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diff --git a/34047.txt b/34047.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4101464 --- /dev/null +++ b/34047.txt @@ -0,0 +1,19495 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 2, Slice 3, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 2, Slice 3 + "Apollodorus" to "Aral" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: October 8, 2010 [EBook #34047] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 2, SL 3 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) The following typographical error has been corrected: + + ARTICLE ARACHNIDA: "The coxal glands do not establish any special + connexion between Limulus and Scorpio, since they also occur in the + same somite in the lower Crustacea...." 'they' amended from 'thay'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME II, SLICE III + + Apollodorus to Aral + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + APOLLODORUS (Athenian painter) APPREHENSION + APOLLODORUS (Athenian grammarian) APPRENTICESHIP + APOLLODORUS (of Carystus) APPROPRIATION + APOLLODORUS (Greek architect) APPURTENANCES + APOLLONIA APRAKSIN, THEDOR MATVYEEVICH + APOLLONIUS (the Surly) APRICOT + APOLLONIUS (Greek rhetorician) APRIES + APOLLONIUS (the Sophist) APRIL + APOLLONIUS MOLON APRIL-FOOLS' DAY + APOLLONIUS OF PERGA A PRIORI + APOLLONIUS OF RHODES APRON + APOLLONIUS OF TRALLES APSARAS + APOLLONIUS OF TYANA APSE + APOLLONIUS OF TYRE APSE and APSIDES + APOLLOS APSINES + APOLLYON APT + APOLOGETICS APTERA + APOLOGUE APTERAL + APOLOGY APTIAN + APONEUROSIS APULEIUS, LUCIUS + APOPHTHEGM APULIA + APOPHYGE APURE + APOPHYLLITE APURIMAC (river of Peru) + APOPHYSIS APURIMAC (department of Peru) + APOPLEXY APYREXIA + APOROSE 'AQIBA BEN JOSEPH + APOSIOPESIS AQUAE + APOSTASY AQUAE CUTILIAE + APOSTIL AQUAMARINE + APOSTLE AQUARELLE + APOSTLE SPOONS AQUARII + APOSTOLICAL CONSTITUTIONS AQUARIUM + APOSTOLIC CANONS AQUARIUS + APOSTOLIC FATHERS AQUATINT + APOSTOLICI AQUAVIVA, CLAUDIO + APOSTOLIC MAJESTY AQUEDUCT + APOSTOLIUS, MICHAEL AQUILA + APOSTROPHE AQUILA, CASPAR + APOTACTITES AQUILA, SERAFINO DELL' + APOTHECARY AQUILA (city of Italy) + APOTHEOSIS AQUILA (constellation) + APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS AQUILA ROMANUS + APPANAGE AQUILEIA + APPAREL AQUILLIUS, MANIUS + APPARITIONS AQUINAS, THOMAS + APPARITOR AQUINO + APPEAL AQUITAINE + APPEARANCE ARABESQUE + APPENDICITIS ARABGIR + APPENDICULATA ARABIA + APPENDINI, FRANCESCO MARIA ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY + APPENZELL (canton of Switzerland) ARABIAN SEA + APPENZELL (city of Switzerland) ARABICI + APPERCEPTION ARABI PASHA + APPERLEY, CHARLES JAMES ARABISTAN + APPERT, BENJAMIN NICOLAS MARIE ARABS + APPIAN ARACAJU + APPIANI, ANDREA ARACATY + APPIA, VIA ARACHNE + APPIN ARACHNIDA + APPLAUSE ARAD + APPLE ARAEOSTYLE + APPLEBY ARAEOSYSTYLE + APPLETON, NATHAN ARAGO, DOMINIQUE FRANCOIS JEAN + APPLETON (city of U.S.A.) ARAGON + APPOGGIATURA ARAGONITE + APPOINTMENT, POWER OF ARAGUA + APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE ARAGUAYA + APPONYI, ALBERT ARAKAN + APPORTIONMENT ARAKCHEEV, ALEKSYEI ANDREEVICH + APPORTIONMENT BILL ARAL + APPRAISER + + + + +APOLLODORUS, an Athenian painter, who flourished at the end of the 5th +century B.C. He is said to have introduced great improvements in +perspective and chiaroscuro. What these were it is impossible to say: +perspective cannot have been in his day at an advanced stage. Among his +works were an Odysseus, a priest in prayer, and an Ajax struck by +lightning. + + + + +APOLLODORUS, an Athenian grammarian, pupil of Aristarchus and Panaetius +the Stoic, who lived about 140 B.C. He was a prolific and versatile +writer. There is extant under his name a treatise on the gods and the +heroic age, entitled [Greek: Bibliothaekae], a valuable authority on +ancient mythology. Modern critics are of opinion that, if genuine, it is +an abridgment of a larger work by him ([Greek: Peri theon]). + + Edition, with commentary, by Heyne (1803); text by Wagner (1894) + (_Mythographi Graeci_, vol. i. Teubner series). Amongst other works by + him of which only fragments remain, collected in Muller, _Fragmenta + Historicorum Graecorum_, may be mentioned: [Greek: Chronika], a + universal history from the fall of Troy to 144 B.C.; [Greek: + Periaegaesis], a gazetteer written in iambics; [Greek: Peri Neon], a + work on the Homeric catalogue of ships; and a work on etymology + ([Greek: Etymologiai]). + + + + +APOLLODORUS, of Carystus in Euboea, one of the most important writers of +the New Attic comedy, who flourished at Athens between 300 and 260 B.C. +He is to be distinguished from an older Apollodorus of Gela (342-290), +also a writer of comedy, a contemporary of Menander. He wrote 47 +comedies and obtained the prize five times. Terence borrowed his +_Hecyra_ and _Phormio_ from the [Greek: Hekyra] and [Greek: +Epidikazomenos] of Apollodorus. + + Fragments in Koch, _Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta_, ii. (1884); see + also Meineke, _Historia Critica Comicorum Graecorum_ (1839). + + + + +APOLLODORUS, of Damascus, a famous Greek architect, who flourished +during the 2nd century A.D. He was a favourite of Trajan, for whom he +constructed the stone bridge over the Danube (A.D. 104-105). He also +planned a gymnasium, a college, public baths, the Odeum and the Forum +Trajanum, within the city of Rome; and the triumphal arches at +Beneventum and Ancona. The Trajan column in the centre of the Forum is +celebrated as being the first triumphal monument of the kind. On the +accession of Hadrian, whom he had offended by ridiculing his +performances as architect and artist, Apollodorus was banished, and, +shortly afterwards, being charged with imaginary crimes, put to death +(Dio Cassius lxix. 4). He also wrote a treatise on _Siege Engines_ +([Greek: Poliorkaetika]), which was dedicated to Hadrian. + + + + +APOLLONIA, the name of more than thirty cities of antiquity. The most +important are the following: (1) An Illyrian city (known as Apollonia +[Greek: kat Epidamnon] or [Greek: pros Epidamno]) on the right bank of +the Aous, founded by the Corinthians and Corcyraeans. It soon became a +place of increasing commercial prosperity, as the most convenient link +between Brundusium and northern Greece, and as one of the +starting-points of the Via Egnatia. It was an important military post in +the wars against Philip and during the civil wars of Pompey and Caesar, +and towards the close of the Roman republic acquired fame as a seat of +literature and philosophy. Here Augustus was being educated when the +death of Caesar called him to Rome. It seems to have sunk with the rise +of Aulon, and few remains of its ruins are to be found. The monastery of +Pollina stands on a hill which probably is part of the site of the old +city. (2) A Thracian city on the Black Sea (afterwards Sozopolis, and +now Sizeboli), colonized by the Milesians, and famous for its colossal +statue of Apollo by Calamis, which Lucullus removed to Rome. + + + + +APOLLONIUS, surnamed [Greek: ho dyskolos] ("the Surly or Crabbed"), a +celebrated grammarian of Alexandria, who lived in the reigns of Hadrian +and Antoninus Pius. He spent the greater part of his life in his native +city, where he died; he is also said to have visited Rome and attracted +the attention of Antoninus. He was the founder of scientific grammar and +is styled by Priscian _grammaticorum princeps_. Four of his works are +extant: _On Syntax_, ed. Bekker, 1817; and three smaller treatises, on +_Pronouns_, _Conjunctions_ and _Adverbs_, ed. Schneider, 1878. + + _Grammatici Graeci_, i. in Teubner series; Egger, _Apollonius Dyscole_ + (1854). + + + + +APOLLONIUS, surnamed [Greek: ho malakos] ("the Effeminate"), a Greek +rhetorician of Alabanda in Caria, who flourished about 120 B.C. After +studying under Menecles, chief of the Asiatic school of oratory, he +settled in Rhodes, where he taught rhetoric, among his pupils being Mark +Antony. + + + + +APOLLONIUS, surnamed "the Sophist," of Alexandria, a famous grammarian, +who probably lived towards the end of the 1st century A.D. He was the +author of a Homeric lexicon ([Greek: Lexeis Homaerikai]), the only work +of the kind we possess. His chief authorities were Aristarchus and +Apion's Homeric glossary. + + Edition by Villoison (1773), I. Bekker (1833); Leyde, _De Apollonii + Sophistae Lexico Homerico_ (1885); E.W.B. Nicholson on a newly + discovered fragment in _Classical Review_ (Nov. 1897). + + + + +APOLLONIUS MOLON (sometimes called simply MOLON), a Greek rhetorician, +who flourished about 70 B.C. He was a native of Alabanda, a pupil of +Menecles, and settled at Rhodes. He twice visited Rome as an ambassador +from Rhodes, and Cicero and Caesar took lessons from him. He endeavoured +to moderate the florid Asiatic style and cultivated an "Atticizing" +tendency. He wrote on Homer, and, according to Josephus, violently +attacked the Jews. + + See C. Muller, _Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum_, iii.; E. Schurer, + _History of the Jewish People_, iii. (Eng. tr. 1886). + + + + +APOLLONIUS OF PERGA [PERGAEUS], Greek geometer of the Alexandrian +school, was probably born some twenty-five years later than Archimedes, +i.e. about 262 B.C. He flourished in the reigns of Ptolemy Euergetes and +Ptolemy Philopator (247-205 B.C.). His treatise on _Conics_ gained him +the title of The Great Geometer, and is that by which his fame has been +transmitted to modern times. All his numerous other treatises have +perished, save one, and we have only their titles handed down, with +general indications of their contents, by later writers, especially +Pappus. After the _Conics_ in eight Books had been written in a first +edition, Apollonius brought out a second edition, considerably revised +as regards Books i.-ii., at the instance of one Eudemus of Pergamum; +the first three books were sent to Eudemus at intervals, as revised, +and the later books were dedicated (after Eudemus' death) to King +Attalus I. (241-197 B.C.). Only four Books have survived in Greek; three +more are extant in Arabic; the eighth has never been found. Although a +fragment has been found of a Latin translation from the Arabic made in +the 13th century, it was not until 1661 that a Latin translation of +Books v.-vii. was available. This was made by Giovanni Alfonso Borelli +and Abraham Ecchellensis from the free version in Arabic made in 983 by +Abu 'l-Fath of Ispahan and preserved in a Florence MS. But the best +Arabic translation is that made as regards Books i.-iv. by Hilal ibn Abi +Hilal (d. about 883), and as regards Books v.-vii. by Tobit ben Korra +(836-901). Halley used for his translation an Oxford MS. of this +translation of Books v.-vii., but the best MS. (Bodl. 943) he only +referred to in order to correct his translation, and it is still +unpublished except for a fragment of Book v. published by L. Nix with +German translation (Drugulin, Leipzig, 1889). Halley added in his +edition (1710) a restoration of Book viii., in which he was guided by +the fact that Pappus gives lemmas "to the seventh and eighth books" +under that one heading, as well as by the statement of Apollonius +himself that the use of the seventh book was illustrated by the problems +solved in the eighth. + +The degree of originality of the _Conics_ can best be judged from +Apollonius' own prefaces. Books i.-iv. form an "elementary +introduction," i.e. contain the essential principles; the rest are +specialized investigations in particular directions. For Books i.-iv. he +claims only that the generation of the curves and their fundamental +properties in Book i. are worked out more fully and generally than they +were in earlier treatises, and that a number of theorems in Book iii. +and the greater part of Book iv. are new. That he made the fullest use +of his predecessors' works, such as Euclid's four Books on Conics, is +clear from his allusions to Euclid, Conon and Nicoteles. The generality +of treatment is indeed remarkable; he gives as the fundamental property +of all the conics the equivalent of the Cartesian equation referred to +_oblique_ axes (consisting of a diameter and the tangent at its +extremity) obtained by cutting an oblique circular cone in any manner, +and the axes appear only as a particular case after he has shown that +the property of the conic can be expressed in the same form with +reference to any new diameter and the tangent at its extremity. It is +clearly the form of the fundamental property (expressed in the +terminology of the "application of areas") which led him to call the +curves for the first time by the names _parabola_, _ellipse_, +_hyperbola_. Books v.-vii. are clearly original. Apollonius' genius +takes its highest flight in Book v., where he treats of normals as +minimum and maximum straight lines drawn from given points to the curve +(independently of tangent properties), discusses how many normals can be +drawn from particular points, finds their feet by construction, and +gives propositions determining the centre of curvature at any point and +leading at once to the Cartesian equation of the evolute of any conic. + +The other treatises of Apollonius mentioned by Pappus are --1st, [Greek: +Logou apotomae], _Cutting off a Ratio_; 2nd, [Greek: Choriou apotomae], +_Cutting of an Area_; 3rd, [Greek: Dioris menae tomae], _Determinate +Section_; 4th, [Greek: Epaphai], _Tangencies_; 5th, [Greek: Neuseis], +_Inclinations_; 6th, [Greek: Topoi epipedoi], _Plane Loci_. Each of +these was divided into two books, and, with the _Data_, the _Porisms_ +and _Surface-Loci_ of Euclid and the _Conics_ of Apollonius were, +according to Pappus, included in the body of the ancient analysis. + +1st. _De Rationis Sectione_ had for its subject the resolution of the +following problem: Given two straight lines and a point in each, to draw +through a third given point a straight line cutting the two fixed lines, +so that the parts intercepted between the given points in them and the +points of intersection with this third line may have a given ratio. + +2nd. _De Spatii Sectione_ discussed the similar problem which requires +the rectangle contained by the two intercepts to be equal to a given +rectangle. + +An Arabic version of the first was found towards the end of the 17th +century in the Bodleian library by Dr Edward Bernard, who began a +translation of it; Halley finished it and published it along with a +restoration of the second treatise in 1706. + +3rd. _De Sectione Determinata_ resolved the problem: Given two, three or +four points on a straight line, to find another point on it such that +its distances from the given points satisfy the condition that the +square on one or the rectangle contained by two has to the square on the +remaining one or the rectangle contained by the remaining two, or to the +rectangle contained by the remaining one and another given straight +line, a given ratio. Several restorations of the solution have been +attempted, one by W. Snellius (Leiden, 1698), another by Alex. Anderson +of Aberdeen, in the supplement to his _Apollonius Redivivus_ (Paris, +1612), but by far the best is by Robert Simson, _Opera quaedam reliqua_ +(Glasgow, 1776). + +4th. _De Tactionibus_ embraced the following general problem: Given +three things (points, straight lines or circles) in position, to +describe a circle passing through the given points, and touching the +given straight lines or circles. The most difficult case, and the most +interesting from its historical associations, is when the three given +things are circles. This problem, which is sometimes known as the +Apollonian Problem, was proposed by Vieta in the 16th century to +Adrianus Romanus, who gave a solution by means of a hyperbola. Vieta +thereupon proposed a simpler construction, and restored the whole +treatise of Apollonius in a small work, which he entitled _Apollonius +Gallus_ (Paris, 1600). A very full and interesting historical account of +the problem is given in the preface to a small work of J.W. Camerer, +entitled _Apollonii Pergaei quae supersunt, ac maxime Lemmata Pappi in +hos Libras, cum Observationibus, &c_. (Gothae, 1795, 8vo). + +5th. _De Inclinationibus_ had for its object to insert a straight line +of a given length, tending towards a given point, between two given +(straight or circular) lines. Restorations have been given by Marino +Ghetaldi, by Hugo d'Omerique (_Geometrical Analysis_, Cadiz, 1698), and +(the best) by Samuel Horsley (1770). + +6th. _De Locis Planis_ is a collection of propositions relating to loci +which are either straight lines or circles. Pappus gives somewhat full +particulars of the propositions, and restorations were attempted by P. +Fermat (_Oeuvres_, i., 1891, pp. 3-51), F. Schooten (Leiden, 1656) and, +most successfully of all, by R. Simson (Glasgow, 1749). + +Other works of Apollonius are referred to by ancient writers, viz. (1) +[Greek: Peri tou pyriou], _On the Burning-Glass_, where the focal +properties of the parabola probably found a place; (2) [Greek: Peri tou +kochliou], _On the Cylindrical Helix_ (mentioned by Proclus); (3) a +comparison of the dodecahedron and the icosahedron inscribed in the same +sphere; (4) [Greek: Hae katholou pragmateia], perhaps a work on the +general principles of mathematics in which were included Apollonius' +criticisms and suggestions for the improvement of Euclid's _Elements_; +(5) [Greek: Okutokion] (quick bringing-to-birth), in which, according to +Eutocius, he showed how to find closer limits for the value of [pi] than +the 3-1/7 and 3-10/71 of Archimedes; (6) an arithmetical work (as to +which see PAPPUS) on a system of expressing large numbers in language +closer to that of common life than that of Archimedes' _Sand-reckoner_, +and showing how to multiply such large numbers; (7) a great extension of +the theory of irrationals expounded in Euclid, Book x., from binomial to +multinomial and from _ordered_ to _unordered_ irrationals (see extracts +from Pappus' comm. on Eucl. x., preserved in Arabic and published by +Woepcke, 1856). Lastly, in astronomy he is credited by Ptolemy with an +explanation of the motion of the planets by a system of epicycles; he +also made researches in the lunar theory, for which he is said to have +been called Epsilon ([epsilon]). + + The best editions of the works of Apollonius are the following: (1) + _Apollonii Pergaei Conicorum libri quatuor, ex versione Frederici + Commandini_ (Bononiae, 1566), fol.; (2) _Apollonii Pergaei Conicorum + libri octo, et Sereni Antissensis de Sectione Cylindri et Coni libri + duo_ (Oxoniae, 1710), fol. (this is the monumental edition of Edmund + Halley); (3) the edition of the first four books of the Conics given + in 1675 by Barrow; (4) _Apollonii Pergaei de Sectione, Rationis libri + duo: Accedunt ejusdem de Sectione Spatii libri duo Restituti: + Praemittitur, &c., Opera et Studio Edmundi Halley_ (Oxoniae, 1706), + 4to; (5) a German translation of the _Conics_ by H. Balsam (Berlin, + 1861); (6) the definitive Greek text of Heiberg (_Apollonii Pergaei + quae Graece exstant Opera_, Leipzig, 1891-1893); (7) T.L. Heath, + _Apollonius, Treatise on Conic Sections_ (Cambridge, 1896); see also + H.G. Zeuthen, _Die Lehre van den Kegelschnitten im Altertum_ + (Copenhagen, 1886 and 1902). (T. L. H.) + + + + +APOLLONIUS OF RHODES (RHODIUS), a Greek epic poet and grammarian, of +Alexandria, who flourished under the Ptolemies Philopator and Epiphanes +(222-181 B.C.). He was the pupil of Callimachus, with whom he +subsequently quarrelled. In his youth he composed the work for which he +is known--_Argonautica_, an epic in four books on the legend of the +Argonauts. When he read it at Alexandria, it was rejected through the +influence of Callimachus and his party. Disgusted with his failure, +Apollonius withdrew to Rhodes, where he was very successful as a +rhetorician, and a revised edition of his epic was well received. In +recognition of his talents the Rhodians bestowed the freedom of their +city upon him--the origin of his surname. Returning to Alexandria, he +again recited his poem, this time with general applause. In 196, Ptolemy +Epiphanes appointed him librarian of the Museum, which office he +probably held until his death. As to the _Argonautica_, Longinus' (_De +Sublim_. p. 54, 19) and Quintilian's (_Instit_, x. 1, 54) verdict of +mediocrity seems hardly deserved; although it lacks the naturalness of +Homer, it possesses a certain simplicity and contains some beautiful +passages. There is a valuable collection of scholia. The work, highly +esteemed by the Romans, was imitated by Virgil (_Aeneid_, iv.), Varro +Atacinus, and Valerius Flaccus. Marianus (about A.D. 500) paraphrased it +in iambic trimeters. Apollonius also wrote epigrams; grammatical and +critical works; and [Greek: Ktiseis] (the foundations of cities). + + _Editio Princeps_ (Florence, 1496); Merkel-Keil (with scholia, 1854); + Seaton (1900). English translations: Verse, by Greene (1780); Fawkes + (1780); Preston (1811); Way (1901); Prose by Coleridge (1889); see + also Couat, _La Poesie alexandrine_; Susemihl, _Geschichte der griech. + Lit. in der alexandnnischen Zeit._ + + + + +APOLLONIUS OF TRALLES (in Caria), a Greek sculptor, who flourished in +the 2nd century B.C. With his brother Tauriscus, he executed the marble +group known as the Farnese Bull, representing Zethus and Amphion tying +the revengeful Dirce to the tail of a wild bull. + + See GREEK ART, pl. i. fig. 51. + + + + +APOLLONIUS OF TYANA, a Greek philosopher of the Neo-Pythagorean school, +born a few years before the Christian era. He studied at Tarsus and in +the temple of Asclepius at Aegae, where he devoted himself to the +doctrines of Pythagoras and adopted the ascetic habit of life in its +fullest sense. He travelled through Asia and visited Nineveh, Babylon +and India, imbibing the oriental mysticism of magi, Brahmans and +gymnosophists. The narrative of his travels given by his disciple Damis +and reproduced by Philostratus is so full of the miraculous that many +have regarded him as an imaginary character. On his return to Europe he +was saluted as a magician, and received the greatest reverence from +priests and people generally. He himself claimed only the power of +foreseeing the future; yet in Rome it was said that he raised from death +the body of a noble lady. In the halo of his mysterious power he passed +through Greece, Italy and Spain. It was said that he was accused of +treason both by Nero and by Domitian, but escaped by miraculous means. +Finally he set up a school at Ephesus, where he died, apparently at the +age of a hundred years. Philostratus keeps up the mystery of his hero's +life by saying, "Concerning the manner of his death, _if he did die_, +the accounts are various." The work of Philostratus composed at the +instance of Julia, wife of Severus, is generally regarded as a religious +work of fiction. It contains a number of obviously fictitious stories, +through which, however, it is not impossible to discern the general +character of the man. In the 3rd century, Hierocles (q.v.) endeavoured +to prove that the doctrines and the life of Apollonius were more +valuable than those of Christ, and, in modern times, Voltaire and +Charles Blount (1654-1693), the English freethinker, have adopted a +similar standpoint. Apart from this extravagant eulogy, it is absurd to +regard Apollonius merely as a vulgar charlatan and miracle-monger. If we +cut away the mass of mere fiction which Philostratus accumulated, we +have left a highly imaginative, earnest reformer who laboured to infuse +into the flaccid dialectic of paganism a saner spirit of practical +morality. + + See L. Dyer, _Studies of the Gods in Greece_ (New York, 1891); A. + Chassang, _Le Merveilleux dans l'antiquite_ (1882); D.M. Tredwell, + _Sketch of the Life of Apollonius of Tyana_ (New York, 1886); F.C. + Baur, _Apollonius von Tyana und Christus_, ed. Ed. Zeller (Leipzig, + 1876,--an attempt to show that Philostratus's story is merely a pagan + counterblast to the New Testament history); J. Jessen, _Apollonius v. + Tyana und sein Biograph Philostratos_ (Hamburg, 1885); J. Gottsching, + _Apollonius von Tyana_ (Berlin, 1889); J.A. Froude, _Short Studies_, + vol. iv.; G.R.S. Mead, _Apollonius of Tyana_ (London, 1901); B.L. + Gildersleeve, _Essays and Studies_ (New York, 1890); Philostratus's + _Life of Apollonius_ (Eng. trans. New York, 1905); O. de B. Priaulx, + _The Indian Travels of Apollonius_ (1873); F.W.G. Campbell, _Apoll. of + Tyana_ (1908); see also NEO-PYTHAGOREANISM. + + + + +APOLLONIUS OF TYRE, a medieval tale supposed to be derived from a lost +Greek original. The earliest mention of the story is in the _Carmina_ +(Bk. vi. 8, II. 5-6) of Venantius Fortunatus, in the second half of the +6th century, and the romance may well date from three centuries earlier. +It bears a marked resemblance to the _Antheia and Habrokomes_ of +Xenophon of Ephesus. The story relates that King Antiochus, maintaining +incestuous relations with his daughter, kept off her suitors by asking +them a riddle, which they must solve on pain of losing their heads. +Apollonius of Tyre solved the riddle, which had to do with Antiochus's +secret. He returned to Tyre, and, to escape the king's vengeance, set +sail in search of a place of refuge. In Cyrene he married the daughter +of King Archistrates, and presently, on receiving news of the death of +Antiochus, departed to take possession of the kingdom of Antioch, of +which he was, for no clear reason, the heir. On the voyage his wife +died, or rather seemed to die, in giving birth to a daughter, and the +sailors demanded that she should be thrown overboard. Apollonius left +his daughter, named Tarsia, at Tarsus in the care of guardians who +proved false to their trust. Father, mother, and daughter were only +reunited after fourteen years' separation and many vicissitudes. The +earliest Latin MS. of this tale, preserved at Florence, dates from the +9th or 10th century. The pagan features of the supposed original are by +no means all destroyed. The ceremonies observed by Tarsia at her nurse's +grave, and the preparations for the burning of the body of Apollonius's +wife, are purely pagan. The riddles which Tarsia propounds to her father +are obviously interpolated. They are taken from the _Enigmata_ of +Caelius Firmianus Symposius. The many inconsistencies of the story seem +to be best explained by the supposition (E. Rohde, _Der griechische +Roman_, 2nd ed., 1900, pp. 435 _et seq_.) that the Antiochus story was +originally entirely separate from the story of Apollonius's wanderings, +and was clumsily tacked on by the Latin author. The romance kept its +form through a vast number of medieval rearrangements, and there is +little change in its outlines as set forth in the Shakespearian play of +_Pericles_. + + The Latin tale is preserved in about 100 MSS., and was printed by M. + Velser (Augsburg, 1595), by J. Lapaume in _Script. Erot_. (Didot, + Paris, 1856), and by A. Riese in the _Bibl. Teubneriana_ (1871, new + ed. 1893). The most widespread versions in the middle ages were those + of Godfrey of Viterbo in his _Pantheon_ (1185), where it is related as + authentic history, and in the _Gesta Romanorum_ (cap. 153), which + formed the basis of the German folk-tale by H. Steinhowel (Augsburg, + 1471), the Dutch version (Delft, 1493), the French in _Le Violier des + histoires romaines_ (Paris, 1521), the English, by Laurence Twine + (London, 1576, new ed. 1607), also of the Scandinavian, Czech, and + Hungarian tales. + + In England a translation was made as early as the 11th century (ed. B. + Thorpe, 1834, and J. Zupitza in _Archiv fur neuere Sprachen_, 1896); + there is a Middle English metrical version (J.O. Halliwell, _A New + Boke about Shakespeare_, 1850), by a poet who says he was vicar of + Wimborne; John Gower uses the tale as an example of the seventh deadly + sin in the eighth book of his _Confessio Amantis_; Robert Copland + translated a prose romance of _Kynge Apollyne of Thyre_ (Wynkyn de + Worde, 1510) from the French; _Pericles_ was entered at Stationers' + Hall in 1607, and was followed in the next year by George Wilkins's + novel, _The Painfull Adventures of Pericles, Prynce of Tyre_ (ed. + Tycho Mommsen, Oldenburg, 1857), and George Lillo drew his play + _Marina_ (1738) from the piece associated with Shakespeare; _Orendel_, + by a Middle High German minnesinger, contains some of the episodes of + _Apollonius_; Heinrich von Neustadt wrote a poem of 20,000 lines on + _Apollonius von Tyrland_ (c. 1400); the story was well known in + Spanish, _Libre de Apolonio_ (verse, c. 1200), and in J. de Timoneda's + _Patranuelo_ (1576); in French much of it was embodied in _Jourdain de + Blaives_ (13th cent.), and it also appears in Italian and medieval + Greek. See A.H. Smyth, _Shakespeare's Pericles and Apollonius of Tyre_ + (Philadelphia, 1898); Elimar Klebs, _Die Erzahlung van A. aus Tyrus_ + (Berlin, 1899); S. Singer, _Apollonius van Tyrus_ (Halle, 1895). + + + + +APOLLOS ([Greek: Apollos]; contracted from Apollonius), an Alexandrine +Jew who after Paul's first visit to Corinth worked there in a similar +way (1 Cor. iii. 6). He was with Paul at a later date in Ephesus (1 Cor. +xvi. 12). In 1 Cor. i. 10-12 we read of four parties in the Corinthian +church, of which two attached themselves to Paul and Apollos +respectively, using their names, though the "division" can hardly have +been due to conflicting doctrines. (See PAUL.) From Acts xviii. 24-28 we +learn that he spoke and taught with power and success. He may have +captivated his hearers by teaching "wisdom," as P.W. Schmiedel suggests, +in the allegorical style of Philo, and he was evidently a man of unusual +magnetic force. There seems to be some contradiction between Acts xviii. +25 a b and Acts xviii. 25 c, 26 b c; and it has been suggested that +these latter passages are subsequent accretions. Since Apollos was a +Christian and "taught exactly," he could hardly have been acquainted +only with John's baptism or have required to be taught Christianity more +thoroughly by Aquila and Priscilla. Martin Luther regarded Apollos as +the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, and many scholars since have +shared his view. + + Jerome says that Apollos was so dissatisfied with the division at + Corinth, that he retired into Crete with Zenas, a doctor of the law; + and that the schism having been healed by Paul's letter to the + Corinthians, Apollos returned to the city, and became its bishop. Less + probable traditions assign to him the bishopric of Duras, or of + Iconium in Phrygia, or of Caesarea. + + See the articles in the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_; Herzog-Hauck, + _Realencyklopadie_; _The Jewish Encyclopaedia_; Hastings' _Dictionary + of the Bible_; and cf. Weizsacker, _Das apostolische Zeitalter_; A.C. + McGiffert, _History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age_. + + + + +APOLLYON, the "foul fiend" who assaulted Christian on his pilgrimage +through the Valley of Humiliation in John Bunyan's great allegory. The +name (Gr. [Greek: Apollyon]), which means "destroyer" ([Greek: +apollyein], to destroy), is taken from Rev. ix. 11, where it represents +the Hebrew word _Abaddon_ (lit. "place of destruction," but here +personified). The identification with the Asmodeus (q.v.) of Tobit iii. +8 is erroneous. + + + + +APOLOGETICS, in theology, the systematic statement of the grounds which +Christians allege for belief in (at least) a _supernatural revelation_ +and a _divine redemption_ (cf. e.g. Heb. i. 1-3). The majority of +apologists in the past have further believed in an _infallible Bible_; +but they admit this position can only be reached at a late stage in the +argument. We should note, however, that even a liberal orthodoxy, while +saying nothing about infallibility, is pledged to the _essential_ +authority of the Bible; it cannot e.g. simply ignore the Old Testament +with F.E.D. Schleiermacher. Catholic apologetics must further give a +central position to _Church_ authority, which Roman Catholics explicitly +define as infallible; but this position too is debated in a late section +of their system. On the other hand, there may be a Christianity which +seeks to extricate the "spiritual" from the "supernatural" (Arnold +Toynbee, characterizing T.H. Green). It would only lead to confusion, +however, if we called this method "apologetic." Any _single_ effort in +apologetics may be termed "an apology." More elaborate contrasts have +been proposed between the two words, but are of little practical +importance. + +I. _The Word itself._--In Greek, [Greek: apologia] is the defendant's +reply (personally, not through a lawyer) to the speech for the +prosecution--[Greek: kataegoria]. Sometimes defendants' speeches passed +into literature, e.g. Plato's splendid version of the _Apology_ of +Socrates. Thus, in view of persecution or slander, the Christian church +naturally produced literary "Apologies," The word has never quite lost +this connotation of standing on the defensive and rebutting criticism; +e.g. Anselm's _Apologia contra insipientem Gaunilonem_ (c. 1100); or the +Lutheran _Apology for the Augsburg Confession_ (1531); or J.H. Newman's +_Apologia pro vita sua_ (1864); or A.B. Bruce's _Apologetics; or +Christianity Defensively Stated_ (1892). Of course, defence easily +passes into counterattack, as when early apologists denounce Greek and +Roman religion. Yet the purpose may be defence even then. And there is +perhaps a reason of a deeper kind for holding Apologetics to the +defensive. Christianity is a prophetic religion. Now a prophet does not +argue; he declares what he feels to be God's will. For himself, he +rests, like the mystic, upon an immediate vision of truth; but he +differs from most mystics in having a message for others; and--again +unlike most mystics--he addresses the hearer's _conscience_, which we +might call (in one sense) the mystic element in every man--or better, +perhaps, the prophetic. Can the positive grounds for a prophet's message +be analysed and stated in terms of argument? If so, apologetics is +literally a science, and it is pedantry to claim the defensive and +pretend to throw the _onus probandi_ upon objectors. But, if not, then +apologetics is a mere auxiliary, and is only "a science" in so far as it +presents a _conscious_ and _systematic_ plea. Bruce's title, and his +programme of "succouring distressed faith," imply the latter +alternative; the moral appeal of Christianity, primary and essential; +its confirmation by argument, secondary. The view has its difficulties; +but it is hignly suggestive. + +The word [Greek: apologia] is used by Origen (_Contra Cel._ ii. 65, v. +19) of the general Christian defence. But the introduction of the +adjective "apologetic" and of the substantive "apologetics" is recent. +They are serviceable as bracketing together (1) Natural Theology or +Theism, (2) Christian Evidences--chiefly "miracles" and "prophecy"; or, +on a more modern view, chiefly the character and personality of Christ. +The lower usage of Apology (as expression of regret for a fault) has +tipped many a sarcasm besides George III.'s on the occasion of Bishop +Watson's book, "I did not know that the Bible needed an apology!" + +II. _Apologetics in the Bible._--The Old Testament does not argue in +support of its beliefs, unless when (chiefly in parts of the Wisdom +literature) it seeks to rebut moral difficulties (cf. T.K. Cheyne, _Job +and Solomon_; A.S. Peake, _Problem of Suffering in the Old Testament_, +1904). The New Testament reflects chiefly controversy with Jews. Great +emphasis is laid upon alleged fulfilments--striking or fanciful, but +very generally striking to that age--of Old Testament prophecy (Matt. +especially; rather differently Ep. to Heb.). The miracles of Jesus are +also canvassed. Jews do not deny their wonderful character, but +attribute them to black art (Mark iii. 22 &c., &c.). On the other hand, +Christians and Jews are pretty well agreed on natural theology; so the +New Testament tends to take its theism for granted. However, Rom. i. 20 +has had great influence on Christian theology (e.g. Thomas Aquinas) in +leading it to base theism upon reason or argument. One apologetic +contention, aimed at Gentile readers, is found among the motives of +Acts. Christianity is not a lawless but an excellent law-abiding faith. +So (it is alleged) rulers, both Jewish and Gentile, have often admitted +(xviii. 14; xix. 37; xxiii. 9; xxvi. 32). + +III. _Early Christian._--When we leave the New Testament, apologetics +becomes conspicuous until the political triumph of Christianity, and +even somewhat later. The atmosphere is no longer Jewish but fully Greek. +True there are, as always, Jewish controversialists. Justin Martyr +writes a _Dialogue with Trypho_; Origen deals with many anti-Christian +arguments borrowed by Celsus from a certain nameless Jew. Yet Greece was +the sovereign power in all the world of ancient culture. And so +Christianity was necessarily Hellenized, necessarily philosophized. One +result was to bring natural theology into the forefront. A pure +morality, belief in one God, hopes extending beyond death--these +appealed to the age; the Church taught them as philosophically true +_and_ divinely revealed. But, further still, philosophy offered a +vehicle which could be applied to the contents of Christianity. The +Platonic or eclectic theism, which adopted the conception of the Logos, +made a place for Christ in terms of philosophy within the Godhead. (John +i. 1 may or may not be affected by Philo; it is almost or quite solitary +in the N.T.) Similarly, the immortality of the soul may be maintained on +Platonic or quasi-Platonic lines, as by St Athanasius (_Contra Gentes_, +S 33)--a writer who repeatedly quotes the Alexandrian Book of Wisdom, in +which Platonism and the Old Testament had already joined partnership. +This phase of Platonism, however, was much more slowly adopted. The +earlier apologists dispute the natural immortality of the soul; +Athanasius himself, in _De Incarnatione Dei_, SS 4, 5, tones down the +teaching of _Wisdom_; and the somewhat eccentric writer Arnobius, a +layman--from Justin Martyr downwards apologetics has always been largely +in the hands of laymen--stands for what has recently been called +"conditional immortality"--eternal life for the righteous, the children +of God, alone. + +Allied with this more empiricist stand-point is the assertion that Greek +philosophy borrowed from Moses; but in studying the Fathers we +constantly find that groundless assertion uttered in the same breath +with the dominant Idealist view, according to which Greek philosophy was +due to incomplete revelation from the divine Logos. + +On purely defensive lines, early apologists rebut charges of cannibalism +and sexual promiscuity; the Christians had to meet in secret, and the +gossip of a rotten age drew malignant conclusions. They make counter +attacks on polytheism as a folly and on the shamefulness of obscene +myths. Here they are in line with non-Christian writers or +culture-mockers like Lucian of Samosata; or graver spirits like +Porphyry, who champions Neo-Platonism as a rival to Christianity, and +does pioneer work in criticism by attacks on some of the Old Testament +books. Turning to Christian evidence proper, we are struck with the +continued prominence of the argument from prophecy. The Old Testament +was an immense religious asset to the early church. Their enemies had +nothing like it; and--the N.T. canon being as yet but half formed--the +Old Testament was pushed into notice by dwelling on this imperfect +"argument," which grew more extravagant as the partial control exercised +by Jewish learning disappeared. An argument from miracles is also urged, +though with more reserve. Formally, every one in that age admitted the +supernatural. The question was, whose supernatural? And how far did it +carry you? Miracle could not be to a 3rd century writer what it was to +W. Paley--a conclusive and well-nigh solitary proof. Other apologies are +by Aristides (recently recovered in translation), Athenagoras +("elegant"), Eusebius of Caesarea, Cyril of Alexandria; in Latin by +Minucius Felix, Tertullian (a masculine spirit and phrase-coiner like T. +Carlyle, if bitterer still), Lactantius Firmianus, &c., &c.[1] + +As Christianity wins the day, a new objection is raised to it. The age +is full of troubles; Christianity is ruining the empire! Besides notices +elsewhere, we find the charge specially dealt with by St Augustine and +his friends. Paulus Orosius argues that the world has always been a vale +of tears. Salvian contends that not the acceptance of Christianity, but +the sins of the people are bringing trouble upon them; and he gives ugly +evidence of the continued prevalence of vice. Most impressive of all was +Augustine's own contribution in _The City of God_. Powers created by +worldliness and sin are crumbling, as they well may; "the city of God +remaineth!" Whether he meant it so or not, the saint's argument became a +programme and an apologia for the imperializing of the Western Church +under the leadership of Rome during the middle ages. + +IV. _Middle Ages._--From the point of view of apologetics, we may mass +together the long stretch of history which covers the period between the +disappearance and the re-appearance of free discussion. When emperors +became converts, the church, so lately a victim and a pleader for +liberty, readily learned to persecute. Under such conditions there is +little scope for apologetics. Force kills argument and drives doubt +below the smooth surface of a nominal conformity. But there were two +influences beyond the bounds or beyond the power of the christianized +empire. The Jew remained, as always, stubbornly unconvinced, and, as +often, fond of slanders. Many of the principal medieval attempts in +apologetics are directed chiefly against him, e.g. the _Pugio Fidei_ of +Raymond Martini (c. 1280), which became one of Pascal's sources (see V. +below), or Peter Abelard's _Dialogus inter Judaeum Philosophum et +Christianum_. And the Moslem came on the scenes bringing, as a gift for +Christendom, fuller knowledge of classical, especially Aristotelian, +texts. The Jews, less bitterly opposed to Mahommedanism than the +Christians were, caught fire more rapidly, and in some cases served as +an intermediate link or channel of communication. These two religions +anticipated the discussion of the problem of faith and reason in the +Christian church. According to the great Avicenna and Maimonides, faith +and the highest reason are sure to coincide (see ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY). +According to Ghazali, in his _Destruction of Philosophers_, the various +schools of philosophy cancel each other; reason is bankrupt; faith is +everything. (So nearly Jehuda Halevi.) According to Averroes, reason +suffices, and faith, with (what he considers) its dreams of immortality +and the like, is useful only for the ignorant masses. Christian +theology, however, strikes out a line of its own. Moslems and Jews were +applying Aristotelian philosophy to rigorously monotheistic faiths; +Christianity had been encouraged by Platonism in teaching a trinity of +divine persons, and Platonism of a certain order long dominated the +middle ages as part of the Augustinian tradition. In sympathy with this +Platonism, the medieval church began by assuming the entire mutual +harmony of faith and reason. Such is the teaching, along different +lines, alike of St Anselm and of Abelard. But, when increased knowledge +of Aristotle's texts (and of the commentaries) led to the victory of a +supposed Aristotelianism over a supposed Platonism, Albertus Magnus, and +his still more distinguished pupil Thomas Aquinas, mark certain +doctrines as belonging to faith but not to reason. They adhere to the +general position with exceptions (in the case of what had been +considered Platonic doctrines). From the point of view of philosophy, +this was a compromise. Faith and reason partly agree, partly diverge. +The tendency of the later middle ages is to add to the number of the +doctrines with which philosophy cannot deal. Thomas's great rival, Duns +Scotus, does this to a large extent, at times affirming "two truths." +The latter position, ascribed by the schoolmen to the Averroists, +becomes dominant among the later Nominalists, William of Occam and his +disciples, who withdraw _all_ doctrines of faith from the sphere of +reason. This was a second and a more audacious compromise. It is not +exactly an attempt to base Christian faith on rational scepticism. It is +a consistent policy of harbouring inconsistencies in the same mind. A +statement may be true in philosophy and false in theology, or vice +versa. To the standpoint of Aquinas, however, the Church of Rome (at +least in regard to the basis of doctrine) has more and more returned. +The councils of Trent and of the Vatican mark the Two Truths hypothesis +as heretical, when they affirm that there _is_ a natural knowledge of +God and natural certainty of immortality. Along with this affirmation, +the Church of Rome (if less decisively) has adopted the limitations of +the Thomist theory by the condemnation of "Ontologism"; certain +mysterious doctrines are beyond reason. This cautious compromise +sanctioned by the Church does not represent the _extremest_ reaction +against nominalism. Even in the nominalistic epoch we have Raymond of +Sabunde's _Natural Theology_ (according to the article in Herzog-Hauck, +not the title of the oldest Paris MS., but found in later MSS. and +almost all the printed editions) or _Liber Creaturarum_ (c. 1435). The +book is not what moderns (schooled unconsciously in post-Reformation +developments of Thomist ideas) expect under the name of natural +theology. It is an attempt once more to demonstrate _all_ scholastic +dogmas out of the book of creation or on principles of natural reason. +At many points it follows Anselm closely, and, of course, very often +"makes light work" of its task. + +The Thomist compromise--or even the more sceptical view of "two +truths"--has the merit of giving filling _of a kind_ to the formula +"supernatural revelation"--mysteries inaccessible to reason, beyond +discovery and beyond comprehension. According to earlier +views--repeatedly revived in Protestantism--revelation is just +philosophy over again. Can the choice be fairly stated? If revelation +is thought of as God's personal word, and redemption as his personal +deed, is it reasonable to view them either as open to a sort of +scientific prediction or as capricious and unintelligible? Even in the +middle ages there were not wanting those--the St Victors, +Bonaventura--who sought to vindicate mystical if not moral redemption as +the central thought of Christianity. + +V. _Earlier Modern Period._--It will be seen that apologetics by no +means reissued unchanged from the long period of authority. The +compromise of Aquinas, though not unchallenged, holds the field and that +even with Protestants. G.W. Leibnitz devotes an introductory chapter in +his _Theodicee_, 1710 (as against Pierre Bayle), to faith and reason. He +is a good enough Lutheran to quote as a "mystery" the Eucharist no less +than the Trinity, while he insists that truths _above_ are not _against_ +reason. Stated thus baldly, has the distinction any meaning? The more +celebrated and central thesis of the book--this finite universe, the +best of all such that are possible--also restates positions of Augustine +and Aquinas. + +Before modern philosophy began its career, there was a great revival of +ancient philosophy at the Renaissance; sometimes anti-Christian, +sometimes pro-Christian. The latter furnishes apologies by Marsilio +Ficino, Agostino Steuco, J.L. Vives. + +Early in the modern period occurs the great name of Blaise Pascal +(1623-1662). A staunch Roman Catholic, but belonging to a school of +Augustinian enthusiasts (the Jansenists), whom the Church put down as +heretics, he stands pretty much apart from the general currents. His +_Pensees_, published posthumously, seems to have been meant for a +systematic treatise, but it has come to us in fragments. Once again, a +lay apologist! A layman's work may have the advantage of originality or +the drawback of imperfect knowledge. Pascal's work exhibits both +characters. It has the originality of rare genius, but it borrows its +material (as industrious editors have shown) from very few sources--the +_Pugio Fidei_, M. de Montaigne, P. Charron. Ideas as well as learning +are largely Montaigne's. The latter's cheerful man-of-the-world +scepticism is transfigured in Pascal to a deep distrust of human reason, +in part, perhaps, from anti-Protestant motives. But this attitude, while +not without parallels both earlier (Ghazali, Jehuda Halevi) and later +(H.L. Mansel), has peculiarities in Pascal. It is _fallen_ man whom he +pursues with his fierce scorn; his view of man's nature--intellect as +well as character--is to be read in the light of his unflinching +Augustinianism. Again, Pascal, unlike most apologists, belongs to the +small company of saintly souls. This philosophical sceptic is full of +humble joy in salvation, of deep love for the Saviour. + +Another French Roman Catholic apologist, P.D. Huet (1630-1721)--within +the conditions of his age a prodigy of learning (in apologetics see his +_Demonstratio Evangelica_)--is not uninfluenced by Pascal (_Traite de la +faiblesse de l'esprit humaine_). + +As we might expect, Protestant lands are more busily occupied with +apologetics. Intolerant reliance upon _force_ presents greater +difficulties to them; soon it grows quite obsolete. Benedict Spinoza, +the eminent Jewish pantheist (1632-1677), to whom miracle is impossible, +revelation a phrase, and who renews pioneer work in Old Testament +criticism, finds at least a fair measure of liberty and comfort in +Holland (his birth-land). Bayle, the historical sceptic, lectured and +published his learned _Dictionnaire_ (1696) at Rotterdam. From Holland, +earlier, had proceeded an apologetic work by a man of European fame. +Hugo Grotius's _De Veritate Christianae Religionis_ (1627) is partly the +medieval tradition:--Oppose Mahommedans and Jews! It is partly +practical:--Arm Christian sailors against religious danger! But in its +cool spirit it forecasts the coming age, whose master is John Locke. His +_Reasonableness of Christianity_ (1695) is the thesis of "a whole +century" of theologians. And his _Essay on the Human Understanding_ +(1690) is almost a Bible to men of education during the same period; its +lightest word treasured. Locke does not break with the compromise of +Aquinas. But he transfers attention from _contents_ to _proof_. Reason +proves that a revelation has been made-and then submits. Leibnitz has to +supplement rather than correct Locke on this point. + +In such an atmosphere, deism readily uttered its protest against +mysterious revelation. Deism is, in fact, the Thomist natural theology +(more clearly distinguished from dogmatic theology than in the middle +ages, alike by Protestants and by the post-Tridentine Church of Rome) +now dissolving partnership with dogmatic and starting in business for +itself. Or it is the doctrine of unfallen man's "natural state"--a +doctrine intensified in Protestantism--separating itself from the +theologians' grave doctrine of sin. If Socinianism had challenged +natural theology--Christ, according to it, was the prophet who first +revealed the way to eternal life--it had glorified the natural powers of +man; and the learning of the Arminian divines (friends of Grotius and +Locke) had helped to modernize Christian apologetics upon rational +lines. Deism now taught that reason, or "the light of nature," was +all-sufficient. + +Not to dwell upon earlier continental "Deists" (mentioned by Viret as +quoted first in Bayle's _Dictionary_ and again in the introduction to +Leland's _View of the Deistical Writers_), Lord Herbert of Cherbury (_De +Veritate_, 1624; _De Religione Gentilium_, 1645?