
+the Gascons. William died in 1030, and the names of William VI. (d.
+1038), Odo or Eudes (d. 1039), who joined Gascony to his duchy, William
+VII. and William VIII. bring us down to William IX. (d. 1127), who
+succeeded in 1087, and made himself famous as a crusader and a
+troubadour. William X. (d. 1137) married his daughter Eleanor to Louis
+VII., king of France, and Aquitaine went as her dowry. When Eleanor was
+divorced from Louis and was married in 1152 to Henry II. of England the
+duchy passed to her new husband, who, having suppressed a revolt there,
+gave it to his son Richard. When Richard died in 1199, it reverted to
+Eleanor, and on her death five years later, was united to the English
+crown and henceforward followed the fortunes of the English possessions
+in France. Aquitaine as it came to the English kings stretched as of old
+from the Loire to the Pyrenees, but its extent was curtailed on the
+south-east by the wide lands of the counts of Toulouse. The name
+Guienne, a corruption of Aquitaine, seems to have come into use about
+the 10th century, and the subsequent history of Aquitaine is merged in
+that of Gascony (q.v.) and Guienne (q.v.).
+
+  See E. Desjardins, _Geographie historique el administrative de la
+  Gaule romaine_ (Paris, 1876, 93); A. Luchaire, _Les Origines
+  linguistiques de l'Aquitaine_ (Paris, 1877); A. Longnon, _Geographie
+  de la Gaule au VI^e siecle_ (Paris, 1876); A. Perroud, _Les Origines
+  du premier duche d'Aquitaine_ (Paris, 1881); and E. Mabille, _Le
+  Royaume d'Aquitaine et ses marches sous les Carlovingiens_ (Paris,
+  1870).
+
+
+
+
+ARABESQUE, a word meaning simply "Arabian," but technically used for a
+certain form of decorative design in flowing lines intertwined; hence
+comes the more metaphorical use of this word, whether in nature or in
+morals, indicating a fantastic or complicated interweaving of lines
+against a background. In decorative design the term is historically a
+misnomer. It is applied to the grotesque decoration derived from Roman
+remains of the early time of the empire, not to any style derived from
+Arabian or Moorish work. Arabesque and Moresque are really distinct; the
+latter is from the Arabian style of ornament, developed by the Byzantine
+Greeks for their new masters, after the conquests of the followers of
+Mahomet; and the former is a term pretty well restricted to varieties of
+cinquecento decoration, which have nothing in common with any Arabian
+examples in their details, but are a development derived from Greek and
+Roman grotesque designs, such as we find them in the remains of ancient
+palaces at Rome, and in ancient houses at Pompeii. These were reproduced
+by Raphael and his pupils in the decoration of some of the corridors of
+the Loggie of the Vatican at Rome: grotesque is thus a better name for
+these decorations than Arabesque. This technical Arabesque, therefore,
+is much more ancient than any Arabian or Moorish decoration, and has
+really nothing in common with it except the mere symmetrical principles
+of its arrangement. Pliny and Vitruvius give us no name for the
+extravagant decorative wall-painting in vogue in their time, to which
+the early Italian revivers of it seem to have given the designation of
+grotesque, because it, was first discovered in the arched or underground
+chambers (_grotte_) of Roman ruins--as in the golden house of Nero, or
+the baths of Titus. What really took place in the Italian revival was in
+some measure a supplanting of the Arabesque for the classical grotesque,
+still retaining the original Arabian designation, while the genuine
+Arabian art, the Saracenic, was distinguished as Moresque or Moorish. So
+it is now the original Arabesque that is called by its specific names of
+Saracenic, Moorish and Alhambresque, while the term Arabesque is applied
+exclusively to the style developed from the debased classical grotesque
+of the Roman empire.
+
+There is still much of the genuine Saracenic element in Renaissance
+Arabesques, especially in that selected for book-borders and for
+silver-work, the details of which consist largely of the conventional
+Saracenic foliations. But the Arabesque developed in the Italian
+cinquecento work repudiated all the original Arabian elements and
+devices, and limited itself to the manipulating of the classical
+elements, of which the most prominent feature is ever the floriated or
+foliated scroll; and it is in this cinquecento decoration, whether in
+sculpture or in painting, that _Arabesque_ has been perfected.
+
+In the Saracenic, as the elder sister of the two styles, which was
+ingeniously developed by the Byzantine Greek artists for their Arabian
+masters in the early times of Mahommedan conquest, every natural object
+was proscribed; the artists were, therefore, reduced to making
+symmetrical designs from forms which should have no positive meaning;
+yet the Byzantine Greeks, who were Christians, managed to work even
+their own ecclesiastical symbols, in a disguised manner, into their
+tracery and diapers; as the lily, for instance. The cross was not so
+introduced; this, of course, was inadmissible; but neither was the
+crescent ever introduced into any of this early work in Damascus or
+Cairo. The crescent was itself not a Mahommedan device till after the
+conquest of Constantinople in 1453 A.D. The crescent, as the new moon,
+was the symbol of Byzantium; and it was only after that capital of the
+Eastern empire fell into the hands of the Turks that this symbol was
+adopted by them. The crescent and the cross became antagonist standards,
+therefore, first in the 15th century. And the crescent is not an element
+of original Moorish decoration.
+
+The Alhambra diapers and original Majolica (Majorca) ware afford
+admirable specimens of genuine Saracenic or Moorish decoration. A
+conventional floriage is common in these diapers; tracery also is a
+great feature in this work, in geometrical combinations, whether
+rectilinear or curvilinear; and the designs are rich in colour; idolatry
+was in the reproduction of natural forms, not in the fanciful
+combination of natural colours. These curves and angles, therefore, or
+interlacings, chiefly in stucco, constitute the prominent elements of an
+Arabian ornamental design, combining also Arabic inscriptions; composed
+of a mass of foliation or floral forms conventionally disguised, as the
+exclusion of all natural images was the fundamental principle of the
+style in its purity. The Alhambra displays almost endless specimens of
+this peculiar work, all in relief, highly coloured, and profusely
+enriched with gold. The mosque of Tulun, in Cairo, A.D. 876, the known
+work of a Greek, affords the completest example of this art in its early
+time; and Sicily contains many remains of this same exquisite Saracenic
+decoration.
+
+Such is the genuine Arabesque of the Arabs, but a very different style
+of design is implied by the Arabesque of the cinquecento, a purely
+classical ornamentation. This owes its origin to the excavation and
+recovery of ancient monuments, and was developed chiefly by the
+sculptors of the north, and the painters of central Italy; by the
+Lombardi of Venice, by Agostino Busti of Milan, by Bramante of Urbino,
+by Raphael, by Giulio Romano, and others of nearly equal merit. Very
+beautiful examples in sculpture of this cinquecento Arabesque are found
+in the churches of Venice, Verona and Brescia; in painting, the most
+complete specimens are those of the Vatican Loggie, and the Villa Madama
+at Rome and the ducal palaces at Mantua. The Vatican Arabesques, chiefly
+executed for Raphael by Giulio Romano, Gian Francesco Penni, and
+Giovanni da Udine, though beautiful as works of painting, are often very
+extravagant in their composition, ludicrous and sometimes aesthetically
+offensive; as are also many of the decorations of Pompeii. The main
+features of these designs are balanced scrolls in panels; or standards
+variously composed, but symmetrically scrolled on either side, and on
+the tendrils of these scrolls are suspended or placed birds and animals,
+human figures and chimeras, of any or all kinds, or indeed any objects
+that may take the fancy of the artist. The most perfect specimens of
+cinquecento Arabesque are certainly found in sculpture. As specimens of
+exquisite work may be mentioned the Martinengo tomb, in the church of
+the Padri Riformati at Brescia, and the facade of the church of Santa
+Maria del Miracoli there, by the Lombardi; and many of the carvings of
+the Chateau de Gaillon, France--all of which fairly illustrate the
+beauties and capabilities of the style.
+
+  See also Wornum, _Analysis of Ornament_ (1874).     (R. N. W.)
+
+
+
+
+ARABGIR, or ARABKIR (Byz. _Arabraces_), a town of Turkey in Asia in the
+Mamuret el-Aziz or Kharput vilayet, situated near the confluence of the
+eastern and western Euphrates, but some miles from the right bank of the
+combined streams. Pop. about 20,000, of which the larger half is
+Mussulman. It is connected with Sivas by a _chaussee_, prolonged to the
+Euphrates. The inhabitants are enterprising and prosperous, many of them
+leaving their native city to push their fortunes elsewhere, while of
+those that remain the greater part is employed in the manufacture of
+silk and cotton goods, or in the production of fruit. The present town
+was built at a comparatively recent date; but about 2 m. north-east is
+the old town, now called Eski-Shehr, given (c. 1021) to Senekherim of
+Armenia by the emperor Basil II. It contains the ruins of a castle and
+of several Seljuk mosques. The Armenian population suffered severely
+during the massacres of 1895. (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+ARABIA, a peninsula in the south-west of Asia, lying between 34 deg. 30'
+and 12 deg. 45' N., and 32 deg. 30' and 60 deg. E., is bounded W. by the
+Red Sea, S. by the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean, and E. by the Gulf
+of Oman and the Persian Gulf. Its northern or land boundary is more
+difficult to define; most authorities, however, agree in taking it from
+El Arish on the Mediterranean, along the southern border of Palestine,
+between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Akaba, then bending northwards
+along the Syrian border nearly to Tadmur, thence eastwards to the edge
+of the Euphrates valley near Anah, and thence south-east to the mouth of
+the Shat el Arab at the head of the Persian Gulf,--the boundary so
+defined includes the northern desert, which belongs geographically to
+Arabia rather than to Syria; while on the same grounds lower Mesopotamia
+and Irak, although occupied by an Arab population, are excluded.
+
+In shape, the peninsula forms a rough trapezium, with its greatest
+length from north-west to south-east. The length of its western side
+from Port Said to Aden is 1500 m.; its base from the Straits of
+Bab-el-Mandeb (or Bab al Mandab) to Ras el Had is 1300 m., its northern
+side from Port Said to the Euphrates 600 m.; its total area
+approximately 1,200,000 sq. m.
+
+
+GEOGRAPHY
+
+_General Features._--In general terms Arabia may be described as a
+plateau sloping gently from south-west to north-east, and attaining its
+greatest elevation in the extreme south-west. The western escarpment of
+the plateau rises steeply from the Red Sea littoral to a height of from
+4000 to 8000 ft., leaving a narrow belt of lowland rarely exceeding 30
+m. in width between the shore and the foot-hills. On the north-east and
+east the plateau shelves gradually to the Euphrates and the Persian
+Gulf; only in the extreme east is this general easterly slope arrested
+by the lofty range of Jebel Akhdar, which from Ras Musandan to Ras el
+Had borders the coast of Oman.
+
+Its chief characteristic is the bareness and aridity of its surface;
+one-third of the whole desert, and of the remainder only a small
+proportion is suited to settled life, owing to its scanty water-supply
+and uncertain rainfall. Its mountains are insufficient in elevation and
+extent to attract their full share of the monsoon rains, which fall so
+abundantly on the Abyssinian highlands on the other side of the Red Sea;
+for this reason Arabia has neither lakes nor forests to control the
+water-supply and prevent its too rapid dissipation, and the rivers are
+mere torrent beds sweeping down occasionally in heavy floods, but
+otherwise dry.
+
+The country falls naturally into three main divisions, a northern, a
+central and a southern; the first includes the area between the Midian
+coast on the west and the head of the Persian Gulf on the east, a desert
+tract throughout, stony in the north, sandy in the south, but furnishing
+at certain seasons excellent pasturage; its population is almost
+entirely nomad and pastoral. The central zone includes Hejaz (or Hijaz),
+Nejd and El Hasa; much of it is a dry, stony or sandy steppe, with few
+wells or watering-places, and only occupied by nomad tribes; but the
+great wadis which intersect it contain many fertile stretches of
+alluvial soil, where cultivation is possible and which support a
+considerable settled population, with several large towns and numerous
+villages.
+
+The third or southern division contains the highland plateaus of Asir
+and Yemen in the west, and J. Akhdar in the east, which with a temperate
+climate, due to their great elevation and their proximity to the sea,
+deserve, if any part of Arabia does, the name of Arabia Felix--the
+population is settled and agricultural, and the soil, wherever the
+rainfall is sufficient, is productive. The Batina coast of Oman,
+irrigated by the mountain streams of J. Akhdar, is perhaps the most
+fertile district in the peninsula; Hadramut, too, contains many large
+and prosperous villages, and the torrents from the Yemen highlands
+fertilize several oases in the Tehama (or Tihama) or lowlands of the
+western and southern coast. These favourable conditions of soil and
+climate, however, extend only a comparatively short distance into the
+interior, by far the larger part of which is covered by the great
+southern desert, the Dahna, or Ruba el Khali, empty as its name implies,
+and uninhabitable.
+
+_Exploration._--Before entering on a detailed description of the several
+provinces of Arabia, our sources of information will be briefly
+indicated. Except in the neighbourhood of Aden, no regular surveys
+exist, and professional work is limited to the marine surveys of the
+Indian government and the admiralty, which, while laying down the coast
+line with fair accuracy, give little or no topographical information
+inland. For the mapping of the whole vast interior, except in rare
+cases, no data exist beyond the itineraries of explorers, travelling as
+a rule under conditions which precluded the use of even the simplest
+surveying instruments. These journeys, naturally following the most
+frequented routes, often cover the same ground, while immense tracts,
+owing to their difficulty of access, remain unvisited by any European.
+
+The region most thoroughly explored is Yemen, in the south-west corner
+of the peninsula, where the labours of a succession of travellers from
+Niebuhr in 1761 to E. Glaser and R. Manzoni in 1887 have led to a fairly
+complete knowledge of all that part of the province west of the capital
+Sana; while in 1902-1904 the operations of the Anglo-Turkish boundary
+commission permitted the execution of a systematic topographical survey
+of the British protectorate from the Red Sea to the Wadi Bana, 30 m.
+east of Aden. North of Yemen up to the Hejaz border the only authority
+is that of E.F. Jomard's map, published in 1839, based on the
+information given by the French officers employed with Ibrahim Pasha's
+army in Asir from 1824 to 1827, and of J. Halevy in Nejran. On the south
+coast expeditions have penetrated but a short distance, the most notable
+exceptions being those of L. Hirsch and J.T. Bent in 1887 to the
+Hadramut valley. S.B. Miles, J.R. Wellsted, and S.M. Zwemer have
+explored Oman in the extreme east; but the interior south of a line
+drawn from Taif to El Katr on the Persian Gulf is still virgin ground.
+In northern Arabia the Syrian desert and the great Nafud (Nefud) have
+been crossed by several travellers, though a large area remains
+unexplored in the north-east between Kasim and the gulf. In the centre,
+the journeys of W. Palgrave, C. Doughty, W. Blunt and C. Huber have done
+much to elucidate the main physical features of the country. Lastly, in
+the north-west the Sinai peninsula has been thoroughly explored, and the
+list of travellers who have visited the Holy Cities and traversed the
+main pilgrim routes through Hejaz is a fairly long one, though, owing to
+the difficulties peculiar to that region, the hydrography of southern
+Hejaz is still incompletely known.
+
+
+  Modern Exploration in Yemen.
+
+The story of modern exploration begins with the despatch of C. Niebuhr's
+mission by the Danish government in 1761. After a year spent in Egypt
+and the Sinai peninsula the party reached Jidda towards the end of 1762,
+and after a short stay sailed on to Lohaia in the north of Yemen, the
+exploration of which formed the principal object of the expedition;
+thence, travelling through the Tehama or lowlands, Niebuhr and his
+companions visited the towns of Bet el Fakih, Zubed and Mokha, then the
+great port for the coffee trade of Yemen. Continuing eastward they
+crossed the mountainous region and reached the highlands of Yemen at
+Uden, a small town and the centre of a district celebrated for its
+coffee. Thence proceeding eastwards to higher altitudes where coffee
+plantations give way to fields of wheat and barley, they reached the
+town of Jibla situated among a group of mountains exceeding 10,000 ft.
+above sea-level; and turning southwards to Taiz descended again to the
+Tehama via Hes and Zubed to Mokha. The mission, reduced in numbers by
+the death of its archaeologist, von Haven, again visited Taiz in June
+1763, where after some delay permission was obtained to visit Sana, the
+capital of the province and the residence of the ruling sovereign or
+imam. The route lay by Jibla, passing the foot of the lofty Jebel Sorak,
+where, in spite of illness, Forskal, the botanist of the party, was able
+to make a last excursion; a few days later he died at Yarim. The mission
+continued its march, passing Dhamar, the seat of a university of the
+Zedi sect, then frequented by 500 students. Thence four marches,
+generally over a stony plateau dominated by bare, sterile mountains,
+brought them to Sana, where they received a cordial welcome from the
+imam, el Mahdi Abbas.
+
+The aspect of the city must have been nearly the same as at present;
+Niebuhr describes the _enceinte_ flanked by towers, the citadel at the
+foot of J. Nukum which rises 1000 ft. above the valley, the fortress and
+palace of the imams, now replaced by the Turkish military hospital, the
+suburb of Bir el Azab with its scattered houses and gardens, the Jews'
+quarter and the village of Rauda, a few miles to the north in a fertile,
+irrigated plain which Niebuhr compares to that of Damascus. After a stay
+of ten days at Sana the mission set out again for Mokha, travelling by
+what is now the main route from the capital to Hodeda, through the rich
+coffee-bearing district of J. Haraz, and thence southward to Mokha,
+where they embarked for India. During the next year three other members
+of the party died, leaving Niebuhr the sole survivor. Returning to
+Arabia a year later, he visited Oman and the shores of the Persian Gulf,
+and travelling from Basra through Syria and Palestine he reached Denmark
+in 1764 after four years' absence.
+
+The period was perhaps specially favourable for a scientific mission of
+the sort. The outburst of fanaticism which convulsed Arabia twenty years
+later had not then reached Yemen, and Europeans, as such, were not
+exposed to any special danger. The travellers were thus able to move
+freely and to pursue their scientific enquiries without hindrance from
+either people or ruler. The results published in 1772 gave for the first
+time a comprehensive description not only of Yemen but of all Arabia;
+while the parts actually visited by Niebuhr were described with a
+fulness and accuracy of detail which left little or nothing for his
+successors to discover.
+
+
+  Asir.
+
+  Jauf and Marib.
+
+C.G. Ehrenberg and W.F. Hemprich in 1825 visited the Tehama and the
+islands off the coast, and in 1836 P.E. Botta made an important journey
+in southern Yemen with a view to botanical research, but the next
+advance in geographical knowledge in south Arabia was due to the French
+officers, M.O. Tamisier, Chedufau and Mary, belonging to the Egyptian
+army in Asir; another Frenchman, L. Arnaud, formerly in the Egyptian
+service, was the first to visit the southern Jauf and to report on the
+rock-cut inscriptions and ruins of Marib, though it was not till 1869
+that a competent archaeologist, J. Halevy, was able to carry out any
+complete exploration there. Starting from Sana, Halevy went
+north-eastward to El Madid, a town of 5000 inhabitants and the capital
+of the small district of Nihm; thence crossing a plateau, where he saw
+the ruins of numerous crenellated towers, he reached the village of
+Mijzar at the foot of J. Yam, on the borders of Jauf, a vast sandy
+plain, extending eastwards to El Jail and El Hazm, where Halevy made his
+most important discoveries of Sabaean inscriptions: here he explored
+Main, the ancient capital of the Minaeans, Kamna on the banks of the W.
+Kharid, the ancient Caminacum, and Kharibat el Beda, the Nesca of Pliny,
+where the Sabaean army was defeated by the Romans under Aelius Gallus in
+24 B.C. From El Jail Halevy travelled northward, passing the oasis of
+Khab, and skirting the great desert, reached the fertile district of
+Nejran, where he found a colony of Jews, with whom he spent several
+weeks in the oasis of Makhlaf. An hour's march to the east he discovered
+at the village of Medinat el Mahud the ruins of the Nagra metropolis of
+Ptolemy. In June 1870 he at last reached the goal of his journey, Marib;
+here he explored the ruins of Medinat an Nahas (so called from its
+numerous inscriptions engraved on brass plates), and two hours to the
+east he found the famous dam constructed by the Himyarites across the W.
+Shibwan, on which the water-supply of their capital depended.
+
+One other explorer has since visited Marib, the Austrian archaeologist,
+E. Glaser (1855-1908), who achieved more for science in Yemen than any
+traveller since Niebuhr. Under Turkish protection, he visited the
+territory of the Hashid and Bakil tribes north-east of Sana, and though
+their hostile attitude compelled him to return after reaching their
+first important town, Khamr, he had time to reconnoitre the plateau
+lying between the two great wadis Kharid and Hirran, formerly covered
+with Himyaritic towns and villages; and to trace the course of these
+wadis to their junction at El Ish in the Dhu Husen country, and thence
+onward to the Jauf. In 1889 he succeeded, again under Turkish escort, in
+reaching Marib, where he obtained, during a stay of thirty days, a large
+number of new Himyaritic inscriptions. He was unable, however, to
+proceed farther east than his predecessors, and the problem of the Jauf
+drainage and its possible connexion with the upper part of the Hadramut
+valley still remains unsolved.
+
+
+  Exploration in Hadramut.
+
+The earliest attempt to penetrate into the interior from the south coast
+was made in 1835 when Lieuts. C. Cruttenden and J.R. Wellsted of the
+"Palinurus," employed on the marine survey of the Arabian coast, visited
+the ruins of Nakb (el Hajar) in the W. Mefat. The Himyaritic
+inscriptions found there and at Husn Ghurab near Mukalla, were the first
+records discovered of ancient Arabian civilization in Hadramut. Neither
+of these officers was able to follow up their discoveries, but in 1843
+Adolph von Wrede landed at Mukalla and, adopting the character of a
+pilgrim to the shrine of the prophet Hud, made his way northward across
+the high plateau into the W. Duwan, one of the main southern tributaries
+of the Hadramut valley, and pushed on to the edge of the great southern
+desert; on his return to the W. Duwan his disguise was detected and he
+was obliged to return to Mukalla. Though he did not actually enter the
+main Hadramut valley, which lay to the east of his track, his journey
+established the existence of this populous and fertile district which
+had been reported to the officers of the "Palinurus" as lying between
+the coast range and the great desert to the north. This was at last
+visited in 1893 by L. Hirsch under the protection of the sultan of
+Mukalla, the head of the Kaiti family, and practically ruler of all
+Hadramut, with the exception of the towns of Saiyun and Tarim, which
+belong to the Kathiri tribe. Starting like von Wrede from Mukalla,
+Hirsch first visited the W. Duwan and found ancient ruins and
+inscriptions near the village of Hajren; thence he proceeded
+north-eastward to Hauta in the main valley, where he was hospitably
+received by the Kaiti sultan, and sent on to his deputy at Shibam. Here
+he procured a Kathiri escort and pushed on through Saiyun to Tarim, the
+former capital. After a very brief stay, however, he was compelled by
+the hostility of the people to return in haste to Shibam, from which he
+travelled by the W. bin Ali and W. Adim back to Mukalla. J. Theodore
+Bent and his wife followed in the same track a few months later with a
+well-equipped party including a surveyor, Imam Sharif, lent by the
+Indian government, who made a very valuable survey of the country passed
+through. Both parties visited many sites where Himyaritic remains and
+inscriptions were found, but the hostile attitude of the natives, more
+particularly of the Seyyids, the religious hierarchy of Hadramut,
+prevented any adequate examination, and much of archaeological interest
+undoubtedly remains for future travellers to discover.
+
+
+  Exploration in Oman.
+
+In Oman, where the conditions are more favourable, explorers have
+penetrated only a short distance from the coast. Niebuhr did not go
+inland from Muscat; the operations by a British Indian force on the
+Pirate coast in 1810 gave no opportunities for visiting the interior,
+and it was not till 1835 that J.R. Wellsted, who had already tried to
+penetrate into Hadramut from the south, landed at Muscat with the idea
+of reaching it from the north-east. Sailing thence to Sur near Ras el
+Had, he travelled southward through the country of the Bani bu Ali to
+the borders of the desert, then turning north-west up the Wadi Betha
+through a fertile, well-watered country, running up to the southern
+slopes of J. Akhdar, inhabited by a friendly people who seem to have
+welcomed him everywhere, he visited Ibra, Semed and Nizwa at the
+southern foot of the mountains. Owing to the disturbed state of the
+country, due to the presence of raiding parties from Nejd, Wellsted was
+unable to carry out his original intention of exploring the country to
+the west, and after an excursion along the Batina coast to Sohar he
+returned to India.
+
+In 1876 Colonel S.B. Miles, who had already done much to advance
+geographical interests in south Arabia, continued Wellsted's work in
+Oman; starting from Sohar on the Batina coast he crossed the dividing
+range into the Dhahira, and reached Birema, one of its principal oases.
+His investigations show that the Dhahira contains many settlements, with
+an industrious agricultural population, and that the unexplored tract
+extending 250 m. west to the peninsula of El Katr is a desolate gravelly
+steppe, shelving gradually down to the salt marshes which border the
+shores of the gulf.
+
+
+  Exploration in Hejaz.
+
+Leaving southern Arabia, we now come to the centre and north. The first
+explorer to enter the sacred Hejaz with a definite scientific object was
+the Spaniard, Badia y Leblich, who, under the name of Ali Bey and
+claiming to be the last representative of the Abbasid Caliphs, arrived
+at Jidda in 1807, and performed the pilgrimage to Mecca. Besides giving
+to the world the first accurate description of the holy city and the Haj
+ceremonies, he was the first to fix the position of Mecca by
+astronomical observations, and to describe the physical character of its
+surroundings. But the true pioneer of exploration in Hejaz was J.L.
+Burckhardt, who had already won a reputation as the discoverer of Petra,
+and whose experience of travel in Arab lands and knowledge of Arab life
+qualified him to pass as a Moslem, even in the headquarters of Islam.
+Burckhardt landed in Jidda in July 1814, when Mehemet Ali had already
+driven the Wahhabi invaders out of Hejaz, and was preparing for his
+farther advance against their stronghold in Nejd. He first visited Taif
+at the invitation of the pasha, thence he proceeded to Mecca, where he
+spent three months studying every detail of the topography of the holy
+places, and going through all the ceremonies incumbent on a Moslem
+pilgrim. In January 1815 he travelled to Medina by the western or coast
+route, and arrived there safely but broken in health by the hardships of
+the journey. His illness did not, however, prevent his seeing and
+recording everything of interest in Medina with the same care as at
+Mecca, though it compelled him to cut short the further journey he had
+proposed to himself, and to return by Yambu and the sea to Cairo, where
+he died only two years later.
+
+His striking successor, Sir Richard Burton, covered nearly the same
+ground thirty-eight years afterwards. He, too, travelling as a Moslem
+pilgrim, noted the whole ritual of the pilgrimage with the same keen
+observation as Burckhardt, and while amplifying somewhat the latter's
+description of Medina, confirms the accuracy of his work there and at
+Mecca in almost every detail. Burton's topographical descriptions are
+fuller, and his march to Mecca from Medina by the eastern route led him
+over ground not traversed by any other explorer in Hejaz: this route
+leads at first south-east from Medina, and then south across the lava
+beds of the Harra, keeping throughout its length on the high plateau
+which forms the borderland between Hejaz and Nejd. His original
+intention had been after visiting Mecca to find his way across the
+peninsula to Oman, but the time at his disposal (as an Indian officer on
+leave) was insufficient for so extended a journey; and his further
+contributions to Arabian geography were not made until twenty-five years
+later, when he was deputed by the Egyptian government to examine the
+reported gold deposits of Midian. Traces of ancient workings were found
+in several places, but the ores did not contain gold in paying
+quantities. Interesting archaeological discoveries were made, and a
+valuable topographical survey was carried out, covering the whole Midian
+coast from the head of the Gulf of Akaba to the mouth of the Wadi Hamd,
+and including both the Tehama range and the Hisma valley behind it;
+while the importance of the W. Hamd and the extent of the area drained
+by its tributaries was for the first time brought to light.
+
+
+  Exploration in Nejd.
+
+Burckhardt had hoped in 1815 that the advance of the Egyptian expedition
+would have given him the opportunity to see something of Nejd, but he
+had already left Arabia before the overthrow of the Wahhabi power by
+Ibrahim Pasha had opened Nejd to travellers from Hejaz, and though
+several European officers accompanied the expedition, none of them left
+any record of his experience. It is, however, to the Egyptian conquest
+that the first visit of a British traveller to Nejd is due. The Indian
+government, wishing to enter into relations with Ibrahim Pasha, as _de
+facto_ ruler of Nejd and El Hasa, with a view to putting down piracy in
+the Persian Gulf, which was seriously affecting Indian trade, sent a
+small mission under Captain G.F. Sadlier to congratulate the pasha on
+the success of the Egyptian arms, and no doubt with the ulterior object
+of obtaining a first-hand report on the real situation. On his arrival
+at Hofuf, Sadlier found that Ibrahim had already left Deraiya, but still
+hoping to intercept him before quitting Nejd, he followed up the
+retreating Egyptians through Yemama, and Wushm to Ras in Kasim, where he
+caught up the main body of Ibrahim's army, though the pasha himself had
+gone on to Medina. Sadlier hesitated about going farther, but he was
+unable to obtain a safe conduct to Basra, or to return by the way he had
+come, and was compelled reluctantly to accompany the army to Medina.
+Here he at last met Ibrahim, but though courteously received, the
+interview had no results, and Sadlier soon after left for Yambu, whence
+he embarked for Jidda, and after another fruitless attempt to treat with
+Ibrahim, sailed for India. If the political results of the mission were
+_nil_, the value to geographical science was immense; for though no
+geographer himself, Sadlier's route across Arabia made it possible for
+the first time to locate the principal places in something like their
+proper relative positions; incidentally, too, it showed the
+practicability of a considerable body of regular troops crossing the
+deserts of Nejd even in the months of July and August.
+
+Sadlier's route had left Jebel Shammar to one side; his successor, G.A.
+Wallin, was to make that the objective of his journey. Commissioned by
+Mehemet Ali to inform him about the situation in Nejd brought about by
+the rising power of Abdallah Ibn Rashid, Wallin left Cairo in April
+1845, and crossing the pilgrim road at Ma'an, pushed on across the
+Syrian desert to the Wadi Sirhan and the Jauf oasis, where he halted
+during the hot summer months. From the wells of Shakik he crossed the
+waterless Nafud in four days to Jubba, and after a halt there in the
+nomad camps, he moved on to Hail, already a thriving town, and the
+capital of the Shammar state whose limits included all northern Arabia
+from Kasim to the Syrian border. After a stay in Hail, where he had
+every opportunity of observing the character of the country and its
+inhabitants, and the hospitality and patriarchal, if sometimes stern,
+justice of its chief, he travelled on to Medina and Mecca, and returned
+thence to Cairo to report to his patron. Early in 1848 he again returned
+to Arabia, avoiding the long desert journey by landing at Muwela, thence
+striking inland to Tebuk on the pilgrim road, and re-entering Shammar
+territory at the oasis of Tema, he again visited Hail; and after
+spending a month there travelled northwards to Kerbela and Bagdad.
+
+
+  Palgrave's journey to Nejd.
+
+The effects of the Egyptian invasion had passed away, and central Arabia
+had settled down again under its native rulers when W.G. Palgrave made
+his adventurous journey through Nejd, and published the remarkable
+narrative which has taken its place as the classic of Arabian
+exploration. Like Burton he was once an officer in the Indian army, but
+for some time before his journey he had been connected with the Jesuit
+mission in Syria. By training and temperament he was better qualified to
+appreciate and describe the social life of the people than their
+physical surroundings, and if the results of his great journey are
+disappointing to the geographer, his account of the society of the oasis
+towns, and of the remarkable men who were then ruling in Hail and Riad,
+must always possess an absorbing interest as a portrait of Arab life in
+its freest development.
+
+Following Wallin's route across the desert by Ma'an and Jauf, Palgrave
+and his companion, a Syrian Christian, reached Hail in July 1862; here
+they were hospitably entertained by the amir Talal, nephew of the
+founder of the Ibn Rashid dynasty, and after some stay passed on with
+his countenance through Kasim to southern Nejd. Palgrave says little of
+the desert part of the journey or of its Bedouin inhabitants, but much
+of the fertility of the oases and of the civility of the townsmen; and
+like other travellers in Nejd he speaks with enthusiasm of its bright,
+exhilarating climate. At Riad, Fesal, who had been in power since the
+Egyptian retirement, was still reigning; and the religious tyranny of
+Wahhabism prevailed, in marked contrast to the liberal regime of Talal
+in Jebel Shammar. Still, Palgrave and his companions, though known as
+Christians, spent nearly two months in the capital without molestation,
+making short excursions in the neighbourhood, the most important of
+which was to El Kharfa in Aflaj, the most southerly district of Nejd.
+Leaving Riad, they passed through Yemama, and across a strip of sandy
+desert to El Hasa where Palgrave found himself in more congenial
+surroundings. Finally, a voyage to the Oman coast and a brief stay there
+brought his adventures in Arabia to a successful ending.
+
+
+  Doughty.
+
+Charles Doughty, the next Englishman to visit northern Arabia, though he
+covered little new ground, saw more of the desert life, and has
+described it more minutely and faithfully than any other explorer.
+Travelling down from Damascus in 1875 with the Haj caravan, he stopped
+at El Hajr, one of the pilgrim stations, with the intention of awaiting
+the return of the caravan and in the meantime of exploring the rock-cut
+tombs of Medain Salih and El Ala. Having successfully completed his
+investigations and sent copies of inscriptions and drawings of the tombs
+to Renan in Paris, he determined to push on farther into the desert.
+Under the protection of a sheikh of the Fukara Bedouin he wandered over
+the whole of the borderland between Hejaz and Nejd. Visiting Tema, where
+among other ancient remains he discovered the famous inscribed stone,
+afterwards acquired by Huber for the Louvre. Next summer he went on to
+Hail and thence back to Khaibar, where the negro governor and townsmen,
+less tolerant than his former Bedouin hosts, ill-treated him and even
+threatened his life. Returning to Hail in the absence of the amir, he
+was expelled by the governor; he succeeded, however, in finding
+protection at Aneza, where he spent several months, and eventually after
+many hardships and perils found his way to the coast at Jidda.
+
+Three years later Mr Wilfrid and Lady Anne Blunt made their expedition
+to J. Shammar. In their previous travels in Syria they had gained the
+confidence and friendship of a young sheikh whose family, though long
+settled at Tadmur, came originally from Nejd, and who was anxious to
+renew the connexion with his kinsmen by seeking a bride among them. In
+his company the Blunts set out from Damascus, and travelled across the
+Syrian desert by the Wadi Sirhan to Jauf. Here the sheikh found some of
+his relations and the matrimonial alliance was soon arranged; but though
+the object of the journey had been attained, the Blunts were anxious to
+visit Hail and make the acquaintance of the amir Ibn Rashid, of whose
+might and generosity they daily heard from their hosts in Jauf. The long
+stretch of waterless desert between Jauf and J. Shammar was crossed
+without difficulty, and the party was welcomed by the amir and
+hospitably entertained for a month, after which they travelled
+northwards in company with the Persian pilgrim caravan returning to
+Kerbela and Bagdad.
+
+
+  Huber.
+
+In 1883 the French traveller, C. Huber, accompanied by the
+archaeologist, J. Euting, followed the same route from Damascus to Hail.
+The narrative of the last named forms a valuable supplement to that
+published by the Blunts, and together with Doughty's, furnishes as
+complete a picture as could be wished for of the social and political
+life of J. Shammar, and of the general nature of the country. Huber's
+journal, published after his death from his original notes, contains a
+mass of topographical and archaeological detail of the greatest
+scientific value: his routes and observations form, in fact, the first
+and only scientific data for the construction of the map of northern
+Arabia. To archaeology also his services were of equal importance, for,
+besides copying numerous inscriptions in the district between Hail and
+Tema, he succeeded in gaining possession of the since famous Tema stone,
+which ranks with the Moabite stone among the most valuable of Semitic
+inscriptions. From Hail Huber followed nearly in Doughty's track to
+Aneza and thence across central Nejd to Mecca and Jidda, where he
+despatched his notes and copies of inscriptions. A month later, in July
+1884, he was murdered by his guides a few marches north of Jidda, on his
+way back to Hail.
+
+One other traveller visited Hail during the lifetime of the amir
+Mahommed--Baron E. Nolde--who arrived there in 1893, not long after the
+amir had by his victory over the combined forces of Riad and Kasim
+brought the whole of Nejd under his dominion. Nolde crossed the Nafud to
+Haiyania by a more direct track than that from Shakik to Jubba. The amir
+was away from his capital settling the affairs of his newly acquired
+territory; Nolde therefore, after a short halt at Hail, journeyed on to
+Ibn Rashid's camp somewhere in the neighbourhood of Shakra. Here he was
+on new ground, but unfortunately he gives little or no description of
+his route thither, or of his journey northwards by the Persian pilgrim
+road, already traversed by Huber in 1881. His narrative thus, while
+containing much of general interest on the climate and on the animal
+life of northern Arabia, its horses and camels in particular, adds
+little to those of his predecessors as regards topographical detail.
+
+
+  General results of exploration.
+
+If the journeys detailed above be traced on the map they will be found
+to cover the northern half of the peninsula above the line Mecca-Hofuf,
+with a network of routes, which, though sometimes separated by wide
+intervals, are still close enough to ensure that no important
+geographical feature can have been overlooked, especially in a country
+whose general character varies so little over wide areas. In the
+southern half, on the other hand, except in Nejran and Jauf, no European
+traveller has penetrated 100 m. in a direct line from the coast. The
+vast extent of the Dahna, or great southern desert, covering perhaps
+250,000 sq. m., accounts for about a third of this area, but some of the
+most favoured districts in Arabia--Asir and northern Yemen--remain
+unexplored, and the hydrography of the Dawasir basin offers some
+interesting problems, while a great field remains for the archaeologist
+in the seat of the old Sabaean kingdom from Jauf to the Hadramut valley.
+
+
+    Sinai Peninsula.
+
+  _Topographical Details._--Beginning from the north-west, the Sinai
+  peninsula belongs to Egypt, though geographically part of Arabia. It
+  is bounded on the E. by a line drawn from Ar Rafa, a few miles E. of
+  El Arish on the Mediterranean, to the head of the Gulf of Akaba; and
+  on the W. by the Suez Canal; its length from El Arish to its most
+  southern point is 240 m., and its breadth from Suez to Akaba is nearly
+  160 m. The greater part drains to the Mediterranean, from which the
+  land rises gradually to the summit of the Tih plateau. The deep
+  depression of Wadi Feran separates the Tih from the higher mass of
+  Sinai (q.v.), in which J. Katherine attains a height of 8500 ft.;
+  except in W. Feran there is little cultivable land, the greater part
+  consisting of bare, rocky hills and sandy valleys, sparsely covered
+  with tamarisk and acacia bushes. The Egyptian pilgrim road crosses the
+  peninsula from Suez to Akaba, passing the post of An Nakhl, with a
+  reservoir and a little cultivation, about half way; a steep descent
+  leads down from the edge of the Tih plateau to Akaba.
+
+
+    Syrian desert.
+
+  The rest of the northern borderland is covered by the Syrian desert,
+  extending from the borders of Palestine to the edge of the Euphrates
+  valley. This tract, known as the Hamad, is a gravelly plain unbroken
+  by any considerable range of hills or any continuous watercourse
+  except the Wadi Hauran, which in rainy seasons forms a succession of
+  pools from J. Hauran to the Euphrates. Its general slope is to the
+  north-east from the volcanic plateau of the Harra south of J. Hauran
+  to the edge of the Euphrates valley. The Wadi Sirhan, a broad
+  depression some 500 ft. below the average level of the Hamad, crosses
+  it from north-east to south-west between Hauran and Jauf; it has a
+  nearly uniform height above sea-level of 1850 ft., and appears to be
+  the bed of an inland sea rather than a true watercourse. Water is
+  found in it a few feet below the surface, and a little cultivation is
+  carried on at the small oases of Kaf and Ithri, whence salt produced
+  in the neighbouring salt lakes is exported. The W. Sirhan is
+  continuous with the depression known as the Jauf, situated on the
+  northern edge of the Nefud or Nafud, and the halfway station between
+  Damascus and Hail; and it is possible that this depression continues
+  eastward towards the Euphrates along a line a little north of the
+  thirtieth parallel, where wells and pasturages are known to exist.
+  Jauf is a small town consisting, at the time of the Blunts' visit in
+  1879, of not more than 500 houses. The town with its gardens,
+  surrounded by a mud wall, covers a space of 2 m. in length by half a
+  mile in width; the basin in which it lies is barely 3 m. across, and
+  except for the palm gardens and a few patches of corn, it is a dead
+  flat of white sand, closed in by high sandstone cliffs, beyond which
+  lies the open desert. The oases of Sakaka and Kara are situated in a
+  similar basin 15 m. to the east; the former a town of 10,000
+  inhabitants and somewhat larger than Jauf according to Huber.
+
+
+    The Nafud.
+
+  A short distance south of Jauf the character of the desert changes
+  abruptly from a level black expanse of gravel to the red sands of the
+  Nafud. The northern edge of this great desert follows very nearly the
+  line of the thirtieth parallel, along which it extends east and west
+  for a length of some 400 m.; its breadth from north to south is 200 m.
+  Though almost waterless, it is in fact better wooded and richer in
+  pasture than any part of the Hamad; the sand-hills are dotted with
+  _ghada_, a species of tamarisk, and other bushes, and several grasses
+  and succulent plants --among them the _adar_, on which sheep are said
+  to feed for a month without requiring water--are found in abundance in
+  good seasons. In the spring months, when their camels are in milk, the
+  Bedouins care nothing for water, and wander far into the Nafud with
+  their flocks in search of the green pasture which springs up
+  everywhere after the winter rains. A few wells exist actually in the
+  Nafud in the district called El Hajra, near its north-eastern border,
+  and along its southern border, between J. Shammar and Tema, there are
+  numerous wells and artificial as well as natural reservoirs resorted
+  to by the nomad tribes.
+
+  Owing to the great extent of the Nafud desert, the formation of
+  sand-dunes is exemplified on a proportionate scale. In many places
+  longitudinal dunes are found exceeding a day's journey in length, the
+  valleys between which take three or four hours to cross; but the most
+  striking feature of the Nafud are the high crescent-shaped sand-hills,
+  known locally as _falk_ or _falj_, described by Blunt and Huber, who
+  devoted some time to their investigation. The falks enclose a deep
+  hollow (known as _ka'r_), the floor of which is often hard soil bare
+  of sand, and from which the inner slopes of the falk rise as steeply
+  as the sand will lie (about 50 deg.). On the summit of the falk there
+  is generally a mound known as _tas_ or _barkhus_ composed of white
+  sand which stands out conspicuously against the deep red of the
+  surrounding deserts; the exterior slopes are comparatively gentle. The
+  falks are singularly uniform in shape, but vary greatly in size; the
+  largest were estimated by Huber and Euting at 1-1/4 m. across and 330
+  ft. deep. They run in strings irregularly from east to west,
+  corresponding in this with their individual direction, the convex face
+  of the falk being towards the west, i.e. the direction of the
+  prevailing wind, and the cusps to leeward. In the south of the Nafud,
+  where Huber found the prevailing wind to be from the south, the falks
+  are turned in that direction. Though perhaps subject to slight changes
+  in the course of years, there is no doubt that these dunes are
+  practically permanent features; the more prominent ones serve as
+  landmarks and have well-known distinctive names. The character of the
+  vegetation which clothes their slopes shows that even superficial
+  changes must be slight. The general level of the Nafud was found by
+  Huber's observations to be about 3000 ft. above sea-level; the highest
+  point on the Jauf-Hail route is at Falk Alam, the rocky peaks of which
+  rise 200 or 300 ft. above the surface of the sand. Other peaks
+  cropping out of the Nafud are Jebel Tawil, near the wells of Shakik,
+  and J. Abrak Rada, a long black ridge in the middle of the desert.
+
+
+    The Harra.
+
+  The high plateau which from. J. Hauran southward forms the main
+  watershed of the peninsula is covered in places by deep beds of lava,
+  which from their hardness have preserved the underlying sandstones
+  from degradation, and now stand up considerably above the general
+  level. These tracts are known as _harra_; the most remarkable is the
+  Harrat El Awerid, west of the Haj route from Tebuk to El Ala, a
+  mountain mass 100 m. in length with an average height of over 5000
+  ft., and the highest summit of which, J. Anaz, exceeds 7000 ft. The
+  harra east of Khaibar is also of considerable extent, and the same
+  formation is found all along the Hejaz border from Medina to the Jebel
+  el Kura, east of Mecca. The surface of the harra is extremely broken,
+  forming a labyrinth of lava crags and blocks of every size; the whole
+  region is sterile and almost waterless, and compared with the Nafud it
+  produces little vegetation; but it is resorted to by the Bedouin in
+  the spring and summer months when the air is always fresh and cool. In
+  winter it is cold and snow often lies for some time.
+
+
+    Hejaz.
+
+  Hejaz, if we except the Taif district in the south, which is properly
+  a part of the Yemen plateau, forms a well-marked physical division,
+  lying on the western slope of the peninsula, where that slope is at
+  its widest, between the Harra and the Red Sea. A high range of granite
+  hills, known as the Tehama range, the highest point of which, J. Shar,
+  in Midian, exceeds 6500 ft., divides it longitudinally into a narrow
+  littoral and a broader upland zone 2000 or 3000 ft. above the sea.
+  Both are generally bare and unproductive, the uplands, however,
+  contain the fertile valleys of Khaibar and Medina, draining to the
+  Wadi Hamd, the principal river system of western Arabia; and the Wadi
+  Jadid or Es Safra, rising in the Harra between Medina and Es Safina,
+  which contain several settlements, of which the principal produce is
+  dates. The quartz reefs which crop out in the granite ranges of the
+  Tehama contain traces of gold. These and the ancient copper workings
+  were investigated by Burton in 1877. The richer veins had evidently
+  been long ago worked out, and nothing of sufficient value to justify
+  further outlay was discovered. The coast-line is fringed with small
+  islets and shoals and reefs, which make navigation dangerous. The only
+  ports of importance are Yambu and Jidda, which serve respectively
+  Medina and Mecca; they depend entirely on the pilgrim traffic to the
+  holy cities, without which they could not exist.
+
+
+    Nejd.
+
+  The great central province of Nejd occupies all inner Arabia between
+  the Nafud and the southern desert. Its northern part forms the basin
+  of the Wadi Rumma, which, rising in the Khaibar harra, runs
+  north-eastward across the whole width of Nejd, till it is lost in the
+  sands of the eastern Nafud, north of Aneza. The greater portion of
+  this region is an open steppe, sandy in places and in others dotted
+  with low volcanic hills, but with occasional ground water and in
+  favourable seasons furnishing support for a considerable pastoral
+  population. Its elevation varies from about 5000 ft. in the west to
+  2500 ft. in the east. In Jebel Shammar, Kasim and Wushm, where the
+  water in the wadi beds rises nearly to the ground level, numerous
+  fertile oases are found with thriving villages and towns.
+
+  Jebel Shammar, from which the northern district of Nejd takes its
+  name, is a double range of mountains some 20 m. apart, rising sharply
+  out of the desert in bare, granite cliffs. J. Aja, the western and
+  higher of the two ranges, has a length of about 100 m. from north-east
+  to south-west, where it merges into the high plateau extending from
+  and continuous with the Khaibar harra. The highest point, J. Kara,
+  near its north-eastern extremity, is about 4600 ft. above sea-level,
+  or 1600 ft. above the town of Hail, which, like most of the larger
+  villages, lies along the wadi bed at the foot of J. Aja. The town,
+  which has risen with the fortunes of the Ibn Rashid family to be the
+  capital of Upper Nejd, is at the mouth of the valley between the twin
+  ranges, about 2 m. from the foot of J. Aja, and contained at the time
+  of Nolde's visit in 1893 about 12,000 inhabitants.
+
+  The principal tributaries of the W. Rumma converge in lower Kasim, and
+  at Aneza Doughty says its bed is 3 m. wide from bank to bank. Forty
+  years before his visit a flood is said to have occurred, which passed
+  down the river till it was blocked by sand-drifts at Thuwerat, 50 m.
+  lower down, and for two years a lake stood nearly 100 m. long, crowded
+  by waterfowl not known before in that desert country. Below this its
+  course has not been followed by any European traveller, but it may be
+  inferred from the line of watering-places on the road to Kuwet, that
+  it runs out to the Persian Gulf in that neighbourhood.
+
+  East of Kasim the land rises gradually to the high plateau culminating
+  in the ranges of Jebel Tuwek and J. Arid. The general direction of
+  these hills is from north-west to south-east. On the west they rise
+  somewhat steeply, exposing high cliffs of white limestone, which
+  perhaps gave Palgrave the impression that the range is of greater
+  absolute height than is actually the case. J. Tuwek in any case forms
+  an important geographical feature in eastern Nejd, interrupting by a
+  transverse barrier 200 m. in length the general north-easterly slope
+  of the peninusla, and separating the basin of the W. Rumma from that
+  of the other great river system of central Arabia, the Wadi Dawasir.
+  The districts of Suder and Wushm lie on its northern side, Arid in the
+  centre, and Aflaj, Harik and Yemama on its south, in the basin of the
+  W. Dawasir; the whole of this hilly region of eastern Nejd is,
+  perhaps, rather a rolling down country than truly mountainous, in
+  which high pastures alternate with deep fertile valleys, supporting
+  numerous villages with a large agricultural population. The W. Hanifa
+  is its principal watercourse; its course is marked by an almost
+  continuous series of palm groves and settlements, among which Deraiya
+  the former, and Riad the present, capital of the Ibn Saud kingdom are
+  the most extensive. Its lower course is uncertain, but it probably
+  continues in a south-east direction to the districts of El Harik and
+  Yemama when, joined by the drainage from Aflaj and the W. Dawasir, it
+  runs eastward till it disappears in the belt of sandy desert 100 m. in
+  width that forms the eastern boundary of Nejd, to reappear in the
+  copious springs that fertilize El Hasa and the Bahrein littoral.
+
+
+    Unexplored region of S. Nejd.
+
+  As regards the unexplored southern region, Palgrave's informants in
+  Aflaj, the most southerly district visited by him, stated that a day's
+  march south of that place the Yemen road enters the W. Dawasir, up
+  which it runs for ten days, perhaps 200 m., to El Kura, a thinly
+  peopled district on the borders of Asir; this accords with the
+  information of the French officers of the Egyptian army in that
+  district, and with that of Halevy, who makes all the drainage from
+  Nejran northward run to the same great wadi. Whether there be any
+  second line of drainage in southern Nejd skirting the edge of the
+  great desert and following the depression of the W. Yabrin must remain
+  a matter of conjecture. Colonel Miles concluded, from his enquiries,
+  that the low salt swamp, extending inland for some distance from Khor
+  ed Duwan, in the bay east of El Katr, was the outlet of an extensive
+  drainage system which may well be continuous with the W. Yabrin and
+  extend far into the interior, if not to Nejran itself.
+
+
+    El Hasa.
+
+  East of Nejd a strip of sandy desert 50 m. in width extends almost
+  continuously from the great Nafud to the Dahna. East of this again a
+  succession of stony ridges running parallel to the coast has to be
+  crossed before El Hasa is reached. This province, which skirts the
+  Persian Gulf from the mouth of the Euphrates to the frontiers of Oman,
+  is low and hot; its shores are flat, and with the exception of Kuwet
+  at the north-west corner of the gulf, it possesses no deep water
+  port. North of Katif it is desert and only inhabited by nomads; at
+  Katif, however, and throughout the district to the south bordering on
+  the Gulf of Bahrein there are ample supplies of underground water,
+  welling up in abundant springs often at a high temperature, and
+  bringing fertility to an extensive district of which El Hofuf, a town
+  of 15,000 to 20,000 inhabitants, is the most important centre.
+
+
+    South-western Arabia.
+
+  South-western Arabia, from the twenty-first parallel down to the Gulf
+  of Aden, including the Taif district of Hejaz, Asir and Yemen, forms
+  one province geographically. Throughout its length it consists of
+  three zones, a narrow coastal strip, rarely exceeding 20 m. in width,
+  a central mountainous tract, embracing the great chain which runs
+  parallel to the coast from near Taif to within 50 m. of Aden, and an
+  inner plateau falling gradually to the north-east till it merges in
+  the Nejd steppes or the sands of the great desert.
+
+  The lowland strip or Tehama consists partly of a gravelly plain, the
+  _Khabt_, covered sparsely with acacia and other desert shrubs and
+  trees, and furnishing pasturage for large flocks of goats and camels;
+  and partly of sterile wastes of sand like the _Ramla_, which extends
+  on either side of Aden almost from the seashore to the foot of the
+  hills. The Tehama is, however, by no means all desert, the mountain
+  torrents where they debouch into the plain have formed considerable
+  tracts of alluvial soil of the highest degree of fertility producing
+  in that warm equable climate two and even three crops in the year. The
+  flood-water is controlled by a system of dams and channels constructed
+  so as to utilize every drop, and the extent of cultivation is limited
+  more by the supply of water available than by the amount of suitable
+  soil. These districts support a large settled population and several
+  considerable towns, of which Bet el Fakih and Zubed in the western and
+  Lahej in the southern Tehama, with 4000 to 6000 inhabitants, are the
+  most important. There are signs that this coastal strip was until a
+  geologically recent period below sea-level; and that the coast-line is
+  still receding is evidenced by the history of the town of Muza, once a
+  flourishing port, now 20 m. inland; while Bet el Fakih and Zubed, once
+  important centres of the coffee trade, have lost their position
+  through the silting up of the ports which formerly served them.
+
+  The jebel or mountain-land is, however, the typical Yemen, the _Arabia
+  Felix_ of the ancients. Deep valleys winding through the barren
+  foothills lead gradually up to the higher mountains, and as the track
+  ascends the scenery and vegetation change their character; the trees
+  which line the banks of the wadi are overgrown with creepers, and the
+  running stream is dammed at frequent intervals, and led off in
+  artificial channels to irrigate the fields on either side; the steeper
+  parts of the road are paved with large stones, substantially built
+  villages, with their masonry towers or _dars_, crowning every height,
+  replace the collection of mud walls and brushwood huts of the low
+  country; while tier above tier, terraced fields cover the hill slopes
+  and attest the industry of the inhabitants and the fertility of their
+  mountains. On the main route from Hodeda to Sana the first coffee
+  plantations are reached at Usil, at an altitude of 4300 ft., and
+  throughout the western slopes of the range up to an altitude of 7000
+  ft. it is the most important crop. Jebel Haraz, of which Manakha, a
+  small town of 3000 inhabitants is the chief place, is described by
+  Glaser as one vast coffee garden. Here the traveller ascending from
+  the coast sees the first example of the jebel or highland towns, with
+  their high three-storeyed houses, built of quarried stone, their
+  narrow facades pierced with small windows with whitewashed borders and
+  ornamented with varied arabesque patterns; each dar has the appearance
+  of a small castle complete in itself, and the general effect is rather
+  that of a cluster of separate forts than of a town occupied by a
+  united community.
+
+  The scenery in this mountain region is of the most varied description;
+  bare precipitous hill-sides seamed with dry, rocky watercourses give
+  place with almost startling rapidity to fertile slopes, terraced
+  literally for thousands of feet. General Haig in describing them says:
+  "One can hardly realize the enormous labour, toil and perseverance
+  that these represent; the terrace walls are usually 5 to 8 ft. in
+  height, but towards the top of the mountains they are sometimes as
+  much as 15 or 18 ft.; they are built entirely of rough stone without
+  mortar, and I reckon that on an average each wall retains not more
+  than twice its own height in breadth, and I do not think I saw a
+  single break in them unrepaired."
+
+  The highest summits as determined by actual survey are between 10,000
+  and 11,000 ft. above sea-level. J. Sabur, a conspicuous mass in the
+  extreme south, is 9900 ft., with a fall to the Taiz valley of 5000
+  ft.; farther north several points in the mountains above Ibb and Yarim
+  attain a height of 10,500 ft., and J. Hadur, near the Sana-Hodeda
+  road, exceeds 10,000 ft. From the crest of the range there is a short
+  drop of 2000 or 3000 ft. to the broad open valleys which form the
+  principal feature of the inner plateau. The town of Yarim lies near
+  its southern extremity at an altitude of about 8000 ft.; within a
+  short distance are the sources of the W. Yakla, W. Bana and W. Zubed,
+  running respectively east and south and west. The first named is a dry
+  watercourse ultimately joining the basin of the W. Hadramut; the two
+  others run for a long distance through fertile valleys and, like many
+  of the wadis on the seaward side of the range, have perennial streams
+  down to within a few miles of the sea. Sana, the capital of Yemen,
+  lies in a broad valley 7300 ft. above sea-level, sloping northwards to
+  the W. Kharid which, with the Ghail Hirran, the sources of which are
+  on the eastern slopes of J. Hadur, run north-eastward to the Jauf
+  depression. The Arhab district, through which these two great wadis
+  run, was formerly the centre of the Himyar kingdom; cultivation is now
+  only to be found in the lower parts on the borders of the
+  watercourses, all above being naked rock from which every particle of
+  soil has been denuded. In the higher parts there are fine plains where
+  Glaser found numerous Himyaritic remains, and which he considers were
+  undoubtedly cultivated formerly, but they have long fallen out of
+  cultivation owing to denudation and desiccation--the impoverishment of
+  the country from these causes is increasing. Eastward the plateau
+  becomes still more sterile, and its elevation probably falls more
+  rapidly till it reaches the level of the Jauf and Nejran valleys on
+  the borders of the desert. The water-parting between central and
+  southern Arabia seems to be somewhere to the south of Nejran, which,
+  according to Halevy, drains northward to the W. Dawasir, while the
+  Jauf is either an isolated depression, or perhaps forms part of the
+  Hadramut basin.
+
+
+    Asir.
+
+  Farther north, in Asir, the plateau is more mountainous and contains
+  many fertile valleys. Of these may be mentioned Khamis Mishet and the
+  Wadi Shahran rising among the high summits of the maritime chain, and
+  the principal affluents of the Wadi Besha; the latter is a broad
+  well-watered valley, with numerous scattered hamlets, four days'
+  journey (perhaps 80 m.) from the crest of the range. Still farther
+  north is the Wadi Taraba and its branches running down from the
+  highland district of Zahran. The lower valleys produce dates in
+  abundance, and at higher elevations wheat, barley, millets and
+  excellent fruit are grown, while juniper forests are said to cover the
+  mountain slopes. In Yemen this tree was probably more common formerly;
+  the place-name Arar, signifying juniper, is still often found where
+  the tree no longer exists.
+
+
+    Coast of Yemen.
+
+    Hadramut.
+
+  The western coast of Yemen, like that of Hejaz, is studded with shoals
+  and islands, of which Perim in the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, Kamaran,
+  the Turkish quarantine post, 40 m. north of Hodeda, and the Farsan
+  group, off the Abu Arish coast, are the principal. Hodeda is the only
+  port of any importance since the days of steamships began; the other
+  ports, Mokha, Lohaia and Kanfuda merely share in the coasting trade.
+  The south coast is free from the shoals that imperil the navigation of
+  the Red Sea, and in Aden it possesses the only safe natural harbour on
+  the route between Suez and India. Several isolated volcanic hills crop
+  out on the shore line between Aden and the straits; the most
+  remarkable are J. Kharaz, 2500 ft., and J. Shamshan, 1700 ft., at the
+  base of which Aden itself is built. In both of these the crater form
+  is very clearly marked. A low maritime plain, similar to the Tehama of
+  the western coast, extends for some 200 m. east of the Straits of
+  Bab-el-Mandeb, backed by mountains rising to 7000 ft. or more; farther
+  east the elevation of the highland decreases steadily, and in the
+  Hadramut, north of Mukalla, does not much exceed 4000 ft. The mountain
+  chain, too, is less distinctly marked, and becomes little more than
+  the seaward escarpment of the plateau which intervenes between the
+  coast and the Hadramut valley. This valley runs nearly east and west
+  for a distance of 500 m. from the eastern slopes of the Yemen
+  highlands to its mouth on the Mahra coast near Sihut. The greater part
+  of it is desert, but a short stretch lying between the 48th and 50th
+  meridians is well watered and exceptionally fertile. This begins a
+  little to the east of Shabwa, the ancient capital, now half buried in
+  the advancing sand, and for a distance of over 70 m. a succession of
+  villages and towns surrounded by fields and date groves extends along
+  the main valley and into the tributaries which join it from the south.
+  Shibam, Saiyun and Tarim are towns of 6000 or more inhabitants, and
+  Hajren and Haura in the W. Duwan are among the larger villages.
+  Himyaritic remains have been found here and in the W. Mefat which
+  enters the Gulf of Aden near Balhaf. A few small fishing villages or
+  ports are scattered along the coast, but except Mukalla and Shihr none
+  is of any importance.
+
+  The Gara coast was visited by the Bents, who went inland from Dhafar,
+  one of the centres of the old frankincense trade, to the crest of the
+  plateau. The narrow coastal strip seems to be moderately fertile, and
+  the hills which in places come down to the seashore are covered with
+  trees, among which the frankincense and other gum-bearing trees are
+  found. On the plateau, which has an altitude of 4000 ft., there is
+  good pasturage; inland the country slopes gently to a broad valley
+  beyond which the view was bounded by the level horizon of the desert.
+
+
+    Oman.
+
+  Oman (q.v.) includes all the south-eastern corner of the peninsula.
+  Its chief feature is the lofty range of J. Akhdar, 10,000 ft. above
+  sea-level. Like the great range of western Arabia, it runs parallel to
+  the coast; it differs, however, from the western range in that its
+  fall on the landward side is as abrupt and nearly as great as on its
+  seaward side. Its northern extremity, Ras Musandan, rises
+  precipitously from the straits of Hormuz; farther south the range
+  curves inland somewhat, leaving a narrow but fertile strip, known as
+  the Batina coast, between it and the sea, and containing several
+  populous towns and villages of which Sohar, Barka and Sib are the
+  chief. Muscat, the capital of the province and the principal port on
+  the coast, is surrounded on three sides by bare, rocky hills, and has
+  the reputation of being the hottest place in Arabia. Zwemer says the
+  fertility of the highland region of J. Akhdar is wonderful and is in
+  striking contrast to the barrenness of so much of the coast; water
+  issues in perennial springs from many rocky clefts, and is carefully
+  husbanded by the ingenuity of the people; underground channels, known
+  here as _faluj_, precisely similar to the _kanat_ or _karez_ of Persia
+  and Afghanistan, are also largely used. The principal villages on the
+  eastern slopes are Rustak, Nakhl and Semail in the well-watered valley
+  of the same name; on the western slopes are Tanuf and Nizwa, lying
+  immediately below the highest summit of the range; Semed, Ibra and
+  Bidiya in the W. Betha are all well-built villages with palm-groves
+  and irrigated fields. In the north-west the Dhahira district sloping
+  towards the Jewasimi coast is more steppe-like in character; but there
+  two oases of great fertility are found, of which Birema, visited by
+  both Miles and Zwemer, supports a population of 15,000. West of Abu
+  Dhabi a low flat steppe with no settled inhabitants extends up to the
+  Katr peninsula, merging on the north into the saline marshes which
+  border the Persian Gulf, and on the south into the desert.
+
+
+    The southern desert.
+
+  The great desert known as the Dahna or the Rub'a el Khali ("the empty
+  quarter") is believed to cover all the interior of southern Arabia
+  from the borders of Yemen in the west to those of Oman in the east.
+  Halevy in Nejran, Von Wrede in Hadramut, and Wellsted in Oman reached
+  its edge, though none of them actually entered it, and the guides
+  accompanying them all concurred in describing it as uninhabitable and
+  uncrossed by any track. Its northern fringe is no doubt frequented by
+  the Bedouin tribes of southern Nejd after the rains, when its sands,
+  like those of the northern desert, produce herbage; but towards the
+  east, according to Burckhardt's information, it is quite without
+  vegetation even in the winter and spring. The farthest habitable spot
+  to the south of Nejd is the Wadi Yabrin, which L. Pelly heard of from
+  the Ahl Murra Bedouins as once a fertile district, and which still
+  produces dates, though, owing to malaria, it is now deserted; thence
+  southward to the Hadramut valley no communication is known to exist.
+
+  [_Geology._--The geological structure of Arabia is very similar to
+  that of Egypt. The oldest rocks consist of granite and schist,
+  penetrated by intrusive dykes, and upon this foundation rest the
+  flat-lying sedimentary deposits, beginning with a sandstone like the
+  Nubian sandstone of Egypt. In the northern part of Arabia the
+  crystalline rocks form a broad area extending from the peninsula of
+  Sinai eastwards to Hail and southwards at least as far as Mecca.
+  Towards the north the crystalline floor is overlaid by the great
+  sandstone series which covers nearly the whole of the country north of
+  Hail. Upon the sandstone rest a few scattered outliers of limestone,
+  probably of Cretaceous age, the largest of which occur near Jauf and
+  east of Bureda. Over both sandstone and granite great sheets of lava
+  have been poured, and these, protecting the softer beds beneath from
+  further denudation, now stand up as the high plateaus and hills called
+  _harra_. Volcanic cones still exist in large numbers, and the sheets
+  of lava appear as fresh as any recent flows of Etna or Vesuvius.
+  Arabian manuscripts describe an eruption on the harra near Medina in
+  A.D. 1256. In the south of Arabia the crystalline floor appears at
+  intervals along the southern coast and on the shores of the Gulf of
+  Oman. At Marbat the granite is overlaid by sandstone, presumably the
+  Nubian sandstone: this is followed by marls containing Cenomanian
+  fossils; and these are overlaid by Upper Cretaceous limestones, upon
+  which rest isolated patches of _Alveolina_ limestone. Generally,
+  however, the Cretaceous beds do not appear, and the greater part of
+  southern Arabia seems to be formed of _Alveolina_ and nummulite
+  limestones of Tertiary age. An extinct volcano occurs at Aden, and
+  volcanic rocks are found at other places near the Straits of
+  Bab-el-Mandeb. Throughout the whole of Arabia, so far as is known, the
+  sedimentary beds show no signs of any but the most gentle folding.
+  Faulting, however, is by no means absent, and some of the faults are
+  of considerable magnitude. The Gulf of Akaba is a strip of country
+  which has been let down between two parallel faults, and several
+  similar faulted troughs occur in the Sinai peninsula. The Red Sea
+  itself is a great trough bounded by faults along each side.]
+
+  _Climate._--Owing to its low latitude and generally arid surface,
+  Arabia is on the whole one of the hottest regions of the earth; this
+  is especially the case along the coasts of the Persian Gulf and the
+  southern half of the Red Sea, where the moist heat throughout the year
+  is almost intolerable to Europeans. In the interior of northern and
+  central Arabia, however, where the average level of the country
+  exceeds 3000 ft., the fiery heat of the summer days is followed by
+  cool nights, and the winter climate is fresh and invigorating; while
+  in the highlands of Asir and Yemen in the south-west, and of Oman in
+  the east, the summer heat is never excessive, and the winters are,
+  comparatively speaking, cold.
+
+  In the northern desert the temperature is subject to extreme
+  variations. Nolde states that on the 1st of February 1893 in the
+  desert north of Hail the thermometer fell from 78 deg. a little before
+  sunset to 18 deg. a quarter of an hour after. The midday temperatures
+  recorded by Huber at Hail during January and the first half of
+  February average about 65 deg. F., and water froze on several nights;
+  at Medina the winters are cold and night frosts of frequent
+  occurrence, and these conditions prevail over all the western part of
+  the Nejd plateau. In the east where the elevation is lower the climate
+  is warmer. In the elevated highland district which extends from Taif
+  to within 50 m. of Aden, the summer heat is tempered by the monsoon
+  winds, and the seasonal variation of temperature is less marked. From
+  observations made at Sana by Manzoni, Deflers and Glaser, the mean
+  temperature for the year of that city at an altitude of 7300 ft. and
+  in 15 deg. 22' N. appears to be 60 deg. F.; for July the mean maximum
+  was 77 deg., mean minimum 54 deg.; for January the figures were 62
+  deg.and 40 deg. respectively, the lowest recorded temperature in 1878
+  was 26.6 deg. on the 26th of January. At Aden at the sea-level the
+  mean temperature for the year is 83 deg.; the highest observed
+  temperature in 1904 was 97.3 deg., the lowest 67.4 deg.
+
+  The rainfall throughout northern and central Arabia is chiefly in the
+  winter months between October and April, and is scanty and irregular.
+  Doughty states that in 1876 rain to wet the ground had not fallen for
+  three years at Medain Salih; in that year showers fell on the 29th of
+  December and on two days in January and again in March. After a very
+  hot summer the bright weather changed to clouded skies on the 2nd of
+  October, rain fell tempestuously the same evening, and there were
+  showery days and nights till the 14th. The autumn rains fell that year
+  abundantly in the Nafud towards Jauf, but very little in the basin of
+  the W. Hamd (on the western slope). Doughty adds that the Nejd
+  highlands between Kasim and Mecca are watered yearly by seasonable
+  rains, which at Taif are expected about the end of August and last
+  commonly from four to six weeks. This appears to be about the northern
+  limit reached by the south-west monsoon, which from June to September
+  brings a fairly abundant rainfall to the Yemen highlands, though the
+  Tehama remains almost entirely rainless. The rainfall is heaviest
+  along the western fringe of the plateau, and penetrates inland in
+  decreasing quantity over a zone which perhaps extends to 100 m. in
+  width. In good seasons it is sufficient for the cultivation of the
+  summer crop of millet, and for the supply of the perennial streams and
+  springs, on which the irrigation of the winter crops of wheat and
+  barley depend. The amount measured at Dhala at the extreme south of
+  the plateau at an elevation of 4800 ft. was in 1902 as follows:--June,
+  4.0 in.; July, 5.5; August, 5.8; September, 1.9. Only slight showers
+  were recorded in the other months of the year. At higher elevations
+  the rainfall is no doubt heavier; Manzoni mentions that at Sana there
+  was constant rain throughout August and September 1878, and that the
+  thermometer during August did not reach 65 deg. In the Tehama
+  occasional showers fall during the winter months; at Aden the average
+  rainfall for the year is 2.97 in., but during 1904 only 0.5 in. was
+  recorded. Snow falls on the Harra and on the Tehama range in northern
+  Arabia, and Nolde records a fall of snow which lay on the Nafud on the
+  1st of February 1893. It also falls on J. Akhdar in Oman, but is very
+  rarely known on the Yemen mountains, probably because the
+  precipitation during the winter months is so slight.
+
+  The prevailing winds in northern Arabia as far as is known are from
+  the west; along the southern coast they are from the east; at Sana
+  there is generally a light breeze from the north-north-west from 9 to
+  11 A.M., from noon till 4 P.M. a steady and often strong wind blows
+  from the south-south-east, which dies away later. The climate is
+  extremely dry, but this is compensated for by the heavy mists which
+  sweep up from the plains during the rainless months and exercise a
+  most beneficial effect in the coffee-growing districts. This
+  phenomenon is known as the sukhemani or amama. In the morning the
+  Tehama, as seen from the mountain tops, appears buried in a sea of
+  white cloud; towards noon the clouds drift up the mountain slopes and
+  cover the summits with wreaths of light mist charged with moisture
+  which condenses on the trees and vegetation; in the afternoon they
+  disappear, and the evenings are generally clear and still.
+
+  _Fauna._--The wild animals of Arabia are all of the desert-loving
+  type: antelopes and gazelles are found in small numbers throughout the
+  peninsula; the latter are similar to the _chikara_ or ravine deer of
+  India. The larger antelopes, so common on the African side of the Gulf
+  of Aden, are not found, except one variety, the _Oryx beatrix_ (called
+  by the Arabs, wild cow), which is an inhabitant of the Nafud between
+  Tema and Hail; it is about the size of a donkey, white, and with long
+  straight horns. Hares are numerous both in the desert and in
+  cultivated tracts. In the Yemen mountains the _wal_, a wild goat with
+  massive horns, similar to the Kashmir ibex, is found; monkeys also
+  abound. Among smaller animals the jerboa and other descriptions of
+  rat, and the _wabar_ or cony are common; lizards and snakes are
+  numerous, most of the latter being venomous. Hyenas, wolves and
+  panthers are found in most parts of the country, and in the mountains
+  the leopard and wild cat. Of birds the ostrich is found in the Nafud
+  and in the W. Dawasir. Among game birds the bustard, guinea fowl, sand
+  grouse (_kata_), blue rock, green pigeon, partridge, including a large
+  chikor (_akb_) and a small species similar to the Punjab sisi; quail
+  and several kinds of duck and snipe are met with. In the cultivated
+  parts of Yemen and Tehama small birds are very numerous, so also are
+  birds of prey, vultures, kites and hawks.
+
+  Insects of all sorts abound; scorpions, centipedes, spiders, and an
+  ugly but harmless millipede known in Yemen as _hablub_ are very common
+  in summer. Ants and beetles too are very numerous, and anthills are
+  prominent features in many places. Locusts appear in great swarms and
+  do much damage; fires are lighted at night to attract them, and large
+  quantities are caught and eaten by the poorer people. Bees are kept,
+  and in Yemen and Hadramut the honey is exceptionally good.
+
+
+    Camel.
+
+  Of domesticated animals the camel is far the most useful to the Arab.
+  Owing to its endurance of thirst the long desert journeys which
+  separate the populous centres are made practicable, and in the spring
+  months, when green forage is plentiful in the desert, the Bedouins
+  pitch their camps for long periods far from any water, and not only
+  men but horses subsist on camel's milk. The Arabian camel belongs to
+  the one-humped species, though there are many varieties differing in
+  appearance as much as the thoroughbred race-horse from the English
+  cart-horse. The ordinary load for a pack camel is about 400 lb., and
+  in hot weather good camels will march 20 to 25 m. daily and only
+  require water every third or fourth day: in cool weather, with ample
+  green fodder they can go twenty-five days or more without drinking. A
+  good _dalul_ or riding camel will carry his rider 100 m. a day for a
+  week on end. Nolde gives an instance from his own experience of a
+  camel rider covering 62 m. in seven hours. The pure-bred riding camel
+  is only found in perfection in inner Arabia; for some unexplained
+  reason when taken out of their own country or north of the 30th degree
+  they rapidly degenerate.
+
+
+    Horse.
+
+  The horse does not occupy the important position in the Bedouin
+  economy that is popularly supposed. In Nejd the number of horses is,
+  comparatively speaking, very small; the want of water in the Nafud
+  where alone forage is obtainable, and the absence of forage in the
+  neighbourhood of the towns makes horse-breeding on a large scale
+  impracticable there. Horses are in fact only kept by the principal
+  sheiks, and by far the larger proportion of those now in Nejd are the
+  property of the amir and his family. These are kept most of the year
+  in the Nafud, five or ten days' march from Hail, where they find their
+  own food on the desert herbage. When a raid is in contemplation, they
+  are brought in and given a little barley for a few weeks. Reared in
+  this way they are capable of marvellous endurance, marching during a
+  raid twenty hours a day for eight or ten days together. As a rule,
+  they are only mounted at the moment of attack, or in pursuit. Water
+  and forage have to be carried for them on camels.
+
+  The great majority of the horses that come into the market as Arabs,
+  are bred in the northern desert and in Mesopotamia, by the various
+  sections of the Aneza and Shammar tribes, who emigrated from Nejd
+  generations ago, taking with them the original Nejd stock. In size and
+  appearance, and in everything but endurance, these northern horses are
+  admittedly superior to the true Nejdi. A few of the latter are
+  collected by dealers in the nomad camps and exported chiefly from
+  Kuwet. The amir Mahommed Ibn Rashid used to send down about one
+  hundred young horses yearly.
+
+  Asses of excellent quality are bred all over the country; they are
+  much used as mounts by the richer townsmen. Except in the settled
+  districts horned cattle are not numerous; they are similar to the
+  Indian humped cattle, but are greatly superior in milking qualities.
+  The great wealth of the Arabs is in their flocks of sheep and goats;
+  they are led out to pasture soon after sunrise, and in the hotter
+  months drink every second day. In the spring when the succulent
+  _ashub_ and _adar_ grow plentifully in the desert, they go for weeks
+  without drinking. They are milked once a day about sunset by the women
+  (the men milk the camels), and a large proportion of the milk is made
+  into _samn_, clarified butter, or _marisi_, dried curd. The wool is
+  not of much value, and is spun by the women and woven into rugs, and
+  made up into saddlebags or into the black Bedouin tents.
+
+  _Flora._--The flora of Arabia has been investigated by P. Forskal, the
+  botanist of Niebuhr's mission, P.E. Botta, G. Schweinfurth and A.
+  Deflers, to whose publications the technical reader is referred. Its
+  general type approaches more closely to the African than to that of
+  southern Asia. In the higher regions the principal trees are various
+  species of fig, tamarind, carob and numerous kinds of cactiform
+  _Euphorbia_, of which one, the _Euphorbia arborea_, grows to a height
+  of 20 ft. Of Coniferae the juniper is found on the higher slopes of J.
+  Sabur near Taiz, where Botta describes it as forming an extensive
+  forest and growing to a large size; it is also found in the range
+  overlooking the W. Madin, 50 m. W. of Aden. Considerable forests are
+  said to exist in Asir, and Burton found a few fine specimens which he
+  regarded as the remains of an old forest, on the Tehama range in
+  Midian. On the rocky hill-sides in Yemen the _Adenium Obesum_ is
+  worthy of notice, with its enormous bulb-like stems and brilliant red
+  flowers. Some fine aloes or agaves are also found. In the cultivated
+  upland valleys all over Arabia the _Zisyphus jujuba_, called by some
+  travellers lotus, grows to a large tree; its thorny branches are
+  clipped yearly and used to fence the cornfields among which it grows.
+  In the broad sandy wadi beds the tamarisk (_athl_) is everywhere
+  found; its wood is used for making domestic implements of all sorts.
+  Among fruit trees the vine, apricot, peach, apple, quince, fig and
+  banana are cultivated in the highlands, and in the lower country the
+  date palm flourishes, particularly throughout the central zone of
+  Arabia, in Hejaz, Nejd and El Hasa, where it is the prime article of
+  food. A hundred kinds of date are said to grow at Medina, of which the
+  _birni_ is considered the most wholesome; the _halwa_ and the _jalebi_
+  are the most delicately flavoured and sell at very high rates; the
+  _khulas_ of El Hasa is also much esteemed.
+
+  Of cereals the common millets, _dhura_ and _dukhn_, are grown in all
+  parts of the country as the summer crop, and in the hot irrigated
+  Tehama districts three crops are reaped in the year; in the highlands
+  maize, wheat and barley are grown to a limited extent as the winter
+  crop, ripening at the end of March or in April. Among vegetables the
+  common kinds grown include radishes, pumpkins, cucumbers, melons,
+  potatoes, onions and leeks. Roses are grown in some places for the
+  manufacture of _atr_, or attar of roses; mignonette, jasmine, thyme,
+  lavender and other aromatic plants are favourites in Yemen, when the
+  Arabs often stick a bunch in their head-dress.
+
+
+    Coffee.
+
+  Of the products special to Arabia coffee comes first; it is nowhere
+  found wild, and is believed to have been introduced from Abyssinia in
+  the 6th century A.D. It thrives on the seaward slopes of the western
+  range in the zone of the tropical rains, at altitudes between 4000 and
+  7000 ft. The principal centres of production are the upper valleys of
+  the W. Surdad, between Kaukaban and Manakha, and particularly on J.
+  Haraz; in the Wadi Zubed west of Uden; in Hajaria on the slopes of J.
+  Sabur, and in the Yafa district north-east of Aden. It is planted in
+  terraces on the mountain slopes; shady trees, such as tamarind and
+  fig, are planted in the border as a protection from the sun, and the
+  terraces are irrigated by channels led from a neighbouring rivulet or
+  spring. The plants are raised from seedlings, and when six or seven
+  weeks old they are transplanted in rows 4 to 6 ft. apart; they require
+  watering twice a month, and bear in two to four years. The berries are
+  dried in the sun and sent down to Hodeda or Aden, where they are
+  subjected to a process for separating the husk from the bean; the
+  result is about 50% of cleaned berries, _bun safi_, which is exported,
+  and a residue of husk or _kishr_, from which the Yemenis make their
+  favourite beverage.
+
+  Another plant universally used as a stimulant in Southern Arabia is
+  _khat_ (_Catha edulis_). The best is grown on J. Sabur and the
+  mountainous country round Taiz. It is a small bush propagated from
+  cuttings which are left to grow for three years; the leaves are then
+  stripped, except a few buds which develop next year into young shoots,
+  these being cut and sold in bunches under the name of _khat mubarak_;
+  next year on the branches cut back new shoots grow; these are sold as
+  _khat malhani_, or second-year kat, which commands the highest price.
+  The bush is then left for three years, when the process is repeated.
+  The leaves and young shoots are chewed; they have stimulating
+  properties, comparable with those of the coca of Peru.
+
+  The aromatic gums for which Arabia was famed in ancient times are
+  still produced, though the trade is a very small one. The tree from
+  which myrrh is extracted grows in many places, but the industry is
+  chiefly carried on at Suda, 60 m. north-north-east of Sana.
+  Longitudinal slits are made in the bark, and the gum is caught in cups
+  fixed beneath. The balsam of Mecca is produced in the same way,
+  chiefly in the mountains near the W. Safra between Yambu and Medina.
+
+  The stony plains which cover so large a part of the country are often
+  covered with acacia jungle, and in the dry water-courses a kind of
+  wild palm, the _dom_, abounds, from the leaves of which baskets and
+  mats are woven. Brushwood and rough pasturage of some sort is found
+  almost everywhere, except in the neighbourhood of the larger
+  settlements, where forage and firewood have to be brought in from long
+  distances. The Nafud sands, too, are tufted in many places with bushes
+  or small trees, and after the winter rains they produce excellent
+  pasture.
+
+_Population._--The people, according to their own traditions, are
+derived from two stocks, the pure Arabs, descended from Kahtan or
+Joktan, fourth in descent from Shem; and the Mustarab or naturalized
+Arabs, from Ishmael. The former are represented at the present day by
+the inhabitants of Yemen, Hadramut and Oman, in general a settled
+agricultural population; the latter by those of Hejaz, Nejd, El Hasa,
+the Syrian desert and Mesopotamia, consisting of the Bedouin or pastoral
+tribes (see ARABS and BEDOUINS). This distinction between the
+characteristics of the two races is only true in a general sense, for a
+considerable population of true Bedouin origin has settled down to
+agricultural life in the oases of Hejaz and Nejd, while in southern
+Arabia the tribes dwelling on the fringe of the great desert have to a
+certain extent adopted the nomad life.
+
+Both among the nomad and settled Arabs the organization is essentially
+tribal. The affairs of the tribe are administered by the sheiks, or
+heads of clans and families; the position of sheik in itself gives no
+real governing power, his word and counsel carry weight, but his
+influence depends on his own personal qualities. All matters affecting
+the community are discussed in the _majlis_ or assembly, to which any
+tribesman has access; here, too, are brought the tribesmen's causes;
+both sides plead and judgment is given impartially, the loser is fined
+so many head of small cattle or camels, which he must pay or go into
+exile. Murder can be expiated by the payment of _diya_ or blood-money,
+if the kinsmen of the murdered man consent; they may, however, claim the
+life of the murderer, and long and troublesome blood feuds often ensue,
+involving the relatives of both sides for generations.
+
+Apart from the tribesmen there is in Hejaz and south Arabia a
+privileged, religious class, the Sharifs or Seyyids, who claim descent
+from Mahomet through his daughter Fatima. Until the Egyptian invasion in
+1814 the Sharifs of Mecca were the recognized rulers of Hejaz, and
+though the Turks have attempted to suppress their importance, the Sharif
+still executes justice according to the Mahommedan law in the holy
+cities, though, nominally, as a Turkish official. In Yemen and Hadramut
+many villages are occupied exclusively by this religious hierarchy, who
+are known as Ashraf, Sada or Kudha (i.e. Sharifs, Seyyids or Kadhis);
+the religious affairs of the tribes are left in their hands; they do
+not, however, interfere in tribal matters generally, or join in
+fighting.
+
+Below these two classes, which may be looked on as the priestly and the
+military castes, there is, especially in the settled districts, a large
+population of artisans and labourers, besides negro slaves and their
+descendants, slave or free. The population of Khaibar consists almost
+entirely of the latter, and in Hail Huber estimates the pure Arab
+inhabitants at only one-third of the whole. In the desert, too, there is
+a widely scattered tribe, the Salubi, which from its name (_Salib_,
+cross) is conjectured to be of early Christian origin; they are great
+hunters, killing ostriches and gazelles; the Arabs despise them as an
+inferior race, but do not harm them; they pay a small tax to the tribe
+under whose protection they live, and render service as labourers, for
+which they receive in the spring milk and cheese; at the date harvest
+they get wages in kind; with this, and the produce of the chase, they
+manage to exist in the desert without agriculture or flocks.
+
+
+  The Jews in Arabia.
+
+In southern Arabia the Jews form a large element in the town population.
+According to one authority their presence in Yemen dates from the time
+of Solomon, others say from the capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezzar.
+Manzoni estimated their number in Sana in 1878 at 1700 out of a total
+population of 20,000; at Aden they are a numerous and wealthy community,
+with agents in most of the towns of Yemen. Even in remote Nejran,
+Halevy, himself a Jew, found a considerable colony of his
+co-religionists. They wear a distinctive garb and are not allowed to
+carry arms or live in the same quarter as Moslems. Another foreign
+element of considerable strength in the coast towns of Muscat, Aden and
+Jidda, is the British Indian trading class; many families of Indian
+origin also have settled at Mecca, having originally come as pilgrims.
+
+Estimates of the population of Arabia vary enormously, and the figures
+given in the following table can only be regarded as a very rough
+approximation:--
+
+  Hejaz                       300,000
+  Yemen and Asir            1,800,000
+  Nejd                      1,000,000
+  Hadramut                    150,000
+  Oman                      1,000,000
+  El Hasa                     300,000
+  Syrian desert and border    275,000
+                            ---------
+                            4,825,000
+
+_Communications._--The principal land routes in Arabia are those leading
+to the holy cities. In the present day the Syrian pilgrim route, or Darb
+el Haj, from Damascus to Medina and Mecca is the most used. The annual
+pilgrim caravan or haj, numbering some 6000 people with 10,000 pack
+animals, is escorted by a few Turkish irregulars known as _agel_; small
+fortified posts have been established at the regular halting-places some
+30 m. apart, each furnished with a well and reservoir, and for the
+further protection of the haj, payments are made to the Bedouin tribes
+through whose territories the route passes. The road is a mere camel
+track across the desert, the chief places passed are Ma'an on the Syrian
+border, a station on the old Sabaean trade route to Petra, and Medain
+Salih, the site of the rock-cut tombs and inscriptions first brought to
+notice by Doughty. From Medina the route usually followed descends the
+W. Safra to Badr Hunen, whence it keeps near the coast passing Rabigh
+and Khulesa to Mecca. The total distance, 1300 m., is covered in forty
+days.
+
+The Egyptian pilgrim route from Cairo, across the Sinai peninsula and
+down the Midian coast to El Wijh, joins the Syrian route at Badr Hunen.
+It also was formerly provided with stations and reservoirs, but owing to
+the greater facilities of the sea journey from Suez to Jidda it is now
+little used. Another important route is that taken by the Persian or
+Shia pilgrims from Bagdad and Kerbela across the desert, by the wells of
+Lina, to Bureda in Kasim; thence across the steppes of western Nejd till
+it crosses the Hejaz border at the Ria Mecca, 50 m. north-east of the
+city. It lies almost entirely in the territory of the amir Ibn Rashid of
+J. Shammar, who derives a considerable revenue from the pilgrimage. The
+old reservoirs on this route attributed to Zubeda, wife of Harun al
+Rashid, were destroyed during the Wahhabi raids early in the 19th
+century, and have not been repaired. The Yemen pilgrim route, known as
+the Haj el Kabsi, led from Sada through Asir to Taif and Mecca, but it
+is no longer used.
+
+The principal trade routes are those leading from Damascus to Jauf and
+across the Nafud to Hail. Other important routes leading to Nejd are
+those from Kuwet to Hail, and from El Hasa to Riad respectively. In the
+west and south the principal routes, other than those already mentioned,
+are from Yambu to Medina, from Jidda to Mecca, Hodeda to Sana, Aden to
+Sana, and from Mukalla to the Hadramut valley. Railway construction has
+begun in Arabia, and in 1908 the Hejaz line, intended to connect
+Damascus with Mecca, had reached Medina, 500 m. south of Ma'an. This
+line is of great strategical importance, as strengthening the Turkish
+hold on the Red Sea provinces. But the principal means of commercial
+communication for a country like Arabia must always be by sea. Bahrein,
+Kuwet and Muscat are in steam communication with India, and the Persian
+Gulf ports; all the great lines of steamships call at Aden on their way
+between Suez and the East, and regular services are maintained between
+Suez, Jidda, Hodeda and Aden, as well as to the ports on the African
+coast, while native coasting craft trade to the smaller ports on the Red
+Sea and Indian Ocean.
+
+  _Commerce._--The total value of the trade of Aden for 1904 amounted to
+  over L6,000,000. The imports to Jidda in the same year were
+  L1,405,000, largely consisting of rice, wheat and other food stuffs
+  from India; the exports, which have dwindled away in late years,
+  amounted in 1904 to only L25,000. To balance the exports and imports
+  specie was exported in the three years 1902-1904 amounting to
+  L2,319,000; a large proportion of this was perhaps provided by cash
+  brought into the country by pilgrims.
+
+  The pilgrim traffic increased largely in 1904 as compared with
+  previous years; 74,600 persons landed at Jidda, 18,000 of whom were
+  from British India, 13,000 from Java and the Straits Settlements, and
+  the remainder from Turkish territory, Egypt and other countries: 235
+  out of a total of 334 steamships engaged in this traffic were British.
+
+  The trade of Hodeda, which contributes by far the largest share to
+  that of Turkish Yemen, fell off considerably during the period from
+  1901-1905, chiefly owing to the disturbed state of the country. In the
+  latter year the imports amounted to L467,000, and the exports to
+  L451,000; coffee, the mainstay of Yemen trade, shows a serious decline
+  from L302,000 in 1902 to L229,000 in 1904; this is attributable partly
+  to the great increase of production in other countries, but mainly to
+  the insecurity of the trade routes and the exorbitant transit dues
+  levied by the Turkish administration.
+
+  Oman, through its chief port Muscat, had a total trade of about
+  L550,000, two-thirds of which is due to imports and one-third to
+  exports. The chief items of imports are arms and ammunition, rice,
+  coffee and piece goods; the staple export is dates, which in a good
+  year accounts for nearly half the total; much of the trade is in the
+  hands of British Indians, and of the shipping 92% is British.
+
+  The principal trade centre of the Arabian side of the Persian Gulf is
+  Bahrein; the total volume of trade of which amounted in 1904 to
+  L1,900,000, nearly equally divided between imports and exports; rice,
+  piece goods, &c., form the bulk of the former, while pearls are the
+  most valuable part of the latter.     (R. A. W.)
+
+
+ANTIQUITIES
+
+Arabia cannot be said to be "destitute of antiquities," but the material
+for the study of these is still very incomplete. The difficulties in
+the way of travelling in Arabia with a view to scientific investigation
+are such that little or nothing is being done, and the systematic work
+which has given such good results in Egypt, Palestine and
+Babylonia-Assyria is unknown in Arabia. Yet the passing notes of
+travellers from the time of Carsten Niebuhr show that antiquities are to
+be found.
+
+_Prehistoric Remains._--Since prehistoric remains must be studied where
+they are found, the difficulty in the way of exploration makes itself
+severely felt. That such remains exist seems clear from the casual
+remarks of travellers. Thus Palgrave (_Central and Eastern Arabia_, vol.
+i. ch. 6) speaks of part of a circle of roughly shaped stones taken from
+the adjacent limestone mountains in the Nejd. Eight or nine of these
+stones still exist, some of them 15 ft. high. Two of them, 10 to 12 ft.
+apart, still bear their horizontal lintel. They are all without
+ornament. Palgrave compares them with the remains at Stonehenge and
+Karnak. Doughty (_Arabia Deserta_, vol. ii.), travelling in north-west
+Arabia, saw stones of granite in a row and "flagstones set edgewise"
+(though he does not regard these as religious), also "round heaps,
+perhaps barrows," and "dry-built round chambers," which may be ancient
+tombs. J.T. Bent (_Southern Arabia_, pp. 24 ff.) explored one of several
+mounds in Bahrein. It proved to be a tomb, and the remains in it are
+said to be Phoenician.
+
+_Castles and Walls._--In the south of Arabia, where an advanced
+civilization existed for centuries before the Christian era, the ruins
+of castles and city-walls are still in existence, and have been
+mentioned, though not examined carefully, by several travellers. In
+Yemen and Hadramut especially these ruins abound, and in some cases
+inscriptions seem to be still _in situ_. Great castles are often
+mentioned in early Arabian literature. One in the neighbourhood of San'a
+was described as one of the wonders of the world by Qazwini (_Athar
+ul-Bilad_, p. 33, ed. Wustenfeld, Gottingen, 1847, cf. _Journal of the
+German Oriental Society_, vol. 7, pp. 472, 476, and for other castles
+vol. 10, pp. 20 ff.). The ruins of the city of Ma'rib, the old Sabaean
+capital, have been visited by Arnaud, Halevy and Glaser, but call for
+further description, as Arnaud confined himself to a description of the
+dike (see below), while Halevy and Glaser were interested chiefly in the
+inscriptions.
+
+_Wells and Dikes._--From the earliest times the conservation of water
+has been one of the serious cares of the Arabs. All over the country
+wells are to be found, and the masonry of some of them is undoubtedly
+ancient. Inscriptions are still found in some of these in the south. The
+famous well Zemzem at Mecca is said to belong to the early times, when
+the eastern traffic passed from the south to the north-west of Arabia
+through the Hejaz, and to have been rediscovered shortly before the time
+of Mahomet. Among the most famous remains of Ma'rib are those of a great
+dike reminding one of the restored tanks familiar to visitors at Aden.
+These remains were first described by Arnaud (_Journal asiatique_,
+January 1874, with plan). Their importance was afterwards emphasized by
+Glaser's publication of two long inscriptions concerning their
+restoration in the 5th and 6th centuries A.D. ("Zwei Inschriften uber
+den Dammbruch von Marib," in the _Mitteilungen der Vorderasiatischen
+Gesellschaft_, Berlin, 1897). Another dike about 150 yds. long was seen
+by W.B. Harris at Hirran in Yemen. Above it was a series of three tanks
+(_A Journey through the Yemen_, p. 279, London, 1893).
+
+_Stones and Bronzes._--The 19th century has brought to the museums of
+Europe (especially to London, Paris, Berlin and Vienna) a number of
+inscriptions in the languages of Minea and Saba, and a few in those of
+Hadramut and Katabania (Qatta-bania). These inscriptions are generally
+on limestone or marble or on tablets of bronze, and vary from a few
+inches to some feet in length and height. In some cases the originals
+have been brought to Europe, in other cases only squeezes of the
+inscriptions. The characters employed are apparently derived from the
+Phoenician (cf. Lidzbarski's _Ephemeris_, vol. i. pp. 109 ff.). The
+languages employed have been the subject of much study (cf. F. Hommel's
+_Sud-arabische Chrestomathie_, Munich, 1893), but the archaeological
+value of these remains has not been so fully treated. Very many of them
+are votive inscriptions and contain little more than the names of gods
+and princes or private men. A few are historical, but being (with few
+and late exceptions) undated, have given rise to much controversy among
+scholars. Their range seems to be from about 800 B.C. (or 1500 B.C.
+according to E. Glaser) to the 6th century A.D. Few are still _in situ_,
+the majority having been taken from their original positions and built
+into houses, mosques or wells of more recent date. Among these remains
+are altars, and bases for statues of gods or for golden images of
+animals dedicated to gods. The earlier stones are devoid of
+ornamentation, but the later stones and bronzes are sometimes ornamented
+with designs of leaves, flowers, ox-heads, men and women. Some bear
+figures of the conventionalized sacred tree with worshippers, similar to
+Babylonian designs. Besides these there are gravestones, stelae with
+human heads, fragments of limestone, architectural designs as well as
+bronze castings of camels, horses, mice, serpents, &c. (cf. D.H.
+Muller's _Sudarabische Alterthumer im Kunsthistorischen Museum_, Vienna,
+1899, with plates).
+
+_Seals, Weights and Coins._--The Vienna Museum possesses a small number
+of seals and gems. The seals are inscribed with Sabaean writing and are
+of bronze, copper, silver and stone. The gems of onyx, carnelian and
+agate are later and bear various figures, and in some cases Arabic
+inscriptions. One or two weights are also in existence. A number of
+coins have been brought to the British Museum from Aden, San'a and
+Ma'rib. Others were purchased by G. Schlumberger in Constantinople;
+others have been brought to Europe by Glaser, and are now in the Vienna
+Museum. These are imitations of Greek models, while the inscriptions are
+in Sabaean characters (cf. B.V. Head, in the _Numismatic Chronicle_,
+1878, pp. 273-284; G. Schlumberger, _Le Tresor de San'a_, Paris, 1880;
+D.H. Muller, _op. cit._ pp. 65 ff. and plates).
+
+  For the problem of Arabic antiquities in Rhodesia see RHODESIA and
+  ZIMBABWE.     (G. W. T.)
+
+
+HISTORY
+
+_Introduction._--Arabia is a land of Semites, and is supposed by some
+scholars to have been the original home of the Semitic peoples. Although
+this cannot be said to be proved, the studies, linguistic and
+archaeological, of Semitic scholars have shown it to be probable. The
+dispersion from Arabia is easy to imagine. The migration into Babylonia
+was simple, as there are no natural boundaries to separate it from
+north-east Arabia, and similar migrations have taken place in historic
+times. That of the Aramaeans at an early period is likewise free from
+any natural hindrance. The connexion with Palestine has always been
+close; and the Abyssinian settlement is probably as late as the
+beginning of the Christian era. Of these migrations, however, history
+knows nothing, nor are they expressed in literature. Arabian literature
+has its own version of prehistoric times, but it is entirely legendary
+and apocryphal. It was, and still is, the custom of Arabian historians
+to begin with the creation of the world and tell the history from then
+to the time of which they are writing. Consequently even the more sober
+histories contain a mass of fables about early days. Many of these,
+taken in part from Jewish and Christian sources, find a place in the
+Koran. Of all these stories current at the time of Mahomet, the only
+ones of any value are the accounts of the "days of the Arabs," i.e.
+accounts of some famous inter-tribal battles in Arabia.
+
+_Authorities._--Until recently the Arab traditions were practically the
+only source for the pre-Islamic history of Arabia. The Old Testament
+references to Arabs were obscure. The classical accounts of the invasion
+of Aelius Callus in 26 B.C. threw little light on the state of Arabia at
+the time, still less on its past history. The Greek writers from
+Theophrastus in the 4th century B.C. to Ptolemy in the 2nd century A.D.
+mention many names of Arabian peoples and describe the situation of
+their cities, but contribute little to their history, and that little
+could not be controlled. The same applies to the information of Pliny in
+his _Natural History_. In the 19th century the discovery and
+decipherment of the Assyrian inscriptions gave a slight glance into the
+relations between Arabs and Assyrians from the 8th century B.C. But the
+great contribution of the century to the early history of Arabia was the
+collecting and translating of numerous early Arabian inscriptions (cf.
+section _Antiquities_ above), which have done service both by their own
+indication of a great civilization in Arabia for nearly (or more than) a
+thousand years before the Christian era, and by the new stimulus which
+they gave to the study and appreciation of the materials in the Assyrian
+inscriptions, the Old Testament, and the Greek and Roman writers. At the
+same time the facts that the inscriptions are undated until a late
+period, that few are historical in their contents, and for the most part
+yield only names of gods and rulers and domestic and religious details,
+and that our collection is still very incomplete, have led to much
+serious disagreement among scholars as to the reconstruction of the
+history of Arabia in the pre-Christian centuries.
+
+All scholars, however, are agreed that the inscriptions reach as far
+back as the 9th century B.C. (some say to the 16th) and prove the
+existence of at least four civilized kingdoms during these centuries.
+These are the kingdoms of Ma'in (Minaean), of Saba (Sabaean), of
+Hadramaut (Hadramut) and of Katabania (Katabanu). Of the two latter
+little is known. That of Hadramut had kings from the time of the
+Minaeans to about A.D. 300, when it was conquered by Ethiopia. The
+limits of the kingdom of Katabania are not known, but it has its own
+inscriptions.
+
+As to the Sabaean kingdom there is fair agreement among scholars. The
+inscriptions go back to 800 B.C. or earlier, and the same applies to the
+kingdom. A queen of this people (the "Queen of Sheba") is said (1 Kings
+x.) to have visited Solomon about 950 B.C. There is, however, no mention
+of such a queen in the inscriptions. An Assyrian inscription mentions
+Ith'amara the Sabaean who paid tribute to Sargon in 715 B.C. At this
+time the Sabaeans must have been in north Arabia unless the inscription
+refers to a northern colony of the southern Sabaeans. The former opinion
+is held by E. Glaser, who thinks that in the 9th and 8th centuries they
+moved down along the west coast to the south, where they conquered the
+Minaeans (see below). The Sabaean rule is generally divided into periods
+indicated by the titles given to their rulers. In the first of these
+ruled the Makarib, who seem to have been priest-kings. Their first
+capital was at Sirwah. Ten such rulers are mentioned in the
+inscriptions. Their rule extended from the 9th to the 6th century. The
+second period begins about 550 B.C. The rulers are known as "kings of
+Saba." Their capital was Ma'rib. The names of seventeen of these kings
+are known from the inscriptions. Their sway lasted until about 115 B.C.,
+when they were succeeded by the Himyarites. During this period they were
+engaged in constant strife with the neighbouring kingdoms of Hadramut
+and Katabania. The great prosperity of south-west Arabia at this time
+was due in large measure to the fact that the trade from India with
+Egypt came there by sea and then went by land up the west coast. This
+trade, however, was lost during this period, as the Ptolemies
+established an overland route from India to Alexandria. The connexion of
+Saba with the north, where the Nabataeans (q.v.) had existed from about
+200 B.C., was now broken. The decay that followed caused a number of
+Sabaeans to migrate to other parts of Arabia.
+
+The Minaean kingdom extended over the south Arabian Jauf, its chief
+cities being Karnau, Ma'in and Yathil. Some twenty-five kings are known
+from the inscriptions; of these twenty are known to be related to one
+another. Their history must thus cover several centuries. As
+inscriptions in the Minaean language are found in al-'Ula in north
+Arabia, it is probable that they had colonies in that district. With
+regard to their date opinion is very much divided; some, with E. Glaser
+and F. Hommel, maintaining that their kingdom existed prior to that of
+Saba, probably from about 1500 B.C. or earlier until the Sabaeans came
+from their home in the north and conquered them in the 9th century.
+Other scholars think, with D.H. Muller, partly on palaeographical
+grounds (cf. M. Lidzbarski's _Ephemeris_, vol. i. pp. 109 seq., Giessen,
+1902), that none of the inscriptions are earlier than about 800 B.C. and
+that the Minaean kingdom existed side by side with the Sabaean. It is
+curious that the Sabaean inscriptions contain no mention of the
+Minaeans, though this may be due to the fact that very few of the
+inscriptions are historical in content.
+
+About 115 B.C. the power over south Arabia passed from the Sabaeans to
+the Himyarites, a people from the extreme south-west of Arabia; and
+about this time the kingdom of Katabania came to an end. The title taken
+by the new rulers was "king of Saba and Raidan." Twenty-six kings of
+this period are known from the inscriptions, some of which are dated. In
+this period the Romans made their one attempt at direct interference in
+the affairs of Arabia. The invasion under Aelius Gallus was an absolute
+failure, the expedition being betrayed by the guides and lost in the
+sands of the desert. During the latter part of this time the
+Abyssinians, who had earlier migrated from Arabia to the opposite coast
+of Africa, began to flow back to the south of Arabia, where they seem to
+have settled gradually and increased in importance until about A.D. 300,
+when they became strong enough to overturn the Himyarite kings and
+establish a dynasty of their own. The title assumed by them was "king of
+Saba, Raidan, Hadramut and Yemen." The Himyarites were, however, still
+active, and after a struggle succeeded in establishing a Jewish Sabaean
+kingdom, having previously accepted Judaism as their religion. Their
+best-known king was Dhu Nuwas. The struggle between them and the
+Abyssinians now became one of Judaism against Christianity. The
+persecution of the Christians was very severe (see E. Glaser's _Die
+Abyssinier in Arabien und Afrika_, Munich, 1895, and F.M.E. Pereira's
+_Historia dos Martyres de Nagran_, Lisbon, 1899). Apparently for this
+reason Christian Abyssinia was supported from Byzantium in its attempts
+to regain power. These attempts were crowned with success in 525. Of the
+Christian Abyssinian kings in Arabia tradition tells of four, one only
+of whom is mentioned in inscriptions. The famous expedition of Abraha,
+the Abyssinian viceroy, against Mecca, took place in 570. Five years
+later the Persians, who had been called in by the opponents of
+Christianity, succeeded in taking over the rule and in appointing
+governors over Yemen. (See further ETHIOPIA: _The Axumite Kingdom_.)
+
+_Hira, Ghassan and Kinda._--Before passing to the time of Mahomet it is
+necessary to take account of three other Arabian powers, those of Hira,
+Ghassan and Kinda.
+
+
+  Hira.
+
+The kingdom of Hira (Hira) was established in the boundary land between
+the Euphrates and the Arabian desert, a district renowned for its good
+air and extraordinary fertility. The chief town was Hira, a few miles
+south of the site of the later town of Kufa. The inhabitants of this
+land are said in Tabari's history to have been of three classes:--(1)
+The Tanukh (Tnuhs), who lived in tents and were made up of Arabs from
+the Tehama and Nejd, who had united in Bahrein to form a new tribe, and
+who migrated from there to Hira, probably at the beginning or middle of
+the 3rd century A.D., when the Arsacid power was growing weak. The
+Arabian historians relate their conflict with Zenobia. (2) The 'Ibad or
+'Ibadites, who dwelt in the town of Hira in houses and so led a settled
+life. These were Christians, whose ecclesiastical language was Syriac,
+though the language of intercourse was Arabic. A Christian bishop of
+Hira is known to have attended a synod in 410. In the 5th century they
+became Nestorians. (3) Refugees of various tribes, who came into the
+land but did not belong to the Tanukh or the 'Ibad. There is no
+trustworthy information as to the earlier chiefs of this people. The
+dynasty of the Lakhmids, famed in Arabian history and literature, arose
+towards the end of the 3rd century and lasted until about 602. The names
+of twenty kings are given by Hisham al-Kalbi in Tabari's history.
+Although so many of their subjects were Christian, the Lakhmids remained
+heathen until Nu'man, the last of the dynasty. The kingdom of Hira was
+never really independent, but always stood in a relation of dependence
+on Persia, probably receiving pay from it and employing Persian
+soldiers. At the height of its power it was able to render valuable aid
+to its suzerain. Much of its time was spent in wars with Rome and
+Ghassan. Its revenues were derived from the Bedouins of the surrounding
+lands as well as from its own subjects at home. About 602 the Lakhmid
+dynasty fell, and the Persian Chosroes (Khosrau) II. appointed as
+governor an Arab of the tribe of Tai. Shortly after it came into
+relation with Islam.
+
+  See G. Rothstein's _Die Dynastie der Lakhmiden in al-Hira_ (Berlin,
+  1899); Th. Noldeke's _Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der
+  Sassaniden_ (Leiden, 1879).
+
+[Illustration: ARABIA]
+
+
+  Ghassan.
+
+In the beginning of the 6th century A.D. a dynasty known as the Jafnids,
+enter into the history alike of the Roman and Persian empires. They
+ruled over the tribe of Ghassan in the extreme north-west of Arabia,
+east of the Jordan, from near Petra in the south to the neighbourhood of
+Rosafa in the north-east. Of their origin little is known except that
+they came from the south. A part of the same tribe inhabited Yathrib
+(Medina) at the time of Mahomet. The first certain prince of the Jafnid
+house was Harith ibn Jabala, who, according to the chronicle of John
+Malalas, conquered Mondhir (Mundhir) of Hira in 528. In the following
+year, according to Procopius, Justinian perceived the value of the
+Ghassanids as an outpost of the Roman empire, and as opponents of the
+Persian dependants of Hira, and recognized Harith as king of the Arabs
+and patrician of the Roman empire. He was thus constantly engaged in
+battles against Hira. In 541 he fought under Belisarius in Mesopotamia.
+After his death about 569 or 570 the friendly relations with the West
+continued, but about 583 there was a breach. The Ghassanid kingdom split
+into sections each with its own prince. Some passed under the sway of
+Persia, others preserved their freedom at the expense of their
+neighbours. At this point their history ceases to be mentioned in the
+Western chronicles. There are references to the Ghassanid Nu'man in the
+poems of Nabigha. Arabian tradition tells of their prince Jabala ibn
+Aiham who accepted Islam, after fighting against it, but finding it too
+democratic, returned to Christianity and exile in the Roman empire. As
+Islam advanced, some of the Ghassanids retreated to Cappadocia, others
+accepted the new faith.
+
+  See Th. Noldeke, _Die ghassanischen Fursten aus dent Hause Gafna's_
+  (Berlin, 1887).
+
+
+  Kinda.
+
+In the last decade of the 5th century a new power arose in central
+Arabia. This was the tribe of Kinda under the sway of the family of Aqil
+ul Murar, who came from the south. They seem to have stood in much the
+same relation to the rulers of Yemen, as the people of Hira to the
+Persians and the Ghassanids to Rome. Abraha in his invasion of the Hejaz
+was accompanied by chiefs of Kinda. Details of their history are not
+known, but they seem to have gained power at one time even over the
+Lakhmids of Hira; and to have ruled over Bahrein as well as Yemama until
+the battle of Shi'b ul Jabala, when they lost this province to Hira. The
+poet Amru'ul Qais was a member of the princely family of Kinda.
+
+
+  Other parts of Arabia.
+
+Outside the territory of the powers mentioned above, Arabia in the 6th
+century was in a state of political chaos. Bahrein, inhabited chiefly by
+the Bani'Abd Qais and the Bani Bakr, was largely subject to Persian
+influence near its coast, and a Persian governor, Sebocht, resided in
+Hajar, its chief town. In Oman the Arabs, who were chiefly engaged in
+fishing and seafaring, were Azdites mixed with Persians. The ruling
+dynasty of Julanda in their capital Suhar lasted on till the Abbasid
+period. No Persian officials are mentioned in this country; whether
+Persians exercised authority over it is doubtful. On the west coast of
+Arabia the influence of the kingdom of Yemen was felt in varying degree
+according to the strength of the rulers of that land. Apart from this
+influence the Hejaz was simply a collection of cities each with its own
+government, while outside the cities the various tribes governed
+themselves and fought continual battles with one another.
+
+_Time of Mahomet._--Thus at the time of Mahomet's advent the country was
+peopled by various tribes, some more or less settled under the
+governments of south Arabia, Kinda, Hira and Ghassan, these in turn
+depending on Abyssinia, Persia and Rome (i.e. Byzantium); others as in
+the Hejaz were ruled in smaller communities by members of leading
+families, while in various parts of the peninsula were wandering Arabs
+still maintaining the traditions of old family and tribal rule, forming
+no state, sometimes passing, as suited them, under the influence and
+protection of one or another of the greater powers. To these may be
+added a certain number of Jewish tribes and families deriving their
+origin partly from migrations from Palestine, partly from converts among
+the Arabs themselves. Mahomet appealed at once to religion and
+patriotism, or rather created a feeling for both. For Mahomet as a
+religious teacher and for the details of his career see MAHOMET. It is
+enough here to outline his actions in so far as he attempted to create a
+united, and then a conquering, Arabia. Though the external conquests of
+the Arabs belong more properly to the period of the caliphate, yet they
+were the natural outcome of the prophet's ideas. His idea of Arabia for
+the Arabians could only be realized by summoning the great kings of the
+surrounding nations to recognize Islam; otherwise Abyssinia, Persia and
+Rome (Byzantium) would continue their former endeavours to influence and
+control the affairs of the peninsula. Tradition tells that a few years
+before his death he did actually send letters to the emperor Heraclius,
+to the negus of Abyssinia, the king of Persia, and Cyrus, patriarch of
+Alexandria, the "Mukaukis" of Egypt, summoning them to accept Islam and
+threatening them with punishment in case of refusal. But the task of
+carrying out these threats fell to the lot of his successors; the work
+of the prophet was to be the subjugating and uniting of Arabia. This
+work, scarcely begun in Mecca, was really started after the migration to
+Medina by the formation of a party of men--the _Muhajirun_ (Refugees or
+Emigrants) and the _Ansar_ (Helpers or Defenders)--who accepted Mahomet
+as their religious leader. As the necessity of overcoming his enemies
+became urgent, this party became military. A few successes in battle
+attracted to him men who were interested in fighting and who were
+willing to accept his religion as a condition of membership of his
+party, which soon began to assume a national form. Mahomet early found
+an excuse for attacking the Jews, who were naturally in the way of his
+schemes. The Bani Nadir were expelled, the Bani Quraiza slaughtered. By
+the time he had successfully stormed the rich Jewish town of Khaibar, he
+had found that it was better to allow industrious Jews to remain in
+Arabia as payers of tribute than to expel or kill them: this policy he
+followed afterwards. The capture of Mecca (630) was not only an evidence
+of his growing power, which induced Arabs throughout the peninsula to
+join him, but gave him a valuable centre of pilgrimage, in which he was
+able by a politic adoption of some of the heathen Arabian ceremonies
+into his own rites to win men over the more easily to his own cause. At
+his death in 623 Mahomet left Arabia practically unified. It is true
+that rival prophets were leading rebellions in various parts of Arabia,
+that the tax-collectors were not always paid, and that the warriors of
+the land were much distressed for want of work owing to the brotherhood
+of Arabs proclaimed by Mahomet. The tribes were a seething mass of
+restlessness, their old feuds ready to break out again. But they had
+realized that they had common interests. The power of the foreigner in
+Arabia was broken. Islam promised rich booty for those who fought and
+won, paradise for those who fell.
+
+_Early Caliphs_.[1] 1. _Conquest._--One task of the early caliphs was to
+find an outlet for the restless fighting spirit. Abu Bekr (632-634), the
+first of these caliphs, was a man of simple life and profound faith. He
+understood the intention of Mahomet as to foreign nations, and set
+himself resolutely to carry it out in the face of much difficulty. Hence
+as soon as he assumed office he sent out the army already chosen to
+advance against the Romans in the north. The successful reduction of the
+rebels in Arabia enabled him in his first year to send his great general
+Khalid with his Arab warriors first against Persians, then against
+Romans. His early death prevented him from seeing the fruits of his
+policy. Under the second caliph Omar (634-644) the Persians were
+defeated at Kadesiya (Kadessia), and Irak was completely subdued and the
+new cities of Kufa and Basra were founded (635). In the same year
+Damascus fell into the hands of the Arabs under Abu 'Ubaida. In 636
+Jerusalem fell and received a visit from the caliph. Three years later
+the fateful step was taken of appointing Moawiya (Mu'awiyya) governor of
+Syria. In 640 'Amr-ibn-el-Ass (Amr ibn al-'As) invaded Egypt and the
+following year took Alexandria and founded Fostat (which later became
+Cairo). The victory at Nehavend in 641 over the Persians, the flight of
+the last Sassanid king and the capture of Rei or Rai (class. Rhagae) in
+643 meant the entire subjugation of Persia and crowned the conquests of
+Omar's caliphate. The reign of the third caliph Othman (644-656) was
+marked by the beginning of that internal strife which was to ruin
+Arabia; but the foreign conquests continued. In the north the Moslem
+arms reached Armenia and Asia Minor; on the west they were successful as
+far as Carthage on the north coast of Africa. After the murder of
+Othman, 'Ali (656-661) became caliph, but Moawiya, governor of Syria,
+soon rebelled on the pretext of avenging the death of Othman. After the
+battle of Siffin (657) arbitration was resorted to for the settlement of
+the rival claims. By a trick 'Ali was deposed (658), and the Omayyad
+dynasty was established with its capital at Damascus.
+
+
+  Institution of navy.
+
+During these early years the Arabs had not only made conquests by land,
+but had found an outlet for their energy at sea. In 640 Omar sent a
+fleet of boats across the Red Sea to protect the Moslems on the
+Abyssinian coast. The boats were wrecked. Omar was so terrified by this
+that when Moawiya applied to him for permission to use ships for an
+attack on the islands of the Levant, he resolutely refused. Othman was
+less careful, and allowed a fleet from Africa to help in the conquests
+of the Levant and Asia Minor. In 649 he sanctioned the establishment of
+a maritime service, on condition that it should be voluntary. Abu Qais,
+appointed admiral, showed its usefulness by the capture of Cyprus. In
+652 Abu Sarh with a fleet from Egypt won a naval battle over the
+Byzantine fleet near Alexandria.
+
+2. _Internal Affairs._--In the meantime what had become of Arabia and
+its unification? The first task of Abu Bekr had been to reduce those
+rebels who threatened to destroy that unity even before it was fully
+established. This he did by the aid of the great general Khalid. First
+he swept down on the Bani Hanifa in Yemama, who with their rival prophet
+Mosailama (Mosailima) and 40,000 men were in arms. The battle of Yemama
+(633) was fierce and decisive. Mosailama was slain. The Bani Hanifa
+returned to Islam. Bahrein was influenced by this battle, and the
+rebellion there, which was threatening, was crushed. Oman was
+reconquered by Huddhaifa, who became its governor. Ikrima settled Mahra.
+Muhajir, with the help of Ikrima, succeeded with difficulty, but
+thoroughly, in defeating Amr ibn Ma'dikarib and Qais ibn 'Abd Yaghuth in
+Yemen and Ashath ibn Qais in Hadramut. The Hejaz and Tehama were cleared
+of the plundering nomads by 'Attab and Tahir. At the end of the first
+year of his caliphate Abu Bekr saw Arabia united under Islam. The new
+national feeling demanded that all Arabs should be free men, so the
+caliph ordained that all Arab slaves should be freed on easy terms. The
+solidarity of Arabia survived the first foreign conquests. It was not
+intended that Arabs should settle in the conquered lands except as
+armies of occupation. Thus it was at first forbidden that Arabs should
+buy or possess land in these countries. Kufa was to be only a military
+camp, as was Fostat in Egypt. The taxes with the booty from conquests
+were to be sent to Arabia for distribution among the Moslems. Omar tried
+to prevent the advance of conquests lest Arabia should suffer. "I would
+rather the safety of my people than thousands of spoil and further
+conquest." But men could not be prevented from pouring out from their
+homes in search of new conquests and more booty. Many of those who went
+forth did not return. They acquired property and rank in the new lands.
+Kufa attracted chiefly men of south Arabia, Basra those of the north.
+Both became great cities, each with a population of 150,000 to 200,000
+Arabians. Yet so long as the caliphs lived in Medina, the capital of
+Arabia was the capital of the expanding Arabian empire. To it was
+brought a large share of the booty. The caliphs were chosen there, and
+there the rules for the administration were framed. Thence went out the
+governors to their provinces. Omar was the great organizer of Arabian
+affairs. He compiled the Koran, instituted the civil list, regulated the
+military organization. He, too, desired that Mahomet's wish should be
+carried out and that Arabia should be purely Moslem. To this end he
+expelled the Christians from Nejran and gave them lands in Syria and
+Irak, where they were allowed to live in peace on payment of tribute.
+The Jews, too, were shortly after expelled from Khaibar. The secondary
+position that Arabia was beginning to assume in the Arabian empire is
+clearly marked in the progress of events during the caliphate of Othman.
+In his appointments to governorships and other offices, as well as in
+his distribution of spoil, Othman showed a marked preference for the
+members of his own tribe the Koreish (Quraish) and the members of his
+own family the Bani Omayya (Umayya). The other Arab tribes became
+increasingly jealous of the Koreish, while among the Koreish themselves
+the Hashimite family came to hate the Omayyad, which now had much power,
+although it had been among the last to accept Islam and never was very
+strict in its religious duties. But the quarrels which led to the murder
+of Othman were fomented not so much in Arabia as in Kufa and Basra and
+Fostat. In these cities the rival parties were composed of the most
+energetic fighting men, who were brought into the most intimate contact
+with one another, and who kept up their quarrels from the home land. In
+Kufa a number of the Koreish had settled, and their arrogance became
+insupportable. The governors of all these towns were of Othman's own
+family. After some years of growing dissatisfaction deputies from these
+places came to Medina, and the result was the murder of the caliph.
+Syria alone remained loyal to the house of Omayya, and Othman had been
+advised to take refuge there, but had refused. Arabia itself counted for
+little in the strife. Yet its prestige was not altogether lost. After
+the murder the rebels were unwilling to return home until a new caliph
+had been chosen in the capital. The Egyptian rebels managed to gain most
+influence, and, in accordance with their desire, 'Ali was appointed
+caliph by the citizens of Medina. But Medina itself was being corrupted
+by the constant influx of captives, who, employed at first as servants,
+soon became powerful enough to dictate to their masters. In the struggle
+that ensued upon the election of 'Ali, Arabia was involved. Ayesha,
+Talha and Zobair, who were strong in Mecca, succeeded in obtaining
+possession of Basra, but were defeated in 656 at the battle of the Camel
+(see ALI). In the south of Arabia 'Ali succeeded in establishing his own
+governor in Yemen, though the government treasure was carried off to
+Mecca. But the centre of strife was not to be Arabia. When 'Ali left
+Medina to secure Basra, he abandoned it as the capital of the Arabian
+empire. With the success of Moawiya Damascus became the capital of the
+caliphate (658) and Arabia became a mere province, though always of
+importance because of its possession of the two sacred cities Mecca and
+Medina. Both these cities were secured by Moawiya in 660, and at the
+same time Yemen was punished for its adherence to 'Ali. The final blow
+to any political pretensions of Medina was dealt by the caliph when he
+had his son Yazid declared as his successor, thus taking away any claim
+on the part of the citizens of Medina to elect to the caliphate.
+
+_The Omayyads._--The early years of the Omayyads were years of constant
+strife in Arabia. The Kharijites who had opposed 'Ali on the ground that
+he had no right to allow the appeal to arbitration, were defeated at
+Nahrawan or Nahrwan (658), but those who escaped became fierce
+propagandists against the Koreish, some claiming that the caliph should
+be chosen by the Faithful from any tribe of the Arabs, some that there
+should be no caliph at all, that God alone was their ruler and that the
+government should be carried on by a council. They broke up into many
+sects, and were long a disturbing political force in Arabia as
+elsewhere. On the death of 'Ali his house was represented by his two
+sons Hasan and Hosain (Husain). Hasan soon made peace with Moawiya. On
+the accession of Yazid, Hosain refused homage and raised an army, but
+was slain at Kerbela (680). 'Abdallah ibn Zobair (of the house of
+Hashim) immediately stepped forward in Mecca as the avenger of 'Ali's
+family and the champion of religion. The two sacred cities supported
+him. Medina was besieged and sacked by the troops of Yazid (682) and
+Mecca was besieged the following year. The siege was raised in the third
+month on the news of the death of Yazid, but not before the Ka'ba had
+been destroyed. 'Abdallah remained in Mecca recognized as caliph in
+Arabia, and soon after in Egypt and even a part of Syria. He defeated
+the troops of Merwan I., but could not win the support of the
+Kharijites. In 691 Abdalmalik ('Abdul-Malik) determined to crush his
+rival and sent his general Hajjaj against Mecca. The siege was begun in
+March 692, and in October the city was taken and 'Abdallah slain.
+Abdalmalik was now supreme in Arabia and throughout the Moslem world.
+During the remaining years of the Omayyad dynasty (i.e. until 750)
+little is heard of Arabia in history. The conquests of Islam in Spain on
+the one side and India on the other had little or no effect on it. It
+was merely a province.
+
+_The 'Abbasids._--The accession of Abul 'Abbas (of the house of Hashim)
+and the transference of the capital of the caliphate from Damascus to
+Kufa, then Anbar and soon after (in 760) to Bagdad meant still further
+degradation to Arabia and Arabs. From the beginning the 'Abbasids
+depended for help on Persians and Turks, and the chief offices of state
+were frequently filled with foreigners. In one thing only the Arabs
+conquered to the end; that was in their language. The study of Arabic
+was taken up by lexicographers, grammarians and poets (mostly of foreign
+origin) with a zeal rarely shown elsewhere. The old Arabian war spirit
+was dying. Although the Arabians, as a rule, were in favour of the
+Omayyad family, they could not affect the succession of the 'Abbasids.
+They returned more and more to their old inter-tribal disputes. They
+formed now not only a mere branch of the empire of the caliphate, but a
+branch deriving little life from and giving less to the main stock. In
+762 there was a rebellion in favour of a descendant of 'Ali, but it was
+put down with great severity by the army of the caliph Mansur. A more
+local 'Alyite revolt in Mecca and Medina was crushed in 785. In the
+contest between the two sons of Harun al Rashid all Arabia sided with
+Mamun (812). In 845-846 the lawless raids of Bedouin tribes compelled
+the caliph Wathiq to send his Turkish general Bogha, who was more
+successful in the north than in the centre and south of Arabia in
+restoring peace.
+
+_The Carmathians._--Towards the close of the 9th century Arabia was
+disturbed by the rise of a new movement which during the next hundred
+years dominated the peninsula, and at its close left it shattered never
+to be united again. In the year 880 Yemen was listening to the
+propaganda of the new sect of the Carmathians (q.v.) or followers of
+Hamdan Qarmat. Four years later these had become a public force. In 900
+'Abu Sa'id al-Jannabi, who had been sent to Bahrein by Hamdan, had
+secured a large part of this province and had won the city of Katif
+(Ketif) which contained many Jews and Persians. The Arabs who lived more
+inland were mostly Bedouin who found the obligations of Islam irksome,
+and do not seem to have made a very vigorous opposition to the
+Carmathians who took Hajar the capital of Bahrein in 903. From this they
+made successful attacks on Yemama (Yamama), and attempts only partially
+successful at first at Oman. In 906 the court at Bagdad learned that
+these sectaries had gained almost all Yemen and were threatening Mecca
+and Medina. Abu Sa'id was assassinated (913) in his palace at Lahsa
+(which in 926 was fortified and became the Carmathian capital of
+Bahrein). His son Sa'id succeeded him, but proved too weak and was
+deposed and succeeded by his brother Abu Tahir. His success was constant
+and the caliphate was brought very low by him. In Arabia he subjugated
+Oman, and swooping down on the west in 929 he horrified the Moslem world
+by capturing Mecca and carrying off the sacred black stone to Bahrein.