--according to J.G. +Walch's _Bibliotheca Theologica_ (1757) not published complete until +1663) was universally understood as hinting conclusions hostile to +Christianity (cf. also T. Hobbes, _Leviathan_, 1651, ch. xxxi.; Spinoza, +_Tractatus Theologico-Politicus_, 1670, ch. xiv.). Professedly, +Herbert's contention merely is that non-Christians feeling after the +"supreme God" and the law of righteousness must have a chance of +salvation. Herbert was also epoch-making for the whole 18th century in +teaching that _priests_ had _corrupted_ this primitive faith. During the +18th century deism spread widely, though its leaders were "irrepressible +men like Toland, men of mediocre culture and ability like Anthony +Collins, vulgar men like Chubb, irritated and disagreeable men like +Matthew Tindal, who conformed that he might enjoy his Oxford fellowship +and wrote anonymously that he might relieve his conscience" (A.M. +Fairbairn). More distinguished sympathizers are Edward Gibbon, who has +the deistic spirit, and David Hume, the historian and philosophical +sceptic, who has at least the letter of the deistic creed (_Dialogues +Concerning Natural Religion_), and who uses Pascal's appeal to "faith" +in a spirit of mockery (_Essay on Miracles_). In France the new school +found powerful speaking-trumpets, especially Voltaire, the idol of his +age--a great denier and scoffer, but always sincerely a believer in the +God of reason--and the deeper but wilder spirit of J.J. Rousseau. Others +in France developed still more startling conclusions from Locke's +principles, E.B. Condillac's sensationalism--Locke's philosophy purged +of its more ideal if less logical elements--leading on to materialism in +J.O. de la Mettrie; and at least one of the Encyclopedists (P.H. von +Holbach) capped materialism with confessed atheism. + +In Germany the parallel movement of "illumination" (H.S. Reimarus; J.S. +Semler, pioneer in N.T. criticism; and a layman, the great Lessing) took +the form of "rationalism" within the church--interpreting Bible texts by +main force in a way which the age thought "enlightened" (H.E.G. Paulus, +1761-1851, &c.). + +Among the innumerable English anti-deistic writers (see W. Law, The +_Case of Reason_; R. Bentley, or "Phileleutherus Lipsiensis"; &c., &c.), +three are of chief importance. Nathaniel Lardner (Arian, 1684-1768) +stands in the front rank of the scholarship of his time, and uses his +vast knowledge to maintain the genuineness of all books of the New +Testament and the perfect accuracy of its history. Joseph Butler, a very +original, careful and honest thinker, lifts controversy with deists from +details to principles in his _Analogy of Religion both Natural and +Revealed to the Constitution and Course of Nature_ (1736). This title +introduces us to a new conception. Deists and orthodox in those days +agreed in recognizing not merely natural theology but natural +religion--"essential religion," Butler more than once styles it; the +expression shows how near he stood intellectually to those he +criticized. But morally he stood aloof. In part i.--on Natural +Religion--he defends a moral or punishing Deity against the sentimental +softness of the age. The God of Nature, whom deists confess does punish +in time, if they will but look at the facts; why not in eternity? +"Morality," as others have confessed, is "the nature of things"! Not the +Being of God is discussed--Butler will not waste words on triflers (as +he thinks them) who deny that--but God's character. Unfortunately +(perhaps) Butler prefers to argue on _admitted principles_; holds much +of his own moral belief in reserve; tries to reduce everything to a +question of _probable fact_. If this hampers him in part i., the +situation appears still worse in part ii., which is directly occupied +with the defence of Christianity. Butler says nothing about +incomprehensible mysteries, and protests that reason is the only ground +we have to proceed upon. But by treating the atonement simply as +revealed (and unexplained) matter of fact--in spite of some partial +analogies in human experience, a thing essentially anomalous--Butler +repeats, and applies to the _moral_ contents of Christianity, what +Aquinas said of its speculative doctrines. (Whether one calls the +unknowable a revealed mystery or an unexplained and inexplicable fact +makes little difference.) William Paley (1743-1805) borrows from many +writers; he borrows Lardner's learning and Butler's "particular evidence +for Christianity," viz. miracles, prophecy and "history"; and he states +his points with perfect clearness. No man ever filled a typical position +more exactly than Paley. Eighteenth-century ethics--Hedonism, with a +theological background. Empiricist Natural Theology--the argument from +Design. Christian Evidences--the strong probability of the resurrection +of Christ and the consequent authority of his teaching. _Horae +Paulinae_--mutual confirmations of _Acts_ and Epistles; better, though +one-sided. When such exclusively "external" arguments are urged, the +contents of Christianity go for next to nothing. + +VI. _Later Modern Period._--Towards the end of the 18th century a new +epoch of reconstruction begins in the thought and life of civilization. +The leader in speculative philosophy is Immanuel Kant, though he +includes many agnostic elements, and draws the inference (which some +things in the letter of Butler might seem to warrant) that the essence +of Christianity is an ethical theism. While he thus created a new and +more ethical "rationalism," Kant's many-sided influence, alike in +philosophy and in theology, worked to further issues. He (and other +Germans, but not G.W.F. Hegel) was represented in England in a +fragmentary way by S.T. Coleridge (1772-1834), probably the most typical +figure of his period--another layman. His general thought was that +"rationalism" represents an uprising of the lower reason or +"understanding" against the higher or true "reason." The mysteries of +theology are its best part--not alien to reason but of its substance, +the "logos." This is to upset the compromise of Aquinas and go back to a +Christian platonism. Of course the difficulty revives again: If a +philosophy, why supernaturally revealed? Thomas Arnold, criticizing +Edward Hawkins, appeals rather to the atonement as deeper neglected +truth. So in Scotland, Thomas Erskine and Thomas Chalmers--the latter in +contradiction to his earlier position--hold that the doctrine of +salvation, when translated into experience, furnishes "internal +evidence"--a somewhat broader use of the phrase than when it applies +merely to evidence of date or authorship drawn from the contents of a +book. This gives a new and moral filling to the conception of +"supernatural revelation" The attempt to work out either of the +reactions against Thomism in new theological systems is pretty much +confined to Germany. Hegel's theological followers, of every shade and +party, represent the first, and Schleiermacher's the second. +Schleiermacher rejects natural religion in favour of the positive +religions, while the school of A. Ritschl and W. Herrmann reject natural +theology outright in favour of revelation--a striking external parallel +to early Socinianism. British and American divines, on the other hand, +are slow to suspect that a new apologetic principle may mean a new +system of apologetics, to say nothing of a new dogmatic. Among the +evangelicals, for the most part, natural theology, far from being +rejected, is not even modified, and certain doctrines continue to be +described as incomprehensible mysteries. No Protestant, of course, can +agree with Roman Catholic theology that (supernatural) faith is an +obedient assent to church authority and the mysteries it dictates. To +Protestantism, faith is personal trust. But the principle is hardly ever +carried out to the end. Mysterious doctrines are ascribed by Protestants +to _scripture_; so half of revelation is regarded as matter for blind +assent, if another half is luminous in experience. The movement of +German philosophy which led from Kant to Hegel has indeed found powerful +British champions (T.H. Green, J. and E. Caird, &c.), but less churchly +than Coleridge (or F.D. Maurice or B.F. Westcott), though churchly again +in J.R. Illingworth and other contributors to _Lux Mundi_ (1890). Before +this wave of thought, H.L. Mansel tried (1858) to play Pascal's game on +Kantian principles, developing the sceptical side of Kant's many-faceted +mind. But as he protested against relying on the human conscience--the +one element of positive conviction spared by Kant--his ingenuity found +few admirers except H. Spencer, who claims him as justifying +anti-Christian agnosticism. Butler's tradition was more directly +continued by J.H. Newman--with modifications on becoming a Roman +Catholic in the light of the church's decision in favour of Thomism. +A.M. Fairbairn (_Catholicism, Roman and Anglican_, ch. v., and +elsewhere) and E.A. Abbott (_Philomythus_, and elsewhere) suspect Newman +of a sceptical leaven and extend the criticism to Butler's doctrine of +"probability." Yet it seems plain that any theology, maintaining +redemption as historical fact (and not merely ideal), must attach +religious importance to conclusions which are technically probable +rather than proven. If we transfer Christian evidence from the +"historical" to the "philosophical" with H. Rashdall--we surely cut down +Christianity to the limits of theism. And the _inner_ mind of Butler has +moral anchorage in the _Analogy_, quite as much as in the _Sermons_. It +is in part ii. more than in part i. of his masterpiece that the light +seems to grow dim. Another of the Oxford converts to Rome, W.G. Ward, +made vigorous contributions to natural theology. + +VII. _Contents of Modern Apologetics._--Superficially regarded, +philosophy ebbs and flows, whatever progress the debate may reveal to +speculative insight. Old positions re-emerge from forgetfulness, and +there is always a philosophy to back every "case." More visible dangers +arise for the apologist in the region of science, historical or +physical. There the progress of truth, within whatever limits, is +manifest. _Essays and Reviews_ (1860) was a vehement announcement of +scientific results--startling English conservatism awake for the first +time. And in the scientific region the great apologetic classics, like +Butler, are hopelessly out of date. The modern apologist must do +ephemeral work--unless it should chance that he proves to be the +skirmisher, pioneering for a modified dogmatic. He holds a watching +brief. While he must beware of hasty speech, he has often to plead that +new knowledge does not really threaten faith; or that it is not +genuinely established knowledge at all; or else, that faith has mistaken +its own grounds, and will gain strength by concentrating on its true +field. The work is not always well done; but the Christian church needs +it. + +1. _Apologetics and Philosophy._--The main part of this subject is +discussed under THEISM. Some notes may be added on special points, (a) +Freewill is generally assumed on the Christian side (R.C. Church; +Scottish philosophy; H. Lotze; J. Martineau; W.G. Ward. Not in a +libertarian sense; Leibnitz. New and obscure issues raised by Kant). But +there is no continuous tradition or steady trend of discussion. (b) +Personal immortality is affirmed as philosophically certain by the +Church of Rome and many Protestant writers. Others teach "conditional +immortality." Others base the hope on belief in the resurrection of +Christ, (c) Theodicy--the tradition of Leibnitz is preserved (on +libertarian lines) by Martineau (_A Study of Religion_, 1883). See also +F.R. Tennant's _Origin and Propagation of Sin_ (1902)--sin a +"bye-product" of a generally good evolution. Others find in the gospel +of redemption the true theodicy. (d) The problem of Christian apologetic +has been simplified in the past by the prevalence of the Christian +ethics and temper even among many non-Christians (e.g. J.S. Mill). But +hereafter it may not prove possible for the apologist to assume as +unchallenged the Christian moral outlook. Germans have suspected an +anti-Christian strain in Goethe; all the world knows of it in E. von +Hartmann or F. Nietzsche. + +2. _Apologetics and Physical Science._--(a) Copernicanism has won its +battles and the Church of Rome would fain have its error forgotten. The +admission is now general that the Bible cannot be expected to use the +language of scientific astronomy. Still, it is not certain that the +shock of Copernicanism on supernatural Christianity is exhausted. (b) +Geology has also won its battles, and few now try to harmonize it with +Genesis. (c) Evolution came down from the clouds when C. Darwin and A.R. +Wallace succeeded in displacing the naif conception of special creation +by belief in the origin of species out of other species through a +process of natural law. This gave immense vogue to wider and vaguer +theories of evolutionary process, notably to H. Spencer's grandiose +cosmic formula in terms of mechanism. Here the apologist has more to +say. The special Darwinian hypothesis--natural "selection"--may or may +not be true; it was at least a fruitful suggestion. If true, it need not +be exhaustive. Again, evolution itself need not apply everywhere. We are +offered a philosophical rather than a scientific speculation when E. +Caird (_Evolution of Religion_, 1893) tries to vindicate Christianity as +the highest working of nature--true just _because_ evolved from lower +religions. The Christian apologist indeed may himself seek, following +John Fiske, to philosophize evolution as a restatement of natural +theology--"one God, one law, one element and one far-off divine +event"--and as at least pointing _towards_ personal immortality. But if +evolution is to be the whole truth regarding Christianity, we should +have to surrender both _supernatural revelation_ and _divine +redemption_. And these, it may be strongly urged, contain the magic of +Christianity. Losing them it might sink into a lifeless theory. + +As far as pure science goes, the inference from science in favour of +materialism has visibly lost much of its plausibility, and Protestant +apologists would probably be prepared to accept in advance all verified +discoveries as belonging to a different region from that of faith. Roman +Catholic apologetic prefers to negotiate in detail. + +3. _Apologetics and History._--History brings us nearer the heart of the +Christian position. (a) Old Testament criticism won startling victories +towards the end of the 19th century. It blots out much supposed +knowledge, but throws a vivid and interesting light on the reconstrued +process of history. Most Protestants accept the general scheme of +criticism; those who hang back make not a few concessions (e.g. J. Orr, +_Problem of the O.T._, 1906). The Roman Catholic Church again prefers an +attitude of reserve, (b) New Testament criticism raises even more +delicate issues. Positively it may be affirmed that the recovered figure +of the historical Jesus is the greatest asset in the possession of +modern Christian theology and apologetics. The "Lives" of Christ, Roman +Catholic and Protestant; "critical" (D.F. Strauss, A. Renan, &c., &c.) +and "believing," imply this at least. Negatively, "unchallenged +historical certainties" are becoming few in number, or are disappearing +altogether, through the industry of modern minds. True, the Tubingen +criticism of F.C. Baur and his school--important as the first scientific +attempt to conceive New Testament conditions and literature as a +whole--has been abandoned. (A. Ritschl's _Entstehung der +alt-katholischen Kirche_, 2nd edition, 1857, was an especially telling +reply.) The synoptic gospels are now treated with considerable respect. +It is no longer suggested in responsible quarters that they are party +documents sacrificing truth to "tendency." But not all quarters are +responsible; and in the effort to grasp scientifically, i.e. accurately, +the amazing facts of Christ and primitive Christianity, every imaginable +hypothesis is canvassed. Even the Roman Catholic Church produced the +Abbe Loisy (though he undertakes to play off church certainties against +historical uncertainties). Hitherto at least the fourth gospel has been +the touchstone. The authorship of the epistles is in many cases a matter +of subordinate importance; at least for Protestants or for those +surrendering Bible infallibility, which Rome can hardly do. (c) New +Testament history, The apologist must maintain (1) that Jesus of +Nazareth is a real historical figure--a point well-nigh overlooked by +Strauss, and denied by some modern advocates of a mythical theory; (2) +that Jesus is knowable (not one "of whom we really know very little"--B. +Jowett) in his teaching, example, character, historical personality; and +that he is full of moral splendour. On the other hand, faith has no +special interest in claiming that we can compose a biographical study of +the development of Jesus. Certainly no early writer thought of providing +material for such use. It is a common opinion in Germany that our +material is in fact too scanty or too self-contradictory. Yet the +fascination of the subject will always revive the attempt. If it +succeeds, there will be a new line of communication along which that +great personality will tell on men's minds and hearts. If it +fails--there are other channels; character can be known and trusted even +when we are baffled by a thing necessarily so full of mystery as the +development of a personality. Notably, the manifest _non-consciousness +of personal guilt_ in Jesus suggests to us his sinlessness. (3) +Apologists maintain that Jesus "claimed" Messiahship. There are +speculative constructions of gospel history which eliminate that claim; +and no doubt apologetics could--with more or less difficulty--restate +its position in a changed form if the paradox of to-day became accepted +as historical fact to-morrow. The central apologetic thesis is the +_uniqueness_ of the "only-begotten"; it is here that "the supernatural" +passes into the substance of Christian faith. But most probably the +description of Jesus as thus unique will continue to be associated with +the allegation--He told us so; he claimed Messiahship and "died for the +claim." (See preface to 5th ed. of _Ecce Homo_.) Nor did so superhuman a +claim crush him, or deprive his soul of its balance. He imparted to the +title a grander significance out of the riches of his personality. (4) +In the light of this the "argument from prophecy" is reconstructed. It +ceases to lay much stress upon coincidences between Old Testament +predictions or "types" and events in Christ's career. It becomes the +assertion; historically, providentially, the expectation of a _unique +religious figure_ arose--"the" Messiah; and Jesus gave himself to be +thought of as that great figure. (5) It is also claimed as certain that +Jesus had marvellous powers of healing. More reserve is being shown +towards the other or "nature" miracles. These latter, it may be +remarked, are more unambiguously supernatural. But, if Jesus really +cured leprosy or really restored the dead to life, we have miracle +plainly enough in the region of healing. (6) For Jesus' own resurrection +several lines of evidence are alleged. (i.) All who believe that in any +sense Christ rose again insist upon the impression which his personality +made during life. It was _he_ whose resurrection seemed credible! Some +practically stop here; the apologist proceeds. (ii.) There is the report +of the empty grave; historically, not easily waved aside. (iii.) We have +New Testament reports of appearances of the risen Jesus; subjective? the +mere clothing of the impression made by his personality during life? or +objective? "telegrams" from heaven (Th. Keim)--"Veridical +Hallucinations"? or something even more, throwing a ray of light perhaps +on the state and powers of the happy dead? (iv.) There is the immense +influence of Jesus Christ in history, _associated with belief in him_ as +the risen Son of God. + +In view of the claims of Jesus, different possibilities arise, (i.) The +evangelists impute to him a higher claim than he made. This may be +called the rationalistic solution; with sympathy in Christ's ethical +teaching, there is relief at minimizing his great claim. So, +brilliantly, Wellhausen's Gospel commentaries and Introduction. (Mark +fairly historical; other gospels' fuller account of Christ's teaching +and claims unreliable.) (ii.) The claim was fraudulent (Reimarus; Renan, +ed. 1; popular anti-Christian agitation). This is a counsel of despair. +(iii.) He was an enthusiastic dreamer, expecting the world's end. This +the apologist will recognize as the most plausible hostile alternative. +He may feel bound to admit an element of illusion in Christ's vision' of +the future; but he will contend that the apocalyptic form did not +destroy the spiritual content of Christ's revelations--nay, that it was +itself the vehicle of great truths. So he will argue as the essence of +the matter that (iv.) he who has occupied Christ's place in history, and +won such reverence from the purest souls, was what he claimed to be, and +that his many-sidedness comes to focus and harmony when we recognize him +as the Christ of God and the Saviour of the world. + +To a less extent, similar problems and alternatives arise in regard to +the church:--Catholicism a compromise between Jewish Christianity and +Pauline or Gentile Christianity (F.C. Baur, &c.); Catholicism the +Hellenizing of Christianity (A. Ritschl, A. Harnack); the Catholic +church for good and evil the creation of St Paul (P. Wernle, H. Weinel); +the church supernaturally guided (R.C. apologetic; in a modified degree +High Church apologetic); essential--not necessarily exclusive--truth of +Paulinism, essential error in first principles of Catholicism +(Protestant apologetic). + + LITERATURE.--Omitting the Christian fathers as remote from the present + day, we recognize as works of genius Pascal's _Pensees_ and Butler's + _Analogy_, to which we might add J.R. Seeley's _Ecce Homo_ (1865). The + philosophical, Platonist, or Idealist line of Christian defence is + represented among recent writers by J.R. Illingworth [Anglican], in + _Personality, Human and Divine_ (1894), _Divine Immanence_ (1898), + _Reason and Revelation_ (1902), who at times seems rather to + presuppose the Thomist compromise, and A.M. Fairbairn + [Congregationalist], in _Place of Christ in Modern Theology_ (1893), + _Philosophy of the Christian Religion_ (1902). The appeal to ethical + or Christian experience--"internal evidence"--is found especially in + E.A. Abbott [Christianity supernatural and divine, but not + miraculous], _Through Nature to Christ_ (1877), _The Kernel and the + Husk_ (1886), _The Spirit on the Waters_ (1897), &c., or A.B. Bruce, + _Chief End of Revelation_ (1881), _The Miraculous Element in the + Gospels_ (1886), _Apologetics_ (1892), and other works; Bruce's + posthumous article, "Jesus" in _Encyc. Bib._, was understood by some + as exchanging Christian orthodoxy for bare theism, but probably its + tone of aloofness is due to the attempt to keep well within the limits + of what the author considered pure scientific history. Scholarly and + apologetic discussion on the gospels and life of Jesus is further + represented by the writings of W. Sanday or (earlier) of J.B. + Lightfoot. Much American work of merit on the character of Christ is + headed by W. E Channing, and by H. Bushnell (in _Nature and the + Supernatural_). For defence of Christ's resurrection, reference may be + made to H. Latham's _The Risen Lord_ and R. Mackintosh's _First Primer + of Apologetics_. For modification in light of recent scholarship of + argument from prophecy, to Riehm's _Messianic Prophecy_, Stanton's + _Jewish and Christian Messiah_, and Woods's _Hope of Israel_. Roman + Catholic apologetics--of necessity, Thomist--is well represented by + Professor Schanz of Tubingen. The whole Ritschl movement is apologetic + in spirit; best English account in A.E. Garvie's _Ritschlian Theology_ + (1899). See also the chief church histories or histories of doctrine + (Harnack; Loofs; Hagenbach; Shedd); A.S. Farrar's _Critical History of + Free_ (i.e. anti-Christian) _Thought_ (Bampton Lectures, 1862); R.C. + Trench's Introduction to _Notes on the Miracles_, and F.W. Macran's + _English Apologetic Theology_ (1905). For the 18th century, G.V. + Lechler's _Geschichte des englischen Deismus_ (1841); Mark Pattison in + _Essays and Reviews_ (1860); Leslie Stephen's _English Thought in 18th + Century_ (agnostic); John Hunt, _Religious Thought in England_ (3 + vols., 1870-1873). (R. Ma.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] While these writings are of great historical value, they do not, + of course, represent the Christian argument as conceived to-day. The + Church of Rome prefers medieval or modern statements of its position; + Protestantism can use only modern statements. + + + + +APOLOGUE (from the Gr. [Greek: apologos], a statement or account), a +short fable or allegorical story, meant to serve as a pleasant vehicle +for some moral doctrine or to convey some useful lesson. One of the best +known is that of Jotham in the Book of Judges (ix. 7-15); others are +"The City Rat and Field Rat," by Horace, "The Belly and its Members," by +the patrician Menenius Agrippa in the second book of Livy, and perhaps +most famous of all, those of Aesop. The term is applied more +particularly to a story in which the actors or speakers are taken from +the brute creation or inanimate nature. An apologue is distinguished +from a fable in that there is always some moral sense present, which +there need not be in a fable. It is generally dramatic, and has been +defined as "a satire in action." It differs from a parable in several +respects. A parable is equally an ingenious tale intended to correct +manners, but it can be _true_, while an apologue, with its introduction +of animals and plants, to which it lends our ideas and language and +emotions, is necessarily devoid of real truth, and even of all +probability. The parable reaches heights to which the apologue cannot +aspire, for the points in which brutes and inanimate nature present +analogies to man are principally those of his lower nature, and the +lessons taught by the apologue seldom therefore reach beyond prudential +morality, whereas the parable aims at representing the relations between +man and God. It finds its framework in the world of nature as it +actually is, and not in any grotesque parody of it, and it exhibits real +and not fanciful analogies. The apologue seizes on that which man has in +common with creatures below him, and the parable on that which he has in +common with God. Still, in spite of the difference of moral level, +Martin Luther thought so highly of apologues as counsellors of virtue +that he edited and revised Aesop and wrote a characteristic preface to +the volume. The origin of the apologue is extremely ancient and comes +from the East, which is the natural fatherland of everything connected +with allegory, metaphor and imagination. Veiled truth was often +necessary in the East, particularly with the slaves, who dared not +reveal their minds too openly. It is noteworthy that the two fathers of +apologue in the West were slaves, namely Aesop and Phaedrus. La Fontaine +in France; Gay and Dodsley in England; Gellert, Lessing and Hagedorn in +Germany; Tomas de Iriarte in Spain, and Krilov in Russia, are leading +modern writers of apologues. Length is not an essential matter in the +definition of an apologue. Those of La Fontaine are often very short, +as, for example, "Le Coque et la Perle." On the other hand, in the +romances of Reynard the Fox we have medieval apologues arranged in +cycles, and attaining epical dimensions. An Italian fabulist, Corti, is +said to have developed an apologue of "The Talking Animals" to the bulk +of twenty-six cantos. La Motte, writing at a time when this species of +literature was universally admired, attributes its popularity to the +fact that it _menage et flatte l'amour-propre_ by inculcating virtue in +an amusing manner without seeming to dictate or insist. This was the +ordinary 18th-century view of the matter, but Rousseau contested the +educational value of instruction given in this indirect form. + + A work by P. Soulle, _La Fontaine et ses devanciers_ (1866), is a + history of the apologue from the earliest times until its final + triumph in France. + + + + +APOLOGY (from Gr. [Greek: apologia], defence), in its usual sense, an +expression of regret for something which has been wrongfully said or +done; a withdrawal or retraction of some charge or imputation which is +false. In an action for libel, the fact that an apology has been +promptly and fully made is a plea in mitigation of damages. The apology +should have the same form of publicity as the original charge. If made +publicly, the proper form is an advertisement in a newspaper; if made +within the hearing of a few only, a letter of apology, which may be read +to those who have heard what was said, should be sufficient. By the +English Libel Act 1843, s. 2, it was enacted that in an action for libel +contained in a newspaper it is a defence for the defendant to plead that +the libel was inserted without actual malice and without gross +negligence, and that before the commencement of the action and at the +earliest opportunity afterwards he inserted in the newspaper a full +apology for the libel, or, where the newspaper in which the libel +appeared was published at intervals exceeding one week, he offered to +publish the apology in any newspaper selected by the plaintiff. The +apology must be full and must be printed in as conspicuous a place and +manner as the libel was. + +The word "apology" or "apologia" is also used in the sense of defence or +vindication, the only meaning of the Greek [Greek: apologia], especially +of the defence of a doctrine or system, or of religious or other +beliefs, &c., e.g. Justin Martyr's _Apology_ or J.H. Newman's _Apologia +pro vita sua_. (See APOLOGETICS.) + + + + +APONEUROSIS ([Greek: apo], away, and [Greek: neuron], a sinew), in +anatomy, a membrane separating muscles from each other. + + + + +APOPHTHEGM (from the [Greek: apophthegma]), a short and pointed +utterance. The usual spelling up to Johnson's day was _apothegm_, which +Webster and Worcester still prefer; it indicates the pronunciation--i.e. +"apothem"--better than the other, which, however, is more usual in +England and follows the derivation. Such sententious remarks as +"Knowledge is Power" are apophthegms. They become "proverbs" by age and +acceptance. Plutarch made a famous collection in his _Apophthegmata +Laconica_. + + + + +APOPHYGE (Gr. [Greek: apophugae], a flying off), in architecture, the +lowest part of the shaft of an Ionic or Corinthian column, or the +highest member of its base if the column be considered as a whole. The +apophyge is the inverted cavetto or concave sweep, on the upper edge of +which the diminishing shaft rests. + + + + +APOPHYLLITE, a mineral often classed with the zeolites, since it behaves +like these when heated before the blowpipe and has the same mode of +occurrence; it differs, however, from the zeolites proper in containing +no aluminium. It is a hydrous potassium and calcium silicate, +H7KCa4(SiO3)8 + 4-1/2(H2O). A small amount of fluorine is often present, +and it is one of the few minerals in which ammonium has been detected. +The temperature at which the water is expelled is higher than is usually +the case with zeolites; none is given off below 200 deg., and only about +half at 250 deg.; this is slowly reabsorbed again from moist air, and is +therefore regarded as water of crystallization, the remainder being +water of constitution. When heated before the blowpipe, the mineral +exfoliates, owing to loss of water, and on this account was named +apophyllite by R.J. Hauy in 1806, from the Greek [Greek: apo], from, and +[Greek: phullon], a leaf. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +Apophyllite always occurs as distinct crystals, which belong to the +tetragonal system. The form is either a square prism terminated by the +basal planes (fig. 2), or an acute pyramid (fig. 1). A prominent feature +of the mineral is its perfect basal cleavage, on which the lustre is +markedly pearly, presenting, in white crystals, somewhat the appearance +of the eye of a fish after boiling, hence the old name fish-eye-stone or +ichthyophthalmite for the mineral. On other surfaces the lustre is +vitreous. The crystals are usually transparent and colourless, sometimes +with a greenish or rose-red tint. Opaque white crystals of cubic habit +have been called albine; xylochlore is an olive-green variety. The +hardness is 4-1/2, and the specific gravity 2.35. + +The optical characters of the mineral are of special interest, and have +been much studied. The sign of the double refraction may be either +positive or negative, and some crystals are divided into optically +biaxial sectors. The variety known as leucocyclite shows, when examined +in convergent polarized light, a peculiar interference figure, the rings +being alternately white and violet-black and not coloured as in a normal +figure seen in white light. + +Apophyllite is a mineral of secondary origin, commonly occurring, in +association with other zeolites, in amygdaloidal cavities in basalt and +melaphyre. Magnificent groups of greenish and colourless tabular +crystals, the crystals several inches across, were found, with flesh-red +stilbite, in the Deccan traps of the Western Ghats, near Bombay, during +the construction of the Great Indian Peninsular railway. Groups of +crystals of a beautiful pink colour have been found in the silver veins +of Andreasberg in the Harz and of Guanaxuato in Mexico. Crystals of +recent formation have been detected in the Roman remains at the hot +springs of Plombieres in France. (L. J. S.) + + + + +APOPHYSIS (Gr. [Greek: apophysis], offshoot), a bony protuberance, in +human physiology; also a botanical term for the swelling of the +spore-case in certain mosses. + + + + +APOPLEXY (Gr. [Greek: apoplaexia], from [Greek: apoplaessein], to strike +down, to stun), the term employed by Galen to designate the "sudden loss +of feeling and movement of the whole body, with the exception of +respiration," to which, after the time of Harvey, was added "and with +the exception of the circulation." Although the term is occasionally +employed in medicine with other significations, yet in its general +acceptation apoplexy may be defined as a sudden loss of consciousness, +of sensibility, and of movement without any _essential_ modification of +the respiratory and circulatory functions occasioned by some brain +disease. It was discovered that the majority of the cases of apoplexy +were due to cerebral haemorrhage, and what looked like cerebral +haemorrhage, red softening; and the idea for a long time prevailed that +apoplexy and cerebral haemorrhage could be employed as synonymous terms, +and that an individual who, in popular parlance, "had an apoplectic +stroke," had necessarily suffered from haemorrhage into his brain. A +small haemorrhage may not, however, cause an apoplectic fit, nor is an +apoplectic fit always caused by haemorrhage; it may be due to sudden +blocking of a large vessel by a clot from a distant part (embolism), or +by a sudden clotting of the blood in the vessel itself (thrombosis). +Owing to the prevailing idea in former times that cerebral haemorrhage +and apoplexy were synonymous terms, the word apoplexy was applied to +haemorrhage into other organs than the brain; thus the terms pulmonary +apoplexy, retinal apoplexy and splenic apoplexy were used. + +The term "apoplexy" is now used in clinical medicine to denote that form +of coma or deep state of unconsciousness which is due to sudden +disturbance of the cerebral circulation occasioned by a local cause +within the cranial cavity, as distinct from the loss of consciousness +due to sudden failure of the heart's action (syncope) or the coma of +narcotic or alcoholic poisoning, of _status epilepticus_, of uraemia or +of head injury. + +The sudden coma of sunstroke and heat-stroke might be included, although +owing to the suddenness with which a person may be struck down, the term +_heat apoplexy_ is frequently used, and, from an etymological point of +view, quite justifiably. The older writers use the term _simple +apoplexy_ for a sudden attack which could not be explained by any +visible disease. Again, _congestive apoplexy_ was applied to those cases +of coma where, at the autopsy, nothing was found to account for the coma +and death except engorgement of the vessels of the brain and its +membranes. In senile dementia and in general paralysis the brain is +shrunken and the convolutions atrophied, the increased space in the +ventricles and between the convolutions being filled up with the +cerebro-spinal fluid. In these diseases apoplectic states may arise, +terminating fatally; the excess of fluid found in such cases was +formerly thought to be the cause of the symptoms, consequently the +condition was called _serous apoplexy_. Such terms are no longer used, +owing to the better knowledge of the pathology of brain disease. + +Having thus narrowed down the application of the term "apoplexy," we are +in a position to consider its chief features, and the mechanism by which +it is produced. Apoplexy may be rapidly fatal, but it is very seldom +_instantly_ fatal. The onset is usually sudden, and sometimes the +individual may be struck down in an instant, senseless and motionless, +"warranting those epithets, which the ancients applied to the victims of +this disease, of _attoniti_ and _siderati_, as if they were +thunder-stricken or planet-struck" (Sir Thomas Watson). The attack, +however, may be less sudden and, not infrequently, attended by a +convulsion; while occasionally, in the condition termed _ingravescent +apoplexy_, the coma is gradual in its onset, occupying hours in its +development. Although unexpected, various warning symptoms, sometimes +slight, sometimes pronounced, occur in the majority of cases. Such are, +fulness in the head, headache, giddiness, noises in the ears, mental +confusion, slight lapses of consciousness, numbness or tingling in the +limbs. A characteristic apoplectic attack presents the following +phenomena: the individual falls down suddenly and lies without sense or +motion, except that his pulse keeps beating and his breathing continues. +He appears to be in a deep sleep, from which he cannot be roused; the +breathing is laboured and stertorous, and is accompanied with puffing +out of the cheeks; the pulse may be beating more strongly than natural, +and the face is often flushed and turgid. The reflexes are abolished. +Although apoplexy may occur without paralysis, and paralysis without +apoplexy, the two, owning the same cause, very frequently co-exist, or +happen in immediate sequence and connexion; consequently there is in +most cases definite evidence of paralysis affecting usually one side of +the body in addition to the coma. Thus the pupils are unequal; there may +be asymmetry of the face, or the limbs may be more rigid or flaccid on +one side than on the other. These signs of localized disease enable a +distinction to be made from the coma of narcotic poisoning and +alcoholic intoxication. It must be borne in mind that a person smelling +strongly of liquor and found lying in the street in a comatose state may +be suffering from apoplexy, and the error of sending a dying man to a +police cell may be avoided by this knowledge. + +If the fit is only moderately severe, the reflexes soon return, and the +patient may in a few hours show indications of returning consciousness +by making some movements or opening his eyes when spoken to, although +later it may be found that he is unable to speak, or may be paralysed or +mentally afflicted (see PARALYSIS). In severe cases the coma deepens and +the patient dies, usually from interference with the breathing, or, less +commonly, from arrest of the heart's action. + +The mechanism by which apoplexy is produced has been a matter of much +dispute; the condition was formerly ascribed to the pressure exerted by +the clot on the rest of the brain, but there is no increase of +intracranial pressure in an apoplectic fit occurring as a result of the +sudden closure of a large vessel by embolism or thrombosis. Suddenness +of the lesion appears to be, then, the essential element common to all +cases of apoplexy from organic brain disease. It is the sudden shock to +the delicate mechanism that produces the unconsciousness; but seeing +that the coma is usually deeper and more prolonged in cerebral +haemorrhage than when occasioned by vascular occlusion, and that an +ingravescent apoplexy coma gradually develops and deepens as the amount +of haemorrhage increases, we may presume that increase of intracranial +pressure does play an important part in the degree and intensity of the +coma caused by the rupture of a vessel. Apoplexy seldom occurs under +forty years of age, but owing to the fact that disease of the cerebral +vessels may exist at any age, from causes which are fully explained in +the article NEUROPATHOLOGY, no period of life is exempt; consequently +cases of true apoplexy are not wanting even in very young children. +Recognizing that there are two causes of apoplexy in advanced life, viz. +(1) sudden rupture of a diseased vessel usually associated with high +arterial pressure, enlarged, powerfully acting heart and chronic renal +disease, and (2) the sudden clotting of blood in a large diseased vessel +favoured by a low arterial pressure due to a weak-acting heart, it is +obvious that the character of the pulse forms a good guide to the +diagnosis of the cause, the prevention and warding off of an attack, and +the treatment of such should it occur. + +Anything which tends directly or indirectly to increase arterial +pressure within the cerebral blood-vessels may bring on an attack of +cerebral haemorrhage; and although the identification of an apoplectic +habit of body with a stout build, a short neck and florid complexion is +now generally discredited, it being admitted that apoplexy occurs as +frequently in thin and spare persons who present no such peculiarity of +conformation, yet a plethoric habit of body, occasioned by immoderate +eating or drinking associated with the gouty diathesis, leads to a +general arterio-sclerosis and high arterial pressure. All conditions +which can give rise to a local intracranial or a general bodily increase +of the arterial pressure, i.e. severe exertion of body and mind, violent +emotions, much stooping, overheated rooms, exposure to the sun, sudden +shocks to the body, constipation and straining at stool, may, by +suddenly increasing the strain on the wall of a diseased vessel, lead to +its rupture. + +The outlook of apoplexy is generally unfavourable in cases where the +coma is profound; death may take place at different intervals after the +onset. If the patient, after recovering from the initial coma, suffers +with continual headache and lapses into a drowsy state, the result is +likely to be serious; for such a condition probably indicates that an +inflammatory change has taken place about the clot or in the area of +softening. + +_Treatment._--The patient should be placed in the recumbent position +with the head and shoulders slightly raised. He should be moved as +little as possible from the place where the attack occurred. The medical +man who is summoned will probably give the following directions: an +ice-bag to be applied to the head; a few grains of calomel or a drop of +croton oil in butter to be placed on the tongue, or an enema of castor +oil to be administered. He may find it necessary to draw off the water +with a catheter. The practice of blood-letting, once so common in this +disease, is seldom resorted to, although in some cases, where there is +very high arterial tension and a general state of plethora, it might be +beneficial. Depletives are not employed where there is evidence of +failure of the heart's action; indeed the cautious administration of +stimulants may be necessary, either subcutaneously or by the mouth (if +there exist a power of swallowing), together with warm applications to +the surface of the body; a water-bed may be required, and careful +nursing, is essential to prevent complications, especially the formation +of bedsores. (F. W. Mo.) + + + + +APOROSE (from Gr. [Greek: ha], without, and [Greek: poros], passage), a +biological term meaning imperforate, or not porous: there is a group of +corals called _Aporosa_. + + + + +APOSIOPESIS (the Greek for "becoming silent"), a rhetorical device by +which the speaker or writer stops short and leaves something +unexpressed, but yet obvious, to be supplied by the imagination. The +classical example is the threat, "Quos ego----!" of Neptune (in Virgil, +_Aen._ i. 135). + + + + +APOSTASY ([Greek: apostasis], in classical Greek a defection or revolt +from a military commander), a term generally employed to describe a +complete renunciation of the Christian faith, or even an exchange of one +form of it for another, especially if the motive be unworthy. In the +first centuries of the Christian era, apostasy was most commonly induced +by persecution, and was indicated by some outward act, such as offering +incense to a heathen deity or blaspheming the name of Christ.