+The Fatimite caliph 'Obaidallah (see FATIMITES), to whom Abu Tahir
+professed allegiance, publicly wrote to him to restore the stone, but
+there is some reason to believe that he secretly encouraged him to
+retain it. In 939, however, the stone was restored and pilgrimages to
+the holy cities were allowed to pass unmolested on payment of a tax. So
+long as Abu Tahir lived the Carmathians controlled Arabia. After his
+death, however, they quarrelled with the Fatimite rulers of Egypt (969)
+and began to lose their influence. In 985 they were completely defeated
+in Irak, and soon after lost control of the pilgrimages. Oman recovered
+its independence. Three years later Katif, at that time their chief
+city, was besieged and taken by a Bedouin sheik, and subsequently their
+political power in Arabia came to an end. It was significant that their
+power fell into the hands of Bedouins. Arabia was now completely
+disorganized, and was only nominally subject to the caliphate. The
+attempt of Mahomet to unify Arabia had failed. The country was once more
+split up into small governments, more or less independent, and groups of
+wandering tribes carrying on their petty feuds. Of the history of these
+during the next few centuries little is known, except in the case of the
+Hejaz. Here the presence of the sacred cities led writers to record
+their annals (cf. F. Wustenfeld's _Die Chroniken der Stadt Mekka_, 4
+vols., Leipzig, 1857-1861). The two cities were governed by Arabian
+nobles (_sherifs_), often at feud with one another, recognizing formally
+the overlordship of the caliph at Bagdad or the caliph of Egypt. Thus in
+966 the name of the caliph Moti was banished from the prayers at Mecca,
+and an 'Alyite took possession of the government of the city and
+recognized the Egyptian caliph as his master. About a century later
+(1075-1094) the 'Abbasid caliph was again recognized as spiritual head
+owing to the success in arms of his protector, the Seljuk Malik-Shah.
+With the fall of the Bagdad caliphate all attempts at control from that
+quarter came to an end. After the visit of the Sultaft Bibars (1269)
+Mecca was governed by an amir dependent on Egypt. Outside the two cities
+anarchy prevailed, and the pilgrimage was frequently unsafe owing to
+marauding Bedouins. In 1517 the Osmanli Turkish sultan Selim conquered
+Egypt, and having received the right of succession to the caliphate was
+solemnly presented by the sherif of Mecca with the keys of the city, and
+recognized as the spiritual head of Islam and ruler of the Hejaz. At the
+same time Yemen, which since the 9th century had been in the power of a
+number of small dynasties ruling in Zubed, San'a, Sa'da and Aden, passed
+into the hands of the Turk.
+
+  For the history of Yemen during this period cf. H.C. Kay, _Omarah's
+  History of Yaman_ (London, 1892), and S. Lane-Poole, _The Mahommedan
+  Dynasties_, pp. 87-103 (Westminster, 1894). Little more than a century
+  later (1630), a Yemen noble Khasim succeeded in expelling the Turk and
+  establishing a native imamate, which lasted until 1871. For
+  descriptions of it in the 18th century cf. C. Niebuhr's accounts of
+  his travels in Arabia in 1761.
+
+_Oman._--Since the separation from the caliphate (before 1000 A.D.) Oman
+had remained independent. For more than a century it was governed by
+five elected imams, who were chosen from the tribe of al-Azd and
+generally lived at Nizwa. After them the Bani Nebhan gained the upper
+hand and established a succession of kings (_maliks_) who governed from
+1154 to 1406. During this time the country was twice invaded by
+Persians. The "kings of Hormuz" claimed authority over the coast land
+until the beginning of the 16th century. In 1435 the people rose against
+the tyranny of the Bani Nebhan and restored the imamate of the tribe
+al-Azd. In 1508 the Portuguese under Albuquerque seized most of the east
+coast of Oman. In 1624 a new dynasty arose in the interior, when Nasir
+ibn Murshid of the Yariba (Ya'aruba) tribe (originally from Yemen) was
+elected imam and established his capital at Rustak. He was able to
+subdue the petty princes of the country, and the Portuguese were
+compelled to give up several towns and pay tribute for their residence
+at Muscat. About 1651 the Portuguese were finally expelled from this
+city, and about 1698 from the Omanite settlements on the east coast of
+Africa.
+
+  For the history of Oman from 661 to 1856 cf. G.P. Badger, _History of
+  the Imams and Seyyids of Oman by Salil-ibn-Razik_ (London, Hakluyt
+  Society, 1871).     (G. W. T.)
+
+_Wahhabi Movement._--Modern Arabian history begins with that of the
+Wahhabi movement in the middle of the 18th century. Its originator,
+Mahommed Ibn Abdul Wahhab, was born (1691) at Ayana in Nejd, and after
+studying in Basra and Damascus, and making the pilgrimage to Mecca
+returned to his native country and settled down at Huremala near
+Deraiya. The abuses and corruptions which had overgrown the practice of
+orthodox Islam had deeply impressed him, and he set to work to combat
+them, and to inculcate on all good Moslems a return to the pure
+simplicity of their original faith. In 1742 Mahommed Ibn Saud, sheik of
+Deraiya, accepted his doctrines, and enforced them by his sword with
+such effect that before his death in 1765 the whole of eastern Nejd and
+El Hasa was converted to the faith of Abdul Wahhab, and accepted the
+political supremacy of Ibn Saud. His son and successor, Abdul Aziz, in a
+rapid series of successful campaigns, extended his dominion and that of
+the reformed faith far beyond the limits of Nejd. His attacks on the
+pilgrim caravans, begun in 1783 and constantly repeated, startled the
+Mahommedan world,[2] and compelled the attention of the sultan, as the
+nominal protector of the faithful. In 1798 a Turkish force was sent from
+Bagdad into El Hasa, but was compelled to retreat without accomplishing
+anything, and its discomfiture added much to the renown of the Wahhabi
+power. In 1801 Saud, son of the amir Abdul Aziz, led an expedition to
+the Euphrates, and on the festival of Bairam, the 20th of April, stormed
+Kerbela, put the defenders to the sword, destroyed the sacred tomb,
+scattered the sacred relics and returned laden with the treasures,
+accumulated during centuries in the sanctuary of the Shia faith. Mecca
+itself was taken; plundering was forbidden, but the tombs of the saints
+and all objects of veneration were ruthlessly destroyed, and all
+ceremonies which seemed in the eye of the stern puritan conqueror to
+suggest the taint of idolatry were forbidden.
+
+On the 14th of October 1802 the amir Abdul Aziz, at the age of
+eighty-two years, was murdered by a Shia fanatic when at prayers in the
+mosque of Deraiya, and Saud, who had for many years led the Wahhabi
+armies, became the reigning amir. In 1804 Medina was taken and with its
+fall all resistance ceased. The Wahhabi empire had now attained its
+zenith, a settled government was established able to enforce law and
+order in the desert and in the towns, and a spirit of Arabian
+nationality had grown up which bade fair to extend the Wahhabi dominion
+over all the Arab race. It already, however, bore within it the germ of
+decay; the accumulation of treasure in the capital had led to a
+corruption of the simple manners of the earlier times; the exhaustion of
+the tribes through the heavy blood tax had roused discontent among them;
+the plundering of the holy places, the attacks on the pilgrim caravans
+under the escort of Turkish soldiers, and finally, in 1810, the
+desecration of the tomb of Mahomet and the removal of its costly
+treasures, raised a cry of dismay throughout the Mahommedan world, and
+made it clear even to the Turkish sultan that unless the Wahhabi power
+were crushed his claims to the caliphate were at an end.
+
+But Turkey was herself fully occupied by affairs in Europe, and to
+Mehemet Ali, then pasha of Egypt, was deputed the task of bringing the
+Wahhabis into subjection. In October 1811 an expedition consisting of
+10,000 men under Tusun Pasha, the pasha's son, a youth of sixteen,
+landed in Hejaz without opposition. Saud with his main forces had
+started northwards to attack Bagdad, but returning at once he met and
+defeated Tusun with great loss and compelled him to retire. Medina and
+subsequently Mecca were eventually taken by the Egyptians, but in spite
+of continual reinforcements they could do little more than hold their
+own in Hejaz. In 1813 Mehemet Ali was compelled to take the field
+himself with fresh troops, but was unable to achieve any decisive
+success, and in 1814 Tusun was again defeated beyond Taif. In May 1814
+Saud died, and his son, Abdallah, attempted to negotiate, but Mehemet
+Ali refused all overtures, and in January 1815 advanced into Nejd,
+defeated the Wahhabi army and occupied Ras, then the chief town in
+Kasim. Terms of peace were made, but on the retirement of the Egyptians
+Abdallah refused to carry out the conditions agreed on, which included
+the return of the jewels plundered by his father, and another campaign
+had to be fought before his submission was obtained. Ibrahim Pasha
+replaced Tusun in command, and on reaching Arabia in September 1816 his
+first aim was to gain over the great Bedouin tribes holding the roads
+between Hejaz and his objective in Nejd; having thus secured his line of
+advance he pushed on boldly and defeated Abdallah at Wiya, where he put
+to death all prisoners taken; thence rapidly advancing, with contingents
+of the friendly Harb and Muter tribes in support of his regular troops,
+he laid siege to Ras; this place, however, held out and after a four
+months' siege he was compelled to give up the attack. Leaving it on one
+side he pushed on eastwards, took Aneza after six days' bombardment and
+occupied Bureda. Here he waited two months for reinforcements, and with
+his Bedouin contingent, strengthened by the adhesion of the Ateba and
+Bani Khalid tribes, advanced on Shakra in Wushm, which fell in January
+1818 after a regular siege. After destroying Huremala and massacring its
+inhabitants, he arrived before Deraiya on the 14th of April 1818. For
+six months the siege went on with varying fortune, but at last the
+courage and determination of Ibrahim triumphed, and on the 9th of
+September, after a heroic resistance, Abdallah, with a remnant of four
+hundred men, was compelled to surrender. The Wahhabi leader was soon
+after sent to Constantinople, where, in spite of Mehemet Ali's
+intercession, he and the companions who had followed him in his
+captivity were condemned to death, and after being paraded through the
+city with ignominy for three days were finally beheaded.
+
+Deraiya was razed to the ground and the principal towns of Nejd were
+compelled to admit Egyptian garrisons; but though the Arabs saw
+themselves powerless to stand before disciplined troops, the Egyptians,
+on the other hand, had to confess that without useless sacrifices they
+could not retain their hold on the interior.
+
+In 1824 Turki, son of the unfortunate Abdallah, headed a rising which
+resulted in the re-establishment of the Wahhabi state with Riad as its
+new capital; and during the next ten years he consolidated his power,
+paying tribute to and under the nominal suzerainty of Egypt till his
+murder in 1834. His son, Fesal, succeeded him, but in 1836 on his
+refusal to pay tribute an Egyptian force was sent to depose him and he
+was taken prisoner and sent to Cairo, while a rival claimant, Khalid,
+was established as amir in Riad. Mehemet Ali and his son Ibrahim Pasha
+were, however, now committed to their conflict with Turkey for Syria and
+Asia Minor, and had no troops to spare for the thankless task of holding
+the Arabian deserts; the garrisons were gradually withdrawn, and in 1842
+Fesal, who had escaped from his prison at Cairo reappeared and was
+everywhere recognized as amir. The few remaining Egyptian troops were
+ejected from Riad, and with them all semblance of Egyptian or Turkish
+rule disappeared from central Arabia.
+
+For a time it looked as if the supremacy of the Wahhabi empire was to be
+renewed; El Hasa, Harik, Kasim and Asir returned to their allegiance,
+but over Oman and Yemen Fesal never re-established his dominion, and the
+Bahrein sheiks with British support kept their independence.
+
+
+  Ibn Rashid.
+
+A rival state had, however, arisen, under Abdallah Ibn Rashid in Jebel
+Shammar. Driven into exile owing to a feud between his family and the
+Ibn Ali, the leading family of the Shammar, Abdallah came to Riad in
+1830, and was favourably received by the amir Turki. In 1834 he was with
+Fesal on an expedition against El Hasa when news came of the amir's
+murder by his cousin Masharah. By Abdallah's advice the expedition was
+abandoned; Fesal hastened back with all his forces to Riad, and invested
+the citadel where Masharah had taken refuge, but failed to gain
+possession of it, until Abdallah with two companions found his way into
+the palace, killed Masharah, and placed Fesal on the throne of his
+father. As a reward for his services Abdallah was appointed governor of
+Jebel Shammar, and had already established himself in Hail when the
+Egyptian expedition of 1836 removed Fesal temporarily from Nejd. During
+the exile of the latter he steadily consolidated his power, extending
+his influence more especially over the desert tribes, till on Fesal's
+return in 1842 he had created a state subject only in name to that of
+which Riad was the capital.
+
+On the death of Abdallah in 1843, his son Talal succeeded. He set
+himself to work to establish law and order throughout the state, to
+arrange its finances, and to encourage the settlement in Hail of
+artificers and merchants from abroad; the building of the citadel and
+palace commenced by Mehemet Ali, and continued by Abdallah Ibn Rashid,
+was completed by Talal. The town walls were strengthened, new wells dug,
+gardens planted, mosques and schools built. His uncle Obed, to whom
+equally with Abdallah is due the foundation of the Ibn Rashid dynasty,
+laboured to extend the Shammar boundaries. Khaibar, Tema and Jauf became
+tributary to Hail.
+
+Though tolerant in religion Talal was careful to avoid the suspicion of
+lukewarmness towards the Wahhabi formulas. Luxury in clothing and the
+use of tobacco were prohibited; attendance at the mosque was enforced:
+any doubt as to his orthodoxy was silenced by the amount and regularity
+of the tribute sent by him to Riad. Equally guarded was his attitude to
+the Turkish authorities; it is not improbable that Talal had also
+entered into relations with the viceroy of Egypt to ensure his position
+in case of a collision with the Porte. During his twenty years' reign
+Jebel Shammar became a model state, where justice and security ruled in
+a manner before unheard of. Fesal may well have watched with jealous
+anxiety the growing strength of his neighbour's state as compared with
+his own, where all progress was arrested by the deadening tyranny of
+religious fanaticism.
+
+
+  The amir Mahommed.
+
+On the 11th of March 1868 Talal, smitten with an incurable malady, fell
+by his own hand and was succeeded by his brother Matab; after a brief
+reign he was murdered by his nephews, the elder of whom, Bandar, became
+amir. Mahommed, the third son of the amir Abdallah, was at the time
+absent; with a view of getting his uncle into his power, Bandar invited
+him to return to Hail, and on his arrival went out to meet him
+accompanied by Hamud, son of Obed, and a small following. Warned by a
+hurried sign by Hamud that his life was in danger, Mahommed at once
+attacked Bandar, stabbed him and took possession of the citadel; a
+general massacre of all members of the house of Ibn Rashid followed, and
+next day Mahommed appeared with his cousin Hamud in the market-place of
+Hail, and announced his assumption of the amirship. A strong and capable
+ruler, he soon established his authority over all northern and western
+Nejd, and in 1872 the opportunity arrived for his intervention in the
+east. In that year Abdallah, who had succeeded Fesal in Riad in 1867,
+was deposed, but with the assistance of Mahommed was reinstated; two
+years later, however, he was again deposed and forced to seek refuge at
+Hail, from which place he appealed for assistance to the Turkish
+authorities at Bagdad. Midhat Pasha, then governor-general, seized the
+occasion of asserting Turkish dominion on the Persian Gulf coast, and in
+1875, in spite of British protests, occupied El Hasa and established a
+new province under the title of Nejd, with its headquarters at Hofuf, of
+which Abdallah was appointed governor. This was an event of some
+importance, as it constituted the first Turkish claim to the sovereignty
+over Nejd abandoned by Egypt thirty-three years earlier. The Turks did
+not support their client by advancing into Nejd itself, and he and his
+rivals were left to fight out their battles among themselves. Turkey was
+indeed too much occupied by the war with Russia to pay much attention to
+Arab affairs, though a few years later she attempted to occupy Bahrein
+by a _coup de main_, which was only frustrated by the action of a
+British gunboat.
+
+Owing to the dissensions among the ruling family of Riad, the towns of
+eastern Nejd gradually reverted to their former condition of
+independence, but menaced in turn by the growing power of Hail, they
+formed a coalition under the leadership of Zamil, sheik of Aneza, and in
+the spring of 1891, Aneza, Bureda, Shakra, Ras and Riad assembled their
+contingents to contest with Ibn Rashid the supremacy in Nejd. The latter
+had besides 20,000 of his own south Shammar tribesmen, the whole
+strength of the Harb Bedouins, some 10,000 men, and an additional
+support of 1000 mounted men from his kinsmen, the northern Shammar from
+the Euphrates, while the Muter and Ateba tribes took part with the
+allies. The total strength of each side amounted to about 30,000 men.
+Zamil's forces held a strong position between Aneza and Bureda, and for
+over a month desultory fighting went on; finally an attack was made
+against the defenders' centre, covered by 20,000 camel riders; the men
+of Aneza broke and the whole allied forces fled in disorder; Zamil and
+his eldest son were killed, as were also two of the Ibn Saud family,
+while the remainder were taken prisoners. Aneza and Bureda surrendered
+the same day, and shortly after Ras, Shakra and Riad tendered their
+submission.
+
+This victory placed the whole of northern and central Arabia under the
+supremacy of Mahommed Ibn Rashid, which he held undisputed during the
+rest of his life.
+
+
+  Recent history.
+
+On his death in 1897 his nephew Abdul-Aziz, son of the murdered amir
+Matab, succeeded; during his reign a new element has been introduced
+into Nejd politics by the rising importance of Kuwet (Koweit) and the
+attempts of Turkey to obtain possession of its important harbour. In
+1901 a quarrel arose between Sheik Mubarak of Kuwet and the amir of Hail
+whose cause was supported by Turkey. A force was equipped at Basra under
+Ahmad Feizi Pasha with the intention of occupying Kuwet; Mubarak
+thereupon appealed to Great Britain and action was taken which prevented
+the Turkish designs from being carried out. Kuwet was not formally
+placed under British protection, but it was officially announced by the
+government on the 5th of May 1903 "that the establishment of a naval
+base or fortified port in the Persian Gulf by any other power would be
+regarded as a very grave menace to British interests which would
+certainly be resisted with all the means at its disposal."
+
+In the meantime Sheik Mubarak had found useful allies in the Muntafik
+Arabs from the lower Euphrates, and the Wahhabis of Riad; the latter
+under the amir Ibn Saud marched against Ibn Rashid, who at the
+instigation of the Porte had again threatened Kuwet (Koweit), compelled
+him to retire to his own territory and took possession of the towns of
+Bureda and Aneza. Sheik Mubarak and his allies continued their advance,
+defeated Ibn Rashid in two engagements on the 22nd of July and the 26th
+of September 1904, and drove him back on his capital, Hail. The Porte
+now made another effort to assist its protege; two columns were
+despatched from Medina and Basra respectively, to relieve Hail, and
+drive out the Wahhabis. Ahmad Feizi Pasha, in command of the Basra
+column, 4200 strong, crossed the desert and reached the wells of Lina,
+200 m. from Hail, on the 5th of March 1905; here, however, he received
+orders to halt and negotiate before proceeding farther. The Turkish
+government realized by this time the strength of the hostile
+combination, and in view of the serious state of affairs in Yemen,
+hesitated to undertake another campaign in the deserts of Nejd.
+Arrangements were accordingly made with the Wahhabis, and on the 10th of
+April Ahmad Feizi Pasha left Lina, ostensibly with the object of
+protecting the pilgrim road, and joined the Medina column by the end of
+the month. Bureda and Aneza were occupied without opposition, the
+rebellious sheiks amnestied by the sultan and loaded with gifts, and
+formal peace was made between the rival factions.
+
+
+  History of European influence.
+
+  British intervention in Oman.
+
+European influence was not felt in Arabia until the arrival of the
+Portuguese in the eastern seas, following on the discovery of the Cape
+route. In 1506 Hormuz was taken by Albuquerque, and Muscat and the coast
+of Oman (q.v.) were occupied by the Portuguese till 1650. In 1516 their
+fleets appeared in the Red Sea and an unsuccessful attempt was made
+against Jidda; but the effective occupation of Yemen by the Turks in the
+next few years frustrated any designs the Portuguese may have had in
+S.W. Arabia. Even in Oman their hold on the country was limited to
+Muscat and the adjacent ports, while the interior was ruled by the old
+Yariba (Ya-'aruba) dynasty from their capital at Rustak. The Persian
+occupation, which followed that of the Portuguese, came to an end in the
+middle of the 18th century, when Ahmad Ibn Said expelled the invaders
+and in 1759 established the Ghafari dynasty which still reigns in Oman.
+He was succeeded by his son, who in 1798 made a treaty with the East
+India Company with the object of excluding the French from Oman, and the
+connexion with Great Britain was further strengthened during the long
+reign of his grandson Sultan Said, 1804-1856. During the earlier years
+of his reign he was constantly at war with the Wahhabi empire, to which
+Oman became for a time tributary. The piracies committed by the Jawasimi
+Arabs in the gulf compelled the intervention of England, and in 1810
+their strongholds were destroyed by a British-Indian expedition. The
+overthrow of the Wahhabis in 1817 restored Sultan Said to independence;
+he equipped and armed on Western models a fleet built in Indian ports,
+and took possession of Sokotra and Zanzibar, as well as the Persian
+coast north of the straits of Hormuz as far east as Gwadur, while by his
+liberal policy at home Sohar, Barka and Muscat became prosperous
+commercial ports.
+
+On his death in 1856 the kingdom was divided, Majid, a younger son,
+taking Zanzibar, while the two elder sons contested the succession to
+Oman. The eldest, Thuweni, with British support, finally obtained the
+throne, and in 1862 an engagement was entered into by the French and
+English governments respecting the independence of the sultans of Oman.
+He was assassinated in 1866, and his successor, Seyyid Turki, reigned
+till 1888. On his death several claimants disputed the succession;
+ultimately his son Fesal was recognized by the British government, and
+was granted a subsidy from British-Indian revenues, in consideration of
+which he engaged not to cede any of his territory without the consent of
+the British government; similar engagements have been entered into by
+the tribes who occupy the south coast from the borders of Oman westward
+to the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb.
+
+
+  British sphere of influence.
+
+The opening of the overland route to India again brought the west coast
+of Arabia into importance. Aden was occupied by the British in 1839. The
+Hejaz coast and some of the Yemen ports were still held by Mehemet Ali,
+as viceroy of Egypt, but on his final withdrawal from Arabia in 1845,
+Hejaz came under direct Turkish rule, and the conquest of Yemen in 1872
+placed the whole Red Sea littoral (with the exception of the Midian
+coast, ceded by Egypt on the accession of Abbas Hilmi Pasha) under
+Ottoman administration. The island of Perim at the southern entrance of
+the Red Sea has been a British possession since 1857, while the
+promontory of Shekh Said on the Arabian side of the strait is in Turkish
+occupation. In order to define the limits between Turkish territory and
+that of the independent Arab tribes in political relations with Great
+Britain, a joint commission of British and Turkish officers in 1902-1905
+laid down a boundary line from Shekh Said to a point on the river Bana,
+12 m. north-east of the small town of Kataba, from which it is continued
+in a north-easterly direction up to the great desert. This delimitation
+places the whole of southern Arabia, east of this line, within the
+British sphere of influence, which thus includes the district
+surrounding Aden (q.v.), the Hadramut and Oman with its dependencies.
+
+
+  Turkish rule.
+
+The provinces of Hejaz and Yemen are each administered by a Turkish
+governor-general, with headquarters at Taif and Sana respectively; the
+country is nominally divided up into divisions and districts under minor
+officials, but Turkish rule has never been acquiesced in by the
+inhabitants, and beyond the larger towns, all of which are held by
+strong garrisons, Turkish authority hardly exists. The powerful Bedouin
+tribes of Hejaz have always asserted their independence, and are only
+kept quiet by the large money payments made them by the sultan on the
+occasion of the annual pilgrimage to the holy cities. A large part of
+Asir and northern Yemen has never been visited by Turkish troops, and
+such revenues as are collected, mainly from vexatious customs and
+transit duties, are quite insufficient to meet the salaries of the
+officials, while the troops, ill-fed and their pay indefinitely in
+arrears, live on the country as best they can.
+
+
+  Yemen revolt.
+
+A serious revolt broke out in Yemen in 1892. A Turkish detachment
+collecting taxes in the Bani Merwan lands north of Hodeda was destroyed
+by a body of Arabs. This reverse set all Yemen aflame; under the
+leadership of the imam, who had, since the Turkish occupation, lived in
+retirement at Sada, 120 m. north of the capital, the powerful tribes
+between Asir and Sana advanced southwards, occupied the principal towns
+and besieged the few Turkish fortified posts that still held out. In
+many cases the garrisons, Arab troops from Syria, went over to the
+insurgents. Meanwhile, reinforcements under General Ahmad Feizi Pasha
+reached Hodeda, Manakha was retaken, Sana relieved, and by the end of
+January 1893 the country with the exception of the northern mountainous
+districts was reconquered.
+
+A state of intermittent rebellion, however, continued, and in 1904 a
+general revolt took place with which the normal garrison of Yemen, the
+7th army corps, was quite unable to cope. The military posts were
+everywhere besieged, and Sana, the capital, was cut off from all
+communication with the coast. During February 1905 reinforcements were
+sent up which raised the garrison of Sana to a strength of eight
+battalions, and in March a further reinforcement of about the same
+strength arrived, and fought its way into the capital with the loss of
+almost all its guns and train. The position was then desperate,
+wholesale desertion and starvation had decimated the garrison, and three
+weeks later Ali Riza Pasha, the Turkish commander, was compelled to
+surrender. The fall of Sana made a deep impression at Constantinople,
+every effort was made to hasten out reinforcements, the veteran Ahmad
+Feizi Pasha was nominated to the supreme command, and Anatolian troops
+in place of the unreliable Syrian element were detailed. The scale of
+the operations may be judged from the fact that the total number of
+troops mobilized up to the beginning of July 1905 amounted to 126
+battalions, 8 squadrons and 15 batteries; the rebel leader Mahommed
+Yahiya had at this time a following of 50,000.
+
+By the end of June, Ahmad Feizi Pasha was in a position to advance on
+Manakha, where he organized an efficient transport, rallied the
+scattered remnants of Ali Riza's army, and with the newly arrived troops
+had by the middle of July a force of some 40 battalions available for
+the advance on Sana. He left Manakha on the 17th of July, and after
+almost daily fighting reached Sana on the 30th of August; on the 31st he
+entered the city without serious opposition, the insurgents having
+retreated northward.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--D.G. Hogarth, _Penetration of Arabia_ (London, 1904); C.
+  Niebuhr, _Travels and Description of Arabia_ (Amsterdam, 1774); A.
+  Zehme, _Arabien und die Araber seit Hundert Jahren_ (Halle, 1875);
+  J.L. Burckhardt, _Travels in Arabia_ (London, 1829); R.F. Burton,
+  _Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Meccah_ (London, 1855), _Midian
+  revisited_ (1879); W.G. Palgrave, _Central and Eastern Arabia_
+  (London, 1865); C. Doughty, _Arabia Deserta_ (Cambridge, 1888), and an
+  abridgment, containing mainly the personal narrative, under the title
+  of _Wanderings in Arabia_ (London, 1908); L. van den Berg, _Le
+  Hadramut et les colonies arabes_, &c. (Batavia, 1885); C. Huber,
+  _Journal d'un voyage en Arabie_ (Paris, 1891); J. Euting, _Reise in
+  inner Arabien_ (Leiden, 1896); E. Nolde, _Reise nach inner Arabien_
+  (Brunswick, 1895); L. Hirsch, _Reise in Sud Arabien_ (Leiden, 1897);
+  J.T. Bent, _Southern Arabia_ (1895); R. Manzoni, _Il Yemen_ (Rome,
+  1884); A. Deflers, _Voyage en Yemen_ (Paris, 1889); J. Halevy,
+  _Journal Asiatique_ (1872); Lady Anne Blunt, _Pilgrimage to Nejd_
+  (London, 1881); E. Glaser, _Petermann's Mitt._ (1886, 1888 and 1889);
+  W.B. Harris, _Journey through Yemen_ (Edinburgh, 1893); J.R. Wellsted,
+  _Travels in Arabia_ (London, 1838); Capt. F.M. Hunter, _Aden_ (London,
+  1877). Consult also _Proc. R.G.S._ and _Geogr. Journal_. For geology
+  see H.J. Carter, "Memoir on the Geology of the South-East Coast of
+  Arabia," _Journ. Bombay Branch Roy. Asiat. Soc._ vol. iv. pp. 21-96
+  (1852); Doughty's _Arabia Deserta_; W.F. Hume, _The Rift Valleys and
+  Geology of Eastern Sinai_ (London, 1901). For ancient geography of
+  Arabia:--A. Sprenger, _Alte Geographie Arabiens_ (Berne, 1875); E.H.
+  Bunbury, _History of Ancient Geography_ (London, 1883); D.H. Muller,
+  _Hamdani's Geographie_ (Leiden, 1884); E. Glaser, _Geschichte und
+  Geographie Arabiens_ (Berlin, 1890).     (R. A. W.)
+
+
+LITERATURE
+
+The literature of Arabia has its origin in the songs, improvisations,
+recitations and stories of the pre-Mahommedan Arabs. Of written
+literature in those days there was, so far as we know, none. But where
+books failed memory was strong and the power of retaining things heard
+was not confined to a professional class. At every festive meeting many
+could contribute a poem or a story, many could even improvise the one or
+the other. When members of different tribes met in peace (as at the fair
+of 'Ukaz) the most skilful reciters strove to maintain the honour of
+their own people, and a ready improviser was held in high esteem. The
+smartest epigrams, the fairest similes, the keenest satires, spoken or
+sung on such occasions, were treasured in the memory of the hearers and
+carried by them to their homes. But the experience of all peoples in
+that memory requires to be helped by form. Sentences became balanced and
+were made clear by some sort of definite ending. The simplest form of
+this in Arabian literature is the _saj'_ or rhymed prose, in which the
+sentences are usually (though not always) short and end in a rhyme or
+assonance. Mahomet used this form in many parts of the Koran (e.g.
+_Sura_, 81). The next step was the introduction of metre into the body
+of the sentence and the restriction of the passages to a definite
+length. This in its simplest form gave rise to the _rajaz_ verses, where
+each half-line ends in the same rhyme and consists of three feet of the
+measure /u - u -. Other metres were introduced later until sixteen
+altogether were recognized. In all forms the rhyme is the same
+throughout the poem, and is confined to the second half of the line
+except in the first line where the two halves rhyme. While, however,
+these measures were in early use, they were not systematically analysed
+or their rules enunciated until the time of Khalil ibn Ahmad in the 8th
+century. Two other features of Arabian poetry are probably connected
+with the necessity for aiding the memory. The first of these is the
+requirement that each line should have a complete sense in itself; this
+produces a certain jerkiness, and often led among the Arabs to
+displacement in the order of the lines in a long poem. The other
+feature, peculiar to the long poem (_qasida_, elegy), is that, whatever
+its real object, whatever its metre, it has a regular scheme in the
+arrangement of its material. It begins with a description of the old
+camping-ground, before which the poet calls on his companion to stop,
+while he bewails the traces of those who have left for other places.
+Then he tells of his love and how he had suffered from it, how he had
+journeyed through the desert (this part often contains some of the most
+famous descriptions and praises of animals) until his beast became thin
+and worn-out. Then at last comes the real subject of the poem, usually
+the panegyric of some man of influence or wealth to whom the poet has
+come in hope of reward and before whom he recites the poem.
+
+_Poetry._--The influence of the poet in pre-Mahommedan days was very
+great. As his name, _ash-Sha'ir_, "the knowing man," indicates, he was
+supposed to have more than natural knowledge and power. Panegyric and
+satire (_hija'_) were his chief instruments. The praise of the tribe in
+well-chosen verses ennobled it throughout the land, a biting satire was
+enough to destroy its reputation (cf. I. Goldziher's _Abhandlungen zur
+arabischen Philologie_, i. pp. 1-105). Before Mahomet the ethics of the
+Arabs were summed up in _muruwwa_ (custom). Hospitality, generosity,
+personal bravery were the subjects of praise; meanness and cowardice
+those of satire. The existence of poetry among the northern Arabs was
+known to the Greeks even in the 4th century (cf. St Nilos in Migne's
+_Patrologia Graeca_, vol. 79, col. 648, and Sozomen's _Ecclesiastical
+History_, bk. 6, ch. 38). Women as well as men composed and recited
+poems before the days of the Prophet (cf. L. Cheikho's _Poetesses of the
+Jahiliyya_, in Arabic, Beirut, 1897).
+
+The transmission of early Arabic poetry has been very imperfect. Many of
+the reciters were slain in battle, and it was not till the 8th to the
+10th centuries and even later that the earliest collections of these
+poems were made. Many have to be recovered from grammars, dictionaries,
+&c., where single lines or groups of lines are quoted to illustrate the
+proper use of words, phrases or idioms. Moreover, many a reciter was not
+content to declaim the genuine verses of ancient poets, but interpolated
+some of his own composition, and the change of religion introduced by
+Islam led to the mutilation of many verses to suit the doctrines of the
+new creed.[3]
+
+The language of the poems, as of all the best Arabian literature, was
+that of the desert Arabs of central Arabia; and to use it aright was the
+ambition of poets and scholars even in the Abbasid period. For the man
+of the towns its vocabulary was too copious to be easily understood, and
+in the age of linguistic studies many commentaries were written to
+explain words and idioms.
+
+Of the pre-Mahommedan poets the most famous were the six whose poems
+were collected by Asma'i about the beginning of the 9th century (ed. W.
+Ahlwardt, _The Diwans of the Six Ancient Arabic Poets_, London, 1870).
+Single poems of four of these--Amru-ul-Qais, Tarafa, Zuhair and
+'Antara--appear in the Mo'allakat (q.v.). The other two were Nabigha
+(q.v.) and 'Alqama (q.v.). But besides these there were many others
+whose names were famous; such as Ta'abbata Sharran, a popular hero who
+recites his own adventures with great gusto; his companion Shanfara,
+whose fame rests on a fine poem which has been translated into French by
+de Sacy (in his _Chrestomathie Arabe_) and into English by G. Hughes
+(London, 1896); Aus ibn Hajar of the Bani Tamin, famous for his
+descriptions of weapons and hunting scenes (ed. R. Geyer, Vienna, 1892);
+Hatim Ta'i, renowned for his open-handed generosity as well as for his
+poetry (ed. F. Schulthess, Leipzig, 1897, with German translation); and
+'Urwa ibn ul-Ward of the tribe of 'Abs, rival of Hatim in generosity as
+well as in poetry (ed. Th. Noldeke, Gottingen, 1863). Among these early
+poets are found one Jew of repute, Samau'al (Samuel) ibn Adiya (cf. Th.
+Noldeke's _Beitrage_, pp. 52-86; art. _s.v._ "Samuel ibn Adiya" in
+_Jewish Encyc._ and authorities there quoted), and some Christians such
+as 'Adi'ibn Zaid of Hira, who sang alike of the pleasures of drink and
+of death (ed. by Louis Cheikho in his _Les Poetes arabes chretiens_, pp.
+439-474, Beirut, 1890; in this work many Arabian poets are considered to
+be Christian without sufficient reason). One poet, a younger
+contemporary of Mahomet, has attracted much attention because his poems
+were religious and he was a monotheist. This is Umayya ibn Abi-s-Salt, a
+Meccan who did not accept Islam and died in 630. His poems are discussed
+by F. Schulthess in the _Orientalische Studien_ dedicated by Th.
+Noldeke, Giessen, 1906, and his relation to Mahomet by E. Power (in the
+_Melanges de la faculte orientale de l'universite Saint-Joseph_, Beirut,
+1906). Mahomet's relation to the poets generally was one of antagonism
+because of their influence over the Arabs and their devotion to the old
+religion and customs. Ka'b ibn Zuhair, however, first condemned to
+death, then pardoned, later won great favour for himself by writing a
+panegyric of the Prophet (ed. G. Freytag, Halle, 1823). Another poet,
+A'sha (q.v.), followed his example. Labid (q.v.) and Hassan ibn Thabit
+(q.v.) were also contemporary. Among the poetesses of the time Khansa
+(q.v.) is supreme. In the scarcity of poets at this time two others
+deserve mention; Abu Mihjan, who made peace with Islam in 630 but was
+exiled for his love of wine, which he celebrated in his verse (ed. L.
+Abel, Leiden, 1887; cf. C. Landberg's _Primeurs arabes_, 1, Leiden,
+1886), and Jarwal ibn Aus, known as al-Hutai'a, a wandering poet whose
+keen satires led to his imprisonment by Omar (Poems, ed. by I. Goldziher
+in the _Journal of the German Oriental Society_, vols. 46 and 47).
+
+Had the simplicity and religious severity of the first four caliphs
+continued in their successors, the fate of poetry would have been hard.
+Probably little but religious poetry would have been allowed. But the
+Omayyads (with one exception) were not religious men and, while
+preserving the outward forms of Islam, allowed full liberty to the
+pre-Islamic customs of the Arabs and the beliefs and practices of
+Christians. At the same time the circumstances of the poet's life were
+altered. Poetry depended on patronage, and that was to be had now
+chiefly in the court of the caliph and the residences of his governors.
+Hence the centre of attraction was now the city with its interests, not
+the desert. Yet the old forms of poetry were kept. The _qasida_ still
+required the long introduction (see above), which was entirely occupied
+with the affairs of the desert. Thus poetry became more and more
+artificial, until in the Abbasid period poets arose who felt themselves
+strong enough to give up the worn-out forms and adopt others more
+suitable. The names of three great poets adorn the Omayyad period:
+Akhtal, Farazdaq and Jarir were contemporaries (see separate articles).
+The first was a Christian of the tribe of Taghlib, whose Christianity
+enabled him to write many verses which would have been impossible to a
+professing Moslem. Protected by the caliph he employed the old weapons
+of satire to support them against the "Helpers" and to exalt his own
+tribe against the Qaisites. Farazdaq of the Bani Tamim, a good Moslem
+but loose in morals, lived chiefly in Medina and Kufa, and was renowned
+for his command of language. Jarir of another branch of the Bani Tamim
+lived in Irak and courted the favour of Hajjaj, its governor. His
+satires were so effective that he is said to have crushed forty-three
+rivals. His great efforts were against Farazdaq, who was supported by
+Akhtal (cf. _The Naka'id of Jarir and al-Farazdaq_, ed. A.A. Bevan,
+Leiden, 1906 foll.). Among many minor poets one woman is conspicuous.
+Laila ul-Akhyaliyya (d. 706) was married to a stranger. On the death of
+her lover in battle, she wrote numerous elegies bewailing him, and so
+became famous and devoted the rest of her life to the writing of verse.
+Two poets of the Koreish attained celebrity in Arabia itself at this
+time. Qais ur-Ruqayyat was the poet of 'Abdallah ibn uz-Zubair (Abdallah
+ibn Zobair) and helped him until circumstances went against him, when he
+made his peace with the caliph. His poems are chiefly panegyrics and
+love songs (ed. N. Rhodonakis, Vienna, 1902). 'Umar ibn Abi Rabi'a (c.
+643-719) was a wealthy man, who lived a life of ease in his native town
+of Mecca, and devoted himself to intrigues and writing love songs (ed.
+P. Schwarz, Leipzig, 1901-1902). His poems were very popular throughout
+Arabia. As a dweller in the town he was independent of the old forms of
+poetry, which controlled all others, but his influence among poets was
+not great enough to perpetuate the new style. One other short-lived
+movement of the Omayyad period should be mentioned. The _rajaz_ poems
+(see above) had been a subordinate class generally used for
+improvisations in pre-Mahommedan times. In the 7th and 8th centuries,
+however, a group of poets employed them more seriously. The most
+celebrated of these were 'Ajjaj and his son Ru'ba of the Bani Tamim
+(editions by W. Ahlwardt, Berlin, 1903; German trans. of Ru'ba's poems
+by Ahlwardt, Berlin, 1904).
+
+With the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, a new epoch in Arabian
+poetry began. The stereotyped beginning of the _qasida_ had been
+recognized as antiquated and out of place in city life even in the
+Omayyad period (cf. Goldziher, _Abhandlungen_, i. 144 ff). This form had
+been ridiculed but now it lost its hold altogether, and was only
+employed occasionally by way of direct imitation of the antique. The
+rise of Persian influence made itself felt in much the same way as the
+Norman influence in England by bringing a newer refinement into poetry.
+Tribal feuds are no longer the main incentives to verse. Individual
+experiences of life and matters of human interest become more usual
+subjects. Cynicism, often followed by religion in a poet's later life,
+is common. The tumultuous mixture of interests and passions to be found
+in a city like Bagdad are the subjects of a poet's verse. One of the
+earliest of these poets, Muti' ibn Ayas, shows the new depth of personal
+feeling and refinement of expression. Bashshar ibn Burd (d. 783), a
+blind poet of Persian descent, shows the ascendancy of Persian influence
+as he openly rails at the Arabs and makes clear his own leaning to the
+Persian religion. In the 8th century Abu Nuwas (q.v.) is the greatest
+poet of his time. His language has the purity of the desert, his morals
+are those of the city, his universalism is that of the man of the world.
+Abu-l-'Atahiya (q.v.), his contemporary, is fluent, simple and often
+didactic. Muslim ibn ul-Walid (ed. de Goeje, Leiden, 1875), also
+contemporary, is more conservative of old forms and given to panegyric
+and satire. In the 9th century two of the best-known poets--Abu Tammam
+(q.v.) and Buhturi (q.v.) --were renowned for their knowledge of old
+poetry (see HAMASA) and were influenced by it in their own verse. On the
+other hand Ibn ul-Mo'tazz (son of the caliph) was the writer of
+brilliant occasional verse, free of all imitation. In the 10th century
+the centre of interest is in the court of Saif ud-Daula (addaula) at
+Aleppo. Here in Motanabbi (q.v.) the claims of modern poetry not only to
+equal but to excel the ancient were put forward and in part at any rate
+recognized. Abu Firas (932-968) was a member of the family of Saif
+ud-Daula, a soldier whose poems have all the charm that comes from the
+fact that the writer has lived through the events he narrates (ed. by R.
+Dvorak, Leiden, 1895). Many Arabian writers count Motanabbi the last of
+the great poets. Yet Abu-l-'Ala ul-Ma'arri (q.v.) was original alike in
+his use of rhymes and in the philosophical nature of his poems. Ibn
+Farid (q.v.) is the greatest of the mystic poets, and Busiri (q.v.)
+wrote the most famous poem extant in praise of the Prophet. In the
+provinces of the caliphate there were many poets, who, however, seldom
+produced original work. Spain, however, produced Ibn 'Abdun (d. 1126),
+famous for the grace and finish of his style (ed. with commentary of Ibn
+Badrun by R.P.A. Dozy, Leiden, 1846). The Sicilian Ibn Hamdis
+(1048-1132) spent the last fifty years of his life in Spain (_Diwan_,
+ed. Moacada, Palermo, 1883; _Canzoniere_, ed. Schiaparelli, Rome, 1897).
+It was also apparently in this country that the strophe form was first
+used in Arabic poems (cf. M. Hartmann's _Das arabische Strophengedicht_,
+Weimar, 1897), and Ibn Quzman (12th century), a wandering singer, here
+first used the language of everyday life in the form of verse known as
+_Zajal_.
+
+_Anthologies._--As supplemental to the account of poetry may be
+mentioned here some of the chief collections of ancient verse, sometimes
+made for the sake of the poems themselves, sometimes to give a _locus
+classicus_ for usages of grammar or lexicography, sometimes to
+illustrate ancient manners and customs. The earliest of these is the
+_Mo'allakat_ (q.v.). In the 8th century Ibn Mofaddal compiled the
+collection named after him the _Mofaddaliyat_. From the 9th century we
+have the Hamasas of Abu Tammam and Buhturi, and a collection of poems of
+the tribe Hudhail (second half ed. in part by J.G.L. Kosegarten, London,
+1854; completed by J. Wellhausen in _Skizzen und Vorarbeiten_, i.
+Berlin, 1884). The numerous quotations of Ibn Qutaiba (q.v.) in the
+'Uyun ul-Akhbar (ed. C. Brockelmann, Strassburg, 1900 ff.) and the _Book
+of Poetry and Poets_ (ed. M.J. de Goeje, Leiden, 1904) bring these works
+into this class. In the 10th century were compiled the _Jamharat ash'ar
+al Arab_, containing forty-nine poems (ed. Bulaq, 1890), the work
+_al-'Iqd ul-Farid_ of Ibn' Abdi-r-Rabbihi (ed. Cairo, various years),
+and the greatest work of all this class, the _Kitab ul-Aghani_ ("Book of
+Songs") (cf. ABU-L FARAJ). The 12th century contributes the _Diwan
+Mukhtarat ush-Shu'ara'i_ with fifty qasidas. The _Khizanai ul-Adab_ of
+Abdulqadir, written in the 17th century in the form of a commentary on
+verses cited in a grammar, contains much old verse (ed. 4 vols., Bulaq,
+1882).
+
+_Belles-Lettres and Romances._--Mahomet in the Koran had made extensive
+use of _saj'_ or rhymed prose (see above). This form then dropped out of
+use almost entirely for some time. In the 10th century, however, it was
+revived, occurring almost simultaneously in the _Sermons_ of Ibn Nubata
+(946-984) and the _Letters_ of Abu Bakr ul-Khwarizmi. Both have been
+published several times in the East. The epistolary style was further
+cultivated by Hamadhani (q.v.) and carried to perfection by Abu-l'Ala
+ul-Ma'arri. Hamadhini was also the first to write in this rhymed prose a
+new form of work, the _Maqama_ ("assembly"). The name arose from the
+fact that scholars were accustomed to assemble for the purpose of
+rivalling one another in orations showing their knowledge of Arabic
+language, proverb and verse. In the _Maqamas_ of Hamadhani a narrator
+describes how in various places he met a wandering scholar who in these
+assemblies puts all his rivals to shame by his eloquence. Each oration
+forms the substance of a _Maqama_, while the _Maqamas_ themselves are
+united to one another by the constant meetings of narrator and scholar.
+Hariri (q.v.) quite eclipsed the fame of his predecessor in this
+department, and his _Maqamas_ retain their influence over Arabian
+literature to the present day. As late as the 19th century the sheik
+Nasif ul Yaziji (1800-1871) distinguished himself by writing sixty
+clever _Maqamas_ in the style of Hariri (ed. Beirut, 1856, 1872). While
+this class of literature had devoted itself chiefly to the finesses of
+the language, another set of works was given to meeting the requirements
+of moral education and the training of a gentleman. This, which is known
+as "Adab literature," is anecdotic in style with much quotation of early
+poetry and proverb. Thus government, war, friendship, morality, piety,
+eloquence, are some of the titles under which Ibn Qutaiba groups his
+stories and verses in the _'Uyun ul Akhbar_. _Jahiz_ (q.v.) in the 9th
+century and Baihaqi (_The Kitab al-Mahasin val-Masawi_, ed. F. Schwally,
+Giessen, 1900-1902) early in the 10th, wrote works of this class. A
+little later a Spaniard, Ibn 'Abdrabbihi (Abdi-r-Rabbihi), wrote his
+_'Iqd ul-Farid_ (see section _Anthologies_). The growth of city life in
+the Abbasid capital led to the desire for a new form of story, differing
+from the old tales of desert life. This was met in the first place by
+borrowing. In the 8th century Ibn Muqaffa', a convert from Mazdaism to
+Islam, translated the Pahlavi version of Bidpai's fables (itself a
+version of the Indian _Panchatantra_) into Arabic with the title _Kalila
+wa Dimna_ (ed. Beirut, various years). Owing to the purity of its
+language and style it has remained a classic work. The _Book of the 1001
+Nights_ (_Arabian Nights_) also has its basis in translations from the
+Indian through the Persian, made as early as the 9th century. To these
+stories have been added others originating in Bagdad and Egypt and a few
+others, which were at first in independent circulation. The whole work
+seems to have taken its present form (with local variations) about the
+13th century. Several other romances of considerable length are extant,
+such as the _Story of 'Antar_ (ed. 32 vols., Cairo, 1869, &c.,
+translated in part by Terrick Hamilton, 4 vols., London, 1820), and the
+_Story of Saif ibn Dhi Yezen_ (ed. Cairo, 1892).     (G. W. T.)
+
+_Historical Literature._--Arabian historians differ from all others in
+the unique form of their compositions. Each event is related in the
+words of eye-witnesses or contemporaries transmitted to the final
+narrator through a chain of intermediate reporters (_rawis_), each of
+whom passed on the original report to his successor. Often the same
+account is given in two or more slightly divergent forms, which have
+come down through different chains of reporters. Often, too, one event
+or one important detail is told in several ways on the basis of several
+contemporary statements transmitted to the final narrator through
+distinct lines of tradition. The writer, therefore, exercises no
+independent criticism except as regards the choice of authorities; for
+he rejects accounts of which the first author or one of the intermediate
+links seems to him unworthy of credit, and sometimes he states which of
+several accounts seems to him the best.
+
+A second type of Arabian historiography is that in which an author
+combines the different traditions about one occurrence into one
+continuous narrative, but prefixes a statement as to the lines of
+authorities used and states which of them he mainly follows. In this
+case the writer recurs to the first method, already described, only when
+the different traditions are greatly at variance with one another. In
+yet a third type of history the old method is entirely forsaken and we
+have a continuous narrative only occasionally interrupted by citation of
+the authority for some particular point. But the principle still is that
+what has been well said once need not be told again in other words. The
+writer, therefore, keeps as close as he can to the letter of his
+sources, so that quite a late writer often reproduces the very words of
+the first narrator.
+
+From very early times story-tellers and singers found their subjects in
+the doughty deeds of the tribe on its forays, and sometimes in contests
+with foreign powers and in the impression produced by the wealth and
+might of the sovereigns of Persia and Constantinople. The appearance of
+the Prophet with the great changes that ensued, the conquests that made
+the Arabs lords of half the civilized world, supplied a vast store of
+new matter for relations which men were never weary of hearing and
+recounting. They wished to know everything about the apostle of God.
+Every one who had known or seen him was questioned and was eager to
+answer. Moreover, the word of God in the Koran left many practical
+points undecided, and therefore it was of the highest importance to know
+exactly how the Prophet had spoken and acted in various circumstances.
+Where could this be better learned than at Medina, where he had lived so
+long and where the majority of his companions continued to live? So at
+Medina a school was gradually formed, where the chief part of the
+traditions about Mahomet and his first successors took a form more or
+less fixed. Soon men began to assist memory by making notes, and pupils
+sought to take written jottings of what they had heard from their
+teachers. Thus by the close of the 1st century many _dictata_ were
+already in circulation. For example, Hasan of Basra (d. 728 A.D.) had a
+great mass of such notes, and he was accused of sometimes passing off as
+oral tradition things he had really drawn from books; for oral tradition
+was still the one recognized authority, and it is related of more than
+one old scholar, and even of Hasan of Basra himself, that he directed
+his books to be burned at his death. The books were mere helps. Long
+after this date, when all scholars drew mainly from books, the old forms
+were still kept up. Tabari, for example, when he cites a book expresses
+himself as if he had heard what he quotes from the master with whom he
+read the passage or from whose copy he transcribed it. He even expresses
+himself in this wise: "'Omar b. Shabba has _related_ to me in his book
+on the history of Basra." No independent book of the 1st century from
+the Flight (i.e. 622-719) has come down to us. It is told, however, that
+Moawiya summoned an old man named 'Abid ibn Sharya from Yemen to
+Damascus to tell him all he knew about ancient history and that he
+induced him to write down his information. This very likely formed the
+nucleus of a book which bore the name of that sheik and was much read in
+the 3rd century from the Flight. It seems to be lost now. But in the 2nd
+century (719-816) real books began to be composed. The materials were
+supplied in the first place by oral tradition, in the second by the
+_dictata_ of older scholars, and finally by various kinds of documents,
+such as treaties, letters, collections of poetry and genealogical lists.
+Genealogical studies had become necessary through Omar's system of
+assigning state pensions to certain classes of persons according to
+their kinship with the Prophet, or their deserts during his lifetime.
+This subject received much attention even in the 1st century, but books
+about it were first written in the 2nd, the most famous being those of
+Ibn al-Kalbi (d. 763), of his son Hisham (d. 819), and of Al-Sharqi ibn
+al-Qutami. Genealogy, which often called for elucidations, led on to
+history. Baladhuri's excellent _Ansab al-Ashraf_ (Genealogies of the
+Nobles) is a history of the Arabs on a genealogical plan.
+
+The oldest extant history is the biography of the Prophet by Ibn Ishaq
+(d. 767). This work is generally trustworthy. Mahomet's life before he
+appeared as a prophet and the story of his ancestors are indeed mixed
+with many fables illustrated by spurious verses. But in Ibn Ishaq's day
+these fables were generally accepted as history--for many of them had
+been first related by contemporaries of Mahomet--and no one certainly
+thought it blameworthy to put pious verses in the mouth of the Prophet's
+forefathers, though, according to the _Fihrist_ (p. 92), Ibn Ishaq was
+duped by others with regard to the poems he quotes. The original work of
+Ibn Ishaq seems to be lost. That which we possess is an edition of it by
+Ibn Hisham (d. 834) with additions and omissions (text ed. by F.
+Wustenfeld, Gottingen, 1858-1860; German translation by Weil, Stuttgart,
+1864).
+
+The _Life_ of the Prophet by Ibn Oqba (d. 758), based on the statements
+of two very trustworthy men, 'Urwa ibn az-Zubair (d. 713) and Az-zuhri
+(d. 742), was still much read in Syria in the 14th century. Fragments of
+this have been edited by E. Sachau, Berlin, 1904. We fortunately possess
+the _Book of the Campaigns_ of the Prophet by al-Waqidi (d. 822) and the
+important _Book of Classes_ of his disciple Ibn Sa'd (q.v.). Waqidi had
+much more copious materials than Ibn Ishaq, but gives way much more to a
+popular and sometimes romancing style of treatment. Nevertheless he
+sometimes helps us to recognize in Ibn Ishaq's narrative modifications
+of the genuine tradition made for a purpose, and the additional details
+he supplies set various events before us in a clearer light. Apart from
+this his chief merits lie in his studies on the subject of the
+traditional authorities, the results of which are given by Ibn Sa'd, and
+in his chronology, which is often excellent. A special study of the
+traditions about the conquest of Syria made by M.J. de Goeje in 1864
+(_Memoires sur la conquete de la Syrie_, 2nd ed., Leiden, 1900), led to
+the conclusion that Waqidi's chronology is sound as regards the main
+events, and that later historians have gone astray by forsaking his
+guidance. This result has been confirmed by certain contemporary notices
+found by Th. Noldeke in 1874 in a Syriac MS. of the British Museum. And
+that Ibn Ishaq agrees with Waqidi in certain main dates is important
+evidence for the trustworthiness of the former also. For the chronology
+before the year 10 of the Flight Waqidi did his best, but here, the
+material being defective, many of his conclusions are precarious. Waqidi
+had already a great library at his disposal. He is said to have had 600
+chests of books, chiefly _dictata_ written by or for himself, but in
+part real books by Abu Mikhnaf (d. 748), Ibn Ishaq (whom he uses but
+does not name), 'Awana (d. 764), Abu Mashar (d. 791) and other authors.
+Abu Mikhnaf left a great number of monographs on the chief events from
+the death of the Prophet to the caliphate of Walid II. These were much
+used by later writers, and we have many extracts from them, but none of
+the works themselves except a sort of romance based on his account of
+the death of Hosain (Husain) of which Wustenfeld has given a
+translation. With regard to the history of Irak in particular he was
+deemed to have the best information, and for this subject he is Tabari's
+chief source, just as Madaini, a younger contemporary of Waqidi, is
+followed by preference in all that relates to Khorasan. Madaini's
+_History of the Caliphs_ is the best, if not the oldest, published
+before Tabari; but this book is known only by the excerpts given by
+later writers, particularly Baladhuri and Tabari. From these we judge
+that he had great narrative power, with much clear and exact learning,
+and must be placed high as a critical historian. His plan was to record
+the various traditions about an event, choosing them with critical
+skill; sometimes, however, he fused the several traditions into a
+continuous narrative. A just estimate of the relative value of the
+historians can only be reached by careful comparison in detail. This has
+been essayed by Brunnow in his study on the Kharijites (Leiden, 1884),
+in which the narrative of Mubarrad in the Kamil is compared with the
+excerpts of Madaini given by Baladhuri and those of Abu Mikhnaf given by
+Tabari. The conclusion reached is that Abu Mikhnaf and Madaini are both
+well informed and impartial.
+
+Among the contemporaries of Waqidi and Madaini were Ibn Khidash (d.
+838), the historian of the family Muhallab, whose work was one of
+Mubarrad's sources for the _History of the Kharijites_; Haitham ibn 'Adi
+(d. 822), whose works, though now lost, are often cited; and Saif ibn
+'Omar at-Tamimi, whose book on the revolt of the tribes under Abu-Bekr
+and on the Mahommedan conquests was much used by Tabari. His narratives
+are detailed and often tinged with romance, and he is certainly much
+inferior to Waqidi in accuracy. Wellhausen has thoroughly examined the
+work of Saif in _Skizzen und Vorarbeiten_, vi. Besides these are to be
+mentioned Abu 'Ubaida (d. 825), who was celebrated as a philologist and
+wrote several historical monographs that are often cited, and Azraqi,
+whose excellent _History of Mecca_ was published after his death by his
+grandson (d. 858). With these writers we pass into the 3rd century of
+Islam. But we have still an important point to notice in the 2nd
+century; for in it learned Persians began to take part in the creation
+of Arabic historical literature. Ibn Muqaffa' translated the great _Book
+of Persian Kings_, and others followed his example. Tabari and his
+contemporaries, senior and junior, such as Ibn Qutaiba, Ya'qubi,
+Dinawari, preserve to us a good part of the information about Persian
+history made known through such translations.[4] But even more important
+than the knowledge conveyed by these works was their influence on
+literary style and composition. Half a century later began versions from
+the Greek either direct or through the Syriac. The pieces translated
+were mostly philosophical; but the Arabs also learned something, however
+superficially, of ancient history.
+
+The 3rd century (816-913) was far more productive than the 2nd. Abu
+'Ubaida was succeeded by Ibn al-A'rabi (d. 846), who in like manner was
+chiefly famous as a philologist, and who wrote about ancient poems and
+battles. Much that he wrote is quoted in Tabrizi's commentary on the
+_Hamasa_, which is still richer in extracts from the historical
+elucidations of early poems given by ar-Riyashi (d. 871). Of special
+fame as a genealogist was Ibn Habib (d. 859), of whom we have a booklet
+on Arabian tribal names (ed. Wustenfeld, 1850). Azraqi again was
+followed by Fakihi, who wrote a _History of Mecca_ in 885,[5] and 'Omar
+b. Shabba (d. 876), who composed an excellent history of Basra, known to
+us only by excerpts. Of the works of Zubair b. Bakkar (d. 870), one of
+Tabari's teachers, a learned historian and genealogist much consulted by
+later writers, there is a fragment in the Koprulu library at
+Constantinople, and another in Gottingen, part of which has been made
+known by Wustenfeld (_Die Familie Al-Zobair_, Gottingen, 1878). Ya'qubi
+(Ibn Wadih) wrote a short general history of much value (published by
+Houtsma, Leiden, 1883). About India he knows more than his predecessors
+and more than his successors down to Beruni. Ibn Khordadhbeh's
+historical works are lost. Ibn 'Abdalhakam (d. 871) wrote of the
+conquest of Egypt and the West. Extracts from this book are given by
+M'G. de Slane in his _Histoire des Berberes_, from which we gather that
+it was a medley of true tradition and romance, and must be reckoned,
+with the book of his slightly senior contemporary, the Spaniard Ibn
+Habib, in the class of historical romances. A high place must be
+assigned to the historian Ibn Qutaiba or Kotaiba (d. 889), who wrote a
+very useful _Handbook of History_ (ed. Wustenfeld, Gottingen, 1850).
+Much more eminent is Baladhuri (d. 893), whose book on the Arab conquest
+(ed. M.J. de Goeje, Leiden, 1865-1866) merits the special praise given
+to it by Mas'udi, and who also wrote a large work, the _Ansab
+al-Ashraf_. A contemporary, Ibn abi Tahir Taifur (d. 894), wrote on the
+Abbasid caliphs and was drawn on by Tabari. The sixth part of his work
+is in the British Museum. The universal history of Dinawari (d. 896),
+entitled _The Long Narratives_, has been edited by Girgas (1887).
+
+All these histories are more or less thrown into the shade by the great
+work of Tabari (q.v.), whose fame has never faded from his own day to
+ours. The _Annals_ (ed. M. de Goeje, Leiden, 1879-1901) are a general
+history from the creation to 302 A.H. (= A.D. 915). As a literary
+composition they do not rank very high, which may be due partly to the
+author's years, partly to the inequality of his sources, sometimes
+superabundant, sometimes defective, partly perhaps to the somewhat hasty
+condensation of his original draft. Nevertheless the value of the book
+is very great: the author's selection of traditions is usually happy,
+and the episodes of most importance are treated with most fulness of
+detail, so that it deserves the high reputation it has enjoyed from the
+first. This reputation rose steadily; there were twenty copies (one of
+them written by Tabari's own hand) in the library of the Fatimite caliph
+'Aziz (latter half of the 4th century), whereas, when Saladin became
+lord of Egypt, the princely library contained 1200 copies (Maqrizi, i.
+408 seq.).
+
+The _Annals_ soon came to be dealt with in various ways. They were
+published in shorter form with the omission of the names of authorities
+and of most of the poems cited; some passages quoted by later writers
+are not found even in the Leiden edition. On the other hand, some
+interpolations took place, one in the author's lifetime and perhaps by
+his own hand. Then many supplements were written, e.g. by Ferghani (not
+extant) and by Hamadhani (partly preserved in Paris). 'Arib of Cordova
+made an abridgment, adding the history of the West and continuing the
+story to about 975.[6] Ibn Mashkawaih wrote a history from the creation
+to 980, with the purpose of drawing the lessons of the story, following
+Tabari closely, as far as his book is known, and seldom recurring to
+other sources before the reign of Moqtadir; what follows is his own
+composition and shows him to be a writer of talent.[7] In 963 an
+abridgment of the _Annals_ was translated into Persian by Bal'ami, who,
+however, interwove many fables.[8] Ibn al-Athir (d. 1234) abridged the
+whole work, usually with judgment, but sometimes too hastily. Though he
+sometimes glided lightly over difficulties, his work is of service in
+fixing the text of Tabari. He also furnished a continuation to the year
+1224. Later writers took Tabari as their main authority, but sometimes
+consulted other sources, and so add to our knowledge--especially Ibn
+al-Jauzi (d. 1201), who adds many important details. These later
+historians had valuable help from the biographies of famous men and
+special histories of countries and cities, dynasties and princes, on
+which much labour was spent from the 4th century from the Flight
+onwards.
+
+The chief historians after Tabari may be briefly mentioned in
+chronological order. Razi (d. A.D. 932) wrote a _History of Spain_;
+Eutychius (d. 940) wrote _Annals_ (ed. L. Cheikho, Paris, 1906), which
+are very important because he gives the Christian tradition; Suli (d.
+946) wrote on the Abbasid caliphs, their viziers and court poets;
+Mas'udi (q.v.) composed various historical and geographical works (d.
+956). Of Tabari's contemporary Hamza Ispahani (c. 940) we have the
+Annals (ed. Gottwaldt, St Petersburg, 1844); Ibn al-Qutiya wrote a
+_History of Spain_; Ibn Zulaq (d. 997) a _History of Egypt_; 'Otbi wrote
+the _History of Mahmud of Ghazna_, at whose court he lived (printed on
+the margin of the Egyptian edition of Ibn al-Athir); Tha'labi (d. 1036)
+wrote a well-known _History of the Old Prophets_; Abu Nu'aim al-Ispahani
+(d. 1039) wrote a _History of Ispahan_, chiefly of the scholars of that
+city; Tha'alibi (d. c. 1038) wrote, _inter alia_, a well-known _History
+of the Poets of his Time_, published at Damascus, 1887; Biruni (q.v.)
+(d. 1048) takes a high place among historians; Koda'i (d. 1062) wrote a
+_Description of Egypt_ and also various historical pieces, of which some
+are extant; Ibn Sa'id of Cordova (d. 1070) wrote a _View of the History
+of the Various Nations_. Bagdad and its learned men found an excellent
+historian in al-Khatib al-Baghdadi (d. 1071), and Spain in Ibn Hayan (d.
+1076), and half a century later in Ibn Khaqan (d. 1135) and Ibn Bassam
+(d. 1147). Sam'ani (d. 1167) wrote an excellent book on genealogies;
+'Umara (d. 1175) wrote a _History of Yemen_ (ed. H.C. Kay, London,
+1892); Ibn 'Asaqir (d. 1176) a _History of Damascus and her Scholars_,
+which is of great value, and exists in whole or in part in several
+libraries. The _Biographical Dictionary_ of the Spaniard Ibn Pascual (d.
+1182) and that of Dabbi, a somewhat junior contemporary, are edited in
+Codera's _Bibliotheca Arab. Hisp._ (1883-1885); Saladin found his
+historian in the famous 'Imad uddin (d. 1201) (Arabic text, ed. C.
+Landberg, Leiden, 1888). Ibn ul-Jauzi, who died in the same year, has
+been already mentioned. Abdulwahid's _History of the Almohades_, written
+in 1224, was published by Dozy (2nd ed., 1881). Abdullatif or Abdallatif
+(d. 1232) is known by his writings about Egypt (trans. de Sacy, 1810);
+Ibn al-Athir (d. 1233) wrote, in addition to the _Chronicle_ already
+mentioned, a _Biographical Dictionary of Contemporaries of the Prophet_.
+Qifti (d. 1248) is especially known by his _History of Arabic
+Philologists_. Sibt ibn al-Jauzi (d. 1256), grandson of the Ibn al-Jauzi
+already mentioned, wrote a great _Chronicle_, of which much the larger
+part still exists. Codera has edited (Madrid, 1886) Ibn al-'Abbar's (d.
+1260) _Biographical Lexicon_, already known by Dozy's excerpts from it.
+Ibn al-'Adim (d. 1262) is famed for his _History of Aleppo_, and Abu
+Shama (d. 1267) wrote a well-known _History of Saladin and Nureddin_,
+taking a great deal from 'Imad uddin. Ibn abi Usaibia (d. 1269) wrote a
+_History of Physicians_, ed. A. Muller. The _History_ of Ibn al-'Amid
+(d. 1276), better known as Elmacin, was printed by Erpenius in 1625. Ibn
+Sa'id al-Maghribi (d. 1274 or 1286) is famous for his histories, but
+still more for his geographical writings. The noted theologian Nawawi
+(q.v.; d. 1278) wrote a _Biographical Dictionary of the Worthies of the
+First Ages of Islam_. Preeminent as a biographer is Ibn Khallikan (q.v.;
+d. 1282), whose much-used work was partly edited by de Slane and
+completely by Wustenfeld (1835-1840), and translated into English by the
+former scholar (4 vols., 1843-1871).
+
+Abu 'l-Faraj, better known as Bar-Hebraeus (d. 1286), wrote, besides his
+Syriac _Chronicle_, an Arabic _History of Dynasties_ (ed. E. Pocock,
+Oxford, 1663, Beirut, 1890). Ibn 'Adhari's _History of Africa and Spain_
+has been published by Dozy (2 vols., Leiden, 1848-1851), and the
+_Qartas_ of Ibn abi Zar' by Tornberg (1843). One of the best-known of
+Arab writers is Abulfeda (d. 1331) (q.v.). Not less famous is the great
+_Encyclopaedia_ of his contemporary Nuwairi (d. 1332), but only extracts
+from it have been printed. Ibn Sayyid an-Nas (d. 1334) wrote a full
+biography of the Prophet; Mizzi (d. 1341) an extensive work on the men
+from whom traditions have been derived. We still possess, nearly
+complete, the great _Chronicle_ of Dhahabi (d. 1347), a very learned
+biographer and historian. The geographical and historical _Masalik
+al-Absar_ of Ibn Fadlallah (d. 1348) is known at present by extracts
+given by Quatremere and Amari. Ibn al-Wardi (d. c. 1349), best known by
+his _Cosmography_, wrote a _Chronicle_ which has been printed in Egypt.
+Safadi (d., 1363) got a great name as a biographer. Yafi'i (d. 1367)
+wrote a _Chronicle of Islam_ and _Lives of Saints_. Subki (d. 1369)
+published _Lives of the Theologians of the Shafi'ite School_. Of Ibn
+Kathir's _History_ the greatest part is extant. For the history of Spain
+and the Maghrib the writings of Ibn al-Khatib (d. 1374) are of
+acknowledged value. Another history, of which we possess the greater
+part, is the large work of Ibn al-Furat (d. 1404). Far superior to all
+these, however, is the famous Ibn Khaldun (q.v.) (d. 1406). Of the
+historical works of the famous lexicographer Fairuzabadi (q.v.) (d.
+1414) only a _Life of the Prophet_ remains. Maqrizi (d. 1442) is the
+subject of a separate article; Ibn Hajar (d. 1448) is best known by his
+_Biographical Dictionary of Contemporaries of the Prophet_, published in
+the _Bibliotheca Indica_. Ibn 'Arabshah (d. 1450) is known by his
+_History of Timur_ (Leeuwarden, 1767). 'Aini (d. 1451) wrote a _General
+History_, still extant. Abu'l-Mahasin ibn Taghribirdi (d. 1469) wrote at
+length on the history of Egypt; the first two parts have been published
+by Juynboll and Matthes, Leiden, 1855-1861. Flugel has published Ibn
+Kotlubogha's _Biographies of the Hanifite Jurists_. Ibn Shihna (d. 1485)
+wrote a _History of Aleppo_. Of Sakhawi we possess a bibliographical
+work on the historians. The polymath Suyuti (q.v.) (d. 1505) contributed
+a _History of the Caliphs_ and many biographical pieces. Samhudi's
+_History of Medina_ is known through the excerpts of Wustenfeld (1861).
+Ibn Iyas (d. 1524) wrote a _History of Egypt_, and Diarbekri (d. 1559) a
+_Life of Mahomet_. To these names must be added Maqqari (Makkari) (q.v.)
+and Hajji Khalifa (q.v.) (d. 1658). He made use of European sources, and
+with him Arabic historiography may be said to cease, though he had some
+unimportant successors.
+
+A word must be said of the historical romances, the beginnings of which
+go back to the first centuries of Islam. The interest in all that
+concerned Mahomet and in the allusions of the Koran to old prophets and
+races led many professional narrators to choose these subjects. The
+increasing veneration paid to the Prophet and love for the marvellous
+soon gave rise to fables about his childhood, his visit to heaven, &c.,
+which have found their way even into sober histories, just as many
+Jewish legends told by the converted Jew Ka'b al-Ahbar and by Wahb ibn
+Monabbih, and many fables about the old princes of Yemen told by 'Abid,
+are taken as genuine history (see, however, Mas'udi, iv. 88 seq.). A
+fresh field for romantic legend was found in the history of the
+victories of Islam, the exploits of the first heroes of the faith, the
+fortunes of 'Ali and his house. Then, too, history was often expressly
+forged for party ends. The people accepted all this, and so a romantic
+tradition sprang up side by side with the historical, and had a
+literature of its own, the beginnings of which must be placed as early
+as the 2nd century of the Flight. The oldest specimens still extant are
+the fables about the conquest of Spain ascribed to Ibn Habib (d. 852),
+and those about the conquest of Egypt and the West by Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam
+(d. 871). In these truth and falsehood are mingled. But most of the
+extant literature of this kind is, in its present form, much more
+recent; e.g. the _Story of the Death of Hosain_ by the pseudo-Abu
+Mikhnaf (translated by Wustenfeld); the _Conquest of Syria_ by Abu
+Isma'il al-Basri (edited by Nassau Lees, Calcutta, 1854, and discussed
+by de Goeje, 1864); the pseudo-Waqidi (see Hamaker, _De Expugnatione
+Memphidis et Alexandriae_, Leiden, 1835); the pseudo-Ibn Qutaiba (see
+Dozy, _Recherches_); the book ascribed to A'sam Kufi, &c. Further
+inquiry into the origin of these works is called for, but some of them
+were plainly directed to stirring up fresh zeal against the Christians.
+In the 6th century of the Flight some of these books had gained so much
+authority that they were used as sources, and thus many untruths crept
+into accepted history. (M. J. de G.; G. W. T.)
+
+  _Geography._--The writing of geographical books naturally began with
+  the description of the Moslem world, and that for practical purposes.
+  Ibn Khordadhbeh, in the middle of the 9th century, wrote a _Book of
+  Roads and Provinces_ to give an account of the highways, the
+  posting-stations and the revenues of the provinces. In the same
+  century Ya'qubi wrote his _Book of Countries_, describing specially
+  the great cities of the empire. A similar work describing the
+  provinces in some detail was that of Qudama or Kodama (d. 922).
+  Hamdani (q.v.) was led to write his great geography of Arabia by his
+  love for the ancient history of his land. Muqaddasi (Mokaddasi) at the
+  end of the 10th century was one of the early travellers whose works
+  were founded on their own observation. The study of Ptolemy's
+  geography led to a wider outlook, and the writing of works on
+  geography (q.v.) in general. A third class of Arabian geographical
+  works were those written to explain the names of places which occur in
+  the older poets. Such books were written by Bakri (q.v.) and Yaqut
+  (q.v.)[9]
+
+  _Grammar and Lexicography._--Arab tradition ascribes the first
+  grammatical treatment of the language to Abu-l-Aswad ud-Du'ali (latter
+  half of the 7th century), but the certain beginnings of Arabic grammar
+  are found a hundred years later. The Arabs from early times have
+  always been proud of their language, but its systematic study seems to
+  have arisen from contact with Persian and from the respect for the
+  language of the Koran. In Irak the two towns of Basra and Kufa
+  produced two rival schools of philologists. Bagdad soon had one of its
+  own (cf. G. Flugel's _Die grammatischen Schulen der Araber_, Leipzig,
+  1862). Khalil ibn Ahmad (718-791), an Arab from Oman, of the school of
+  Basra, was the first to enunciate the laws of Arabic metre and the
+  first to write a dictionary. His pupil Sibawaihi (q.v.), a Persian,
+  wrote the grammar known simply as _The Book_, which is generally
+  regarded in the East as authoritative and almost above criticism.
+  Other members of the school of Basra were Abu 'Ubaida (q.v.), Asma'i
+  (q.v.), Mubarrad (q.v.) and Ibn Duraid (q.v.). The school of Kufa
+  claimed to pay more attention to the living language (spoken among the
+  Bedouins) than to written laws of grammar. Among its teachers were
+  Kisa'i, the tutor of Harun al-Rashid's sons, Ibn A'rabi, Ibn as-Sikkit
+  (d. 857) and Ibn ul-Anbari (885-939). In the fourth century of Islam
+  the two schools of Kufa and Basra declined in importance before the
+  increasing power of Bagdad, where Ibn Qutaiba, Ibn Jinni (941-1002)
+  and others carried on the work, but without the former rivalry of the
+  older schools. Persia from the beginning of the 10th century produced
+  some outstanding students of Arabic. Hamadhani (d. 932) wrote a book
+  of synonyms (ed. L. Cheikho, Beirut, 1885). Jauhari (q.v.) wrote his
+  great dictionary the _Sahah_. Tha'alibi (q.v.) and Jurjani (q.v.) were
+  almost contemporary, and a little later came Zamakhshari (q.v.), whose
+  philological works are almost as famous as his commentary on the
+  Koran. The most important dictionaries of Arabic are late in origin.
+  The immense work, _Lisan ul Arab_ (ed. 20 vols, Bulaq, 1883-1889), was
+  compiled by Ibn Manzur (1232-1311), the _Qamus_ by Fairuzabadi, the
+  _Taj ul'Arus_ (ed. 10 vols., Bulaq, 1890), founded on the _Qamus_, by
+  Murtada uz-Zabidi (1732-1790).
+
+  _Scientific Literature._--The literature of the various sciences is
+  dealt with elsewhere. It is enough here to mention that such existed,
+  and that it was not indigenous. It was in the early Abbasid period
+  that the scientific works of Greece were translated into Arabic, often
+  through the Syriac, and at the same time the influence of Sanskrit
+  works made itself felt. Astronomy seems in this way to have come
+  chiefly from India. The study of mathematics learned from Greece and
+  India was developed by Arabian writers, who in turn became the
+  teachers of Europe in the 16th century. Medical literature was
+  indebted for its origin to the works of Galen and the medical school
+  of Gondesapur. Many of the Arabian philosophers were also physicians
+  and wrote on medicine. Chemistry proper was not understood, but
+  Arabian writings on alchemy led Europe to it later. So also the
+  literature of the animal world (cf. Damiri) is not zoological but
+  legendary, and the works on minerals are practical and not scientific.
+  See ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY and historical sections of such scientific
+  articles as ASTRONOMY, &c.     (G. W. T.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For the general history of the succeeding period see CALIPHATE;
+    EGYPT: _History_, S "Mahommedan."
+
+  [2] For further details of this period, see Egypt: _History_,
+    "Mahommedan Period," S 8.
+
+  [3] On the subject of transmission cf. Th. Noldeke's _Beitrage zur
+    Kenntniss der Poesie der alten Araber_ (Hanover, 1804); and W.
+    Ahlwardt's _Bemerkungen uber die Aechtheit der alten arabischen
+    Gedickte_ (Greifswald, 1872).
+
+  [4] For details see the introduction to Noldeke's translation of
+    Tabari's _Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der Sasaniden_
+    (Leiden, 1879).
+
+  [5] Published in excerpt by Wustenfeld along with Azraqi (Leipzig,
+    1857-1859).
+
+  [6] Of this work the Gotha Library has a portion containing 290-320
+    A.H., of which the part about the West has been printed by Dozy in
+    the Bayan, and the rest was published at Leiden in 1897.
+
+  [7] A fragment (198-251 A.H.) is printed in de Goeje, _Fragm. Hist.
+    Ar._ (vol. ii., Leiden, 1871).
+
+  [8] The first part was rendered into French by Dubeux in 1836. There
+    is an excellent French translation by Zotenberg (1874).
+
+  [9] The chief Arabian geographical works have been edited by M.J. de
+    Goeje in his _Bibliotheca Geographorum arabicorum_ (Leiden, 1874
+    ff.).
+
+
+
+
+ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY. What is known as "Arabian" philosophy owed to Arabia
+little more than its name and its language. It was a system of Greek
+thought, expressed in a Semitic tongue, and modified by Oriental
+influences, called into existence amongst the Moslem people by the
+patronage of their more liberal princes, and kept alive by the
+intrepidity and zeal of a small band of thinkers, who stood suspected
+and disliked in the eyes of their nation. Their chief claim to the
+notice of the historian of speculation comes from their warm reception
+of Greek philosophy when it had been banished from its original soil,
+and whilst western Europe was still too rude and ignorant to be its home
+(9th to 12th century).
+
+
+  Origin.
+
+In the course of that exile the traces of Semitic or Mahommedan
+influence gradually faded away, and the last of the line of Saracenic
+thinkers was a truer exponent of the one philosophy which they all
+professed to teach than the first. The whole movement is little else
+than a chapter in the history of Aristotelianism. That system of
+thought, after passing through the minds of those who saw it in the hazy
+light of an orientalized Platonism, and finding many laborious but
+narrow-purposed cultivators in the monastic schools of heretical Syria,
+was then brought into contact with the ideas and mental habits of Islam.
+But those in whom the two currents converged did not belong to the pure
+Arab race. Of the so-called Arabian philosophers of the East, al-Farabi,
+Ibn-Sina and al-Ghazali were natives of Khorasan, Bokhara and the
+outlying provinces of north-eastern Persia; whilst al-Kindi, the
+earliest of them, sprang from Basra, on the Persian Gulf, on the
+debatable ground between the Semite and the Aryan. In Spain, again,
+where Ibn-Bajja, Ibn-Tufail and Ibn Rushd rivalled or exceeded the fame
+of the Eastern schools, the Arabians of pure blood were few, and the
+Moorish ruling class was deeply intersected by Jewish colonies, and even
+by the natives of Christian Spain. Thus, alike at Bagdad and at Cordova,
+Arabian philosophy represents the temporary victory of exotic ideas and
+of subject races over the theological one-sidedness of Islam, and the
+illiterate simplicity of the early Saracens.
+
+Islam had, it is true, a philosophy of its own among its theologians
+(see MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION). It was with them that the Moslem
+theology--the science of the word (_Kalam_)--first came into existence.
+Its professors, the _Mutakallimun_ (known in Hebrew as _Medabberim_, and
+as _Loquentes_ in the Latin versions), may be compared with the
+scholastic doctors of the Catholic Church. Driven in the first instance
+to speculation in theology by the needs of their natural reason, they
+came, in after days, when Greek philosophy had been naturalized in the
+Caliphate, to adapt its methods and doctrines to the support of their
+views. They employed a quasi-philosophical method, by which, according
+to Maimonides, they first reflected how things ought to be in order to
+support, or at least not contradict, their opinions, and then, when
+their minds were made up with regard to this imaginary system, declared
+that the world was no otherwise constituted. The dogmas of creation and
+providence, of divine omnipotence, chiefly exercised them; and they
+sought to assert for God an immediate action in the making and the
+keeping of the world. Space they looked upon as pervaded by atoms
+possessing no quality or extension, and time was similarly divided into
+innumerable instants. Each change in the constitution of the atoms is a
+direct act of the Almighty. When the fire burns, or the water moistens,
+these terms merely express the habitual connexion which our senses
+perceive between one thing and another. It is not the man that throws a
+stone who is its real mover: the supreme agent has for the moment
+created motion. If a living being die, it is because God has created the
+attribute of death; and the body remains dead, only because that
+attribute is unceasingly created. Thus, on the one hand, the object
+called the cause is denied to have any efficient power to produce the
+so-called effect; and, on the other hand, the regularities or laws of
+nature are explained to be direct interferences by the Deity. The
+supposed uniformity and necessity of causation is only an effect of
+custom, and may be at any moment rescinded. In this way, by a theory
+which, according to Averroes, involves the negation of science, the
+Moslem theologians believed that they had exalted God beyond the limits
+of the metaphysical and scientific conceptions of law, form and matter;
+whilst they at the same time stood aloof from the vulgar doctrines,
+attributing a causality to things. Thus they deemed they had left a
+clear ground for the possibility of miracles.
+
+But at least one point was common to the theological and the
+philosophical doctrine. Carrying out, it may be, the principles of the
+Neo-Platonists, they kept the sanctuary of the Deity securely guarded,
+and interposed between him and his creatures a spiritual order of potent
+principles, from the Intelligence, which is the first-born image of the
+great unity, to the Soul and Nature, which come later in the spiritual
+rank. Of God the philosophers said we could not tell what He is, but
+only what He is not. The highest point, beyond which strictly
+philosophical inquirers did not penetrate, was the active intellect,--a
+sort of soul of the world in Aristotelian garb--the principle which
+inspires and regulates the development of humanity, and in which lies
+the goal of perfection for the human spirit. In theological language the
+active intellect is described as an angel. The inspirations which the
+prophet receives by angelic messengers are compared with the irradiation
+of intellectual light, which the philosopher wins by contemplation of
+truth and increasing purity of life. But while the theologian
+incessantly postulated the agency of that God whose nature he deemed
+beyond the pale of science, the philosopher, following a purely human
+and natural aim, directed his efforts to the gradual elevation of his
+part of reason from its unformed state, and to its final union with the
+controlling intellect which moves and draws to itself the spirits of
+those who prepare themselves for its influences. The philosophers in
+their way, like the mystics of Persia (the Sufites) in another, tended
+towards a theory of the communion of man with the spiritual world, which
+may be considered a protest against the practical and almost prosaic
+definiteness of the creed of Mahomet.
+
+Arabian philosophy, at the outset of its career in the 9th century, was
+able without difficulty to take possession of those resources for
+speculative thought which the Latins had barely achieved at the close of
+the 12th century by the slow process of rediscovering the Aristotelian
+logic from the commentaries and verses of Boetius. What the Latins
+painfully accomplished, owing to their fragmentary and unintelligent
+acquaintance with ancient philosophy, was already done for the Arabians
+by the scholars of Syria. In the early centuries of the Christian era,
+both within and without the ranks of the church, the Platonic tone and
+method were paramount throughout the East. Their influence was felt in
+the creeds which formulated the orthodox dogmas in regard to the Trinity
+and the Incarnation. But in its later days the Neo-Platonist school came
+more and more to find in Aristotle the best exponent and interpreter of
+the philosopher whom they thought divine. It was in this spirit that
+Porphyry, Themistius and Joannes Philoponus composed their commentaries
+on the treatises of the Peripatetic system which, modified often
+unconsciously by the dominant ideas of its expositors, became in the 6th
+and 7th centuries the philosophy of the Eastern Church. But the
+instrument which, in the hands of John of Damascus (Damascenus), was
+made subservient to theological interests, became in the hands of others
+a dissolvent of the doctrines which had been reduced to shape under the
+prevalence of the elder Platonism. Peripatetic studies became the source
+of heresies; and conversely, the heretical sects prosecuted the study of
+Aristotle with peculiar zeal. The church of the Nestorians, and that of
+the Monophysites, in their several schools and monasteries, carried on
+from the 5th to the 8th century the study of the earlier part of the
+Organon, with almost the same means, purposes and results as were found
+among the Latin schoolmen of the earlier centuries. Up to the time when
+the religious zeal of the emperor Zeno put a stop to the Nestorian
+school at Edessa, this "Athens of Syria" was active in translating and
+popularizing the Aristotelian logic. Their banishment from Edessa in 489
+drove the Nestorian scholars to Persia, where the Sassanid rulers gave
+them a welcome; and there they continued their labours on the Organon. A
+new seminary of logic and theology sprang up at Nisibis, not far from
+the old locality; and at Gandisapora (or Nishapur), in the east of
+Persia, there arose a medical school, whence Greek medicine, and in its
+company Greek science and philosophy, ere long spread over the lands of
+Iran. Meanwhile the Monophysites had followed in the steps of the
+Nestorians, multiplying Syriac versions of the logical and medical
+science of the Greeks. Their school at Resaina is known from the name of
+Sergius, one of the first of these translators, in the days of
+Justinian; and from their monasteries at Kinnesrin (Chalcis) issued
+numerous versions of the introductory treatises of the Aristotelian
+logic. To the Isagoge of Porphyry, the Categories and the Hermeneutica
+of Aristotle, the labours of these Syrian schoolmen were confined. These
+they expounded, translated, epitomized and made the basis of their
+compilations, and the few who were bold enough to attempt the Analytics
+seem to have left their task unaccomplished.
+
+The energy of the Monophysites, however, began to sink with the rise of
+the Moslem empire; and when philosophy revived amongst them in the 13th
+century, in the person of Gregorius Bat-Hebraeus (Abulfaragius)
+(1226-1286), the revival was due to the example and influence of the
+Arabian thinkers. It was otherwise with the Nestorians. Gaining by means
+of their professional skill as physicians a high rank in the society of
+the Moslem world, the Nestorian scholars soon made Bagdad familiar with
+the knowledge of Greek philosophy and science which they possessed. But
+the narrow limits of the Syrian studies, which added to a scanty
+knowledge of Aristotle some acquaintance with his Syrian commentators,
+were soon passed by the curiosity and zeal of the students in the
+Caliphate. During the 8th and 9th centuries, rough but generally
+faithful versions of Aristotle's principal works were made into Syriac,
+and then from the Syriac into Arabic. The names of some of these
+translators, such as Johannitius (Hunain ibn-Ishaq), were heard even in
+the Latin schools. By the labours of Hunain and his family the great
+body of Greek science, medical, astronomical and mathematical, became
+accessible to the Arab-speaking races. But for the next three centuries
+fresh versions, both of the philosopher and of his commentators,
+continued to succeed each other.
+
+To the Arabians Aristotle represented and summed up Greek philosophy,
+even as Galen became to them the code of Greek medicine. They adopted
+the doctrine and system which the progress of human affairs had made the
+intellectual aliment of their Syrian guides. From first to last Arabian
+philosophers made no claim to originality; their aim was merely to
+propagate the truth of Peripateticism as it had been delivered to them.
+It was with them that the deification of Aristotle began; and from them
+the belief that in him human intelligence had reached its limit passed
+to the later schoolmen (see SCHOLASTICISM). The progress amongst the
+Arabians on this side lies in a closer adherence to their text, a nearer
+approach to the bare exegesis of their author, and an increasing
+emancipation from control by the tenets of the popular religion.
+
+
+  Under the Caliphate.
+
+Secular philosophy found its first entrance amongst the Saracens in the
+days of the early caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty, whose ways and
+thoughts had been moulded by their residence in Persia amid the
+influences of an older creed, and of ideas which had in the last resort
+sprung from the Greeks. The seat of empire had been transferred to
+Bagdad, on the highway of Oriental commerce; and the distant Khorasan
+became the favourite province of the caliph. Then was inaugurated the
+period of Persian supremacy, during which Islam was laid open to the
+full current of alien ideas and culture. The incitement came, however,
+not from the people, but from the prince: it was in the light of court
+favour that the colleges of Bagdad and Nishapur first came to attract
+students from every quarter, from the valleys of Andalusia as well as
+the upland plains of Transoxiana. Mansur, the second of the Abbasids,
+encouraged the appropriation of Greek science; but it was al-Ma'mun, the
+son of Harun al-Rashid, who deserves in the Mahommedan empire the same
+position of royal founder and benefactor which is held by Charlemagne in
+the history of the Latin schools. In his reign (813-833) Aristotle was
+first translated into Arabic. Orthodox Moslems, however, distrusted the
+course on which their chief had entered, and his philosophical
+proclivities became one ground for doubting as to his final salvation.
+
+In the eastern provinces the chief names of Arabian philosophy are those
+known to the Latin schoolmen as Alkindius, Aliarabius, Avicenna and
+Algazel, or under forms resembling these. The first of these, Alkindius
+(_see_ KINDI), flourished at the court of Bagdad in the first half of
+the 9th century. His claims to notice at the present day rest upon a few
+works on medicine, theology, music and natural science. With him begins
+that encyclopaedic character--the simultaneous cultivation of the whole
+field of investigation which is reflected from Aristotle on the Arabian
+school. In him too is found the union of Platonism and Aristotelianism
+expressed in Neo-Platonic terms. Towards the close of the 10th century
+the presentation of an entire scheme of knowledge, beginning with logic
+and mathematics, and ascending through the various departments of
+physical inquiry to the region of religious doctrine, was accomplished
+by a society which had its chief seat at Basra, the native town of
+al-Kindi. This society--the Brothers of Purity or Sincerity (Ikhwan us
+Safa'i)--divided into four orders, wrought in the interests of religion
+no less than of science; and though its attempt to compile an
+encyclopaedia of existing knowledge may have been premature, it yet
+contributed to spread abroad a desire for further information. The
+proposed reconciliation between science and faith was not accomplished,
+because the compromise could please neither party. The fifty-one
+treatises of which this encyclopaedia consists are interspersed with
+apologues in true Oriental style, and the idea of goodness, of moral
+perfection, is as prominent an end in every discourse as it was in the
+alleged dream of al-Ma'mun. The materials of the work come chiefly from
+Aristotle, but they are conceived in a Platonizing spirit, which places
+as the bond of all things a universal soul of the world with its partial
+or fragmentary souls. Contemporary with this semi-religious and
+semi-philosophical society lived Alfarabius (see FARABI), who died in
+950. His paraphrases of Aristotle formed the basis on which Avicenna
+constructed his system, and his logical treatises produced a permanent
+effect on the logic of the Latin scholars. He gave the tone and
+direction to nearly all subsequent speculations among the Arabians. His
+order and enumeration of the principles of being, his doctrine of the
+double aspect of intellect, and of the perfect beatitude which consists
+in the aggregation of noble minds when they are delivered from the
+separating barriers of individual bodies, present at least in germ the
+characteristic theory of Averroes. But al-Farabi was not always
+consistent in his views; a certain sobriety checked his speculative
+flights, and although holding that the true perfection of man is reached
+in this life by the elevation of the intellectual nature, he came
+towards the close to think the separate existence of intellect no better
+than a delusion.
+
+
+  Avicenna.
+
+Unquestionably the most illustrious name amongst the Oriental Moslems
+was Avicenna (980-1037). His rank in the medieval world as a philosopher
+was far beneath his fame as a physician. Still, the logic of Albertus
+Magnus and succeeding doctors was largely indebted to him for its
+formulae. In logic Avicenna starts from distinguishing between the
+isolated concept and the judgment or assertion; from which two primitive
+elements of knowledge there is artificially generated a complete and
+scientific knowledge by the two processes of definition and syllogism.
+But the chief interest for the history of logic belongs to his doctrine
+in so far as it bears upon the nature and function of abstract ideas.
+The question had been suggested alike to East and West by Porphyry, and
+the Arabians were the first to approach the full statement of the
+problem. Farabi had pointed out that the universal and individual are
+not distinguished from each other as understanding from the senses, but
+that both universal and individual are in one respect intellectual, just
+as in another connexion they play a part in perception. He had
+distinguished the universal essence in its abstract nature, from the
+universal considered in relation to a number of singulars. These
+suggestions formed the basis of Avicenna's doctrine. The essences or
+forms--the _intelligibilia_ which constitute the world of real
+knowledge--may be looked at in themselves (metaphysically), or as
+embodied in the things of sense (physically), or as expressing the
+processes of thought (logically). The first of these three points of
+view deals with the form or idea as self-contained in the principles of
+its own being, apart from those connexions and distinctions which it
+receives in real (sensuous) science, and through the act of intellect.
+Secondly, the form may be looked at as the similarity evolved by a
+process of comparison, as the work of mental reflection, and in that way
+as essentially expressing a relation. When thus considered as the common
+features derived by examination from singular instances, it becomes a
+universal or common term strictly so called. It is intellect which first
+makes the abstract idea a true universal. _Intellectus in formis agit
+universalitatem._ In the third place, the form or essence may be looked
+upon as embodied in outward things (_in singularibus propriis_), and
+thus it is the type more or less represented by the members of a natural
+kind. It is the designation of these outward things which forms the
+"first intention" of names; and it is only at a later stage, when
+thought comes to observe its own modes, that names, looked upon as
+predicables and universals, are taken in their "second intention." Logic
+deals with such second intentions. It does not consider the forms _ante
+multiplicitatem_, i.e. as eternal ideas--nor in _multiplicitate_, i.e.
+as immersed in the matter of the phenomenal world--but _post
+multiplicitatem_, _i. e._ as they exist in and for the intellect which
+has examined and compared. Logic does not come in contact with things,
+except as they are subject to modification by intellectual forms. In
+other words, universality, individuality and speciality are all equally
+modes of our comprehension or notion; their meaning consists in their
+setting forth the relations attaching to any object of our conception.
+In the mind, e.g., one form may be placed in reference to a multitude of
+things, and as thus related will be universal. The form animal, e.g., is
+an abstract intelligible or metaphysical idea. When an act of thought
+employs it as a schema to unify several species, it acquires its logical
+aspect (_respectus_) of generality; and the various living beings
+qualified to have the name animal applied to them constitute the natural
+class or kind. Avicenna's view of the universal may be compared with
+that of Abelard, which calls it "that whose nature it is to be
+predicated of several," as if the generality became explicit only in the
+act of predication, in the _sermo_ or proposition, and not in the
+abstract, unrelated form or essence. The three modes of the universal
+before things, in things, and after things, spring from Arabian
+influence, but depart somewhat from his standpoint.
+
+The place of Avicenna amongst Moslem philosophers is seen in the fact
+that Shahrastani takes him as the type of all, and that Ghazali's attack
+against philosophy is in reality almost entirely directed against
+Avicenna. His system is in the main a codification of Aristotle modified
+by fundamental views of Neo-Platonist origin, and it tends to be a
+compromise with theology. In order, for example, to maintain the
+necessity of creation, he taught that all things except God were
+admissible or possible in their own nature, but that certain of them
+were rendered necessary by the act of the creative first agent,--in
+other words, that the possible could be transformed into the necessary.
+Avicenna's theory of the process of knowledge is an interesting part of
+his doctrine. Man has a rational soul, one face of which is turned
+towards the body, and, by the help of the higher aspect, acts as
+practical understanding; the other face lies open to the reception and
+acquisition of the intelligible forms, and its aim is to become a
+reasonable world, reproducing the forms of the universe and their
+intelligible order. In man there is only the susceptibility to reason,
+which is sustained and helped by the light of the active intellect. Man
+may prepare himself for this influx by removing the obstacles which
+prevent the union of the intellect with the human vessel destined for
+its reception. The stages of this process to the acquisition of mind are
+generally enumerated by Avicenna as four; in this part he follows not
+Aristotle, but the Greek commentator. The first stage is that of the
+hylic or material intellect, a state of mere potentiality, like that of
+a child for writing, before he has ever put pen to paper. The second
+stage is called _in habitu_; it is compared to the case of a child that
+has learned the elements of writing, when the bare possibility is on the
+way to be developed, and is seen to be real. In this period of
+half-trained reason, it appears as happy conjecture, not yet transformed
+into art or science proper. When the power of writing has been
+actualized, we have a parallel to the _intellectus in actu_--the way of
+science and demonstration is entered. And when writing has been made a
+permanent accomplishment, or lasting property of the subject, to be
+taken up at will, it corresponds to the _intellectus adeptus_--the
+complete mastery of science. The whole process may be compared to the
+gradual illumination of a body naturally capable of receiving light.
+There are, however, grades of susceptibility to the active intellect,
+i.e. in theological language, to communication with God and his angels.
+Sometimes the receptivity is so vigorous in its affinity, that without
+teaching it rises at one step to the vision of truth, by a certain "holy
+force" above ordinary measure. (In this way philosophy tried to account
+for the phenomenon of prophecy, one of the ruling ideas of Islam.) But
+the active intellect is not merely influential on human souls. It is the
+universal giver of forms in the world.
+
+In several points Avicenna endeavoured to give a _rationale_ of
+theological dogmas, particularly of prophetic rule, of miracles, divine
+providence and immortality. The permanence of individual souls he
+supports by arguments borrowed from those of Plato. The existence of a
+prophet is shown to be a corollary from a belief in God as a moral
+governor, and the phenomena of miracles are required to evidence the
+genuineness of the prophetic mission. Thus Avicenna, like his
+predecessors, tried to harmonize the abstract forms of philosphy with
+the religious faith of his nation. But his arguments are generally
+vitiated by the fallacy of assuming what they profess to prove. His
+failure is made obvious by the attack of Ghazali on the tendencies and
+results of speculation.
+
+
+  Ghazali.
+
+To Ghazali (q.v.) it seemed that the study of secular philosophy had
+resulted in a general indifference to religion, and that the scepticism
+which concealed itself under a pretence of piety was destroying the life
+and purity of the nation. With these views he carried into the fields of
+philosophy the aims and spirit of the Moslem theologian. His restless
+life was the reflex of a mental history disturbed by prolonged
+agitation. Revolting, in the height of his success, against the current
+creed, he began to examine the foundations of knowledge. The senses are
+contradicted by one another, and disproved by reason. Reason, indeed,
+professes to furnish us with necessary truths; but what assurance have
+we that the verdicts of reason may not be reversed by some higher
+authority? Ghazali then interrogated all the sects in succession to
+learn their criterion of truth. He first applied to the theological
+schoolmen, who grounded their religion on reason; but their aim was only
+to preserve the faith from heresy. He turned to the philosophers, and
+examined the accepted Aristotelianism in a treatise which has come down
+to us--_The Destruction of the Philosophers_. He assails them on twenty
+points of their mixed physical and metaphysical peripateticism, from the
+statement of which, in spite of his pretended scepticism, we can deduce
+some very positive metaphysical opinions of his own. He claims to have
+shown that the dogmas of the eternity of matter and the permanence of
+the world are false; that their description of the Deity as the
+demiurgos is unspiritual; that they fail to prove the existence, the
+unity, the simplicity, the incorporeality or the knowledge (both of
+species and accidents) of God; that their ascription of souls to the
+celestial spheres is unproved; that their theory of causation, which
+attributes effects to the very natures of the causes, is false, for that
+all actions and events are to be ascribed to the Deity; and, finally,
+that they cannot establish the spirituality of the soul, nor prove its
+mortality. These criticisms disclose nothing like a sceptical state of
+mind, but rather a reversion from the metaphysical to the theological
+stage of thought. He denies the intrinsic tendencies, or souls, by which
+the Aristotelians explained the motion of the spheres, because he
+ascribes their motion to God. The sceptic would have denied both. G.H.
+Lewes censures Renan for asserting of Ghazali's theory of
+causation--"_Hume n'a rien dit plus_." It is true that Ghazali maintains
+that the natural law according to which effects proceed inevitably from
+their causes is only custom, and that there is no _necessary_ connexion
+between them. But while Hume absolutely denies the necessity, Ghazali
+merely removes it one stage farther back, and plants it in the mind of
+the Deity. This, of course, is not metaphysics, but theology. Having, as
+he believed, refuted the opinions of the philosophers, he next
+investigated the pretensions of the Allegorists, who derived their
+doctrines from an imam. These Arabian ultramontanes had no word for the
+doubter. They could not, he says, even understand the problems they
+sought to resolve by the assumption of infallibility, and he turned
+again, in his despair, to the instructors of his youth--the Sufis. In
+their mystical intuition of the laws of life, and absorption in the
+immanent Deity, he at last found peace. This shows the true character of
+the treatise which, alike in medieval and modern times, has been quoted
+as containing an exposition of his opinions. The work called _The
+Tendencies of the Philosophers_, translated in 1506, with the title
+_Logica et Philosophia Algazelis Arabis_, contains neither the logic nor
+the philosophy of Ghazali. It is a mere abstract or statement of the
+Peripatetic systems, and was made preliminary to that _Destruction_ of
+which we have already spoken.
+
+This indictment against liberal thought from the standpoint of the
+theological school was afterwards answered in Spain by Averroes; but in
+Bagdad it heralded the extinction of the light of philosophy. Moderate
+and compliant with the popular religion as Alfarabius and Avicenna had
+always been, as compared with their Spanish successor, they had equally
+failed to conciliate the popular spirit, and were classed in the same
+category with the heretic or the member of an immoral sect. The 12th
+century exhibits the decay of liberal intellectual activity in the
+Caliphate, and the gradual ascendancy of Turkish races animated with all
+the intolerance of semi-barbarian proselytes to the Mahommedan faith.
+Philosophy, which had only sprung up when the purely Arabian influences
+ceased to predominate, came to an end when the sceptre of the Moslem
+world passed away from the dynasty of Persia. Even in 1150 Bagdad had
+seen a library of philosophical books burned by command of the caliph
+Mostanjid; and in 1192 the same place might have witnessed a strange
+scene, in which the books of a physician were first publicly cursed, and
+then committed to the flames, while their owner was incarcerated. Thus,
+while the Latin church showed a marvellous receptivity for ethnic
+philosophy, and assimilated doctrines which it had at an earlier date
+declared impious, in Islam the theological system entrenched itself
+towards the end of the 12th century in the narrow orthodoxy of the
+Asharites, and reduced the votaries of Greek philosophy to silence.
+
+
+  In Spain.
+
+The same phenomena were repeated in Spain under the Mahommedan rulers of
+Andalusia and Morocco, with this difference, that the time of
+philosophical development was shorter, and the heights to which Spanish
+thinkers soared were greater. The reign of al-Hakam the Second (961-976)
+inaugurated in Andalusia those scientific and philosophical studies
+which were simultaneously prosecuted by the Society of Basra. From
+Cairo, Bagdad, Damascus and Alexandria, books both old and new were
+procured at any price for the library of the prince; twenty-seven free
+schools were opened in Cordova for the education of the poor; and
+intelligent knowledge was perhaps more widely diffused in Mahommedan
+Spain than in any other part of Europe at that day. The mosques of the
+city were filled with crowds who listened to lectures on science and
+literature, law and religion. But the future glory thus promised was
+long postponed. The usurping successor of Hakam found it a politic step
+to request the most notable doctors of the sacred law to examine the
+royal library; and every book treating of philosophy, astronomy and
+other forbidden topics was condemned to the flames. But the spirit of
+research, fostered by the fusion of races and the social and
+intellectual competition thus engendered, was not crushed by these
+proceedings; and for the next century and more the higher minds of Spain
+found in Damascus and Bagdad the intellectual aliment which they
+desired. At last, towards the close of the 11th century, the long-pent
+spiritual energies of Mahommedan Spain burst forth in a brief series of
+illustrious men. Whilst the native Spaniards were narrowing the limits
+of the Moorish kingdoms, and whilst the generally fanatical dynasty of
+the Almohades might have been expected to repress speculation, the
+century preceding the close of Mahommedan sway saw philosophy cultivated
+by Avempace, Abubacer and Averroes. Even amongst the Almohades there
+were princes, such as Yusuf (who began his reign in 1163) and Yaqub
+Almansur (who succeeded in 1184), who welcomed the philosopher at their
+courts and treated him as an intellectual compeer. But about 1195 the
+old distrust of philosophy revived; the philosophers were banished in
+disgrace; works on philosophical topics were ordered to be confiscated
+and burned; and the son of Almansur condemned a certain Ibn-Habib to
+death for the crime of philosophizing.
+
+
+  Avempace.
+
+Arabian speculation in Spain was heralded by Avicebron or Ibn Gabirol
+(q.v.), a Jewish philosopher (1021-1058). About a generation later the
+rank of Moslem thinkers was introduced by Abu-Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya,
+surnamed Ibn-Bajja, and known to the Latin world as Avempace. He was
+born at Saragossa, and died comparatively young at Fez in 1138. Besides
+commenting on various physical treatises of Aristotle's, he wrote some
+philosophical essays, notably one on the _Republic or Regime of the
+Solitary_, understanding by that the organized system of rules, by
+obedience to which the individual may rise from the mere life of the
+senses to the perception of pure intelligible principles and may
+participate in the divine thought which sustains the world. These rules
+for the individual are but the image or reflex of the political
+organization of the perfect or ideal state; and the man who strives to
+lead this life is called the _solitary_, not because he withdraws from
+society, but because, while in it, he guides himself by reference to a
+higher state, an ideal society. Avempace does not develop at any length
+this curious Platonic idea of the perfect state. His object is to
+discover the highest end of human life, and with this view he classifies
+the various activities of the human soul, rejects such as are material
+or animal, and then analyses the various spiritual forms to which the
+activities may be directed. He points out the graduated scale of such
+forms, through which the soul may rise, and shows that none are final or
+complete in themselves, except the pure intelligible forms, the ideas of
+ideas. These the intellect can grasp, and in so doing it becomes what he
+calls _intellectus acquisitus_, and is in a measure divine. This
+self-consciousness of pure reason is the highest object of human
+activity, and is to be attained by the speculative method. The intellect
+has in itself power to know ultimate truth and intelligence, and does
+not require a mystical illumination as Ghazali taught. Avempace's
+principles, it is clear, lead directly to the Averroistic doctrine of
+the unity of intellect, but the obscurity and incompleteness of the
+Regime do not permit us to judge how far he anticipated the later
+thinker. (See Munk, _Melanges de phil. juive et arabe_, pp. 383-410.)
+
+The same theme was developed by Ibn.-Tufail (q.v.) in his philosophical
+romance, called _Hayy ibn-Yakdhan_ (the Living, Son of the Waking One),
+best known by Pococke's Latin version, as the _Philosophus
+Autodidactus_. It describes the process by which an isolated
+truth-seeker detaches himself from his lower passions, and raises
+himself above the material earth and the orbs of heaven to the forms
+which are the source of their movement, until he arrives at a union with
+the supreme intellect. The experiences of the religious mystic are
+paralleled with the ecstatic vision in which the philosophical hermit
+sees a world of pure intelligences, where birth and decease are unknown.
+It was this theory which Averroes (1126-1198), the last and most famous
+of the thinkers of Moslem Spain, carried out to his doctrine of the
+unity of intellect.
+
+
+  Averroes.
+
+For Aristotle the reverence of Averroes was unbounded, and to expound
+him was his chosen task. The uncritical receptivity of his age, the
+defects of the Arabic versions, the emphatic theism of his creed, and
+the rationalizing mysticism of some Oriental thought, may have sometimes
+led him astray, and given prominence to the less obvious features of
+Aristotelianism. But in his conception of the relation between
+philosophy and religion, Averroes had a light which the Latins were
+without. The science, falsely so called, of the several theological
+schools, their groundless distinctions and sophistical demonstrations,
+he regarded as the great source of heresy and scepticism. The
+allegorical interpretations and metaphysics which had been imported into
+religion had taken men's minds away from the plain sense of the Koran.
+God had declared a truth meet for all men, which needed no intellectual
+superiority to understand, in a tongue which each human soul could
+apprehend. Accordingly, the expositors of religious metaphysics, Ghazali
+included, are the enemies of true religion, because they make it a mere
+matter of syllogism. Averroes maintains that a return must be made to
+the words and teaching of the prophet; that science must not expend
+itself in dogmatizing on the metaphysical consequences of fragments of
+doctrine for popular acceptance, but must proceed to reflect upon and
+examine the existing things of the world. Averroes, at the same time,
+condemns the attempts of those who tried to give demonstrative science
+where the mind was not capable of more than rhetoric: they harm religion
+by their mere negations, destroying an old sensuous creed, but cannot
+build up a higher and intellectual faith.
+
+In this spirit Averroes does not allow the fancied needs of theological
+reasoning to interfere with his study of Aristotle, whom he simply
+interprets as a truth-seeker. The points by which he told on Europe were
+all implicit in Aristotle, but Averroes set in relief what the original
+had left obscure, and emphasized things which the Christian theologian
+passed by or misconceived. Thus Averroes had a double effect. He was the
+great interpreter of Aristotle to the later Schoolmen. On the other
+hand, he came to represent those aspects of Peripateticism most alien to
+the spirit of Christendom; and the deeply religious Moslem gave his name
+to the anti-sacerdotal party, to the materialists, sceptics and
+atheists, who defied or undermined the dominant beliefs of the church.
+
+On three points Averroes, like other Moslem thinkers, came specially
+into relation, real or supposed, with the religious creed, viz. the
+creation of the world, the divine knowledge of particular things, and
+the future of the human soul.
+
+The real grandeur of Averroes is seen in his resolute prosecution of the
+standpoint of science in matters of this world, and in his recognition
+that religion is not a branch of knowledge to be reduced to propositions
+and systems of dogma, but a personal and inward power, an individual
+truth which stands distinct from, but not contradictory to, the
+universalities of scientific law. In his science he followed the Greeks,
+and to the Schoolmen he and his compatriots rightly seemed philosophers
+of the ancient world. He maintained alike the claim of demonstrative
+science with its generalities for the few who could live in that
+ethereal world, and the claim of religion for all--the common life of
+each soul as an individual and personal consciousness. But theology, or
+the mixture of the two, he regarded as a source of evil to
+both--fostering the vain belief in a hostility of philosophers to
+religion, and meanwhile corrupting religion by a pseudo-science.
+
+The latent nominalism of Aristotle only came gradually to be emphasized
+through the prominence which Christianity gave to the individual life,
+and, apart from passing notices as in Abelard, first found clear
+enunciation in the school of Duns Scotus. The Arabians, on the contrary,
+emphasized the idealist aspect which had been adopted and promoted by
+the Neo-Platonist commentators. Hence, to Averroes the eternity of the
+world finds its true expression in the eternity of God. The ceaseless
+movement of growth and change, which presents matter in form after form
+as a continual search after a finality which in time and movement is not
+and cannot be reached, represents only the aspect the world shows to the
+physicist and to the senses. In the eye of reason the full fruition of
+this desired finality is already and always attained; the actualization,
+invisible to the senses, is achieved now and ever, and is thus beyond
+the element of time. This transcendent or abstract being is that which
+the world of nature is always seeking. He is thought or intellect, the
+actuality, of which movement is but the fragmentary attainment in
+successive instants of time. Such a mind is not in the theological sense
+a creator, yet the onward movement is not the same as what some modern
+thinkers seem to mean by development. For the perfect and absolute, the
+consummation of movement is not generated at any point in the process;
+it is an ideal end, which guides the operations of nature, and does not
+wait upon them for its achievement. God is the unchanging essence of the
+movement, and therefore its eternal cause.
+
+A special application of this relation between the prior perfect, and
+the imperfect, which it influences, is found in the doctrine of the
+connexion of the abstract (transcendent) intellect with man. This
+transcendent mind is sometimes connected with the moon, according to the
+theory of Aristotle, who assigned an imperishable matter to the sphere
+beyond the sublunary, and in general looked upon the celestial orbs as
+living and intelligent. Such an intellect, named active or productive,
+as being the author of the development of reason in man, is the
+permanent, eternal thought, which is the truth of the cosmic and
+physical movement. It is in man that the physical or sensible passes
+most evidently into the metaphysical and rational. Humanity is the
+chosen vessel in which the light of the intellect is revealed; and so
+long as mankind lasts there must always be some individuals destined to
+receive this light. What seems from the material point of view to be the
+acquisition of learning, study and a moral life, is from the higher
+point of view the manifestation of the transcendent intellect in the
+individual. The preparation of the heart and faculties gives rise to a
+series of grades between the original predisposition and the full
+acquisition of actual intellect. These grades in the main resemble those
+given by Avicenna. But beyond these, Averroes claims as the highest
+bliss of the soul a union in this life with the actual intellect. The
+intellect, therefore, is one and continuous in all individuals, who
+differ only in the degree which their illumination has attained. Such
+was the Averroist doctrine of the unity of intellect--the eternal and
+universal nature of true intellectual life. By his interpreters it was
+transformed into a theory of one soul common to all mankind, and when
+thus corrupted conflicted not unreasonably with the doctrines of a
+future life, common to Islam and Christendom.
+
+
+  Opponents of Averoism.
+
+Averroes, rejected by his Moslem countrymen, found a hearing among the
+Jews, to whom Maimonides had shown the free paths of Greek speculation.
+In the cities of Languedoc and of Provence to which they had been driven
+by Spanish fanaticism, the Jews no longer used the learned Arabic, and
+translations of the works of Averroes became necessary. His writings
+became the text-book of Levi ben Gerson at Perpignan, and of Moses of
+Narbonne. Meanwhile, before 1250, Averroes became accessible to the
+Latin Schoolmen by means of versions, accredited by the names of Michael
+Scot and others. William of Auvergne is the first Schoolman who
+criticizes the doctrines of Averroes, not, however, by name. Albertus
+Magnus and St Thomas devote special treatises to an examination of the
+Averroist theory of the unity of intellect, which they labour to confute
+in order to establish the orthodoxy of Aristotle. But as early as
+Aegidius Romanus (1247-1316). Averroes had been stamped as the patron of
+indifference to theological dogmas, and credited with the emancipation
+which was equally due to wider experience and the lessons of the
+Crusades. There had never been an absence of protest against the
+hierarchical doctrine. Berengar of Tours (11th century) had struggled in
+that interest, and with Abelard, in the 12th century, the revolt against
+authority in belief grew loud. The dialogue between a Christian, a Jew
+and a philosopher suggested a comparative estimate of religions, and
+placed the natural religion of the moral law above all positive
+revelations. Nihilists and naturalists, who deified logic and science at
+the expense of faith, were not unknown at Paris in the days of John of
+Salisbury. In such a critical generation the words of Averroism found
+willing ears, and pupils who outran their teacher. Paris became the
+centre of a sceptical society, which the decrees of bishops and
+councils, and the enthusiasm of the orthodox doctors and knights-errant
+of Catholicism, were powerless to extinguish. At Oxford Averroes told
+more as the great commentator. In the days of Roger Bacon he had become
+an authority. Bacon, placing him beside Aristotle and Avicenna,
+recommends the study of Arabic as the only way of getting the knowledge
+which bad versions made almost hopeless. In Duns Scotus, Averroes and
+Aristotle are the unequalled masters of the science of proof; and he
+pronounces distinctly the separation between Catholic and philosophical
+truth, which became the watchword of Averroism. By the 14th century
+Averroism was the common leaven of philosophy; John Baconthorpe is the
+chief of Averroists, and Walter Burley has similar tendencies.
+
+Meanwhile Averrcism had come to be regarded by the great Dominican
+school as the arch-enemy of the truth. When the emperor Frederick II.
+consulted a Moslem free-thinker on the mysteries of the faith, when the
+phrase or legend of the "Three Impostors" presented in its most
+offensive form the scientific survey of the three laws of Moses, Christ
+and Mahomet, and when the characteristic doctrines of Averroes were
+misunderstood, it soon followed that his name became the badge of the
+scoffer and the sceptic. What had begun with the subtle disputes of the
+universities of Paris, went on to the materialist teachers in the
+medical schools and the sceptical men of the world in the cities of
+northern Italy. The patricians of Venice and the lecturers of Padua made
+Averroism synonymous with doubt and criticism in theology, and with
+sarcasm against the hierarchy. Petrarch refuses to believe that any good
+thing can come out of Arabia, and speaks of Averroes as a mad dog
+barking against the church. In works of contemporary art Averroes is at
+one time the comrade of Mahomet and Antichrist; at another he lies with
+Arius and Sabellius, vanquished by the lance of St Thomas.
+
+
+  The school of Padua.
+
+It was in the universities of north Italy that Averroism finally
+settled, and there for three centuries it continued as a stronghold of
+Scholasticism to resist the efforts of revived antiquity and of
+advancing science. Padua became the seat of Averroist Aristotelianism;
+and, when Padua was conquered by Venice in 1405, the printers of the
+republic spread abroad the teaching of the professors in the university.
+As early as 1300, at Padua, Petrus Aponensis, a notable expositor of
+medical theories, had betrayed a heterodoxy in faith; and John of
+Jandun, one of the pamphleteers on the side of Louis of Bavaria, was a
+keen follower of Averroes, whom he styles a "perfect and most glorious
+physicist." Urbanus of Bologna, Paul of Venice (d. 1428), and Cajetanus
+de Thienis (1387-1465), established by their lectures and their
+discussions the authority of Averroes; and a long list of manuscripts
+rests in the libraries of Lombardy to witness the diligence of these
+writers and their successors. Even a lady of Venice, Cassandra Fedele,
+in 1480, gained her laurels in defence of Averroist theses.
+
+With Pietro Pomponazzi (q.v.) in 1495, a brilliant epoch began for the
+school of Padua. Questions of permanent and present interest took the
+place of outworn scholastic problems. The disputants ranged themselves
+under the rival commentators, Alexander and Averroes; and the
+immortality of the soul became the battle-ground of the two parties.
+Pomponazzi defended the Alexandrist doctrine of the utter mortality of
+the soul, whilst Agostino Nifo (q.v.), the Averroist, was entrusted by
+Leo X. with the task of defending the Catholic doctrine. The parties
+seemed to have changed when Averroism thus took the side of the church;
+but the change was probably due to compulsion. Nifo had edited the works
+of Averroes (1495-1497); but his expressions gave offence to the
+dominant theologians, and he had to save himself by distinguishing his
+personal faith from his editorial capacity. Alessandro Achillini, the
+persistent philosophical adversary of Pomponazzi, both at Padua and
+subsequently at Bologna, attempted, along with other moderate but not
+brilliant Averroists, to accommodate their philosophical theory with the
+requirements of Catholicism. It was this comparatively mild Averroism,
+reduced to the merely explanatory activity of a commentator, which
+continued to be the official dogma at Padua during the 16th century. Its
+typical representative is Marc-Antonio Zimara (d. 1552), the author of a
+reconciliation between the tenets of Averroes and those of Aristotle.
+
+
+  Summary.
+
+Meanwhile, in 1497, Aristotle was for the first time expounded in Greek
+at Padua. Plato had long been the favourite study at Florence; and
+Humanists, like Erasmus, Ludovicus Vives and Nizolius, enamoured of the
+popular philosophy of Cicero and Quintilian, poured out the vials of
+their contempt on scholastic barbarism with its "impious and
+thrice-accursed Averroes." The editors of Averroes complain that the
+popular taste had forsaken them for the Greek. Nevertheless, while
+Fallopius, Vesalius and Galileo were claiming attention to their
+discoveries, G. Zabarella, Francesco Piccolomini (1520-1604) and Cesare
+Cremonini (1550-1631) continued the traditions of Averroism, not without
+changes and additions. Cremonini, the last of them, died in 1631, after
+lecturing twelve years at Ferrara, and forty at Padua. The great
+educational value of Arabian philosophy for the later schoolmen
+consisted in its making them acquainted with an entire Aristotle. At the
+moment when it seemed as if everything had been made that could be made
+out of the fragments of Aristotle, and the compilations of Capella,
+Cassiodorus and others, and when mysticism and scepticism seemed the
+only resources left for the mind, the horizon of knowledge was suddenly
+widened by the acquisition of a complete Aristotle. Thus the mistakes
+inevitable in the isolated study of an imperfect _Organon_ could not
+henceforth be made. The real bearing of old questions, and the
+meaninglessness of many disputes, were seen in the new conception of
+Aristotelianism given by the _Metaphysics_ and other treatises. The
+former Realism and Nominalism were lifted into a higher phase by the
+principle of the universalizing action of intellect--_Intellectus in
+formis agit universalitatem_. The commentaries of the Arabians in this
+respect supplied nutriment more readily assimilated by the pupils than
+the pure text would have been.
+
+Arabian philosophy, whilst it promoted the exegesis of Aristotle and
+increased his authority, was not less notable as the source of the
+separation between theology and philosophy. Speculation fell on
+irreligious paths. In many cases the heretical movement was due less to
+foreign example than to the indwelling tendencies of the dominant school
+of realism. But it is not less certain that the very considerable
+freedom of the Arabians from theological bias prepared the time when
+philosophy shook off its ecclesiastical vestments. In the hurry of first
+terror, the church struck Aristotle with the anathema launched against
+innovations in philosophy. The provincial council of Paris in 1209,
+which condemned Amalricus and his followers, as well as David of
+Dinant's works, forbade the study of Aristotle's _Natural Philosophy_
+and the _Commentaries_. In 1215 the same prohibition was repeated,
+specifying the _Metaphysics_ and _Physics_, and the _Commentaries_ by
+the Spaniard Mauritius (i.e. probably Averroes). Meanwhile Albertus
+Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, accepting the exegetical services of the
+Arabians, did their best to controvert the obnoxious doctrine of the
+Intellect, and to defend the orthodoxy of Aristotle against the unholy
+glosses of infidels. But it is doubtful whether even they kept as pure
+from the infection of illegitimate doctrine as they supposed. The tide
+meanwhile flowed in stronger and stronger. In 1270 Etienne Tempier,
+bishop of Paris, supported by an assembly of theologians, anathematized
+thirteen propositions bearing the stamp of Arabian authorship; but in
+1277 the same views and others more directly offensive to Christians and
+theologians had to be censured again. Raymond Lully, in a dialogue with
+an infidel thinker, broke a lance in support of the orthodox doctrine,
+and carried on a crusade against the Arabians in every university; and a
+disciple of Thomas Aquinas drew up a list (_De erroribus philosophorum_)
+of the several delusions and errors of each of the thinkers from Kindi
+to Averroes. Strong in their conviction of the truth of Aristotelianism,
+the Arabians carried out their logical results in the theological field,
+and made the distinction of necessary and possible, of form and matter,
+the basis of conclusions in the most momentous questions. They refused
+to accept the doctrine of creation because it conflicted with the
+explanation of forms as the necessary evolution of matter. They denied
+the particular providence of God, because knowledge in the divine sphere
+did not descend to singulars. They excluded the Deity from all direct
+action upon the world, and substituted for a cosmic principle the active
+intellect,--thus holding a form of Pantheism. But all did not go the
+same length in their divergence from the popular creed.
+
+The half-legendary accounts which attribute the introduction of Arabian
+science to Gerbert, afterwards Pope Sylvester II., to Constantinus
+Africanus and to Adelard of Bath, if they have any value, refer mainly
+to medical science and mathematics. It was not till about the middle of
+the 12th century that under the patronage of Raymond, archbishop of
+Toledo, a society of translators, with the archdeacon Dominicus
+Gundisalvi at their head, produced Latin versions of the _Commentaries_
+of Avicenna, and Ghazali, of the _Fons Vitae_ of Avicebron, and of
+several Aristotelian treatises. The working translators were converted
+Jews, the best-known among them being Joannes Avendeath. With this
+effort began the chief translating epoch for Arabic works. Avicenna's
+_Canon of Medicine_ was first translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona
+(d. 1187), to whom versions of other medical and astronomical works are
+due. The movement towards introducing Arabian science and philosophy
+into Europe, however, culminated under the patronage of the emperor
+Frederick II. (1212-1250). Partly from superiority to the narrowness of
+his age, and partly in the interest of his struggle with the Papacy,
+this _Malleus ecclesiae Romanae_ drew to his court those savants whose
+pursuits were discouraged by the church, and especially students in the
+forbidden lore of the Arabians. He is said to have pensioned Jews for
+purposes of translation. One of the scholars to whom Frederick gave a
+welcome was Michael Scot, the first translator of Averroes. Scot had
+sojourned at Toledo about 1217, and had accomplished the versions of
+several astronomical and physical treatises, mainly, if we believe Roger
+Bacon, by the labours of a Jew named Andrew. But Bacon is apparently
+hypercritical in his estimate of the translators from the Arabic.
+Another protege of Frederick's was Hermann the German (Alemannus), who,
+between the years 1243 and 1256, translated amongst other things a
+paraphrase of al-Farabi on the _Rhetoric_, and of Averroes on the
+_Poetics_ and _Ethics_ of Aristotle. Jewish scholars held an honourable
+place in transmitting the Arabian commentators to the schoolmen. It was
+amongst them, especially in Maimonides, that Aristotelianism found
+refuge after the light of philosophy was extinguished in Islam; and the
+Jewish family of the Ben-Tibbon were mainly instrumental in making
+Averroes known to southern France.