[1] In the +Roman Catholic Church the word is also applied to the renunciation of +monastic vows (_apostasis a monachatu_), and to the abandonment of the +clerical profession for the life of the world (_apostasis a clericatu_). +Such defection was formerly often punished severely. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The readmission of such apostates to the church was a matter that + occasioned serious controversy. The emperor Julian's "Apostasy" is + discussed under JULIAN. + + + + +APOSTIL, or APOSTILLE (possibly connected with Lat. _appositum_, placed +near), a marginal note made by a commentator. + + + + +APOSTLE ([Greek: apostolos], one sent forth on a mission, an envoy, as +in Is. xviii. 2; Symmachus, [Greek: apostellein apostolous]; Aquila, +[Greek: presbentas]), a technical term used in the New Testament and in +Christian literature generally for a special envoy of Jesus Christ. How +far it had any similar use in Judaism in Christ's day is uncertain; but +in the 4th century A.D., at any rate, it denoted responsible envoys from +the central Jewish authority, especially for the collection of religious +funds. In its first and simplest Christian form, the idea is present +already in Mark iii. 14 f., where from the general circle of his +disciples Jesus "made twelve ('whom he also named apostles,' Luke vi. +13, but doubtful in Mark), that they should be with him, and that he +might from time to time send them forth ([Greek: hina apostellae]) to +preach and to have authority to cast out demons." Later on (vi. 6 ff.), +in connexion with systematic preaching among the villages of Galilee, +Jesus begins actually to "send forth" the twelve, two by two; and on +their return from this mission (vi. 30) they are for the first time +described as "apostles" or missionary envoys. Matthew (x. 1 ff.) blends +the calling of the twelve with their actual sending forth, while Luke +(vi. 13) makes Jesus himself call them "apostles" (for Luke's usage cf. +xi. 49, "prophets and apostles," where Matthew, xxiii. 34, has "prophets +and wise men and scribes"). But it is doubtful whether Jesus ever used +the term for the Twelve, in relation to their temporary missions, any +more than for the "seventy others" whom he "sent forth" later (Luke x. +1). Even the Fourth Gospel never so describes them. It simply has "a +servant is not greater than his lord, neither an apostle (envoy) greater +than he that sent him" (xiii. 16); and applies the idea of "mission" +alike to Jesus (cf. Heb. iii. 1, "Jesus, the apostle ... of our +profession") and to his disciples, generally, as represented by the +Twelve (xvii. 18, with 3, 6 ff.). But while ideally all Christ's +disciples were "sent" with the Father's Name in charge, there were +different degrees in which this applied in practice; and so we find +"apostle" used in several senses, once it emerges as a technical term. + +1. In the Apostolic age itself, "apostle" often denotes simply an +"envoy," commissioned by Jesus Christ to be a primary witness and +preacher of the Messianic Kingdom. This wide sense was shown by +Lightfoot (in his commentary on _Galatians_, 1865) to exist in the New +Testament, e.g. in 1 Cor. xii. 28 f., Eph. iv. ii, Rom. xvi. 7; and his +view has since been emphasized[1] by the discovery of the _Teaching of +the Twelve Apostles_ (see DIDACHE), with its itinerant order of +"apostles," who, together with "prophets" (cf. Eph. ii. 20, iii. 5) and +"teachers," constituted a _charismatic_ and seemingly unordained +ministry of the Word, in some part of the Church (in Syria?) during the +early sub-apostolic age. Paul is our earliest witness, as just cited; +also in 1 Cor. xv. 5 ff., where he seems to quote the language of +Palestinian tradition, in saying that Christ "appeared to Cephas; then +to the Twelve; then ... to James; then to the apostles one and all +([Greek: tois apostolois pasin]); and last of all ... to me also." The +appearance to "_all_ the Apostles" must refer to the final commission +given by the risen Christ to certain assembled disciples (Acts i. 6 ff., +cf. Luke xxiv. 33), including not only the Twelve and the Lord's +brethren (i. 13 f.), but also some at least of the Seventy. Of this +wider circle of witnesses, taken from among personal disciples during +Jesus's earthly ministry, we get a further glimpse in the election of +one from their number to fill Judas's place among the Twelve (i. 21 +ff.), as the primary official witnesses of Messiah and his resurrection. +Many of the 120 then present (Acts i. 15), and not only the two set +forward for final choice, must have been personal disciples, who by the +recent commission had been made "apostles." Among such we may perhaps +name Judas Barsabbas and Silas (Acts xv. 22, cf. i. 23), if not also +Barnabas (1 Cor. ix. 6) and Andronicus and Junia (Rom. xvi. 7). + +So far, then, we gather that the original Palestinian type of +apostleship meant simply (a) personal mission from the risen Christ (cf. +I Cor. ix. i), following on (b) some preliminary intercourse with Jesus +in his earthly ministry. It was pre-eminence in the latter qualification +that gave the Twelve their special status among apostles (Acts i. 26, +ii. 14, vi. 2; in Acts generally they are simply "the apostles"). +Conversely, it was Paul's lack in this respect which lay at the root of +his difficulties as an apostle. + + It is possible, though not certain, that even those Judaizing + missionaries at Corinth whom Paul styles "false-apostles" or, + ironically, "the superlative apostles" (2 Cor. xi. 5, 13; xii. 11), + rested part of their claim to superiority over Paul on (b), possibly + even as having done service to Christ when on earth (2 Cor. xi. 18, + 23). There is no sign in 2 Cor. that they laid claim to (a). If this + be so, they were "Christ's apostles" only indirectly, "through men" + (as some had alleged touching Paul, cf. Gal. i. 1), i.e. as sent forth + on mission work by certain Jerusalem leaders with letters of + introduction (2 Cor. iii. 1; E. von Dobschutz, _Problems der apost. + Zeitalters_, p. 106). + +2. _The Twelve._--When Jesus selected an inner circle of disciples for +continuous training by personal intercourse, his choice of "twelve" had +direct reference to the tribes of Israel (Matt. xix. 28; Luke xxii. 30). +This gave them a symbolic or representative character as a closed body +(cf. Rev. xxi. 14), marking them off as the primary religious authority +(cf. Acts ii. 42, "the apostles' teaching") among the "disciples" or +"brethren," when these began to assume the form of a community or +church. The relationship which other "apostles" had enjoyed with the +Master had been uncertain; _they_ had been his recognized intimates, and +that as a body. Naturally, then, they took the lead, collectively--in +form at least, though really the initiative lay with one or two of their +own number, Peter in particular. The process of practical +differentiation from their fellow apostles was furthered by the +concentration of the Twelve, or at least of its most marked +representatives, in Jerusalem, for a considerable period (Acts viii. 1, +cf. xii. 1 ff.; an early tradition specifies twelve years). Other +apostles soon went forth on their mission to "the cities of Israel" (cf. +Acts ix. 31), and so exercised but little influence on the central +policy of the Church. Hence their shadowy existence in the New +Testament, though the actual wording of Matt. x. 5-42, read in the light +of the _Didachi_, may help us to conceive their work in its main +features. + +3. _"Pillar" Apostles._--But in fact differentiation between apostles +existed among the Twelve also. There were "pillars," like Peter and John +(and his brother James until his death), who really determined matters +of grave moment, as in the conference with Paul in Gal. ii. 9--a +conference which laid the basis of the latter's status as an apostle +even in the eyes of Jewish Christians. Such pre-eminence was but the +sequel of personal distinctions visible even in the preparatory days of +discipleship, and it warns us against viewing the primitive facts +touching apostles in the official light of later times. + +Consciousness of such personal pre-eminence has left its marks on the +lists of the Twelve in the New Testament. Thus (1) Peter, James, John, +Andrew, always appear as the first four, though the order varies, Mark +representing relative prominence during Christ's ministry, and Acts +actual influence in the Apostolic Church (cf. Luke viii. 51, ix. 28). +(2) The others also stand in groups of four, the first name in each +being constant, while the order of the rest varies. + +The same lesson emerges when we note that one such apostolic "pillar" +stood outside the Twelve altogether, viz. James, the Lord's brother +(Gal. ii. 9, cf. i. 19); and further, that "the Lord's brethren" seem to +have ranked above "apostles" generally, being named between them and +Peter in 1 Cor. ix. 5. That is, they too were apostles with the addition +of a certain personal distinction. + +4. _Paul, the "Apostle of the Gentiles."_--So far apostles are only of +the Palestinian type, taken from among actual hearers of the Messiah and +with a mission primarily to Jews--apostles "of the circumcision" (Gal. +ii. 7-9). Now, however, emerges a new apostleship, that to the Gentiles; +and with the change of mission goes also some change in the type of +missionary or apostle. Of this type Paul was the first, and he remained +its primary, and in some senses its only, example. Though he could +claim, on occasion, to satisfy the old test of having seen the risen +Lord (1 Cor. ix. 1, cf. xv. 8), he himself laid stress not on this, but +on the revelation within his own soul of Jesus as God's Son, and of the +Gospel latent therein (Gal. i. 16). This was his divine call as "apostle +of the Gentiles" (Rom. xi. 13); here lay both his qualification and his +credentials, once the fruits of the divine inworking were manifest in +the success of his missionary work (Gal. ii. 8 f.; 1 Cor. xi. 1 f.; 2 +Cor. in. 2 f., xii. 12). But this new criterion of apostleship was +capable of wider application, one dispensing altogether with vision of +the risen Lord--which could not even in Paul's case be proved so fully +as in the case of the original apostles--but appealing to the "signs of +an apostle" (1 Cor. ix. 2; 2 Cor. xii. 12), the tokens of spiritual gift +visible in work done, and particularly in the planting of the Gospel in +fresh fields (2 Cor. x. 14-18). It may be in this wide charismatic sense +that Paul uses the term in 1 Cor. xii. 28 f., Eph. ii. 20, iii. 5, iv. +11, and especially in Rom. xvi. 7, "men of mark among the apostles" (cf. +2 Cor. xi. 13, "pseudo-apostles" masquerading as "apostles of Christ," +and perhaps 1 Thess. ii, 6, of himself and Silas). That he used it in +senses differing with the context is proved by 1 Cor. xv. 9, where he +styles himself "the least of apostles," although in other connexions he +claims the very highest rank, co-ordinate even with the Twelve as a body +(Gal. ii. 7 ff.), in virtue of his distinctive Gospel. + +This point of view was not widely shared even in circles appreciative of +his actual work. To most he seemed but a fruitful worker within lines +determined by "the twelve apostles of the Lamb" as a body (Rev. xxi. +14). So we read of "the plant (Church) which the twelve apostles of the +Beloved shall plant" (_Ascension of Isaiah_, iv. 3); "those who preached +the Gospel to us (especially Gentiles) ... unto whom He gave authority +over the Gospel, being twelve for a witness to the tribes" (Barn. viii. +3, cf. v. 9); and the going forth of the Twelve, after twelve years, +beyond Palestine "into the world," to give it a chance to hear +(_Preaching of Peter_, in Clem. Alex. _Strom._ vi. 5.43; 6.48). Later +on, however, his own claim told on the Church's mind, when his epistles +were read in church as a collection styled simply "the Apostle." + +As the primary medium of the Gentile Gospel (Gal. i. 16, cf. i. 8, ii. +2) Paul had no peers as an "apostle of the Gentiles" (Rom. xi. 13, cf. +XV. 15-20, and see 1 Cor. xv. 8, "last of all to me"), unless it were +Barnabas who shares with him the title "apostle" in Acts xiv. 4, +14--possibly with reference to the special "work" on which they had +recently been "sent forth by the Spirit" (xiii. 2, 4). Yet such as +shared the spiritual gift (_charisma_) of missionary power in sufficient +degree, were in fact apostles of Christ in the Spirit (1 Cor. xii. 28, +II). Such a secondary type of apostolate--answering to "apostolic +missionaries" of later times (cf. the use of [Greek: hierapostolos] in +this sense by the Orthodox Eastern Church to-day)--would help to account +for the apostolic claims of the missionaries censured in Rev. ii. 2, as +also for the "apostles" of the second generation implied in the Didache. + +In the _sub-apostolic age_, however, the class of "missionaries" +enjoying a _charisma_ such as was conceived to convey apostolic +commission through the Spirit, soon became distinguished from "apostles" +(cf. Hennas, _Sim._ ix. 15.4, "the apostles and teachers of the message +of the Son of God," so 25.2; in 17.1 the apostles are reckoned as +twelve), as the title became more and more confined by usage to the +original apostles, particularly the Twelve as a body (e.g. _Ascension of +Isaiah_ and the _Preaching of Peter_), or to them and Paul (e.g. in +Clement and Ignatius), and as reverence for these latter grew in +connexion with their story in the Gospels and in Acts.[2] Thus Eusebius +describes as "evangelists" (cf. Philip the Evangelist in Acts xxi. 8, +also Eph. iv. 11, 2 Tim. iv. 5) those who "occupied the first rank in +the succession to the Apostles" in missionary work (_Hist. Eccl._ iii. +37, cf. v. 10). Yet the wider sense of "apostle" did not at once die out +even in the third and fourth generations. It lingered on as applied to +the Seventy[3]--by Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement and Origen--and even to +Clement of Rome, by Clem. Alex. (? as a "fellow-worker" of Paul, Phil. +iv. 3); while the adjective "apostolic" was applied to men like Polycarp +(in his contemporary _Acts of Martyrdom_) and the Phrygian, Alexander, +martyred at Lyons in A.D. 177 (Eus. v. 1), who was "not without share of +apostolic _charisma_." + +The _authority_ attaching to apostles was essentially spiritual in +character and in the conditions of its exercise. Anything like autocracy +among his followers was alien to Jesus's own teaching (Matt, xxiii. +6-11). All Christians were "brethren," and the basis of pre-eminence +among them was relative ability for service. But the personal relation +of the original Palestinian apostles to Jesus himself as Master gave +them a unique fitness as authorized witnesses, from which flowed +naturally, by sheer spiritual influence, such special forms of authority +as they came gradually to exercise in the early Church. "There is no +trace in Scripture of a formal commission of authority for government +from Christ Himself" (Hort, _Chr. Eccl._ p. 84) given to apostles, save +as representing the brethren in their collective action. Even the +"resolutions" ([Greek: dogmata]) of the Jerusalem conference were not +set forth by the apostles present simply in their own name, nor as _ipso +facto_ binding on the conscience of the Antiochene Church. They +expressed "a claim to deference rather than a right to be obeyed" (Hort, +_op. cit._ 81-85). Such was the kind of authority attaching to apostles, +whether collectively or individually. It was not a fixed notion, but +varied in quantity and quality with the growing maturity of converts. +This is how Paul, from whom we gather most on the point, conceives the +matter. The exercise of his spiritual authority is not absolute, lest he +"lord it over their faith"; consent of conscience or of "faith" is ever +requisite (2 Cor. i. 24; cf. Rom. xiv. 23). But the principle was +elastic in application, and would take more patriarchal forms in +Palestine than in the Greek world. The case was essentially the same as +on the various mission-fields to-day, where the position of the +"missionary" is at first one of great spiritual initiative and +authority, limited only by his own sense of the fitness of things, in +the light of local usages. So the notion of formal or constitutional +authority attaching to the apostolate, in its various senses, is an +anachronism for the apostolic age. The tendency, however, was for their +authority to be conceived more and more on formal lines, and, +particularly after their deaths, as absolute. + +The authority attaching to apostles as writers, which led gradually to +the formation of a New Testament Canon--"the Apostles" side by side with +"the Books" of the Old Testament (so 2 Clement xiv., c. A.D. +120-140)--is a subject by itself (see BIBLE). + +This change of conception helped to further the notion of a certain +devolution of apostolic powers to successors constituted by act of +ordination. The earliest idea of an _apostolical succession_ meant +simply the re-emergence in others of the apostolic spirit of missionary +enthusiasm. "The first rank in the succession of the apostles" consisted +of men eminent as disciples of theirs, and so fitted to continue their +labours (Euseb. iii. 37); and even under Commodus (A.D. 180-193) there +were "evangelists of the word" possessed of "inspired zeal to emulate +apostles" (v. 10). Such were perhaps the "apostles" of the _Didache_. Of +the notion of apostolic succession in ministerial grace conferred by +ordination, there is little or no trace before Irenaeus. The famous +passage in Clement of Rome (xliv. 2) refers simply to the succession of +one set of men to another in an office of apostolic institution. The +grace that makes Polycarp "an apostolic and prophetic teacher" (_Mart. +Polyc._ 16) is peculiar to him personally. But Irenaeus holds, +apparently on _a priori_ grounds, that "elders" who stand in orderly +succession to the apostolic founders of the true tradition in the +churches, have, "along with the succession of oversight," also an +"assured gift of (insight into) truth" by the Father's good pleasure +("cum episcopatus successione charisma veritatis certum secundum +placitum Patris acceperunt"), in contrast to heretics who wilfully stand +outside this approved line of transmission (_adv. Haer._ iv. 26. 2). So +far, indeed, the succession is not limited to the monarchical episcopate +as distinct from the presbyteral order to which it belonged (cf. +"presbyterii ordo, principalis consessio" in the same context, and see +iii. 14. 2), though the bishops of apostolic churches, as capable of +being traced individually (iii. 3. 1), are specially appealed to as +witnesses (cf. iv. 33. 8, v. 19. 2)--as earlier by Hegesippus (Euseb. +iv. 22). Nor is there mention of sacerdotal grace attaching to the +succession in apostolic truth.[4] But once the idea of supernatural +grace going along with office as such (of which we have already a trace +in the Ignatian bishop, though without the notion of actual apostolic +succession) arose in connexion with _successio ab apostolis_, the full +development of the doctrine was but a matter of time.[5] + + LITERATURE.--In England the modern treatment of the subject dates from + J.B. Lightfoot's dissertation in his _Commentary on Galatians_, to + which Dr F.J.A. Hort's _The Christian Ecclesia_ added elements of + value; see also T.M. Lindsay, _The Church and the Ministry_, and + articles in Hastings' _Dictionary of the Bible_ and the _Ency. + Biblica_; A. Harnack, _Die Lehre der Apostel_, pp. 93 ff., and + _Dogmengeschichte_ (3rd ed.), i. 153 ff.; E. Haupt, _Zum Verstandnis + d. Apostolats in NT._ (Halle, 1896); and especially H. Monnier, _La + Notion de l'apostolat, des origines a Irenee_ (Paris, 1903). The later + legends and their sources are examined by T. Schermann, _Propheten- + und Apostellegenden_ (Leipzig, 1907). (J. V. B.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] By analogy, that is; for the wider sense of "apostle" in the + Apostolic age need not be identical with a sub-apostolic use of the + term (see below, 4 _fin_.). + + [2] The tendency is already visible in the Lucan writings. An + anologous process is seen in the use of "disciple," applicable in the + apostolic age to Christians at large, but in the course of the + sub-apostolic age restricted to personal "disciples of the Lord" or + to martyrs (Papias in Eus. iii. 39, cf. Ignatius, _Ad Eph._ i. 2). + + [3] In the Edessene legend of Abgar, in Eus. i. 12, we read that + "Judas, who is also Thomas, sent Thaddaeus as apostle--one of the + Seventy," where simply an authoritative envoy of Jesus seems + intended. For traces of the wider sense of "apostle" in Gnostic, + Marcionite and Montanist circles, see Monnier (as below). + + [4] The above is substantially the view taken by J.B. Lightfoot in + his essay on "The Christian Ministry" (_Comm. on Philippians_, 6th + ed., pp. 239, 252 f.), and by T.M. Lindsay, _The Church and the + Ministry_ (1902), pp. 224-228, 278 ff. Even C. Gore, _The Church and + the Ministry_ (1889), pp. 119 ff., while inferring a sacerdotal + element in Irenaeus's conception of the episcopate, says: "But it is + mainly as preserving the catholic traditions that Irenaeus regards + the apostolic succession" (p. 120). + + [5] See Lightfoot's essay for Cyprian's contribution, as also for + that of the Clementines, which fix on the twofold position of James + at Jerusalem, as apostle and bishop, as bearing on apostolic + succession in the episcopate. + + + + +APOSTLE SPOONS, a set of spoons, usually of silver or silver gilt, with +the handles terminating in figures of the apostles, each bearing their +distinctive emblem. They were common baptismal gifts during the 15th and +16th centuries, but were dying out by 1666. Often single spoons were +given, bearing the figure of the patron or name saint of the child. Sets +of the twelve apostles are not common, and complete sets of thirteen, +with the figure of our Lord on a larger spoon, are still rarer. The +Goldsmiths' Company in London has one such set, all by the same maker +and bearing the hall-mark of 1626, and a set of thirteen was sold at +Christie's in 1904 for L4900. + + See William Hone, _The Everyday Book_ and _Table Book_ (1831); and + W.J. Cripps, _Old English Plate_ (9th ed., 1906). + + + + +APOSTOLICAL CONSTITUTIONS ([Greek: Diatagai] _or_ [Greek: Diataxeis ton +agion apostolon dia Klaementos tou Rhomaion episkopou te kai politou. +Katholikae didaskalia]), a collection of ecclesiastical regulations in +eight books, the last of which concludes with the eighty-five _Canons of +the Holy Apostles_. By their title the Constitutions profess to have +been drawn up by the apostles, and to have been transmitted to the +Church by Clement of Rome; sometimes the alleged authors are represented +as speaking jointly, sometimes singly. From the first they have been +very variously estimated; the _Canons_, as a rule, more highly than the +rest of the work. For example, the Trullan Council of Constantinople +(_quini-sextum_), A.D. 692, accepts the Canons as genuine by its second +canon, but rejects the Constitutions on the ground that spurious matter +had been introduced into them by heretics; and whilst the former were +henceforward used freely in the East, only a few portions of the latter +found their way into the Greek and oriental law-books. Again, Dionysius +Exiguus (c. A.D. 500) translated fifty of the Canons into Latin,[1] +although under the title _Canones qui dicuntur Apostolorum_, and thus +they passed into other Western collections; whilst the Constitutions as +a whole remained unknown in the West until they were published in 1563 +by the Jesuit Turrianus. At first received with enthusiasm, their +authenticity soon came to be impugned; and their true significance was +largely lost sight of as it began to be realized that they were not what +they claimed to be. Vain attempts were still made to rehabilitate them, +and they were, in general, more highly estimated in England than +elsewhere. The most extravagant estimate of all was that of Whiston, who +calls them "the most sacred standard of Christianity, equal in authority +to the Gospels themselves, and superior in authority to the epistles of +single apostles, some parts of them being our Saviour's own original +laws delivered to the apostles, and the other parts the public acts of +the apostles" (Historical preface to _Primitive Christianity Revived_, +pp. 85-86). Others, however, realized their composite character from the +first, and by degrees some of the component documents became known. +Bishop Pearson was able to say that "the eight books of the Apostolic +Constitutions have been after Epiphanius's time compiled and patched +together out of the _didascaliae_ or doctrines which went under the +names of the holy apostles and their disciples or successors" (_Vind. +Ign._ i. cap. 5); whilst a greater scholar still, Archbishop Usher, had +already gone much further, and concluded, forestalling the results of +modern critical methods, that their compiler was none other than the +compiler of the spurious Ignatian epistles (_Epp. Polyc. et Ign._ p. +lxiii. f., Oxon. 1644). The Apostolical Constitutions, then, are +spurious, and they are one of a long series of documents of like +character. But we have not really gauged their significance by saying +that they are spurious. They are the last stage and climax of a gradual +process of compilation and crystallization, so to speak, of unwritten +church custom; and a short account of this process will show their real +importance and value. + + + Origin and real nature. + +These documents are the outcome of a tendency which is found in every +society, religious or secular, at some point in its history. The society +begins by living in accordance with its fundamental principles. By +degrees these translate themselves into appropriate action. Difficulties +are faced and solved as they arise; and when similar circumstances recur +they will tend to be met in the same way. Thus there grows up by degrees +a body of what may be called customary law. Plainly, there is no +particular point of time at which this customary law can be said to have +begun. To all appearance it is there from the first in solution and +gradually crystallizes out; and yet it is being continually modified as +time goes on. Moreover, the time comes when the attempt is made, either +by private individuals or by the society itself, to put this "customary +law" into writing. Now when this is done, two tendencies will at once +show themselves. (a) This "customary law" will at once become more +definite: the very fact of putting it into writing will involve an +effort after logical completeness. There will be a tendency on the part +of the writer to fill up gaps; to state local customs as if they +obtained universally; to introduce his personal equation, and to add to +that which is the custom that which, in his opinion, _ought_ to be. (b) +There will be a strong tendency to fortify that which has been written +with great names, especially in days when there is no very clear notion +of literary property. This is done, not always with any deliberate +consciousness of fraud (although it must be clearly recognized that +truth is not one of the "natural virtues," and that the sense of the +obligations of truthfulness was far from strong), but rather to +emphasize the importance of what was written, and the fact that it was +no new invention of the writer's. In a non-literary age fame gathers +about great names; and that which, _ex hypothesi_, has gone on since the +beginning of things is naturally attributed to the founders of the +society. Then come interpolations to make this ascription more probable, +and the prefixing of a title, then or subsequently, which states it as a +fact. This is precisely the way in which the Apostolical Constitutions +and other kindred documents have come into being. They are attempts, +made in various places and at different times, to put into writing the +order and discipline and character of the Church; in part for private +instruction and edification, but in part also with a view to actual use; +frequently even with an actual reference to particular circumstances. In +this lies their importance, to a degree which is only just being +adequately realized. They contain evidence of the utmost value as to the +order of the Church in early days; evidence, however, which needs to be +sifted with the greatest care, since the personal preferences of the +writer and the customs of the local church to which he belongs are +continually mixed up with things which have a wider prevalence. It is +only by careful investigation, by the method of comparisons, that these +elements can be disentangled; but as the number of documents of this +class known to us is continually increasing, their value increases even +more than proportionately. And whilst their local and fugitive character +must be fully recognized and allowed for, is it unjustifiable to set +them aside or leave them out of account as heretical, and therefore +negligible. + + + Other collections. + +It will be sufficient here to mention shortly the chief collections of +this kind which came into existence during the first four centuries; +generally as the work of private individuals, and having, at any rate, +no more than a local authority of some kind, (a) The earliest known to +us is the _Didache_ or _Teaching of the Twelve Apostles_, itself +compiled from earlier materials, and dating from about 120 (see +DIDACHE). (b) _The Apostolic Church Order_ (_apostolische +Kirchenordnung_ of German writers); _Ecclesiastical Canons of the Holy +Apostles_ of one MS.; _Sententiae Apostolorum_ of Pitra: of about 300, +and emanating probably from Asia Minor. Its earlier part, cc. 1-14, +depends upon the _Didache_, and the rest of it is a book of discipline +in which Harnack has attempted to distinguish two older fragments of +church law (_Texte u. Unters_. ii. 5). (c) The so-called _Canones +Hippolyti_, probably Alexandrian or Roman, and of the first half of the +3rd century. It will be observed that these make no claim to apostolic +authorship; but otherwise their origin is like that of the rest, unless +indeed, as has been suggested, they represent the work of an actual +Roman synod, (d) The so-called _Egyptian Church Order_, in Coptic from a +Greek pre-Nicene original (c. 310). It is part of the Egyptian +Heptateuch and contains neither communion nor ordination forms, (e) The +_Ethiopic Church Order_, perhaps twenty years later than (d), and +forming part of the _Ethiopic Statutes_. (f) The _Verona Latin +Fragments_, discovered and published by Hauler, portions of a form akin +to (e), which may be dated c. 340, though possibly earlier. It has a +preface which refers to a treatise _Concerning Spiritual Gifts_ as +having immediately preceded it. (g) The recently discovered _Testament +of the Lord_, which is somewhat later in date (c. 350), and likewise +depends upon the _Canones Hippolyti_. (h) The so-called _Canons of +Basil_. This is an Arabic work perhaps based on a Coptic and ultimately +on a Greek original, embodying with modifications large portions of the +Canons of Hippolytus. (On the relations between the six last-named, see +HIPPOLYTUS, CANONS of.) + + Here also may be noticed the _Didascalia Apostolorum_, originally + written in Greek, but known through a Syriac version and a fragmentary + Latin one published by Hauler. It is of the middle of the 3rd + century--in fact, a passage in the Latin translation seems to give us + the date A.D. 254. It emanates from Palestine or Syria, and is + independent of the documents already mentioned; and upon it the + _Constitutions_ themselves very largely depend. It is a mixture of + moral and ecclesiastical instruction. The _Sacramentary of Serapion_ + (c. 350), _The Pilgrimage of Etheria_ (_Silvia_) (c. 385), and _The + Catechetical Lectures of Cyril of Jerusalem_ (348) are also of value + in this connexion. In the (so-called) _Constitutions through + Hippolytus_ we have possibly a preliminary draft of the famous 8th + book of the _Apostolical Constitutions_.[2] + + + Contents. + +The Constitutions themselves fall into three main divisions. (i.) The +first of these consists of books i.-vi., and throughout runs parallel to +the _Didascalia_. Bickell, indeed, held that this latter was an +abbreviated form of books i.-vi.; but it is now agreed on all hands that +the Constitutions are based on the _Didascalia_ and not vice versa. +(ii.) Then follows book vii., the first thirty-one chapters of which are +an adaptation of the _Didache_, whilst the rest contain various +liturgical forms of which the origin is still uncertain, though it has +been acutely suggested by Achelis, and with great probability, that they +originated in the schismatical congregation of Lucian at Antioch. (iii.) +Book viii. is more composite, and falls into three parts. The first two +chapters, [Greek: peri charismaton], may be based upon a lost work of St +Hippolytus, otherwise known only by a reference to it in the preface of +the _Verona Latin Fragments_; and an examination shows that this is +highly probable. The next section, cc. 3-27, [Greek: peri cheirotoyioy], +and cc. 28-46, [Greek: peri kayoyoy], is twofold, and is evidently that +upon which the writer sets most store. The apostles no longer speak +jointly, but one by one in an apostolic council, and the section closes +with a joint decree of them all. They speak of the ordination of bishops +(the so-called Clementine Liturgy is that which is directed to be used +at the consecration of a bishop, cc. 5-15), of presbyters, deacons, +deaconesses, sub-deacons and lectors, and then pass on to confessors, +virgins, widows and exorcists; after which follows a series of canons on +various subjects, and liturgical formulae. With regard to this section, +all that can be said is that it includes materials which are also to be +found elsewhere--in the _Egyptian Church Order_ and other documents +already spoken of--and that the precise relation between them is at +present not determined. The third section consists of the Apostolic +Canons already referred to, the last and most significant of which +places the Constitutions and the two epistles of Clement in the canon of +Scripture, and omits the Apocalypse. They are derived in part from the +preceding Constitutions, in part from the canons of the councils of +Antioch, 341, Nicaea, 325, and possibly Laodicaea, 363. + +A comparison of the Constitutions with the material upon which they are +based will illustrate the compiler's method. (a) To begin with the +_Didascalia_ already mentioned. It is unmethodical and badly digested, +homiletical in style, and abounding in biblical quotations. There is no +precise arrangement; but the subjects, following a general introduction, +are the bishop and his duties, penance, the administration of the +offerings, the settlement of disputes, the divine service, the order of +widows, deacons and deaconesses, the poor, behaviour in persecution, and +so forth. The compiler of the Constitutions finds here material after +his own heart. He is even more discursive and more homiletical in style; +he adds fresh citations of the Scriptures, and additional explanations +and moral reflexions; and all this with so little judgment that he often +leaves confusion worse confounded (e.g. in ii. 57, where, upon a +symbolical description of the Church as a sheepfold, he has superimposed +the further symbolism of a ship). (b) Passing on to books vii. and +viii., we observe that the compiler's method of necessity changes with +his new material. In the former book he still makes large additions and +alterations, but there is less scope for his prolixity than before; and +in the latter, where he is no longer dealing with generalities, but +making actual definitions, the Constitutions of necessity become more +precise and statutory in form. Throughout he adopts and adapts the +language of his sources as far as possible, "only pruning in the most +pressing cases," but towards the end he cannot avoid making larger +alterations from time to time. And his alterations throughout are not +made aimlessly. Where he finds things which would obviously clash with +the customs of his own day, he unhesitatingly modifies them. An account +of the Passion, with a curiously perverted chronology, the object of +which was to justify the length of the Passion-tide fast, is entirely +revised for this reason (v. 14); the direction to observe Easter +according to the Jewish computation is changed into the exact contrary +for the same reason (v. 17); and where his archetype lapses into +speaking of a lull in persecution he naively informs us that the Romans +have now given up persecuting and have adopted Christianity (vi. 26), +forgetting altogether that he is speaking in the character of the +apostles. Above all, he both magnifies the office of the Christian +ministry as a whole and alters what is said of it in detail (for +example, the deaconess loses rank not a little), to make it agree with +the circumstances of his day in general, and with his own ideas of +fitness in particular. It is here that his evidence is at once most +valuable and needs to be used with the greatest care. To give one +striking example of the value of these documents. The _Canones +Hippolyti_ (vi. 43) provide that one who has been a confessor for the +faith may be received as a presbyter by virtue of his confessorship and +not by the laying on of the bishop's hands; but if he be chosen a +bishop, he is to be ordained. This provision passes on into the Egyptian +_Ecclesiastical Canons_ and other kindred documents, and even into the +_Testamentum Domini_. But the corresponding passage in the Apostolical +Constitutions (viii. 23) entirely reverses it: "A confessor is not +ordained, for he is so by choice and patience, and is worthy of great +honour.... But if there be occasion, he is to be ordained either a +bishop, priest, or deacon. But if any one of the confessors who is not +ordained snatches to himself any such dignity upon account of his +confession, let the same person be deprived and rejected; for he is not +in such an office, since he has denied the constitution of Christ, and +is worse than an infidel." + + + Authorship, place, and date. + +Who, then, is the author of the Constitutions, and what can be inferred +with regard to him? (i.) By separating off the sources which he used +from his own additions to them, it at once becomes clear that the latter +are the work of one man: the style is unmistakable, and the method of +working is the same throughout. The compiler of books i.-vi. is also the +compiler of books vii., viii. (ii.) As to his theological position, +different views have been held. Funk suggests Apollinarianism, which is +the refuge of the destitute; and Achelis inclines in the same direction. +But the affinities of the author are quite otherwise, the most +pronounced of them being a strong subordinationist tendency, denial of a +human soul to Christ, and the like, which suggest not indeed Arianism +but an inclination towards Arianism. Above all, his polemic is directed +against the dying heresies of the 3rd century; and he writes with an +absence of constraint which is not the language of one who lives amidst +violent controversies or who is conscious of being in a minority. All +this points to the position of a "conservative" or semi-Arian of the +East, one who belongs, perhaps, to the circle of Lucian of Antioch and +writes before the time of Julian. It is hard to think of any other time +or circumstances in which a man could write like this, (iii.) The +indications of _time_ have been held to point to a different conclusion. +On the one hand, the fact that the attempt to rebuild the temple by +Julian in 363 is not mentioned in vi. 24 points to an earlier date; and +the fact that the [Greek: kopiatai] are not mentioned amongst the church +officers points in the same direction, for elsewhere they are first +mentioned in a rescript of Constantius in A.D. 357. On the other hand, +in the cycle of feasts occur the names of several which are probably of +later date--e.g. Christmas and St Stephen, which were introduced at +Antioch c. A.D. 378 and 379 respectively. Again, Epiphanius (c. A.D. +374) appears to be unacquainted with it; he still quotes from the +_Didascalia_, and elaborately explains it away where it is contrary to +the usages of his own day. But as regards the former point, it is +possible that the Apostolical Constitutions constantly gave rise to +these festivals; or, on the other hand, that the two passages were +subsequently introduced either by the writer himself or by some other +hand, when the last book of the Constitutions was being used as a +law-book. And as regards the latter, the fact that Epiphanius does not +use the Constitutions is no proof that they had not yet been compiled. +(iv.) As to the region of composition there is no real doubt. It was +clearly the East, Syria or Palestine. Many indications are against the +latter, and Syria is strongly suggested by the use of the +Syro-Macedonian calendar. Moreover, the writer represents the Roman +Clement as the channel of communication between the apostles and the +Church. This fact both supplies him with the name by which he is +commonly known, Pseudo-Clement, and also furnishes corroboration of his +Syrian birth; since the other spurious writings bearing the name of +Clement, the _Homilies_ and _Recognitions_, are likewise of Syrian +origin. Moreover, the spurious Ignatian epistles, which are also Syrian, +depend throughout upon the Constitutions, (v.) But this is not all. It +was long ago noticed that Pseudo-Clement bears a very close resemblance +to Pseudo-Ignatius, the interpolator of the Ignatian Epistles in the +longer Greek recension. Usher, as we have seen, identified them, and +modern criticism accepts this identification as a fact (Lagarde, +Harnack, Funk, Brightman). Lightfoot, indeed, still hesitated (_Ap. +Fathers_, II. i. 266 n.) on the ground that Pseudo-Ignatius occasionally +misunderstands the Constitutions, that the two writings give the Roman +succession differently, and that Pseudo-Clement shows no knowledge of +the Christological controversies of Nicaea. But as regards the first of +these, it is rather a case of condensed citation than of +misinterpretation; the second is explained by the writer's carelessness +as shown in other passages, and all are solved if a considerable +interval of time elapsed between the compilation of the Constitutions +and the spurious Ignatian epistles. + +It seems clear then that the compiler was a Syrian, and that he also +wrote the spurious Ignatian epistles; he was likewise probably a +semi-Arian of the school of Lucian of Antioch. His date is given by +Harnack as A.D. 340-360, with a leaning to 340-343; by Lightfoot as the +latter half of the 4th century; by Brightman, 370-380; by Maclean, 375; +and by Funk as the beginning of the 5th century. + + AUTHORITIES.