+
+  See S. Munk, _Melanges de philosophie juive et arabe_ (Paris, 1859);
+  E. Renan, _De Philosophia Peripatetica apud Syros_ (1852), and
+  _Averroes et l'Averroisme_ (Paris, 3rd ed., 1867); Am. Jourdain,
+  _Recherches critiques sur l'age et l'origine des traductions latines
+  d'Aristote_ (Paris, 2^me ed., 1843); B. Haureau, _Philosophie
+  scolastique_ (Paris, 1850), tome i. p. 359; E. Vacherot, _Ecole
+  d'Alexandrie_ (1846-1851), tome iii. p. 85; Schmolders, _Documenta
+  philosophiae Arabum_ (Bonn, 1836), and _Essai sur les ecoles
+  philosophiques chez les Arabes_ (Paris, 1842); Shahrastani, _History
+  of Religious and Philosophical Sects_, in German translation by
+  Haarbrucker (Halle, 1850-1851); Dieterici, _Streit zwischen Mensch und
+  Thier_ (Berlin, 1858), and his other translations of the
+  _Encyclopaedia of the Brothers of Sincerity_ (1861 to 1872); T.J. de
+  Boer, _The History of Philosophy in Islam_ (London, 1903); K. Prantl,
+  _Geschichte der Logik_ (Leipzig, 1861); and the Histories of
+  Philosophy; also the literature under the biographies of philosophers
+  mentioned.     (W. W.; G. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+ARABIAN SEA (anc. _Mare Erythraeum_), the name applied to the portion of
+the Indian Ocean bounded E. by India, N. by Baluchistan and part of the
+southern Persian littoral, W. by Arabia, and S., approximately, by a
+line between Cape Guardafui, the north-east point of Somaliland, and
+Cape Comorin in India. It has two important branches--at the south-west
+the Gulf of Aden, connecting with the Red Sea through the strait of
+Bab-el-Mandeb; and at the north-west the Gulf of Oman, connecting with
+the Persian Gulf. Besides these larger ramifications, there are the
+Gulfs of Cambay and Kach on the Indian coast. An interest and importance
+belong to this sea as forming part of the chief highway between Europe
+and India. Its islands are few and insignificant, the chief being
+Sokotra, off the African, and the Laccadives, off the Indian coast.
+
+
+
+
+ARABICI, a religious sect originating about the beginning of the 3rd
+century, which is mentioned by Augustine (_De Haeres_. c. lxxxiii.), and
+called also [Greek: thnetopseuchitai] ("mortal-souled") by John of
+Damascus (_De Haeres_. c. xc.) The name is given to the Arabians
+mentioned by Eusebius (_Hist. Eccl_. vi. 37), whose distinctive doctrine
+was a form of Christian materialism, showing itself in the belief that
+the soul perished and was restored to life along with the body. We may
+compare Tatian's view of the soul as a subtler variety of matter.
+According to Eusebius, they were convinced of their error by Origen, and
+renounced it at a council held about A.D. 246.
+
+
+
+
+ARABI PASHA (c. 1839-   ), more correctly AHMAD 'ARABI, to which in
+later years he added the epithet _al-Misri_, "the Egyptian," Egyptian
+soldier and revolutionary leader, was born in Lower Egypt in 1839 or
+1840 of a fellah family. Having entered the army as a conscript he was
+made an officer by Said Pasha in 1862, and was employed in the transport
+department in the Abyssinian campaign of 1875 under Ismail Pasha. A
+charge of peculation, unproved, was made against him in connexion with
+this expedition and he was placed on half-pay. During this time he
+joined a secret society formed by Ali Rubi with the object of getting
+rid of Turkish officers from the Egyptian army. Arabi also attended
+lectures at the mosque El Azhar and acquired a reputation as an orator.
+In 1878 he was employed by Ismail in fomenting a disturbance against the
+ministry of Nubar, Rivers Wilson and de Blignieres, and received in
+payment a wife from Ismail's harem and the command of a regiment. This
+increased his influence with the secret society, which, under the feeble
+government of Tewfik Pasha and the Dual Control, began to agitate
+against Europeans. In all that followed Arabi was put forward as the
+leader of the discontented Egyptians; he was in reality little more than
+the mouthpiece and puppet of abler men such as Ali Rubi and Mahmud Sami.
+On the 1st of February 1881 Arabi and two other Egyptian colonels,
+summoned before a court-martial for acts of disobedience, were rescued
+by their soldiers, and the khedive was forced to dismiss his then
+minister of war in favour of Mahmud Sami. A military demonstration on
+the 8th of September 1881, led by Arabi, forced the khedive to increase
+the numbers and pay of the army, to substitute Sherif Pasha for Riaz
+Pasha as prime minister, and to convene an assembly of notables. Arabi
+became under-secretary for war at the beginning of 1882, but continued
+his intrigues. The assembly of notables claimed the right of voting the
+budget, and thus came into conflict with the foreign controllers who had
+been appointed to guard the interests of the bondholders in the
+management of the Egyptian finances. Sherif fell in February, Mahmud
+Sami became prime minister, and Arabi (created a pasha) minister of war.
+Arabi, after a brief fall from office, acquired a dictatorial power that
+alarmed the British government. British and French warships went to
+Alexandria at the beginning of June; on the 11th of that month rioting
+in that city led to the sacrifice of many European lives. Order could
+only be restored through the intervention of Arabi, who now adopted a
+more distinctly anti-European attitude. His arming of the forts at
+Alexandria was held to constitute a menace to the British fleet. On the
+refusal of France to co-operate, the British fleet bombarded the forts
+(11th July), and a British force, under Sir Garnet Wolseley, defeated
+Arabi on the 13th of September at Tel-el-Kebir. Arabi fled to Cairo
+where he surrendered, and was tried (3rd of December) for rebellion. In
+accordance with an understanding made with the British representative,
+Lord Dufferin, Arabi pleaded guilty, and sentence of death was
+immediately commuted to one of banishment for life to Ceylon. The same
+sentence was passed on Mahmud Sami and others. After Arabi's exile had
+lasted for nearly twenty years, however, the khedive Abbas II. exercised
+his prerogative of mercy, and in May 1901 Arabi was permitted to return
+to Egypt. Arabi, as has been said, was rather the figurehead than the
+inspirer of the movement of 1881-1882; and was probably more honest, as
+he was certainly less intelligent, than those whose tool, in a large
+measure, he was. The movement which he represented in the eye of Europe,
+whatever the motives of its leaders, "was in its essence a genuine
+revolt against misgovernment,"[1] and it was a dim recognition of this
+fact which led Arabi to style himself "the Egyptian."
+
+  See EGYPT: _History_; also the accounts of Arabi in _Khedives and
+  Pashas_, by C.F. Moberly Bell (1884); and in Lord Cromer's _Modern
+  Egypt_ (1908).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Lord Cromer in _Egypt_, No. 1, 1905, p. 2.
+
+
+
+
+ARABISTAN (formerly KHUZISTAN), a province of Persia, bounded on the S.
+by the Persian Gulf, on the W. by Turkish territory, on the N. by
+Luristan and on the E. by the Bakhtiari district and Fars. It has its
+modern name, signifying "land of the Arabs," from the Arabs who form the
+bulk of the population, and is subdivided into the districts of
+Muhamrah, Fellahiyeh (the old Dorak), Ram Hormuz (popularly known as
+Ramiz), Havizeh, Shushter and Dizful. It has a population of about
+200,000 and pays a yearly revenue of about L30,000. The soil is very
+fertile, but since the dam over the Karun at Ahvaz was swept away and
+the numerous canals which diverted the waters of the river for
+irrigation became useless, a great part of the province is uncultivated,
+and most of the crops and produce depend for water on rainfall and
+wells. The climate is hot, and in the low-lying, swampy districts very
+unhealthy; the prevailing winds are north-west and south-east, the
+former hot and dry from the arid districts west of Mesopotamia, the
+latter bearing much moisture from the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean.
+The principal Arab tribes are the Kab (generally known as Chaab) and
+Beni Lam, the former mostly settled in towns and villages and by
+religion Shi'ites, the latter nomads and Sunnites. The staples of food
+are dates and fish in the south, elsewhere the produce of the herds and
+flocks and rice, wheat and barley. Other products are maize, cotton,
+silk and indigo, and the manufactures include carpets without pile,
+coarse woollens, cottons and silk nettings. Dyeing is extensively
+carried on in Dizful where most of the indigo is grown.
+
+Khuzistan (meaning "the land of the Khuz") was a part of the Biblical
+Elam, the classical Susiana, and appears in the great inscription of
+Darius as Uvaja.
+
+
+
+
+ARABS, the name given to that branch of the Semitic race which from the
+earliest historic times inhabited the south-western portion of the
+Arabian peninsula. The name, to-day the collective term for the
+overwhelming majority of the surviving Semitic peoples, was originally
+restricted to the nomad tribes who ranged the north of the peninsula
+east of Palestine and the Syro-Arabian desert. In this narrow sense
+"Arab" is used in the Assyrian inscriptions, in the Old Testament and in
+the Minaean inscriptions. Before the Christian era it had come to
+include all the inhabitants of the peninsula. This, it is suggested, may
+have been due to the fact that the "Arabs" were the chief people near
+the Greek and Roman colonies in Syria and Mesopotamia. Classical writers
+use the term both in its local and general sense. The Arabs to-day
+occupy, besides Arabia, a part of Mesopotamia, the western shores of the
+Red Sea, the eastern coast of the Persian Gulf and the north of Africa.
+The finest type of the race is found in south Arabia among the Ariba
+Arabs, among the mountaineers of Hadramut and Yemen and among the
+Bedouin tribes roaming over the interior of central and northern Arabia.
+The Arabs of the coasts and those of Mesopotamia are hybrids, showing
+Turkish, Negroid and Hamitic crossings. The people of Syria and
+Palestine are hybrids of Arab, Phoenician and Jewish descent. The theory
+that early Arab settlements were made on the east coast of Africa as far
+as Sofala south of the Zambezi, is without foundation; the earliest Arab
+settlement on the east coast of Africa that can be proved is Magadoxo
+(Mukdishu) in the 10th century, and the ruined cities of Mashonaland,
+once supposed to be the remains of Arab settlements, are now known to be
+of medieval African origin. On the East African coast-lands Arab
+influence is still considerable. Traces of the Arab type are met with in
+Asia Minor, the Caucasus, western Persia and India, while the influence
+of the Arab language and civilization is found in Europe (Malta and
+Spain), China and Central Asia.
+
+
+  Ethnology.
+
+The Arabs are at once the most ancient as they in many ways are the
+purest surviving type of the true Semite. Certainly the inhabitants of
+Yemen are not, and in historic times never were, pure Semites. Somali
+and other elements, generally described under the collective racial name
+of Hamitic, are clearly traceable; but the inland Arabs still present
+the nearest approach to the primitive Semitic type. The origin of the
+Arab race can only be a matter of conjecture. From the remotest historic
+times it has been divided into two branches, which from their
+geographical position it is simplest to call the North Arabians and the
+South Arabians. Arabic and Jewish tradition trace the descent of the
+latter from Joktan (Arabic _Kahtan_) son of Heber, of the former from
+Ishmael. The South Arabians--the older branch--were settled in the
+south-western part of the peninsula centuries before the uprise of the
+Ishmaelites. These latter include not only Ishmael's direct descendants
+through the twelve princes (Gen. xxv. 16), but the Edomites, Moabites,
+Ammonites, Midianites and other tribes. This ancient and undoubted
+division of the Arab race --roughly represented to-day by the
+universally adopted classification into Arabs proper and Bedouin Arabs
+(see BEDOUINS)-has caused much dispute among ethnologists. All
+authorities agree in declaring the race to be Semitic in the broadest
+ethnological signification of that term, but some thought they saw in
+this division of the race an indication of a dual origin. They asserted
+that the purer branch of the Arab family was represented by the
+sedentary Arabs who were of Hamitic (Biblical Cushite), i.e. African
+ancestry, and that the nomad Arabs were Arabs only by adoption, and were
+nearer akin to the true Semite as sons of Ishmael. Many arguments were
+adduced in support of this theory, (1) The unquestioned division in
+remote historic times of the Arab race, and the immemorial hostility
+between the two branches. (2) The concurrence of pre-Islamitic
+literature and records in representing the first settlement of the
+"pure" Arab as made in the extreme south-western part of the peninsula,
+near Aden. (3) The use of Himyar, "dusky" or "red" (suggesting African
+affinities), as the name sometimes for the ruling class, sometimes for
+the entire people. (4) The African affinities of the Himyaritic
+language. (5) The resemblance of the grammar of the Arabic now spoken by
+the "pure" Arabs, where it differs from that of the North, to the
+Abyssinian grammar. (6) The marked resemblance of the pre-Islamitic
+institutions of Yemen and its allied provinces-its monarchies, courts,
+armies and serfs--to the historical Africo-Egyptian type and even to
+modern Abyssinia. (7) The physique of the "pure" Arab, the shape and
+size of the head, the slenderness of the lower limbs, all suggesting an
+African rather than an Asiatic origin. (8) The habits of the people,
+viz. their sedentary rather than nomad occupations, their fondness for
+village life, for dancing, music and society, their cultivation of the
+soil, having more in common with African life than with that of the
+western Asiatic continent. (9) The extreme facility of marriage which
+exists in all classes of the southern Arabs with the African races, the
+fecundity of such unions and the slightness or even total absence of any
+caste feeling between the dusky "pure" Arab and the still darker
+African, pointing to a community of origin. And further arguments were
+found in the characteristics of the Bedouins, their pastoral and nomad
+tendencies; the peculiarities of their idiom allied to the Hebrew; their
+strong clan feeling, their continued resistance to anything like regal
+power or centralized organization.
+
+Such, briefly, were the more important arguments; but latterly
+ethnologists are inclined to agree that there is little really to be
+said for the African ancestry theory and that the Arab race had its
+beginning in the deserts of south Arabia, that in short the true Arabs
+are aborigines.
+
+Mahommedans call the centuries before the Prophet's birth waqt-el
+jahiliya, "the time of ignorance," but the fact is that the Arab world
+has in some respects never since reached so high a level as it had in
+those days which it suits Moslems to paint in dreary colours. Writing
+was a fine art and poetry flourished. Eloquence was an accomplishment
+all strove to acquire, and each year there were assemblies, lasting
+sometimes a month, which were devoted to contests of skill among the
+orators and poets, to listen to whose friendly rivalry tribesmen
+journeyed long distances. Last, that surest index of a people's
+civilization--the treatment of women--contrasted very favourably with
+their position under the Koran. Women had rights and were respected. The
+veil and the harem system were unknown before Mahomet. According to
+Noldeke the Nabataean inscriptions and coins show that women held a high
+social position in northern Arabia, owning large estates and trading
+independently. Polyandry and polygamy, it is true, were practised, but
+the right of divorce belonged to the woman as well as the man. Two kinds
+of marriage were celebrated. One was a purely personal contract, with no
+witnesses, the wife not leaving her home or passing under marital
+authority. The other was a formal marriage, the woman becoming subject
+to her husband by purchase or capture. Even captive women were not kept
+in slavery. Arabic wealth and culture had indeed thus early reached a
+stage which justified Professor Robertson Smith in writing, "In this
+period the name of Arab was associated to Western writers with ideas of
+effeminate indolence and peaceful opulence ... the golden age of Yemen."
+But long before Mahomet's time this early Arab predominance was at an
+end, possibly due in great measure to the loss of the caravan trade
+through the increase of shipping. The abandonment of great cities and
+the ruin of many tribes contributed to the apparent nationalization of
+the Arab peoples. Though the traditional jealousy and hostility of the
+two branches, the Yemenites and Maadites or Ishmaelites, remained, the
+Arab world had attained by the levelling process of common misfortune
+the superficial unity it presents to-day. The nation thus formed, never
+a nation in the strict sense of the word, was distinctively and
+thoroughly Semitic in character and language, and has remained unchanged
+to the present day. The sporadic brilliancy of the ancient Arab kingdoms
+gave place to a social and political lethargy, the continuation of which
+for many centuries made the uprise of Saracenic empires seem a miracle
+to a world ignorant of the Arab past. The Arab race up to Mahomet's day
+had been in the main pagan. Monotheism, if it ever prevailed, early gave
+place to sun and star worship, or simple idolatry. Professor Robertson
+Smith suggests that totemism was the earliest form of Arabian idolatry,
+and that each tribe had its sacred animal. This he supports by the fact
+that some tribal names were derived from those of animals, and that
+animal-worship was not unknown in Arabia. What seems certain is that
+Arab religion was of a complex hybrid nature, not much to be wondered at
+when one remembers that Arabia was the asylum of many religious
+refugees, Zoroastrians, Jews, Christians. In the later pre-Islamitic
+times spirits, or jinns, as they were called, of which each tribe or
+family had its own, were worshipped, and there was but a vague idea of a
+Supreme Being. Images of the jinns to the number of 360, one for each
+day of the lunar year, were collected in the temple at Mecca, the chief
+seat of their worship. That worship was of a sanguinary nature. Human
+sacrifice was fairly frequent. Under the guise of religion female
+infanticide was a common practice. At Mecca the great object of worship
+was a plain black stone, and to it pilgrimages were made from every part
+of Arabia. This stone was so sacred to the Arabs that even Mahomet dared
+not dispense with it, and it remains the central object of sanctity in
+the Ka'ba to-day. The temples of the Sabaeans and the Minaeans were
+built east of their cities, a fact suggesting sun-worship, yet this is
+not believed to have been the cult of the Minaeans. Common to both was
+the worship of Attar, the male Ashtoreth.
+
+With the appearance of Mahomet the Arabs took anew a place in the
+world's history.
+
+
+  Physique.
+
+Physically the Arabs are one of the strongest and noblest races of the
+world. Baron de Larrey, surgeon-general to Napoleon on his expedition to
+Egypt and Syria, writes: "Their physical structure is in all respects
+more perfect than that of Europeans; their organs of sense exquisitely
+acute, their size above the average of men in general, their figure
+robust and elegant, their colour brown; their intelligence proportionate
+to their physical perfection and without doubt superior, other things
+being equal, to that of other nations." The typical Arab face is of an
+oval form, lean-featured; the eyes a brilliant black, deep-set under
+bushy eyebrows; nose aquiline, forehead straight but not high. In body
+the Arab is muscular and long-limbed, but lean. Deformed individuals or
+dwarfs are rare among Arabs; nor, except leprosy, which is common, does
+any disease seem to be hereditary among them. They often suffer from
+ophthalmia, though not in the virulent Egyptian form. They are
+scrupulously clean in their persons, and take special care of their
+teeth, which are generally white and even. Simple and abstemious in
+their habits, they often reach an extreme yet healthy old age; nor is it
+common among them for the faculties of the mind to give way sooner than
+those of the body.
+
+
+  Character.
+
+Thus, physically, they yield to few races, if any, of mankind; mentally,
+they surpass most, and are only kept back in the march of progress by
+the remarkable defect of organizing power and incapacity for combined
+action. Lax and imperfect as are their forms of government, it is with
+impatience that even these are borne; of the four caliphs who alone
+reigned--if reign theirs could be called--in Arabia proper, three died a
+violent death; and of the Wahhabi princes, the most genuine
+representatives in later times of pure Arab rule, almost all have met
+the same fate. The Arab face, which is not unkindly, but never smiling,
+expresses that dignity and gravity which are typical of the race. While
+the Arab is always polite, good-natured, manly and brave, he is also
+revengeful, cruel, untruthful and superstitious. Of the Arab nature
+Burckhardt (other authorities, e.g. Barth and Rohlfs, are far less
+complimentary) wrote: "The Arab displays his manly character when he
+defends his guest at the peril of his own life, and submits to the
+reverses of fortune, to disappointment and distress, with the most
+patient resignation. He is distinguished from a Turk by the virtues of
+pity and gratitude. The Turk is cruel, the Arab of a more kind temper;
+he pities and supports the wretched, and never forgets the generosity
+shown to him even by an enemy." The Arab will lie and cheat and swear
+false oaths, but once his word is pledged he may be trusted to the last.
+There are some oaths such as _Wallah_ (by Allah) which mean nothing, but
+such an oath as the threefold one with _wa, bi_ and _ta_ as particles of
+swearing the meanest thief will not break. In temper, or at least in the
+manifestation of it, the Arab is studiously calm; and he rarely so much
+as raises his voice in a dispute. But this outward tranquillity covers
+feelings alike keen and permanent; and the remembrance of a rash jest or
+injurious word, uttered years before, leads only too often to that
+blood-revenge which is a sacred duty everywhere in Arabia.
+
+There exist, however, marked tribal or almost semi-national diversities
+of character among the Arabs. Thus, the inhabitants of Hejaz are noted
+for courtesy and blamed for fickleness; those of Nejd are distinguished
+by their stern tenacity and dignity of deportment; the nations of Yemen
+are gentle and pliant, but revengeful; those of Hasa and Oman cheerful
+and fond of sport, though at the same time turbulent and unsteady.
+Anything approaching to a game is rare in Nejd, and in the Hejaz
+religion and the yearly occurrence of the pilgrim ceremonies almost
+exclude all public diversions; but in Yemen the well-known game of the
+"jerid," or palm-stick, with dances and music is not rare. In Oman such
+amusements are still more frequent. Again in Yemen and Oman,
+coffee-houses, where people resort for conversation, and where public
+recitals, songs and other amusements are indulged in, stand open all
+day; while nothing of the sort is tolerated in Nejd. So too the
+ceremonies of circumcision or marriage are occasions of gaiety and
+pastime on the coast, but not in the central provinces.
+
+
+  Manners and customs.
+
+An Arab town, or even village, except it be the merest hamlet, is
+invariably walled round; but seldom is a stronger material than dried
+earth used; the walls are occasionally flanked by towers of like
+construction. A dry ditch often surrounds the whole. The streets are
+irregular and seldom parallel. The Arab, indeed, lacks an eye for the
+straight. The Arab carpenter cannot form a right angle; an Arab servant
+cannot place a cloth square on a table. The Ka'ba at Mecca has none of
+its sides or angles equal. The houses are of one or two storeys, rarely
+of three, with flat mud roofs, little windows and no external ornament.
+If the town be large, the expansion of one or two streets becomes a
+market-place, where are ranged a few shops of eatables, drugs, coffee,
+cottons or other goods. Many of these shops are kept by women. The chief
+mosque is always near the market-place; so is also the governor's
+residence, which, except in size and in being more or less fortified
+Arab fashion, does not differ from a private house. Drainage is
+unthought of; but the extreme dryness of the air obviates the
+inconvenience and disease that under other skies could not fail to
+ensue, and which in the damper climates of the coast make themselves
+seriously felt. But the streets are roughly swept every day, each
+householder taking care of the roadway that lies before his own door.
+Whitewash and colour are occasionally used in Yemen, Hejaz and Oman;
+elsewhere a light ochre tint, the colour of the sun-dried bricks,
+predominates, and gives an Arab town the appearance at a distance of a
+large dust-heap in the centre of the bright green ring of gardens and
+palm-groves. Baked bricks are unknown in Arabia, and stone buildings are
+rare, especially in Nejd. Palm branches and the like, woven in wattles,
+form the dwellings, of the poorer classes in the southern districts.
+Many Arab towns possess watch-towers, like huge round factory chimneys
+in appearance, built of sun-dried bricks, and varying in height from 50
+to 100 ft. or even more. Indeed, two of these constructions at the town
+of Birkat-el-Mauj, in Oman, are said to be each of 170 ft. in height,
+and that of Nezwah, in the same province, is reckoned at 140; but these
+are of stone.
+
+The principal feature in the interior of an Arab house is the "kahwah"
+or coffee-room. It is a large apartment spread with mats, and sometimes
+furnished with carpets and a few cushions. At one end is a small furnace
+or fireplace for preparing coffee. In this room the men congregate; here
+guests are received, and even lodged; women rarely enter it, except at
+times when strangers are unlikely to be present. Some of these
+apartments are very spacious and supported by pillars; one wall is
+usually built transversely to the compass direction of the Ka'ba; it
+serves to facilitate the performance of prayer by those who may happen
+to be in the kahwah at the appointed times. The other rooms are
+ordinarily small.
+
+The Arabs are proverbially hospitable. A stranger's arrival is often the
+occasion of an amicable dispute among the wealthier inhabitants as to
+who shall have the privilege of receiving him. Arab cookery is of the
+simplest. Roughly-ground wheat cooked with butter; bread in thin cakes,
+prepared on a heated iron plate or against the walls of an open oven; a
+few vegetables, generally of the leguminous kinds; boiled mutton or
+camel's flesh, among the wealthy; dates and fruits--this is the _menu_
+of an ordinary meal. Rice is eaten by the rich and fish is common on the
+coasts. Tea, introduced only a few decades back, is now largely drunk. A
+food of which the Arabs are fond is locusts boiled in salt and water and
+then dried in the sun. They taste like stale shrimps, but there is a
+great sale for them. Spices are freely employed; butter much too largely
+for a European taste.
+
+After eating, the hands are always washed, soap or the ashes of an
+alkaline plant being used. A covered censer with burning incense is then
+passed round, and each guest perfumes his hands, face, and sometimes his
+clothes; this censer serves also on first receptions and whenever
+special honour is intended. In Yemen and Oman scented water often does
+duty for it. Coffee, without milk or sugar, but flavoured with an
+aromatic seed brought from India, is served to all. This, too, is done
+on the occasion of a first welcome, when the cups often make two or
+three successive rounds; but, in fact, coffee is made and drunk at any
+time, as frequently as the desire for it may suggest itself; and each
+time fresh grains are sifted, roasted, pounded and boiled--a very
+laborious process, and one that requires in the better sort of
+establishments a special servant or slave for the work. Arabs generally
+make but one solid meal a day--that of supper, soon after sunset. Even
+then they do not eat much, gluttony being rare among them, and even
+daintiness esteemed disgraceful. Wine, like other fermented drinks, is
+prohibited by the Koran, and is, in fact, very rarely taken, though the
+inhabitants of the mountains of Oman are said to indulge in it. On the
+coast spirits of the worst quality are sometimes procured; opium and
+hashish are sparingly indulged in. On the other hand, wherever
+Wahhabiism has left freedom of action, tobacco-smoking prevails; short
+pipes of clay, long pipes with large open bowls, or most frequently the
+water-pipe or "nar-ghileh," being used. The tobacco smoked is generally
+strong and is either brought from the neighbourhood of Bagdad or grown
+in the country itself. The strongest quality is that of Oman; the leaf
+is broad and coarse, and retains its green colour even when dried; a few
+whiffs have been known to produce absolute stupor. The aversion of the
+Wahhabis to tobacco is well known; they entitle it "mukhzi" or "the
+shameful," and its use is punished with blows, as the public use of wine
+would be elsewhere.
+
+
+  Dress.
+
+In dress much variety prevails. The loose cotton drawers girded at the
+waist, which in hot climates do duty for trousers, are not often worn,
+even by the upper classes, in Nejd or Yemama, where a kind of silk
+dressing-gown is thrown over the long shirt; frequently, too, a brown or
+black cloak distinguishes the wealthier citizen; his head-dress is a
+handkerchief fastened round the head by a band. But in Hejaz, Yemen and
+Oman, turbans are by no means uncommon; the ordinary colour is white;
+they are worn over one or more skullcaps. Trousers also form part of the
+dress in the two former of these districts; and a voluminous sash, in
+which a dagger or an inkstand is stuck, is wrapped round the waist. The
+poorer folk, however, and the villagers often content themselves with a
+broad piece of cloth round the loins, and another across the shoulders.
+In Oman trousers are rare, but over the shirt a long gown, of peculiar
+and somewhat close-fitting cut, dyed yellow, is often worn. The women in
+these provinces commonly put on loose drawers and some add veils to
+their head-dresses; they are over-fond of ornaments (gold and silver);
+their hair is generally arranged in a long plait hanging down behind.
+All men allow their beards and moustaches full growth, though this is
+usually scanty. Most Arabs shave their heads, and indeed all, strictly
+speaking, ought by Mahommedan custom to do so. An Arab seldom or never
+dyes his hair. Sandals are worn more often than shoes; none but the very
+poorest go barefoot.
+
+
+  Slavery.
+
+Slavery is still, as of old times, a recognized institution throughout
+Arabia; and an illicit traffic in blacks is carried on along the coasts
+of the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. The slaves themselves were obtained
+chiefly from the east African coast districts down as far as Zanzibar,
+but this source of supply was practically closed by the end of the 19th
+century. Slaves are usually employed in Arabia as herdsmen or as
+domestic servants, rarely in agricultural work; they also form a
+considerable portion of the bodyguards with which Eastern greatness
+loves to surround itself. Like their countrymen elsewhere, they readily
+embrace the religion of their masters and become zealous Mahommedans.
+Arab custom enfranchises a slave who has accepted Islam at the end of
+seven years of bondage, and when that period has arrived, the master,
+instead of exacting from his slave the price of freedom, generally, on
+giving him his liberty, adds the requisite means for supporting himself
+and a family in comfort. Further, on every important occasion, such as a
+birth, circumcision, a marriage or a death, one or more of the household
+slaves are sure of acquiring their freedom. Hence Arabia has a
+considerable free black population; and these again, by inter-marriage
+with the whites around, have filled the land with a mulatto breed of
+every shade, till, in the eastern and southern provinces especially, a
+white skin is almost an exception. In Arabia no prejudice exists against
+negro alliances; no social or political line separates the African from
+the Arab. A negro may become a sheik, a kadi, an amir, or whatever his
+industry and his talents may render him capable of being. This is
+particularly so in Nejd, Yemen and Hadramut; in the Hejaz and the north
+a faint line of demarcation may be observed between the races.
+
+
+  Military qualities.
+
+The Arabs are good soldiers but poor generals. Personal courage,
+wonderful endurance of privation, fixity of purpose, and a contempt of
+death are qualities common to almost every race, tribe and clan that
+compose the Arab nation. In skirmishing and harassing they have few
+equals, while at close quarters they have often shown themselves capable
+of maintaining, armed with swords and spears alone, a desperate struggle
+against guns and bayonets, neither giving nor receiving quarter. Nor are
+they wholly ignorant of tactics, their armies, when engaged in regular
+war, being divided into centre and wings, with skirmishers in front and
+a reserve behind, often screened at the outset of the engagement by the
+camels of the expedition. These animals, kneeling and ranged in long
+parallel rows, form a sort of entrenchment, from behind which the
+soldiers of the main body fire their matchlocks, while the front
+divisions, opening out, act on either flank of the enemy. This
+arrangement of troops may be traced in Arab records as far back as the
+5th century, and was often exemplified during the Wahhabi wars.
+
+Arab women are scarcely less distinguished for their bravery than the
+men. Records of armed heroines occur frequently in the chronicles or
+myths of the pre-Islamitic time; and in authentic history the Battle of
+the Camel, 656 A.D., where Ayesha, the wife of Mahomet, headed the
+charge, is only the first of a number of instances in which Arab amazons
+have taken, sword in hand, no inconsiderable share in the wars and
+victories of Islam. Even now it is the custom for an Arab force to be
+always accompanied by some courageous maiden, who, mounted on a
+blackened camel, leads the onslaught, singing verses of encouragement
+for her own, of insult for the opposing tribe. Round her litter the
+fiercest of the battle rages, and her capture or death is the signal of
+utter rout; it is hers also to head the triumph after the victory of her
+clan.
+
+
+  Education.
+
+There is little education, in the European sense of the word, in Arabia.
+Among the Bedouins there are no schools, and few, even of the most
+elementary character, in the towns or villages. Where they exist, little
+beyond the mechanical reading of the Koran, and the equally mechanical
+learning of it by rote, is taught. On the other hand, Arab
+male-children, brought up from early years among the grown-up men of the
+house or tent, learn more from their own parents and at home than is
+common in other countries; reading and writing are in most instances
+thus acquired, or rather transmitted; besides such general principles
+of grammar and eloquence, often of poetry and history, as the elders
+themselves may be able to impart. To this family schooling too are due
+the good manners, politeness, and self-restraint that early distinguish
+Arab children. In the very few instances where a public school of a
+higher class exists, writing, grammar and rhetoric sum up its teachings.
+Law and theology, in the narrow sense that both these words have in the
+Islamitic system, are explained in afternoon lectures given in most
+mosques; and some verses of the Koran, with one of the accepted
+commentaries, that of Baidawi for example, form the basis of the
+instruction. Great attention is paid to accuracy of grammar and purity
+of diction throughout Arabia; yet something of a dialectic difference
+may be observed in the various districts. The purest Arabic, that which
+is as nearly as possible identical in the choice of words and in its
+inflections with the language of the Koran, is spoken in Nejd, and the
+best again of that in the province of Suder. Next in purity comes the
+Arabic of Shammar. Throughout the Hejaz in general, the language, though
+extremely elegant, is not equally correct; in el-Hasa, Bahrein and Oman
+it is decidedly influenced by the foreign element called Nabataean. In
+Yemen, as in other southern districts of the peninsula, Arabic merges
+insensibly into the Himyaritic or African dialect of Hadramut and Mahra.
+(See SEMITIC LANGUAGES.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Lieutenant Wellsted, _Travels in Arabia_ (Lond., 1838);
+  "Narrative of a Journey to the Ruins of Nakeb el Hajar" (_Jour. R.
+  Geog. Soc._ vii. 20); Carsten Niebuhr. _Travels through Arabia_
+  (transl. into English by Robert Heron, 2 vols., Edin., 1792); John
+  Lewis Burckhardt, _Travels in Arabia_ (2 vols., Lond., 1829); _Notes
+  on the Bedouins and Wahabis_, (2 vols., Lond., 1830; in German,
+  Weimar, 1831); C.J. Cruttenden, _Journal of an Excursion to Sana'a,
+  the Capital of Yemen_ (Bombay, 1838); A. Sprenger, _Die alte
+  Geographie Arabiens als Grundlage der Entwicklungsgeschichte des
+  Semitismus_ (Berne, 1875); Sir Richard F. Burton, _Personal Narrative
+  of a Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Meccah_ (Lond., 1855); W. Robertson
+  Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_ (Cambridge); E. Reclus,
+  _Les Arabes_ (Brussels, 1898); Lady Anne Blunt, _A Pilgrimage to Nejd_
+  (2 vols., Lond., 1881); C.M. Doughty, _Arabia Deserta_ (2 vols.,
+  1888); Rev. S.M. Zwemer, _Arabia: the Cradle of Islam_ (1900);
+  Albrecht Zehme, _Arabien und die Araber, seit hundert Jahren_ (1875).
+
+
+
+
+ARACAJU, a city and seaport of Brazil, capital of the state of Sergipe,
+170 m. N.N.E. of Bahia, on the river Cotinguiba, or Cotindiba, 6 m. from
+the coast. The municipality, of which it forms a part, had a population
+in 1890 of 16,336, about two-thirds of whom lived in the city itself.
+Aracaju is a badly built town on the right bank of the river at the base
+of a ridge of low sand-hills and has the usual features of an
+unprogressive provincial capital. Good limestone is quarried in its
+vicinity, and the country tributary to this port produces large
+quantities of sugar. Cotton is also grown, and the back country sends
+down hides and skins for shipment. The anchorage is good, but a
+dangerous bar at the mouth of the river prevents the entrance of vessels
+drawing more than 12 ft. The port is visited, therefore, only by the
+smaller steamers of the coastwise lines. The river is navigable as far
+as the town of Maroim, about 10 m. beyond Aracaju. The city was founded
+in 1855.
+
+
+
+
+ARACATY, or ARACATI, a city and port of Brazil, in the state of Ceara,
+75 m. S.E. of Fortaleza, on the river Jaguaribe, 8 m. from the sea. Pop.
+of the municipality (1890) 20,182, of whom about 12,000 belonged to the
+city. A dangerous bar at the mouth of the river permits the entrance
+only of the smaller coasting steamers, but the port is an important
+commercial centre, and exports considerable quantities of cotton, hides,
+manicoba, rubber, fruit, and palm wax.
+
+
+
+
+ARACHNE, in Greek mythology, the daughter of Idmon of Colophon in Lydia,
+a dyer in purple. She had acquired such skill in the art of weaving that
+she ventured to challenge Athena. While the goddess took as subjects her
+quarrel with Poseidon as to the naming and possession of Attica, and the
+warning examples of those who ventured to pit themselves against the
+immortals, Arachne depicted the metamorphoses of the gods and their
+amorous adventures. Her work was so perfect that Athena, enraged at
+being unable to find any blemish in it, tore it to pieces. Arachne
+hanged herself in despair; but the goddess out of pity loosened the
+rope, which became a cobweb, while Arachne herself was changed into a
+spider (Ovid, _Metam_. vi. 5-145). The story probably indicates the
+superiority of Asia over Greece in the textile arts.
+
+
+
+
+ARACHNIDA, the zoological name given in 1815 by Lamarck (Gr. [Greek:
+harachnae], a spider) to a class which he instituted for the reception
+of the spiders, scorpions and mites, previously classified by Linnaeus
+in the order Aptera of his great group Insecta. Lamarck at the same time
+founded the class Crustacea for the lobsters, crabs and water-fleas,
+also until then included in the order Aptera of Linnaeus. Lamarck
+included the Thysanura and the Myriapoda in his class Arachnida. The
+Insecta of Linnaeus was a group exactly equivalent to the Arthropoda
+founded a hundred years later by Siebold and Stannius. It was thus
+reduced by Lamarck in area, and made to comprise only the six-legged,
+wing-bearing "Insecta." For these Lamarck proposed the name Hexapoda;
+but that name has been little used, and they have retained to this day
+the title of the much larger Linnaean group, viz. Insecta. The position
+of the Arachnida in the great sub-phylum Arthropoda, according to recent
+anatomical and embryological researches, is explained in the article
+
+
+
+ARTHROPODA. The Arachnida form a distinct class or line of descent in
+the grade Euarthropoda, diverging (perhaps in common at the start with
+the Crustacea) from primitive Euarthropods, which gave rise also to the
+separate lines of descent known as the classes Diplopoda, Crustacea,
+Chilopoda and Hexapoda.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Entosternum, entosternite or plastron of
+_Limulus polyphemus_, Latr. Dorsal surface.
+
+  LAP, Left anterior process.           PLR, Posterior lateral rod or
+  RAP, Right anterior process.            tendon.
+  PhN, Pharyngeal notch.                PLP, Posterior lateral process.
+  ALR, Anterior lateial rod or tendon.  Natural size.
+
+(From Lankester, _Q J. Mic. Sci._, N S vol. xxiv, 1884)]
+
+_Limulus an Arachnid._--Modern views as to the classification and
+affinities of the Arachnida have been determined by the demonstration
+that _Limulus_ and the extinct Eurypterines (_Pterygotus_, &c.) are
+Arachnida; that is to say, are identical in the structure and relation
+of so many important parts with _Scorpio_, whilst differing in those
+respects from other Arthropoda, that it is impossible to suppose that
+the identity is due to homoplasy or convergence, and the conclusion must
+be accepted that the resemblances arise from close genetic relationship.
+The view that Limulus, the king-crab, is an Arachnid was maintained as
+long ago as 1829 by Strauss-Durckheim (1), on the ground of its
+possession of an internal cartilaginous sternum--also possessed by the
+Arachnida (see figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6)--and of the similarity of the
+disposition of the six leg-like appendages around the mouth in the two
+cases (see figs. 45 and 63). The evidence of the exact equivalence of
+the segmentation and appendages of Limulus and Scorpio, and of a number
+of remarkable points of agreement in structure, was furnished by Ray
+Lankester in an article published in 1881 ("Limulus an Arachnid,"
+_Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. xxi. N.S.), and in a series of
+subsequent memoirs, in which the structure of the entosternum, of the
+coxal glands, of the eyes, of the veno-pericardiac muscles, of the
+respiratory lamellae, and of other parts, was for the first time
+described, and in which the new facts discovered were shown uniformly to
+support the hypothesis that Limulus is an Arachnid. A list of these
+memoirs is given at the close of this article (2, 3, 4, 5 and 13). The
+Eurypterines (Gigantostraca) were included in the identification,
+although at that time they were supposed to possess only five pairs of
+anterior or prosomatic appendages. They have now been shown to possess
+six pairs (fig. 47), as do Limulus and Scorpio.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Ventral surface of the entosternum of _Limulus
+polyphemus_, Latr. Letters as in fig. 1 with the addition of NF, neural
+fossa protecting the aggregated ganglia of the central nervous system;
+PVP, left posterior ventral process; PMP, posterior median process.
+Natural size.
+
+(From Lankester.)]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Entosternum of scorpion (_Palamnaeus Indus_, de
+Geer); dorsal surface.
+
+  asp, Paired anterior process of the sub-neural arch.
+  snp, Sub-neural arch.
+  ap, Anterior lateral process (same as RAP and LAP in fig. 1).
+  lmp, Lateral median process (same as ALR and PLR of fig. 1).
+  pp, Posterior process (same as PLP in fig. 1).
+  pf, Posterior flap or diaphragm of Newport.
+  m^1 and m^2, Perforations of the diaphragm for the passage of
+    muscles.
+  DR, The paired dorsal ridges.
+  GC, Gastric canal or foramen.
+  AC, Arterial canal or foramen.
+
+(After Lankester, _loc. cit._)]
+
+The various comparisons previously made between the structure of Limulus
+and the Eurypterines on the one hand, and that of a typical Arachnid,
+such as Scorpio, on the other, had been vitiated by erroneous notions as
+to the origin of the nerves supplying the anterior appendages of Limulus
+(which were finally removed by Alphonse Milne-Edwards in his beautiful
+memoir (6) on the structure of that animal), and secondly by the
+erroneous identification of the double sternal plates of Limulus, called
+"chilaria," by Owen, with a pair of appendages (7). Once the identity of
+the chilaria with the pentagonal sternal plate of the scorpion is
+recognized--an identification first insisted on by Lankester--the whole
+series of segments and appendages in the two animals, Limulus and
+Scorpio, are seen to correspond most closely, segment for segment, with
+one another (see figs. 7 and 8). The structure of the prosomatic
+appendages or legs is also seen to present many significant points of
+agreement (see figures), but a curious discrepancy existed in the
+six-jointed structure of the limb in Limulus, which differed from the
+seven-jointed limb of Scorpio by the defect of one joint. R.I. Pocock of
+the British Museum has observed that in Limulus a marking exists on the
+fourth joint, which apparently indicates a previous division of this
+segment into two, and thus establishes the agreement of Limulus and
+Scorpio in this small feature of the number of segments in the legs (see
+fig. 11).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Ventral surface of the same entosternum as that
+drawn in fig. 3. Letters as in fig. 3 with the addition of NC, neural
+canal or foramen.
+
+(After Lankester, _loc. cit._)]
+
+  It is not desirable to occupy the limited space of this article by a
+  full description of the limbs and segments of Limulus and Scorpio. The
+  reader is referred to the complete series of figures here given, with
+  their explanatory legends (figs 12, 13, 14, 15). Certain matters,
+  however, require comment and explanation to render the comparison
+  intelligible. The tergites, or chitinized dorsal halves of the body
+  rings, are fused to form a "prosomatic carapace," or carapace of the
+  prosoma, in both Limulus and Scorpio (see figs. 7 and 8). This region
+  corresponds in both cases to six somites, as indicated by the presence
+  of six pairs of limbs. On the surface of the carapace there are in
+  both animals a pair of central eyes with simple lens and a pair of
+  lateral eye-tracts, which in Limulus consist of closely-aggregated
+  simple eyes, forming a "compound" eye, whilst in Scorpio they present
+  several separate small eyes. The microscopic structure of the central
+  and the lateral eyes has been shown by Lankester and A.G. Bourne (5)
+  to differ; but the lateral eyes of Scorpio were shown by them to be
+  similar in structure to the lateral eyes of Limulus, and the central
+  eyes of Scorpio to be identical in structure with the central eyes of
+  Limulus (see below).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Entosternum of one of the mygalomorphous
+  spiders; ventral surface. Ph.N., pharyngeal notch. The posterior
+  median process with its repetition of triangular segments closely
+  resembles the same process in Limulus.
+
+  (From Lankester, _loc. cit._)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Dorsal surface of the same entosternum as that
+  drawn in fig. 5. Ph.N., pharyngeal notch.
+
+  (After Lankester, _loc. cit._)]
+
+  Following the prosoma is a region consisting of six segments (figs. 14
+  and 15), each carrying a pair of plate-like appendages in both Limulus
+  and Scorpio. This region is called the mesosoma. The tergites of this
+  region and those of the following region, the metasoma, are fused to
+  form a second or posterior carapace in Limulus, whilst remaining free
+  in Scorpio. The first pair of foliaceous appendages in each animal is
+  the genital operculum; beneath it are found the openings of the
+  genital ducts. The second pair of mesosomatic appendages in Scorpio
+  are known as the "pectens." Each consists of an axis, bearing numerous
+  blunt tooth-like processes arranged in a series. This is represented
+  in Limulus by the first gill-bearing appendage. The leaves (some 150
+  in number) of the gill-book (see figure) correspond to the tooth-like
+  processes of the pectens of Scorpio. The next four pairs of appendages
+  (completing the mesosomatic series of six) consist, in both Scorpio
+  and Limulus, of a base carrying each 130 to 150 blood-holding,
+  leaf-like plates, lying on one another like the leaves of a book.
+  Their minute structure is closely similar in the two cases; the
+  leaf-like plates receive blood from the great sternal sinus, and serve
+  as respiratory organs. The difference between the gill-books of
+  Limulus and the lung-books of Scorpio depends on the fact that the
+  latter are adapted to aerial respiration, while the former serve for
+  aquatic respiration. The appendage carrying the gill-book stands out
+  on the surface of the body in Limulus, and has other portions
+  developed besides the gill-book and its base; it is fused with its
+  fellow of the opposite side. On the other hand, in Scorpio, the
+  gill-book-bearing appendage has sunk below the surface, forming a
+  recess or chamber for itself, which communicates with the exterior by
+  an oval or circular "stigma" (fig. 10, stg). That this in-sinking
+  has taken place, and that the lung-books or in-sunken gill-books of
+  Scorpio really represent appendages (that is to say, limbs or
+  parapodia) is proved by their developmental history (see figs. 17 and
+  18). They appear at first as outstanding processes on the surface of
+  the body.
+
+  The exact mode in which the in-sinking of superficial outstanding
+  limbs, carrying gill-lamellae, has historically taken place has been a
+  matter of much speculation. It was to be hoped that the specimen of
+  the Silurian scorpion (_Palaeophonus_) from Scotland, showing the
+  ventral surface of the mesosoma (fig. 49), would throw light on this
+  matter; but the specimen recently carefully studied by the writer and
+  Pocock reveals neither gill-bearing limbs nor stigmata. The
+  probability appears to be against an actual introversion of the
+  appendage and its lamellae, as was at one time suggested by Lankester.
+  It is probable that such an in-sinking as is shown in the accompanying
+  diagram has taken place (fig. 15); but we are yet in need of evidence
+  as to the exact equivalence of margins, axis, &c., obtaining between
+  the lung-book of Scorpio and the gill-book of Limulus. Zoologists are
+  familiar with many instances (fishes, crustaceans) in which the
+  protective walls of a water-breathing organ or gill-apparatus become
+  converted into an air-breathing organ or lung, but there is no other
+  case known of the conversion of gill processes themselves into
+  air-breathing plates.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Diagram of the dorsal surface of _Limulus
+  polyphemus_.
+
+    oc, Lateral compound eyes.
+    oc', Central monomeniscous eyes.
+    PA, Post-anal spine.
+    I to VI, The six appendage-bearing somites of the prosoma.
+    VII, Usually considered to be the tergum of the genital somite, but
+      suggested by Pocock to be that of the otherwise suppressed
+      praegenital somite.
+    VIII to XIII, The six somites of the mesosoma, each with a movable
+      pleural spine and a pair of dorsal entopophysis or muscle-attaching
+      ingrowths.
+    XIV to XVIII, The confluent or unexpressed six somites of the
+      metasoma.
+
+    [According to the system of numbering explained in the text, if VII
+    is the tergum of the praegenital somite (as is probable) it should
+    be labelled _Prg_ without any number, and the somites VIII to XIII
+    should be lettered 1 to 6, indicating that they are the six normal
+    somites of the mesosoma; whilst XV to XVIII should be replaced by
+    the numbers 7 to 12--an additional suppressed segment (making up the
+    typical six) being reckoned to the metasomatic fusion.]
+
+  (From Lankester, _Q J. Micr Set_. vol. xxi., 1881)]
+
+  The identification of the lung-books of Scorpio with the gill-books of
+  Limulus is practically settled by the existence of the pectens in
+  Scorpio (fig. 14, VIII) on the second mesosomatic somite. There is no
+  doubt that _these_ are parapodial or limb appendages, carrying
+  numerous imbricated secondary processes, and therefore comparable in
+  essential structure to the leaf-bearing plates of the second
+  mesosomatic somite of Limulus. They have remained unenclosed and
+  projecting on the surface of the body, as once were the appendages of
+  the four following somites. But they have lost their respiratory
+  function. In non-aquatic life such an unprotected organ cannot
+  subserve respiration. The "pectens" have become more firmly chitinized
+  and probably somewhat altered in shape as compared with their
+  condition in the aquatic ancestral scorpions. Their present function
+  in scorpions is not ascertained. They are not specially sensitive
+  under ordinary conditions, and may be touched or even pinched without
+  causing any discomfort to the scorpion. It is probable that they
+  acquire special sensibility at the breeding season and serve as
+  "guides" in copulation. The shape of the legs and the absence of
+  paired terminal claws in the Silurian _Palaeophonus_ (see figs. 48 and
+  49) as compared with living scorpions (see fig. 10) show that the
+  early scorpions were aquatic, and we may hope some day in
+  better-preserved specimens than the two as yet discovered, to find the
+  respiratory organs of those creatures in the condition of projecting
+  appendages serving aquatic respiration somewhat as in Limulus, though
+  not necessarily repeating the exact form of the broad plates of
+  Limulus.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Diagram of the dorsal surface of a scorpion to
+  compare with fig. 7. Letters and Roman numerals as in fig. 7,
+  excepting that VII is here certainly the tergum of the first somite of
+  the mesosoma--the genital somite--and is _not_ a survival of the
+  embryonic praegenital somite. The anus (not seen) is on the sternal
+  surface.
+
+  (From Lankester, _loc. cit._)]
+
+  It is important to note that the series of lamellae of the lung-book
+  and the gill-book correspond _exactly_ in structure, the narrow, flat
+  blood-space in the lamellae being interrupted by pillar-like junctions
+  of the two surfaces in both cases (see Lankester (4)), and the free
+  surfaces of the adjacent lamellae being covered with a very delicate
+  chitinous cuticle which is drawn out into delicate hairs and
+  processes. The elongated axis which opens at the stigma in Scorpio and
+  which can be cleared of soft, surrounding tissues and coagulated blood
+  so as to present the appearance of a limb axis carrying the book-like
+  leaves of the lung is not really, as it would seem to be at first
+  sight, the limb axis. That is necessarily a blood-holding structure
+  and is obliterated and fused with soft tissues of the sternal region
+  so that the lamellae cannot be detached and presented as standing out
+  from it. The apparent axis or basal support of the scorpion's
+  lung-books shown in the figures, is a false or secondary axis and
+  merely a part of the infolded surface which forms the air-chamber. The
+  maceration of the soft parts of a scorpion preserved in weak spirit
+  and the cleaning of the chitinized in-grown cuticle give rise to the
+  false appearance of a limb axis carrying the lamellae. The margins of
+  the lamellae of the scorpion's lung-book, which are _lowermost_ in the
+  figures (fig. 15) and appear to be free, are really those which are
+  attached to the blood-holding axis. The true free ends are those
+  nearest the stigma.
+
+  Passing on now from the mesosoma we come in Scorpio to the metasoma of
+  six segments, the first of which is broad whilst the rest are
+  cylindrical. The last is perforated by the anus and carries the
+  post-anal spine or sting. The somites of the metasoma carry no
+  parapodia. In Limulus the metasoma is practically suppressed. In the
+  allied extinct Eurypterines it is well developed, and resembles that
+  of Scorpio. In the embryo Limulus (fig. 42) the six somites of the
+  mesosoma are not fused to form a carapace at an early stage, and they
+  are followed by three separately marked metasomatic somites; the other
+  three somites of the metasoma have disappeared in Limulus, but are
+  represented by the unsegmented prae-anal region. It is probable that
+  we have in the metasoma of Limulus a case of the disappearance of once
+  clearly demarcated somites. It would be possible to suppose, on the
+  other hand, that new somites are only beginning to make their
+  appearance here. The balance of various considerations is against the
+  latter hypothesis. Following the metasoma in Limulus, we have as in
+  Scorpio the post-anal spine--in this case not a sting, but a powerful
+  and important organ of locomotion, serving to turn the animal over
+  when it has fallen upon its back. The nature of the post-anal spine
+  has been strangely misinterpreted by some writers. Owen (7) maintained
+  that it represented a number of coalesced somites, regardless of its
+  post-anal position and mode of development. The agreement of the
+  grouping of the somites, of the form of the parapodia (appendages,
+  limbs) in each region, of the position of the genital aperture and
+  operculum, of the position and character of the eyes, and of the
+  powerful post-anal spines not seen in other Arthropods, is very
+  convincing as to the affinity of Limulus and Scorpio. Perhaps the
+  most important general agreement of Scorpio compared with Limulus and
+  the Eurypterines is the division of the body into the three regions
+  (or tagmata)--prosoma, mesosoma and metasoma--each consisting of six
+  segments, the prosoma having leg-like appendages, the mesosoma having
+  foliaceous appendages, and the metasoma being destitute of appendages.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Ventral view of the posterior carapace or
+  meso-metasomatic (opisthospmatic) fusion of _Limulus polyphemus_. The
+  soft integument and limbs of the mesosoma have been removed as well as
+  all the viscera and muscles, so that the inner surface of the terga of
+  these somites with their entopophyses are seen. The unsegmented dense
+  chitinous sternal plate of the metasoma (XIII to XVIII) is not
+  removed. Letters as in fig. 7.
+
+  (After Lankester, _loc. cit._)]
+
+  In 1893, some years after the identification of the somites of Limulus
+  with those of Scorpio, thus indicated, had been published, zoologists
+  were startled by the discovery by a Japanese zoologist, Kishinouye
+  (8), of a seventh prosomatic somite in the embryo of Limulus
+  longispina. This was seen in longitudinal sections, as shown in fig.
+  19. The simple identification of somite with somite in Limulus and
+  Scorpio seemed to be threatened by this discovery. But in 1896 Dr
+  August Brauer of Marburg (9) discovered in the embryo of Scorpio a
+  seventh prosomatic somite (see VII PrG, figs. 17 and 18), or, if we
+  please so to term it, a _praegenital_ somite, hitherto unrecognized.
+  In the case of Scorpio this segment is indicated in the embryo by the
+  presence of a pair of rudimentary appendages, carried by a well-marked
+  somite. As in Limulus, so in Scorpio, this unexpected somite and its
+  appendages disappear in the course of development. In fact, more or
+  less complete "excalation" of the somite takes place. Owing to its
+  position it is convenient to term the somite which is excalated in
+  Limulus and Scorpio "the praegenital somite." It appears not
+  improbable that the sternal plates wedged in between the last pair of
+  legs in both Scorpio and Limulus, viz. the pentagonal sternite of
+  Scorpio (fig. 10) and the chilaria of Limulus (see figs. 13 and 20),
+  may in part represent in the adult the sternum of the excalated
+  praegenital somite. This has not been demonstrated by an actual
+  following out of the development, but the position of these pieces and
+  the fact that they are (in Limulus) supplied by an independent
+  segmental nerve, favours the view that they may comprise the sternal
+  area of the vanished praegenital somite. This interpretation, however,
+  of the "metasternites" of Limulus and Scorpio is opposed by the
+  coexistence in Thelyphonus (figs. 55, 57 and 58) of a similar
+  metasternite with a complete praegenital somite. H.J. Hansen (10) has
+  recognized that the "praegenital somite" persists in a rudimentary
+  condition, forming a "waist" to the series of somites in the Pedipalpi
+  and Araneae. The present writer is of opinion that it will be found
+  most convenient to treat this evanescent somite as something special,
+  and not to attempt to reckon it to either the prosoma or the mesosoma.
+  These will then remain as typically composed each of six
+  appendage-bearing somites-the prosoma comprising in addition the
+  ocular prosthomere.[1] When the praegenital somite or traces of it are
+  present it should not be called "the seventh prosomatic" or the "first
+  mesosomatic," but simply the "praegenital somite." The first segment
+  of the mesosoma of Scorpio and Limulus thus remains the first segment,
+  and can be identified as such throughout the Eu-arachnida, carrying as
+  it always does the genital apertures. But it is necessary to remember,
+  in the light of recent discoveries, that the sixth prosomatic pair of
+  appendages is carried on the seventh somite of the whole series, there
+  being two prosthomeres or somites in front of the mouth, the first
+  carrying the eyes, the second the chelicerae; also that the first
+  mesosomatic or genital somite is not the seventh or even the eighth of
+  the whole senes of somites which have been historically present, but
+  is the ninth, owing to the presence or to the excalation of a
+  praegenital somite. It seems that confusion and trouble will be best
+  avoided by abstaining from the introduction of the non-evident
+  somites, the ocular and the praegenital, into the numerical
+  nomenclature of the component somites of the three great body regions.
+  We shall, therefore, ignoring the ocular somite, speak of the first,
+  second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth leg-bearing somites of the
+  prosoma, and indicate the appendages by the Roman numerals, I, II,
+  III, IV, V, VI, and whilst ignoring the praegenital somite we shall
+  speak of the first, second, third, &c., somite of the mesosoma or
+  opisthosoma (united mesosoma and metasoma) and indicate them by the
+  Arabic numerals.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Ventral view of a scorpion, _Palamnaeus
+  indus_, de Geer, to show the arrangement of the coxae of the limbs,
+  the sternal elements, genital plate and pectens.
+
+    M, Mouth behind the oval median camerostome.
+    I, The chelicerae.
+    II, The chelae.
+    III to VI, the four pairs of walking legs.
+    VIIgo, The genital somite or first somite of the mesosoma with the
+      genital operculum (a fused pair of limbs).
+    VIIIp, The pectiniferous somite.
+    IXstg to XIIstg, the four pulmonary somites.
+    met, The pentagonal metasternite of the prosoma behind all the
+      coxae.
+    x, The sternum of the pectiniferous somite.
+    y, The broad first somite of the metasoma.]
+
+  There are a number of other important points of structure besides
+  those referring to the somites and appendages in which Limulus agrees
+  with Scorpio or other Arachnida and differs from other Arthropoda. The
+  chief of these are as follows:--
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Third leg of _Limulus polyphemus_, showing
+  the division of the fourth segment of the leg by a groove S into two,
+  thus giving seven segments to the leg as in scorpion.
+
+  (From a drawing by Pocock.)]
+
+  1. _The Composition of the Head_ (that is to say, of the anterior part
+  of the prosoma) _with especial Reference to the Region in Front of the
+  Mouth._--It appears (see ARTHROPODA) that there is embryological
+  evidence of the existence of two somites in Arachnida which were
+  originally post-oral, but have become prae-oral by adaptational
+  shifting of the oral aperture. These forwardly-slipped somites are
+  called "prosthomeres." The first of these has, in Arachnids as in
+  other Arthropods, its pair of appendages represented by the eyes. The
+  second has for its pair of appendages the small pair of limbs which in
+  all living Arachnids is either chelate or retrovert (as in spiders),
+  and is known as the chelicerae. It is possible, as maintained by some
+  writers (Patten and others), that the lobes of the cerebral nervous
+  mass in Arachnids indicate a larger number of prosthomeres as having
+  fused in this region, but there is no _embryological_ evidence at
+  present which justifies us in assuming the existence in Arachnids of
+  more than two prosthomeres. The position of the chelicerae of Limulus
+  and of the ganglionic nerve-masses from which they receive their
+  nerve-supply, is closely similar to that of the same structures in
+  Scorpio. The cerebral mass is in Limulus more easily separated by
+  dissection as a median lobe distinct from the laterally-placed ganglia
+  of the chelceral somite than is the case in Scorpio, but the relations
+  are practically the same in the two forms. Formerly it was supposed
+  that in Limulus both the chelicerae and the next following pair of
+  appendages were prosthomerous, as in Crustacea, but the dissections of
+  Alphonse Milne-Edwards (6) demonstrated the true limitations of the
+  cerebrum, whilst embryological researches have done as much for
+  Scorpio. Limulus thus agrees with Scorpio and differs from the
+  Crustacea, in which there are three prosthomeres--one ocular and two
+  carrying palpiform appendages. It is true that in the lower Crustacea
+  (Apus, &c.) we have evidence of the gradual movement forward of the
+  nerve-ganglia belonging to these palpiform appendages. But although in
+  such lower Crustacea the nerve-ganglia of the third prosthomere have
+  not fused with the anterior nerve-mass, there is no question as to the
+  prae-oral position of two appendage-bearing somites in addition to the
+  ocular prosthomere. The Crustacea have, in fact, three prosthomeres in
+  the head and the Arachnida only two, and Limulus agrees with the
+  Arachnida in this respect and differs from the Crustacea. The central
+  nervous systems of Limulus and of Scorpio present closer agreement in
+  structure than can be found when a Crustacean is compared with either.
+  The wide divarication of the lateral cords in the prosoma and their
+  connexion by transverse commissures, together with the "attraction" of
+  ganglia to the prosomatic ganglion group which properly belong to
+  hinder segments, are very nearly identical in the two animals. The
+  form and disposition of the ganglion cells are also peculiar and
+  closely similar in the two. (See Patten (42) for important
+  observations on the neuromeres, &c., of Limulus and Scorpio.)
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--The prosomatic appendages of _Limulus
+  polyphemus_ (right) and Scorpio (left), _Palamnaeus indus_ compared.
+  The corresponding appendages are marked with the same Roman numeral.
+  The Arabic numerals indicate the segments of the legs.
+
+    cox, Coxa or basal segment of the leg.
+    stc, The sterno-coxal process or jaw-like up-growth of the coxa.
+    epc, The articulated movable outgrowth of the coxa, called the
+      epi-coxite (present only in III of the scorpion and III, IV and V
+      of Limulus).
+    ex^1, The exopodite of the sixth limb of Limulus.
+    a, b, c, d, Movable processes on the same leg (see for some
+      suggestions on the morphology of this leg, Pocock in _Quart. Journ.
+      Micr. Sci._ March 1901; see also fig. 50 below and explanation).
+
+  (From Lankester, _loc. cit._)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Diagrams of the metasternite st, with genital
+  operculum op, and the first lamelligerous pair of appendages ga, with
+  uniting sternal element st of Scorpio (left) and Limulus (right).
+
+  (From Lankester, _loc. cit._)]
+
+  2. _The Minute Structure of the Central Eyes and of the Lateral
+  Eyes._--Limulus agrees with Scorpio not only in having a pair of
+  central eyes and also lateral eyes, but in the microscopic structure
+  of those organs, which differs in the central and lateral eyes
+  respectively. The central eyes are "simple eyes," that is to say, have
+  a single lens, and are hence called "monomeniscous." The lateral eyes
+  are in Limulus "compound eyes," that is to say, consist of many lenses
+  placed close together; beneath each lens is a complex of protoplasmic
+  cells, in which the optic nerve terminates. Each such unit is termed
+  an "ommatidium." The lateral eyes of Scorpio consist of groups of
+  separate small lenses each with its ommatidium, but they do not form a
+  continuous compound eye as in Limulus. The ommatidium (soft structure
+  beneath the lens-unit of a compound eye) is very simple in both
+  Scorpio and Limulus. It consists of a single layer of cells,
+  continuous with those which secrete the general chitinous covering of
+  the prosoma. The cells of the ommatidium are a good deal larger than
+  the neighbouring common cells of the epidermis. They secrete the
+  knob-like lens (fig. 22). But they also receive the nerve fibres of
+  the optic nerve. They are at the same time both optic nerve-end cells,
+  that is to say, retina cells, and corneagen cells or secretors of the
+  chitinous lens-like cornea. In Limulus (fig. 23) each ommatidium has a
+  peculiar ganglion cell developed in a central position, whilst the
+  ommatidium of the lateral eyelets of Scorpio shows small intermediate
+  cells between the larger nerve-end cells. The structure of the lateral
+  eye of Limulus was first described by Grenacher, and further and more
+  accurately by Lankester and Bourne (5) and by Watase; that of Scorpio
+  by Lankester and Bourne, who showed that the statements of von Graber
+  were erroneous, and that the lateral eyes of Scorpio have a single
+  cell-layered or "monostichous" ommatidium like that of Limulus. Watase
+  has shown, in a very convincing way, how by deepening the pit-like set
+  of cells beneath a simple lens the more complex ommatidia of the
+  compound eyes of Crustacea and Hexapoda may be derived from such a
+  condition as that presented in the lateral eyes of Limulus and
+  Scorpio. (For details the reader is referred to Watase (11) and to
+  Lankester and Bourne (5).) The structure of the central eyes of
+  Scorpio and spiders and also of Limulus differs essentially from that
+  of the lateral eyes in having two layers of cells (hence called
+  diplostichous) beneath the lens, separated from one another by a
+  membrane (figs. 24 and 25). The upper layer is the corneagen and
+  secretes the lens, the lower is the retinal layer. The mass of soft
+  cell-structures beneath a large lens of a central eye is called an
+  "ommatoeum." It shows in Scorpio and Limulus a tendency to segregate
+  into minor groups or "ommatidia." It is found that in embryological
+  growth the retinal layer of the central eyes forms as a separate
+  pouch, which is pushed in laterally beneath the corneagen layer from
+  the epidermic cell layer. Hence it is in origin double, and consists
+  of a true retinal layer and a post-retinal layer (fig. 24, B), though
+  these are not separated by a membrane. Accordingly the diplostichous
+  ommatoeum or soft tissue of the Arachnid's central eye should strictly
+  be called "triplostichous," since the deep layer is itself doubled or
+  folded. The retinal cells of both the lateral and central eyes of
+  Limulus and Scorpio produce cuticular structures on their sides; each
+  such piece is a rhabdomere and a number (five or ten) uniting form a
+  rhabdom (fig. 26). In the specialized ommatidia of the compound eyes
+  of Crustacea and Hexapods the rhabdom is an important structure.[2] It
+  is a very significant fact that the lateral and central eyes of
+  Limulus and Scorpio not only agree each with each in regard to their
+  monostichous and diplostichous structure, but also in the formation in
+  both classes of eyes of rhabdomeres and rhabdoms in which the
+  component pieces are five or a multiple of five (fig. 26). Whilst each
+  unit of the lateral eye of Limulus has a rhabdom of ten[3] pieces
+  forming a star-like chitinous centre in section, each lateral eye of
+  Scorpio has several rhabdoms of five or less rhabdomeres, indicating
+  that the Limulus lateral eye-unit is more specialized than the
+  detached lateral eyelet of Scorpio, so as to present a coincidence of
+  one lens with one rhabdom. Numerous rhabdomeres (grouped as rhabdoms
+  in Limulus) are found in the retinal layer of the central eyes also.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--The first three pairs of mesosomatic
+  appendages of Scorpio and Limulus compared.
+
+    VII, The genital operculum.
+    VIII, The pectens of Scorpio and the first branchial plate of
+      Limulus.
+    IX, The first pair of lung-books of Scorpio and the second branchial
+      plate of Limulus.
+    gp, Genital pore.
+    epst, Epistigmatic sclerite.
+    stg, Stigma or orifice of the hollow tendons of the branchial plates
+      of Limulus.
+
+  (After Lankester, _loc. cit._)]
+
+  Whilst Limulus agrees thus closely with Scorpio in regard to the eyes,
+  it is to be noted that no Crustacean has structures corresponding to
+  the peculiar diplostichous central eyes, though these occur again
+  (with differences in detail) in _Hexapoda_. Possibly, however, an
+  investigation of the development of the median eyes of some Crustacea
+  (Apus, Palaemon) may prove them to be diplostichous in origin.
+
+  3. _The so-called_ "_Coxal Glands_."--In 1882 (_Proc. Roy. Soc_. No.
+  221) Lankester described under the name "coxal glands" a pair of
+  brilliantly white oviform bodies lying in the Scorpion's prosoma
+  immediately above the coxae of the fifth and sixth pairs of legs (fig.
+  27). These bodies had been erroneously supposed by Newport (12) and
+  other observers to be glandular outgrowths of the alimentary canal.
+  They are really excretory glands, and communicate with the exterior by
+  a very minute aperture on the posterior face of the coxa of the fifth
+  limb on each side. When examined with the microscope, by means of the
+  usual section method, they are seen to consist of a labyrinthine tube
+  lined with peculiar cells, each cell having a deep vertically striated
+  border on the surface farthest from the lumen, as is seen in the cells
+  of some renal organs. The coils and branches of the tube are packed by
+  connective tissue and blood spaces. A similar pair of coxal glands,
+  lobate instead of ovoid in shape, was described by Lankester in
+  Mygale, and it was also shown by him that the structures in Limulus
+  called "brick-red glands" by Packard have the same structure and
+  position as the coxal glands of Scorpio and Mygale. In Limulus these
+  organs consist each of four horizontal lobes lying on the coxal margin
+  of the second, third, fourth, and fifth prosomatic limbs, the four
+  lobes being connected to one another by a transverse piece or stem
+  (fig. 28). Microscopically their structure is the same in essentials
+  as that of the coxal glands of Scorpio (13). Coxal glands have since
+  been recognized and described in other Arachnida. In 1900 it was shown
+  that the coxal gland of Limulus is provided with a very delicate
+  thin-walled coiled duct which opens, even in the adult condition, by a
+  minute pore on the coxa of the fifth leg (Patten and Hazen, 13A).
+  Previously to this, Lankester's pupil Gulland had shown (1885) that in
+  the embryo the coxal gland is a comparatively simple tube, which opens
+  to the exterior in this position and by its other extremity into a
+  coelomic space. Similar observations were made by Laurie (17) in
+  Lankester's laboratory (1890) with regard to the early condition of
+  the coxal gland of Scorpio, and by Bertkau (41) as to that of the
+  spider Atypus. H.M. Bernard (13B) showed that the opening remains in
+  the adult scorpion. In all the embryonic or permanent opening is on
+  the coxa of the fifth pair of prosomatic limbs. Thus an organ newly
+  discovered in Scorpio was found to have its counterpart in Limulus.
+
+  The name "coxal gland" needs to be carefully distinguished from
+  "crural gland," with which it is apt to be confused. The crural
+  glands, which occur in many terrestrial Arthropods, are epidermal in
+  origin and totally distinct from the coxal glands. The coxal glands of
+  the Arachnida are structures of the same nature as the green glands of
+  the higher Crustacea and the so-called "shell glands" of the
+  Entomostraca. The latter open at the base of the fifth pair of limbs
+  of the Crustacean, just as the coxal glands open on the coxal joint of
+  the fifth pair of limbs of the Arachnid. Both belong to the category
+  of "coelomoducts," namely, tubular or funnel-like portions of the
+  coelom opening to the exterior in pairs in each somite (potentially,)
+  and usually persisting in only a few somites as either "urocoels"
+  (renal organs) or "gonocoets" (genital tubes). In Peripatus they occur
+  in every somite of the body. They have till recently been very
+  generally identified with the nephridia of Chaetopod worms, but there
+  is good reason for considering the true nephridia (typified by the
+  nephridia of the earthworm) as a distinct class of organs (see
+  Lankester in vol. ii. chap. in. of _A Treatise on Zoology_, 1900). The
+  genital ducts of Arthropoda are, like the green glands, shell glands
+  and coxal glands, to be regarded as coelomoducts (gonocoels). The
+  coxal glands do not establish any special connexion between Limulus
+  and Scorpio, since they also occur in the same somite in the lower
+  Crustacea, but it is to be noted that the coxal glands of Limulus are
+  in minute structure and probably in function more like those of
+  Arachnids than those of Crustacea.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--The remaining three pairs of mesosomatic
+  appendages of Scorpio and Limulus. Letters as in fig. 14. l130
+  indicates that there are 130 lamellae in the scorpion's lung-book,
+  whilst l150 indicates that 150 similar lamellae are counted in the
+  gill of Limulus.
+
+  (After Lankester, _loc. cit._)]
+
+  4. _The Entosternites and their Minute Structure._--Strauss-Durckheim
+  (1) was the first to insist on the affinity between Limulus and the
+  Arachnids, indicated by the presence of a free suspended entosternum
+  or plastron or entosternite in both. We have figured here (figs. 1 to
+  6) the entosternites of Limulus, Scorpio and Mygale. Lankester some
+  years ago made a special study of the histology (3) of these
+  entosternites for the purpose of comparison, and also ascertained the
+  relations of the very numerous muscles which are inserted into them
+  (4). The entosternites are cartilaginous in texture, but they have
+  neither the chemical character nor the microscopic structure of the
+  hyaline cartilage of Vertebrates. They yield chitin in place of
+  chondrin or gelatin--as does also the cartilage of the Cephalopod's
+  endoskeleton. In microscopic structure they all present the closest
+  agreement with one another. We find a firm, homogeneous or sparsely
+  fibrillated matrix in which are embedded nucleated cells (corpuscles
+  of protoplasm) arranged in rows of three, six or eight, parallel with
+  the adjacent lines of fibrillation.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Diagram to show the way in which an
+  outgrowing gill-process bearing blood-holding lamellae, may give rise,
+  if the sternal body wall sinks inwards, to a lung-chamber with
+  air-holding lamellae.
+
+    I is the embryonic condition.
+    bs, Blood sinus.
+    L is the condition of outgrowth with gl, gill lamellae.
+    A is the condition of in-sinking of the sternal surface and
+      consequent enclosure of the lamelligerous surface of the appendage
+      in a chamber with narrow orifice--the pulmonary air-holding
+      chamber.
+    pl, Pulmonary lamellae.
+    bs, Blood sinus.
+
+  (After Kingsley.)]
+
+  A minute entosternite having the above-described structure is found in
+  the Crustacean Apus between the bases of the mandibles, and also in
+  the Decapoda in a similar position, but in no Crustacean does it
+  attain to any size or importance. On the other hand, the entosternite
+  of the Arachnida is a very large and important feature in the
+  structure of the prosoma, and must play an important part in the
+  economy of these organisms. In Limulus (figs. 1 and 2) it has as many
+  as twenty-five pairs of muscles attached to it, coming to it from the
+  bases of the surrounding limbs and from the dorsal carapace and from
+  the pharynx. It consists of an oblong plate 2 in. in length and 1 in
+  breadth, with a pair of tendinous outgrowths standing out from it at
+  right angles on each side. It "floats" between the prosomatic nerve
+  centres and the alimentary canal. In each somite of the mesosoma is a
+  small, free entosternite having a similar position, but below or
+  ventral to the nerve cords, and having a smaller number of muscles
+  attached to it. The entosternite was probably in origin part of the
+  fibrous connective tissue lying close to the integument of the sternal
+  surface--giving attachment to muscles corresponding more or less to
+  those at present attached to it. It became isolated and detached, why
+  or with what advantage to the organism it is difficult to say, and at
+  that period of Arachnidan development the great ventral nerve cords
+  occupied a more lateral position than they do at present. We know that
+  such a lateral position of the nerve cords preceded the median
+  position in both Arthropoda and Chaetopoda. Subsequently to the
+  floating off of the entosternite the approximation of the nerve cords
+  took place in the prosoma, and thus they were able to take up a
+  position below the entosternite. In the mesosoma the approximation had
+  occurred before the entosternites were formed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Embryo of scorpion, ventral view showing
+  somites and appendages.
+
+    sgc, Frontal groove.
+    sa, Rudiment of lateral eyes.
+    obl, Camerostome (upper lip).
+    so, Sense-organ of Patten.
+    PrGabp^1, Rudiment of the appendage of the praegenital somite which
+      disappears.
+    abp^2, Rudiment of the right half of the genital operculum.
+    abp^3, Rudiment of the right pecten.
+    abp^4 to abp^7. Rudiments of the four appendages which carry the
+      pulmonary lamellae.
+    I to VI, Rudiments of the six limbs of the prosoma.
+    VIIPrG, The evanescent praegenital somite.
+    VIII, The first mesosomatic somite or genital somite.
+    IX, The second mesosomatic somite or pectiniferous somite.
+    X to XIII, The four pulmoniferous somites.
+    XIV, The first metasomatic somite.
+
+  (After Brauer, _Zeitsch. wiss. Zool_., vol. lix., 1895.)]
+
+  In the scorpion (figs. 3 and 4) the entosternite has tough
+  membrane-like outgrowths which connect it with the body-wall, both
+  dorsally and ventrally forming an oblique diaphragm, cutting off the
+  cavity of the prosoma from that of the mesosoma. It was described by
+  Newport as "the diaphragm." Only the central and horizontal parts of
+  this structure correspond precisely to the entosternite of Limulus:
+  the right and left anterior processes (marked ap in figs. 3 and 4, and
+  RAP, LAP, in figs. 1 and 2) correspond in the two animals, and the
+  median lateral process _lmp_ of the scorpion represents the tendinous
+  outgrowths ALR, PLR of Limulus. The scorpion's entosternite gives rise
+  to outgrowths, besides the great posterior flaps, pf, which form the
+  diaphragm, unrepresented in Limulus. These are a ventral arch forming
+  a neural canal through which the great nerve cords pass (figs. 3 and
+  4, _snp_), and further a dorsal gastric canal and arterial canal which
+  transmit the alimentary tract and the dorsal artery respectively
+  (figs. 3 and 4, GC, DR).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Portion of a similar embryo at a later stage
+  of growth. The praegenital somite, VII PrG, is still present, but has
+  lost its rudimentary appendages; go, the genital operculum, left half;
+  Km, the left pecten; abp^4 to abp^7, the rudimentary appendages of
+  the lung-sacs.
+
+  (After Brauer, _loc. cit_.)]
+
+  In Limulus small entosternites are found in each somite of the
+  appendage-bearing mesosoma, and we find in Scorpio, in the only somite
+  of the mesosoma which has a well-developed pair of appendages, that of
+  the pectens, a small entosternite with ten pairs of muscles inserted
+  into it. The supra-pectinal entosternite lies ventral to the nerve
+  cords.
+
+  In Mygale (figs. 5 and 6) the form of the entosternite is more like
+  that of Limulus than is that of Scorpio. The anterior notch Ph.N. is
+  similar to that in Limulus, whilst the imbricate triangular pieces of
+  the posterior median region resemble the similarly-placed structures
+  of Limulus in a striking manner.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Section through an early embryo of _Limulus
+  longispina_, showing seven transverse divisions in the region of the
+  unsegmented anterior carapace. The seventh, VII, is anterior to the
+  genital operculum, op, and is the cavity of the praegenital somite
+  which is more or less completely suppressed in subsequent development,
+  possibly indicated by the area marked VII in fig. 7 and by the great
+  entopophyses of the prosomatic carapace.
+
+  (After Kishinouye, _Journ. Sci. Coll. Japan_, vol. v., 1892.)]
+
+  It must be confessed that we are singularly ignorant as to the
+  functional significance of these remarkable organs--the entosternites.
+  Their movement in an upward or downward direction in Limulus and
+  Mygale must exert a pumping action on the blood contained in the
+  dorsal arteries and the ventral veins respectively. In Scorpio the
+  completion of the horizontal plate by oblique naps, so as to form an
+  actual diaphragm shutting off the cavity of the prosoma from the rest
+  of the body, possibly gives to the organs contained in the anterior
+  chamber a physiological advantage in respect of the supply of arterial
+  blood and its separation from the venous blood of the mesosoma.
+  Possibly the movement of the diaphragm may determine the passage of
+  air into or out of the lung-sacs. Muscular fibres connected with the
+  suctorial pharynx are in Limulus inserted into the entosternite, and
+  the activity of the two organs may be correlated.
+
+  5. _The Blood and the Blood-vascular System._--The blood fluids of
+  Limulus and Scorpio are very similar. Not only are the blood
+  corpuscles of Limulus more like in form and granulation to those of
+  Scorpio than to those of any Crustacean, but the fluid is in both
+  animals strongly impregnated with the blue-coloured respiratory
+  proteid, haemocyanin. This body occurs also in the blood of Crustacea
+  and of Molluscs, but its abundance in both Limulus and Scorpio is very
+  marked, and gives to the freshly-shed blood a strong indigo-blue tint.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--View of the ventral surface of the mid-line
+  of the prosomatic region of _Limulus polyphemus_. The coxae of the
+  five pairs of limbs following the chelicerae were arranged in a series
+  on each side between the mouth, M, and the metasternites, mets.
+
+    sf, The sub-frontal median sclerite.
+    Ch, The chelicerae.
+    cam, The camerostome or upper lip.
+    M, The mouth.
+    pmst, The promesosternal sclerite of chitinous plate, unpaired.
+    mets, The right and left metasternites (corresponding to the
+      similarly placed pentagonal sternite of Scorpio). Natural size.
+
+  (After Lankester.)]
+
+  The great dorsal contractile vessel or "heart" of Limulus is closely
+  similar to that of Scorpio; its ostia or incurrent orifices are placed
+  in the same somites as those of Scorpio, but there is one additional
+  posterior pair. The origin of the paired arteries from the heart
+  differs in Limulus from the arrangement obtaining in Scorpio, in that
+  a pair of lateral commissural arteries exist in Limulus (as described
+  by Alphonse Milne-Edwards (6)) leading to a suppression of the more
+  primitive direct connexion of the four pairs of posterior lateral
+  arteries and of the great median posterior arteries with the heart
+  itself (fig. 29). The arterial system is very completely developed in
+  both Limulus and Scorpio, branching repeatedly until minute arterioles
+  are formed, not to be distinguished from true capillaries; these open
+  into irregular swollen vessels which are the veins or venous sinuses.
+  A very remarkable feature in Limulus, first described by Owen, is the
+  close accompaniment of the prosomatic nerve centres and nerves by
+  arteries, so close indeed that the great ganglion mass and its
+  out-running nerves are actually sunk in or invested by arteries. The
+  connexion is not so intimate in Scorpio, but is nevertheless a very
+  close one, closer than we find in any other Arthropods in which the
+  arterial system is well developed, e.g. the Myriapoda and some of the
+  arthrostracous Crustacea. It seems that there is a primitive tendency
+  in the Arthropoda for the arteries to accompany the nerve cords, and a
+  "supra-spinal" artery--that is to say, an artery in close relation to
+  the ventral nerve cords--has been described in several cases. On the
+  other hand, in many Arthropods, especially those which possess
+  tracheae, the arteries do not have a long course, but soon open into
+  wide blood sinuses. Scorpio certainly comes nearer to Limulus in the
+  high development of its arterial system, and the intimate relation of
+  the anterior aorta and its branches to the nerve centres and great
+  nerves, than does any other Arthropod.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2l.--Development of the lateral eyes of a
+  scorpion. h, Epidermic cell-layer; _mes_, mesoblastic connective
+  tissue; n, nerves; II, III, IV, V, depressions of the epidermis in
+  each of which a cuticular lens will be formed.
+
+  (_From Korschelt and Heider, after Laurie_.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Section through the lateral eye of
+  _Euscorpius italicus_.
+
+    lens, Cuticular lens.
+    nerv c, Retinal cells (nerve-end cells).
+    rhabd, Rhabdomes.
+    nerv f, Nerve fibres of the optic nerve.
+    int, Intermediate cells (lying between the bases of the retinal
+      cells).
+
+  (After Lankester and Bourne from Parker and Habwell's _Text book of
+  Zoology_, Macmillan & Co.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Section through a portion of the lateral eye
+  of Limulus, showing three ommatidia--A, B and C. hyp, The epidermic
+  cell-layer (so-called hypodermis), the cells of which increase in
+  volume below each lens, l, and become nerve-end cells or
+  retinula-cells, rt; in A, the letters rh point to a rhabdomere
+  secreted by the cell rt; c, the peculiar central spherical cell; n,
+  nerve fibres; mes, mesoblastic skeletal tissue; ch, chitinous
+  cuticle.
+
+  (From Korschelt and Heider after Watase.)]
+
+  An arrangement of great functional importance in regard to the venous
+  system must now be described, which was shown in 1883 by Lankester to
+  be common to Limulus and Scorpio. This arrangement has not hitherto
+  been detected in any other class than the Arachnida, and if it should
+  ultimately prove to be peculiar to that group, would have considerable
+  weight as a proof of the close genetic affinity of Limulus and
+  Scorpio.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Diagrams of the development and adult
+  structure of one of the paired central eyes of a scorpion.
+
+    A, Early condition before the lens is deposited, showing the folding
+      of the epidermic cell-layer into three.
+    B, Diagram showing the nature of this infolding.
+    C, Section through the fully formed eye.
+    h, Epidermic cell-layer.
+    r, The retinal portion of the same which, owing to the infolding,
+      lies between gl, the corneagen or lens-forming portion, and pr, the
+      post-retinal or capsular portion or fold.
+    l, Cuticular lens.
+    g, Line separating lens from the lens-forming or corneagen cells of
+      the epidermis.
+    n, Nerve fibres.
+    rh, Rhabdomeres.
+
+    [How the inversion of the nerve-end-cells and their connexion with
+    the nerve-fibres is to be reconciled with the condition found in the
+    adult, or with that of the monostichous eye, has not hitherto been
+    explained.]
+
+  (From Korschelt and Heider.)]
+
+  The great pericardial sinus is strongly developed in both animals. Its
+  walls are fibrous and complete, and it holds a considerable volume of
+  blood when the heart itself is contracted. Opening in pairs in each
+  somite, right and left into the pericardial sinus are large veins,
+  which bring the blood respectively from the gill-books and the
+  lung-books to that chamber, whence it passes by the ostia into the
+  heart. The blood is brought to the respiratory organs in both cases by
+  a great venous collecting sinus having a ventral median position. In
+  both animals _the wall of the pericardial sinus is connected by
+  vertical muscular bands to the wall of the ventral venous sinus_ (its
+  lateral expansions around the lung-books in Scorpio) in each somite
+  through which the pericardium passes. There are seven pairs of these
+  _veno-pericardiac vertical muscles_ in Scorpio, and eight in Limulus
+  (see figs. 30, 31, 32). It is obvious that the contraction of these
+  muscles must cause a depression of the floor of the pericardium and a
+  rising of the roof of the ventral blood sinus, and a consequent
+  increase of volume and flow of blood to each. Whether the pericardium
+  and the ventral sinus are made to expand simultaneously or all the
+  movement is made by one only of the surfaces concerned, must depend on
+  conditions of tension. In any case it is clear that we have in these
+  muscles an apparatus for causing the blood to flow differentially in
+  increased volume into either the pericardium, through the veins
+  leading from the respiratory organs, or from the body generally into
+  the great sinuses which bring the blood to the respiratory organs.
+  These muscles act so as to pump the blood through the respiratory
+  organs.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG 25.--Section through one of the central eyes of a
+  young Limulus.
+
+    L, Cuticular or corneous lens.
+    hy, Epidermic cell-layer.
+    corn, Its corneagen portion immediately underlying the lens.
+    ret, Retinula cells.
+    nf, Nerve fibres.
+    con. tiss, Connective tissue (mesoblastic skeletal tissue).
+
+  (After Lankester and Bourne, _Q. J. Mic. Sci._, 1883.)]
+
+  It is not surprising that with so highly developed an arterial system
+  Limulus and Scorpio should have a highly developed mechanism for
+  determining the flow of blood to the respiratory organs. That this is,
+  so to speak, a need of animals with localized respiratory organs is
+  seen by the existence of provisions serving a similar purpose in other
+  animals, e.g. the branchial hearts of the Cephalopoda.
+
+  The veno-pericardiac muscles of Scorpio were seen and figured by
+  Newport but not described by him. Those of Limulus were described and
+  figured by Alphonse Milne-Edwards, but he called them merely
+  "transparent ligaments," and did not discover their muscular
+  structure. They are figured and their importance for the first time
+  recognized in the memoir on the muscular and skeletal systems of
+  Limulus and Scorpio by Lankester, Beck and Bourne (4).
+
+  6. _Alimentary Canal and Gastric Glands._--The alimentary canal in
+  Scorpio, as in Limulus, is provided with a powerful suctorial pharynx,
+  in the working of which extrinsic muscles take a part. The mouth is
+  relatively smaller in Scorpio than in Limulus--in fact is minute, as
+  it is in all the terrestrial Arachnida which suck the juices of either
+  animals or plants. In both, the alimentary canal takes a straight
+  course from the pharynx (which bends under it downwards and backwards
+  towards the mouth in Limulus) to the anus, and is a simple, narrow,
+  cylindrical tube (fig. 33). The only point in which the gut of Limulus
+  resembles that of Scorpio rather than that of any of the Crustacea, is
+  in possessing more than a single pair of ducts or lateral outgrowths
+  connected with ramified gastric glands or gastric caeca. Limulus has
+  two pairs of these, Scorpio as many as six pairs. The Crustacea never
+  have more than one pair. The minute microscopic structure of the
+  gastric glands in the two animals is practically identical. The
+  functions of these gastric diverticula have never been carefully
+  investigated. It is very probable that in Scorpio they do not serve
+  merely to secrete a digestive fluid (shown in other Arthropoda to
+  resemble the pancreatic fluid), but that they also become distended by
+  the juices of the prey sucked in by the scorpion--as certainly must
+  occur in the case of the simple unbranched gastric caeca of the
+  spiders.
+
+  The most important difference which exists between the structure of
+  Limulus and that of Scorpio is found in the hinder region of the
+  alimentary canal. Scorpio is here provided with a single or double
+  pair of renal excretory tubes, which have been identified by earlier
+  authors with the Malpighian tubes of the Hexapod and Myriapod insects.
+  Limulus is devoid of any such tubes. We shall revert to this subject
+  below.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 26.
+
+    A, Diagram of a retinula of the central eye of a scorpion consisting
+      of five retina-cells (ret), with adherent branched pigment cells
+      (pig).
+    B, Rhabdom of the same, consisting of five confluent rhabdomeres.
+    C, Transverse section of the rhabdom of a retinula of the scorpion's
+      central eye, showing its five constituent rhabdomeres as rays of a
+      star.
+    D, Transverse section of a retinula of the lateral eye of Limulus,
+      showing ten retinula cells (ret), each bearing a rhabdomere (rhab).
+
+  (After Lankester.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Diagram showing the position of the coxal
+  glands of a scorpion, _Buthus australis_, Lin., in relation to the
+  legs, diaphragm (entosternal flap), and the gastric caeca.
+
+    1 to 6, The bases of the six prosomatic limbs.
+    A, prosomatic gastric gland (sometimes called salivary).
+    B, Coxal gland.
+    C, Diaphragm of Newport = fibrous flap of the entosternum.
+    D, Mesosomatic gastric caeca (so-called liver).
+    E, Alimentary canal.
+
+  (From Lankester, _Q. J. Mic. Sci._, vol. xxiv. N.S. p. 152.)]
+
+  7. _Ovaries and Spermaries: Gonocoels and Gonoducts._--The scorpion is
+  remarkable for having the specialized portion of coelom from the walls
+  of which egg-cells or sperm-cells are developed according to sex, in
+  the form of a simple but extensive network. It is not a pair of simple
+  tubes, nor of dendriform tubes, but a closed network. The same fact is
+  true of Limulus, as was shown by Owen (7) in regard to the ovary, and
+  by Benham (14) in regard to the testis. This is a very definite and
+  remarkable agreement, since such a reticular gonocoel is not found in
+  Crustacea (except in the male Apus). Moreover, there is a significant
+  agreement in the character of the spermatozoa of Limulus and Scorpio.
+  The Crustacea are--with the exception of the Cirrhipedia--remarkable
+  for having stiff, motionless spermatozoids. In Limulus Lankester found
+  (15) the spermatozoa to possess active flagelliform "tails," and to
+  resemble very closely those of Scorpio which, as are those of most
+  terrestrial Arthropoda, are actively motile. This is a microscopic
+  point of agreement, but is none the less significant.
+
+  In regard to the important structures concerned with the fertilization
+  of the egg, Limulus and Scorpio differ entirely from one another. The
+  eggs of Limulus are fertilized in the sea after they have been laid.
+  Scorpio, being a terrestrial animal, fertilizes by copulation. The
+  male possesses elaborate copulatory structures of a chitinous nature,
+  and the eggs are fertilized in the female without even quitting the
+  place where they are formed on the wall of the reticular gonocoel. The
+  female scorpion is viviparous, and the young are produced in a highly
+  developed condition as fully formed scorpions.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--The right coxal gland of _Limulus
+  polyphemus_, Latr.
+
+    a^2 to a^5, Posterior borders of the chitinous bases of the coxae of
+      the second, third, fourth and fifth prosomatic limbs.
+    b, Longitudinal lobe or stolon of the coxal gland.
+    c, Its four transverse lobes or outgrowths corresponding to the four
+      coxae.
+
+  (From Lankester, _loc. cit_, after Packard.)]
+
+  _Differences between Limulus and Scorpio._--We have now passed in
+  review the principal structural features in which Limulus agrees with
+  Scorpio and differs from other Arthropoda. There remains for
+  consideration the one important structural difference between the two
+  animals. Limulus agrees with the majority of the Crustacea in being
+  destitute of renal excretory caeca or tubes opening into the hinder
+  part of the gut. Scorpio, on the other hand, in common with all
+  air-breathing Arthropoda except Peripatus, possesses these tubules,
+  which are often called Malpighian tubes. A great deal has been made of
+  this difference by some writers. It has been considered by them as
+  proving that Limulus, in spite of all its special agreements with
+  Scorpio (which, however, have scarcely been appreciated by the writers
+  in question), really belongs to the Crustacean line of descent, whilst
+  Scorpio, by possessing Malpighian tubes, is declared to be
+  unmistakably tied together with the other Arachnida to the tracheate
+  Arthropods, the Hexapods, Diplopods, and Chilopods, which all possess
+  Malpighian tubes.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 29.--Diagram of the arterial system of A, Scorpio,
+  and B, Limulus. The Roman numerals indicate the body somites and the
+  two figures are adjusted for comparison. ce, Cerebral arteries; sp,
+  supra-spinal or medullary artery; c, caudal artery; l, lateral
+  anastomotic artery of Limulus. The figure B also shows the peculiar
+  neural investiture formed by the cerebral arteries in Limulus and the
+  derivation from this of the arteries to the limbs, III, IV, VI,
+  whereas in Scorpio the latter have a separate origin from the anterior
+  aorta.
+
+  (From Lankester, "Limulus an Arachnid.")]
+
+  It must be pointed out that the presence or absence of such renal
+  excretory tubes opening into the intestine appears to be a question of
+  adaptation to the changed physiological conditions of respiration, and
+  not of morphological significance, since a pair of renal excretory
+  tubes of this nature is found in certain Amphipod Crustacea
+  (Talorchestia, &c.) which have abandoned a purely aquatic life. This
+  view has been accepted and supported by Professors Korschelt and
+  Heider (16). An important fact in its favour was discovered by Laurie
+  (17), who investigated the embryology of two species of Scorpio under
+  Lankester's direction. It appears that the Malpighian tubes of Scorpio
+  are developed from the mesenteron, viz. that portion of the gut which
+  is formed by the hypoblast, whereas in Hexapod insects the similar
+  caecal tubes are developed from the proctodaeum or in-pushed portion
+  of the gut which is formed from epiblast. In fact it is not possible
+  to maintain that the renal excretory tubes of the gut are of one
+  common origin in the Arthropoda. They have appeared independently in
+  connexion with a change in the excretion of nitrogenous waste in
+  Arachnids, Crustacea, and the other classes of Arthropoda when aerial,
+  as opposed to aquatic, respiration has been established--and they have
+  been formed in some cases from the mesenteron, in other cases from the
+  proctodaeum. Their appearance in the air-breathing Arachnids does not
+  separate those forms from the water-breathing Arachnids which are
+  devoid of them, any more than does their appearance in certain
+  Amphipoda separate those Crustaceans from the other members of the
+  class.
+
+  Further, it is pointed out by Korschelt and Heider that the hinder
+  portion of the gut frequently acts in Arthropoda as an organ of
+  nitrogenous excretion in the absence of any special excretory tubules,
+  and that the production of such caeca from its surface in separate
+  lines of descent does not involve any elaborate or unlikely process of
+  growth. In other words, the Malpighian tubes of the terrestrial
+  Arachnida are _homoplastic_ with those of Hexapoda and Myriapoda, and
+  not _homogenetic_ with them. We are compelled to take a similar view
+  of the agreement between the tracheal air-tubes of Arachnida and other
+  tracheate Arthropods. They are homoplasts (see 18) one of another, and
+  do not owe their existence in the various classes compared to a common
+  inheritance of an ancestral tracheal system.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--View from below of a scorpion (_Buthus
+occitanus_) opened and dissected so as to show the pericardium with its
+muscles, the lateral arteries, and the tergo-sternal muscles.
+
+    PRO, Prosoma.
+    dpm, Dorso-plastral muscle.
+    art, Lateral artery.
+    tsm^1, Tergo-sternal muscle (labelled dv in fig. 31) of the second
+      (pectiniferous) mesosomatic somite; this is the most anterior pair
+      of the series of six, none are present in the genital somite.
+    tsm^4, Tergo-sternal muscle of the fifth mesosomatic somite.
+    tsm^6, Tergo-sternal muscle of the enlarged first metasomatic
+      somite.
+    Per, Pericardium.
+    VPM^1 to VPM^7, The series of seven pairs of veno-pericardiac
+      muscles (labelled pv in fig. 31).
+
+    There is some reason to admit the existence of another more anterior
+    pair of these muscles in Scorpio; this would make the number exactly
+    correspond with the number in Limulus.
+
+(After Lankester, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ vol. xi, 1883.)]
+
+_Conclusions arising from the Close Affinity of Limulus and
+Scorpio._--When we consider the relationships of the various classes of
+Arthropoda, having accepted and established the fact of the close
+genetic affinity of Limulus and Scorpio, we are led to important
+conclusions. In such a consideration we have to make use not only of the
+fact just mentioned, but of three important generalizations which serve
+as it were as implements for the proper estimation of the relationships
+of any series of organic forms. First of all there is the generalization
+that the relationships of the various forms of animals (or of plants) to
+one another is that of the ultimate twigs of a much-branching
+genealogical tree. Secondly, identity of structure in two organisms does
+not necessarily indicate that the identical structure has been inherited
+from an ancestor common to the two organisms compared (homogeny), but
+may be due to independent development of a like structure in two
+different lines of descent (homoplasy). Thirdly, those members of a
+group which, whilst exhibiting undoubted structural characters
+indicative of their proper assignment to that group, yet are simpler
+than and inferior in elaboration of their organization to other members
+of the group, are not necessarily representatives of the earlier and
+primitive phases in the development of the group--but are very often
+examples of retrogressive change or degeneration. The second and third
+implements of analysis above cited are of the nature of cautions or
+checks. Agreements are not _necessarily_ due to common inheritance;
+simplicity is not _necessarily_ primitive and ancestral.
+
+On the other hand, we must not rashly set down agreements as due to
+"homoplasy" or "convergence of development" if we find two or three or
+more concurrent agreements. The probability is against agreement being
+due to homoplasy when the agreement involves a number of really separate
+(not correlated) coincidences. Whilst the chances are in favour of some
+_one_ homoplastic coincidence or structural agreement occurring between
+some member or other of a large group a and some member or other of a
+large group b, the matter is very different when by such an initial
+coincidence the two members have been particularized. The chances
+against these two selected members exhibiting _another_ really
+independent homoplastic agreement are enormous: let us say 10,000 to 1.
+The chances against yet another coincidence are a hundred million to
+one, and against yet one more "coincidence" they are the square of a
+hundred million to one. Homoplasy can only be assumed when the
+coincidence is of a simple nature, and is such as may be reasonably
+supposed to have arisen by the action of like selective conditions upon
+like material in two separate lines of descent.[4]
+
+So, too, degeneration is not to be lightly assumed as the explanation of
+a simplicity of structure. There is a very definite criterion of the
+simplicity due to degeneration, which can in most cases be applied.
+Degenerative simplicity is never uniformly distributed over all the
+structures of the organism. It affects many or nearly all the structures
+of the body, but leaves some, it may be only one, at a high level of
+elaboration and complexity. Ancestral simplicity is more uniform, and
+does not co-exist with specialization and elaboration of a single organ.
+Further: degeneration cannot be inferred safely by the examination of an
+isolated case; usually we obtain a series of forms indicating the steps
+of a change in structure--and what we have to decide is whether the
+movement has been from the simple to the more complex, or from the more
+complex to the simple. The feathers of a peacock afford a convenient
+example of primitive and degenerative simplicity. The highest point of
+elaboration in colour, pattern and form is shown by the great
+eye-painted tail feathers. From these we can pass by gradual transitions
+in two directions, viz. either to the simple lateral tail feathers with
+a few rami only, developed only on one side of the shaft and of uniform
+metallic coloration--or to the simple contour feathers of small size,
+with the usual symmetrical series of numerous rami right and left of the
+shaft and no remarkable colouring. The one-sided specialization and the
+peculiar metallic colouring of the lateral tail feathers mark them as
+the extreme terms of a degenerative series, whilst the symmetry,
+likeness of constituent parts _inter se_, and absence of specialized
+pigment, as well as the fact that they differ little from any average
+feather of birds in general, mark the contour feather as primitively
+simple, and as the starting-point from which the highly elaborated
+eye-painted tail feather has gradually evolved.
+
+Applying these principles to the consideration of the Arachnida, we
+arrive at the conclusion that the smaller and simpler Arachnids are not
+the more primitive, but that the Acari or mites are, in fact, a
+degenerate group. This was maintained by Lankester in 1878 (19), again
+in 1881 (20); it was subsequently announced as a novelty by Claus in
+1885 (21). Though the aquatic members of a class of animals are in some
+instances derived from terrestrial forms, the usual transition is from
+an aquatic ancestry to more recent land-living forms. There is no doubt,
+from a consideration of the facts of structure, that the aquatic
+water-breathing Arachnids, represented in the past by the Eurypterines
+and to-day by the sole survivor Limulus, have preceded the terrestrial
+air-breathing forms of that group. Hence we see at once that the
+better-known Arachnida form a series, leading from Limulus-like aquatic
+creatures through scorpions, spiders and harvest-men, to the degenerate
+Acari or mites. The spiders are specialized and reduced in apparent
+complexity, as compared with the scorpions, but they cannot be regarded
+as degenerate since the concentration of structure which occurs in them
+results in greater efficiency and power than are exhibited by the
+scorpion. The determination of the relative degree of perfection of
+organization attained by two animals compared is difficult when we
+introduce, as seems inevitable, the question of efficiency and power,
+and do not confine the question to the perfection of morphological
+development. We have no measure of the degree of power manifested by
+various animals--though it would be possible to arrive at some
+conclusions as to how that "power" should be estimated. It is not
+possible here to discuss that matter further. We must be content to
+point out that it seems that the spiders, the pedipalps, and other large
+Arachnids have not been derived from the scorpions directly, but have
+independently developed from aquatic ancestors, and from one of these
+independent groups--probably through the harvest-men from the
+spiders--the Acari have finally resulted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Diagram of a lateral view of a longitudinal
+section of a scorpion.
+
+After Beck, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ VOL. xi., 1883.
+
+  d, Chelicera.
+  ch, Chela.
+  cam_, Camerostome.
+  m, Mouth.
+  ent_, Entosternum.
+  p, Pecten.
+  stig^1, First pulmonary aperture.
+  stig^4, Fourth pulmonary aperture.
+  dam, Muscle from carapace to a praeoral entosclerite.
+  ad, Muscle from carapace to entosternum.
+  md, Muscle from tergite of genital somite to entosternum (same as dpm
+    in fig. 30).
+  dv^1 to dv^6, Dorso-ventral muscles (same as the series labelled tsm
+    in fig. 30).
+  pv^1 to pv^7, The seven veno-pericardiac muscles of the right side
+    (labelled VPM in fig. 30).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Diagram of a lateral view of a longitudinal
+section of Limulus.
+
+After Benham, _Trans Zool. Soc._ vol. xi, 1883.
+
+  Suc, Suctorial pharynx.
+  al, Alimentary canal.
+  Ph, Pharynx.
+  M, Mouth.
+  Est, Entosternum.
+  VS, Ventral venous sinus.
+  chi, Chilaria.
+  go, Genital operculum.
+  br^1 to br^5, Branchial appendages,
+  met, Unsegmented metasoma.
+  Entap^4, Fourth dorsal entapophysis of left side.
+  tsm, Tergo-sternal muscles, six pairs as in Scorpio (labelled dv in
+    fig. 31).
+  VPM^1 to VPM^8, The eight pairs of veno-pericardiac muscles (labelled
+    pv in fig. 31). VPM^1 is probably represented in Scorpio, though not
+    marked in figs. 30 and 31.]
+
+Leaving that question for consideration in connexion with the systematic
+statement of the characters of the various groups of Arachnida which
+follows on p. 299, it is well now to consider the following question,
+viz., seeing that Limulus and Scorpio are such highly developed and
+specialized forms, and that they seem to constitute as it were the first
+and second steps in the series of recognized Arachnida--what do we know,
+or what are we led to suppose with regard to the more primitive
+Arachnida from which the Eurypterines and Limulus and Scorpio have
+sprung? Do we know in the recent or fossil condition any such primitive
+Arachnids? Such a question is not only legitimate, but prompted by the
+analogy of at least one other great class of Arthropods. The great
+Arthropod class, the Crustacea, presents to the zoologist at the present
+day an immense range of forms, comprising the primitive phyllopods, the
+minute copepods, the parasitic cirrhipedes and the powerful crabs and
+lobsters, and the highly elaborated sand-hoppers and slaters. It has
+been insisted, by those who accepted Lankester's original doctrine of
+the direct or genetic affinity of the Chaetopoda and Arthropoda, that
+Apus and Branchipus really come very near to the ancestral forms which
+connected those two great branches of Appendiculate (Parapodiate)
+animals. On the other hand, the land crabs are at an immense distance
+from these simple forms. The record of the Crustacean family-tree is, in
+fact, a fairly complete one--the lower primitive members of the group
+are still represented by living forms in great abundance. In the case of
+the Arachnida, if we have to start their genealogical history with
+Limulus and Scorpio, we are much in the same position as we should be in
+dealing with the Crustacea, were the whole of the Entomostraca and the
+whole of the Arthrostraca wiped out of existence and record. There is no
+possibility of doubt that the series of forms corresponding in the
+Arachnidan line of descent, to the forms distinguished in the Crustacean
+line of descent as the lower grade--the Entomostraca--have ceased to
+exist, and not only so, but have left little evidence in the form of
+fossils as to their former existence and nature. It must, however, be
+admitted as probable that we should find some evidence, in ancient rocks
+or in the deep sea, of the early more primitive Arachnids. And it must
+be remembered that such forms must be expected to exhibit, when found,
+differences from Limulus and Scorpio as great as those which separate
+Apus and Cancer. The existing Arachnida, like the higher Crustacea, are
+"nomomeristic," that is to say, have a fixed typical number of somites
+to the body. Further, they are like the higher Crustacea,
+"somatotagmic," that is to say, they have this limited set of somites
+grouped in three (or more) "tagmata" or regions of a fixed number of
+similarly modified somites --each tagma differing in the modification of
+its fixed number of somites from that characterizing a neighbouring
+"tagma." The most primitive among the lower Crustacea, on the other
+hand, for example, the Phyllopoda, have not a fixed number of somites,
+some genera--even allied species--have more, some less, within wide
+limits; they are "anomomeristic." They also, as is generally the case
+with anomomeristic animals, do not exhibit any conformity to a fixed
+plan of "tagmatism" or division of the somites of the body into regions
+sharply marked off from one another; the head or prosomatic tagma is
+followed by a trunk consisting of somites which either graduate in
+character as we pass along the series or exhibit a large variety in
+different genera, families and orders, of grouping of the somites. They
+are anomotagmic, as well as anomomeristic.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--The alimentary canal and gastric glands of a
+scorpion (A) and of Limulus (B).
+
+From Lankester, "Limulua an Arachnid."
+
+  ps, Muscular suctorial enlargement of the pharynx.
+  sal, Prosomatic pair of gastric caeca in Scorpio, called salivary
+    glands by some writers.
+  c^1, and c^2, The anterior two pairs of gastric caeca and ducts of
+    the mesosomatic region.
+  c^3, c^4 and c^5. Caeca and ducts of Scorpio not represented in
+    Limulus.
+  M, The Malpighian or renal caecal diverticula of Scorpio.
+  pro, The proctodaeum or portion of gut leading to anus and formed
+    embryologically by an inversion of the epiblast at that orifice.]
+
+When it is admitted--as seems to be reasonable--that the primitive
+Arachnida would, like the primitive Crustacea, be anomomeristic and
+anomotagmic, we shall not demand of claimants for the rank of primitive
+Arachnids agreement with Limulus and Scorpio in respect of the exact
+number of their somites and the exact grouping of those somites; and
+when we see how diverse are the modifications of the branches of the
+appendages both in Arachnida and in other classes of Arthropoda (q.v.),
+we shall not over-estimate a difference in the form of this or that
+appendage exhibited by the claimant as compared with the higher
+Arachnids. With those considerations in mind, the claim of the extinct
+group of the trilobites to be considered as representatives of the lower
+and more primitive steps in the Arachnidan genealogy must, it seems,
+receive a favourable judgment. They differ from the Crustacea in that
+they have only a single pair of prae-oral appendages, the second pair
+being definitely developed as mandibles. This fact renders their
+association with the Crustacea impossible, if classification is to be
+the expression of genetic affinity inferred from structural coincidence.
+On the contrary, this particular point is one in which they agree with
+the higher Arachnida. But little is known of the structure of these
+extinct animals; we are therefore compelled to deal with such special
+points of resemblance and difference as their remains still exhibit.
+They had lateral eyes[5] which resemble no known eyes so closely as the
+lateral eyes of Limulus. The general form and structure of their
+prosomatic carapace are in many striking features identical with that of
+Limulus. The trilobation of the head and body--due to the expansion and
+flattening of the sides or "pleura" of the tegumentary skeleton--is so
+closely repeated in the young of Limulus that the latter has been called
+"the trilobite stage" of Limulus (fig. 42 compared with fig. 41). No
+Crustacean exhibits this trilobite form. But most important of the
+evidences presented by the trilobites of affinity with Limulus, and
+therefore with the Arachnida, is the tendency less marked in some,
+strongly carried out in others, to form a pygidial or telsonic shield--a
+fusion of the posterior somites of the body, which is precisely
+identical in character with the metasomatic carapace of Limulus. When to
+this is added the fact that a post-anal spine is developed to a large
+size in some trilobites (fig. 38), like that of Limulus and Scorpio, and
+that lateral spines on the pleura of the somites are frequent as in
+Limulus, and that neither metasomatic fusion of somites nor post-anal
+spine, nor lateral pleural spines are found in any Crustacean, nor all
+three together in any Arthropod besides the trilobites and Limulus--the
+claim of the trilobites to be considered as representing one order of a
+lower grade of Arachnida, comparable to the grade Entomostraca of the
+Crustacea, seems to be established.
+
+The fact that the single pair of prae-oral appendages of trilobites,
+known only as yet in one genus, is in that particular case a pair of
+uni-ramose antennae--does not render the association of trilobites and
+Arachnids improbable. Although the prae-oral pair of appendages in the
+higher Arachnida is usually chelate, it is not always so; in spiders it
+is not so; nor in many Acari. The bi-ramose structure of the post-oral
+limbs, demonstrated by Beecher in the trilobite Triarthrus, is no more
+inconsistent with its claim to be a primitive Arachnid than is the
+foliaceous modification of the limbs in Phyllopods inconsistent with
+their relationship to the Arthrostracous Crustaceans such as Gammarus
+and Oniscus.
+
+Thus, then, it seems that we have in the trilobites the representatives
+of the lower phases of the Arachnidan pedigree. The simple anomomeristic
+trilobite, with its equi-formal somites and equi-formal appendages, is
+one term of the series which ends in the even more simple but degenerate
+Acari. Between the two and at the highest point of the arc, so far as
+morphological differentiation is concerned, stands the scorpion; near to
+it in the trilobite's direction (that is, on the ascending side) are
+Limulus and the Eurypterines--with a long gap, due to obliteration of
+the record, separating them from the trilobite. On the other
+side--tending downwards from the scorpion towards the Acari--are the
+Pedipalpi, the spiders, the book-scorpions, the harvest-men and the
+water-mites.
+
+The strange nobody-crabs or Pycnogonids occupy a place on the ascending
+half of the arc below the Eurypterines and Limulus. They are strangely
+modified and degenerate, but seem to be (as explained in the systematic
+review) the remnant of an Arachnidan group holding the same relation to
+the scorpions which the Laemodipoda hold to the Podophthalmate
+Crustacea.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We have now to offer a classification of the Arachnida and to pass in
+review the larger groups, with a brief statement of their structural
+characteristics.
+
+In the bibliography at the close of this article (referred to by leaded
+arabic numerals in brackets throughout these pages), the titles of works
+are given which contain detailed information as to the genera and
+species of each order or sub-order, their geographical distribution and
+their habits and economy so far as they have been ascertained. The
+limits of space do not permit of a fuller treatment of those matters
+here.
+
+            TABULAR CLASSIFICATION[6] OF THE ARACHNIDA.
+
+                        CLASS. ARACHNIDA.
+
+  _Grade A. ANOMOMERISTICA._
+    Sub-Class. TRILOBITAE.
+      Orders. Not satisfactorily determined.
+
+  _Grade B. NOMOMERISTICA._
+    Sub-Class I. PANTOPODA.
+      Order 1. Nymphonomorpha.
+        "   2. Ascorhynchomorpha.
+        "   3. Pycnogonomorpha.
+    Sub-Class II. EU-ARACHNIDA.
+          Grade a. DELOBRANCHIA, Lankester (_vel_ HYDROPNEUSTEA, Pocock).
+      Order 1. Xiphosura.
+        "   2. Gigantostraca.
+          Grade b. EMBOLOBRANCHIA, Lankester (_vel_ AEROPNEUSTEA, Pocock).
+              _Section_ [alpha]. _Pectinifera._
+      Order 1. Scorpionidea.
+           Sub-order a. Apoxypoda.
+               "     b. Dionychopoda.
+               _Section_ [beta]. _Epectinata._
+      Order 2. Pedipalpi.
+           Sub-order a. Uropygi.
+                           Tribe 1. Urotricha.
+                             "   2. Tartarides.
+           Sub-order b. Amblypygi.
+      Order 3. Araneae.
+           Sub-order a. Mesothelae.
+               "     b. Opisthothelae.
+                           Tribe 1. Mygalomorphae.
+                             "   2. Arachnomorphae.
+      Order 4. Palpigradi (= Microthelyphonidae).
+      Order 5. Solifugae (= Mycetophorae).
+      Order 6. Pseudoscorpiones (= Chelonethi).
+           Sub-order a. Panctenodactyli.
+               "     b. Hemirtenodactyli.
+      Order 7. Podogona (= Ricinulel).
+      Order 8. Opiliones.
+           Sub-order a. Laniatores.
+               "     b. Palpatores.
+               "     c. Anepignathi.
+      Order 9. Rhynchostomi (= Acari).
+           Sub-order a. Notostigmata.
+               "     b. Cryptostigmata.
+               "     c. Metastigmata.
+               "     d. Prostigmata.
+               "     e. Astigmata.
+               "     f. Vermiformia.
+               "     g. Tetrapoda.
+
+  CLASS. ARACHNIDA.--Euarthropoda having two prosthomeres (somites which
+  have passed from a post-oral to a prae-oral position), the appendages
+  of the first represented by eyes, of the second by solitary rami which
+  are rarely antenniform, more usually chelate. A tendency is exhibited
+  to the formation of a metasomatic as well as a prosomatic carapace by
+  fusion of the tergal surfaces of the somites. Intermediate somites
+  forming a mesosoma occur, but tend to fuse superficially with the
+  metasomatic carapace or to become co-ordinated with the somites of the
+  metasoma, whether fused or distinct to form one region, the
+  opisthosoma (abdomen of authors). In the most highly developed forms
+  the two anterior divisions (tagmata) of the body, prosoma and
+  mesosoma, each exhibit six pairs of limbs, pediform and plate-like
+  respectively, whilst the metasoma consists of six limbless somites and
+  a post-anal spine. The genital apertures are placed in the first
+  somite following the prosoma, excepting where a praegenital somite,
+  usually suppressed, is retained. Little is known of the form of the
+  appendages in the lowest archaic Arachnida, but the tendency of those
+  of the prosomatic somites has been (as in the Crustacea) to pass from
+  a generalized bi-ramose or multi-ramose form to that of uni-ramose
+  antennae, chelae and walking legs.
+
+  The Arachnida are divisible into two grades of structure--according to
+  the fixity or non-fixity of the number of somites building up the
+  body:--
+
+  _Grade A_ (_of the Arachnida_). _ANOMOMERISTICA._--Extinct archaic
+  Arachnida, in which (as in the Entomostracous Crustacea) the number of
+  well-developed somites may be more or less than eighteen and may be
+  grouped only as head (prosoma) and trunk or may be further
+  differentiated. A telsonic tergal shield of greater or less size is
+  always present, which may be imperfectly divided into well-marked but
+  immovable tergites indicating incompletely differentiated somites. The
+  single pair of palpiform appendages in front of the mouth has been
+  found in one instance to be antenniform, whilst the numerous post-oral
+  appendages in the same genus were bi-ramose. The position of the
+  genital apertures is not known. Compound lateral eyes present; median
+  eyes wanting. The body and head have the two pleural regions of each
+  somite flattened and expanded on either side of the true gut-holding
+  body-axis. Hence the name of the sub-class signifying tri-lobed, a
+  condition realized also in the Xiphosurous Arachnids. The members of
+  this group, whilst resembling the lower Crustacea (as all lower groups
+  of a branching genealogical tree must do), differ from them
+  essentially in that the head exhibits only one prosthomere (in
+  addition to the eye-bearing prosthomere) with palpiform appendages (as
+  in all Arachnida) instead of two. The Anomomeristic Arachnida form a
+  single sub-class, of which only imperfect fossil remains are known.
+
+  Sub-class (of the Anomomeristica). TRILOBITAE.--The single sub-class
+  Trilobitae constitutes the grade Anomomeristica. It has been variously
+  divided into orders by a number of writers. The greater or less
+  evolution and specialization of the metasomatic carapace appears to be
+  the most important basis for classification--but this has not been
+  made use of in the latest attempts at drawing up a system of the
+  Trilobites. The form of the middle and lateral regions of the
+  prosomatic shield has been used, and an excessive importance attached
+  to the demarcation of certain areas in that structure. Sutures are
+  stated to mark off some of these pieces, but in the proper sense of
+  that term as applied to the skeletal structures of the Vertebrata, no
+  sutures exist in the chitinous cuticle of Arthropoda. That any partial
+  fusion of originally distinct chitinous plates takes place in the
+  cephalic shield of Trilobites, comparable to the partial fusion of
+  bony pieces by suture in Vertebrata, is a suggestion contrary to fact.
+
+  The Trilobites are known only as fossils, mostly Silurian and
+  prae-Silurian; a few are found in Carboniferous and Permian strata. As
+  many as two thousand species are known. Genera with small metasomatic
+  carapace, consisting of three to six fused segments distinctly marked
+  though not separated by soft membrane, are _Harpes_, _Paradoxides_ and
+  _Triarthrus_ (fig. 34). In _Calymene_, _Homalonotus_ and _Phacops_
+  (fig. 38) from six to sixteen segments are clearly marked by ridges
+  and grooves in the metasomatic tagma, whilst in _Illaenus_ the shield
+  so formed is large but no somites are marked out on its surface. In
+  this genus ten free somites (mesosoma) occur between the prosomatic
+  and metasomatic carapaces. _Asaphus_ and _Megalaspis_ (fig. 39) are
+  similarly constituted. In _Agnostus_ (fig. 40) the anterior and
+  posterior carapaces constitute almost the entire body, the two
+  carapaces being connected by a mid-region of only two free somites. It
+  has been held that the forms with a small number of somites marked in
+  the posterior carapace and numerous free somites between the anterior
+  and posterior carapace, must be considered as anterior to those in
+  which a great number of posterior somites are traceable in the
+  metasomatic carapace, and that those in which the traces of distinct
+  somites in the posterior or metasomatic carapace are most completely
+  absent must be regarded as derived from those in which somites are
+  well marked in the posterior carapace and similar in appearance to
+  the free somites. The genus _Agnostus_, which belongs to the last
+  category, occurs abundantly in Cambrian strata and is one of the
+  earliest forms known. This would lead to the supposition that the
+  great development of metasomatic carapace is a primitive and not a
+  late character, were it not for the fact that _Paradoxides_ and
+  _Atops_, with an inconspicuous telsonic carapace and numerous free
+  somites, are also Cambrian in age, the latter indeed anterior in
+  horizon to _Agnostus_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 34.--Restoration of _Triarthrus Becki_, Green, as
+  determined by Beecher from specimens obtained from the Utica Slates
+  (Ordovician), New York. A, dorsal; B, ventral surface. In the latter
+  the single pair of antennae springing up from each side of the
+  camerostome or hypostome or upper lip-lobe are seen. Four pairs of
+  appendages besides these are seen to belong to the cephalic tergum.
+  All the appendages are pediform and bi-ramose; all have a prominent
+  gnathobase, and in all the exopodite carries a comb-like series of
+  secondary processes.
+
+  (After Beecher, from Zittel.) ]
+
+  On the other hand, it may well be doubted whether the pygidial or
+  posterior carapace is primarily due to a fusion of the tergites of
+  somites which were previously movable and well developed. The
+  posterior carapace of the Trilobites and of _Limulus_ is probably
+  enough in origin a telsonic carapace--that is to say, is the tergum of
+  the last segment of the body which carries the anus. From the front of
+  this region new segments are produced in the first instance, and are
+  added during growth to the existing series. This telson may enlarge,
+  it may possibly even become internally and sternally developed as
+  partially separate somites, and the tergum may remain without trace of
+  somite formation, or, as appears to be the case in _Limulus_, the
+  telson gives rise to a few well-marked somites (mesosoma and two
+  others) and then enlarges without further trace of segmentation,
+  whilst the chitinous integument which develops in increasing thickness
+  on the terga as growth advances welds together the unsegmented telson
+  and the somites in front of it, which were previously marked by
+  separate tergal thickenings. It must always be remembered that we are
+  liable (especially in the case of fossilized integuments) to attach an
+  unwarranted interpretation to the mere discontinuity or continuity of
+  the thickened plates of chitinous cuticle on the back of an Arthropod.
+  These plates may fuse, and yet the somites to which they belong may
+  remain distinct, and each have its pair of appendages well developed.
+  On the other hand, an unusually large tergal plate, whether terminal
+  or in the series, is not always due to fusion of the dorsal plates of
+  once-separate somites, but is often a case of growth and enlargement
+  of a single somite without formation of any trace of a new somite. For
+  the literature of Trilobites see (22*).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 35.--_Triarthrus Becki_, Green. a, Restored
+  thoracic limbs in transverse section of the animal; b, section across
+  a posterior somite; c, section across one of the sub-terminal somites.
+
+  (After Beecher.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 36.--_Triarthrus Becki_, Green. Dorsal view of
+  second thoracic leg with and without setae. en, Inner ramus; ex, Outer
+  ramus.
+
+  (After Beecher.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 37.--_Deiphon Forbesii_, Barr. One of the
+  Cheiruridae. Silurian Bohemia.
+
+  (From Zittel's Palaeontology.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 38.--_Dalmanites Kmulurus_, Green. One of the
+  _Phacopidae_, from the Silurian, New York.
+
+  (From Zittel.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 39.--_Megalaspis extenuatus_. One of the
+  _Asaphidae_ allied to _Illaenus_, from the Ordovician of East
+  Gothland, Sweden.
+
+  (From Zittel.)]
+
+  _Grade B (of the Aracknida) NOMOMERISTICA._--Arachnida in which,
+  excluding from consideration the eye-bearing prosthomere, the somites
+  are primarily (that is to say, in the common ancestor of the grade)
+  grouped in three regions of six--(a) the "prosoma" with palpiform
+  appendages, (b) the "mesosoma" with plate-like appendages, and (c) the
+  "metasoma" with suppressed appendages. A somite placed between the
+  prosoma and mesosoma --the prae-genital somite--appears to have
+  belonged originally to the prosomatic series (which with its ocular
+  prosthomere and palpiform limbs [Pantopoda], would thus consist of
+  eight somites), but to have been gradually reduced. In living
+  Arachnids, excepting the Pantopoda, it is either fused (with loss of
+  its appendages) with the prosoma (_Limulus_,[7] _Scorpio_), after
+  embryonic appearance, or is retained as a rudimentary, separate,
+  detached somite in front of the mesosoma, or disappears altogether
+  (excalation). The atrophy and total disappearance of ancestrally
+  well-marked somites frequently take place (as in all Arthropoda) at
+  the posterior extremity of the body, whilst excalation of somites may
+  occur at the constricted areas which often separate adjacent
+  "regions," though there are very few instances in which it has been
+  recognized. Concentration of the organ-systems by fusion of
+  neighbouring regions (prosoma, mesosoma, metasoma), previously
+  distinct, has frequently occurred, together with obliteration of the
+  muscular and chitinous structures indicative of distinct somites. This
+  concentration and obliteration of somites, often accompanied by
+  dislocation of important segmental structures (such as appendages and
+  nerve-ganglia), may lead to highly developed specialization
+  (individuation, H. Spencer), as in the Araneae and Opiliones, and, on
+  the other hand, may terminate in simplification and degeneration, as
+  in the Acari.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 40.--Four stages in the development of the
+  trilobite _Agnostus nudus_. A, Youngest stage with no mesosomatic
+  somites; B and C, stages with two mesosomatic somites between the
+  prosomatic and telsonic carapaces; D, adult condition, still with only
+  two free mesosomatic somites.
+
+  (From Korschelt and Heider.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 41.--Five Stages in the development of the
+  trilobite _Sao hirsuta_.
+
+  From Korschelt and Heider, after Barrande.
+
+    A, Youngest stage.
+    B, Older stage with distinct pygidial carapace.
+    C, Stage with two free mesosomatic somites between the prosomatic
+      and telsonic carapaces.
+    D, Stace with seven free intermediate somites.
+    E, Stave with twelve free somites; the telsonic carapace has not
+      increased in size.
+    a, Lateral eye.
+    g, So-called facial "suture" (not really a suture).
+    p, Telsonic carapace.]
+
+  The most important general change which has affected the structure of
+  the nomomeristic Arachnida in the course of their historic development
+  is the transition from an aquatic to a terrestrial life. This has been
+  accompanied by the conversion of the lamelliform gill-plates into
+  lamelliform lung-plates, and later the development from the
+  lung-chambers, and at independent sites, of tracheae or air-tubes (by
+  adaptation of the vasifactive tissue of the blood-vessels) similar to
+  those independently developed in _Peripatus_, Diplopoda, Hexapoda and
+  Chilopoda. Probably tracheae have developed independently by the same
+  process in several groups of tracheate Arachnids. The nomomeristic
+  Arachnids comprise two sub-classes--one a very small degenerate
+  offshoot from early ancestors; the other, the great bulk of the class.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 42.--So-called "trilobite stage" of _Limulus
+  polyphemus_. A, Dorsal; B, ventral view.
+
+  (from Korschelt and Heider, after Leuckart.)]
+
+  Sub-Class I. (of the Nomomeristica). PANTOPODA.--Nomomeristic
+  Arachnids, in which the somites corresponding to mesosoma and metasoma
+  have entirely aborted. The seventh, and sometimes the eighth,
+  leg-bearing somite is present and has its leg-like appendages fully
+  developed. Monomeniscous eyes with a double (really triple) cell-layer
+  formed by invagination, as in the Eu-arachnida, are present The
+  Pantopoda stand in the same relation to _Limulus_ and _Scorpio_ that
+  _Cyamus_ holds to the thoracostracous Crustacea. The reduction of the
+  organism to seven leg-bearing somites, of which the first pair, as in
+  so many Eu-arachnida, are chelate, is a form of degeneration connected
+  with a peculiar quasi-parasitic habit resembling that of the
+  crustacean Laemodipoda. The genital pores are situate at the base of
+  the 7th pair of limbs, and may be repeated on the 4th, 5th, and 6th.