--W. Ueltzen, _Constitutiones Apostolicae_ (Schwerin, + 1853); P.A. de Lagarde, _Didascalia Apostolorum Syriace_ (Leipz., + 1854); _Constitutiones Apostolorum_ (Leipz. and Lond., 1862); M.D. + Gibson, _Didascalia Apost. Syriace_, with Eng. trans. (_Horae + Semiticae_, i. and ii., Cambridge, 1903); J.B. Pitra, _Juris + Ecclesiastici Graecorum Historia et Monumenta_, i. (Rome, 1864); + Hauler, _Didascaliae Apostolorum Fragmenta Ueronensia Latina_, + (Leipzig, 1900); Bickell, _Geschichte des Kirchenrechts_, i. (Giessen, + 1843); F.X. Funk, _Die apostolischen Konstitutionen_ (Rottenb., 1891); + A. Harnack, _Geschichte d. altchristl. Litteratur_, i. 515 ff. + (Leipz., 1893); F.E. Brightman, _Liturgies Eastern and Western_, I. + xvii. ff. (Oxford, 1896); H. Achelis, in Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_, + i. 734 f., art. "Apostolische Konstitutionen und Kanones" (Leipz., + 1896); A.S. Maclean, _Recent Discoveries illustrating Early Christian + Worship_ (Lond., 1904); J. Wordsworth, _The Ministry of Grace_, pp. 18 + ff; J.P. Arendzen, "The Apostolic Church Order" (Syriac Text, Eng. + trans. and notes) in _Journ. of Theol. Studies_, iii. 59. Trans. of + _Apost. Constitutions_, book viii., in Ante-Nicene Christian Library. + (W. E. Co.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Why he did not go on to give the remaining thirty-five is not + clear; they belong to the same date as, and are not inferior to, the + first fifty. + + [2] At a later date various collections were made of the documents + above mentioned, or some of them, to serve as law-books in different + churches--e.g. the Syrian Octateuch, the Egyptian Heptateuch, and the + Ethiopic Sinodos. These, however, stand on an entirely different + footing, since they are simply collections of existing documents, and + no attempt is made to claim apostolic authorship for them. + + + + +APOSTOLIC CANONS, a collection of eighty-five rules for the regulation +of clerical life, appended to the eighth book of the _Apostolical +Constitutions_ (q.v.). They are couched in brief legislative form though +on no definite plan, and deal with the vexed questions of ecclesiastical +discipline as they were raised towards the end of the 4th century. At +least half of the canons are derived from earlier constitutions, and +probably not many of them are the actual productions of the compiler, +whose aim was to gloss over the real nature of the _Constitutions_, and +secure their incorporation with the Epistles of Clement in the New +Testament of his day. The _Codex Alexandrinus_ does indeed append the +Clementine Epistles to its text of the New Testament. The Canons may be +a little later in date than the preceding _Constitutions_, but they are +evidently from the same Syrian theological circle. + + + + +APOSTOLIC FATHERS, a term used to distinguish those early Christian +writers who were believed to have been the personal associates of the +original Apostles. While the title "Fathers" was given from at least the +beginning of the 4th century to church writers of former days, as being +the parents of Christian belief and thought for later times, the +expression "Apostolic Fathers" dates only from the latter part of the +17th century. The idea of recognizing these "Fathers" as a special group +exists already in the title "Patres aevi apostolici, sive SS. Patrum qui +temporibus apostolicis floruerunt ... opera," under which in 1672 J.B. +Cotelier published at Paris the writings current under the names of +Barnabas, Clement of Rome, Hermas, Ignatius and Polycarp. But the name +itself is due to their next editor, Thomas Ittig (1643-1710), in his +_Bibliotheca Patrum Apostolicorum_ (1699), who, however, included under +this title only Clement, Ignatius and Polycarp. Here already appears the +doubt as to how many writers can claim the title, a doubt which has +continued ever since, and makes the contents of the "Apostolic Fathers" +differ so much from editor to editor. Thus the Oratorian Andrea Gallandi +(1700-1779), in re-issuing Cotelier's collection in his _Bibliotheca +Veterum Patrum_ (1765-1781), included the fragments of Papias and the +Epistle to Diognetus, to which recent editors have added the citations +from the "Elders" of Papias's day found in Irenaeus and, since 1883, the +_Didache_. + +The degree of historic claim which these various writings have to rank +as the works[1] of Apostolic Fathers varies greatly on any definition of +"apostolic." Originally the epithet was meant to be taken strictly, viz. +as denoting those whom history could show to have been personally +connected, or at least coeval, with one or more apostles; and an effort +was made, as by Cotelier, to distinguish the writings rightly and +wrongly assigned to such. Thus editions tended to vary with the +historical views of editors. But the convenience of the category +"Apostolic Fathers" to express not only those who might possibly have +had some sort of direct contact with apostles--such as "Barnabas," +Clement, Ignatius, Papias, Polycarp--but also those who seemed specially +to preserve the pure tradition of apostolic doctrine during the +sub-apostolic age, has led to its general use in a wide and vague sense. + +Conventionally, then, the title denotes the group of writings which, +whether in date or in internal character, are regarded as belonging to +the main stream of the Church's teaching during the period between the +Apostles and the Apologists (i.e. to c. A.D. 140). Or to put it more +exactly, the "Apostolic Fathers" represent, chronologically in the main +and still more from the religious and theological standpoint, the +momentous process of transition from the type of teaching in the New +Testament to that which meets us in the early Catholic Fathers, from the +last quarter of the 2nd century onwards. The Apologists no doubt show us +certain fresh factors entering into this development; but on the whole +the Apostolic Fathers by themselves go a long way to explain the +transition in question, so far as knowledge of this _saeculum obscurum_ +is within our reach at all. It is true that they do not include the +whole even of the ecclesiastical literature of the sub-apostolic age, +not to mention what remains of Gnostic and other minority types. The +_Preaching and Apocalypse_ of Peter, for instance, are quite typical of +the same period, and help us to read between the lines of the Apostolic +Fathers. Yet they do not really add much to what is there already, and +they have the drawbacks of pseudonymity; they lack concrete and personal +qualities; they are general expressions of tendencies which we cannot +well locate or measure, save by means of the Apostolic Fathers +themselves or of their earliest Catholic successors. + +(A) In _external features_ the group is far from homogeneous, a fact +which has led to their being disintegrated as a group in certain +histories of early Christian literature (e.g. those of Harnack and +Kruger), and classed each under its own literary type--so sacrificing to +outer form, which is quite secondary in primitive Christian writings, +the more significant fact of religious affinity. Its original members, +those still best entitled to their name in any strict sense, are +epistles, and in this respect also most akin to Apostolic writings. +Indeed Ignatius takes pleasure in saluting his readers "after the +apostolic stamp" (_ad Troll._ inscr.), while yet disclaiming all desire +to emulate the apostolic manner in other respects, being fully conscious +of the gulf between himself and apostles like Peter and Paul in claim to +authority (_ib._ in. 3, _ad Rom._ iv. 3). The like holds of Polycarp, +who, in explaining that he writes to exhort the Philippians only at +their own request, adds, "for neither am I, nor is any other like me, +able to follow the wisdom of the blessed and glorious Paul" (in. 2). +Clement's epistle, indeed, conforms more to the elaborate and +treatise-like form of the Epistle to the Hebrews, on which it draws so +largely; and the same is true of "Barnabas." But one and all are +influenced by study of apostolic epistles, and witness to the impression +which these produced on the men of the next generation. Unconsciously, +too, they correspond to the apostolic type of writing in another +respect, viz. their occasional and practical character. They are evoked +by pressing needs of the hour among some definite body of Christians and +not by any literary motive.[2] This is a universal trait of primitive +Christian writings; so that to speak of primitive Christian "literature" +at all is hardly accurate, and tends to an artificial handling of their +contents. These sub-apostolic epistles are veritable "human documents," +with the personal note running through them. They are after all personal +expressions of Christianity, in which are discernible also specific +types of local tradition. To such spontaneous actuality a large part of +their interest and value is due. + +Nor is this pre-literary and vital quality really absent even from the +writing which is least entitled to a place among "Apostolic Fathers," +the Epistle to Diognetus. This beautiful picture of the Christian life +as a realized ideal, and of Christians as "the soul" of the world, owes +its inclusion to a double error: first, to the accidental attachment at +the end of another fragment (S ii), which opens with the writer's claim +to stand forth as a teacher as being "a disciple of apostles"; and next, +to mistaken exegesis of this phrase as implying personal relations with +apostles, rather than knowledge of their teaching, written or oral. +Whether in form addressed to Diognetus, the tutor of Marcus Aurelius, as +a typical cultured observer of Christianity, or to some other eminent +person of the same name in the locality of its origin, or, as seems more +likely, to cultured Greeks generally, personified under the significant +name "Diognetus" ("Heaven-born," of. Acts xvii. 28 along with S iii. +4)--the epistle is in any case an "open letter" of an essentially +literary type. Further, its opening seems modelled on the lines of the +preface to Luke's Gospel, to which, along with Acts, it may owe +something of its very conception as a reasoned appeal to the lover of +truth. But while literary in form and conception, its appeal is in +spirit so personal a testimony to what the Gospel has done for the +writer and his fellow Christians, that it is akin to the piety of the +Apostolic Fathers as a group. It is true that it has marked affinities, +e.g. in its natural theology, with the earliest Apologists, Aristides +and Justin, even as it is itself in substance an apology addressed not +to the State, but to thoughtful public opinion. But this only means that +we cannot draw a hard and fast line between groups of early Christian +writings at a time when practical religious interests overshadowed all +others. + +If thus related to the Apologists of the middle of the 2nd century, the +Epistle to Diognetus has also points of contact with one of the most +practical and least literary writings found among our Apostolic Fathers, +viz. the homily originally known as the Second Epistle of Clement (for +this ascription, as for other details, see CLEMENTINE LITERATURE). The +recovery of its concluding sections in the same MS. which brought the +_Didache_ to light, proves beyond question that we have here the +earliest extant sermon preached before a Christian congregation, about +A.D. 120-140 (so J.B. Lightfoot). Its opening section, recalling to its +hearers the passing of the mists of idolatry before the revelation in +Jesus Christ, is markedly similar in tone and tenor to passages in the +Epistle to Diognetus. Far closer, however, are the affinities between +the homily and the _Shepherd of Hermas_, "the first Christian allegory," +which as a literary whole dates from about A.D. 140, but probably +represents a more or less prolonged prophetic activity on the part of +its author, the brother of Pius, the Roman bishop of his day (c. +139-154). In both the primary theme is repentance, as called for by +serious sins, after baptism has placed the Christian on his new and +higher level of responsibility. Thus both are hortatory writings, the +one argumentative in form, the other prophetic, after the manner of +later Old Testament prophets whose messages came in visions and +similitudes. This prophetic and apocalyptic note, which characterizes +Hermas among the Apostolic Fathers (though there are traces of it also +in the _Didache_ and in Ignatius, _ad Eph._ xx.), is a genuinely +primitive trait and goes far to explain the vogue which the _Shepherd_ +enjoyed in the generations immediately succeeding, as also the influence +of its disciplinary policy, which is its prophetic "burden" (see HERMAS, +SHEPHERD OF). + +We come finally to the anonymous _Teaching of the Twelve Apostles_ and +Papias's _Exposition of Oracles of the Lord_, so far as this is known to +us. The former, besides embodying catechetical instruction in Christian +conduct (the "Two Ways"), which goes back in substance to the early +apostolic age and is embodied also in "Barnabas," depicts in outline the +fundamental usages of church life as practised in some conservative +region (probably within Syria) about the last quarter of the 1st century +and perhaps even later. The whole is put forth as substantially the +apostolic teaching (_Didache_) on the subjects in question. This is +probably a _bona fide_ claim. It expresses the feeling common to the +Apostolic Fathers and general in the sub-apostolic age, at any rate in +regions where apostles had once laboured, that local tradition, as held +by the recognized church leaders, did but continue apostolic doctrine +and practice. Into later developments of this feeling an increasing +element of illusion entered, and all other written embodiments of it +known to us take the form of literary fictions, more or less bold. It is +in contrast to these that the _Didache_ is justly felt to be genuinely +primitive and of a piece with the Apostolic Fathers. Thus while its form +would by analogy tend _per se_ to awaken suspicion, its contents remove +this feeling; and we may even infer from this surviving early +formulation of local ecclesiastical tradition, that others of somewhat +similar character came into being in the sub-apostolic age, but failed +to survive save as embodied in later local teaching, oral or written, +very much as if the _Didache_ had perished and its literary offspring +alone remained (see DIDACHE). + +As regards Papias's _Exposition_, which Lightfoot describes as "among +the earliest forerunners of commentaries, partly explanatory, partly +illustrative, on portions of the New Testament," we need here only +remark that, whatever its exact form may have been--as to which the +extant fragments still leave room for doubt--it was in conception +expository of the historic meaning of Christ's more ambiguous Sayings, +viewed in the light of definitely ascertained apostolic traditions +bearing on the subject. The like is true also of the fragments of the +Elders preserved in Irenaeus (so far as these do not really come from +Papias). Both bodies of exposition represent the traditional principle +at work in the sub-apostolic age, making for the preservation in +relative purity, over against merely subjective interpretations--those +of the Gnostics in particular--of the historic or original sense of +Christ's teaching, just as Ignatius stood for the historicity of the +facts of His earthly career in their plain, natural sense. + +(B) Here the question of external form passes readily over into that of +the _internal character and spirit_. Indeed much has already been said +or suggested bearing on these. The relation of these writers to the +apostolic teaching generally has become pretty evident. It is one of +absolute loyalty and deference, as to the teaching of inspiration. They +are conscious, as are we in reading them, that they are not moving on +the same level of insight as the Apostles; they are sub-apostolic in +that sense also. Hence there appear constant traces of study of the +Apostolic writings, so far as these were accessible in the locality of +each writer at his date of writing (for the details of this subject, and +its bearing on the history of the Canonical Scriptures of the New +Testament, see _The New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers_, Oxford, +1905). As Lightfoot points out (_Apostolic Fathers_, pt. i. vol. i. p. +7), however, personality, with its variety of temperament and emphasis, +largely colours the Apostolic Fathers, especially the primary group. +Clement has all the Roman feeling for duly constituted order and +discipline; Ignatius has the Syrian or semi-oriental passion of +devotion, showing itself at once in his mystic love for his Lord and his +over-strained yearning to become His very "disciple" by drinking the +like cup of martyrdom; Polycarp is, above all things, steady in his +allegiance to what had first won his conscience and heart, and his +"passive and receptive character" comes out in the contents of his +epistle. Of the rest, whose personalities are less known to us, Papias +shares Polycarp's qualities and their limitations, the anonymous +homilist and Hermas are marked by intense moral earnestness, while the +writer to Diognetus joins to this a profound religious insight. These +personal traits determine by selective affinity, working under +conditions given by the special local type of tradition and piety, the +elements in the Apostolic writings which each was able to assimilate and +express--though we must allow also for variety in the occasions of +writing. Thus one New Testament type is echoed in one and another in +another; or it may be several in turn. The latter is the case in +Clement, Ignatius and Polycarp; perhaps also in "Barnabas." In Hermas +there is special affinity to the language and thought of the epistle of +James, and in the homilist to those of Paul. Yet their very use of the +same terms or ideas makes us the more aware of "a marked contrast to the +depth and clearness of conception with which the several Apostolic +writers place before us different aspects of the Gospel" (Lightfoot). +While Apostolic phrases are used, the sense behind them is often +different and less evangelic. They have not caught the Apostolic +meaning, because they have not penetrated to the full religious +experience which gave to the words, often words with long and varied +history both in the Septuagint and in ordinary Greek usage, their +specific meaning to each apostle and especially to Paul. This phenomenon +was noted particularly by E. Reuss, in his _Histoire de la theologie +chretienne an siecle apostolique_ (3rd ed., 1864). Take for instance +Clement. Lightfoot, indeed, dwells on the all-round "comprehensiveness" +with which Clement, as the mouthpiece of the early Roman Church, utters +in succession phrases or ideas borrowed impartially from Peter and Paul +and James and the Epistle to Hebrews. He admits, however, that such mere +co-ordination of the language of Paul and James, for instance, as +appears in his twice bracketing "faith and hospitality" as grounds of +acceptance with God (the cases are those of Abraham and Rahab, in chs. +x. and xii.), is "from a strictly dogmatic point of view" his weakness. +But the weakness is more than a dogmatic one; it is one of religious +experience, as the source of spiritual insight. It is not merely that +"there is no _dogmatic system_ in Clement" or in any other of the +Apostolic Fathers; that may favour, not hinder, religious insight. There +is a want of depth in Christian experience, in the power of realizing +relative spiritual values in the light of the master principle involved +in the distinctively Christian consciousness, such as could raise +Clement above a verbal eclecticism, rather than comprehensiveness, in +the use of Apostolic language. As R.W. Dale remarks, in a note on +Reuss's too severe words (Eng. trans. ii. 295): "The vital force of the +Apostolic convictions gave to Apostolic thought a certain organic and +consistent form." It is lack of this organic quality in the thought, not +only of Clement but also of the Apostolic Fathers generally--with the +possible exception of Ignatius, who seems to share the Apostolic +experience more fully than any other, to which Reuss rightly directs +attention. In virtue of this defect, due largely to the failure to enter +into the Apostolic experience of mystic union with Christ, he can +rightly speak of "an immense retrogression" in theology visible "at the +end of the century, and in circles where it might have been least +expected" (ii. p. 294, cf. 541). + +In fact the perspective of the Gospel was seriously changed and its most +distinctive features obscured. This was specially the case with the +experimental doctrines of grace. Here the central glory of the Cross as +"the power of God unto salvation" suffered some eclipse, although the +passion of Christ was felt to be a transcendent act of Divine Grace in +one way or another. But even more serious was the loss of an adequate +sense of the contrast between "grace" and "works" as conditions of +salvation. There was little or no sense of the danger of the _legal +principle_, as related to human egoism and the instinct to seek +salvation as a reward for merit. The passages in which these things are +laid bare by Paul's remorseless analysis of his own experience "under +Law" seem to have made practically no impression on the Apostolic +Fathers as a whole. Gentile Christians had not felt the fang of the Law +as the ex-Pharisee had occasion to feel it. Even if first trained in the +Hellenistic synagogues of the Dispersion, as was often the case, they +apprehended the Law on its more helpful and less exacting side, and had +not been brought "by the Law to die unto the Law," that they might "live +unto God." The result was too great a continuity between their religious +conceptions before and after embracing the Gospel. Thus the latter +seemed to them simply to bring forgiveness of past sins for Christ's +sake, and then an enhanced moral responsibility to the New Law revealed +in Him. Hence a new sort of legalism, known to recent writers as +Moralism, underlies much of the piety of the Apostolic Fathers, though +Ignatius is quite free from it, while Polycarp and "Barnabas" are less +under its influence than are the _Didache_, Clement, the Homilist and +Hermas. It conceives salvation as a "wages" ([Greek: osthos]) to be +earned or forfeited; and regards certain good works, such as prayer, +fasting, alms--especially the last--as efficacious to cancel sins. The +reality of this tendency, particularly at Rome, betrays itself in +Hermas, who teaches the supererogatory merit of alms gained by the +self-denial of fasting (_Sim_. v. 3. 3 ff.). Marcion's reaction, too, +against the Judaic temper in the Church as a whole, in the interests of +an extravagant Paulinism, while it suggests that Paul's doctrines of +grace generally were inadequately realized in the sub-apostolic age, +points also to the prevalence of such moralism in particular. + +(C) In attempting a final estimate of the value of the Apostolic Fathers +for the historian to-day, we may sum up under these heads: +ecclesiastical, theological, religious. (a) As a mine of materials for +reconstructing the history of Church institutions, they are invaluable, +and that largely in virtue of their spontaneous and "esoteric" +character, with no view to the public generally or to posterity. (b) +Theologically, as a stage in the history of Christian doctrine, their +value is as great negatively as positively. Impressive as is their +witness to the persistence of the Apostolic teaching in its essential +features, amidst all personal and local variations, perhaps the most +striking thing about these writings is the degree in which they fail to +appreciate certain elements of the Apostolic teaching as embodied in the +New Testament, and those its higher and more distinctively Christian +elements.[3] This negative aspect has a twofold bearing. Firstly, it +suggests the supernormal level to which the Apostolic consciousness was +raised at a bound by the direct influence of the Founder of +Christianity, and justifies the marking-off of the Apostolic writings as +a Canon, or body of Christian classics of unique religious authority. To +this principle Marcion's Pauline Canon is a witness, though in too +one-sided a spirit. Secondly, it means that the actual development of +ecclesiastical doctrine began, not from the Apostolic consciousness +itself, but from a far lower level, that of the inadequate consciousness +of the sub-apostolic Church, even when face to face with their written +words. This theological "retrogression" is of much significance for the +history of dogma, (c) On the other hand, there is great religious and +moral continuity, beneath even theological discontinuity, in the life +working below all conscious apprehension of the deeper ideas involved +(E. von Dobschutz, _Christian Life in the Primitive Church_, 1905). +There is continuity in character; the Apostolic Fathers strike us as +truly good men, with a goodness raised to a new type and power. This is +what the Gospel of Christ aims chiefly at producing as its proper fruit; +and the Apostolic Fathers would have desired no better record than that +they were themselves genuine "epistles of Christ." + + LITERATURE.--This is too large to indicate even in outline, but is + given fully in the chief modern editions, viz. of Gebhardt, Harnack + and Zahn jointly (1875-1877), J.B. Lightfoot (1885-1890) and F.X. Funk + (1901); also in O. Bardenhewer, _Gesch. der altkirchlichen Litteratur_ + (1902), Band i., and in _Neutestamentliche Apokryphen_, with + _Handbuch_ thereto, edited by E. Hennecke (Tubingen, 1904). The + fullest discussion in English of the teaching of Barnabas, Clement, + Ignatius and Polycarp is by J. Donaldson, _The Apostolical Fathers_ + (1874), which, however, suffers from the imperfect state of the texts + when he wrote. The most useful edition for ready reference, containing + critical texts (up to date) and good translations, is Lightfoot's + one-volume edition, _The Apostolic Fathers_ (London, 1891). + (J. V. B.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Cotelier included the Acts of Martyrdom of Clement, Ignatius and + Polycarp; and those of Ignatius and Polycarp are still often printed + by editors. + + [2] See G.A. Deissmann, _Bible Studies_, pp. 1-60, for this + distinction between the genuine "letter" and the literary "epistle," + as applied to the New Testament in particular. + + [3] One result is their inability to form a true theory of Judaism + and of the Old Testament in relation to the Gospel, a matter of great + moment for them and for their successors. + + + + +APOSTOLICI, APOSTOLIC BRETHREN, or APOSTLES, the names given to various +Christian heretics, whose common doctrinal feature was an ascetic +rigidity of morals, which made them reject property and marriage. The +earliest Apostolici appeared in Phrygia, Cilicia, Pisidia and Pamphylia +towards the end of the 2nd century or the beginning of the 3rd. +According to the information given by Epiphanius (_Haer._ 61) about the +doctrines of these heretics, it is evident that they were connected with +the Encratites and the Tatianians. They condemned individual property, +hence the name sometimes given to them of _Apotactites_ or +_Renuntiatores_. They preserved an absolute chastity and abstained from +wine and meat. They refused to admit into their sect those Christians +whom the fear of martyrdom had once restored to paganism. As late as the +4th century St Basil (_Can_. i and 47) knew some Apostolici. After that +period they disappeared, either becoming completely extinct, or being +confounded with other sects (see St Augustine, _Haer._ 40; John of +Damascus, _Haer._ 61). + +Failing a more exact designation, the name of Apostolici has been given +to certain groups of Latin heretics of the 12th century. It is the +second of the two sects of Cologne (the first being composed very +probably of Cathari) that is referred to in the letter addressed in 1146 +by Everwin, provost of Steinfeld, to St Bernard (Mabillon, _Vet. Anal._ +iii. 452). They condemned marriage (save, perhaps, first marriages), the +eating of meat, baptism of children, veneration of saints, fasting, +prayers for the dead and belief in purgatory, denied transubstantiation, +declared the Catholic priesthood worthless, and considered the whole +church of their time corrupted by the "negotia saecularia" which +absorbed all its zeal (of. St Bernard, _Serm._ 65 and 66 _in Cantic._). +They do not seem to have been known as Apostles or Apostolici: St +Bernard, in fact, asks his hearers: "Quo nomine istos titulove +censebis?" (_Serm. 66 in Cantic._). Under this designation, too, are +included the heretics of Perigueux in France, alluded to in the letter +of a certain monk Heribert (Mabillon, _Vet. Anal._ iii. 467). Heribert +says merely: "Se dicunt apostolicam vitam ducere." It is possible that +they were Henricians (see HENRY OF LAUSANNE). During his mission in the +south-east of France in 1146-1147 St Bernard still met disciples of +Henry of Lausanne in the environs of Perigueux. The heretics of whom +Heribert speaks condemned riches, denied the value of the sacraments and +of good works, ate no meat, drank no wine and rejected the veneration of +images. Their leader, named Pons, gathered round him nobles, priests, +monks and nuns. + +In the second half of the 13th century appeared in Italy the _Order of +the Apostles_ or _Apostle Brethren_ (see especially the _Chron._ of Fra +Salimbene). This was a product of the mystic fermentation which +proceeded from exalted Franciscanism and from Joachimism (see FRATICELLI +and JOACHIM). It presents great analogies with groups of the same +character, e.g. Sachets, Bizocchi, Flagellants, &c. The order of the +Apostles was founded about 1260 by a young workman from the environs of +Parma, Gerard Segarelli, who had sought admission unsuccessfully to the +Franciscan order. To make his life conform to that of Christ, his +contemporaries say that he had himself circumcised, wrapped in swaddling +clothes and laid in a cradle, and that he then, clad in a white robe and +bare-footed, walked through the streets of Parma crying "Penitenz +agite!" ("Poenitentiam agite!"). He was soon followed by a throng of men +and women, peasants and mechanics. All had to live in absolute poverty, +chastity and idleness. They begged, and preached penitence. Opizo, +bishop of Parma, protected them until they caused trouble in his +diocese. Their diffusion into several countries of Christendom disturbed +Pope Honorius IV., who in 1286 ordered them to adhere to an already +recognized rule. On their refusal, the pope condemned them to banishment +and Opizo imprisoned Segarelli. The councils of Wurzburg (1287) and +Chichester (1289) took measures against the Apostles of Germany and +England. But in 1291 the sect reappeared, sensibly increased, and Pope +Nicholas IV. published anew the bull of Honorius IV. From that day the +Apostles, regarded as rebels, were persecuted pitilessly. Four were +burned in 1294, and Segarelli, as a relapsed heretic, went to the stake +at Parma in 1300. + +They had had close relations with the dissident Franciscans, but the +Spirituals often disavowed them, especially when the sect, which in +Segarelli's time had had no very precise doctrinal character, became +with Dolcino frankly heterodox. Dolcino of Novara was brought up at +Vercelli, and had been an Apostle since 1291. Thrice he fell into the +hands of the Inquisition, and thrice recanted. But immediately after +Segarelli's death he wrote an epistle, soon followed by a second, in +which he declared that the third Joachimite age began with Segarelli and +that Frederick of Sicily was the expected conqueror (_Hist. Dulcini_ and +_Addit. ad Hist. Dulcini_ in Muratori, _Scriptores_, vol. ix.). He gave +himself out as an angel sent from God to elucidate the prophecies. Soon +he founded an _Apostolic congregation_ at whose head he placed himself. +Under him were his four lieutenants, his "mystic sister," Margherita di +Franck, and 4000 disciples. He taught almost the same principles of +devotion as Segarelli, but the Messianic character which he attributed +to himself, the announcement of a communistic millennial kingdom, and, +besides, an aggressive anti-sacerdotalism, gave to Dolcino's sect a +clearly marked character, analogous only to the theocratic community of +the Anabaptists of Munster in the 16th century. On the 5th of June 1305 +Pope Clement V., recognizing the impotence of the ordinary methods of +repression, issued bulls for preaching a crusade against the Dolcinists. +But four crusades, directed by the bishop of Vercelli, were required to +reduce the little army of the heresiarch, entrenched in the mountains in +the neighbourhood of Vercelli. Not till the 23rd of March 1307 were the +sectaries definitively overcome. The Catholic crusaders seized Dolcino +in his entrenchments on Mount Rubello, and the pope at once announced +the happy event to King Philip the Fair. At Vercelli Dolcino suffered a +horrible punishment. He was torn in pieces with red-hot pincers--the +torture lasting an entire day--while Margherita was burned at a slow +fire. Dante mentions Dolcino's name (_Inferno_, c. xxviii.), and his +memory is not yet completely effaced in the province of Novara. The +Apostles continued their propaganda in Italy, Languedoc, Spain and +Germany. In turn they were condemned by the councils of Cologne (1306), +Treves (1310) and Spoleto (1311). The inquisitor of Languedoc, Bernard +Gui, persecuted them unremittingly (see Gui's _Practica Inquisitionis_). +From 1316 to 1323 the condemnations of Apostles increased at Avignon and +Toulouse. They disappeared, however, at a comparatively late date from +those regions (council of Lavaur, 1368; council of Narbonne, 1374). In +Germany two Apostles were burned at Lubeck and Wismar at the beginning +of the 15th century (1402-1403) by the inquisitor Eylard. + +Several controversialists, including Gotti, Krohn and Stockmann, have +mentioned among the innumerable sects that have sprung from Anabaptism a +group of individuals whose open-air preaching and rigorous practice of +poverty gained them the name of Apostolici. These must be carefully +distinguished from the _Apostoolians_, Mennonites of Frisia, who +followed the teachings of the pastor Samuel Apostool (1638-beginning of +18th century). In the Mennonite church they represent the rigid, +conservative party, as opposed to the Galenists, who inclined towards +the Arminian latitudinarianism and admitted into their community all +those who led a virtuous life, whatever their doctrinal tendencies. + (P. A.) + + + + +APOSTOLIC MAJESTY, a title borne by the kings of Hungary. About A.D. +1000 it was conferred by Pope Silvester II. upon St Stephen (975-1038), +the first Christian king of Hungary, in return for his zeal in seeking +the conversion of the heathen. It was renewed by Pope Clement XIII. in +1758 in favour of the empress Maria Theresa and her descendants. The +emperor of Austria bears the title of apostolic king of Hungary. + + + + +APOSTOLIUS, MICHAEL (d. c. 1480), a Greek theologian and rhetorician of +the 15th century. When, in 1453, the Turks conquered Constantinople, his +native city, he fled to Italy, and there obtained the protection of +Cardinal Bessarion. But engaging in the great dispute that then raged +between the upholders of Aristotle and Plato, his zeal for the latter +led him to speak so contemptuously of the more popular philosopher and +of his defender, Theodorus Gaza, that he fell under the severe +displeasure of his patron. He afterwards retired to Crete, where he +earned a scanty living by teaching and by copying manuscripts. Many of +his copies are still to be found in the libraries of Europe. One of +them, the _Icones_ of Philostratus at Bologna, bears the inscription: +"The king of the poor of this world has written this book for his +living." Apostolius died about 1480, leaving two sons, Aristobulus +Apostolius and Arsenius. The latter became bishop of Malvasia +(Monemvasia) in the Morea. + + Of his numerous works a few have been printed: [Greek: Paroimiai] + (Basel, 1538), now exceedingly rare; a collection of proverbs in + Greek, of which a fuller edition appeared at Leiden, "Curante + Heinsio," in 1619; "Oratio Panegyrica ad Fredericum III." in Freher's + _Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum_, vol. ii. (Frankfort, 1624); Georgii + Gemisthi Plethonis et Mich. Apostolii _Orationes funebres duae in + quibus de Immortalitate Animae exponitur_ (Leipzig, 1793); and a work + against the Latin Church and the council of Florence in Le Moine's + _Varia Sacra_. + + + + +APOSTROPHE (Gr. [Greek: apostrophe], turning away; the final e being +sounded), the name given to an exclamatory rhetorical figure of speech, +when a speaker or writer breaks off and addresses some one directly in +the vocative. The same word (representing, through the French, the Greek +[Greek: apostrophos prosudia], the accent of elision) means also the +sign (') for the omission of a letter or letters, e.g. in "don't." In +physiology, "apostrophe" is used more precisely in connexion with its +literal meaning of "turning away," e.g. for movement away from the +light, in the case of the accumulation of chlorophyll-corpuscles on the +cells of leaves. + + + + +APOTACTITES, or APOTACTICI (from Gr. [Greek: apotaktos], set apart), a +sect of early Christians, who renounced all their worldly possessions. +(See APOSTOLICI _ad init._) + + + + +APOTHECARY (from the Lat. _apothecarius_, a keeper of an _apotheca_, Gr. +[Greek: apotheke], a store), a word used by Galen to denote the +repository where his medicines were kept, now obsolete in its original +sense. An apothecary was one who prepared, sold and prescribed drugs, +but the preparing and selling of drugs prescribed by others has now +passed into the hands of duly qualified and authorized persons termed +"chemists and druggists," while the apothecary, by modern legislation, +has become a general medical practitioner, and the word itself, when +used at all, is applied, more particularly in the United States and in +Scotland, to those who in England are called "pharmaceutical chemists." +The Apothecaries' Society of London is one of the corporations of that +city, and both by royal charters and acts of parliament exercises the +power of granting licences to practise medicine. The members of this +society do not possess and never have possessed any exclusive power to +deal in or sell drugs; and until 1868 any person whatever might open +what is called a chemist's shop, and deal in drugs and poisons. In that +year, however, the Pharmacy Act was passed, which prohibits any person +from engaging in this business without being registered. + +From early records we learn that the different branches of the medical +profession were not regularly distinguished till the reign of Henry +VIII., when separate duties were assigned to them, and peculiar +privileges were granted to each. In 1518 the physicians of London were +incorporated, and the barber-surgeons in 1540. But, independently of the +physicians and the surgeons, there were a great number of irregular +practitioners, who were more or less molested by their legitimate +rivals, and it became necessary to pass an act in 1543 for their +protection and toleration. As many of these practitioners kept shops for +the sale of medicines, the term "apothecary" was used to designate their +calling. + +In April 1606 James I. incorporated the apothecaries as one of the city +companies, uniting them with the grocers. On their charter being renewed +in 1617 they were formed into a separate corporation, under the title of +the "Apothecaries of the City of London." These apothecaries appear to +have prescribed medicines in addition to dispensing them, and to have +claimed an ancient right of acting in this double capacity; and it may +be mentioned that Henry VIII., after the grant of the charter to the +College of Physicians, appointed an apothecary to the Princess Mary, who +was delicate and unhealthy, at a salary of 40 marks a year, "_pro +meliore cura, et consideratione sanitatis suae_." During the 17th +century, however, there arose a warm contest between the physicians and +the apothecaries,--the former accusing the latter of usurping their +province, and the latter continuing and justifying the usurpation until +the dispute was finally set at rest by a judgment of the House of Lords +in 1703 (_Rose v. College of Physicians_, 5 Bro. P. C. 553), when it was +decided that the duty of the apothecary consisted not only in +compounding and dispensing, but also in directing and ordering the +remedies employed in the treatment of disease. In 1722 an act was +obtained empowering the Apothecaries' Company to visit the shops of all +apothecaries practising in London, and to destroy such drugs as they +found unfit for use. In 1748 great additional powers were given to the +company by an act authorizing them to appoint a board of ten examiners, +without whose licence no person should be allowed to dispense medicines +in London, or within a circuit of 7 m. round it. In 1815, however, an +act of parliament was passed which gave the Apothecaries' Society a new +position, empowering a board, consisting of twelve of their members, to +examine and license all apothecaries throughout England and Wales. It +also enacted that, from the 1st of August of that year, no persons +except those who were so licensed should have the right to act as +apothecaries, and it gave the society the power of prosecuting those who +practised without such licence. But the act expressly exempted from +prosecution all persons who were then in actual practice, and it +distinctly excluded from its operation all persons pursuing the calling +of chemists and druggists. It was also provided that the act should in +no way interfere with the rights or privileges of the English +universities, or of the English College of Surgeons or the College of +Physicians; and indeed a clause imposed severe penalties on any +apothecaries who should refuse to compound and dispense medicines on the +order of a physician, legally qualified to act as such. It is therefore +clear that the act contemplated the creation of a class of practitioners +who, while having the right to practise medicine, should assist and +co-operate with the physicians and surgeons. + +Before this act came into operation the education of the medical +practitioners of England and Wales was entirely optional on their own +part, and although many of them possessed degrees or licences from the +universities or colleges, the greater number possessed no such +qualification, and many of them were wholly illiterate and uneducated. +The court of examiners of the Apothecaries' Society, being empowered to +enforce the acquisition of a sufficient medical education upon its +future licentiates, specified from time to time the courses of lectures +or terms of hospital practice to be attended by medical students before +their examination, and in the progress of years regular schools of +medicine were organized throughout England. + +As it was found that, notwithstanding the stringent regulations as to +medical acquirements, the candidates were in many instances deficient in +preliminary education, the court of examiners instituted, about the year +1850, a preliminary examination in arts as a necessary and indispensable +prerequisite to the medical curriculum, and this provision has been so +expanded that, at the present day, all medical students in the United +Kingdom are compelled to pass a preliminary examination in arts, unless +they hold a university degree. An act of parliament, passed in 1858, and +known as the Medical Act, made very little alteration in the powers +exercised by the Apothecaries' Society, and indeed it confirmed and in +some degree amplified them, for whereas by the act of 1815, the +licentiates of the society were authorized to practise as such only in +England and Wales, the new measure gave them the same right in Scotland +and Ireland. The Medical Act 1886 extended the qualifications necessary +for registration under the medical acts, by making it necessary to pass +a qualifying examination in medicine, surgery and midwifery. (See +MEDICAL EDUCATION.) + +An act, passed in 1874, related exclusively to the Apothecaries' +Society, and is termed the Apothecaries' Act Amendment Act. By this +measure some provisions of the act of 1815, which had become obsolete or +unsuitable, were repealed, and powers were given to the society to unite +or co-operate with other medical licensing bodies in granting licences +to practise. The act of 1815 had made it compulsory on all candidates +for a licence to have served an apprenticeship of five years to an +apothecary, and although by the interpretation of the court of examiners +of the society this term really included the whole period of medical +study, yet the regulation was felt as a grievance by many members of the +medical profession. It was accordingly repealed, and no apprenticeship +is now necessary. The restriction of the choice of examiners to the +members of the society was also repealed, and the society was given the +power (which it did not before possess) to strike off from the list of +its licentiates the names of disreputable persons. The act of 1874 also +specified that the society was not deprived of any right or obligation +they may have to admit women to examination, and to enter their names on +the list of licentiates if they acquit themselves satisfactorily. + +The Apothecaries' Society is governed by a master, two wardens and +twenty-two assistants. The members are divided into THREE grades, +yeomanry or freemen, the livery, and the court. Women are not, however, +admitted to the freedom. The hall of the society, situated in Water +Lane, London, and covering about three-quarters of an acre, was acquired +in 1633. It was destroyed by the great fire, but was rebuilt about ten +years later and enlarged in 1786. This is the only property possessed by +the society. In 1673, the society established a botanic and physic +garden at Chelsea, and in 1722 Sir Hans Sloane, who had become the +ground owner, gave it to the society on the condition of presenting +annually to the Royal Society fifty dried specimens of plants till the +number should reach 2000. This condition was fulfilled in 1774. Owing to +the heavy cost of maintenance and other reasons, the "physic garden" was +handed over in 1902, with the consent of the Charity Commissioners, to a +committee of management, to be maintained in the interests of botanical +study and research. + + See C.R.B. Barrett, _The History of the Society of Apothecaries of + London_ (1905). + + + + +APOTHEOSIS (Gr. [Greek: apotheoun], to make a god, to deify), literally +deification. The term properly implies a clear polytheistic conception +of gods in contrast with men, while it recognizes that some men cross +the dividing line. It is characteristic of polytheism to blur that line +in several ways. Thus the ancient Greek religion was especially disposed +to belief in heroes and demigods. Founders of cities, and even of +colonies, received worship; the former are, generally speaking, mythical +personages and, in strictness, heroes. But the worship after death of +historical persons, such as Lycurgus, or worship of the living as true +deities, e.g. Lysander and Philip II. of Macedon, occurred sporadically +even before Alexander's conquests brought Greek life into contact with +oriental traditions. It was inevitable, too, that ancient monarchies +should enlist polytheistic conceptions of divine or half-divine men in +support of the dynasties; "_Seu deos regesve canit deorum Sanguinem_," +Horace (_Odes_, iv. 2, 11. 12, 13) writes of Pindar; though the +reference is to myths, yet the phrase is significant. In the East all +such traits are exaggerated, a result perhaps rather of the statecraft +than of the religions of Egypt and Persia. Whatever part vanity or the +flattery of courtiers may have played with others, or with Alexander, it +is significant that the dynasties of Alexander's various successors all +claim divine honours of some sort (see PTOLEMIES, SELEUCID DYNASTY, +&c.). Theocritus (_Idyll_ 17) hails Ptolemy Philadelphus as a demigod, +and speaks of his father as seated among the gods along with Alexander. +Ancestor worship, or reverence for the dead, was a third factor. It may +work even in Cicero's determination that his daughter should enjoy +"[Greek: apotheosis]"--as he writes to Atticus--or receive the "honour" +of _consecratia_ (fragment of his _De Consolatione_). Lastly, we need +not speak of mere sycophancy. Yet it was common; Verres was worshipped +before he was impeached! + +The Romans had, up to the end of the Republic, accepted only one +official apotheosis; the god Quirinus, whatever his original meaning, +having been identified with Romulus. But the emperor Augustus carried on +the tradition of ancient statecraft by having Julius Caesar recognized +as a god (_divus Julius_), the first of a new class of deities proper +(_divi_). The tradition was steadily followed and was extended to some +ladies of the imperial family and even to imperial favourites. Worship +of an emperor during his lifetime, except as the worship of his +_genius_, was, save in the cases of Caligula and Domitian, confined to +the provinces. Apotheosis after his death, being in the hands of the +senate, did not at once cease, even when Christianity was officially +adopted. The Latin term is _consecratio_, which of course has a variety +of senses, including simple burial. (Inscription in G. Boissier, _La +Religion romaine_; Renier, _Inscriptions d'Algiers_, 2510.) The Greek +term Apotheosis, probably a coinage of the Hellenistic epoch, becomes +more nearly technical for the deification of dead emperors. But it is +still used simply for the erection of tombs (clearly so in some Greek +inscriptions, _Corpus Inscript. Graec._ 2831, 2832, quoted in +Pauly-Wissowa, _s.v. Apotheosis_). Possibly there is a trace of ancestor +worship even here; but the two usages have diverged. The squib of the +philosopher Seneca on the memory of Claudius (d. A.D. 54), +_Apocolocyntosis_ ("pumpkinification"), is evidence that, as early as +Seneca's lifetime, apotheosis was in use for the recognition of a +departed emperor as a god. It also indicates how much contempt might be +associated with this pretended worship. The people, says Suetonius +(_Jul. Caes._ c. 88), fully believed in the divinity of Julius Caesar, +hinting at the same time that this was by no means the case with the +majority of the apotheoses subsequently decreed by the senate. Yet we +learn from Capitolinus that Marcus Aurelius was still worshipped as a +household divinity in the time of Diocletian, and was believed to impart +revelations in dreams (Vit. M. Ant. c. 18). Antinous, the favourite of +Hadrian, was adored in Egypt a century after his death (Origen, _Contra +Celsum_, iii. 36), though, according to Boissier, his worship never had +official sanction. The ceremonies attendant on an imperial apotheosis +are very fully described by Herodianus (bk. iv. c. 2) on occasion of the +obsequies of Severus, which he appears to have witnessed. The most +significant was the liberation, at the moment of kindling the funeral +pyre, of an eagle which was supposed to bear the emperor's soul to +heaven. Sharp-sighted persons had actually beheld the ascension of +Augustus (Suet. _August_, c. 100), and of Drusilla, sister of Caligula. +Representations of apotheoses occur on several works of art; the most +important are the apotheosis of Homer on a relief in the Townley +collection of the British Museum, that of Titus on the arch of Titus, +and that of Augustus on a magnificent cameo in the Louvre. + +In China at the present day many Taoist gods are (or are given out as) +men deified for service to the state. This again may be statecraft. In +India, the (still unexplained) rise of the doctrine of transmigration +hindered belief. Apotheosis can mean nothing to those who hold that a +man may be reborn as a god, but still needs redemption, and that men on +earth may win redemption, if they are brave enough. Curiously, Buddhism +itself is ruled by the ghost or shadowy remainder of belief in +transmigration--Karma. + +Apotheosis may also be used in wider senses. (a) Some (e.g. Herbert +Spencer) hold that most gods are deified men, and most myths historical +traditions which have been grotesquely distorted. This theory is known +as Euhemerism (see EUHEMERUS). It is needless to say that the attitude +of those holding the Euhemerist theory is at the farthest pole from +belief in apotheosis. According to the latter, some men may become gods. +According to the former, all gods are but men; or, some men have been +erroneously supposed to become gods. The Euhemerist theory mainly +appeals to ancestor worship--a fact of undoubted importance in the +history of religion, especially in China and in ancient Rome. In India, +too, a dead person treated with funeral honours becomes a guardian +spirit--if neglected, a tormenting demon. But whether the great gods of +polytheism were really transfigured ancestors is very doubtful. (b) +Again, there is a tendency to offer something like worship to the +founders of religions. Thus more than human honour is paid to Zoroaster +and Buddha and even to the founders of systems not strictly religious, +e.g. to Confucius and Auguste Comte. It is noticeable that this kind of +worship is not accorded in rigidly monotheistic systems, e.g. to Moses +and Mahomet. Nor is it accurate to speak of apotheosis in cases where +the founder is in his lifetime regarded as the incarnation of a god (cf. +Ali among Shi'ite Mahommedans; the Bab in Babism; the Druse Hakim). Most +Christians on this ground repudiate the application of the term to the +worship of Jesus Christ. Curiously, _Apotheosis_ is used by the Latin +Christian poet, Prudentius (c. 400), as the title of a poem defending +orthodox views on the person of Christ and other points of doctrine--the +affectation of a decadent age. (c) The worship paid to Saints, in those +Christian churches which admit it, is formally distinguished as _dulia_ +([Greek: douleia]) from true worship or _latria_ ([Greek: latreia]). +Even the Virgin Mary, though she is styled Mother of God and Queen of +Heaven, receives only _dulia_ or at most _hyperdulia_. + (R. G.; R. Ma.) + + + + +APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS, the general name given to a vast system of +elevations in North America, partly in Canada, but mostly in the United +States, extending as a zone, from 100 to 300 m. wide, from Newfoundland, +Gaspe Peninsula and New Brunswick, 1500 m. south-westward to central +Alabama. The whole system may be divided into three great sections: the +_Northern_, from Newfoundland to the Hudson river; the _Central_, from +the Hudson Valley to that of New river (Great Kanawha), in Virginia and +West Virginia; and the _Southern_, from New river onwards. The northern +section includes the Shickshock Mountains and Notre Dame Range in +Quebec, scattered elevations in Maine, the White Mountains and the Green +Mountains; the central comprises, besides various minor groups, the +Valley Ridges between the Front of the Allegheny Plateau and the Great +Appalachian Valley, the New York-New Jersey Highlands and a large +portion of the Blue Ridge; and the southern consists of the prolongation +of the Blue Ridge, the Unaka Range, and the Valley Ridges adjoining the +Cumberland Plateau, with some lesser ranges. + +_The Chief Summits._--The Appalachian belt includes, with the ranges +enumerated above, the plateaus sloping southward to the Atlantic Ocean +in New England, and south-eastward to the border of the coastal plain +through the central and southern Atlantic states; and on the north-west, +the Allegheny and Cumberland plateaus declining toward the Great Lakes +and the interior plains. A remarkable feature of the belt is the +longitudinal chain of broad valleys--the Great Appalachian +Valley--which, in the southerly sections divides the mountain system +into two subequal portions, but in the northernmost lies west of all the +ranges possessing typical Appalachian features, and separates them from +the Adirondack group. The mountain system has no axis of dominating +altitudes, but in every portion the summits rise to rather uniform +heights, and, especially in the central section, the various ridges and +intermontane valleys have the same trend as the system itself. None of +the summits reaches the region of perpetual snow. Mountains of the Long +Range in Newfoundland reach heights of nearly 2000 ft. In the +Shickshocks the higher summits rise to about 4000 ft. elevation. In +Maine four peaks exceed 3000 ft., including Katahdin (5200 ft.), Mount +Washington, in the White Mountains (6293 ft.), Adams (5805), Jefferson +(5725), Clay (5554), Monroe (5390), Madison (5380), Lafayette (5269); +and a number of summits rise above 4000 ft. In the Green Mountains the +highest point, Mansfield, is 4364 ft.; Lincoln (4078), Killington +(4241), Camel Hump (4088); and a number of other heights exceed 3000 ft. +The Catskills are not properly included in the system. The Blue Ridge, +rising in southern Pennsylvania and there known as South Mountain, +attains in that state elevations of about 2000 ft.; southward to the +Potomac its altitudes diminish, but 30 m. beyond again reach 2000 ft. In +the Virginia Blue Ridge the following are the highest peaks east of New +river: Mount Weather (about 1850 ft.), Mary's Rock (3523), Peaks of +Otter (4001 and 3875), Stony Man (4031), Hawks Bill (4066). In +Pennsylvania the summits of the Valley Ridges rise generally to about +2000 ft., and in Maryland Eagle Rock and Dans Rock are conspicuous +points reaching 3162 ft. and 2882 ft. above the sea. On the same side of +the Great Valley, south of the Potomac, are the Pinnacle (3007 ft.) and +Pidgeon Roost (3400 ft.). In the southern section of the Blue Ridge are +Grandfather Mountain (5964 ft.), with three other summits above 5000, +and a dozen more above 4000. The Unaka Ranges (including the Black and +Smoky Mountains) have eighteen peaks higher than 5000 ft., and eight +surpassing 6000 ft. In the Black Mountains, Mitchell (the culminating +point of the whole system) attains an altitude of 6711 ft., Balsam Cone, +6645, Black Brothers, 6690, and 6620, and Hallback, 6403. In the Smoky +Mountains we have Clingman's Peak (6611), Guyot (6636), Alexander +(6447), Leconte (6612), Curtis (6588), with several others above 6000 +and many higher than 5000. + +In spite of the existence of the Great Appalachian Valley, the master +streams are transverse to the axis of the system. The main watershed +follows a tortuous course which crosses the mountainous belt just north +of New river in Virginia; south of this the rivers head in the Blue +Ridge, cross the higher Unakas, receive important tributaries from the +Great Valley, and traversing the Cumberland Plateau in spreading gorges, +escape by way of the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers to the Ohio and +Mississippi, and thus to the Gulf of Mexico; in the central section the +rivers, rising in or beyond the Valley Ridges, flow through great +gorges (water gaps) to the Great Valley, and by south-easterly courses +across the Blue Ridge to tidal estuaries penetrating the coastal plain; +in the northern section the water-parting lies on the inland side of the +mountainous belt, the main lines of drainage running from north to +south. + +_Geology._--The rocks of the Appalachian belt fall naturally into two +divisions; ancient (pre-Cambrian) crystallines, including marbles, +schists, gneisses, granites and other massive igneous rocks, and a great +succession of Paleozoic sediments. The crystallines are confined to the +portion of the belt east of the Great Valley where Paleozoic rocks are +always highly metamorphosed and occur for the most part in limited +patches, excepting in New England and Canada, where they assume greater +areal importance, and are besides very generally intruded by granites. +The Paleozoic sediments, ranging in age from Cambrian to Permian, occupy +the Great Valley, the Valley Ridges and the plateaus still farther west. +They are rarely metamorphosed to the point of recrystallization, though +locally shales are altered to roofing slates, sandstones are indurated, +limestones slightly marblized, and coals, originally bituminous, are +changed to anthracite in northern Pennsylvania, and to graphite in Rhode +Island. Igneous intrusions consist only of unimportant dikes of trap. +The most striking and uniformly characteristic geologic feature of the +mountains is their internal structure, consisting of innumerable +parallel, long and narrow folds, always closely appressed in the eastern +part of any cross-section (Piedmont Plateau to Great Valley), less so +along a central zone (Great Valley and Valley Ridges), and increasingly +open on the west (Allegheny and Cumberland Plateaus). Asymmetry of the +folds is a marked characteristic in the zones of closer folding, the +anticlines having long gently inclined easterly limbs, and short, steep +and even overturned limbs upon the west. The effect of such folds is +often exaggerated by thrusts, and faulting of this sort is prominent in +the southern section, where the existence of over-thrusts measured by +several miles has been established. + +What may be termed the ancestral Appalachian system was formed during +the post-carboniferous revolution, though certain of its elements had +been previously outlined, and perhaps at different dates. Folding of the +rocks resulted from the operation of great compressive forces acting +tangentially to the figure of the earth. Extensive and deep-seated +crumpling was necessarily accompanied by vertical uplift throughout the +zone affected, but once at least since their birth the mountains have +been worn down to a lowland, and the mountains of to-day are the +combined product of subsequent uplift of a different sort, and +dissection by erosion. Produced by long-continued subaerial decay and +erosion, in later Cretaceous times this lowland extended from the +Atlantic Ocean well toward the interior of North America; since then the +whole continent has been generally elevated, and by successive steps the +Appalachian belt has been raised to form a wide but relatively low arch. +The crosswise courses of the greater rivers result from the rivers being +older than the mountains, which indeed have been produced by +circumdenudation. The master streams of the present have inherited their +channels from the drainage systems of the Cretaceous lowland, and though +raised athwart the courses of the lowland trunk streams the great arch +was developed so slowly that these channels could be maintained through +_pari passu_ deepening. Former tributaries have given place to others +developed with reference to the distribution of more or less easily +eroded strata, the present longitudinal valleys being determined by the +out-crop of soft shales or soluble limestones, and the parallel ridges +upheld by hard sandstones or schists. Parallelism of mountain ridges and +intervening valleys is thus attributable to the folding of the rocks, +but the origin of the interior structure of the mountains is to be kept +distinct from the origin of the mountains as features of topography. + +_Flora and Fauna._--Much of the region is covered with forest yielding +quantities of valuable timber, especially in Canada and northern New +England. The most valuable trees for lumber are spruce, white pine, +hemlock, cedar, white birch, ash, maple and basswood; all excepting pine +and hemlock and poplar in addition are ground into wood pulp for the +manufacture of paper. In the central and southern parts of the belt oak +and hickory constitute valuable hard woods, and certain varieties of the +former furnish quantities of tan bark. The tulip tree produces a good +clear lumber known as white wood or poplar, and is also a source of +pulp. In the south both white and yellow pine abounds. Many flowering +and fruit-bearing shrubs of the heath family add to the beauty of the +mountainous districts, rhododendron and kalmia often forming +impenetrable thickets. Bears, mountain lions (pumas), wild cats (lynx) +and wolves haunt the more remote fastnesses of the mountains; foxes +abound; deer are found in many districts and moose in the north. + +_Influence on History._--For a century the Appalachians were a barrier +to the westward expansion of the English colonies; the continuity of the +system, the bewildering multiplicity of its succeeding ridges, the +tortuous courses and roughness of its transverse passes, a heavy forest +and dense undergrowth all conspired to hold the settlers on the +seaward-sloping plateaus and coastal plains. Only by way of the Hudson +and Mohawk valleys, and round about the southern termination of the +system were there easy routes to the interior of the country, and these +were long closed by hostile aborigines and jealous French or Spanish +colonists. In eastern Pennsylvania the Great Valley was accessible by +reason of a broad gateway between the end of South Mountain and the +Highlands, and here in the Lebanon Valley settled German Moravians, +whose descendants even now retain the peculiar patois known as +"Pennsylvania Dutch." These were late comers to the New World forced to +the frontier to find unclaimed lands. With their followers of both +German and Scotch-Irish origin, they worked their way southward and soon +occupied all of the Virginia Valley and the upper reaches of the Great +Valley tributaries of the Tennessee. By 1755 the obstacle to westward +expansion had been thus reduced by half; outposts of the English +colonists had penetrated the Allegheny and Cumberland plateaus, +threatening French monopoly in the transmontane region, and a conflict +became inevitable. Making common cause against the French to determine +the control of the Ohio valley, the unsuspected strength of the +colonists was revealed, and the successful ending of the French and +Indian War extended England's territory to the Mississippi. To this +strength the geographic isolation enforced by the Appalachian mountains +had been a prime contributor. The confinement of the colonies between an +ocean and a mountain wall led to the fullest occupation of the coastal +border of the continent, which was possible under existing conditions of +agriculture, conducing to a community of purpose, a political and +commercial solidarity, which would not otherwise have been developed. As +early as 1700 it was possible to ride from Portland, Maine, to southern +Virginia, sleeping each night at some considerable village. In contrast +to this complete industrial occupation, the French territory was held by +a small and very scattered population, its extent and openness adding +materially to the difficulties of a disputed tenure. Bearing the brunt +of this contest as they did, the colonies were undergoing preparation +for the subsequent struggle with the home government. Unsupported by +shipping, the American armies fought toward the sea with the mountains +at their back protecting them against Indians leagued with the British. +The few settlements beyond the Great Valley were free for self-defence +because debarred from general participation in the conflict by reason of +their position. + + See the separate articles on the states, and also the following + references:--Topographic maps and Geologic Folios of the United States + Geological Survey; Bailey Willis, "The Northern Appalachians," and + C.W. Hayes, "The Southern Appalachians," both in _National Geographic + Monographs_, vol. i.; and chaps, iii., iv. and v. of Miss E.C. + Semple's _American History and its Geographic Conditions_ (Boston, + 1903). (A. C. Sp.) + + + + +APPANAGE, or APANAGE (a French word from the late Lat. _apanagium_, +formed from _apanare, i.e. panem porrigere_, to give bread, i.e. +sustenance), in its original sense, the means of subsistence given by +parents to their younger children as distinct from the rights secured +to the eldest born by the custom of primogeniture. In its modern usage +it is practically confined to the money endowment given to the younger +children of reigning or mediatized houses in Germany and Austria, which +reverts to the state or to the head of the family on the extinction of +the line of the original grantee. In English history the system of +appanages never played any great part, and the term is now properly +applied only to the appanages of the crown: the duchy of Cornwall, +assigned to the king's eldest son at birth, or on his father's accession +to the crown, and the duchy of Lancaster. In the history of France, +however, the appanage was a very important factor. The word denotes in +very early French law the portion of lands or money given by fathers and +mothers to their sons or daughters on marriage, and usually connotes a +renunciation by the latter of any future inheritance; or it may denote +the portion given by the eldest son to his brothers and sisters when he +was sole inheritor. The word _apanage_ is still employed in this sense +in French official texts of some _Customs_; but it was in old public law +that it received its definite meaning and importance. Under the kings of +the third dynasty, the division of the kingdom among the sons of the +dead monarch which had characterized the Merovingian and Carolingian +dynasties, ceased. The eldest son alone succeeded to the crown; but at +the same time a custom was established by which the king made +territorial provision suitable to their rank for his other children or +for his brothers and sisters; custom forbade their being left landless. +Lands and lordships thus bestowed constituted the appanages, which +interfered so greatly with the formation of ancient France. While the +persevering policy of the Capets, which aimed at reuniting the great +fiefs, duchies, countships, baronies, &c., to the domain of the crown, +gradually reconstructed for their benefit a territorial sovereignty over +France, the institution of the appanage periodically subtracted large +portions from it. Louis XI., in particular, had to struggle against the +appanaged nobles. The old law, however, never abolished this +institution. The edict of Moulins (1566) maintained it, as one of the +exceptions to the inalienability of the crown-lands; only it was then +decided that daughters of France should be appanaged in money, or that +if, in default of coin, lands were assigned to them, these lands should +be redeemable by the crown in perpetuity. The efforts of the kings to +minimize this evil, and of the old jurisprudence to deal with the +matter, resulted in two expedients: (1) the reversion of the appanage to +the crown was secured as far as possible, being declared inalienable and +transmissible only to male descendants in the male line of the person +appanaged; (2) originally the person appanaged had possessed all the +rights of a duke or count--that is to say, in the middle ages nearly all +the attributes of sovereignty; the more important of these attributes +were now gradually reserved to the monarch, including public authority +over the inhabitants of the appanage in all essential matters. However, +it is evident from the letters of appanage, dated April 1771, in favour +of the count of Provence, how many functions of public authority an +appanaged person still held. The Constituent Assembly, by the law dated +the 22nd of November 1790, decided that in future there should be no +appanages in real estate, and that younger sons of monarchs, married and +over twenty-five years of age, should be provided for by yearly grants +(_rentes apanageres_) from the public funds. The laws of the 13th of +August and the 21st of December 1790 revoked all the existing appanages, +except those of the Luxembourg Palace and the Palais Royal. To each +person hitherto appanaged an annual income of one million _livres_ was +assigned, and two millions for the brothers of the king. All this came +to an end with the monarchy. Napoleon, by the _senatus-consulte_ of the +30th of January 1810, resolved to create appanages for the emperor's +princely descendants, such appanages to consist for the most part of +lands on French soil. The fall of the empire again annulled this +enactment. The last appanage known in France was that enjoyed by the +house of Orleans. Having been re-established, or recognized as still +existing, by the Restoration, it was formally confirmed by the law of +the 15th of January 1825. On the accession of Louis Philippe it was +united to the national property by the law of the 2nd of March 1832. + + For appanages in ancient law see the _Essai sur les apanages ou + memoires historiques de leur etablissement_, attributed to Du Vaucel, + about 1780. (J. P. E.) + + + + +APPAREL (from O. Fr. _aparail_, _aparailler_, mod. _appareil_, from Low +Lat. _adpariculare_, to make fit or equal), equipment, outfit, things +furnished for the proper performance of anything, now chiefly used of +dress. The word is also applied to the "orphreys," i.e. embroidered +strips or borders, on ecclesiastical vestments. + + + + +APPARITIONS. An apparition, strictly speaking, is merely an appearance +(Lat. _apparere_, to appear), the result of perception exercised on any +stimulus of any of the senses. But in ordinary usage the word apparition +denotes a perception (generally through the sense of sight) which +cannot, as a rule, be shown to be occasioned by an object in external +nature. We say "as a rule" because many so-called apparitions are merely +illusions, i.e. misconstructions of the perceptive processes, as when a +person in a bad light sees a number of small children leading a horse, +and finds, on nearer approach, that he sees two men carrying bee-hives +suspended from a pole. Again, Sir Walter Scott's vision of Byron, then +lately dead, proved to be a misconstruction of certain plaids and cloaks +hanging in the hall at Abbotsford, or so Sir Walter declared. Had he not +discovered the physical basis of this illusion (which, while it lasted, +was an apparition, technically speaking), he and others might have +thought that it was an apparition in the popular sense of the word, a +ghost. In popular phraseology a ghost is understood to be a phantasm +produced in some way by the spirit of a dead person, the impression +being usually visual, though the ghost, or apparition, may also affect +the sense of hearing (by words, knocks, whistles, groans and so forth), +or the sense of touch, or of weight, as in the case of the "incubus." In +ordinary speech an apparition of a person not known to the percipient to +be dead is called a wraith, in the Highland phrase, a spirit of the +living. The terms _ghost_ and _wraith_ involve the hypothesis that the +false perceptions are caused by spirits, a survival of the archaic +animistic hypothesis (see ANIMISM), an hypothesis as difficult to prove +as to disprove. Apparitions, of course, are not confined to +anthropomorphic phantasms; we hear of phantom coaches (sometimes seen, +but more frequently heard), of phantom dogs, cats, horses, cattle, deer, +and even of phantom houses. + +Whatever may be the causes of these and other false perceptions,--most +curious when the impression is shared by several witnesses,--they may +best be considered under the head of hallucination (q.v.). +Hallucinations may be pathological, i.e. the result of morbid conditions +of brain or nerve, of disease, of fever, of insanity, of alcoholism, of +the abuse of drugs. Again, they may be the result of dissociation, or +may occur in the borderland of sleep or waking, and in this case they +partake of the hallucinatory nature of dreams (q.v.). Again, +hallucinations may, once or twice in a lifetime, come into the +experience of the sane, the healthy, and, as far as any tests can be +applied, of the wide-awake. In such instances the apparition (whether it +take the form of a visual phantasm, of a recognized voice, of a touch, +or what not) may be coincidental or non-coincidental. The phantasm is +called coincidental if it represents a known and distant person who is +later found to have been dying or in some other crisis at the moment of +the percipient's experience. When the false perception coincides with +nothing of the sort, it is styled non-coincidental. Coincidental +apparitions have been explained by the theory of telepathy (q.v.), one +mind or brain impressing another in some unknown way so as to beget an +hallucinatory apparition or phantasm. On the evidence, so far as it has +been collected and analysed, it seems that the mind which, on the +hypothesis, begets the hallucinations, usually does so without +_conscious_ effort (see SUBLIMINAL SELF). There are, however, a few +cases in which the experiment of begetting, in another, an hallucination +from a distance, is said to have been experimentally and consciously +made, with success. + +If the telepathic theory of coincidental hallucinations be accepted, we +have still to account for the much more common non-coincidental +apparitions of the living who do not happen to be in any particular +crisis. In these instances it cannot be demonstrated that telepathy has +_not_ been at work, as when a person is seen at a place which he thought +of visiting, but did not visit. F.W. Myers even upheld a theory of +psychorhagy, holding that the spirits of some persons have a way of +manifesting themselves at a distance by a psychic invasion. This +involves, as he remarked, paleolithic psychology, and the old savage +doctrine of animism, rather than telepathy (see Myers, _Human +Personality_). Of belief in coincidental hallucinations or wraiths among +savages, records are scanty; the belief, however, is found among Maoris +and Fuegians (see Lang, _Making of Religions_). The perception of +apparitions of distant but actual scenes and occurrences is usually +called clairvoyance (q.v.). The belief is also familiar under the name +of second sight (see SECOND SIGHT), a term of Scots usage, though the +belief in it, and the facts if accepted, are of world-wide diffusion. +The apparitions may either represent actual persons and places, or may +be symbolical, taking the form of phantasmic lights, coffins, skeletons, +shrouds and so forth. Again, the appearances may either represent +things, persons and occurrences of the past (see RETROCOGNITION), or of +the present (clairvoyance), or of the future (see PREMONITION). When the +apparitions produce themselves in given rooms, houses or localities, and +are exhibited to various persons at various times, the locality is +popularly said to be haunted by spirits, that is, of the dead, on the +animistic hypothesis (see HAUNTINGS). Like the other alleged facts, +these are of world-wide diffusion, or the belief in them is world-wide, +and peculiar to no race, age, or period of culture. A haunted place is a +centre of permanent possibilities of hallucinations, or is believed to +be so. A distinct species of hauntings are those in which unexplained +sounds and movements of objects, apparently untouched, occur. The German +term _Poltergeist_ (q.v.) has been given to the supposed cause of these +occurrences where the cause is not ascertained to be sportive imposture. +In the performances of modern spiritualists the Poltergeist appears, as +it were, to be domesticated, and to come at the call of the medium. + +An intermittent kind of ominous haunting attached, not to places, but to +families, is that of the banshee (Celtic) or family death omen, such as +the white bird of the Oxenhams, the Airlie drummer, the spectral rider +of Clan Gilzean, the rappings of the Woodde family. These apparitions, +with fairies and _djinns_ (the Arab form of fairy), haunt the borderland +between folk-lore and psychical research. + +So far we have been concerned with spontaneous apparitions, or with the +belief in them. Among induced apparitions may be reckoned the +materialized forms of spiritual _seances_, which have a material basis +of veils, false moustaches, wigs and the _corpus vile_ of the medium. It +is also possible that mere expectancy and suggestion induce +hallucinatory perceptions among the members of the circle. That +apparitions of a sort can be induced by hypnotic and posthypnotic +suggestion is certain enough (see HYPNOTISM). Savages produce +apparitions in similar ways by suggestion, accompanied by dances, +fumigations, darkness, fasting, drugs, and whatever can affect the +imaginations of the onlookers (see MAGIC). Both in savage and civilized +life, some persons can provoke themselves into beholding apparitions +usually fantastic, but occasionally coincidental, by sedulously staring +into any clear deep water, a fragment of rock crystal, a piece of +polished basalt or obsidian, a mirror, a ring, a sword blade, or a glass +of sherry (see CRYSTAL GAZING). Indeed any object, a wall, the palm of +the hand, the shoulder-blade-bone of a sheep, may be, and has been used +to this end (see DIVINATION). + +Almost all known apparitions may accommodate themselves to one or other +of the categories given, whether they be pathological, coincidental or +spontaneous, induced, permanently localized, or sporadic. + + See generally, SPIRITUALISM and PSYCHICAL RESEARCH. (A. L.) + + + + +APPARITOR, or APPARATOR (Latin for a servant of a public official, from +_apparere_, to attend in public), an attendant who executed the orders +of a Roman magistrate; hence a beadle in a university, a pursuivant or +herald; particularly, in English ecclesiastical courts, the official who +serves the processes of the court and causes defendants to appear by +summons. + + + + +APPEAL, in law. In the old English common law the term "appeal" was used +to describe a process peculiar to English criminal procedure. It was a +right of prosecution possessed as a personal privilege by a party +individually aggrieved by a felony, a privilege of which the crown could +not directly or indirectly deprive him, since he could use it alike when +the prisoner was tried and acquitted, and when he was convicted and +pardoned. It was chiefly known in practice as the privilege of the +nearest relation of a murdered person. When in 1729 (after Colonel +Oglethorpe's inquiry and report on the London prisons) Banbridge and +other gaolers were indicted for their treatment of prisoners, but were +acquitted for deficiency of evidence, appeals for murder were freely +brought by relatives of deceased prisoners. In the case of Slaughterford +(1708) the accused was charged with murdering a woman whom he had +seduced; the evidence was very imperfect, and he was acquitted on +indictment. But public indignation being aroused by the atrocities +alleged to have been perpetrated, an appeal was brought, and on +conviction he was hanged, as his execution was a privilege belonging to +the prosecutor, of which the crown could not deprive him by a pardon. In +1818 an appeal was ingeniously met by an offer of battle, since if the +appellee were an able-bodied man he had the choice between combat or a +jury (see WAGER). This neutralizing of one obsolete and barbarous +process by another called the attention of the legislature to the +subject, and appeal in criminal cases, along with trial by battle, was +abolished in 1819. The history of this appeal is fully dealt with in +Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_, 1898. + +In its usual modern sense the term appeal is applied to the proceeding +by which the decision of a court of justice is brought for review before +another tribunal of higher authority. In Roman jurisprudence it was used +in this and in other significations; it was sometimes equivalent to +prosecution, or the calling up of an accused person before a tribunal +where the accuser appealed to the protection of the magistrate against +injustice or oppression. The derivation from _appellare_ ("call") +suggests that its earliest meaning was an urgent outcry or prayer +against injustice. During the republic the magistrate was generally +supreme within his sphere, and those who felt themselves outraged by +injustice threw themselves on popular protection by _provocatio_, +instead of looking to redress from a higher official authority. Under +the empire different grades of jurisdiction were established, and the +ultimate remedy was an appeal to the emperor; thus Paul, when brought +before Festus, appealed unto Caesar. Such appeals were, however, not +heard by the emperor in person but by a supreme judge representing him. +In the _Corpus Juris_ the appeal to the emperor is called +indiscriminately _appellatio_ and _provocatio_. A considerable portion +of the 49th book of the _Pandects_ is devoted to appeals; but little of +the practical operation of the system is to be deduced from the +propositions there brought together. + +During the middle ages full scope was afforded for appeals from the +lower to the higher authorities in the church. In matters +ecclesiastical, including those matrimonial, testamentary and other +departments, which the church ever tried to bring within the operation +of the canon law, there were various grades of appeal, ending with the +pope. The claims of the church to engross appeals in matters trenching +on the temporal rights of princes led to continual conflicts between +church and state, terminated in England at the reformation by the +suppression in 1534 of appeals to Rome, which had previously been +discouraged by legislation of Edward III. and Richard II. + +In temporal, as distinct from spiritual matters, it became customary for +ambitious sovereigns to encourage appeals from the courts of the crown +vassals to themselves as represented by the supreme judges, and +Charlemagne usually enjoys the credit of having set the example of this +system of centralization by establishing _missi dominici_. It is not +improbable that his claim was suggested or justified by the practice of +the Roman empire, to the sovereignty whereof he claimed to be +successor. + +_England._--When the royal authority in England grew strong as against +that of the tenants _in capite_, the king's courts in England were more +effectively organized, and their net swept wider so as to draw within +their cognizance matters previously adjudged in courts baron or courts +leet or in the county court, and they acquired authority to supervise +and review the decisions of the inferior and local courts, to control +and limit their claims to exercise jurisdiction, and to transfer causes +from the local to the royal courts. The machinery by which this process +was usually effected, under the common law, was not by what is now known +as appeal, but by the process of _certiorari_ or writs of error or +prohibition. Recourse was also had against the decisions of the royal +courts by appeal to the great council of the king, or to parliament as a +whole. The supremacy of the king's courts over all causes, as well +ecclesiastical as civil, has been completely established since the reign +of Henry VIII., and they have effectually asserted the power to regulate +and keep within their proper jurisdiction all other tribunals within the +realm. Since that date the organization of judicial tribunals has +gradually been changed and improved with the object (1) of creating a +judicial hierarchy independent of executive control; (2) of ensuring +that all decisions on questions of law shall be co-ordinated and +rendered systematic by correction of the errors and vagaries of +subordinate tribunals; and (3) of securing so far as possible uniformity +in the judicial interpretation and administration of the law, by +creating a supreme appellate tribunal to whose decisions all other +tribunals are bound to conform. It would be undesirable to detail at +length the history of appellate jurisdiction in England, involving as it +would the discussion in great detail of the history and procedure of +English law, and it may suffice to indicate the system of appeals as at +present organized, beginning with the lowest courts. + +_Justices of the Peace._--The decisions of justices of the peace sitting +as courts of summary jurisdiction are subject to review on questions of +law only by the High Court of Justice. This review is in a sense +consultative, because it is usually effected by means of a case +voluntarily stated by the justices at the request of the aggrieved +party, in which are set forth the facts as determined by the justices, +the questions of law raised and their decision thereon, as to the +correctness whereof the opinion of the High Court is invited. The +procedure is equally open in criminal and civil matters brought before +the justices. But when the justices decline to state a case for the +opinion of the High Court, the latter, if review seems desirable, may +order the justices to state a case. And the High Court has also power to +control the action of justices by prohibiting them from acting in a case +beyond their jurisdiction, ordering them to exercise jurisdiction where +they have improperly declined (_mandamus_), or bringing up for review +and quashing orders or convictions which they have made in excess of +jurisdiction, or in cases in which interested or biassed justices have +adjudicated (_certiorari_). None of these regulative processes exactly +corresponds to what is popularly known as an appeal, but in effect if +not in form an appeal is thus given. + +There is also another form of appeal, in the fullest sense of the term, +from the decision of justices sitting as a court of summary jurisdiction +to the justices of the same county sitting in general or quarter +sessions, or in the case of a borough to the recorder as judge of the +borough court of quarter sessions. This form of appeal is in every case +the creation of statute: and even in text-books it is hardly possible to +find a really complete list of the matters in respect of which such +appeal lies. But as regards criminal cases there is an approximately +general rule, given by S 19 of the Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879, viz. +that an appeal to quarter sessions lies from the conviction or order of +a court of summary jurisdiction directing imprisonment without the +option of a fine as a punishment for an offence, or for failing to do or +to abstain from doing any act required to be done or left undone other +than an order for the payment of money, or to find sureties or give +security or to enter into a recognizance, or a conviction made on a plea +of guilty or admission of the truth of the matter of complaint. + +As a general rule, subject to particular statutory exceptions, appeals +of this kind are by way of rehearing, i.e. the actor or prosecutor must +before the appellate tribunal call his witnesses and prove his case just +as if no previous hearing had taken place before the court appealed from +(Pritchard, _Quarter Sessions Practice_, 2nd ed., 461). The only limit +is that the appellant must confine himself to the grounds of appeal +stated in the notice of appeal given by him. + +_Justices in Quarter Sessions._--This tribunal has under the commission +of the peace and under statute power to refer questions of difficulty +arising before it for decision to the High Court. The old mode of +exercising this power was by sending on to assizes indictments raising +difficult questions which had been presented at quarter sessions. The +High Court has _ex officio_ power to transfer such indictments where the +nature of the case and the demands of justice call for such transfer. +The quarter sessions had also power under statute on trying an +indictment to refer to the court for crown cases reserved (Crown Cases +Act 1848), abolished by the Criminal Appeal Act 1907, questions of law +which had arisen at the trial, and in all civil cases the quarter +sessions has