+  In all known Pantopoda the size of the body is quite minute as
+  compared with that of the limbs: the alimentary canal sends a long
+  caecum into each leg (cf. the Araneae) and the genital products are
+  developed in gonocoels also placed in the legs.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 43.--One of the Nymphonomorphous Pantopoda,
+  _Nymphon hispidum_, showing the seven pairs of appendages 1 to 7; ab,
+  the rudimentary opisthosoma; s, the mouth-bearing proboscis.
+
+  From Parker and Harwell's _Text-book of Zoology_, after Hoek.]
+
+  The Pantopoda are divided into three orders, the characters of which
+  are dependent on variation in the presence of the full number of legs.
+
+  Order 1. (of the Pantopoda). Nymphonomorpha, Pocock (nov.) (fig.
+  43).--In primitive forms belonging to the family _Nymphonidae_ the
+  full complement of appendages is retained--the 1st (mandibular), the
+  2nd (palpiform), and the 3rd (ovigerous) pairs being well developed in
+  both sexes. In certain derivative forms constituting the family
+  _Pallenidae_, however, the appendages of the 2nd pair are either
+  rudimentary or atrophied altogether.
+
+  Two families: 1. Nymphonidae (genus _Nymphon_), and 2. Pallenidae
+  (genus _Pallene_).
+
+  Order 2. Ascorhynchomorpha, Pocock (nov.).--Appendages of the 2nd and
+  3rd pairs retained and developed, as in the more primitive types of
+  Nymphonomorpha; but those of the 1st pair are either rudimentary, as
+  in the _Ascorhynchidae_, or atrophied, as in the _Colossendeidae_. In
+  the latter a further specialization is shown in the fusion of the body
+  segments.
+
+  Two families. 1. Ascorhynchidae (genera _Ascorhynchus_ and
+  _Ammothea_); 2. Colossendeidae (genera _Colossendeis_ and
+  _Discoarachne_).
+
+  Order 3. Pycnogonomorpha, Pocock (nov.).--Derivative forms in which
+  the reduction in number of the anterior appendages is carried farther
+  than in the other orders, reaching its extreme in the _Pycnogonidae_,
+  where the 1st and 2nd pairs are absent in both sexes, and the 3rd pair
+  also are absent in the female. In the _Hannoniidae_, however, which
+  resemble the _Pycnogonidae_ in the absence of the 3rd pair in the
+  female and of the 2nd pair in both sexes, the 1st pair are retained in
+  both sexes.
+
+  Two families: 1. Hannoniidae (genus _Hannonia_); 2. Pycnogonidae
+  (genera _Pycnogonum_ and _Phoxichilus_).
+
+  _Remarks._--The Pantopoda are not known in the fossil condition. They
+  are entirely marine, and are not uncommon in the coralline zone of the
+  sea-coast. The species are few, not more than fifty (23). Some large
+  species of peculiar genera are taken at great depths. Their movements
+  are extremely sluggish. They are especially remarkable for the small
+  size of the body and the extension of viscera into the legs. Their
+  structure is eminently that of degenerate forms. Many frequent growths
+  of coralline Algae and hydroid polyps, upon the juices of which they
+  feed, and in some cases a species of gall is produced in hydroids by
+  the penetration of the larval Pantopod into the tissues of the polyp.
+
+  Sub-Class II. (of the Nomomeristic Arachnida). EU-ARACHNIDA.--These
+  start from highly developed and specialized aquatic branchiferous
+  forms, exhibiting a prosoma with six pediform pairs of appendages, an
+  intermediate prae-genital somite, a mesosoma of six somites bearing
+  lamelliform pairs of appendages, and a metasoma of six somites devoid
+  of appendages, and the last provided with a post-anal spine. Median
+  eyes are present, which are monomeniscous, with distinct retinal and
+  corneagenous cell-layers, and placed centrally on the prosoma. Lateral
+  eyes also may be present, arranged in lateral groups, and having a
+  single or double cell-layer beneath the lens. The first pair of limbs
+  is often chelate or prehensile, rarely antenniform; whilst the second,
+  third and fourth may also be chelate, or may be simple palps or
+  walking legs.
+
+  An internal skeletal plate, the so-called "entosternite" of
+  fibro-cartilaginous tissue, to which many muscles are attached, is
+  placed between the nerve-cords and the alimentary tract in the prosoma
+  of the larger forms (_Limulus_, _Scorpio_, _Mygale_). In the same and
+  other leading forms a pair of much-coiled glandular tubes, the coxal
+  glands (coelomocoels in origin), is found with a duct opening on the
+  coxa of the fifth pair of appendages of the prosoma. The vascular
+  system is highly developed (in the non-degenerate forms); large
+  arterial branches closely accompany or envelop the chief nerves;
+  capillaries are well developed. The blood-corpuscles are large
+  amoebiform cells, and the blood-plasma is coloured blue by
+  haemocyanin.
+
+  The alimentary canal is uncoiled and cylindrical, and gives rise
+  laterally to large gastric glands, which are more than a single pair
+  in number (two to six pairs), and may assume the form of simple caeca.
+  The mouth is minute and the pharynx is always suctorial, never
+  gizzard-like. The gonadial tubes (gonocoels or gonadial coelom) are
+  originally reticular and paired, though they may be reduced to a
+  simpler condition. They open on the first somite of the mesosoma. In
+  the numerous degenerate forms simplification occurs by obliteration of
+  the demarcations of somites and the fusion of body-regions, together
+  with a gradual suppression of the lamelliferous respiratory organs and
+  the substitution for them of tracheae, which, in their turn, in the
+  smaller and most reduced members of the group, may also disappear.
+
+  The Eu-arachnida are divided into two grades with reference to the
+  condition of the respiratory organs as adapted to aquatic or
+  terrestrial life.
+
+
+    Grade a (of the Eu-arachnida). DELOBRANCHIA (Hydropheustea).
+
+  Mesosomatic segments furnished with large plate-like appendages, the
+  1st pair acting as the genital operculum, the remaining pairs being
+  provided with branchial lamellae fitted for breathing oxygen dissolved
+  in water. The prae-genital somite partially or wholly obliterated in
+  the adult. The mouth lying far back, so that the basal segments of all
+  the prosomatic appendages, excepting those of the 1st pair, are
+  capable of acting as masticatory organs. Lateral eyes consisting of a
+  densely packed group of eye-units ("compound" eyes).
+
+  Order 1. Xiphosura.--The prae-genital somite fuses in the embryo with
+  the prosoma and disappears (see fig. 19). Not free-swimming, none of
+  the prosomatic appendages modified to act as paddles; segments of the
+  mesosoma and metasoma (=opisthosoma) not more than ten in number,
+  distinct or coalesced.
+
+    Family--Limulidae (_Limulus_).
+      "    *Belinuridae (_Belinurus_, _Aglaspis_, _Prestwichia_).
+      "    *Hemiaspidae (_Hemiaspis_, _Bunodes_).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 44.--Dorsal view of _Limulus polyphemus_, Latr.
+
+  (From Parker and Haswell, _Text book of Zoology_ after Leuckart.)]
+
+  _Remarks_.--The Xiphosura are marine in habit, frequenting the shore.
+  They are represented at the present day by the single genus _Limulus_
+  (figs. 44 and 45; also figs. 7, 9, 11, to 15 and 20), often termed the
+  king-crab, which occurs on the American coast of the Atlantic Ocean,
+  but not on its eastern coasts, and on the Asiatic coast of the
+  Pacific. The Atlantic species (_L. polyphemus_) is common on the
+  coasts of the United States, and is known as the king-crab or
+  horse-shoe crab. A single specimen was found in the harbour of
+  Copenhagen in the 18th century, having presumably been carried over by
+  a ship to which it clung.
+
+  A species of _Limulus_ is found in the Buntersandstein of the Vosges;
+  _L. Walchi_ is abundant in the Oolitic lithographic slates of Bavaria.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 45.--Ventral view of _Limulus polyphemus_.
+
+    1 to 6, The six prosomatic pairs of appendages.
+    abd, the solid opisthosomatic carapace.
+    tels, the post-anal spine (not the telson as the lettering would
+      seem to imply, but only its post-anal portion).
+    operc, the fused first pair of mesosomatic appendages forming the
+      genital operculum.
+
+  (From Parker and Haswell, _Text book of Zoology_, after Leuckart.)]
+
+  The genera _Belinurus_, _Aglaspis_, _Prestwichia_, _Hemiaspis_ and
+  _Bunodes_ consist of small forms which occur in Palaeozoic rocks. In
+  none of them are the appendages known, but in the form of the two
+  carapaces and the presence of free somites they are distinctly
+  intermediate between _Limulus_ and the Trilobitae. The young form of
+  _Limulus_ itself (fig. 40) is also similar to a Trilobite so far as
+  its segmentation and trilobation are concerned. The lateral eyes of
+  _Limulus_ appear to be identical in structure and position with those
+  of certain Trilobitae.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 46.--_Eurypterus Fischeri_, Eichwald. Silurian of
+  Rootzikil. Restoration after Schmidt. The dorsal aspect is presented
+  showing the prosomatic shield with paired compound eyes and the
+  prosomatic appendages II. to VI. The small first pair of appendages is
+  concealed from view by the carapace, 1 to 12 are the somites of the
+  opisthosoma; 13, the post-anal spine.
+
+  (From Zittel's _Text-book of Palaeontology_, The Macmillan Co, New
+  York, 1896.)]
+
+  Order 2. Gigantostraca (figs. 46, 47).--Free-swimming forms, with the
+  appendages of the 6th or 5th and 6th pairs flattened or lengthened to
+  act as oars; segments of mesosoma and metasoma (= opisthosoma), twelve
+  in number.
+
+  Appendages of anterior pair very large and chelate.
+
+    Sub-order Pterygotomorpha, Pterygotidae (_Pterygotus_).
+
+  Appendages of anterior pair minute and chelate.
+
+                               / Stylonuridae (_Stylonurus_).
+    Sub-order Eurypteromorpha <  Eurypteridae (_Eurypterus_,
+                               \   _Slimonia_).
+
+  [Illustration: From Zittel's _Palaeontology_.
+
+  FIG. 47.--_Pterygotus osiliensis_, Schmidt. Silurian of Rootzikil.
+  Restoration of the ventral surface, about a third natural size, after
+  Schmidt.
+
+    a, Camerostome or epistoma.
+    m, Chilarium or metasternite of the prosoma (so-called metastoma).
+    oc, The compound eyes.
+    1 to 8, Segments of the sixth prosomatic appendage.
+    I' to V', First five opisthosomatic somites.
+    7', Sixth opisthosomatic somite.
+
+    [Observe the powerful gnathobases of the sixth pair of prosomatic
+    limbs and the median plates behind m. The dotted line on somite I
+    indicates the position of the genital operculum which was probably
+    provided with branchial lamellae.]]
+
+  _Remarks._--The Gigantostraca are frequently spoken of as "the
+  Eurypterines." Not more than thirty species are known. They became
+  extinct in Palaeozoic times, and are chiefly found in the Upper
+  Silurian, though extending upwards as far as the Carboniferous. They
+  may be regarded as "macrourous" Xiphosura; that is to say, Xiphosura
+  in which the nomomeristic number of eighteen well-developed somites is
+  present and the posterior ones form a long tail-like region of the
+  body. There still appears to be some doubt whether in the sub-order
+  Eurypteromorpha the first pair of prosomatic appendages (fig. 46) is
+  atrophied, or whether, if present, it has the form of a pair of
+  tactile palps or of minute chelae. Though there are indications of
+  lamelliform respiratory appendages on mesosomatic somites following
+  that bearing the genital operculum, we cannot be said to have any
+  proper knowledge as to such appendages, and further evidence with
+  regard to them is much to be desired. (For literature see Zittel,
+  22*.)
+
+
+    Grade b (of the Eu-arachnida). EMBOLOBRANCHIA (Aeropneustea).
+
+  In primitive forms the respiratory lamellae of the appendages of the
+  3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th, or of the 1st and 2nd mesosomatic somites are
+  sunk beneath the surface of the body, and become adapted to breathe
+  atmospheric oxygen, forming the leaves of the so-called lung-books. In
+  specialized forms these pulmonary sacs are wholly or partly replaced
+  by tracheal tubes. The appendages of the mesosoma generally
+  suppressed; in the more primitive forms one or two pairs may be
+  retained as organs subservient to reproduction or silk-spinning. Mouth
+  situated more forwards than in Delobranchia, no share in mastication
+  being taken by the basal segments of the 5th and 6th pairs of
+  prosomatic appendages. Lateral eyes, when present, represented by
+  separate ocelli.
+
+  The prae-genital somite, after appearing in the embryo, either is
+  obliterated (_Scorpio, Galeodes, Opilio_and others) or is retained as
+  a reduced narrow region of the body, the "waist," between prosoma and
+  mesosoma. It is represented by a full-sized tergal plate in the
+  Pseudo-scorpiones.
+
+  Section [alpha]. _Pectinifera._--The primitive distinction between the
+  mesosoma and the metasoma retained, the latter consisting of six
+  somites and the former of six somites in the adult, each of which is
+  furnished during growth with a pair of appendages. Including the
+  prae-genital somite (fig. 16), which is suppressed in the adult, there
+  are thirteen somites behind the prosoma. The appendages of the 1st and
+  2nd mesosomatic somites persisting as the genital operculum and
+  pectones respectively, those of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th somites (?
+  in _Palaeophonus_) sinking below the surface during growth in
+  connexion with the formation of the four pairs of pulmonary sacs (see
+  fig. 17). Lateral eyes monostichous.
+
+  [Illustration: Restored after Thorell's indications by R.I. Pocock.
+
+  FIG. 48.--Dorsal view of a restoration of _Palaeophonus nuncius_,
+  Thorell. The Silurian scorpion from Gothland.]
+
+  Order 1. Scorpiones.--Prosoma covered by a single dorsal shield,
+  bearing typically median and lateral eyes; its sternal elements
+  reduced to a single plate lodged between or behind the basal segments
+  of the 5th and 6th pairs of appendages. Appendages of 1st pair
+  tri-segmented, chelate; of 2nd pair chelate, with their basal segments
+  subserving mastication; of 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs similar in form
+  and function, except that in recent and Carboniferous forms the basal
+  segments of the 3rd and 4th are provided with sterno-coxal (maxillary)
+  lobes, those of the 4th pair meeting in the middle line and underlying
+  the mouth. The five posterior somites of the metasoma constricted to
+  form a "tail," the post-anal sclerite persisting as a weapon of
+  offence and provided with a pair of poison glands (see figs. 8, 10,
+  12, 13, 14, 15, 21 and 22).
+
+  Sub-order Apoxypoda.--The 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs of appendages
+  short, stout, tapering, the segments about as wide as long, except the
+  apical, which is distally slender, pointed, slightly curved, and
+  without distinct movable claws.
+
+  Family--Palaeophonidae, _Palaeophonus_ (figs. 48 and 49).
+
+  Sub-order Dionychopoda.--The 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs of appendages
+  slender, not evenly tapering, the segments longer than wide; the
+  apical segment short, distally truncate, and provided with a pair of
+  movable claws. Basal segments of the 5th and 6th pairs of appendages
+  abutting against the sternum of the prosoma (see fig. 10 and figs. 51,
+  52 and 53).
+
+  Family--Pandinidae (_Pandinus, Opisthophthalmus, Urodacus_).
+    "     Vejovidae (_Vaejovis, Jurus, Euscorpius, Broteas_).
+    "     Bothriuridae (_Bothriurus, Cercophonius_).
+    "     Buthidae (_Buthus, Centrums_).
+    "     *Cyclophthalmidae (_Cydophthalmus_)         ( Carboniferous.
+    "     *Eoscorpiidae (_Eoscorpius, Centromachus_)  (
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 49.--Ventral view of a restoration of
+  _Palaeophonus Hunteri_, Pocock, the Silurian scorpion from Lesmahagow,
+  Scotland. Restored by R.I. Pocock. The meeting of the coxae of all the
+  prosomatic limbs in front of the pentagonal sternum; the space for a
+  genital operculum; the pair of pectens, and the absence of any
+  evidence of pulmonary stigmata are noticeable in this specimen.
+
+  (See Pocock, _Quart Jour. Micr. Sci._, 1901.)]
+
+  _Remarks on the Order Scorpiones._--The Scorpion is one of the great
+  animals of ancient lore and tradition. It and the crab are the only
+  two invertebrates which had impressed the minds of early men
+  sufficiently to be raised to the dignity of astronomical
+  representation. It is all the more remarkable that the scorpion proves
+  to be the oldest animal form of high elaboration which has persisted
+  to the present day. In the Upper Silurian two specimens of a scorpion
+  have been found (figs. 48, 49), one in Gothland and one in Scotland,
+  which would be recognized at once as true scorpions by a child or a
+  savage. The Silurian scorpion _Palaeophonus_, differs, so far as
+  obvious points are concerned, from a modern scorpion only in the
+  thickness of its legs and in their terminating in strong spike-like
+  joints, instead of being slight and provided with a pair of terminal
+  claws. The legs of the modern scorpion (fig. 10; fig. 51) are those of
+  a terrestrial Arthropod, such as a beetle; whilst those of the
+  Silurian scorpion are the legs of an aquatic Arthropod, such as a crab
+  or lobster. It is probable that the Silurian scorpion was an aquatic
+  animal, and that its respiratory lamellae were still projecting from
+  the surface of the body to serve as branchiae. No trace of "stigmata,"
+  the orifices of the lung-chambers of modern scorpions, can be found in
+  the Scottish specimen of _Palaeophonus_, which presents the ventral
+  surface of the animal to view. On the other hand, no trace of
+  respiratory appendages excepting the pectens can be detected in the
+  specimen (see fig. 49).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 50.--Comparison of the sixth prosomatic limb of a
+  recent scorpion (B), of Palaeophonus (C), and of Limulus (A), showing
+  their agreement in the number of segments; in the existence of a
+  movable spine, Sp, at the distal border of the fifth segment; in the
+  correspondence of the two claws at the free end of the limb of Scorpio
+  with two spines similarly placed in Limulus; and, lastly, in the
+  correspondence of the three talon-like spines carried on the distal
+  margin of segment six of recent scorpions with the four larger but
+  similarly situated spines on the leg of Limulus; s, groove dividing
+  the ankylosed segments 4 and 5 of the Limulus leg into two.
+
+  (After Pocock, _Q. J. Mic. Sci._, 1901.)]
+
+  [Illustration: From Lankester, _Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool_. vol. xvi.,
+  1881.
+
+  FIG. 51.--Drawing from life of the desert scorpion, _Buthusaustralis_,
+  Lin., from Biskra, N. Africa.]
+
+  Fossil scorpions of the modern type are found in the Coal Measures. At
+  the present day scorpions of various genera are found in all the warm
+  regions of the world. In Europe they occur as far north as Bavaria and
+  the south of France. The largest species measure 9 in. from the front
+  of the head to the end of the sting, and occur in tropical India and
+  Africa. Between 200 and 300 species are known. The scorpions use their
+  large chelae for seizing prey and for fighting with one another. They
+  never use the sting when (as frequently happens) they attack another
+  scorpion, because, as was ascertained by A.G. Bourne (24), the poison
+  exuded by the sting has no injurious effect on another scorpion nor on
+  the scorpion itself. The stories of a scorpion stinging itself to
+  death when placed in a circle of burning coals are due to erroneous
+  observation. When placed in such a position the scorpion faints and
+  becomes inert. It is found (Bourne, 24) that some species of scorpion
+  faint at a temperature of 40 deg. Cent. They recover on being removed
+  to cooler conditions. A scorpion having seized its prey (usually a
+  large insect, or small reptile or mammal) with the large chelae brings
+  its tail over its head, and deliberately punctures the struggling
+  victim twice with its sting (fig. 52). The poison of the sting is
+  similar to snake-poison (Calmette), and rapidly paralyses animals
+  which are not immune to it. It is probably only sickly adults or young
+  children of the human race who can be actually killed by a scorpion's
+  sting. When the scorpion has paralysed its prey in this way, the two
+  short chelicerae are brought into play (fig. 53). By the crushing
+  action of their pincers, and an alternate backward and forward
+  movement, they bring the soft blood-holding tissues of the victim
+  close to the minute pin-hole aperture which is the scorpion's mouth.
+  The muscles acting on the bulb-like pharynx now set up a pumping
+  action (see Huxley, 26); and the juices--but no solid matter,
+  excepting such as is reduced to powder--are sucked into the scorpion's
+  alimentary canal. A scorpion appears to prefer for its food another
+  scorpion, and will suck out the juices of an individual as large as
+  itself. When this has taken place, the gorged scorpion becomes
+  distended and tense in the mesosomatic region. It is certain that the
+  absorbed juices do not occupy the alimentary canal alone, but pass
+  also into its caecal off-sets which are the ducts of the gastric
+  glands (see fig. 33).
+
+  [Illustration: From Lankester, _Journ. Linn. Soc._
+
+  FIG. 52.--Drawing from life of the Italian scorpion _Euscorpius
+  italicus_, Herbst, holding a blue-bottle fly with its left chela, and
+  carefully piercing it between head and thorax with its sting. Two
+  insertions of the sting are effected and the fly is instantly
+  paralysed by the poison so introduced into its body.]
+
+  [Illustration: From Lankester, _Journ. Linn. Soc._
+
+  FIG. 53.--The same scorpion carrying the now paralysed fly held in its
+  chelicerae, the chelae liberated for attack and defence. Drawn from
+  life.]
+
+  All Arachnida, including _Limulus_, feed by suctorial action in
+  essentially the same way as _Scorpio_.
+
+  Scorpions of various species have been observed to make a hissing
+  noise when disturbed, or even when not disturbed. The sound is
+  produced by stridulating organs developed on the basal joints of the
+  limbs, which differ in position and character in different genera (see
+  Pocock, 27). Scorpions copulate with the ventral surfaces in contact.
+  The eggs are fertilized, practically in the ovary, and develop _in
+  situ_. The young are born fully formed and are carried by the mother
+  on her back. As many as thirty have been counted in a brood. For
+  information as to the embryology of scorpions, the reader is referred
+  to the works named in the bibliography below. Scorpions do not possess
+  spinning organs nor form either snares or nests, so far as is known.
+  But some species inhabiting sandy deserts form extensive burrows. The
+  fifth pair of prosomatic appendages is used by these scorpions when
+  burrowing, to kick back the sand as the burrow is excavated by the
+  great chelae.
+
+  References to works dealing with the taxonomy and geographical
+  distribution of scorpions are given at the end of this article (28).
+
+  Section [beta]. _Epectinata._--The primitive distinction between the
+  mesosoma and the metasoma wholly or almost wholly obliterated, the two
+  regions uniting to form an opisthosoma, which never consists of more
+  than twelve somites and never bears appendages or breathing-organs
+  behind the 4th somite. The breathing-organs of the opisthosoma, when
+  present, represented by two pairs of stigmata, opening either upon the
+  1st and 2nd (Pedipalpi) or the 2nd and 3rd somites (Solifugae,
+  Pseudo-scorpiones), or by a single pair upon the 3rd (? 2nd) somite
+  (Opiliones) of the opisthosoma, there being rarely an additional
+  stigma on the 4th (some Solifugae). The appendages of the 2nd somite
+  of the opisthosoma absent, rarely minute and bud-like (some
+  Amblypygi), never pectiniform. A prae-genital somite is often present
+  either in a reduced condition forming a waist (Pedipalpi, Araneae,
+  Palpigradi) or as a full-sized tergal plate (Pseudo-scorpiones); in
+  some it is entirely atrophied (Solifugae, Holosomata, and
+  Rhynchostomi). Lateral eyes when present diplostichous.
+
+  _Remarks._--The Epectinate Arachnids do not stand so close to the
+  aquatic ancestors of the Embolobranchia as do the Pectiniferous
+  scorpions. At the same time we are not justified in supposing that the
+  scorpions stand in any way as an intermediate grade between any of the
+  existing Epectinata and the Delobranchia. It is probable that the
+  Pedipalpi, Araneae, and Podogona have been separately evolved as
+  distinct lines of descent from the ancient aquatic Arachnida. The
+  Holosomata and Rhynchostomi are probably offshoots from the stem of
+  the Araneae, and it is not unlikely (in view of the structure of the
+  prosomatic somites of the Tartarides) that the Solifugae are connected
+  in origin with the Pedipalpi. The appearance of tracheae in place of
+  lung-sacs cannot be regarded as a starting-point for a new line of
+  descent comprising all the tracheate forms; tracheae seem to have
+  developed independently in different lines of descent. On the whole,
+  the Epectinata are highly specialized and degenerate forms, though
+  there are few, if any, animals which surpass the spiders in rapidity
+  of movement, deadliness of attack and constructive instincts.
+
+  [Illustration: From Lankester, _Q. J. Mic. Sci._ N.S. _vol_. xxi.,
+  1881.
+
+  FIG. 54.--_Thelyphonus_, one of the Pedipalpi.
+
+    A, Ventral view.
+    I, Chelicera (detached).
+    II, Chelae.
+    III, Palpiform limb.
+    IV to VI, The walking legs.
+    stc, Sterno-coxal process (gnathobase) of the chelae.
+    st^1, Anterior sternal plate of the prosoma.
+    st^2, Posterior sternal plate of the prosoma.
+    pregen, Position of the prae-genital somite (not seen).
+    l, l, Position of the two pulmonary sacs of the right side.
+    1 to 11, Somites of the opisthosoma (mesosoma plus metasoma).
+    msg, Stigmata of the tergo-sternal muscles.
+    an, Anus.
+    B, Dorsal view of the opisthosoma of the same.
+    pregen, The prae-genital somite.
+    p, The tergal stigmata of the tergo-sternal muscles.
+    paf, Post-anal segmented filament corresponding to the post-anal
+      spine of Limulus.]
+
+  Order 2. Pedipalpi (figs. 54 to 59).--Appendages of 1st pair
+  bisegmented, without poison gland; of 2nd pair prehensile, their basal
+  segments underlying the proboscis, and furnished with sterno-coxal
+  (maxillary) process, the apical segment tipped with a single movable
+  or immovable claw; appendages of 3rd pair different from the
+  remainder, tactile in function, with at least the apical segment
+  many-jointed and clawless. The ventral surface of the prosoma bears
+  prosternal, metasternal and usually mesosternal chitine-plates (fig.
+  55). A narrow prae-genital somite is present between opisthosoma and
+  prosoma (figs. 55, 57). Opisthosoma consisting of eleven somites,
+  almost wholly without visible appendages. Intromittent organ of male
+  beneath the genital operculum (=sternum of the 1st somite of
+  opisthosoma).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 55.--_Thelyphonus sp_. Ventral view of the
+  anterior portion of the body to show the three prosomatic sternal
+  plates a, b, c, and the rudimentary sternal element of the
+  prae-genital somite; opisth 1, first somite of the opisthosoma.
+
+  (From a drawing made by Pickard - Cambridge, under the direction of
+  R.I. Pocock.)]
+
+  _Note._--The possibility of another interpretation of the anterior
+  somites of the mesosoma and the prae-genital somite must be borne in
+  mind. Possibly, though not probably, the somites carrying the two
+  lung-sacs correspond to the first two lung-bearing somites of
+  _Scorpio_, and it is the genital opening which has shifted. The same
+  caution applies in the case of the Araneae. Excalation of one or of
+  two anterior mesosomatic somites, besides the prae-genital somite,
+  would then have to be supposed to have occurred also.
+
+  Sub-order a. Uropygi.--Prosoma longer than wide, its sternal area very
+  narrow, furnished with a large prosternal and metasternal plate, and
+  often with a small mesosternal sclerite. Appendages of 2nd pair with
+  their basal segments united in the middle line and incapable of
+  lateral movement; appendages of 3rd pair with only the apical segment
+  many-jointed. Opisthosoma without trace of appendages; its posterior
+  somites narrowed to form a movable tail for the support of the
+  post-anal sclerite, which has no poison glands.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 56.--_Thelyphonus assamensis_ [male]. Ventral
+  surface of the anterior region of the opisthosoma, the first somite
+  being pushed upwards and forwards so as to expose the subjacent
+  structures. _opistho_ 1, First somite of the opisthosoma; opistho 2,
+  second do.; g, genital aperture; l, edges of the lamellae of the
+  lung-books; m, stigmata of tergo-sternal muscles.
+
+  (Original drawing by Pocock.)]
+
+  Tribe 1. Urotricha.--Dorsal area of prosoma covered with a single
+  shield (? two in _Geralinura_), bearing median and lateral eyes.
+  Post-anal sclerite modified as a long, many-jointed feeler. Appendages
+  of 2nd pair folding in a horizontal plane, completely chelate, the
+  claw immovably united to the sixth segment. Respiratory organs present
+  in the form of pulmonary sacs.
+
+    Family--Thelyphonidae (_Thelyphonus_ (fig. 54), _Hypoctonus_,
+    *_Geralinura_).
+
+  Tribe 2. Tartarides.--Small degenerate forms with the dorsal area of
+  the prosoma furnished with two shields, a larger in front covering the
+  anterior four somites, and a smaller behind covering the 5th and 6th
+  somites; the latter generally subdivided into a right and left
+  portion. There is also a pair of narrow tergal sclerites interposed
+  between the anterior and posterior shields. Eyes evanescent or absent.
+  Appendages of 2nd pair folding in a vertical plane, not chelate, the
+  claw long and movable. Post-anal sclerite short and undivided. No
+  distinct respiratory stigmata behind the sterna of the 1st and 2nd
+  somites of the opisthosoma.
+
+    Family--Hubbardiidae (_Schizomus_, _Hubbardia_) (figs. 57-59).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 57.--_Schizomus crassicaudatus_, one of the
+  Tartarid Pedipalpi. Ventral view of a female with the appendages cut
+  short near the base.
+
+    a, Prosternum of prosoma.
+    b, Metasternum of prosoma.
+    prae-gen, The prae-genital somite.
+    I opisth, First somite of the opisthosoma.
+    II opisth, Eleventh somite of the opisthosoma.
+    pa, Post-anal lobe of the female (compare the jointed filament in
+      _Thelyphonus_, fig. 54).
+
+  (Original drawing by Pickard-Cambridge, directed by Pocock.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 58.--_Schizomus crassicaudatus_, a Tartarid
+  Pedipalp. Dorsal view of a male with the appendages cut short.
+
+    I to VI. The prosomatic appendages.
+    a, Anterior plate.
+    b, Posterior plate of the prosomatic carapace.
+    prae-gen, Tergum of the prae-genital somite.
+    11, The eleventh somite of the opisthosoma.
+    pa, Post-anal lobe of the male--a conical body with narrow basal
+      stalk.
+
+  (Original as preceding.)]
+
+  Sub-order b. Amblypygi.--Prosoma wider than long, covered above by a
+  single shield bearing median and lateral eyes, which have
+  diplostichous ommatea. Sternal area broad, with prosternal, two
+  mesosternal, and metasternal plates, the prosternum projecting
+  forwards beneath the coxae of the 2nd pair of appendages. Appendages
+  of 2nd pair folding in a horizontal plane; their basal segments
+  freely movable; claw free or fused; basal segments of 4th and 5th
+  pairs widely separated by the sternal area; appendages of 3rd pair
+  with all the segments except the proximal three, forming a
+  many-jointed flagellum. Opisthosoma without post-anal sclerite and
+  posterior caudal elongation: with frequently a pair of small lobate
+  appendages on the sternum of the 3rd somite. Respiratory organs, as in
+  Urotricha.
+
+    Family --  Phrynichidae (_Phrynichus_, _Damon_).
+      "        Admetidae (_Admetus_, _Heterophrynus_).
+      "        Charontidae (_Charon_, _Sarax_).
+    (Family ?)--*_Graeophonus_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 59.--_Schizomus crassicaudatus_, one of the
+  Pedipalpi. Lateral view of a male. II to VI, the prosomatic
+  appendages, the first being concealed (see fig. 58); 5, the fifth, and
+  11, the eleventh tergites of the opisthosoma; pa, the conical
+  post-anal lobe.
+
+  (Original as preceding.)]
+
+  _Remarks._--The Pedipalpi are confined to the tropics and warmer
+  temperate regions of both hemispheres. Fossil forms occur in the
+  Carboniferous. The small forms known as _Schizomus_ and _Hubbardia_
+  are of special interest from a morphological point of view. The
+  Pedipalpi have no poison glands. (Reference to literature (29).)
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 60.--_Liphistius desultor_, Schiodte, one of the
+  Araneae Mesothelae. Dorsal view. I to VI, the prosomatic appendages;
+  4, 5, 6, the fourth, fifth and sixth tergites of the opisthosoma.
+  Between the bases of the sixth pair of limbs and behind the prosomatic
+  carapace is seen the tergite of the small prae-genital somite.
+
+  (Original by Pickard-Cambridge and Pocock.)]
+
+  Order 3. Araneae (figs. 60 to 64.).--Prosoma covered with a single
+  shield and typically furnished with median and lateral eyes of
+  diplostichous structure, as in the Amblypygi. The sternal surface
+  wide, continuously chitinized, but with prosternal and metasternal
+  elements generally distinguishable at the anterior and posterior ends
+  respectively of the large mesosternurm. Prosternum underlying the
+  proboscis. Appendages of 1st pair have two segments, as in Pedipalpi,
+  but are furnished with poison gland, and are retroverts. Appendages of
+  2nd pair not underlying the mouth, but freely movable and, except in
+  primitive forms, furnished with a maxillary lobe; the rest of the limb
+  like the legs, tipped with a single claw and quite unmodified (except
+  in [symbol: male]). Remaining pairs of appendages similar in form and
+  function, each tipped with two or three claws. Opisthosoma when
+  segmented showing the same number of somites as in the Pedipalpi;
+  usually unsegmented, the prae-genital somite constricted to form the
+  waist; the appendages of its 3rd and 4th somites retained as spinning
+  mammillae. Respiratory organs (see fig. 63, _stg_), as in the
+  Amblypygi, or with the posterior pair, rarely the anterior pair as
+  well, replaced by tracheal tubes. Intromittent organ of male in the
+  apical segment of the 2nd prosomatic appendage.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 61.--_Liphistius desultor_. Ventral view with the
+  prosomatic appendages cut short excepting the chelicerae (i) whose
+  sharp retroverts are seen. Between the bases of the prosomatic limbs
+  an anterior and a posterior sternal plate (black) are seen. 1, The
+  sternum of the first opisthosomatic or genital somite covering the
+  genital aperture and the first pair of lung-sacs. In front of it the
+  narrow waist is formed by the soft sternal area of the praegenital
+  somite; 2, the sternite of the second opisthosomatic somite covering
+  the posterior pair of lung-sacs; 3 and 4, the spinning appendages
+  (limbs) of the opisthosoma; a, inner, b, outer ramus of the appendage;
+  ii, sternite of the eleventh somite of the opisthosoma: in front of it
+  other rudimentary sternites; an, anus.
+
+  (Original as above.)]
+
+  Sub-order a. Mesothelae (see figs. 60 to 62).--Opisthosoma distinctly
+  segmented, furnished with 11 tergal plates, as in the Amblypygi; the
+  ventral surface of the 1st and 2nd somites with large sternal plates,
+  covering the genital aperture and the two pairs of pulmonary sacs, the
+  sternal plates from the 6th to the 11th somites represented by
+  integumental ridges, weakly chitinized in the middle. The two pairs of
+  spinning appendages retain their primitive position in the middle of
+  the lower surface of the opisthosoma far in advance of the anus on the
+  3rd and 4th somites, each appendage consisting of a stout,
+  many-jointed outer branch and a slender, unsegmented inner branch.
+  Prosoma as in the Mygalomorphae, except that the mesosternal area is
+  long and narrow.
+
+    Family--Liphistiidae (_Liphistius_, *_Arthrolycosa_).
+
+  Sub-order b. Opisthothelae (see fig. 63).--Opisthosoma without trace
+  of separate terga and sterna, the segmentation merely represented
+  posteriorly by slight integumental folds and the sterna of the 1st and
+  2nd somites by the opercular plates of the pulmonary sacs. The
+  spinning appendages migrate to the posterior end of the opisthosoma
+  and take up a position close to the anus; the inner branches of the
+  anterior pair either atrophy or are represented homogenetically by a
+  plate, the cribellum, or by an undivided membranous lobe, the colulus.
+
+  Tribe 1. Mygalomorphae.--The plane of the articulation of the
+  appendages of the 1st pair to the prosoma (the retrovert) vertical,
+  the basal segment projecting straight forwards at its proximal end,
+  the distal segment or fang closing backwards in a direction
+  subparallel to the long axis of the body. Two pairs of pulmonary sacs.
+
+  Families--Theraphosidae (_Avicularia_, _Poecilotheria_). Barychelidae
+  (_Barychelus_, _Plagiobothrus_). Dipluridae (_Diplura_, _Macrothele_).
+  Ctenizidae (_Cteniza_, _Nemesia_). Atypidae (_Atypus_, _Calommata_).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 62.--_Liphistius desultor_. Lateral view.
+
+    I to VI, Appendages of the prosoma cut off at the base.
+    o, Ocular tubercle.
+    praegen, The prae-genital somite.
+    1 and 2, Sternites of the first and second opisthosomatic somites.
+    3 and 4, Appendages of the third and fourth opisthosomatic somites,
+      which are the spinning organs, and in this genus occupy their
+      primitive position instead of migrating to the anal region as in
+      other spiders.
+    5, Tergite of the fifth opisthosomatic somite.
+    11, Eleventh opisthosomatic somite; an, Anus.
+
+  (Original.)]
+
+  Tribe 2. Arachnomorpnae.--The plane of the articulation of the
+  appendages of the 1st pair to the prosoma horizontal, the basal
+  segment projecting vertically downwards, at least at its proximal end,
+  the distal segment or fang closing inwards nearly or quite at right
+  angles to the long axis of the body. The posterior pulmonary sacs
+  (except in _Hypochilus_) replaced by tracheal tubes; the anterior and
+  posterior pairs replaced by tracheal tubes in the Caponiidae.
+
+  Principal families--Hypochilidae (_Hypochilus_). Dysderidae
+  (_Dysdera_, _Segestria_). Caponiidae (_Caponia_, _Nops_). Filistatidae
+  (_Filistata_). Uloboridae (_Uloborus_, _Dinopis_). Argiapidae
+  (_Nephila_, _Gasteracantha_). Pholcidae (_Pholcus_, _Artema_).
+  Agelenidae (_Tegenuria_). Lycosidae (_Lycosa_). Clubionidae
+  (_Clubiona_, _Olios_, _Sparassus_) Gnaphosidae (_Gnaphosa_,
+  _Hemiclaea_). Thomisidae (_Thomisus_). Attidae (_Salticus_).
+  Urocteidae (_Uroctea_). Eresidae (_Eresus_).
+
+  _Remarks on the Araneae._--The Spiders are the most numerous and
+  diversified group of the Arachnida; about 2000 species are known. No
+  noteworthy fossil spiders are known; the best-preserved are in amber
+  of Oligocene age. _Protolycosa_ and _Arthrolycosa_ occur in the
+  Carboniferous. Morphologically, the spiders are remarkable for the
+  concentration and specialization of their structure, which is
+  accompanied with high physiological efficiency. The larger species of
+  Bird's Nest Spiders (_Avicularia_), the opisthosoma of which is as
+  large as a bantam's egg, undoubtedly attack young birds, and M'Cook
+  gives an account of the capture in its web by an ordinary house spider
+  of a small mouse. The "retrovert" or bent-back first pair of
+  appendages is provided with a poison gland opening on the fang or
+  terminal segment. Spiders form at least two kinds of
+  constructions--snares for the capture of prey and nests for the
+  preservation of the young. The latter are only formed by the female,
+  which is a larger and more powerful animal than the male. Like the
+  scorpions the spiders have a special tendency to cannibalism, and
+  accordingly the male, in approaching the female for the purpose of
+  fertilizing her, is liable to be fallen upon and sucked dry by the
+  object of his attentions. The sperm is removed by the male from the
+  genital aperture into a special receptacle on the terminal segment of
+  the 2nd prosomatic appendage. Thus held out at some distance from the
+  body, it is cautiously advanced by the male spider to the genital
+  aperture of the female.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 63.--Ventral view of a male mygalomorphous spider.
+
+    I to VI, The six pairs of prosomatic appendages.
+    a, Copulatory apparatus of the second appendage.
+    b, Process of the fifth joint of the third appendage.
+    M, Mouth.
+    pro, Prosternite of the prosoma.
+    mes, Mesosternite of the prosoma: observe the contact of the coxae
+      of the sixth pair of limbs behind it; compare _Liphistius_ (fig.
+      61) where this does not occur.
+    stg, Lung aperture.
+    gn, Genital aperture.
+    a, Anus with a pair of backwardly migrated spinning appendages on
+      each side of it; compare the position of these appendages in
+      _Liphistius_ (fig. 61).
+
+  (From Lankester, "Limulus an Arachnid.")]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 64.--_Liphistius desultor_. Under side of the
+  uplifted genital or first opisthosomatic somite of the female; g,
+  genital aperture; p, pitted plate, probably a gland for the secretion
+  of adhesive material for the eggs; l, the edges of the lamellae of the
+  lung-books of the first pair.
+
+  (Original drawing by Pocock.)]
+
+  For an account of the courtship and dancing of spiders, of their webs
+  and floating lines, the reader is referred to the works of M'Cook (30)
+  and the Peckhams (31), whilst an excellent account of the nests of
+  trap-door spiders is given by Moggridge (32). References to systematic
+  works will also be found at the end of this article (33).
+
+  Order 4. Palpigradi = Microthelyphonidae (see fig. 65).--Prosoma
+  covered above by three plates, a larger representing the dorsal
+  elements of the first four somites, and two smaller representing the
+  dorsal elements of the 5th and 6th.
+
+  Its ventral surface provided with one prosternal, two mesosternal and
+  one metasternal plate. Appendages of 1st pair consisting of three
+  segments, completely chelate, without poison gland; of 2nd pair
+  slender, leg-like, tipped with three claws, the basal segment without
+  sterno-coxal process taking no share in mastication, and widely
+  separated from its fellow of the opposite side; 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th
+  appendages similar in form to the 2nd and to each other.
+
+  Proboscis free, not supported from below by either the prosternum or
+  the basal segments of the appendages of the 2nd pair.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 65.--_Koenenia mirabilis_, Grassi, one of the
+  Palpigradi.
+
+    A, Ventral view of prosoma and anterior region of opisthosoma with
+      the appendages cut off near the base; a and b, prosternites; c,
+      mesosternite; and d, metasternite of the prosoma; f, ventral
+      surface of the prae-genital somite; g, sternite of the genital
+      somite (first opisthosomatic somite).
+    B, Dorsal view. I to VI, prosomatic appendages; 1 opisth, genital
+      somite (first opisthosomatic somite).
+    C, Lateral view, I to VI, prosomatic appendages; a, b, c, the three
+      tergal plates of the prosoma; prae-gen, the prae-genital somite; 1
+      to 10, the ten somites of the opisthosoma.
+    D, Chelicera.
+
+  (Original drawing by Pocock and Pickard-Cambridge, after Hansen and
+  Sorensen.)]
+
+  Opisthosoma consisting of only ten somites, which have no tergal and
+  sternal elements, the prae-genital somite contracted to form a
+  "waist," as in the Pedipalpi; the last three narrowed to form a caudal
+  support for the many-jointed flagelliform telson, as in the Urotricha.
+  Respiratory organs atrophied.
+
+    Family--Koeneniidae (_Koenenia_).
+
+  _Remarks._--An extremely remarkable minute form originally described
+  by Grassi (34) from Sicily, and since further described by Hansen
+  (35). Recently the genus has been found in Texas, U.S.A. Only one
+  genus of the order is known.
+
+  Order 5. Solifugae = Mycetophorae (see figs. 66 to 69).--Dorsal area
+  of prosoma covered with three distinct plates, two smaller
+  representing the terga of the 5th and 6th somites, and a larger
+  representing those of the anterior four somites, although the reduced
+  terga of the 3rd and 4th are traceable behind the larger plate. The
+  latter bears a pair of median eyes and obsolete lateral eyes on each
+  side. Sternal elements of prosoma almost entirely absent, traces of a
+  prosternum and metasternum alone remaining. Rostrum free, not
+  supported by either the prosternum or the basal segments of the
+  appendages. Appendages of 1st pair large, chelate, bisegmented,
+  articulated to the sides of the head-shield; appendages of 2nd pair
+  simple, pediform, with protrusible (? suctorial) organ, and no claws
+  at the tip; their basal segments united in the middle line and
+  furnished with sterno-coxal process. Remaining pairs of appendages
+  with their basal segments immovably fixed to the sternal surface,
+  similar in form, the posterior three pairs furnished with two claws
+  supported on long stalks; the basal segments of the 6th pair bearing
+  five pairs of tactile sensory organs or malleoli. The prae-genital
+  somite is suppressed. Opisthosoma composed of ten somites. Respiratory
+  organs tracheal, opening upon the ventral surface of the 2nd and 3rd,
+  and sometimes also of the 4th somite of the opisthosoma. A
+  supplementary pair of tracheae opening behind the basal segment of the
+  4th appendage of the prosoma.
+
+  (? Intromittent organ of male lodged on the dorsal side of the 1st
+  pair of prosomatic appendages.)
+
+  Families--Hexisopodidae (_Hexisopus_). Solpugidae (_Solpuga_,
+  _Rhagodes_). Galeodidae (_Galeodes_).
+
+  _Remarks._--These most strange-looking Arachnids occur in warmer
+  temperate, and tropical regions of Asia, Africa and America. Their
+  anatomy has not been studied, as yet, by means of freshly-killed
+  material, and is imperfectly known, though the presence of the coxal
+  glands was determined by Macleod in 1884. The proportionately enormous
+  chelae (chelicerae) of the first pair of appendages are not provided
+  with poison glands; their bite is not venomous.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 66.--_Galeodes sp._, one of the Solifugae. Ventral
+  view to show legs and somites.
+
+    I to VI, The six leg-bearing somites of the prosoma.
+    opisth 1, First or genital somite of the opisthosoma.
+    ge, Site of the genital aperture.
+    st, Thoracic tracheal aperture.
+    l^2, Anterior tracheal aperture of the opisthosoma in somite 2 of the
+      opisthosoma.
+    l^3, Tracheal aperture in somite 3 of the opisthosoma.
+    a, Anus.
+
+  (From Lankester, "Limulus an Arachnid.")]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 67.--_Galeodes sp._, one of the Solifugae. Ventral
+  view with the appendages cut off at the base.
+
+    I to VI, Prosomatic appendages.
+    s, Prosomatic stigma or aperture of the tracheal system.
+    1, First opisthosomatic sternite covering the genital aperture g.
+    2, Second opisthosomatic sternite covering the second pair of
+      tracheal apertures sp1.
+    sp2, The third pair of tracheal apertures.
+    10, The tenth opisthosomatic somite.
+    an, The anal aperture.
+
+  (Original by Pickard-Cambridge and Pocock.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 68.--_Galeodes sp._, one of the Solifugae. Dorsal
+  view.
+
+    I to VI, Bases of the prosomatic appendages.
+    o, Eyes.
+    a, Lateral region of the cephalic plate to which the first pair of
+      appendages are articulated.
+    b, Cephalic plate with median eye.
+    c, Dorsal element of somites bearing third and fourth pairs of
+      appendages.
+    d, Second plate of the prosoma with fifth pair of appendages.
+    e, Third or hindermost plate of the prosoma beneath which the sixth
+      pair of legs is articulated.
+    1, 2, 9, 10, First, second, ninth and tenth somites of the
+      opisthosoma.
+    an, Anus.
+
+  (Original.)]
+
+  _Galeodes_ has been made the means of a comparison between the
+  structure of the Arachnida and Hexapod insects by Haeckel and other
+  writers, and it was at one time suggested that there was a genetic
+  affinity between the two groups--through _Galeodes_, or extinct forms
+  similar to it. The segmentation of the prosoma and the form of the
+  appendages bear a homoplastic similarity to the head, pro-, meso-, and
+  meta-thorax of a Hexapod with mandibles, maxillary palps and three
+  pairs of walking legs; while the opisthosoma agrees in form and number
+  of somites with the abdomen of a Hexapod, and the tracheal stigmata
+  present certain agreements in the two cases. Reference to literature
+  (36).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 69.--_Galeodes sp._, one of the Solifugae.
+
+    I to VI, The six prosomatic limbs cut short.
+    o, The eyes.
+    b, c, Demarcated areae of the cephalic or first prosomatic plate
+      corresponding respectively to appendages I, II, III, and to
+      appendage IV (see fig. 68).
+    d, Second plate of the prosoma-carrying appendage V.
+    e, Third plate of the prosoma-carrying appendage VI. The prae-genital
+      somite is absent.
+    1, First somite of the opisthosoma.
+    2, Second do.
+    S, Prosomatic tracheal aperture between legs IV and V.
+    S' and S", Opisthosomatic tracheal apertures.
+    10, Tenth opisthosomatic somite.
+    an, Anus.
+
+  (Original.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 70.--_Garypus litoralis_, one of the
+  Pseudoscorpiones. Ventral view.
+
+    I to VI, Prosomatic appendages.
+    o, Sterno-coxal process of the basal segment of the second appendage.
+    1, Sternite of the genital or first opisthosomatic somite; the
+      prae-genital somite, though represented by a tergum, has no
+      separate ternal plate.
+    2 and 3, Sternites of the second and third somites of the
+      opisthosoma, each showing a tracheal stigma.
+    10 and 11, Sternites of the tenth and eleventh somites of the
+      opisthosoma.
+    an, Anus.
+
+  (Original by Pocock and Pickard-Cambridge.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 71.--_Garypus litoralis_, one of the
+  Pseudoscorpiones. Dorsal view.
+
+    I to VI, The prosomatic appendages.
+    o, Eyes.
+    prae-gen, Prae-genital somite.
+    1, Tergite of the genital or first opisthosomatic somite.
+    10, Tergite of the tenthsomite of the opisthosoma.
+    11, The evanescent eleventh somite of the opisthosoma.
+    an, Anus.
+
+  (Original.)]
+
+  Order 6. Pseudoscorpiones = Chelonethi, also called Chernetidia (see
+  figs. 70, 71, 72).--Prosoma covered by a single dorsal shield, at most
+  furnished with one or two diplostichous lateral eyes; sternal elements
+  obliterated or almost obliterated. Appendages of the 1st pair
+  bisegmented completely chelate, furnished with peculiar organs, the
+  _serrula_ and the _lamina_. Appendages of 2nd pair very large and
+  completely chelate, their basal segments meeting in the middle line,
+  as in the Uropygi, and provided in front with membranous lip-like
+  processes underlying the proboscis. Appendages of the 3rd, 4th, 5th
+  and 6th pairs similar in form and function, tipped with two claws,
+  their basal segments in contact in the median ventral line. The
+  prae-genital somite wide, not constricted, with large tergal plate,
+  but with its sternal plate small or inconspicuous. Opisthosoma
+  composed, at least in many cases, of eleven somites, the 11th somite
+  very small, often hidden within the both. Respiratory organs in the
+  form of tracheal tubes opening by a pair of stigmata in the 2nd and
+  3rd somites of the opisthosoma. Intromittent organ of male beneath
+  sternum of the 1st somite of the opisthosoma.
+
+  Sub-order a. Panctenodactyli.--Dorsal plate of prosoma (carapace)
+  narrowed in front; the appendages of the 1st pair small, much
+  narrower, taken together, than the posterior border of the carapace.
+  Serrula on movable digit of appendages of 1st pair fixed throughout
+  its length, and broader at its proximal than at its distal end; the
+  immovable digit with an external process.
+
+    Family--Cheliferidae (_Chelifer_ (figs. 70, 71, 72), _Chiridium_).
+       "    Garypidae (_Garypus_).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 72.--_Garypus litoralis_, one of the
+  Pseudoscorpiones. Lateral view.
+
+    I to VI, of the six prosomatic appendages.
+    o, Eyes.
+    prae-gen, Tergite of the prae-genital somite.
+    1, Genital or first opisthosomatic somite.
+    2, 3, 10, The second, third and tenth somites of the opisthosoma.
+    11, The minute eleventh somite;
+    an, the anus.
+
+  (Original.)]
+
+  Sub-order b. Hemictenodactyli.--Dorsal plate of prosoma scarcely
+  narrowed in front; the appendages of the 1st pair large, not much
+  narrower, taken together, than the posterior border of the carapace.
+  The serrula or the movable digit free at its distal end, narrowed at
+  the base; no external lamina on the immovable digit.
+
+    Family--Obisiidae (_Obisium, Pseudobisium_).
+       "    Chthoniidae (_Chthonius, Tridenchthonius_).
+
+  _Remarks._--The book-scorpions--so called because they were, in old
+  times, found not unfrequently in libraries--are found in rotten wood
+  and under stones. The similarity of the form of their appendages to
+  those of the scorpions suggests that they are a degenerate group
+  derived from the latter, but the large size of the prae-genital somite
+  in them would indicate a connexion with forms preceding the scorpions.
+  Reference to literature (37).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 73.--_Cryptostemma Karschii_, one of the Podogona.
+  Dorsal view of male.
+
+    III to VI, The third, fourth, fifth and sixth appendages of the
+      prosoma.
+    a, Movable (hinged) sclerite (so-called hood) overhanging the first
+      pair of appendages.
+    b, Fused terga of the prosoma followed by the opisthosoma of four
+      visible somites.
+    an, Orifice within which the caudal segments are withdrawn.
+    E, Extremity of the fifth appendage of the male modified to subserve
+      copulation.
+
+  (Original drawing by Pocock and Pickard-Cambridge.)]
+
+  Order 7. Podogona = Ricinulei (see figs. 73 to 76).--Dorsal area of
+  prosoma furnished with two shields, a larger behind representing,
+  probably, the tergal elements of the somites, and a smaller in front,
+  which is freely articulated to the former and folds over the
+  appendages of the 1st pair. Ventral area without distinct sternal
+  plates. Appendages of 1st pair, bisegmented, completely chelate.
+  Appendages of 2nd pair, with their basal segments uniting in the
+  middle line below the mouth, weakly chelate at apex. Appendages of
+  3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs similar in form; their basal segments in
+  contact in the middle line and immovably welded, except those of the
+  3rd pair, which have been pushed aside so that the bases of the 2nd
+  and 4th pairs are in contact with each other. A movable membranous
+  joint between the prosoma and the opisthosoma, the generative aperture
+  opening upon the ventral side of the membrane. Prae-genital somite
+  suppressed; the opisthosma consisting of nine segments, whereof the
+  first and second are almost suppressed and concealed within the joint
+  between the prosoma and the opisthosoma; the following four large and
+  manifest, and the remaining three minute and forming a slender
+  generally-retracted tail like that of _Thelyphonus_. Respiratory
+  organs tracheal, opening by a pair of spiracles in the prosoma above
+  the base of the fifth appendage on each side. Intromittent organ of
+  male placed at the distal end of the appendage of the 5th pair.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 74.--_Cryptostemma Karschii_, anterior aspect of
+  the prosoma with the "hood" removed. I to IV, first to fourth
+  appendages of the prosoma; a, basal segment of the second pair of
+  appendages meeting its fellow in the middle line (see fig. 75).
+
+  (Original drawing by Pocock and Pickard-Cambridge.)]
+
+    Family--Cryptostemmidae (_Cryptostemma, Poliochera_), Carboniferous.
+
+  _Remarks on the Podogona._--The name given to this small but
+  remarkable group has reference to the position of the male
+  intromittent organ (fig. 73, E). They are small degenerate animals
+  with a relatively firm integument. Not more than four species and
+  twice that number of specimens are known. They have been found in West
+  Africa and South America. A fact of special interest in regard to them
+  is that the genus Poliochera, from the Coal Measures, appears to be a
+  member of the same group. The name Cryptostemma, given to the
+  first-known genus of the order, described by Guerin-Meneville, refers
+  to the supposed concealment of the eyes by the movable cephalic
+  sclerite. Reference to literature (38).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 75.--_Cryptostemma Karschii_, one of the Podogona.
+  Ventral view.
+
+    I to VI, The six pairs of appendages of the prosoma, the last three
+      cut short.
+    1, 2, 3, 4, The four somites of the opisthosoma.
+    a, Visible hood overhanging the first pair of appendages.
+    b, Position of the genital orifice.
+    c, Part of 3rd appendage.
+    d, Fourth segment of 2nd appendage. Observe that the basal segment
+      of appendage III does _not_ meet its fellow in the middle line.
+
+  (Original drawing by Pocock and Pickard-Cambridge.)]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 76.--_Cryptostemma Karschii_. Extremity of the
+  fifth pair of appendages of the female for comparison with that of the
+  male E in fig. 73.]
+
+  Order 8. Opilione (see fig. 77).--Dorsal area of prosoma covered by a
+  single shield usually bearing a pair of eyes. Sternal elements much
+  reduced. Appendages of 1st pair large, three segmented and completely
+  chelate; of 2nd pair either simple and pediform, or prehensile and
+  subchelate; of remaining four pairs, similar in form, ambulatory in
+  function; the basal segment of the 2nd, 3rd and sometimes of the 4th
+  pairs of appendages furnished with sterno-coxal (maxillary) lobe.
+  Opisthosoma confluent throughout its breadth with the prosoma, with
+  the dorsal plate of which its anterior tergal plates are more or less
+  fused; at most ten opisthosomatic somites traceable; the generative
+  aperture thrust far forwards between the basal segments of the 6th
+  appendages. Prae-genital somite suppressed. Respiratory organs
+  tracheal, opening by a pair of stigmata situated immediately behind
+  the basal segments of the 6th pair of appendages on what is probably
+  the sternum of the 2nd opisthosomatic somite and also in some cases
+  upon the 5th segment of the legs.
+
+  Intromittent organ of male lying within the genital orifice.
+
+  Sub-order a. Laniatores.--Orifice of foetid glands opening above the
+  coxa of the 4th appendage, not raised upon a tubercle. Orifice of
+  coxal gland situated just behind that of the foetid gland. Sternal
+  plate of prosoma long and narrow, with a distinct prosternal element
+  underlying the mouth. Coxae of 4th, 5th and 6th appendages immovable.
+  Appendages of 2nd pair, strong, usually prehensile and spiny. Genital
+  orifice covered by an operculum.
+
+    Families--Gonoleptidae (_Gonoleptes, Goniasoma_).
+              Biantidae (_Biantes_).
+              Oncopodidae (_Oncopus, Pelitnus_).
+              Trioenonychidae (_Trioenonyx, Acumontia_).
+
+  Sub-order b. Palpatores.--Orifice of foetid glands opening above the
+  coxa of the 3rd appendage, not raised upon a tubercle. Orifice of
+  coxal gland situated between the coxae of the 5th and 6th appendages.
+  Sternal plate of prosoma usually short and wide, rarely longer than
+  broad; with a larger or smaller prosternal element underlying the
+  mouth. Coxae of 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th appendages movable or
+  immovable. Appendages of 2nd pair weak, pediform not prehensile.
+  Genital orifice covered by an operculum.
+
+    Families--Phalangiidae (_Phalangium, Gagrella_).
+              Ischyropsalidae (_Ischyropsalis, Taracus_).
+              Nemastomidae (_Nemastoma_).
+              Trogulidae (_Trogulus, Anelasmocephalus_).
+
+  Sub-order c. _Cyphophthalmi_ (_Anepignathi_).--Orifice of foetid
+  glands opening on a tubercle situated near the lateral border of the
+  carapace above the base of the 5th appendage. Orifice of coxal gland
+  probably situated at base of coxa of 5th appendage; sternal plate of
+  prosema minute or absent; no prosternal element underlying the mouth.
+  Coxae of 5th and 6th, and usually also of 4th appendages immovable.
+  Appendages of 2nd pair weak, pediform, not prehensile. Genital orifice
+  not covered by an operculum.
+
+    Families--Sironidae (_Siro, Pettalus_).
+              Stylocellidae (_Stylocellus_).
+
+  _Remarks on the Opiliones._--These include the harvest-men, sometimes
+  called also daddy-long-legs, with round undivided bodies and very
+  long, easily-detached legs. The intromittent organs of the male are
+  remarkable for their complexity and elaboration. The confluence of the
+  regions of the body and the dislocation of apertures from their
+  typical position are results of degeneration. The Opiliones seem to
+  lead on from the Spiders to the Mites. Reference to literature (39).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 77.--_Stylocellus sumatranus_, one of the
+  Opiliones; after Thorell. Enlarged.
+
+    A, Dorsal view; I to VI, the six prosomatic appendages.
+    B, Ventral view of the prosoma and of the first somite of the
+      opisthosoma, with the appendages I to VI cut off at the base; a,
+      tracheal stigma; mx, maxillary processes of the coxae of the 3rd
+      pair of appendages; g, genital aperture.
+    C, Ventral surface of the prosoma and opisthosoma; a, tracheal
+      stigma; b, last somite.
+    D, Lateral view of the 1st and 2nd pair of appendages.
+    E, Lateral view of the whole body and two 1st appendages, showing
+      the fusion of the dorsal elements of the prosoma into a single
+      plate, and of those of the opisthosoma into an imperfectly
+      segmented plate continuous with that of the prosoma.]
+
+  Apparently related to the Opiliones are two extinct groups, the
+  Anthracomarti and Phalangiotarbi, which are not known to have survived
+  the Carboniferous period. In the Anthracomarti the opisthosoma was
+  movably articulated to the prosoma, and consisted of from eight to ten
+  segments furnished with movable lateral plates, the anal segment being
+  overlapped dorsally by a laminate expansion of the preceding segment.
+  The carapace of the prosoma was unsegmented and often bore a pair of
+  eyes. The appendages of the 2nd pair were slender and pediform; those
+  of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs were similar in form and ambulatory
+  in function with their basal segments arranged round a sternal area as
+  in the order Araneae. The best-known genera were _Anthracomartus_ and
+  _Eophognus_.
+
+  In the Phalangiotarbi the appendages resembled those of the
+  Anthracomarti, except that the basal segments of the last four pairs
+  were usually approximated in the middle line leaving a long and narrow
+  sternal area between; and the carapace of the prosoma was unsegmented.
+  The prosoma and opisthosoma were broadly confluent and probably
+  immovably welded together. The opisthosoma consisted of eight or nine
+  segments, whereof the anterior five or six were very short in the
+  dorsal region, and the posterior three exceptionally large with the
+  anal orifice terminal.
+
+  Several genera have been established, the best-characterized being
+  _Geraphognus_ and _Architarbus_.
+
+  Order 9. Rhynchostomi = Acari (see fig. 78).--Degenerate Arachnids
+  resembling the Opiliones in many structural points, but chiefly
+  distinguishable from them by the following features:--The basal
+  segments of the appendages of the 2nd pair are united in the middle
+  line behind the mouth, those of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs are
+  widely separated and not provided with sterno-coxal (maxillary) lobes,
+  and take no share in mastication; the respiratory stigmata, when
+  present, belong to the prosoma, and the primitive segmentation of the
+  opisthosoma has entirely or almost entirely disappeared.
+
+  Sub-order a. _Notostigmata._--Opisthosoma consisting of ten segments
+  defined by integumental grooves, each of the anterior four of these
+  furnished with a single pair of dorsally-placed spiracles or tracheal
+  stigmata.