power of its own volition and subject to no direct +compulsion to consult the High Court on legal questions of difficulty +which have arisen. Until 1894 this jurisdiction was regarded as +consultative only. It was and is exercised by stating the facts, of +which the court of quarter sessions is the sole judge, and indicating +the questions of law arising on the facts, and the view of quarter +sessions thereon, and inviting the opinion of the High Court. Under the +Judicature Act 1894 cases stated in this way are now treated as +"appeals" in the popular sense. + +_Inferior Courts of purely Civil Jurisdiction._--An appeal also lies as +a general rule to the High Court from the judgment of a county court or +of any inferior tribunal having civil jurisdiction. + +(a) County Courts. Any party to an action or matter in a county court +who is dissatisfied with the determination or direction of the judge in +law or equity, or upon the admission or rejection of any evidence, may +appeal against the decision in the following cases: (1) if the amount of +claim or counter-claim in the proceeding exceeds L20; or (2) in all +equity matters or cases in which an injunction has been given; or (3) in +actions to recover possession of land where questions of title are +involved (County Courts Act 1888, S 120). In the case of a claim below +L20 no appeal lies except by the leave of the county court. The old +practice of appeal by way of special case as in appeals from justices +has been abolished, and the present procedure is by notice of motion +(R.S.C. O. LIX. rr. 10-18). + +These appeals are heard in the king's bench division, except in the case +of appeals from judgments of a county court sitting in the exercise of +admiralty jurisdiction, which are heard by two or more judges sitting in +the probate, divorce and admiralty division. The chancery division has +never sat to hear "appeals" from a county court exercising equity +jurisdiction; but at times, by _prohibition_ or _certiorari_, has, in +effect, reviewed or restrained excess of jurisdiction by county courts +in equity matters. + +The decision of the High Court on county court appeals is final unless +an appeal to the court of appeal is brought by leave of that court or of +the High Court (Judicature Act 1894, S 1, sub. sect. 5; Judicature Act +1873, S 45). + +(b) Other inferior courts of civil jurisdiction. Appeals from the local +courts of record which still survive in certain cities, towns and +districts are in a somewhat anomalous position. The general rule is +that, unless a statute regulates such appeal, it may be brought in the +king's bench division of the High Court on notice of motion in any case +in which, before the Judicature Acts, the court of king's bench could +have reviewed the decision of the inferior court by writ of error. The +history of this question is dealt with in _Darlow v. Shuttleworth_, +1902, 1 K.B. 721. + +In the case of the mayor's court of London, under the local and general +statutes regulating that court, the appeal is usually to the king's +bench division, but where there is what is termed "error" on the face of +the proceedings of the mayor's court, the appeal lies direct to the +court of appeal as successor of the court of exchequer chamber. Appeals +from the Liverpool court of passage and from the chancery courts of the +duchies of Lancaster and Durham lie by statute direct to the court of +appeal. + +_High Court of Justice._--Until the Supreme Court of Judicature Acts of +1873 and 1875 came into operation, the superior courts in England were +imperfectly co-ordinated both as to jurisdiction and appeals. The effect +of these acts was to create a Supreme Court of Judicature divided into +two main branches, the High Court of Justice, which is an appellate +court with respect to the inferior courts already mentioned, and to +certain other special courts and persons; and the court of appeal, which +is mainly concerned with appeals from the High Court of Justice. + +The High Court of Justice acts as an appellate court or court of +consultation with reference to courts of summary jurisdiction or quarter +sessions and to county courts and other inferior courts of civil +jurisdiction in the cases already indicated. The three divisions of the +court are somewhat differently placed with reference to appeals. + +In the chancery division (made up, in 1908, of six single judge courts) +no appeals are heard except from subordinate officials (masters) of the +court, or an occasional interference by _certiorari_ or _prohibition_ +with a county court. + +In the probate, divorce and admiralty division, besides the supervision +which may be exercised by a single judge over the subordinate officers +of the court (registrars), divisional courts (of two judges) hear +appeals from decisions of the county court in admiralty causes, and +appeals from justices in cases between husband and wife under the +Summary Jurisdiction (Married Women) Act 1895, as amended by the +Licensing Act 1902. In the first of these cases the appeal is on law +only as in the case of other county court appeals; in the second, the +procedure is by rehearing, or reconsideration of the facts as minuted in +the court appealed from, and of the law there applied to these facts. + +The bulk of the appellate work of the High Court is conducted in the +king's bench division--which, as successor of the old court of king's +bench in the duties of _custos morum_ of the realm, still retains +supervisory power over all inferior courts in all cases in which that +supervision has not been transferred to the other divisions of the High +Court or to the court of appeal, or to the court of criminal appeal. + +The king's bench division exercises appellate jurisdiction in the +following cases. + +With respect to decisions of justices of the peace sitting at quarter +sessions, or as a court of summary jurisdiction, except in the case +above stated, the subject matter of appeal is for the most part of a +criminal or quasi-criminal character, the civil jurisdiction of justices +being comparatively limited. The appeal in such cases is as to matters +of law only, the justices' decision on facts not being subject to +review. + +In the case of the courts above named, the appeal is brought by writ of +_certiorari_, where the jurisdiction of quarter sessions to give the +judgment challenged is denied _in toto_, or in some cases by writ of +_habeas corpus_, where the appellant is in custody under an order of the +court appealed from (Judicature Act 1894, S 2). The best example of this +is the right of a fugitive criminal committed for extradition to +challenge the legality of the decision of the committing magistrate by +writ of _habeas corpus_. Save in cases of want of jurisdiction or +refusal to exercise it, no appeal lies from quarter sessions except by +consent of the court appealed from, which states the facts as +ascertained by the inferior court, and invites the review of the +superior court upon the questions of law raised by the facts as found. + +Decisions of justices sitting in the exercise of summary jurisdiction +are subject to review by a special case in which the justices state the +facts found by them and their decision on the points of law, and invite +the review of the appellate court on these grounds. Such cases for +appeal are usually stated by consent of the justices, but in the event +of their refusal the appellate court may order that a case shall be +stated. + +Decisions of justices in the exercise of summary jurisdiction may also +be challenged by writ of _certiorari_ as having been wholly outside +their jurisdiction; and in such proceeding the appellate tribunal may +review the evidence taken below so far as to ascertain whether the +justices have by an erroneous finding of fact enabled themselves to +assume a jurisdiction which upon the true facts they did not possess. + +Where the decision appealed from is in a criminal cause or matter the +decision of the High Court is final. Where it is in a civil matter a +further appeal also lies to the court of appeal by leave of the High +Court or of the court of appeal (Judicature Act 1873, S 45). + +Appeals in criminal cases tried on indictment, criminal information or +coroner's inquisition, stand on a different footing from other appeals. + +For many years the question of criminal appeal in general had been a +matter of great controversy. As early as 1844 a bill had been +unsuccessfully introduced for the purpose of establishing appeal in +criminal cases, and from that time up to 1906 nearly thirty bills were +brought forward with the same object, but none succeeded in passing. In +1892 the question was referred to the council of judges and favourably +reported upon by them. It may be remarked that England was practically +the only civilized country in which there was no appeal in criminal +cases. It is true there was an appeal on questions of law arising at the +trial. But the procedure was intricate and technical, being either (1) +by writ of error, issued by the consent of the attorney-general +(expressed by his _fiat_), to review errors of law appearing in the +record of the trial, or (2) by special case, stated by the judge +presiding at the trial, with respect to a question of law raised at the +trial. These appeals were heard by the king's bench division. Meanwhile +there had been a considerable development of public opinion in favour of +the establishment of criminal appeal, a development undoubtedly hastened +by the report of a committee of inquiry in the case of Adolf Beck +(1904), showing clearly that the home office was not a satisfactory +tribunal of final appeal. In 1906 the lord chancellor (Lord Loreburn) +introduced another criminal appeal bill, which passed the House of +Lords, but was dropped in the House of Commons after a first reading. +The next year the act (Criminal Appeal Act 1907), which was ultimately +carried, was introduced into the House of Commons. By this act a court +is established consisting of the lord chief justice and eight judges of +the king's bench division, the jurisdiction of the court for crown cases +reserved being transferred to the new court. The court to be duly +constituted must consist of not less than three judges and of an uneven +number of judges. The court may sit in two or more divisions if the lord +chief justice so directs. Its sittings are held in London unless special +directions are given by the lord chief justice that it shall sit at some +other place. The opinion of the majority of those hearing the case +determines any question before the court, and judgment is pronounced by +the president (who is the lord chief justice or senior member present), +unless in questions of law, when, if it is convenient that separate +judgments should be pronounced by the members of the court, they may be +so pronounced. The judgment of the court of criminal appeal is final, +except where the decision involves a point of law of exceptional public +importance, and a certificate must be obtained from the attorney-general +to that effect. The court of criminal appeal is a superior court of +record. An appeal may be made either against conviction or against +sentence. A person convicted on indictment may appeal either on a +question of law alone or of fact alone, or on a question of mixed law +and fact. On a point of law a prisoner has an unqualified right of +appeal, on a question of fact or of mixed law and fact there is a right +of appeal only if leave be obtained from the court of criminal appeal or +a certificate be granted by the judge who tried the prisoner that it is +a fit case for appeal. The court is given a wide discretion as to +whether a conviction may be sustained or set aside. The court may allow +the appeal if they think that the verdict of the jury should be set +aside because it is unreasonable, or because it cannot be supported +having regard to the evidence, or that the judgment should be set aside +on the ground of a wrong decision on any point of law, or that on any +ground there was a miscarriage of justice. Power is given to the court +to dismiss the appeal if they consider that no substantial miscarriage +of justice has occurred, even though they are of opinion that the point +raised in the appeal might be decided in favour of the appellant. The +sentence passed at the trial may be quashed by the appeal court and such +other sentence (whether more or less severe) warranted in law by the +verdict substituted. Notice of appeal or notice of application for leave +to appeal must be given within ten days of the date of conviction; where +a conviction involves sentence of death or corporal punishment the +sentence must not be executed until after the expiration of ten days, +and, if notice of appeal is given, not until after the determination of +the appeal or the final dismissal of the application for leave to +appeal. The act gives the court power to order any witnesses who would +have been compellable witnesses at the trial to attend and be examined +before the court, and to receive the evidence, if tendered, of any +witness who is a competent but not compellable witness. If any question +arises on the appeal involving prolonged examination of documents or +accounts or any scientific or local investigation, which the court +thinks cannot be conveniently conducted before it, the matter may be +referred to a special commissioner appointed by the court, and the court +may act on the report of that commissioner if it thinks fit. An +appellant is given the right to be present on the hearing of his appeal, +if he desires it, except where the appeal is on some ground involving a +question of law alone, but rules of court may provide for his presence +in such a case, or the court may give him leave. The act requires +shorthand notes to be taken of the proceedings at the trial of any +person, who, if convicted, would have a right to appeal under the act. +Nothing in the act affects the prerogative of mercy, and the home +secretary may, if he thinks fit, at any time refer a case to the court +of criminal appeal. + +_The Court of Appeal._--The court of appeal, constituted under the +Judicature Acts, is one of the two permanent divisions of the Supreme +Court of Judicature. As now constituted the court consists of _ex +officio_ members and five ordinary members, styled lords justices of +appeal. The _ex officio_ members are the lord chancellor, every person +who has held that office, the lord chief justice, the master of the +rolls, and the president of the probate, &c., division. + +The ordinary business of the court is carried on by the lords justices +under the presidency of the master of the rolls, who in 1881 ceased to +be a judge of the High Court (Judicature Act 1881, S 2). The court +usually sits in two divisions of three judges, but on occasion a third +court can be formed, with the assistance of the other _ex officio_ +judges, in the absence of the ordinary judges from illness or public +engagements, or to deal with arrears of business. The quorum for final +appeals is three, for interlocutory appeals two judges. + +The court of appeal has succeeded to the appellate authority exercised +(1) in the case of equity and bankruptcy matters by the lord chancellor +and the lords justices of appeal in chancery (Judicature Act 1873, S +18); (2) in the case of common law matters, by the court of exchequer +chamber, as a court of error, and the superior courts of common law +sitting to review the decisions of single judges of these courts sitting +with or without a jury at first instance in civil actions; (3) in the +case of divorce or probate causes by the full court of divorce +(Judicature Act 1881, S 9); (4) in the case of admiralty causes by the +king in council or the judicial committee of the privy council; (5) in +the case of applications for new trials in jury actions by the king's +bench division (Judicature Act 1890, S 1). + +The court never had jurisdiction to hear an appeal in any criminal cause +or matter, but was able to review by writ of error decisions of the +king's bench division in such cases, unless the court for crown cases +reserved had dealt with the question under the Crown Cases Act 1848. +This procedure has been abolished by the Criminal Appeal Act 1907. +Instances of procedure by writ of error were rare. Those best worth +notice are the cases of the Tichborne claimant on his conviction of +perjury, and the case of C. Bradlaugh on the sufficiency of the +indictment against him for publishing the _Fruits of Philosophy_. + +The appellate jurisdiction of the court as now exercised entitles the +court to hear and determine (1) appeals from every judgment or decree of +every division of the High Court in all civil cases in which such +judgment is not declared final by statute; (2) applications for a new +trial in civil cases tried in the king's bench division by judge and +jury which, until 1890, were dealt with by two or more judges in that +division; (3) appeals in matters of civil practice and procedure from +decisions of a single judge in chambers, which, until 1894, were dealt +with in a divisional court or by a judge in open court; (4) appeals from +the chancery courts of Durham (Palatine Court of Durham Act 1889) and +Lancaster (act of 1890, c. 23) and the Liverpool court of passage +(_Anderson v. Dean_, 1894, 2 Q.B. 222), and on error in a record of the +mayor's court of London (_Le Blanche_ v. _Heaton Telegram Co._, 1876, 1 +Ex.D. 408); and from county courts under the Agricultural Holdings Acts +and Workmen's Compensation Acts; (5) appeals on questions of law from +decisions of the railway commissioners in England (Railway and Canal +Traffic Act 1888). + +The court of appeal also exercises the lunacy jurisdiction of the lord +chancellor, but in regard to this the jurisdiction of the court is for +the most part original and not appellate. + +The jurisdiction of the court of appeal is excluded or limited in the +following cases:--(1) judgments of the High Court--(a) where its +jurisdiction is consultative only; (b) where there is an appeal to the +High Court from an inferior court of civil jurisdiction; (c) where there +is an appeal to the High Court from any court of person, unless in cases +(b) and (c) leave be obtained of the court by which the order is made, +or of the court of appeal; (2) orders of the High Court in registration +and election cases except with the like leave; (3) orders made by +consent of parties, or as to costs only which by law are left to the +discretion of the court; (4) certain interlocutory orders mentioned in S +1 of the Supreme Court of Judicature (Procedure) Act 1894, except by +leave of the judge appealed from or of the court of appeal (5) orders of +the admiralty division in cases of prize, the appeal from which lies to +His Majesty in Council; (6) where the decision of any court whose +jurisdiction was transferred to the High Court is declared by statute to +be final; (7) matters which from their nature were not appealable to any +court before the Judicature Acts, or in which the court of appeal has no +means of enforcing or executing its judgment. For example, it was held +in the House of Lords, in _Cox_ v. _Hakes_, 1890, 15 A.C. 506, that no +appeal lies from the order of a judge discharging a prisoner under a +writ of _habeas corpus_. "If," said Lord Herschell, "the contention of +the respondent is to prevail, the statute has effected a grave +constitutional change"; and later, "if" the High Court "has inherited +the combined powers of the courts whose functions were transferred to +it, but none of them had any jurisdiction or authority to review a +discharge by a competent court under a writ of _habeas corpus_, or to +enforce the arrest of one thus freed from custody ... it seems to me to +follow, that however wrong the court of appeal might think a discharge +to have been, it would have been powerless to order a rearrest, or at +least to enforce such an order." + +The procedure of the court of appeal is regulated by the rules of the +Supreme Court. A distinction is drawn between appeals from a final +judgment or order (which, unless the parties consent to a smaller +quorum, must be heard by three judges) and an appeal from an +interlocutory order (which may be determined by two judges of the court +of appeal). + +In the case of appeals from a final or interlocutory "judgment," or from +an order, including applications for a new trial, the appeal must be +brought within three months from the time when the judgment or order is +signed, entered or otherwise perfected, or in the case of refusal of an +application from the date of refusal. The appeal is by notice of motion, +which except in cases of application for a new trial, need not state +the grounds of appeal. Fourteen clear days' notice of the motion must be +given by the appellant to the other party, the respondent. + +In the case of appeals from an interlocutory order, or from a final +order, or from an order made in any matter which is not an action, or +from an order made in chambers, the appeal must be brought within +fourteen days by motion, of which four clear days' notice must be given +by the appellant to all parties directly affected by the appeal. +Controversies have arisen as to the meaning of the term "interlocutory," +which (in the absence of any authoritative definition) the court of +appeal settles as they arise. The test most generally accepted is that a +judgment or order is final if, as made, it finally disposes of the +rights of the parties in a manner equally conclusive between them. The +court may by special leave allow appeals of either class to be brought +after the time above limited. The respondent may by proper notice bring +a cross appeal against any portion of the judgment or order made below +with which he is dissatisfied. The court has power to order the +appellant to find security for the costs of an appeal, if special +circumstances, such as insolvency or poverty or foreign domicile or the +like, make the giving of security desirable. The court of appeal +"rehears" the case. Under ordinary circumstances it does not permit a +new case to be set up inconsistent with the case as presented below; and +it is content with the judges' notes, or a transcript of the evidence +given below, and with a note or transcript of the judgment appealed +from, but has power on special grounds to receive fresh evidence either +_viva voce_ or on affidavit. The court may call in for its assistance +assessors who are experts on the matters of fact or science involved in +the appeal, and usually does so in cases arising out of collisions at +sea. + +The court of appeal may make any order which it deems just as to the +costs of the whole or any part of an appeal, except possibly in the case +of certain appeals in matters on the crown side of the High Court, as to +which some doubt still exists. In practice the costs follow the event, +unless the court in a particular case makes an order to the contrary. + +A decision of the court of appeal is final in appeals from the High +Court in bankruptcy, unless leave be given to appeal to the House of +Lords (S 104, Bankruptcy Act 1883), and in divorce appeals, except where +the decision either is upon the grant or refusal of a decree for +dissolution or nullity of marriage, or for a declaration of legitimacy, +or is upon any question of law on which the court gives leave to appeal +(Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1881, S 9); but no further appeal to +the House of Lords lies, even with leave of the court of appeal, on +appeals from the High Court sitting as a court of appeal from county +courts in bankruptcy. With these exceptions there is now a right of +appeal from every order of the court of appeal to the House of Lords. + +_The House of Lords._--The House of Lords has for centuries been the +court of last resort, and is still the final court of appeal from the +chief courts in the United Kingdom. The origin of the appellate +jurisdiction of the House of Lords was undoubtedly of that partly feudal +and partly popular character already alluded to, which made the suitor +seek from the high court of parliament the justice denied elsewhere in +the baronial courts or by the king's judges. The lords exercised the +mixed function of jurymen and judges, and, as in judgments on +impeachment, might be influenced by private or party considerations, +debating and dividing on the question before the House. A revolution was +silently accomplished, however, by which the function of reviewing the +decisions of the courts fell entirely to the lawyers raised to the +peerage, while the unprofessional lords only attended to give the +sanction of a quorum to the proceedings, and the House has always had +the right to invoke the assistance of the judges of the superior courts +to advise on the questions of law raised by an appeal. The letters and +memoirs, so late as Queen Anne's reign, show that party or personal +influence and persuasion were employed to procure votes on appeals, as +they have been in later times on railway or other local bills. The last +instance probably in which a strong division of opinion was manifested +among the unprofessional lords was the celebrated Douglas cause in 1769, +when the House was addressed by the dukes of Newcastle and Bedford, but +was led by the authoritative opinion of Lord Mansfield on the effect of +the evidence--an opinion which was treated rather as that of a political +partisan than of a judge. The case of Daniel O'Connell and others, +brought up on writ of error from the queen's bench in Ireland in 1844, +may be said to have finally established the precedent that the judgments +of the House of Lords were to be given solely by the law lords. On that +occasion there was a difference of opinion among the law lords +themselves. The judgment of the majority of the House was strongly +against the political feeling of the government and of the peers as a +body, while the law lords who carried the decision had been appointed by +previous governments opposed in politics to the existing cabinet. But +all these temptations to a party vote by the unprofessional members were +resisted. + +By S 20 of the act of 1873, the appellate jurisdiction of the House of +Lords (so far as it affects England) was abolished, but this section was +repealed by the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876. Under that act and an +amending act of 1887, the appellate business of the House of Lords is +conducted solely by the law lords, though lay peers may still sit +(_Bradlaugh_ v. _Clarke_, 1882, 8 App. Cas. 354). No appeal may be heard +or determined except in the presence of not less than three of the +following persons:--(1) the lord chancellor; (2) the lords of appeal, +four of whom are appointed under the act from among persons who hold, or +have held, high judicial office, or, at the date of appointment, have +been in practice for not less than fifteen years as barristers in +England or Ireland, or as advocates in Scotland; (3) such peers of +parliament as hold, or have held, high judicial office. By "high +judicial office" is meant the office of lord chancellor of Great Britain +or Ireland, lord of appeal in ordinary, paid judge of the judicial +committee or member of that committee, or judge of one of the superior +courts of Great Britain or Ireland. + +An appeal lies to the House of Lords (1) from any order or judgment of +the court of appeal in England except as above stated; (2) from a +judgment or order of any court in Scotland or Ireland from which error +or an appeal to the House of Lords lay by common law or statute +immediately before the 1st of November 1876. No appeals are heard from +the decision of courts in criminal cases. The House of Lords has an +indirect power by standing orders to admit appeals from Scotland or +Ireland which under former law or practice could not be admitted +(Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, S 12). The procedure on appeals is +regulated by standing orders of the House. The proceedings are commenced +by petition of appeal, which must be lodged with the clerk of the +parliaments within one year from the date of the last judgment it +appealed from. Security for costs (L200) must be given by bond or +lodgment of the money, unless dispensed with by the House on the ground +of poverty (act of 1893). Each party lodges a printed case signed and +certified by counsel, containing a resume of the matters to be discussed +and of the contentions for or against the allowance of the appeal. The +hearing is before three or more law lords, who may call in nautical +assessors in admiralty cases (acts of 1893 and 1894). It is not public +in the full sense of the term, as persons not concerned in the appeal +can attend only by consent of the House. The House pronounces the +judgment which in the opinion of the majority of the law lords should +have been pronounced below, and has jurisdiction in the case of all +appeals to give or refuse costs to the successful party. The costs of +the appeal if given are taxed by the officers of the House. The +jurisdiction as to costs does not directly arise under any statute (see +_West Ham Guardians_ v. _Bethnal Green Churchwardens_, 1896, A.C. 477). + +_Appeals to the King in Council._--The decisions of ecclesiastical +courts when acting within the limits of their jurisdiction, and the +decisions of courts in the king's dominions outside the United Kingdom, +and of courts in foreign countries set up under the Foreign Jurisdiction +Acts, cannot be dealt with by the House of Lords or any of the ordinary +tribunals of any part of the United Kingdom. The power once claimed by +the court of king's bench in England to control the courts of Ireland +has lapsed, and its power to intervene in colonial cases is limited to +the grant of the writ of _habeas corpus_ to a possession in which no +court exists having power to issue that writ or one of like effect +(Habeas Corpus Act 1862). As regards all British possessions, the appeal +to the king in council is in its origin and nature like that of the +provincials unto Caesar, and flows from the royal prerogative to admit +appeals. With the growth of the British empire it has been found +necessary to create a comparatively constant and stable tribunal to +advise the king in the exercise of this prerogative. For this purpose +the judicial committee of the privy council was created in 1833. In +1851, and again in 1870, it was reorganized, and by acts of 1876, 1887 +and 1898 it received its present form. The committee consists of the +president of the council, and of the following persons, if privy +councillors--the lord chancellor and ex-chancellors of Great Britain and +of Ireland, the four lords of appeal in ordinary, the lords justices of +appeal in England or retired lords justices of appeal in England, and +persons who hold or have held the office (a) of judge of the High Court +of Justice or the court of appeal in England or Ireland, or of the court +of session in Scotland; (b) any person who is or has been chief justice +or a judge of the Supreme Court of Canada or of a superior court of any +province of Canada, of any of the Australian states (except Fiji and +Papua), or of New Zealand or the Cape of Good Hope or Natal. The number +of persons of this class who may be members at once is limited to five +(1895, c. 44); (c) provision is also made for the payment of two privy +councillors who have been judges in India who attend the privy council. + +Numerous as are the members of the committee, the quorum is three. One +or more of the lords of appeal in ordinary usually attend at every +hearing, but the composition of the committee is very fluctuating. +Appeals from the British dominions abroad lie in criminal as well as +civil matters. The right of appeal is regulated as to most possessions +by order in council, and in some cases is limited by imperial or +colonial statute. Appeals are on fact as well as on law, but the +committee rarely if ever disturbs the concurrent judgments on facts of +two colonial courts. In the case of admiralty appeals from colonial or +consular courts, naval assessors may be called in. The committee also +hears (with the aid of ecclesiastical assessors) appeals from +ecclesiastical courts. The judgment of the committee is in the form of a +report and advice to the king, which is read by one of the members +sitting, and no indication is given as to whether the members present +are unanimous. Effect is given to the advice by orders in council +dismissing or allowing the appeal, and giving direction as to the +payment of costs and as to the further proceedings to be taken in the +colonial courts. + +The procedure of the committee is on the same lines as that on appeals +to the House of Lords; no well-arranged code of practice existed however +up to the end of 1908, and new rules were then being proposed on the +subject. The appeal is commenced by a petition of appeal, and by the +giving of security for costs. In colonial appeals printed cases are +lodged containing a summary of the contentions of the parties, and with +this a printed copy of the record of the proceedings and documents used +in the courts appealed from. The hearing is in the privy council chamber +and is not public. When an appeal is called on, the counsel and parties +are summoned into the chamber, and when the arguments are concluded they +are requested to retire. The appeals to the king in council from +colonial states having a federal constitution, like Canada and +Australia, stand in an exceptional position. The act creating the +Supreme Court of Canada purports to make the decision of that court +final. But it is still the practice to admit by special leave a +prerogative appeal from the court, and to entertain appeals from courts +of the provinces of Canada direct to the king in council, without +requiring them to go to the Supreme Court. The constitution of the +Australian Commonwealth contemplates (S 73) the possibility of +restricting appeals to the king in council from the supreme courts of +Australia, and sec. 74 forbids appeals to the king in council except by +leave of the High Court of Australia from decision of that court on any +question however arising as to the limits _inter se_ of the +constitutional powers of the commonwealth and those of any state or +states, or as to the limits _inter se_ of the constitutional powers of +any two or more states. The exact effect of these enactments and of +Australian legislation under S 73 is a matter of controversy. + +_Scotland._--In Scotland the ordinary appellate tribunal for decisions +of inferior courts and of the lords ordinary is the court of session, +which for appellate purposes sits in two divisions. Appeals from +inferior tribunals in criminal cases go before the judges of the court +of session sitting in the High Court of Justiciary. The court of session +was in its original constitution a committee of parliament for the +performance of its judicial functions, and an appeal to parliament was +consequently anomalous. In the reign of Charles II., however, the courts +grew so intolerably corrupt that a determined effort was made to have +their judgments overturned, by an appeal which was strictly of the old +character of a cry for protection against flagrant injustice. It was +called a "protest for remeid of law," and was inserted as one of the +national claims in the Petition of Right at the revolution. The treaty +of union is silent as to appeals, though definitely excluding the right +of English courts to interfere with Scottish courts or cases. The House +of Lords has since the Union acted without challenge as the final +appellate tribunal for Scotland in civil causes; but has always declined +jurisdiction in Scottish criminal cases. + +_Ireland._--The Supreme Court of Judicature (Ireland) Acts have +remodelled the courts and appellate system of Ireland on the same lines +as those of England. The High Court of Justice in Ireland now consists +of two divisions only, the chancery division, which has little or no +appellate functions, and the king's bench division, which has for +Ireland substantially the same power of reviewing and correcting the +decisions of inferior courts as has the corresponding court in England. +To this there is one exception, that appeals from a county court in +Ireland may be heard on circuit by a single judge of assize. In Ireland +there is also a court of appeal, created in 1877, whose jurisdiction and +procedure follow the same lines as that of the English court of appeal. + +_France._--The court of last resort in France for all cases, whether +civil or criminal (_en matiere criminelle, correctionnelle et de +police_), is the _cour de cassation_, which sits in Paris. It is a court +of error for the review of all judgments of tribunals of last resort +(except _juges de paix_ in certain cases), and for the transfer of +causes from one court to another when justice so demands, and to +determine conflicts of jurisdiction (Law 1 Dec. 1790). Ordinarily it is +confined to errors of law and procedure, but where evidence not +available below is brought before the court, it may send the case back +for retrial or give the appropriate final judgment, as in the case of +Dreyfus (1906). It also hears appeals from courts martial. + +Next to the _cour de cassation_ are the courts of appeal, which have +jurisdiction to hear appeals (1) in civil matters from courts of first +instance, _juges de paix_, and where the amount in dispute exceeds L60 +from commercial courts, _tribunaux de commerce_ (Civil Proc. Code, arts. +443-475); (2) in criminal matters from _tribunaux correctionnels_ (Com. +Proc. Code, arts. 202-235). The appeal is both on fact and on law, and +applies to interlocutory or preparatory as well as to final judgments. + +_Spain._--In Spain the jurisdiction and procedure with reference to +appeals is on the same lines as in France. As regards civil matters it +is regulated by title 21 of the Civil Procedure Code. The appeal to the +supreme court is for the most part on questions of law (_por infraccion +de ley o de doctrina_); but the court has also power to review judgments +on materials not available at the first hearing (arts. 1796, 1801). + +_British India._--In British India complete and systematic provision is +made for appeals both in civil and in criminal cases by the Procedure +Codes (Civil of 1882, with subsequent amendments, and Criminal of 1898), +and also to some extent by the charters of the high courts of Calcutta, +Bombay and Madras (see Ilbert, _Government of India_, Oxford, 1898, p. +137). In addition, the decisions of subordinate tribunals may be revised +by a superior tribunal _proprio motu_, or reviewed in a proper case by +the tribunal which has given them; and provision is made for the +consultation of a superior by an inferior tribunal in cases of legal +difficulty. The policy of admitting so many appeals has been criticized. +But with an enormous population which has no representative institutions +it has been deemed wise to provide ample means of correcting judicial +errors at the instance not only of the aggrieved person but also at the +instance of the supervising judicial authorities, as a means of ensuring +regularity and propriety in the conduct of judicial business by +subordinate judges in out-of-the-way districts. + +_Civil Appeals._--(1) Except where otherwise expressly provided by the +Civil Procedure Code, or by any other law for the time being in force, +an appeal lies from the whole or part of any decree, whether made _ex +parte_ or _inter partes_, of a court exercising original jurisdiction +(Civil Procedure Code, S 540). By "decree" is meant the final expression +of an adjudication upon a right claimed or defence set up in a civil +court, when such adjudication, so far as regards the court expressing +it, decides the suit (S 2). The appeal is both on facts and on law. The +procedure on the appeal is prescribed by c. 41 of the Civil Procedure +Code, and the directions of the code deal even with the language of the +judgment on appeal and the matters to be stated therein. (2) Decrees +passed on an appeal to any court in India subordinate to a High Court +are as a general rule subject to appeal to the High Court on the grounds +(a) that they are contrary to a specified law, or usage having the force +of law; (b) that they have failed to determine some material issue of +law, or usage having the force of law; (c) of substantial error or +defect in procedure prescribed by the code or other law which might +possibly have produced error or defect in the decision of the case upon +the merits (S 584). The procedure on these appeals is regulated by c. 42 +of the Civil Procedure Code. (3) Appeals from orders which do not fall +within the definition of decrees are allowed in the cases specified in S +588 of the code. The procedure with respect to these appeals is on the +same lines as that on appeals against decrees (S 590). Provision is made +(by c. 44) for allowing appeals _in forma pauperis_ after certain +preliminary inquiries. In the High Courts appeals lie from the decision +of one judge to two or more judges of the High Court, whose decision has +effect as a judgment of the full court. Appeals, in civil cases, from +the courts of India to the king in council are regulated by c. 45 of the +Civil Procedure Code. The appealable amount is for most cases Rs. 10,000 +or a claim or question as to property of like amount. + +Besides the provisions stated as to appeals, Indian courts have power in +certain contingencies to review their own decisions (S 623). An inferior +court may also refer cases of difficulty to the High Court on a +statement of the facts as found in the referring court and of the +opinion thereon of that Court (SS 617-620); and in cases in which no +appeal lies to the High Court, that court may call for the record of any +case in which the court below appears to have acted without jurisdiction +or failed to exercise its jurisdiction, or to have exercised its +jurisdiction illegally or with material illegality (S 622). + +_Criminal Matters._--Criminal jurisdiction in India is exercised by +magistrates of the first, second and third class, by sessions courts, +and the high or chief courts of the presidencies or provinces (Criminal +Procedure Code of 1898). The higher judges in a district have the power +of revising those decisions which are not absolutely summary of the +judges of the classes below them in the same district; i.e. the sessions +judge can revise the decisions of a first-class magistrate, and the High +Court those of a sessions judge (S 435). Inferior tribunals can also +refer questions of law to the High Court (SS 432, 433); and where a +sentence of death is passed, or a sessions judge differs from the jury +(S 307), the matter must be referred to the High Court. On matters of +reference or revision the parties have no right to be heard. + +Provision is also made for appeals by c. 31 of the Code. Appeals from +second- or third-class magistrates are dealt with by the district +(first-class) magistrate (S 407). Persons convicted on trial by +assistant sessions judges or first-class magistrates, except in cases +where the punishment is very small, have an appeal to the sessions judge +(SS 408, 413). A person convicted on trial by the sessions judge has an +appeal to the High Court (S 410), but where he has pleaded guilty the +only point on which appeal is open is the legality or extent of sentence +(S 412). Special provision is made as to appeals by persons born in +Europe (whether British subjects or not) and Americans (SS 408, 415, and +c. 33). + +In criminal cases there is a right of appeal to the king in council in +certain cases provided for by the charters of the chartered high courts +(see Ilbert, _Government of India_, Oxford, 1898, p. 137). + +An appeal also lies in certain cases from the courts of British officers +in feudatory states of India to a high court in India, and from the +courts of Aden and Zanzibar and British East Africa to the High Court of +Bombay. Appeals do not lie from the courts of native states to British +courts in India, though in some cases there is an appeal of a political +rather than judicial nature from the judicial tribunals of feudatory +states; e.g. in the case of Kathiawar (_Hemchand Derchand_ v. _Azam +Sakarlal_; 1906. L.R. A.C. 212). + +_Canada._--In Canada each province has the regulation of its own courts +of justice. In Ontario the judiciary are organized, under the Provincial +Judicature Acts, in much the same manner as in England; and the review +of decisions of inferior courts (by appeal or other proceedings based on +English practice) is in the hands of the High Court of Justice, subject +to appeal to the provincial court of appeal. In Quebec the highest court +(king's bench), besides its original jurisdiction, has appellate +jurisdiction over the superior court (see Quebec Civil Procedure Code, +art. 1114 _et seq_.). The jurisdiction is exercised by writ of error or +by appeal, according to the nature of the decision appealed from. The +judges of the superior court have also, under art. 494, power to review +before three judges decisions of a judge of that court or of a circuit +court (arts. 494-504). Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Manitoba and British +Columbia have supreme courts with appellate authority over decisions of +single judges of the court and over inferior tribunals in the province. +Appeals lie from the highest courts of each province, in civil matters, +to the Supreme Court of Canada, or to the king in council in cases +falling within the orders in council applying to each province, but in +criminal matters to the king in council. From the Supreme Court of +Canada no appeal lies as of right to the king in council (Dominion Act +1875, 38 Vic. c. 11, S 47), and the royal prerogative of granting +special leave to appeal is sparingly exercised. The principles on which +the judicial committee acts in advising for or against the grant of +special leave in civil case& are stated in _Daily Telegraph Newspaper +Co._ v. _M'Laughlin_, 1904, L.R. A.C. 776. It is, however, as before, +quite common for appeals to be brought direct to the privy council from +the provincial courts without resort to the Dominion court (see Wheeler, +_Privy Council Law_, p. 955). + +_Australia._--Each of the states of the Australian Commonwealth has its +own supreme court. The Commonwealth parliament constituted in 1903 a +High Court for Australia, which, besides its original federal +jurisdiction, is also a court of appeal from the supreme courts of the +constitutional states, or from any state court from which an appeal lay +to the king in council at the establishment of the Commonwealth. The +jurisdiction of the court is defined by the Judiciary Act of 1903, by +which it is created. The right of appeal is given both as to criminal +and civil matters. + +_South Africa._--In Cape Colony and Natal the appellate courts are the +supreme courts, subject to further appeal in certain cases to the king +in council. The superior courts of Cape Colony are empowered to review +the proceedings of all inferior courts in the colony and its +dependencies in cases where no appeal lies. There was for a time an +appeal from the High Court of Orange River Colony to the supreme court +of the Transvaal, and from that court (whether acting for its own colony +or on appeal from the Orange Colony), an appeal to the king in council. +In other colonies the provisions as to appeal follow more or less +closely the lines of English law and procedure as to appeals, and in all +cases the ultimate appeal is to the king in council. + +_United States._--In the American courts the term "appeal" covers (1) a +removal of a cause to a higher court for retrial on all the questions of +law or fact involved, or (2) taking up points of law only by proceedings +in error, for revision by a higher court. Decrees in admiralty, +bankruptcy and equity, in the federal courts, are the subjects of an +appeal; judgments in actions at law, of a writ of error. On an equity +appeal the evidence taken at the original hearing is reported at length +to the appellate court, and it has the right to review the conclusions +of fact reached by the court below and come to different ones. This, +however, is seldom done, the appeal being almost always decided on +points of law based upon the conclusions of fact reached in the original +hearing. In admiralty appeals the conclusions of fact reached by the +trial court are specially set forth, and are final. + +"Appeal" in many of the states is the general term for reviewing any +judgment of an inferior court on assignments of error. It is also often +used to signify a mode of reviewing proceedings of municipal bodies, +affecting the interests of particular persons, e.g. in matters of +licences or assessments. + +In criminal prosecutions an appeal, or writ of error on points of law, +is almost everywhere allowed by statute to the defendant, and often to +the state. (_United States_ v. _Sanges_, 144 United States Reports, 310; +_State_ v. _Lee_, 65 Connecticut Reports, 265.) + +By the constitution of the United States the Supreme Court is vested +with "appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such +exceptions, and under such regulations, as the Congress shall make." +This provision is held not to create but only to authorize the creation +of the jurisdiction. In the words of Chancellor Kent, "If congress had +not provided any rule to regulate the proceedings in appeal, the court +could not exercise an appellate jurisdiction: and, if a rule be +provided, the court could not depart from it." In pursuance of this +principle, the Supreme Court decided in _Clarke_ v. _Bazadone_ that a +writ of error did not lie to that court from a court of the United +States territory north-west of the Ohio, because the act had not +authorized an appeal or writ of error from such a court (_Commentaries_, +i. 324). The appellate jurisdiction of the court is now regulated by +title 13 chap. ii. of the Revised Statutes of the United States (1873), +SS 690-710; and by the acts enumerated at p. 901 of the Revised +Statutes, United States, 1873 to 1891. Under these statutes the Supreme +Court may entertain appeals from the highest court of a state of the +Union, but only (1) where the state court has decided against the +validity of a treaty or statute of the United States, or of an authority +exercised under the United States; (2) where a state court has affirmed +the validity of a statute, or of an authority exercised which has been +challenged on the ground of repugnance to the constitution, laws or +treaties of the United States; (3) where the state court has decided +against the existence of a title, right, privilege, or immunity claimed +or set up under the constitution of, or under any statute, treaty, +commission or authority of the United States. + +The appeal from state courts is by writ of error, i.e. on law only; and +applies as well in criminal as in civil cases. The Supreme Court will +not act unless the federal question was raised in the court below +(_Chicago U.S. Mail Co._ v. _McGuire_, 1904, 196, U.S. 128). The circuit +court of appeals, established in 1891, deals with appeals from the +district and circuit courts of the United States, except where other +provision is made, e.g. where the jurisdiction of the court appealed +from is in question; in prize causes and convictions of capital crimes +(U.S. Statutes, 1801, c. 54. S 5); in cases involving the construction +or application of the constitution; in cases arising in district or +circuit courts involving the constitutional questions already stated as +subject of appeal from state courts. + +The review by the circuit court of appeals is effected by appeal or by +writ of error, and its decision is final, with certain exceptions but +with power to certify cases to the Supreme Court for instructions (1891, +c. 511, S 6). + +The Supreme Court hears appeals from the circuit court of appeals within +the limits above stated, and appeals from the circuit and district +courts in cases in which an appeal does not lie to the circuit court of +appeals, and has power to issue a _certiorari_ to transfer a case from +the circuit court of Appeals. (W. F. C.) + + + + +APPEARANCE (from Lat. _apparere_, to appear), in law, the coming into +court of either of the parties to a suit; the formal act by which a +defendant submits himself to the jurisdiction of the court. The +defendant in an action in the High Court of England enters his +appearance to the writ of summons by delivering, either at the central +office of the Supreme Court, or a district registry, a written +memorandum either giving his solicitor's name or stating that he defends +in person. He must also give notice to the plaintiff of his appearance, +which ought, according to the time limited by the writ, to be within +eight days after service; a defendant may, however, appear any time +before judgment. The _Rules of the Supreme Court_, orders xii. and +xiii., regulate the procedure with respect to the entering of an +appearance, the giving of notice, the limit of time, the setting aside +and the general effect of default of appearance. In county courts there +is no appearance other than the coming into court of the parties to the +suit. In criminal cases the accused appears in person. In civil cases +infants appear by their guardians _ad litem_; lunatics by their +committee; companies by a solicitor; friendly societies by the trustee +or other officer appointed to sue or be sued on behalf thereof. + + + + +APPENDICITIS, the modern medical term for inflammation of that part of +the intestine which is known as the "appendix." Though not a new +disease, there can be no doubt that it is far commoner than it used to +be, though the explanation of this increased frequency is not yet +forthcoming. Amongst the virulent micro-organisms associated with the +disease no one specific germ has hitherto been found. It may be remarked +that the theories that influenza, or the use of preserved foods, may be +connected with the disease as cause and effect, have supporters. +Sometimes the disease is due to the impaction of a pin, shot-corn, +tooth-brush bristle, or fish-bone in the appendix, which has set up +inflammation and ulceration. In many cases a patch of mortification with +perforation of the appendix is caused by the presence of a hard faecal +concretion, or "stercolith," which from its size, shape and appearance +has been mistaken by a casual observer for a date-stone or cherry-stone. + +Apart from the fact of the more frequent occurrence of appendicitis, the +disease is now better understood and more promptly recognized. It was +formerly included under the term "perityphlitis"--that is, inflammation +connected with the caecum or _blind_ portion of the large intestine. But +in the vast majority of cases the inflammation begins in the appendix, +not in the intestine proper. It is apt to extend and set up a localized +peritonitis, which in the worst cases may become general. + +Appendicitis is more often met with in the young than the old, and in +boys rather than girls; and in some families there is a strange +predisposition towards it. It is often started by a chill, or by +over-exertion, and sometimes the attack follows a blow or strain, or +some other direct injury, after which the virulent micro-organisms seize +on the mucous membrane and involve the appendix in acute inflammation. + +The appendix is a narrow tube, about the size of a goose-quill, with an +average length of 3 in. It terminates in a blunt point, and from its +worm-like shape is called _vermiformis_. It is an appendage of the large +intestine, into which it opens, and is regarded as the degenerate relic, +surviving in man and other mammals, of an earlier form of intestine. +Foreign bodies passing down the intestinal canal may find their way into +the appendix and lodge there. Frequently the diseased appendix is found +blocked by hard faeces or undigested particles of food, such as nuts, +fibrous vegetable matter, and other imperfectly masticated substances; +inflammation may occur, however, without the presence of any impacted +material. The appendix may be twisted, bent, or otherwise strangulated, +or its orifice may be blocked, so that the tube is distended with mucus +which can find no outlet; or ulceration of tuberculous or malignant +origin may occur. Inflammation started in the appendix is liable to +spread to the peritoneum, and herein lies the gravity of the affection +and the indication for treatment. The symptoms vary from "indigestion," +and slight pain and sickness, which pass off in a few short days, to an +exceedingly violent illness, which may cause death in a few hours. Pain +is usually first felt in the belly, low down on the right side or across +the region of the navel; sometimes, however, it is diffuse, and at other +times it is scarcely complained of. There is some fever, the temperature +rising to 101 deg. or 102 deg. F., with nausea, and very likely with +vomiting. The abdomen is tender to pressure, and the tenderness may be +referred to the spot mentioned above. Some swelling may also be made out +in that region. The attack may last for two, three or four days, and +then subside. There are, however, other cases less well defined, in +which the mischief pursues a latent course, producing little more than a +vague abdominal uneasiness, until it suddenly advances into a violent +stage. In some chronic cases the trouble continues, on and off, for +months or even for years. + +[Illustration: Large Intestine showing Vermiform Appendix (v.a.) and +Caecum (c)] + +On paper it is easy to arrange cases of appendicitis into three +classes--catarrhal, ulcerative and mortifying--but in actual practice +this is neither desirable nor possible. Such classification is based +upon the symptoms, and in appendicitis symptoms may be actually +misleading. The three conditions to which the surgeon chiefly looks for +guidance are the aspect of the patient, the rate of his pulse and the +degree of fever as shown by the thermometer. But in certain cases of +appendicitis, though the surgeon knows intuitively, or, at least, +suspects, that the general condition is extremely serious, the patient +looks fairly well and says that he is not in pain, his pulse-rate being +but little quickened and his temperature being but slightly above +normal. Nevertheless, when the surgeon has opened the belly in the +appendix region, he finds the appendix swollen, perforated and +mortified, and lying in a stinking abscess, whilst inflammation has +already spread to the neighbouring coils of intestine. Unfortunately, +the surgeon can no more tell what he is going to find at his operation +in some of these cases than he can foretell the course which any +particular case is going to run. + +We may most usefully give here the symptoms as they are likely to be +found in an ordinary case of appendicitis, and as they may be observed +by one who is not a member of the medical profession, in a way that may +prove helpful to him when circumstances have awakened his interest in +the disease. + +The case taken shall be that of a boy at school, for, as already stated, +boys are more prone to the disease than girls. The boy has had, may be, +occasional attacks of "indigestion" which have duly passed away under +the influence of aperient medicines, and, being heated at play, he has +sat down upon the cold ground. Or he has got wet through or over-tired +during a long walk or ride. At any rate, his vital powers have been +suddenly lowered, and the micro-organisms teeming in his bowel have +seized upon the lining membrane of the appendix. He feels out of sorts, +and if he manages to eat a meal he very likely vomits it soon after, for +the whole nervous system of his abdomen is disturbed by the local +inflammation. The act of vomiting gives slight relief, however, and +probably he begins to complain of pains in his head as well as in his +abdomen, and possibly he has an attack of shivering--the result of +disturbance of his general nervous system. By this time he may be +attacked with intense pain in the part of his abdomen a little above the +middle of the right groin, and at that spot there may be a tenderness, +and a feeling of resistance may be made out by the gentle pressure of +the finger. In order to relax the pressure upon the tender area he +probably lies with his right thigh slightly bent. By this time he may +look ill, his face being slightly flushed, or pale and anxious. If the +clinical thermometer is placed under his tongue, the index may rise a +degree or two, perhaps several degrees, above normal, and his pulse may +be quickened to 90 or 100 beats a minute. Perhaps it is a good deal +quicker than this. Later, the skin of the lower part of the right side +of the abdomen may be flushed or reddened. + +This clinical picture leaves no room for doubt. The boy has an attack of +acute septic inflammation of his appendix. Let it be that the symptoms +have come on quickly, and that the affection is not more than ten or +twelve hours old; no one can tell precisely what course the disease is +going to run. It may be that with rest in bed, constant fomentations, +and absolute starvation, the inflammation will subside; but it is just +as likely that in spite of this judicious treatment the symptoms will go +from bad to worse, and that a belated operation will fail to rescue the +boy from a general peritonitis which may end fatally. But at present, so +far as one can tell, the disease is still limited to the appendix. And +what, at this moment, is the best line of treatment? Some practitioners +would answer--"Let the acute attack settle down, and then, after a week +or ten days, when everything is quiet, remove the appendix, for +statistics show that when the operation is done in the quiet interval +the results are extremely favourable, whilst if it is done in the acute +stage the outlook is not so bright." This is quite right. But one cannot +be sure that the "quiet interval" will ever arrive. The case in question +may be one of those which rapidly go on from bad to worse, and +mortification and perforation of the appendix having taken place over +some hard faecal concretion, general peritonitis is inevitable, with +distension of the bowel and hopeless blood-poisoning. If it were certain +that the attack of appendicitis would subside and become quiescent, it +would be wise to wait. But it too often happens that the first attack +is, indeed, the last. Acute appendicitis is one thing; relapsing +appendicitis is another. The latter condition is very manageable. + +Inasmuch, then, as it is impossible to know what direction the disease +will take, whether to quiescence or to disaster, it is for the greatest +good in the greatest number of cases that the inflamed appendix be +removed by operation whilst the disease is still limited to the +appendix. It is highly probable that if every available hospital surgeon +were asked if he had ever had cause to regret having advised early +operation in a case of appendicitis the answer would be "No"; on the +other hand, every surgeon would be able to recall cases in which delay +had been followed by disaster--which an early resort to operation would, +in all probability, have prevented. + +If the disease is going to assume the severe form, all the symptoms, as +a rule, increase in severity. The facial expression becomes more +anxious, and the accumulation of gas in the paralysed intestine causes +an increase in the abdominal distension, so that the patient lies with +his knees drawn up. The vomiting continues. The pulse quickens to 120 or +140 a minute, and the temperature rises, perhaps to 104 deg. F. The +swelling and tenderness increase on the right side of the abdomen, and +if the abscess does not find escape externally it probably bursts into +the general peritoneal cavity, and the patient becomes bathed in profuse +sweat, the result of blood-poisoning. Death is likely to follow within +two days, the result of blood-poisoning and exhaustion. + +_Catarrhal and Relapsing Appendicitis._--Some cases of appendicitis run +a mild course, giving rise to no worse symptoms, perhaps, than those of +"indigestion" and nausea, with a feeling of general discomfort in the +abdomen, and, probably, some local tenderness. The attack may be +preceded or accompanied by constipation. The administration of a mild +aperient or an enema, rest, starvation and fomentation will probably put +matters right again--at any rate for a time. + +This form of the disease may be due to the presence of "bolted," +unchewed or indigestible food in that part of the large intestine into +which the appendix opens. And these mild recurrent attacks may sometimes +be got rid of altogether by having the teeth put in order, and by +inducing the individual to choose his food with discretion, to chew it +carefully, to take his meals regularly and to eat slowly. + +Obviously, these attacks are very different from those of the acute +septic form of the disease described above, though there is no telling +that one of them may not develop into the acute form. Some of the mild +attacks are due to a kink in the appendix, or to some other condition +which temporarily prevents the secretions of the appendix from finding +their way into the large intestine. Others of them are caused by a +passing catarrhal inflammation of the lining of the appendix and have a +distant resemblance to a recurring "sore throat." + +After undergoing one or two of these mild attacks the patient would be +well advised to have his appendix removed when it has once more got into +the "quiet stage." Experience abundantly shows that the operation can +then be performed with but slight disturbance of the patient, and with +the smallest possible amount of risk. And until his vulnerable appendix +has been removed he is never safe. + +In the _chronic_ form of the disease though the patient is never +desperately ill he is never quite well. He has pains and discomfort in +the abdomen, with slight tenderness and nausea, with "indigestion," as +he may call it. And as one can never tell when the smouldering +inflammation may break out into conflagration, he is well advised to +submit himself to operation without further delay. To carry about a +diseased appendix is to run the constant risk of being laid up at a time +most inconvenient, as when travelling or when staying in some place +where skilled assistance is far distant or absolutely unobtainable. But +having made up his mind that the appendix had better be removed, the +patient can choose time, place and surgeon, and, having undergone a +week's careful training for the ordeal, can safely count on being back +at work again in a month or six weeks' time. + +As regards _treatment_, the greatest safety consists in the prompt +removal of the inflamed appendix, and statistics show that if the +operation can be done in the first or second day of even an acute +attack, the result is generally favourable--that is to say, if the +appendix can be removed whilst the disease is still shut up within its +tissues. But in some cases ulceration and perforation, or mortification, +may have taken place over a hard faecal concretion within the first +twenty-four or forty-eight hours, and, the septic germs having been let +loose, peritonitis may have already set in, and operation may be +followed by disappointment. Still, if the case had been left unoperated +on, no other result could have been expected. It was not to the +operation, but to the intensely acute disease that the calamity must be +attributed. + +Nature is marvellously clever in some of these cases in shutting off the +area of the disease by glueing together the neighbouring coils of +intestine, the limited local peritonitis causing the tissues to build +themselves into a wall which securely shuts in the abscess cavity. But +in other cases she seems helpless, no barrier being formed for limiting +the area of disturbance. In such a case it is inevitable that +disappointment must result from the surgeon delaying operation in the +hope that delimitation might take place. And when at last he makes his +incision he sees that the disease has had so long a start that his own +chance of success is but a poor one. In a less severe attack, under the +influence of rest, starvation and fomentation, and in cases of chronic +and of relapsing disease, the surgeon may watch and wait and choose his +own time for operating. But when the symptoms are steadily increasing in +severity he should urge an immediate incision. When, as often happens, +the inflammation begins suddenly and severely, and, under the influence +of treatment, steadily quiets down, the surgeon does well to delay +operation. But in a fortnight or so, when everything has become once +more quiet, he will urge the removal of the appendix, for this one +attack is more than likely to be the forerunner of other attacks if the +diseased appendix is left. + +The most serious cases are those in which the aspect, the pulse, and the +temperature of the patient fail to give warning of a very advanced state +of disease. Every surgeon of experience has met with cases in which, +though there is nothing pointing to the fact that the patient is on the +brink of a disaster, the operation has shown that the appendix is +mortified, and that it is surrounded with abundant foul matter. It is +then that he regrets not having operated a day or two earlier. +Consequently it is a good rule to operate in all doubtful cases. In +cases in which one happens to know that previous attacks have passed off +under palliative treatment, there is no need for immediate operation; +the quiet interval may be safely waited for. But in cases in which there +is "no history," and in which the surgeon has nothing to guide him, the +greatest safety is in prompt operation. + +If an attack of acute appendicitis is allowed to take its course +unoperated on, abscess forms in the peritoneal cavity in the region of +the appendix, but if already inflammation has happily glued the +intestines together around that area, the pus is confined within +definite limits. But as the abscess increases in size the demand for its +evacuation becomes urgent. The pus, under the influence of a natural +law, seeks its escape by the path of least resistance; sometimes this is +into the intestine, and occasionally into the bladder. The most +satisfactory course which it can take is through the wall of the abdomen +and out above the right groin. As it is making its way in this direction +the skin over that part becomes red, swollen, hot and tender, and the +tissues between it and the skin become swollen and brawny. Rarely is +_fluctuation_ to be made out until the pus has worked its way close to +the surface. Later, ulceration takes place in the undermined skin, and +the stinking contents of the abscess escape, greatly to the relief of +the patient. But long before this could happen the surgeon should have +made an incision through the inflamed tissues in order to give nature +some greatly needed help. For in many cases she allows the pus blindly +to discover that the course of least resistance is not towards the +surface of the abdomen but through the inflammatory barrier formed by +the adherent coils of bowel, and so into the general peritoneal cavity. +This unfortunate issue may give temporary relief to the patient, so that +he says that he feels much better, and that his pain has nearly gone. +But though his temperature may fall, his pulse is apt to quicken--an +ominous coupling of symptoms; the paralysed bowels become further +distended, so that the lungs are pressed upon and breathing is +embarrassed; hiccough comes on; and whether operation is now resorted to +or not, a fatal end is highly probable. In other cases, the escaping pus +finds its way up towards the liver and forms an abscess below the base +of the lungs. + +If operation is performed when appendicitis has run on to the formation +of abscess, and the diseased appendix presents itself, it should of +course be removed; but if it does not present itself the surgeon should +abstain from making a determined search for it, as in so doing he may +break down the barrier which nature has provided, and thus himself +become the means of spreading a septic peritonitis. Nor should he +attempt to make clean the foul abscess cavity. All that he should do is +to provide for efficient drainage. A large proportion of these cases do +extremely well with incision and drainage, and in the subsequent healing +of the cavity the wreckage of the appendix either undergoes +disintegration or is rendered harmless for further anxiety. + +In some cases, however, the damaged appendix remains as a smouldering +ember, ready at any moment to cause further conflagration. This is made +manifest by lingering pains, and by tenderness and warnings after the +abscess has healed, and the patient will be well advised to have what is +left of the appendix removed by operation at a time of quiescence. The +operation, however, may turn out to be a very difficult one. Sometimes +the wound by which the abscess has been evacuated, by nature or by art, +refuses to heal completely, a little discharge of a faecal odour +continuing to escape. The small wound leads into a faecal fistula, and +a bent probe passed along it would probably find its way into the bowel. +The wound is likely to close of itself in due course; but if after many +weeks of disappointment it still continues to discharge, the surgeon may +advise an operation for its obliteration. + +It occasionally happens that after operation the scar of the wound in +the abdominal wall yields under the pressure from within, and a bulging +of the intestines beneath the skin occurs. This is called a _ventral +hernia_, and if the patient cannot be made comfortable by wearing a +truss with a large flat pad, an operation may be deemed advisable. + +If, in a case of appendicitis, for one reason or another operation is to +be delayed, what treatment should be resorted to? The patient should be +put to bed with his knees resting over a pillow, and a large fomentation +under oil silk should be laid over the lower part of the abdomen. No +food should be given beyond an occasional sip of hot water. Purgatives +should not be administered, as this would be to set in movement an +inflamed piece of bowel. If the case is not acute, a large enema of soap +and water with turpentine may be given, or, possibly, a dose of castor +oil by the mouth. As a rule, however, it is unwise to set the bowels in +vigorous action until the diseased appendix has been removed. No opium +should be given. + +Acute intestinal obstruction, cancer of the intestine, inflammation of +the ovary, typhoid fever and renal and gallstone colic, are affections +which are apt to be mistaken for appendicitis. The first of these +resembles it most closely, and diagnosis is sometimes impossible without +resort to operation. And it is a fortunate thing that, when error of +diagnosis has been made, the operation which was designed for dealing +with an inflamed appendix may be directed with equal advantage to the +morbid condition which is found on opening the abdomen. In typhoid fever +the characteristic temperature, the general condition of the patient, +and the presence of delirium are differentiating signs of importance; in +renal and gallstone colic the situation and the more paroxysmal +character of the pain are usually distinctive. (E. O.*) + + + + +APPENDICULATA, a zoological name introduced by E. Ray Lankester (preface +to the English edition of C. Gegenbaur's _Comparative Anatomy_), and +employed by the same writer in the 9th edition of this encyclopaedia +(article "Zoology") to denote the eighth phylum, or major division, of +coelomate animals. The animals thus associated, the Rotifera, Chaetopoda +and Arthropoda, are composed of a larger or smaller number of hollow +rings, each ring possessing typically a pair of hollow lateral +appendages, moved by intrinsic muscles and penetrated by blood-spaces. + + + + +APPENDINI, FRANCESCO MARIA (1768-1837), Italian historian and +philologist, was born at Poirino, near Turin, on the 4th of November +1768. Educated at Rome, he took orders and was sent to Ragusa, where he +was appointed professor of rhetoric. When the French seized Ragusa, +Napoleon placed Appendini at the head of the Ragusan academy. After the +Austrian occupation he was appointed principal of a college at Zara, +where he died in 1837. Appendini's chief work was his _Notizie +Istorico-critiche sulle Antichita, Storia, e Letteratura dei Ragusci_ +(1802-1803). + + + + +APPENZELL, one of the cantons of north-east Switzerland, entirely +surrounded by the canton of St Gall; both were formed out of the +dominions of the prince abbots of St Gall, whence the name Appenzell +(_abbatis cello_). It is an alpine region, particularly in its south +portion, where rises the Alpstein limestone range (culminating in the +Santis, 8216 ft.), though towards the north the surface is composed +rather of green hills, separating green hollows in which nestle neat +villages and small towns. It is mainly watered by two streams that +descend from the Santis, the Urnasch joining the Sitter (on which is the +capital, Appenzell), which later flows into the Thur. There are light +railways from Appenzell to St Gall either (12-1/2 m.) past Gais or +(20-1/2 m.) past Herisau, as well as lines from St Gall to Trogen (6 m.) +and from Rorschach to Heiden (4-1/4 m.). Since 1597 it has been divided, +for religious reasons, into two half-cantons, which are quite +independent of each other, and differ in many points. + +The north and west portion or _Ausser Rhoden_ has a total area of 93.6 +sq. m. (of which 90.6 are classed as "productive"; forests covering 22.5 +sq. m. and glaciers .038 sq. m.), with a population (in 1900) of 55,281, +mainly German-speaking, and containing 49,797 Protestants as against +5418 Romanists. Its political capital is Trogen (q.v.), though the +largest town is Herisau (q.v.), while Teufen has 4595 inhabitants, and +Heiden (3745 inhabitants) in the north-east corner is the most +frequented of the many goats' whey cure resorts for which the entire +canton is famous (Urnasch and Gais are also in Ausser Rhoden). This +half-canton is divided into three administrative districts, comprising +twenty communes, and is mainly industrial, the manufacture of cotton +goods, muslins, and embroidery being very flourishing. It sends one +member (elected by the _Landsgemeinde_) to the federal _Standerath_ and +three to the federal _Nationalrath_ (elected by a direct popular vote). + +The south or more mountainous portion of Appenzell forms the half-canton +of Appenzell, _Inner Rhoden_. It has a total area of 66.7 sq. m. (of +which 62.8 sq. m. are classed as "productive," forests covering 12.8 sq. +m. and glaciers .38 sq. m.), and a total population of 13,499, +practically all German-speaking, and all but 833 Romanists. Its +political capital is Appenzell (q.v.), which is also the largest +village, while Weissbad (near it) and Gonten are the best-known goats' +whey cure resorts. Embroidery and muslins are made in this half-canton, +though wholly at home by the work-people. But it is very largely +pastoral, containing 168 mountain pastures or "alps," maintaining each +summer 4000 cows, and of an estimated capital value of 2,682,955 francs +(the figures for Ausser Rhoden are respectively 100 alps, 2800 cows, and +1,749,900 francs). Inner Rhoden is extremely conservative, and has the +reputation of always rejecting any federal _Referendum_. For similar +reasons it has preserved many old customs and costumes, those of the +women being very elaborate and picturesque, while the herdsmen have +retained their festival attire of red waistcoats, embroidered braces and +canary-coloured shorts. It sends one member (named by the +_Landsgemeinde_) to the federal _Standerath_, and one also to the +federal _Nationalrath_, while it forms but a single administrative +district, though divided into six communes. + +To the outer world the canton of Appenzell is best known by its +institution of _Landsgemeinden_, or primitive democratic assemblies held +in the open air, in which every male citizen (not being disqualified) +over twenty years of age must (under a money penalty) appear personally: +each half-canton has such an assembly of its own, that of Inner Rhoden +always meeting at Appenzell, and that of Ausser Rhoden in the odd years +at Hundwil (near Herisau) and in the even years at Trogen. This +institution is of immemorial antiquity, and the meetings in either case +are always held on the last Sunday in April. The _Landsgemeinde_ is the +supreme legislative authority, and elects both the executive (in Inner +Rhoden composed of nine members and called _Standeskommission_, and in +Ausser Rhoden of seven members and called _Regierungsrath_) and the +president or _Landammann_; in each half-canton there is also a sort of +standing committee (composed of the members of the executive and +representatives from the communes--in Inner Rhoden one member per 250 or +fraction over 125 of the population, and in Ausser Rhoden one member per +1000 of the inhabitants) which prepares business for the _Landsgemeinde_ +and decides minor matters; in Inner Rhoden it is named the _Grossrath_ +and in Ausser Rhoden the _Kantonsrath_. As various old-fashioned +ceremonies are observed at the meetings and the members each appear with +his girded sword, the sight of a meeting of the _Landsgemeinde_ is most +striking and interesting. The existing constitution of Inner Rhoden +dates mainly from 1872, and that of Ausser Rhoden from 1876. + +By the middle of the 11th century the abbots of St Gall had established +their power in the land later called Appenzell, which, too, became +thoroughly teutonized, its early inhabitants having probably been +romanized Raetians. But as early as 1377, this portion of the abbots' +domains formed an alliance with the Swabian free imperial cities and +adopted a constitution of its own. The repeated attempts of the abbots +to put down this independence of their rule were defeated in the +battles of Vogelinsegg (1403), north-west of Trogen, and of the Stoss +(1405), the pass leading from Gais over to Altstatten in the Rhine +valley. In 1411 Appenzell was placed under the "protection" of the Swiss +Confederation, of which, in 1452, it became an "allied member," and in +1513 a full member. Religious differences broke up the land after the +Reformation into two portions, each called _Rhoden_, a term that in the +singular is said to mean a "clearing," and occurs in 1070, long before +the final separation. From 1798 to 1803 Appenzell, with the other +domains of the abbot of St Gall, was formed into the canton Santis of +the Helvetic Republic, but in 1803, on the creation of the new canton of +St Gall, shrank back within its former boundaries. The oldest codes of +the laws and customs of the land date from 1409 and 1585, the original +MS. of the latter (called the "Silver Book" from its silver clasps) +being still used in Inner Rhoden when, at the close of the annual +_Landsgemeinde_, the newly elected _Landammann_ first takes the oath of +office, and the assembled members then take that of obedience to him, in +either case with uplifted right hands. + + See also _Appenzellische Jahrbucher_ (3 series from 1854, Trogen); G. + Baumberger, "_Juhu-Juuhu_"--_Appenzellerland und Appenzellerleut_ + (Einsiedeln, 1903); J.G. Ebel, _Schilderung d. Gebirgsvolker d. + Schweiz_, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1798); W. Kobelt, _Die Alpwirthschaft im + Kant. App. Inner Rhoden_ (Soleure, 1899); I.B. Richman, _Appenzell_ + (London, 1895); H. Ryffel, _Die schweiz. Landsgemeinden_ (Zurich, + 1903); J.J. Tobler and A. Struby, _Die Alpwirthschaft im Kant. App. + Ausser Rhoden_ (Soleure, 1900); J.C. Zellweger, _Geschichte d. app. + Volkes_ (to 1597), 6 vols in 11 parts (Trogen, 1830-1838); J.C. + Zellweger, junior, _Der Kant. App._. (Trogen, 1867); A. Tobler, _Das + Volkslied im Appenzellerland_ (Basel, 1906); J.J. Blumer, _Staats- und + Rechtsgeschichte d. schweiz. Demokratien_ (3 vols. St Gall, + 1850-1859). (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +APPENZELL, the political capital of the Inner Rhoden half of the Swiss +canton of Appenzell. It is built in a smiling green hollow on the left +bank of the Sitter stream, which is formed by the union of several +mountain torrents descending from the Santis. By light railways it is +12-1/2 m. from St Gall past Gais or 20-1/2 m. past Herisau. Its chief +streets are paved, but it is rather a large village than a town, though +in 1900 it had 4574 inhabitants, practically all German-speaking and +Romanists. It has a stately modern parish church (attached to a Gothic +choir), a small but very ancient chapel of the abbots of St Gall (whose +summer residence was this village), and two Capuchin convents (one for +men, founded in 1588, and one for women, founded in 1613). Among the +archives, kept in the sacristy of the church, are several banners +captured by the Appenzellers in former days, among them one taken in +1406 at Imst, near Lanedeck, with the inscription _Hundert Teufel_, +though popularly this number is multiplied a thousandfold. In the +principal square the _Landsgemeinde_ (or cantonal democratic assembly) +is held annually in the open air on the last Sunday in April. The +inhabitants are largely employed in the production of embroidery, though +also engaged in various pastoral occupations. About 2-1/2 m. by road +south-east of Appenzell is Weissbad, a well-known goat's whey cure +establishment, while 1-1/2 hours above it is the quaint little chapel of +Wildkirchli, built (1648) in a rock cavern, on the way to the Santis. + (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +APPERCEPTION (Lat. _ad_ and _percipere_, perceive), in psychology, a +term used to describe the presentation of an object on which attention +is fixed, in relation to the sum of consciousness previous to the +presentation and the mind as a whole. The word was first used by +Leibnitz, practically in the sense of the modern Attention (q.v.), by +which an object is apprehended as "not-self" and yet in relation to the +self. In Kantian terminology apperception is (1) _transcendental_--the +perception of an object as involving the consciousness of the pure self +as subject, and (2) _empirical_,--the cognition of the self in its +concrete existence. In (1) apperception is almost equivalent to +self-consciousness; the existence of the ego may be more or less +prominent, but it is always involved. According to J.F. Herbart (q.v.) +apperception is that process by which an aggregate or "mass" of +presentations becomes systematized (_apperceptions-system_) by the +accretion of new elements, either sense-given or product of the inner +workings of the mind. He thus emphasizes in apperception the connexion +with the self as resulting from the sum of antecedent experience. Hence +in education the teacher should fully acquaint himself with the mental +development of the pupil, in order that he may make full use of what the +pupil already knows. + +Apperception is thus a general term for all mental processes in which a +presentation is brought into connexion with an already existent and +systematized mental conception, and thereby is classified, explained or, +in a word, understood; e.g. a new scientific phenomenon is explained in +the light of phenomena already analysed and classified. The whole +intelligent life of man is, consciously or unconsciously, a process of +apperception, inasmuch as every act of attention involves the +appercipient process. + + See Karl Lange, _Ueber Apperception_ (6th ed. revised, Leipzig, 1899; + trans. E.E. Brown, Boston, 1893); G.F. Stout, _Analytic Psychology_ + (London, 1896), bk. ii. ch. viii., and in general text-books of + psychology; also PSYCHOLOGY. + + + + +APPERLEY, CHARLES JAMES (1777-1843), English sportsman and sporting +writer, better known as "Nimrod," the pseudonym under which he published +his works on the chase and the turf, was born at Plasgronow, near +Wrexham, in Denbighshire, in 1777. Between the years 1805 and 1820 he +devoted himself to fox-hunting. About 1821 he began to contribute to the +_Sporting Magazine_, under the pseudonym of "Nimrod," a series of racy +articles, which helped to double the circulation of the magazine in a +year or two. The proprietor, Mr Pittman, kept for "Nimrod" a stud of +hunters, and defrayed all expenses of his tours, besides giving him a +handsome salary. The death of Mr Pittman, however, led to a law-suit +with the proprietors of the magazine for money advanced, and Apperley, +to avoid imprisonment, had to take up his residence near Calais (1830), +where he supported himself by his writings. He died in London on the +19th of May 1843. The most important of his works are: _Remarks on the +Condition of Hunters, the Choice of Horses_, &c. (1831); _The Chase, the +Turf, and the Road_ (originally written for the _Quarterly Review_), +(1837); _Memoirs of the Life of the Late John Mytton_ (1837); _Nimrod's +Northern Tour_ (1838); _Nimrod Abroad_ (1842); _The Horse and the Hound_ +(a reprint from the seventh edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_) +(1842); _Hunting Reminiscences_ (1843). + + + + +APPERT, BENJAMIN NICOLAS MARIE (1797-1847), French philanthropist, was +born in Paris on the 10th of September 1797. While a young man he +introduced a system of mutual instruction into the regimental schools of +the department of the Nord. The success which it obtained induced him to +publish a _Manual_ setting forth his system. While engaged in teaching +prisoners at Montaigu, he fell under the suspicion of having connived at +the escape of two of them, and was thrown into the prison of La Force. +On his release he resolved to devote the rest of his life to bettering +the condition of those whose lot he had for a time shared, and he +travelled much over Europe for the purpose of studying the various +systems of prison discipline, and wrote several books on the subject. +After the revolution of 1830 he became secretary to Queen Marie Amelie, +and organized the measures taken for the relief of the needy. He was +decorated with the Legion of Honour in 1833. + +His brother, FRANCOIS APPERT (d. 1840), was the inventor of the method +of preserving food by enclosing it in hermetically sealed tins; he left +a work entitled _Art de conserver les substances animales et +vegetables_. + + + + +APPIAN (Gr. [Greek: Appianos]), of Alexandria, Roman historian, +flourished during the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. He +tells us that, after having filled the chief offices in his native +place, he repaired to Rome, where he practised as an advocate. When +advanced in years, he obtained, by the good offices of his friend +Fronto, the dignity of imperial procurator--it is supposed in Egypt. His +work ([Greek: Rumaika]) in twenty-four books, written in Greek, is +rather a number of monographs than a connected history. It gives an +account of various peoples and countries from the earliest times down to +their incorporation into the Roman empire. Besides a preface, there are +extant eleven complete books and considerable fragments. In spite of its +unattractive style, the work is very valuable, especially for the period +of the civil wars. + + Editio princeps, 1551; Schweighauser, 1785; Bekker, 1852; Mendelssohn, + 1878-1905. English translations: by W. B., 1578 (black letter); J. + D[avies], 1679; H. White, 1899 (Bohn's Classical Library); bk. i. ed. + by J.L. Strachan-Davidson, 1902. + + + + +APPIANI, ANDREA (1754-1817), the best fresco painter of his age, was +born at Milan. He was made pensioned artist to the kingdom of Italy by +Napoleon, but lost his allowance after the events of 1814 and fell into +poverty. Correggio was his model, and his best pieces, which are in the +church of Santa Maria presso San Celso and the royal palace at Milan, +almost rival those of his great master. He also painted Napoleon and the +chief personages of his court. Among the most graceful of his +oil-paintings are his "Venus and Love," and "Rinaldo in the Garden of +Armida." He is known as "the elder," to distinguish him from his +great-nephew Andrea Appiani (1817-1865), an historical painter at Rome. +Other painters of the same name were Niccolo Appiani (fl. 1510) and +Francesco Appiani (1704-1792). + + + + +APPIA, VIA, a high-road leading from Rome to Campania and lower Italy, +constructed in 312 B.C. by the censor Appius Claudius Caecus. It +originally ran only as far as Capua, but was successively prolonged to +Beneventum, Venusia, Tarentum and Brundusium, though at what dates is +unknown. Probably it was extended as far as Beneventum not long after +the colonization of this town in 268 B.C., and it seems to have reached +Venusia before 190 B.C. Horace, in the journey to Brundusium described +in _Sat_. i. 5, followed the Via Appia as far as Beneventum, but not +beyond. + +The original road was no doubt only gravelled (_glarea strata_); in 298 +B.C. a footpath was laid _saxo quadrato_ from the Porta Capena, by which +it left Rome, to the temple of Mars, about 1 m. from the gate. Three +years later, however, the whole road was paved with _silex_ from the +temple to Bovillae, and in 191 B.C. the first mile from the gate to the +temple was similarly treated. The distance from Rome to Capua was 132 m. +For the first few miles the road is flanked by an uninterrupted series +of tombs and other buildings (see L. Canina, _Via Appia_, Rome, 1853). +As far as Terracina it ran in an almost entirely straight line, even +through the Alban Hills, where the gradients are steep. A remarkably +fine embankment belonging to it still exists at Aricia. At Forum Appii +it entered the Pomptine Marshes; that this portion (19 m. long, hence +called Decennovium) belonged to the original road was proved by the +discovery at Ad Medias (Mesa) of a milestone of about 250 B.C. (Ch. +Hulsen, in _Romische Mitteilungen_, 1889, 83; 1895, 301). A still older +road ran along the foot of the Volscian mountains past Cora, Norba and +Setia; this served as the post road until the end of the 18th century. +At the time of Strabo and Horace, however, it was the practice to travel +by canal from Forum Appii to Lucus Feroniae; to Nerva and Trajan were +due the paving of the road and the repair of the bridges along this +section. Theodoric in A.D. 486 ordered the execution of similar repairs, +the success of which is recorded in inscriptions, but in the middle ages +it was abandoned and impassable, and was only renewed by Pius VI. The +older road crossed the back of the promontory at the foot of which +Terracina stands; in imperial times, probably, the rock was cut away +perpendicularly for a height of 120 ft. to allow the road to pass. +Beyond Fundi it passed through the mountains to Formiae, the engineering +of the road being noteworthy; and thence by Minturnae and Sinuessa +(towns of the Aurunci which had been conquered in 314 B.C.)