+
+    Family--Opilioacaridae (_Opilioacarus_).
+
+  Sub-order b. _Cryptostigmata._--Integument hard, strengthened by a
+  continuously chitinized dorsal and ventral sclerite. Tracheae
+  typically opening by stigmata situated in the articular sockets
+  (acetabula) of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs of appendages.
+
+    Family--Oribatidae (_Oribata, Nothrus, Hoplophora_).
+
+  Sub-order c. _Metastigmata._--Integument mostly like that of the
+  Cryptostigmata. Tracheae opening by a pair of stigmata situated above
+  and behind the base of the 4th or 5th or 6th pair of appendages.
+
+    Families--Gamasidae (_Gamasus, Pteroptus_).
+              Argasidae (_Argas, Ornithodoros_).
+              Ixodidae (_Ixodes, Rhipicephalus_).
+
+  Sub-order d. _Prostigmata._--Integument soft, strengthened by special
+  sclerites, those on the ventral surface of the prosoma apparently
+  representing the basal segments of the legs embedded in the skin.
+  Tracheae, except in the aquatic species in which they are atrophied,
+  opening by a pair of stigmata situated close to or above the base of
+  the appendages of the 1st pair (mandibles).
+
+    Families--Trombidiidae (_Trombidium, Tetranychus_).
+              Hydrachnidae (_Hydrachna, Atax_).
+              Halacaridae (_Halacarus, Leptognathus_).
+              Bdellidae (_Bdella, Eupodes_).
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 78.--_Holothyrus nitidissimus_, one of the Acari;
+  after Thorell.
+
+    A, Lateral view with appendages III to VI removed; 1, plate covering
+      the whole dorsal area, representing the fused tergal sclerites of
+      the prosoma and opisthosoma; 2, similarly-formed ventral plate; 3,
+      tracheal stigma.
+    B, Dorsal view of the same animal; II to VI, 2nd to 6th pairs of
+      appendages. The 1st pair of appendages both in this and in C are
+      retracted.
+    C, Ventral view of the same; II to VI as in B; a, genital orifice;
+      b, anus; c, united basal segments of the second pair of appendages;
+      d, basal segment of the 6th prosomatic appendage of the right side.
+      The rest of the appendage, as also of app. Ill, IV and V, has been
+      cut away.]
+
+  Sub-order e. _Astigmata._--Degenerate, mostly parasitic forms
+  approaching the Prostigmata in the development of integumental
+  sclerites and the softness of the skin, but with the respiratory
+  system absent.
+
+    Families--Tyroglyphidae (_Tyroglyphus, Rhizoglyphus_).
+              Sarcoptidae (_Sarcoptes, Analges_).
+
+  Sub-order f. _Vermiformia._--Degenerate atracheate parasitic forms
+  with the body produced posteriorly into an annulated caudal
+  prolongation, and the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs of appendages short
+  and only three-jointed.
+
+    Family--Demodicidae (_Demodex_).
+
+  Sub-order g. _Tetrapoda._--Degenerate atracheate gall-mites in which
+  the body is produced posteriorly and annulated, as in _Demodex_, but
+  in which the appendages of the 3rd and 4th pairs are long and normally
+  segmented and those of the 5th and 6th pairs entirely absent.
+
+    Family--Eriophyidae (_Eriophyes, Phyllocoptes_).
+
+  _Remarks on the Rhynchostomi._--The Acari include a number of forms
+  which are of importance and special interest on account of their
+  parasitic habits. The ticks (_Ixodes_) are not only injurious as
+  blood-suckers, but are now credited with carrying the germs of Texas
+  cattle-fever, just as mosquitoes carry those of malaria. The
+  itch-insect (_Sarcoptes scabiei_) is a well-known human parasite, so
+  minute that it was not discovered until the end of the 18th century,
+  and "the itch" was treated medicinally as a rash. The female burrows
+  in the epidermis much as the female trap-door spider burrows in turf
+  in order to make a nest in which to rear her young. The male does not
+  burrow, but wanders freely on the surface of the skin. _Demodex
+  folliculorum_ is also a common parasite of the sebaceous glands of
+  the skin of the face in man, and is frequent in the skin of the dog.
+  Many Acari are parasitic on marine and freshwater molluscs, and others
+  are found on the feathers of birds and the hair of mammals. Others
+  have a special faculty of consuming dry, powdery vegetable and animal
+  refuse, and are liable to multiply in manufactured products of this
+  nature, such as mouldy cheese. A species of Acarus is recorded as
+  infesting a store of powdered strychnine and feeding on that drug, so
+  poisonous to larger organisms. Reference to literature (40).
+
+  AUTHORITIES cited by numbers in the text.--1. Strauss-Durckheim (as
+  reported by MM. Riester and Sanson in an appendix to the sixth volume
+  of the French translation of Meckel's _Anatomy_, 1829); 2. Lankester,
+  "Limulus an Arachnid," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. xxi. N.S.,
+  1881; 3. _Idem_, "On the Skeletotrophic Tissues of Limulus, Scorpio
+  and Mygale," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. xxiv. N.S., 1884; 4.
+  _Idem. Trans. Zool. Soc._ vol. xi., 1883; 5. Lankester and A.G.
+  Bourne, "Eyes of Limulus and Scorpio," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol.
+  xxiii. N.S., Jan. 1883; 6. Milne-Edwards, A., "Recherches sur
+  l'anatomie des Limules," _Ann. Sci. Nat._ 5th Series, _Zoologie_, vol.
+  xvii., 1873; 7. Owen, Richard, "Anatomy of the King-Crab," _Trans.
+  Linn. Soc. Lond._, vol. xxviii., 1872; 8. Kishinouye, "Development of
+  _Limulus longispina_," _Journal of the Science College of Japan_, vol.
+  v., 1892; 9. Brauer, "Development of Scorpion," _Zeitschrift fur wiss.
+  Zoologie_, vol. lix., 1895; 10. Hansen, H.J., "Organs and Characters
+  in Different Orders of Arachnida," _Entomol. Meddel._ vol. iv. pp.
+  137-149; 11. Watase, "On the Morphology of the Compound Eyes of
+  Arthropods," _Studies from the Biolog. Lab. Johns Hopkins University_,
+  vol. iv. pp 287-334; 12. Newport, George, "Nervous and Circulatory
+  Systems in Myriapoda and Macrourous Arachnids," _Phil. Trans. Roy.
+  Soc._, 1843; 13. Lankester, "Coxal Glands of Limulus, Scorpio and
+  Mygale," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. xxiv. N.S., 1884; 13A. W.
+  Patten and A.P. Hazen, "Development of the Coxal Glands of Limulus,"
+  _Journ. of Morphology_, vol. xvi., 1900; 13B. Bernard, "Coxal Glands
+  of Scorpio," _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ vol. xii., 1893, p. 55; 14.
+  Benham, "Testis of Limulus," _Trans. Linn. Soc._, 1882; 15. Lankester,
+  "Mobility of the Spermatozoa of Limulus," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._
+  vol. xviii. N.S., 1878; 16. Korschelt and Heider,
+  _Entwickelungsgeschichte_ (Jena, 1892), _ibique citata_; 17. Laurie,
+  M., "The Embryology of a Scorpion," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol.
+  xxxi. N.S., 1890, and "On Development of _Scorpio fulvipes_," _ibid._
+  vol. xxxii., 1891; 18. Lankester (Homoplasy and Homogeny), "On the Use
+  of the term Homology in Modern Zoology," _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._,
+  1870; 19. _Idem_, "Degeneration, a Chapter in Darwinism," 1878,
+  reprinted in the _Advancement of Science_ (Macmillan, 1890); 20.
+  _Idem_, "Limulus an Arachnid," _Q. J. Micr. Sci._ vol. xxi. N.S.; 21.
+  Claus, "Degeneration of the Acari and Classification of Arthropoda,"
+  _Anzeiger d. k. k. Akad. Wissen. Wien_, 1885; see also _Ann. and Mag.
+  Nat. Hist._ (5) vol. xvii., 1886, p. 364, and vol. xix. p. 225; 22.
+  Lindstrom, G., "Researches on the Visual Organs of the Trilobites,"
+  _K. Svenska Vet. Akad. Handl._ xxxiv. No. 8, pp. 1-86, Pls. i.-vi.,
+  1901; 22*. Zittel, American edition of his _Palaeontology_ (the
+  Macmillan Co., New York), where ample references to the literature of
+  Trilobitae and Eurypteridae will be found; also references to
+  literature of fossil Scorpions and Spiders; 23. Hoek, "Report on the
+  Pycnogonida," _Challenger Expedition Reports_, 1881; Meinert,
+  "Pycnogonida of the Danish Ingolf Expedition," vol. iii., 1899;
+  Morgan, "Embryology and Phylogeny of the Pycnogonids," _Biol. Lab.
+  Baltimore_, vol. v., 1891; 24. Bourne, A.G., "The Reputed Suicide of
+  the Scorpion," _Proc. Roy. Soc._ vol. xlii. pp. 17-22; 25. Lankester,
+  "Notes on some Habits of Scorpions," _Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool._ vol.
+  xvi. p. 455, 1882; 26. Huxley, "Pharynx of Scorpion," _Quart. Journ.
+  Micr. Sci._ vol. viii. (old series), 1860, p. 250; 27. Pocock, "How
+  and Why Scorpions hiss," _Natural Science_, vol. ix., 1896; cf.
+  _idem_, "Stridulating Organs of Spiders," _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._
+  (6), xvi. pp. 230-233; 28. Kraepelin, _Das Thierreich (Scorpiones et
+  Pedipalpi_) (Berlin, 1899); Peters, "Eine neue Eintheilung der
+  Skorpione," _Man. Akad. Wiss. Berlin_, 1861; Pocock, "Classification
+  of Scorpions," _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ (6) xii., 1893; Thorell and
+  Lindstrom, "On a Silurian Scorpion," _Kongl. Svens. Vet. Akad. Handl._
+  xxi. No. 9, 1885; 29. Cambridge, O.P., "A New Family (Tartarides) and
+  Genus of Thelyphonidea," _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ (4) x., 1872, p.
+  413; Cook, "Hubbardia, a New Genus of Pedipalpi," _Proc. Entom. Soc.
+  Washington_, vol. iv., 1899; Thorell, "Tartarides, &c." _Ann. Mus.
+  Genova_, vol. xxvii., 1889; 30. M Cook, _American Spiders and their
+  Spinning Work_ (3 vols.; Philadelphia, 1889-1893); 31. Peckham, "On
+  Sexual Selection in Spiders," _Occasional Papers Nat. Hist. Soc.
+  Wisconsin_, vol. i. pp. 1-113, 1889; 32. Moggridge, _Harvesting Ants
+  and Trap-Door Spiders_ (1873); 33. Bertkau, Ph., _Arch. f.
+  Naturgesch._ vol. xlviii. pp. 316-362; _Idem_, same journal, 1875, p.
+  235, and 1878, p. 351; Cambridge, O.P., "Araneidea" in _Biologia
+  Centr. Americana_, vols. i. and ii. (London, 1899); Keyserling,
+  _Spinnen Amerikas_ (Nuremberg, 1880-1892); Pocock, "Liphistius and the
+  Classification of Spiders," _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ (6) x., 1892;
+  Simon, _Hist. nat. des Araignees_, vols. i. and ii., 1892, 1897;
+  Wagner, "L'Industrie des Araneina," _Mem. Acad. St-Petersbourg_;
+  _Idem_, "La Mue des Araignees," _Ann. Sci. Nat._ vol. vi.; 34. Grassi,
+  G.B. "Intorno ad un nuovo Aracnide artrogastro (_Koenenia mirabilis_)
+  &c." _Boll. Soc. Ent. Ital._ vol. xviii., 1886; 35. H.J. Hansen and
+  Sorensen, "The Order Palpigradi, Thorell (_Koenenia_), and its
+  Relationships with other Arachnida," _Ent. Tidskr._ vol. xviii. pp.
+  233-240, 1898; Kraepelin, _Das Thierreich_ (Berlin, 1901); 36.
+  Bernard. "Compar. Morphol. of the Galeodidae," _Trans. Linn. Soc.
+  Zool._ vol. vi., 1896, _ibique citata_; Dufour, "Galeodes," _Mem.
+  pres. Acad. Sci. Paris_, vol. xvii., 1862; Kraepelin, _Das Thierreich_
+  (Berlin, 1901); Pocock, "Taxonomy of Solifugae," _Ann. and Mag. Nat.
+  Hist._ vol. xx.; 37. Balzan, "Voyage au Venezuela (Pseudoscorpiones),"
+  _Ann. Soc. Entom. France_, 1891, pp. 497-522; 38. Guerin-Meneville,
+  _Rev. Zool._, 1838, p. II; Karsch, "Ueber Cryptostemma Guer."
+  _Berliner entom. Zeitschrift_, xxxviii. pp. 25-32, 1892; Thorell, "On
+  an apparently new Arachnid belonging to the family _Cryptostemmidae_,"
+  _Westv. Bihang Svenska Vet. Akad. Handligar_, vol. xvii. No. 9, 1892;
+  39. Hansen and Sorensen, _On Two Orders of Arachnida_ (Cambridge,
+  1904); Sorensen, "_Opiliones laniatores_," _Nat. Tidskr._ (3) vol.
+  xiv., 1884; Thorell, "Opilioni," _Ann. Mus. Genova_, vol. viii., 1876;
+  40. Berlese, "Acari, &c., in Italia reperta" (Padova, 1892);
+  Canestrini, _Acarofauna Italiana_ (Padova, 1885); Canestrini and
+  Kramer, "Demodicidae and Sarcoptidae" in _Das Thierreich_ (Berlin,
+  1899); Michael, "British Oribatidae," _Ray Soc._; _Idem_, "Oribatidae"
+  in _Das Thierreich_ (Berlin, 1898); _Idem_, "Progress and Present
+  State of Knowledge of Acari," _Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc._, 1894; Nalepa,
+  "Phytoptidae," _Das Thierreich_ (Berlin, 1898); Trouessart,
+  "Classification des Acariens," _Rev. Sci. Nat. de l'ouest._ p. 289,
+  1892; Wagner, _Embryonal Entwick, von Ixodes_ (St Petersburg, 1803);
+  41. Bertkau, Ph., "Coxaldrusen der Arachniden," _Sitzb. Niederl.
+  Gesellsch._, 1885; 42. Patten, W., "Brain and Sense Organs of
+  Limulus," _Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci._ vol. xxxv., 1894; see also his
+  "Origin of Vertebrates from Arachnids," _ibid._ vol. xxxi.
+
+  Authorities not cited by numbers in the text:--
+
+  Lung-books:--Berteaux, "Le Poumon des Arachnides," _La Cellule_, vol.
+  v. 1891; Jawarowski, "Die Entwick. d. sogen. Lunge bei der
+  Arachniden," _Zeitsch. wiss. Zool._ vol. lviii., 1894; Macleod,
+  "Recherches sur la structure et la signification de l'appareil
+  respiratoire des Arachnides," _Arch. d. Biologie._ vol. v., 1884;
+  Schneider, A., "Melanges arachnologiques," in _Tablettes zoologiques_,
+  vol. ii. p. 135, 1892; Simmons, "Development of Lung in Spiders,"
+  _Amer. Journ. Science_, vol. xlviii., 1894. Coxal Glands:--Bertkau,
+  "Ueber die Coxaldrusen der Arachniden," _Sitzb. d. Niederl.
+  Gesellsch._, 1885; Loman, "Altes und neues uber das Nephridium (die
+  Coxaldruse) der Arachniden," _Byd. tot de Dierkunde_, vol. xiv., 1887;
+  Macleod, "Glande coxale chez les Galeodes," _Bull. Acad. Belg._ (3)
+  vol. viii., 1884; Pelseneer, "On the Coxal Glands of Mygale," _Proc.
+  Zool. Soc._, 1885; Tower, "The External Opening of the brick-red
+  Glands of Limulus," _Zool. Anzeiger_, vol. xviii. p. 471, 1895.
+  Ento-sternite:--Schimkewitsch, "Bau und Entwick. des Endosternites der
+  Arachniden," _Zool. Jahrb._, Anal. Abtheil., vol. viii., 1894.
+  Embryology:--Balfour, "Development of the Araneina," _Q. J. Micr.
+  Sci._ vol. xx., 1880; Kingsley, "The Embryology of Limulus," _Journ.
+  Morphology_, vols. vii. and viii.; Kishinouye, "Development of
+  Araneina," _Journ. Coll. Sci. Univ. of Japan_, vol. iv., 1890; Locy,
+  "Development of Agelena," _Bull. Mus. Harvard_, vol. xii., 1885;
+  Metchnikoff, "Embryologie d. Scorpion," _Zeit. wiss. Zool._ vol. xxi.,
+  1871; _Idem_, "Embryol. Chelifer," _Zeit. wiss. Zool._ vol. xxi.,
+  1871; Schimkewitsch, "Developpement des Araignees," _Archives d.
+  Biologie_, vol. vi. 1887. Sense organs:--Bertkau, "Sinnesorgane der
+  Spinnen," _Arch. f. mikros. Anat._ vol. xxvii. p. 589, 1886; Graber,
+  "Unicorneale Tracheaten Auge," _Arch. f. mikr. Anat._ vol. xvii.,
+  1879; Grenacher, _Gehororgane der Arthropoden_ (Gottingen, 1879);
+  Kishinouye, "Lateral Eyes of Spiders," _Zool. Anz._ vol. xiv. p. 381,
+  1891; Purcell, "Phalangiden Augen," _Zool. Anzeiger_, vol. xv. p. 461.
+
+  General works on Arachnida:--Blanchard, "Les Arachnides" in
+  _L'Organisation du regne animal_; Gaubert, "Recherches sur les
+  Arachnides," _Ann. Sci. Nat._ (7) vol. xiii., 1892; Koch, C., _Die
+  Arachniden_ (16 vols., Nuremberg, 1831-1848); Koch, Keyserling and
+  Sorensen, _Die Arachniden Australiens_ (Nuremberg, 1871-1890); Pocock,
+  _Arachnida of British India_ (London, 1900); _Idem_, "On African
+  Arachnida," in _Proc. Zool. Soc._ and _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._,
+  1897-1900; Simon, _Les Arachnides de la France_ (7 vols., Paris,
+  1874-1881); Thorell, "Arachnida from the Oriental Region," _Ann. Mus.
+  Genova_, 1877-1899.     (E. R. L.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See the article ARTHROPODA for the use of the term "prosthomere."
+
+  [2] See fig. 12 in the article ARTHROPODA.
+
+  [3] Though ten is the prevailing number of retinula cells and
+    rhabdomeres in the lateral eye of Limulus, Watase states that they
+    may be as few as nine and as many as eighteen.
+
+  [4] A great deal of superfluous hypothesis has lately been put
+    forward in the name of "the principle of convergence of characters"
+    by a certain school of palaeontologists. The horse is supposed by
+    these writers to have originated by separate lines of descent in the
+    Old World and the New, from five-toed ancestors! And the important
+    consequences following from the demonstration of the identity in
+    structure of Limulus and Scorpio are evaded by arbitrary and even
+    phantastic invocations of a mysterious transcendental force which
+    brings about "convergence" irrespective of heredity and selection.
+    Morphology becomes a farce when such assumptions are made. (E. R. L.)
+
+  [5] A pair of round tubercles on the labram (camerostome or
+    hypostoma) of several species of Trilobites has been described and
+    held to be a pair of eyes (22). Sense-organs in a similar position
+    were discovered in Limulus by Patten (42) in 1894.
+
+  [6] The writer is indebted to R.I. Pocock, assistant in the Natural
+    History departments of the British Museum, for valuable assistance in
+    the preparation of this article and for the classification and
+    definition of the groups of Eu-arachnida here given. The general
+    scheme and some of the details have been brought by the writer into
+    agreement with the views maintained in this article. Pocock accepts
+    those views in all essential points and has, as a special student of
+    the Arachnida, given to them valuable expansion and confirmation. The
+    writer also desires to express his thanks to Messrs. Macmillan & Co.
+    for permission to use figs. 22, 43, 44 and 45, which are taken from
+    Parker and Haswell's _Text-book of Zoology_; and to Messrs. Swan
+    Sonnenschein & Co. for the loan of several figures from the
+    translations published by them of the admirable treatise on
+    _Embryology_ by Professors Korschelt and Heider; also to the
+    publishers of the treatise on _Palaeontology_ by Professor Zittel,
+    Herr Oldenbourg and The Macmillan Co., New York, for several cuts of
+    extinct forms.
+
+  [7] Pocock suggests that the area marked vii. in the outline figure
+    of the dorsal view of _Limulus_ (fig. 7) may be the tergum of the
+    suppressed prae-genital somite. Embryological evidence must settle
+    whether this is so or not.
+
+
+
+
+ARAD, or O-ARAD, a town of Hungary, capital of the county of the same
+name, 159 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 53,903. It is
+situated on the right bank of the river Maros, and consists of the inner
+town and five suburbs. Arad is a modern-built town, and contains many
+handsome private and public buildings, including a cathedral. It is the
+seat of a Greek-Orthodox bishop, and possesses a Greek-Orthodox
+theological seminary, two training schools for teachers--one Hungarian,
+and the other Rumanian--and a conservatoire for music. The town played
+an important part in the Hungarian revolution of 1848-49, and possesses
+a museum containing relics of this war of independence. One of the
+public squares contains a martyrs' monument, erected in memory of the
+thirteen Hungarian generals shot here on the 6th of October 1849, by
+order of the Austrian general Haynau. It consists of a colossal figure
+of Hungary, with four allegorical groups, and medallions of the
+executed generals. Arad is an important railway junction, and has become
+the largest industrial and commercial centre of south-eastern Hungary.
+Its principal industries are: distilling, milling, machinery-making,
+leather-working and saw-milling. A large trade is carried on in grain,
+flour, alcohol, cattle and wood. Arad was a fortified place, and was
+captured by the Turks during the wars of the 17th century, and kept by
+them till the end of that century. The new fortress, built in 1763,
+although small, was formidable, and played a great role during the
+Hungarian struggle for independence in 1849. Bravely defended by the
+Austrian general Berger until the 1st of July 1849, it was then captured
+by the Hungarian rebels, who made it their headquarters during the
+latter part of the insurrection. It was from it that Kossuth issued his
+famous proclamation (11th August 1849), and it was here that he handed
+over the supreme military and civil power to Gorgei. The fortress was
+recaptured shortly after the surrender of Gorgei to the Russians at
+Vilagos. The fortress is now used as an ammunition depot.
+
+The town of Uj-Arad, i.e. New Arad (pop. 6124), situated on the opposite
+bank of the Maros, is practically a suburb of Arad, with which it is
+connected by a bridge. The town was founded during the Turkish wars of
+the 17th century. The works erected by the Turks for the capture of the
+fortress of Arad formed the nucleus of the new town.
+
+Vilagos, the town where the famous capitulation of Gorgei to the
+Russians took place on the 13th of August 1849, lies 21 m. by rail
+north-east of Arad.
+
+
+
+
+ARAEOSTYLE (Gr. [Greek: araios], weak or widely spaced, and [Greek:
+stylos], column), an architectural term for the intercolumniation (q.v.)
+given to those temples where the columns had only timber architraves to
+carry.
+
+
+
+
+ARAEOSYSTYLE (Gr. [Greek: araios], widely spaced, and [Greek: systylos],
+with columns set close together), an architectural term applied to a
+colonnade, in which the intercolumniation (q.v.) is alternately wide and
+narrow, as in the case of the western porch of St Paul's cathedral and
+the east front of the Louvre by Perrault.
+
+
+
+
+ARAGO, DOMINIQUE FRANCOIS JEAN (1786-1853), French physicist, was born
+on the 26th of February 1786, at Estagel, a small village near
+Perpignan, in the department of the eastern Pyrenees. He was the eldest
+of four brothers. Jean (1788-1836) emigrated to America and became a
+general in the Mexican army. Jacques Etienne Victor (1799-1855) took
+part in L.C. de S. de Freycinet's exploring voyage in the "Uranie" from
+1817 to 1821, and on his return to France devoted himself to journalism
+and the drama. The fourth brother, Etienne Vincent (1802-1892), is said
+to have collaborated with H. de Balzac in the _Heritiere de Birague_,
+and from 1822 to 1847 wrote a great number of light dramatic pieces,
+mostly in collaboration. A strong republican, he was obliged to leave
+France in 1849, but returned after the amnesty of 1859. In 1879 he was
+nominated director of the Luxembourg museum.
+
+Showing decided military tastes Francois Arago was sent to the municipal
+college of Perpignan, where he began to study mathematics in preparation
+for the entrance examination of the polytechnic school. Within two years
+and a half he had mastered all the subjects prescribed for examination,
+and a great deal more, and, on going up for examination at Toulouse, he
+astounded his examiner by his knowledge of Lagrange. Towards the close
+of 1803 he entered the polytechnic school, with the artillery service as
+the aim of his ambition, and in 1804, through the advice and
+recommendation of S.D. Poisson, he received the appointment of secretary
+to the Observatory of Paris. He now became acquainted with Laplace, and
+through his influence was commissioned, with J.B. Biot, to complete the
+meridional measurements which had been begun by J.B.J. Delambre, and
+interrupted since the death of P.F.A. Mechain (1744-1804). The two left
+Paris in 1806 and began operations among the mountains of Spain, but
+Biot returned to Paris after they had determined the latitude of
+Formentera, the southernmost point to which they were to carry the
+survey, leaving Arago to make the geodetical connexion of Majorca with
+Ivica and with Formentera.
+
+The adventures and difficulties of the latter were now only beginning.
+The political ferment caused by the entrance of the French into Spain
+extended to these islands, and the ignorant populace began to suspect
+that Arago's movements and his blazing fires on the top of Mount Galatzo
+were telegraphic signals to the invading army. Ultimately they became so
+infuriated that he was obliged to cause himself to be incarcerated in
+the fortress of Belver in June 1808. On the 28th of July he managed to
+escape from the island in a fishing-boat, and after an adventurous
+voyage he reached Algiers on the 3rd of August. Thence he procured a
+passage in a vessel bound for Marseilles, but on the 16th of August,
+just as the vessel was nearing Marseilles, it fell into the hands of a
+Spanish corsair. With the rest of the crew, Arago was taken to Rosas,
+and imprisoned first in a windmill, and afterwards in the fortress of
+that seaport, until the town fell into the hands of the French, when the
+prisoners were transferred to Palamos. After fully three months'
+imprisonment they were released on the demand of the dey of Algiers, and
+again set sail for Marseilles on the 28th of November, but when within
+sight of their port they were driven back by a northerly wind to Bougie
+on the coast of Africa. Transport to Algiers by sea from this place
+would have occasioned a weary stay of three months; Arago, therefore,
+set out for it by land under conduct of a Mahommedan priest, and reached
+it on Christmas day. After six months' stay in Algiers he once again, on
+the 21st of June 1809, set sail for Marseilles, where he had to undergo
+a monotonous and inhospitable quarantine in the lazaretto, before his
+difficulties were over. The first letter he received, while in the
+lazaretto, was from A. von Humboldt; and this was the origin of a
+connexion which, in Arago's words, "lasted over forty years without a
+single cloud ever having troubled it."
+
+Through all these vicissitudes Arago had succeeded in preserving the
+records of his survey; and his first act on his return home was to
+deposit them in the Bureau des Longitudes at Paris. As a reward for his
+adventurous conduct in the cause of science, he was in September 1809
+elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, in room of J.B.L. Lalande,
+at the remarkably early age of twenty-three, and before the close of the
+same year he was chosen by the council of the polytechnic school to
+succeed G. Monge in the chair of analytical geometry. About the same
+time he was named by the emperor one of the astronomers of the Royal
+Observatory, which was accordingly his residence till his death, and it
+was in this capacity that he delivered his remarkably successful series
+of popular lectures on astronomy, which were continued from 1812 to
+1845.
+
+In 1816, along with Gay-Lussac, he started the _Annales de chimie et de
+physique_, and in 1818 or 1819 he proceeded along with Biot to execute
+geodetic operations on the coasts of France, England and Scotland. They
+measured the length of the seconds-pendulum at Leith, and in Unst, one
+of the Shetland isles, the results of the observations being published
+in 1821, along with those made in Spain. Arago was elected a member of
+the Board of Longitude immediately afterwards, and contributed to each
+of its _Annuals_, for about twenty-two years, important scientific
+notices on astronomy and meteorology and occasionally on civil
+engineering, as well as interesting memoirs of members of the Academy.
+
+In 1830, Arago, who always professed liberal opinions of the extreme
+republican type, was elected a member of the chamber of deputies for the
+Lower Seine, and he employed his splendid gifts of eloquence and
+scientific knowledge in all questions connected with public education,
+the rewards of inventors, and the encouragement of the mechanical and
+practical sciences. Many of the most creditable national enterprises,
+dating from this period, are due to his advocacy--such as the reward to
+L.J.M. Daguerre for the invention of photography, the grant for the
+publication of the works of P. Fermat and Laplace, the acquisition of
+the museum of Cluny, the development of railways and electric
+telegraphs, the improvement of the navigation of the Seine, and the
+boring of the artesian wells at Grenelle.
+
+In the year 1830 also he was appointed director of the Observatory, and
+as a member of the chamber of deputies he was able to obtain grants of
+money for rebuilding it in part, and for the addition of magnificent
+instruments. In the same year, too, he was chosen perpetual secretary of
+the Academy of Sciences, in room of J.B.J. Fourier. Arago threw his
+whole soul into its service, and by his faculty of making friends he
+gained at once for it and for himself a world-wide reputation. As
+perpetual secretary it fell to him to pronounce historical _eloges_ on
+deceased members; and for this duty his rapidity and facility of
+thought, his happy piquancy of style, and his extensive knowledge
+peculiarly adapted him.
+
+In 1834 he again visited England, to attend the meeting of the British
+Association at Edinburgh. From this time till 1848 he led a life of
+comparative quiet--not the quiet of inactivity, however, for his
+incessant labours within the Academy and the Observatory produced a
+multitude of contributions to all departments of physical science,--but
+on the fall of Louis Philippe he left his laboratory to join in forming
+the provisional government. He was entrusted with the discharge of two
+important functions, that had never before been united in one person,
+viz. the ministry of war and of marine; and in the latter capacity he
+effected some salutary reforms, such as the improvement of rations in
+the navy and the abolition of flogging. He also abolished political
+oaths of all kinds, and, against an array of moneyed interests,
+succeeded in procuring the abolition of negro slavery in the French
+colonies.
+
+In the beginning of May 1852, when the government of Louis Napoleon
+required an oath of allegiance from all its functionaries, Arago
+peremptorily refused, and sent in his resignation of his post as
+astronomer at the Bureau des Longitudes. This, however, the prince
+president, to his credit, declined to accept, and made "an exception in
+favour of a _savant_ whose works had thrown lustre on France, and whose
+existence his government would regret to embitter." But the tenure of
+office thus granted did not prove of long duration. Arago was now on his
+death-bed, under a complication of diseases, induced, no doubt, by the
+hardships and labours of his earlier years. In the summer of 1853 he was
+advised by his physicians to try the effect of his native air, and he
+accordingly set out for the eastern Pyrenees. But the change was
+unavailing, and after a lingering illness, in which he suffered first
+from diabetes, then from Bright's disease, complicated by dropsy, he
+died in Paris on the 2nd of October 1853.
+
+Arago's fame as an experimenter and discoverer rests mainly on his
+contributions to magnetism and still more to optics. He found that a
+magnetic needle, made to oscillate over nonferruginous surfaces, such as
+water, glass, copper, &c., falls more rapidly in the extent of its
+oscillations according as it is more or less approached to the surface.
+This discovery, which gained him the Copley medal of the Royal Society
+in 1825, was followed by another, that a rotating plate of copper tends
+to communicate its motion to a magnetic needle suspended over it
+("magnetism of rotation"). Arago is also fairly entitled to be regarded
+as having proved the long-suspected connexion between the aurora
+borealis and the variations of the magnetic elements.
+
+In optics we owe to him not only important optical discoveries of his
+own, but the credit of stimulating the genius of A.J. Fresnel, with
+whose history, as well as with that of E.L. Malus and of Thomas Young,
+this part of his life is closely interwoven. Shortly after the beginning
+of the 19th century the labours of these three philosophers were shaping
+the modern doctrine of the undulatory theory of light. Fresnel's
+arguments in favour of that theory found little favour with Laplace,
+Poisson and Biot, the champions of the emission theory; but they were
+ardently espoused by Humboldt and by Arago, who had been appointed by
+the Academy to report on the paper. This was the foundation of an
+intimate friendship between Arago and Fresnel, and of a determination to
+carry on together further researches in this subject, which led to the
+enunciation of the fundamental laws of the polarization of light known
+by their names (see POLARIZATION). As a result of this work Arago
+constructed a _polariscope_, which he used for some interesting
+observations on the polarization of the light of the sky. To him is also
+due the discovery of the power of _rotatory polarization_ exhibited by
+quartz, and last of all, among his many contributions to the support of
+the undulatory hypothesis, comes the _experimentum crucis_ which he
+proposed to carry out for comparing directly the velocity of light in
+air and in water or glass. On the emission theory the velocity should be
+accelerated by an increase of density in the medium; on the wave theory,
+it should be retarded. In 1838 he communicated to the Academy the
+details of his apparatus, which utilized the revolving mirrors employed
+by Sir C. Wheatstone in 1835 for measuring the velocity of the electric
+discharge; but owing to the great care required in the carrying out of
+the project, and to the interruption to his labours caused by the
+revolution of 1848, it was the spring of 1850 before he was ready to put
+his idea to the test; and then his eyesight suddenly gave way. Before
+his death, however, the retardation of light in denser media was
+demonstrated by the experiments of H.L. Fizeau and J.B.L. Foucault,
+which, with improvements in detail, were based on the plan proposed by
+him.
+
+  Arago's _OEuvres_ were published after his death under the direction
+  of J.A. Barral, in 17 vols., 8vo, 1854-1862; also separately his
+  _Astronomie populaire_, in 4 vols.; _Notices biographiques_, in 3
+  vols.; _Notices scientifiques_, in 5 vols.; _Voyages scientifiques_,
+  in 1 vol.; _Memoires scientifiques_, in 2 vols.; _Melanges_, in 1
+  vol.; and _Tables analytiques et documents importants_ (with
+  portrait), in 1 vol. English translations of the following portions of
+  his works have appeared:--_Treatise on Comets_, by C. Gold, C.B.
+  (London, 1833); also translated by Smyth and Grant (London, 1861);
+  _Hist. eloge of James Watt_, by James Muirhead (London, 1839); also
+  translated, with notes, by Lord Brougham; _Popular Lectures on
+  Astronomy_, by Walter Kelly and Rev. L. Tomlinson (London, 1854); also
+  translated by Dr W.H. Smyth and Prof. R. Grant, 2 vols. (London,
+  1855); _Arago's Autobiography_, translated by the Rev. Baden Powell
+  (London, 1855, 1858); _Arago's Meteorological Essays_, with
+  introduction by Humboldt, translated under the superintendence of
+  Colonel Sabine (London, 1855), and _Arago's Biographies of Scientific
+  Men_, translated by Smyth, Powell and Grant, 8vo (London, 1857).
+
+
+
+
+ARAGON, or ARRAGON (in Span. _Aragon_), a captaincy-general, and
+formerly a kingdom of Spain; bounded on the N. by the Pyrenees, which
+separate it from France, on the E. by Catalonia and Valencia, S. by
+Valencia, and W. by the two Castiles and Navarre. Pop. (1900) 912,711;
+area, 18,294 sq. m. Aragon was divided in 1833 into the provinces of
+Huesca, Teruel and Saragossa; an account of its modern condition is
+therefore given under these names, which have not, however, superseded
+the older designation in popular usage.
+
+Aragon consists of a central plain, edged by mountain ranges. On the
+south, east and west, these ranges, though wild and rugged, are of no
+great elevation, but on the north the Pyrenees attain their greatest
+altitude in the peaks of Aneto (11,168 ft.) and Monte Perdido (10,998
+ft.)--also known as Las Tres Sorores, and, in French, as Mont Perdu. The
+central pass over the Pyrenees is the Port de Canfranc, on the line
+between Saragossa and Pau. Aragon is divided by the river Ebro (q.v.),
+which flows through it in a south-easterly direction, into two nearly
+equal parts, known as Trans-ibero and Cis-ibero. The Ebro is the
+principal river, and receives from the north, in its passage through the
+province, the Arba, the Gallego and the united waters of the Cinca,
+Esera, Noguera Ribagorzana, Noguera Pallaresa and Segre--the last three
+belonging to Catalonia. From the south it receives the Jalon and Jiloca
+(or _Xalon_ and _Xiloca_) and the Guadalope. The Imperial Canal of
+Aragon, which was begun by the emperor Charles V. in 1529, but remained
+unfinished for nearly two hundred years, extends from Tudela to El Burgo
+de Ebro, a distance of 80 m.; it has a depth of 9 ft., and an average
+breadth of 69, and is navigable for vessels of about 80 tons. The Royal
+Canal of Tauste, which lies along the north side of the Ebro, was cut
+for purposes of irrigation, and gives fertility to the district. Two
+leagues north-north-east of Albarracin is the remarkable fountain called
+Cella, 3700 ft. above the sea, which forms the source of the Jiloca; and
+between this river and the Sierra Molina is an extensive lake called
+Gallocanta, covering about 6000 acres. The climate is characterized by
+extreme heat in the summer and cold in the winter; among the mountains
+the snowfall is heavy, and thunderstorms are frequent, but there is
+comparatively little rain.
+
+Within a recent geological period, central Aragon was undoubtedly
+submerged by the sea, and the parched chalky soil remains saturated with
+salt, while many of the smaller streams run brackish. As the mountains
+of Valencia and Catalonia effectually bar out the fertilizing moisture
+of the sea-winds, much of the province is a sheer wilderness, stony,
+ash-coloured, scarred with dry watercourses, and destitute of any
+vegetation except thin grass and heaths. In contrast with the splendid
+fertility of Valencia or the south of France, the landscape of this
+region, like the rest of central Spain, seems almost a continuation of
+the north African desert area. There are, however, extensive oak, pine
+and beech forests in the highlands, and many beautiful oases in the
+deeply sunk valleys, and along the rivers, especially beside the Ebro,
+which is, therefore, often called the "Nile of Aragon." In such oases
+the flora is exceedingly rich. Wheat, maize, rice, oil, flax and hemp,
+of fine quality, are grown in considerable quantities; as well as
+saffron, madder, liquorice, sumach, and a variety of fruits. Merino wool
+is one of the chief products.
+
+In purity of race the Aragonese are probably equal to the Castilians, to
+whom, rather than to the Catalans or Valencians, they are also allied in
+character. The dress of the women is less distinctive than that of the
+men, who wear a picturesque black and white costume, with knee-breeches,
+a brilliantly coloured sash, black hempen sandals, and a handkerchief
+wound round the head.
+
+Three counties--Sobrarbe, situated near the headwaters of the Cinca,
+Aragon, to the west, and Ribagorza or Ribagorca, to the east--are
+indicated by tradition and the earliest chronicles as the cradle of the
+Aragonese monarchy. These districts were never wholly subdued when the
+Moors overran the country (711-713). Sobrarbe especially was for a time
+the headquarters of the Christian defence in eastern Spain. About 1035,
+Sancho III. the Great, ruler of the newly established kingdom of
+Navarre, which included the three counties above mentioned, bequeathed
+them to Gonzalez and Ramiro, his sons. Ramiro soon rid himself of his
+rival, and welded Sobrarbe, Ribagorza and Aragon into a single kingdom,
+which thenceforward grew rapidly in size and power and shared with
+Castile the chief part in the struggle against the Moors. The history of
+this period, which was terminated by the union of Castile and Aragon
+under Ferdinand and Isabella in 1479, is given, along with a full
+account of the very interesting constitution of Aragon, under SPAIN
+(q.v.). At the height of its power under James I. (1213-1276), the
+kingdom included Valencia, Catalonia, the Balearic Islands and the
+considerable territory of Montpellier in France; while Peter III.
+(1276-1285) added Sicily to his dominions.
+
+  The literature relating to Aragon is very extensive. See, in addition
+  to the works cited in the article SPAIN (section _History_), "Les
+  Archives d'Aragon et de Navarre," by L. Cadier, in _Bibliotheque de
+  l'Ecole des Chartes_, 49 (Paris, 1888). Among the more important
+  original authorities, the following may be selected:--for general
+  history, _Anales de la corona de Aragon_, by G. Curita, 3rd ed. in 7
+  folio volumes (Saragossa, 1668-1671; 1st ed. 1562-1580);--for
+  ecclesiastical history, _Teatro historico de las iglesias de Aragon_
+  (Pamplona, 1770-1807); for economic history, _Historia de la economia
+  politica de Aragon_, by I.J. de Asso y del Rio (Saragossa, 1798). For
+  the constitution and laws of Aragon, see _Origines del Justicia de
+  Aragon_, &c., by J. Ribera Tarrago (Saragossa, 1897), and
+  _Instituciones y reyes de Aragon_, by V. Balaguer (Madrid, 1896). The
+  topography, inhabitants, art, products, &c., of the kingdom are
+  described in a volume of the series _Espana_ entitled _Aragon_, by
+  J.M. Quadrado (Barcelona, 1886).
+
+
+
+
+ARAGONITE, one of the mineral forms of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), the
+other form being the more common mineral calcite. It crystallizes in the
+orthorhombic system, and the crystals are either prismatic or acicular
+in habit. Simple crystals are, however, rare; twinning on the prism
+planes (_M_ in the figures) being a characteristic feature of the
+mineral (fig. 1). This twinning is usually often repeated on the same
+plane (fig. 2), and gives rise to striations on the terminal faces (k)
+of the crystals; often, also, three crystals are twinned together on two
+of the prism planes of one of them, producing an apparently hexagonal
+prism. The mineral is colourless, white or yellowish, transparent or
+translucent, has a vitreous lustre, and, in fact, is not unlike calcite
+in general appearance. It may, however, always be readily distinguished
+from calcite by the absence of any marked cleavage, and by its greater
+hardness (H. = 3-1/2-4) and specific gravity (2.93); further, it is
+optically biaxial, whilst calcite is uniaxial. It is brittle and has a
+subconchoidal fracture; on a fractured surface the lustre is decidedly
+resinous in character.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+The mineral was first found, as reddish twinned crystals with the form
+of six-sided prisms, at Molina in Aragon, Spain, where it occurs with
+gypsum and small crystals of ferruginous quartz in a red clay. It is
+from this locality that the mineral takes its name, which was originally
+spelt arragonite. Fine groups of crystals of the same habit are found in
+the sulphur deposits of Girgenti in Sicily; also at Herrengrund near
+Neusohl in Hungary. At many other localities the mineral takes the form
+of radiating groups of acicular crystals, such as those from the
+haematite mines of west Cumberland: beautiful feathery forms have been
+found in a limestone cave in the Transvaal. Fibrous forms are also
+common. A peculiar coralloidal variety known as _flosferri_ ("flower of
+iron") consists of radially arranged fibres: magnificent snow-white
+specimens of this variety have long been known from the iron mines of
+Eisenetz in Styria. The calcareous secretions of many groups of
+invertebrate animals consist of aragonite (calcite is also common);
+pearls may be specially cited as an example.
+
+Aragonite is a member of the isomorphous group of minerals comprising
+witherite (BaCO3), strontianite (SrCO3), cerussite (PbCO3) and bromlite
+((Ba, Ca)CO3); and crystals of aragonite sometimes contain small amounts
+of strontium or lead. A variety known as tarnowitzite, from Tarnowitz in
+Silesia, contains about 5% of lead carbonate.
+
+Aragonite is the more unstable of the two modifications of calcium
+carbonate. A crystal of aragonite when heated becomes converted into a
+granular aggregate of calcite individuals: altered crystals of this kind
+(paramorphs) are not infrequently met with in nature, whilst in fossil
+shells the original nacreous layer of aragonite has invariably been
+altered to calcite. From a solution of calcium carbonate in water
+containing carbon dioxide crystals of calcite are deposited at the
+ordinary temperature, but from a warm solution aragonite crystallizes
+out. The thermal springs of Carlsbad deposit spherical concretions of
+aragonite, forming masses known as pisolite or _Sprudelstein_.
+     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+ARAGUA, one of the smaller states of Venezuela under the redivision of
+1904, lying principally within the parallel ranges of the Venezuelan
+Cordillera, and comprising some of the most fertile and healthful
+valleys of the republic. It is bounded E. by the Federal District and
+Maturin, S. by Guarico and W. by Zamora and Carabobo. Pop. (1905, est.)
+152,364. Aragua has a short coast-line on the Caribbean west of the
+Federal District, but has no port of consequence. Cattle, swine and
+goats are raised, and the state produces coffee, sugar, cacao, beans,
+cereals and cheese. The climate of the higher valleys is subtropical,
+the mean annual temperature ranging from 74 deg. to 80 deg. F. The
+capital, La Victoria (pop. 7800), is situated in the fertile Aragua
+valley, 1558 ft. above sea-level and 36 m. south-west of Caracas. Other
+important towns are Barbacoas (pop. 13,109) on the left bank of the
+Guarico in a highly fertile region, Ciudad de Cura and Maracay (pop.
+7500), 56 m. west-south-west of Caracas near the north-east shore of
+Lake Valencia. The last two towns are on the railway between Caracas and
+Valencia.
+
+
+
+
+ARAGUAYA, ARAGUAY or ARAGUIA, a river of Brazil and principal affluent
+of the Tocantins, rising in the Serra do Cayapo, where it is known as
+the Rio Grande, and flowing in a north by east direction to a junction
+with the Tocantins at Sao Joao do Araguaya, or Sao Joao das Duas Barras.
+Its upper course forms the boundary line between Goyaz and Matto Grosso.
+The river divides into two branches at about 13 deg. 20' S. lat., and
+unites again at 10 deg. 30', forming the large island of Santa Anna or
+Bananal. The eastern branch, called the Furo, is the one used by boats,
+as the main channel is obstructed by rapids. Its principal affluent is
+the Rio das Mortes, which rises in the Serra de Sao Jeronymo, near
+Cuyaba, Matto Grosso, and is utilized by boatmen going to Para. Of other
+affluents, the Bonito, Garcas, Cristallino and Tapirape on the west, and
+the Pitombas, Claro, Vermelho, Tucupa and Chavante on the east, nothing
+definite is known as the country is still largely unexplored. The
+Araguaya has a course of 1080 m., considerable stretches of which are
+navigable for small river steamers, but as the river below Santa Anna
+Island is interrupted by reefs and rapids in two places--one having a
+fall of 85 ft. in 18 m., and the other a fall of 50 ft. in 12 m.--it
+affords no practicable outlet for the products of the state. It was
+explored in part by Henri Coudreau in 1897.
+
+  See Coudreau's _Voyage au Tocantins-Araguaya_ (Paris, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+ARAKAN, a division of Lower Burma. It consists of a strip of country
+running along the eastern seaboard of the Bay of Bengal, from the Naaf
+estuary, on the borders of Chittagong, to Cape Negrais. Length from
+northern extremity to Cape Negrais, about 400 m.; greatest breadth in
+the northern part, 90 m., gradually diminishing towards the south, as it
+is hemmed in by the Arakan Yoma mountains, until, in the extreme south,
+it tapers away to a narrow strip not more than 15 m. across. The coast
+is studded with islands, the most important of which are Cheduba, Ramree
+and Shahpura. The division has its headquarters at Akyab and consists of
+four districts--namely, Akyab, Northern Arakan Hill Tracts, Sandoway and
+Kyaukpyu, formerly called Ramree. Its area is 18,540 sq. m. The
+population at the time of the British occupation in 1826 did not exceed
+100,000. In 1831 it amounted to 173,000; in 1839 to 248,000, and in 1901
+to 762,102.
+
+The principal rivers of Arakan are--(1) the Naaf estuary, in the north,
+which forms the boundary between the division and Chittagong; (2) the
+Myu river, an arm of the sea, running a course almost parallel with the
+coast for about 50 m.; (3) the Koladaing river, rising near the Blue
+mountain, in the extreme north-east, and falling into the Bay of Bengal
+a few miles south of the Myu river, navigable by vessels of from 300 to
+400 tons burden for a distance of 40 m. inland; and (4) the Lemyu river,
+a considerable stream falling into the bay a few miles south of the
+Koladaing. Farther to the south, owing to the nearness of the range
+which bounds Arakan on the east, the rivers are of but little
+importance. These are the Talak and the Aeng, navigable by boats; and
+the Sandoway, the Taungup and the Gwa streams, the latter of which alone
+has any importance, owing to its mouth forming a good port of call or
+haven for vessels of from 9 to 10 ft. draught. There are several passes
+over the Yoma mountains, the easiest being that called the Aeng route,
+leading from the village of that name into Upper Burma. The staple crop
+of the province is rice, along with cotton, tobacco, sugar, hemp and
+indigo. The forests produce abundance of excellent oak and teak timber.
+
+The natives of Arakan trace their history as far back as 2666 B.C., and
+give a lineal succession of 227 native princes down to modern times.
+According to them, their empire had at one period far wider limits, and
+extended over Ava, part of China, and a portion of Bengal. This
+extension of their empire is not, however, corroborated by known facts
+in history. At different times the Moguls and Pegus carried their arms
+into the heart of the country. The Portuguese, during the era of their
+greatness in Asia, gained a temporary establishment in Arakan; but in
+1782 the province was finally conquered by the Burmese, from which
+period until its cession to the British in 1826, under the treaty of
+Yandaboo, its history forms part of that of Burma. The old city of
+Arakan, formerly the capital of the province, is situated on an inferior
+branch of the Koladaing river. Its remoteness from the ports and
+harbours of the country, combined with the extreme unhealthiness of its
+situation, have led to its gradual decay subsequently to the formation
+of the comparatively recent settlement of Akyab, which place is now the
+chief town of the province. The old city (now Myohaung) lies 50 m.
+north-east of Akyab. The Maghs, who form nearly the whole population of
+the province, follow the Buddhist doctrines, which are universally
+professed throughout Burma. The priests are selected from all classes of
+men, and one of their chief employments is the education of children.
+Instruction is consequently widely diffused, and few persons, it is
+said, can be found in the province who are unable to read. The
+qualifications for entering into the priestly order are good conduct and
+a fair measure of learning--such conduct at least as is good according
+to Buddhist tenets, and such learning as is esteemed among their
+votaries.
+
+The Arakanese are of Burmese origin, but separated from the parent stock
+by the Arakan Yoma mountains, and they have a dialect and customs of
+their own. Though conquered by the Burmese, they have remained distinct
+from their conquerors.
+
+The Northern Arakan Hill Tracts district is under a superintendent, who
+is usually a police officer, with headquarters at Paletwa. The area of
+the Hill Tracts is 5233 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 20,682.     (J. G. Sc.)
+
+
+
+
+ARAKCHEEV, ALEKSYEI ANDREEVICH, COUNT (1769-1834), Russian soldier and
+statesman, was descended from an ancient family of Great Novgorod. From
+his mother, Elizabeth Vitlitsaya, he inherited most of his
+characteristics, an insatiable love of work, an almost pedantic love of
+order and the most rigorous sense of duty. In 1788 he entered the corps
+of noble cadets in the artillery and engineering department, where his
+ability, especially in mathematics, soon attracted attention. In July
+1791 he was made an adjutant on the staff of Count N.I. Saltuikov, who
+(September 1792) recommended him to the cesarevich Paul Petrovich as the
+artillery officer most capable of reorganizing the army corps maintained
+by the prince at Gatchina. Arakcheev speedily won the entire confidence
+of Paul by his scrupulous zeal and undeniable technical ability. His
+inexorable discipline (magnified into cruelty by later legends) soon
+made the Gatchina corps a model for the rest of the Russian army. On the
+accession of Paul to the throne Arakcheev was promptly summoned to St
+Petersburg, appointed military commandant in the capital, and
+major-general in the grenadier battalion of the Preobrazhenskoe Guard.
+On the 12th of December 1796, he received the ribbon of St Anne and a
+rich estate at Gruzina in the government of Novgorod, the only
+substantial gift ever accepted by him during the whole of his career. At
+the coronation (5th of April 1797) Paul created him a baron, and he was
+subsequently made quartermaster-general and colonel of the whole
+Preobrazhenskoe Guard. It was to Arakcheev that Paul entrusted the
+reorganization of the army, which during the latter days of Catherine
+had fallen into a state of disorder and demoralization. Arakcheev
+remorselessly applied the iron Gatchina discipline to the whole of the
+imperial forces, beginning with the Guards. He soon became generally
+detested by the army, but pursued his course unflinchingly and
+introduced many indispensable hygienic reforms. "Clean barracks are
+healthy barracks," was his motto. Nevertheless, the opposition of the
+officers proved too strong for him, and on the 18th of March 1798 he was
+dismissed from all his appointments. Arakcheev's first disgrace only
+lasted six months. On the 11th of August he was received back into
+favour, speedily reinstated in all his former offices, and on the 5th of
+May 1799 was created a count, the emperor himself selecting the motto:
+"Devoted, not servile." Five months later he was again in disgrace, the
+emperor dismissing him on the strength of a denunciation subsequently
+proved to be false. It was a fatal step on Paul's part, for everything
+goes to prove that he would never have been assassinated had Arakcheev
+continued by his side. During the earlier years of Alexander, Arakcheev
+was completely overlooked. Only on the 27th of April 1803, was the count
+recalled to St Petersburg, and employed as inspector-general of the
+artillery. His wise and thorough reorganization of the whole department
+contributed essentially to the victories of the Russians during the
+Napoleonic wars. All critics agree, indeed, that the Arakcheev
+administration was the golden era of the Russian artillery. The activity
+of the inexhaustible inspector knew no bounds, and he neglected nothing
+which could possibly improve this arm. His principal reforms were the
+subdivision of the artillery divisions into separate independent units,
+the formation of artillery brigades, the establishment of a committee of
+instruction (1808), and the publishing of an _Artillery Journal_. At
+Austerlitz he had the satisfaction of witnessing the actual results of
+his artillery reforms. The commissariat scandals which came to light
+after the peace of Tilsit convinced the emperor that nothing short of
+the stern and incorruptible energy of Arakcheev could reach the sources
+of the evil, and in January 1808 he was appointed inspector-general and
+war minister. When, on the outbreak of the Swedish war of 1809, the
+emperor ordered the army to take advantage of an unusually severe frost
+and cross the ice of the Gulf of Finland, it was only the presence of
+Arakcheev that compelled an unwilling general and a semi-mutinous army
+to begin a campaign which ended in the conquest of Finland. On the
+institution of the "Imperial Council" (1st of January 1810), Arakcheev
+was made a member of the council of ministers and a senator, while still
+retaining the war office. Subsequently Alexander was alienated from him
+owing to the intrigues of the count's enemies, who hated him for his
+severity and regarded him as a dangerous reactionary. The alienation was
+not, however, for long. It is true, Arakcheev took no active part in the
+war of 1812, but all the correspondence and despatches relating to it
+passed through his hands, and he was the emperor's inseparable companion
+during the whole course of it. At Paris (31st of March 1814) Alexander,
+with his own hand, wrote the _ukaz_ appointing him a field-marshal, but
+he refused the dignity, accepting, instead, a miniature portrait of his
+master. From this time Alexander's confidence in Arakcheev steadily
+increased, and the emperor imparted to him, first of all, his many
+projects of reform, especially his project of military colonies, the
+carrying out of the details of which was committed to Arakcheev (1824).
+The failure of the scheme was due not to any fault of the count, but to
+the inefficiency and insubordination of the district officers. In
+Alexander's last years Arakcheev was not merely his chief counsellor,
+but his dearest friend, to whom he submitted all his projects for
+consideration and revision. The most interesting of these projects was
+the plan for the emancipation of the peasantry (1818). On the accession
+of Nicholas I., Arakcheev, thoroughly broken in health, gradually
+restricted his immense sphere of activity, and on the 26th of April
+1826, resigned all his offices and retired to Carlsbad. The 50,000
+roubles presented to him by the emperor as a parting gift he at once
+handed to the Pavlovsk Institute for the education of the daughters of
+poor gentlemen. His last days he spent on his estate at Gruzina,
+carefully collecting all his memorials of Alexander, whose memory he
+most piously cherished. He also set aside 25,000 roubles for the author
+of the best biography of his imperial friend. Arakcheev died on the 21st
+of April 1834, with his eyes fixed to the last on the late emperor's
+portrait. "I have now done everything," he said, "so I can go and make
+my report to the emperor Alexander." In 1806 he had married Natalia
+Khomutova, but they lived apart, and he had no children by her.
+
+  See Vasily Ratch, _Memorials of Count Arakcheev_ (Rus.) (St
+  Petersburg, 1864); Mikhail Ivanovich Semevsky, _Count Arakcheev and
+  the Military Colonies_ (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1871); Theodor
+  Schiemann, _Gesch. Russland's unter Kaiser Nikolaus I._, vol. i.,
+  _Alexander I._, &c. (Berlin, 1904).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+ARAL, a lake or inland sea in the west of Asia, situated between lat. 43
+deg. 30' and 46 deg. 51' N., and long. 58 deg. 13' and 61 deg. 56' E. It
+was known to the ancient Arab and Persian geographers as the Sea of
+Khwarizm or Kharezm, from the neighbouring district of the Chorasmians,
+and derives its present name from the Kirghiz designation of
+Aral-denghiz, or Sea of Islands. In virtue of its area (26,233 sq. m.)
+it is the fourth largest inland sea of the world. It has nearly the same
+length as width, namely about 170 m., if its northern gulf
+(Kichkineh-denghiz) is left out of account. Its depth is insignificant,
+the maximum being 220 ft. in a depression in the north-west, and the
+mean depth only 50 ft., so that notwithstanding its area it contains
+only eleven times as much water as the Lake of Geneva. Its altitude is
+242-1/2 ft. above the Caspian, i.e. about 155 ft. above the ocean. The
+lake is surrounded on the north by steppes; on the west by the rocky
+plateau of Ust-Urt, which separates it from the Caspian; on the south by
+the alluvial district of Khiva; and on the east by the Kyzyl-kum, or Red
+Sand Desert. On the north the shores are comparatively low, and the
+coast-line is broken by a number of irregular bays, of which the most
+important are those of Sary-chaganak and Paskevich. On the west an
+almost unbroken wall of rock extends from Chernychev Bay southwards,
+rising towards the middle to 500 ft. The southern coast is occupied by
+the delta of the Oxus (Jihun, Amu-darya), one of the arms of which, the
+Laudan, forms a swamp, 80 m. long and 20 broad, before it discharges
+into the sea. The only other tributary of any size that the sea receives
+is the Jaxartes (Sihun, Syr-darya) which enters towards the northern
+extremity of the east coast, and is suspected to be shifting its
+embouchure more and more to the north. This river, as well as the Amu,
+conveys vast quantities of sediment into the lake; the delta of the
+Syr-darya increased by 13-3/4 sq. m. between 1847 and 1900. The eastern
+coast is fringed with multitudes of small islands, and other islands,
+some of considerable size, are situated in the open towards the north
+and west. Kug-Aral, the largest, lies opposite the mouth of the
+Syr-darya, cutting off the Kichkineh-denghiz or Little Sea. The next
+largest island is the Nikolai, nearly in the middle. Navigation is
+dangerous owing to the frequency and violence of the storms, and the
+almost total absence of shelter. The north-east wind is the most
+prevalent, and sometimes blows for months together. The only other
+craft, except the steamships of the Russians, that venture on the
+waters, are the flat-bottomed boats of the Kirghiz.
+
+In regard to the period of the formation of the Aral there were formerly
+two theories. According to Sir H.C. Rawlinson (_Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc._,
+March 1867) the disturbances which produced the present lake took place
+in the course of the middle ages; while Sir Roderick Murchison contended
+(_Journ. of Roy. Geog. Soc._, 1867, p. cxliv. &c.) that the Caspian and
+Aral existed as separate seas before and during all the historic period,
+and that the main course of the rivers Jaxartes and Oxus was determined
+in a prehistoric era. The former based his opinion largely on historical
+evidence, and the latter trusted principally to geological data. There
+is no doubt that in recent historical times Lake Aral had a much greater
+extension than it has at the present time, and that its area is now
+diminishing. This is, of course, due to the excess of evaporation over
+the amount of water supplied by its two feeders, the Amu-darya and the
+Syr-darya, both of which are seriously drawn upon for irrigation in all
+the oases they flow through. Old shore lines and other indications point
+to the level of the lake having once been 50 ft. above the existing
+level. Nevertheless the general desiccation is subject to temporary
+fluctuations, which appear to correspond to the periods recently
+suggested by Eduard Bruckner (b. 1862); for, whereas the lake diminished
+and shrank during 1850-1880, since the latter year it has been rising
+again. Islands which were formerly connected with the shore are now some
+distance away from it and entirely surrounded by water. Moreover, on a
+graduated level, put down in 1874, there was a permanent rise of nearly
+4 ft. by 1901. The temperature at the bottom was found (1900-1902) by
+Emil Berg to be 33.8 deg. Fahr., while that of the surface varied from
+44.5 deg. to 80.5 deg. between May and September; the mean surface
+temperature for July was 75 deg. The salinity of the water is much less
+than that of the ocean, containing only 1.05% of salt, and the lake
+freezes every year for a great distance from its shores. The opinion
+that Lake Aral periodically disappeared, which was for a long time
+countenanced by Western geographers, loses more and more probability now
+that it is evident that at a relatively recent period the Caspian Sea
+extended much farther eastward than it does now, and that Lake Aral
+communicated with it through the Sary-kamysh depression. The present
+writer is even inclined to think that, besides this southern
+communication with the Caspian, Lake Aral may have been, even in
+historical times, connected with the Mortvyi Kultuk (Tsarevich) Gulf of
+the Caspian, discharging part of its water into that sea through a
+depression of the Ust-Urt plateau, which is marked by a chain of lakes
+(Chumyshty, Asmantai). In this case it might have been easily confounded
+with a gulf of the Caspian (as by Jenkinson). That the level of Lake
+Aral was much higher in post-Pliocene times is proved by the discovery
+of shells of its characteristic species of _Pecten_ and _Mytilus_ in the
+Kara-kum Desert, 33 m. south of the lake and at an altitude of 70 ft.
+above its present level, and perhaps even up to 200 ft. (by Syevertsov).
+
+The fish of Lake Aral belong to fresh-water species, and in some of its
+rapid tributaries the interesting _Scaphirhynchus_, which represents a
+survival from the Tertiary epoch, is found. The fishing is very
+productive, the fish being exported to Turkestan, Merv and Russia. The
+shores of the lake are uninhabited; the nearest settlements are Kazala,
+55 m. east, on the Syr, and Chimbai and Kungrad in the delta of the Amu.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Maksheev's "Description of Lake Aral," and Kaulbars'
+  "Delta of the Amu," in _Zapiski of Russ. Geogr. Soc._, 1st series, v.,
+  and new series, ix.; _Grimm's Studies of the Aral-Caspian Expedition_;
+  Nikolsky's "Fishing in Lake Aral," in _Izvestia, Russ. Geogr. Soc._,
+  1887; Prof. Mushketov, _Turkestan_, vol. i. (1886), which contains
+  bibliographical references; Rosler, _Die Aralseefrage_ (1873); Wood,
+  _The Shores of the Aral Lake_ (1876); and Berg in _Izvestia, Turkestan
+  Branch of Russian Geog. Soc._ (vol. iii., Tashkent, 1902).
+       (P. A. K.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 2, Slice 3, by Various
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