[1] to Capua. +The remains of the road in this first portion are particularly striking. + +Between Capua and Beneventum, a distance of 32 m., the road passed near +the defile of Caudium (see CAUDINE FORKS). The modern highroad follows +the ancient line, and remains of the latter, with the exception of three +well-preserved bridges, which still serve for the modern highroad, are +conspicuous by their absence. The portion of the road from Rome to +Beneventum is described by Sir R. Colt Hoare, _Classical Tour through +Italy_, 57 seq. (London, 1819). He was accompanied on his journey, made +in 1789, by the artist Carlo Labruzzi, who executed a series of 226 +drawings, the greater part of which have not been published; they are +described by T. Ashby in _Melanges de l'Ecole Francaise de Rome_ (1903), +p. 375 seq., and _Atti del Congresso Internazionale per le Scienze +Storiche_, vol. v. (Rome, 1904), p. 125 seq. + +From Beneventum to Brundusium by the Via Appia, through Venusia and +Tarentum, was 202 m. A shorter route, but more fitted for mule traffic, +though Horace drove along part of it,[2] ran by Aequum Tuticum, Aecae, +Herdoniae, Canusium, Barium, and Gnatia (Strabo vi. 282); it was made +into a main road by Trajan, and took the name Via Traiana. The original +road, too, adopted in imperial times a more devious but easier route by +Aeclanum instead of by Trevicum. This was restored by Hadrian for the 15 +m. between Beneventum and Aeclanum. Under Diocletian and Maximian a road +(the Via Herculia) was constructed from Aequum Tuticum to Pons Aufidi +near Venusia, where it crossed the Via Appia and went on into Lucania, +passing through Potentia and Grumentum, and joining the Via Popilia near +Nerulum. Though it must have lost much of its importance through the +construction of the Via Traiana, the last portion from Tarentum to +Brundusium was restored by Constantine about A.D. 315. + + The Via Appia was the most famous of Roman roads; Statius, _Silvae_, + ii. 2. 12, calls it _longarum regina viarum_. It was administered + under the empire by a curator of praetorian rank, as were the other + important roads of Italy. A large number of milestones and other + inscriptions relating to its repair at various times are known. See + Ch. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, ii. 238 seq. + (Stuttgart, 1896). (T. As.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] It is important to note how the Romans followed up every victory + with a road. + + [2] From Beneventum he followed the older line of the Via Appia to + Trevicum; thence, leaving the main road at Aquilonia, he went to + Ausculum ("quod versu dicere non est"), the mod. Ascoli Satriano, by + a by-road, for the milestones which have been found there, though + they probably belong to the Via Traiana, cannot be in their original + position, but must have been transplanted thither (Th. Mommsen in + _Corp. Inscrip. Lat._, ix. 1883, No. 6016)--and on to Herdoniae (why + Mommsen says that he left Herdoniae on the left, _op. cit._ p. 592, + is not clear), where he joined the line of the later Via Traiana. + + + + +APPIN, a coast district of Argyllshire, Scotland, bounded W. by Loch +Linnhe, S. by Loch Creran, E. by the districts of Benderloch and Lorne, +and N. by Loch Leven. It lies north-east to south-west, and measures 14 +m. in length by 7 m. in breadth. The scenery of the coast is extremely +beautiful, and inland the country is rugged and mountainous. The +principal hills are the double peaks of Ben Vair (3362 ft. and 3284 ft.) +and Creag Ghorm (2372 ft.) in the north, and Fraochie (2883 ft.), Meall +Ban (2148 ft.) and Ben Mhic na Ceisich (2093 ft.) near the right flank +of Glen Creran. The chief streams are the Coe and Laroch, flowing into +Loch Leven, the Duror and Salachan flowing into Loch Linnhe, and the +lola and Creran flowing into Loch Creran. The leading industries +comprise slate and granite quarries and lead mining. Ballachulish, +Duror, Portnacroish, Appin and Port Appin are the principal villages. +Ballachulish and Port Appin are ports of call for steamers, and the +Caledonian railway company's branch line from Connel Ferry to +Ballachulish runs through the coast land and has stations at Creagan, +Appin, Duror, Kentallen and Ballachulish Ferry. Appin was the country of +a branch of the Stewarts. + + + + +APPLAUSE (Lat. _applaudere_, to strike upon, clap), primarily the +expression of approval by clapping of hands, &c.; generally any +expression of approval. The custom of applauding is doubtless as old and +as widespread as humanity, and the variety of its forms is limited only +by the capacity for devising means of making a noise. Among civilized +nations, however, it has at various times been subject to certain +conventions. Thus the Romans had a set ritual of applause for public +performances, expressing degrees of approval: snapping the finger and +thumb, clapping with the flat or hollow palm, waving the flap of the +toga, for which last the emperor Aurelian substituted a handkerchief +(_orarium_), distributed to all Roman citizens (see STOLE). In the +theatre, at the close of the play, the chief actor called out "Valete et +plaudite!", and the audience, guided by an unofficial choregus, chaunted +their applause antiphonally. This was often organized and paid for +(Bottiger, _Uber das Applaudieren im Theater bei den Alten_, Leipz., +1822). When Christianity became fashionable the customs of the theatre +were transferred to the churches. Eusebius (_Hist. Eccl._ vii. 30) says +that Paul of Samosata encouraged the congregation to applaud his +preaching by waving linen cloths ([Greek: othonais]), and in the 4th and +5th centuries applause of the rhetoric of popular preachers had become +an established custom. Though, however, applause may provide a healthy +stimulus, its abuse has led to attempts at abolishing or restricting it +even in theatres. The institution of the _claque_, people hired by +performers to applaud them, has largely discredited the custom, and +indiscriminate applause has been felt as an intolerable interruption to +serious performances. The reverential spirit which abolished applause in +church has tended to spread to the theatre and the concert-room, largely +under the influence of the quasi-religious atmosphere of the Wagner +performances at Baireuth. In Germany (e.g. the court theatres at Berlin) +applause during the performance and "calling before the curtain" have +been officially forbidden, but even in Germany this is felt to be in +advance of public opinion. (See also ACCLAMATION and CHEERING.) + + + + +APPLE (a common Teut. word, A.S. _aepl, aeppel_, O.H.G. _aphul, aphal, +apfal_, mod. Ger. _Apfel_), the fruit of _Pyrus Malus_, belonging to the +sub-order _Pomaceae_, of the natural order _Rosaceae_. It is one of the +most widely cultivated and best-known and appreciated of fruits +belonging to temperate climates. In its wild state it is known as the +crab-apple, and is found generally distributed throughout Europe and +western Asia, growing in as high a latitude as Trondhjem in Norway. The +crabs of Siberia belong to different species of _Pyrus_. The apple-tree +as cultivated is a moderate-sized tree with spreading branches, ovate, +acutely serrated or crenated leaves, and flowers in corymbs. The fruit +is too well known to need any description of its external +characteristics. The apple is successfully cultivated in higher +latitudes than any other fruit tree, growing up to 65 deg. N., but +notwithstanding this, its blossoms are more susceptible of injury from +frost than the flowers of the peach or apricot. It comes into flower +much later than these trees, and so avoids the night frost which would +be fatal to its fruit-bearing. The apples which are grown in northern +regions are, however, small, hard, and crabbed, the best fruit being +produced in hot summer climates, such as Canada and the United States. +Besides in Europe and America, the fruit is now cultivated at the Cape +of Good Hope, in northern India and China, and in Australia and New +Zealand. + +Apples have been cultivated in Great Britain probably since the period +of the Roman occupation, but the names of many varieties indicate a +French or Dutch origin of much later date. In 1688 Ray enumerated +seventy-eight varieties in cultivation in the neighbourhood of London, +and now it is calculated that about 2000 kinds can be distinguished. +According to the purposes for which they are suitable, they can be +classed as--1st, dessert; 2nd, culinary; and 3rd, cider apples. The +principal dessert apples are the Pippins (_pepins_, seedlings), of which +there are numerous varieties. As culinary apples, besides Rennets and +other dessert kinds, Codlins and Biffins are cultivated. In England, +Herefordshire and Devonshire are famous for the cultivation of apples, +and in these counties the manufacture of cider (q.v.) is an important +industry. Cider is also extensively prepared in Normandy and in Holland. +Verjuice is the fermented juice of crab apples. + +A large trade in the importation of apples is carried on in Britain, +imports coming chiefly from French, Belgian and Dutch growers, and from +the United States and British North America. Dried and pressed apples +are imported from France for stewing, under the name of Normandy +Pippins, and similarly prepared fruits come also from America. + +The apple may be propagated by seeds to obtain stocks for grafting, and +also for the production of new varieties. The established sorts are +usually increased by grafting, the method called whip-grafting being +preferred. The stocks should be at least as thick as the finger; and +should be headed back to where the graft is to be fixed in January, +unless the weather is frosty, but in any case before vegetation becomes +active. The scions should be cut about the same time, and laid in firmly +in a trench, in contact with the moist soil, until required. + +The tree will thrive in any good well-drained soil, the best being a +good mellow calcareous loam, while the less iron there is in the subsoil +the better. The addition of marl to soils that are not naturally +calcareous very much improves them. The trees are liable to canker in +undrained soils or those of a hot sandy nature. Where the soil is not +naturally rich enough, it should be well manured, but not to the extent +of encouraging over-luxuriance. It is better to apply manure in the form +of a compost than to use it in a fresh state or unmixed. + +To form an orchard, standard trees should be planted at from 25 to 40 +ft. between the rows, according to the fertility of the soil and other +considerations. The trees should be selected with clean, straight, +self-supporting stems, and the head should be shapely and symmetrical, +with the main branches well balanced. In order to obtain such a stem, +all the leaves on the first shoot from the graft or bud should be +encouraged to grow, and in the second season the terminal bud should be +allowed to develop a further leading shoot, while the lateral shoots +should be allowed to grow, but so that they do not compete with the +leader, on which the growth of leaves should be encouraged in order that +they may give additional strength to the stem below them. The side +shoots should be removed gradually, so that the diminution of foliage in +this direction may not exceed the increase made by the new branches and +shoots of the upper portion. Dwarf pyramids, which occupy less space +than open dwarfs, if not allowed to grow tall, may be planted at from 10 +to 12 ft. apart. Dwarf bush trees may be planted from 10 to 15 ft. +apart, according to the variety and the soil. Dwarf bushes on the +Paradise stock are both ornamental and useful in small gardens, the +trees being always conveniently under control. These bush trees, which +must be on the proper stock--the French Paradise--may be planted at +first 6 ft. apart, with the same distance between the rows, the space +being afterwards increased, if desired, to 12 ft. apart, by removing +every alternate row. + +"Cordons" are trees trained to a single shoot, the laterals of which are +kept spurred. They are usually trained horizontally, at about 1-1/2 ft. +from the ground, and may consist of one stem or of two, the stems in the +latter case being trained in opposite directions. In cold districts the +finer sorts of apples may be grown against walls as upright or oblique +cordons. From these cordon trees very fine fruit may often be obtained. +The apple may also be grown as an espalier tree, a form which does not +require much lateral space. The ordinary trained trees for espaliers and +walls should be planted 20 ft. apart. + +The fruit of the apple is produced on spurs which form on the branchlets +of two years old and upwards, and continue fertile for a series of +years. The principal pruning should be performed in summer, the young +shoots if crowded being thinned out, and the superabundant laterals +shortened by breaking them half through. The general winter pruning of +the trees may take place any time from the beginning of November to the +beginning of March, in open weather. The trees are rather subject to the +attacks of the American blight, the white cottony substance found on the +bark and developed by an insect (_Eriosoma, mali_), somewhat similar to +the green-fly of the garden, but not a true aphis. It may be removed by +scrubbing with a hard brush, by painting the affected spots with any +bland oil, or by washing them with dilute paraffin and soft soap. + +The apple-blossom weevil (_Anthonomus pomorum_), a small reddish-brown +beetle, often causes serious damage to the flowers. The female bores and +lays an egg in the unopened bud, and the maggot feeds on the stamens and +pistil. The weevil hibernates in the crannies of the bark or in the soil +at the base of the trees, and bandages of tarred doth placed round the +stem in spring will prevent the female from crawling up. + +The codlin moth (_Carpocapsa pomonana_) lays its eggs in May in the +calyx of the flowers. The young caterpillar, which is white with black +head and neck, gnaws its way through the fruit, and pierces the rind. +When nearly full grown it attacks the core, and the fruit soon drops. +The insect emerges and spins its cocoon in a crack of the bark. + +To check this disease the apples which fall before ripening should be +promptly removed. A loosely made hay-band twisted round the stem about a +foot from the ground is of use. The grubs will generally choose the +bands in which to make their cocoon; at the end of the season the bands +are collected and burned. + +The following are a few of the most approved varieties of the apple +tree, arranged in order of their ripening, with the months in which they +are in use:-- + + Dessert Apples. + + White Juneating. . . . . . . . . . July + Early Red Margaret. . . . . . . . . Aug. + Irish Peach . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. + Devonshire Quarrenden. . . . . . . . Aug., Sept. + Duchess of Oldenburg . . . . . . . . Aug., Sept. + Red Astrachan . . . . . . . . . . Sept. + Kerry Pippin. . . . . . . . . . . Sept., Oct. + Peasgood's Nonesuch . . . . . . . . Sept.-Nov. + Sam Young. . . . . . . . . . . . Oct.-Dec. + King of the Pippins . . . . . . . . Oct.-Jan. + Cox's Orange Pippin . . . . . . . . Oct.-Feb. + Court of Wick . . . . . . . . . . Oct.-Mar. + Blenheim Pippin. . . . . . . . . . Nov.-Feb. + Sykehouse Russet . . . . . . . . . Nov.-Feb. + Fearn's Pippin . . . . . . . . . . Nov.-Mar. + Mannington's Pearmain. . . . . . . . Nov.-Mar. + Margil. . . . . . . . . . . . . Nov.-Mar. + Ribston Pippin . . . . . . . . . . Nov.-Mar. + Golden Pippin . . . . . . . . . . Nov.-Jan. + Reinette de Canada. . . . . . . . . Nov.-Apr. + Ashmead's Kernel . . . . . . . . . Nov.-Apr. + White Winter Calville (grown under glass) . Dec.-Mar. + Braddick's Nonpareil . . . . . . . . Dec.-Apr. + Court-pendu Plat . . . . . . . . . Dec.-Apr. + Northern Spy. . . . . . . . . . . Dec.-May + Cornish Gilliflower . . . . . . . . Dec.-May + Scarlet Nonpareil . . . . . . . . . Jan.-Mar. + Cockle's Pippin. . . . . . . . . . Jan.-Apr. + Lamb Abbey Pearmain . . . . . . . . Jan.-May + Old Nonpareil . . . . . . . . . . Jan.-May + Duke of Devonshire. . . . . . . . . Feb.-May + Sturmer Pippin . . . . . . . . . . Feb.-June + + Kitchen Apples. + + Keswick Codlin . . . . . . . . . . Aug.-Sept. + Lord Suffield . . . . . . . . . . Aug.-Sept. + Manks Codlin. . . . . . . . . . . Aug.-Oct. + Ecklinville Seedling . . . . . . . . Aug.-Nov. + Stirling Castle. . . . . . . . . . Aug.-Nov. + New Hawthornden. . . . . . . . . . Sept.-Oct. + Stone's Seedling . . . . . . . . . Sept.-Nov. + Emperor Alexander . . . . . . . . . Sept.-Dec. + Waltham Abbey Seedling . . . . . . . Sept.-Jan. + Cellini . . . . . . . . . . . . Oct., Nov. + Gravenstein . . . . . . . . . . . Oct.-Dec. + Hawthornden . . . . . . . . . . . Oct.-Dec. + Baumann's Red Winter Reinette . . . . . Nov.-Mar. + Mere de Menage . . . . . . . . . . Oct.-Mar. + Beauty of Kent . . . . . . . . . . Oct.-Feb. + Yorkshire Greening. . . . . . . . . Oct.-Feb. + Gloria Mundi. . . . . . . . . . . Nov.-Jan. + Blenheim Pippin. . . . . . . . . . Nov.-Feb. + Tower of Glammis . . . . . . . . . Nov.-Feb. + Warner's King . . . . . . . . . . Nov.-Mar. + Alfriston. . . . . . . . . . . . Nov.-Apr. + Northern Greening . . . . . . . . . Nov.-Apr. + Reinette de Canada. . . . . . . . . Nov.-Apr. + Bess Pool. . . . . . . . . . . . Nov.-May + Winter Queening. . . . . . . . . . Nov.-May + Lane's Prince Albert . . . . . . . . Oct.-May + Norfolk Beaufin. . . . . . . . . . Nov.-July + +Apples for table use should have a sweet juicy pulp and rich aromatic +flavour, while those suitable for cooking should possess the property of +forming a uniform soft pulpy mass when boiled or baked. In their +uncooked state they are not very digestible, but when cooked they form a +very safe and useful food, exercising a gentle laxative influence. + +According to Hutchison their composition is as follows:-- + + +-------+-------+---------+--------+--------+------+--------+------+ + | |Water. | Proteid.| Ether | Carbo- | Ash. | Cellu- |Acids.| + | | | |Extract.|hydrate.| | lose. | | + | +-------+---------+--------|--------|------+--------+------+ + | Fresh | 82.5 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 12.5 | 0.4 | 2.7 | 1.0 | + | Dried | 36.2 | 1.4 | 3.0 | 49.1 | 1.8 | 4.9 | 3.6 | + +-------+-------+---------+--------+--------+------+--------+------+ + +Many exotic fruits, having nothing in common with the apple; are known +by that name, e.g. the Balsam apple, _Momordica Balsamina_; the custard +apple (q.v.), _Anona reticulata_; the egg apple, _Solanum esculentum_; +the rose apple, various species of _Eugenia_; the pineapple (q.v.), +_Ananas sativus_; the star apple, _Chrysophyllum Cainito_; and the +apples of Sodom, _Solanum sodomeum_. (A. B. R.) + + + + +APPLEBY, a market town and municipal borough, and the county town of +Westmorland, England, in the Appleby parliamentary division, 276 m. +N.N.W. from London, on the Midland and a branch of the North Eastern +railways. Pop. (1901) 1764. It is picturesquely placed in the valley of +the Eden, which is richly wooded, and flanked on the north-east by spurs +of Milburn Forest and Dufton and other fells, which rise up to 2600 ft. +On a hill above the town stands the castle, retaining a fine Norman keep +and surrounded by a double moat, now partly laid out as gardens. The +remainder of the castle was rebuilt as a mansion in the 17th century. It +was held for the royalists in the civil wars by Sir Philip Musgrave, and +was the residence of Anne, countess of Pembroke, the last of the family +of Clifford, which had great estates in this part of England. St Ann's +hospital for thirteen poor women (1654) was of her foundation. The +grammar school (1453) was refounded by Queen Elizabeth. The modern +incorporation dates from 1885, with a mayor, four aldermen and twelve +councillors. Area, 1876 acres. + +Appleby is not mentioned in any Saxon records, but after the Conquest it +rose to importance as the head of the barony of Appleby which extended +over the eastern portion of the present county of Westmorland. This +barony formed part of the province of Carlisle granted by Henry I. to +Ranulf Meschin, who erected the castle at Appleby and made it his place +of residence. Appleby is a borough by prescription, and the old charter +of incorporation, granted in the first year of James II., was very +shortly abandoned. In 1292 we find the mayor and commonalty claiming the +right to elect a coroner and to have tolls of markets and fairs. In 1685 +the governing body comprised a mayor, aldermen, a town clerk, burgesses +of the common council, a coroner and subordinate officers. An undated +charter from Henry II. conceding to the burgesses the customs of York, +Was confirmed in 1 John, 16 Henry III., 14 Edward I., and 5 Edward III. +John granted the borough to the burgesses for a fee-farm rent. The +impoverishment caused by the Scottish raids led to its seizure by Edward +II. for arrears of payment, but Edward III. restored it on the same +terms as before. Henry VIII. reduced the fee-farm rent from 20 marks to +2 marks, after an inquisition which found that Appleby was burnt by the +Scots in 1388 and that part of it still lay in ruins. The town, however, +never seems to have regained its prosperity, and 16th and 17th century +writers speak of it as a poor and insignificant village. Appleby +returned two members to parliament from 1295 until disfranchised by the +Reform Act of 1832. The market and the St Lawrence fair are held by +prescription. James I. granted an additional fair on the second Thursday +in April. In the early 18th century Appleby was celebrated for the best +corn-market in the country. + + See _Victoria County History, Westmorland_; W. Hewitson, _Appleby + Charters_ (Cumberl. and Westm. Antiq. and Archaeol. Soc., + Transactions, xi. 279-285; Kendal, 1891). + + + + +APPLETON, NATHAN (1770-1861) American merchant and politician, was born +in New Ipswich, New Hampshire, on the 6th of October 1779. He was +educated in the New Ipswich Academy, and in 1794 entered mercantile life +in Boston, in the employment of his brother, Samuel (1766-1853), a +successful and benevolent man of business, with whom he was in +partnership from 1800 to 1809. He co-operated with Francis C. Lowell +and others in introducing the power-loom and the manufacture of cotton +on a large scale into the United States, a factory being established at +Waltham, Massachusetts, in 1814, and another in 1822 at Lowell, +Massachusetts, of which city he was one of the founders. He was a member +of the general court of Massachusetts in 1816, 1821, 1822, 1824 and +1827, and in 1831-1833 and 1842 of the national House of +Representatives, in which he was prominent as an advocate of protective +duties. He died in Boston on the 14th of July 1861. + +His son, THOMAS GOLD APPLETON (1812-1884), who graduated at Harvard in +1831, had some reputation as a writer, an artist and a patron of the +fine arts, but was better known for his witticisms, one of which, the +oft-quoted "Good Americans, when they die, go to Paris," is sometimes +attributed to Oliver Wendell Holmes. He published some poems and, in +prose, _Nile Journal_ (1876), _Syrian Sunshine_ (1877), _Windfalls_ +(1878), and _Chequer-Work_ (1879). + + See the memoir of Nathan Appleton by Robert C. Winthrop (Boston, + 1861); and Susan Hale's _Life and Letters of Thomas Gold Appleton_ + (New York, 1885). + + + + +APPLETON, a city and the county-seat of Outagamie county, Wisconsin, +U.S.A., on the lower Fox river, about 90 m. N. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890) +11,869; (1900) 15,085, of whom 3605 were foreign-born; (1910, census) +16,773. It is served by the Chicago & North-Western, and the Chicago, +Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by steamboats on the Fox river, by +means of which it meets lake transportation at De Pere and Green Bay. +Appleton was one of the first cities in the United States to have an +electric street railway line in operation; and electric street railways +now traverse the entire Fox river valley as far as Fond du Lac on the +south and Green Bay on the north. The city is attractively laid out on +high bluffs above the river. It has several beautiful parks, two +hospitals, a number of fine churches and school buildings, and a public +library. The city is the seat of Lawrence college (changed from +university in 1908), an interdenominational (originally a Methodist +Episcopal) co-educational institution, founded in 1847 as the Lawrence +Institute of Wisconsin and named in honour of Amos Adams Lawrence +(1814-1886) of Boston, son of Amos Lawrence, and giver of $10,000 for +the founding of the Institute. The college comprises an academy, a +college of liberal arts, a school of expression, a school of commerce, +schools of music and of art, and a school of correspondence; and in +1907-1908 had 33 instructors, 575 students and a library of 24,400 +volumes. The Fox river furnishes about 10,000 h.p., which is largely +utilized for the manufacture of paper (of which Appleton is one of the +largest producers in the United States), wood-pulp, sulphite fibre, +machinery, wire screens, woollen goods, knit goods, furniture, dyes and +flour. The total value of factory products in 1905 was $6,672,457, an +increase of 72.8% over the product value of 1900. Appleton was first +permanently settled in 1833, and was named in honour of Samuel Appleton +of Massachusetts, who owned part of the original town plot. It was +incorporated as a village in 1853, and received in 1857 a city charter, +which was revised in 1887 and in 1905. + + + + +APPOGGIATURA (from Ital. _appoggiare_, to lean upon), a musical term for +a melodic ornament, a grace-note prefixed to a principal note and +printed in small character. The effect is to suspend the principal note, +by taking away the time-value of the _appoggiatura_ prefixed to it. +There are two kinds, the long _appoggiatura_, now usually printed as +played, and the short, where the suspension of the principal note is +scarcely perceptible; this is often called _acciatura_, a word properly +applied to an ornament now obsolete, in which a principal note in a +melody is struck together with the note immediately below, the lower +note being at once released and the other held on. + + + + +APPOINTMENT, POWER OF, in English law, an authority reserved by or +limited to a person, to dispose, either wholly or partially, of real or +personal property, either for his own benefit or for that of others. +Thus if A settle property upon trustees to such uses as B shall by deed +or will appoint and in default of and until such appointment to the use +of C and his heirs, B, though he has no interest in the property, can at +any time appoint the property to any one he pleases, including himself, +and C's interest which has hitherto been vested in him will be divested. +In the above case A is said to be the donor, B the donee, and the +persons in whose favour the appointment is exercised are called the +appointees. Such powers are either general or limited. A general power +is one which the appointor may exercise in favour of any person he +pleases. It is obvious that such a power is very nearly equivalent to +ownership, and consequently property which is the subject of a general +power has been made to share the liabilities of ownership. By the +Judgments Act 1838 all hereditaments over which a judgment debtor has +such a power may be seized by the sheriff under a writ of _elegit_, and +by the Bankruptcy Act 1883 similar property will vest in the trustees of +a bankrupt. By the Finance Act 1894 property of which the deceased had a +general power of appointment is subject to the payment of estate duty, +even though the power has not been exercised. A limited power is one +which can only be exercised in favour of certain specified persons or +classes; such a power is frequently inserted in marriage settlements in +which after life estates to the husband and wife a power is given to +appoint among the children of the marriage. In such a case no +appointment to any one but children of the marriage is valid. Formerly +it was held that the intention of the donor of such a power was that +each of the class which are the objects of the power should take some +part of the fund, and from this arose the equitable doctrine of illusory +appointments, by which the courts of equity set aside an appointment +which was good at law on the ground that a merely nominal share had been +appointed to one of the objects. The great difficulty of deciding what +was a nominal or illusory share caused the passing of the Illusory +Appointments Act of 1830, whereby it was enacted that no appointment +should be set aside merely on the ground that a share appointed was +illusory. It was still necessary, however, that some share should be +appointed to each object, and consequently it was possible in the +popular phrase to be "cut off with a shilling," but now by the Powers +Amendment Act 1874 the appointor is no longer obliged to appoint a share +to each object of the power. + +It is a general rule that every circumstance required by the instrument +creating the power to accompany the execution of it must be strictly +observed. Thus it might be required that the appointment should be by an +instrument witnessed by four witnesses, or that the consent in writing +of some third party should be signified. The general rule, however, has +been modified both by statute and by the rules of equity. By the Wills +Act 1837 a will made pursuant to the requirements of that statute shall +be a valid execution of a power of appointment by will, notwithstanding +that some additional form or solemnity shall have been required by the +instrument creating the power, and by the Wills Act 1861 a will made out +of the United Kingdom by a British subject according to the forms +required by the law of the place where the will was made shall, as +regards personal estate, be held to be well executed and admitted to +probate; consequently it has been held that an appointment made by such +a will is a valid exercise of the power. As regards appointments by deed +the Law of Property Amendment Act 1859 enacts that a deed attested by +two witnesses shall, so far as execution and attestation go, be a valid +exercise of a power to appoint by deed. The courts of equity also will +interfere in some cases of defective execution in order to carry out the +intentions of the settlor. The principle upon which the court acts is +obscure, but the rule has been thus stated:--"Whenever a man having +power over an estate, whether ownership or not, in discharge of moral or +natural relations, shows an intention to execute such power, the court +will operate upon the conscience of the heir (or of the persons entitled +in default) to make him perfect this intention." Equity, however, only +relieves against defects not of the essence of the power, such as the +absence of seal or execution by will instead of deed, but where the +defect is of the essence of the power, as where a consent is not +obtained, equity will not assist, nor will it relieve where a power to +appoint by will is purported to be exercised by deed. A power of +appointment if exercised must be exercised bona fide, otherwise it will +be void as fraudulent; thus it has been frequently decided that where a +father, having a limited power of appointment among his children, +appoints the whole fund to an infant child, who is in no need of the +appointment and who is ill, in the expectation of the death of the child +whereby the fund will come to him as next of kin, such appointment is +void as a fraud upon the power. Where an execution is partly fraudulent +and partly valid the court will, if possible, separate the two and only +revoke that which is fraudulent; if, however, the two parts are not +separable the whole is void. The same rule is applied in cases of +excessive execution where the power is exercised in favour of persons +some of whom are and some of whom are not objects of the power. The +doctrine of _Election_ (q.v.) applies to appointments under powers, but +there must be a gift of free and disposable property to the persons +entitled in default of appointment. + +The appointment must in law be read into the instrument creating the +power in lieu of the power itself. Thus an appointor under a limited +power cannot appoint to any person to whom the donor could not have +appointed by reason of the rule against perpetuities, but this is not so +in the case of a general power, for there the appointor is virtually +owner of the property appointed. In applying this rule to appointments a +distinction arises between powers created by deed and will, for a deed +speaks from the date of its execution but a will from the death of the +testator, and so limitations bad when the will was made may have become +good when it comes into operation. Since the Conveyancing Act 1881 all +powers may be released by the donees thereof, unless the power is +coupled with a trust in respect of which there is a duty cast on the +donee to exercise it; and this is so even though the donee gets a +benefit by such release as one entitled in default of appointment, for +this is not a fraud upon the power. (E. S. M. B.) + + + + +APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE, a village of Appomattox county, Virginia, +U.S.A., 25 m. E. of Lynchburg, in the S. part of the state. It is served +by the Norfolk & Western railway. The village was the scene of the +surrender of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia under General +Robert E. Lee to the Federal forces under Lieutenant-General U.S. Grant +on Sunday the 9th of April 1865. The terms were: "the officers to give +their individual paroles not to take up arms against the government of +the United States until properly exchanged, and each company or +regimental commander to sign a like parole for the men of their +commands," ... neither "side arms of the officers nor their private +horses or baggage" to be surrendered; and, as many privates in the +Confederate Army owned horses and mules, all horses and mules claimed by +men in the Confederate Army to be left in their possession. + + + + +APPONYI, ALBERT, COUNT (1846- ), Hungarian statesman, the most +distinguished member of an ancient noble family, dating back to the 13th +century, and son of the chancellor Gyorgy Apponyi (1808-1899) and the +accomplished and saintly Countess Julia Sztaray, was born at Pesth on +the 29th of May 1846. Educated at the Jesuit seminary at Kalksburg and +at the universities of Vienna and Pesth, a long foreign tour completed +his curriculum, and at Paris he made the acquaintance of Montalembert, a +kindred spirit, whose influence on the young Apponyi was permanent. He +entered parliament in 1872 as a liberal Catholic, attaching himself at +first to the Deak party; but the feudal and ultramontane traditions of +his family circle profoundly modified, though they could never destroy, +his popular ideals. On the break up of the Deak party he attached +himself to the conservative group which followed Baron Pal Senynyey +(1824-1888) and eventually became its leader. Until 1905 Count Albert +was constantly in opposition, but in May of that year he consented to +take office in the second Wekerle ministry. A lofty and magnetic orator, +his speeches were published at Budapest in 1896; and he is the author of +an interesting dissertation, _Esthetics and Politics, the Artist and the +Statesman_ (Hung.) (Budapest, 1895). + + + + +APPORTIONMENT (Fr. _apportionement;_ Med. Lat. _apportionamentum;_ +derived from Lat. portio, share), distribution or allotment in proper +shares; a term used in law in a variety of senses, (1) Sometimes it is +employed roughly and with no technical meaning to indicate the +distribution of a benefit (e.g. salvage or damages under the Fatal +Accidents Act 1846, S 2), or liability (e.g. general average +contributions, or tithe rent-charge), or the incidence of a duty (e.g. +obligations as to the maintenance of highways). (2) In its strict legal +interpretation apportionment falls into two classes, "apportionment in +respect of estate" and "apportionment in respect of time." + +1. _Apportionment in respect of Estate_ may result either from the act +of the parties or from the operation of law. Where a lessee is evicted +from, or surrenders or forfeits possession of part of the property +leased to him, he becomes liable at common law to pay only a rent +apportioned to the value of the interest which he still retains. So +where the person entitled to the reversion of an estate assigns part of +it, the right to an apportioned part of the rent incident to the whole +reversion passes to his assignee. The lessee is not bound, however, by +an apportionment of rent made upon the grant of part of the reversion +unless it is made either with his consent or by the verdict of a jury. +The assignee of the reversion of part of demised premises could not, at +common law, re-enter for breach of a condition, inasmuch as a condition +of re-entry in a lease could not at common law be apportioned. But this +has now been altered by statute both in England (Law of Property +Amendment Act 1859, S 3; Conveyancing Act 1881, S 12) and in many of the +British colonies (e.g. Ontario, Rev. Stats., 1897, c. 170, S 9; +Barbados, No. 12 of 1891, S 9). In the cases just mentioned there is +apportionment in respect of estate by act of the parties. + + _Apportionment by operation of law_ may be brought about where by act + of law a lease becomes inoperative as regards its subject-matter, or + by the "act of God" (as, for instance, where part of an estate is + submerged by the encroachments of the sea). To the same category + belongs the apportionment of rent which takes place under various + statutes (e.g. the Lands Clauses Consolidation Act 1845, S 119, when + land is required for public purposes; the Agricultural Holdings Act + 1883, S 41, in the case of a tenant from year to year receiving notice + to quit part of a holding; and the Irish Land Act 1903, S 61, + apportionment of quit and crown rents). + +_2. Apportionment in respect of Time._--At common law, there was no +apportionment of rent in respect of time. Such apportionment was, +however, in ceftain cases allowed in England by the Distress for Rent +Act 1737, and the Apportionment Act 1834, and is now allowed generally +under the Apportionment Act 1870. Under that statute (S 2) all rents, +annuities, dividends and other periodical payments in the nature of +income are to be considered as accruing from day to day and to be +apportionable in respect of time accordingly. It is provided, however, +that the apportioned part of such rents, &c., shall only be payable or +recoverable in the case of a continuing payment, when the entire portion +of which it forms part itself becomes payable, and, in the case of a +payment determined by re-entry, death or otherwise, only when the next +entire portion would have been payable if it had not so determined (S +3). Persons entitled to apportioned parts of rent have the same remedies +for recovering them when payable as they would have had in respect of +the entire rent; but a lessee is not to be liable for any apportioned +part specifically. The rent is recoverable by the heir or other person +who would, but for the apportionment, be entitled to the entire rent, +and he holds it subject to distribution (S 4). The Apportionment Act +1870 extends to payments not made under any instrument in writing (S 2), +but not to annual sums made payable in policies of insurance (S 6). +Apportionment under the act can be excluded by express stipulation. + +The apportionment created by this statute is "apportionment in respect +of time." The cases to which it applies are mainly cases of either (A) +apportionment of rent due under leases where at a time between the dates +fixed for payment the lessor or lessee dies, or some other alteration in +the position of parties occurs; or (B) apportionment of income between +the representatives of a limited owner and the remainder-man when the +limited interest determines at a time between the date when such income +became due. + + (A) With regard to the former of these classes, it may be noticed that + although apportioned rent becomes payable only when the whole rent is + due, the landlord, in the case of the bankruptcy of an ordinary + tenant, may prove for a proportionate part of the rent up to the date + of the receiving order (Bankruptcy Act 1883, Sched. ii. r. 19); and + that a similar rule holds good in the winding up of a company (_in re + South Kensington Co-operative Stores_, 1881, 17 Ch.D. 161); and + further that the act of 1870 applies to the liability to pay, as well + as to the right to receive, rent (_in re Wilson_, 1893, 62 L.J.Q.B. + 628, 632). Accordingly where an assignment of a lease is made between + two half-yearly rent-days, the assignee is not liable to pay the full + amount of the half-year's rent falling due on the rent-day next after + the date of the assignment, but only an apportioned part of that + half-year's rent, computed from the last mentioned date (_Glass_ v. + _Patterson_, 1902, 2 Ir.R. 660). + + (B) With regard to the apportionment of income, the only points + requiring notice here are that all dividends payable by public + companies are apportionable, whether paid at fixed periods or not, + unless the payment is, in effect, a payment of capital (S 5). + +The Apportionment Act 1870 extends to Scotland and Ireland. It has been +followed in many of the British colonies (e.g. Ontario, Rev. Stats., +1897, c. 170, SS 4-8; New Zealand, No. 4 of 1886; Tasmania, No. 8 of +1871; Barbados, No. 12 of 1891, SS 9-12). Similar legislation has been +adopted in many of the states of the American Union, where, as in +England, rent was not, at common law, apportionable as to time (Kent, +_Comm_. iii. 469-472). + +An _equitable apportionment_, apart from statute law, arises where +property is bequeathed on trust to pay the income to a tenant for life +and the reversion to others, and the realization of the property in the +form of a fund capable of producing income is postponed for the benefit +of the estate. In such cases there is an ultimate apportionment between +the persons entitled to the income and those entitled to the capital of +the accumulations for the period of such postponement. The rule followed +is this: the proceeds, when realized, are apportionable between capital +and income by ascertaining the sum which, put out and accumulated at 3% +_per annum_ from the day of the testator's death (with yearly rents and +deducting income tax) would have produced at the day of receipt the sum +actually received. The sum so ascertained should be treated as capital +and the residue as income. (_In re Earl of Chesterfield's Trusts_, 1883, +24 Ch.D. 643; _In re Goodenough_, 1895, 2 Ch. 537; _Rowlls_ v. _Bebb_, +1900, 2 Ch. 107.) + + In addition to the authorities cited in the text, see Stroud, _Jud. + Dict._ (2nd ed., London, 1903), s.v. "Apportion"; Bouvier, _Law Dict._ + (London and Boston, 1897), s.v. "Apportionment"; _Ruling Cases_ + (London, 1895), tit. "Apportionment"; Fawcett, _Landlord and Tenant_ + (London, 1905), pp. 238 et seq.; Foa, _Landlord and Tenant_ (3rd ed., + London, 1901), pp. 112 et seq. (A. W. R.) + + + + +APPORTIONMENT BILL, an act passed by the Congress of the United States +after each decennial census to determine the number of members which +each state shall send to the House of Representatives. The ratio of +representation fixed by the original constitution was 1 to 30,000 of the +free population, and the number of the members of the first House was +65. As the House would, at this ratio, have become unmanageably large, +the ratio, which is first settled by Congress before apportionment, has +been raised after each census, as will be seen from the accompanying +table. + + +-----------------+-------------------+------+---------+-----------+ + | | Census | Apportionment | Whole | + | Under +------+------------+------+---------+ Number of | + | | Year | Population | Year | Ratio | Represe- | + | | | | | | ntatives | + +-----------------+------+------------+------+---------+-----------+ + | Constitution | .. | .. | 1789 | 30,000 | 65 | + | First Census | 1790 | 3,929,214 | 1793 | 33,000 | 105 | + | Second Census | 1800 | 5,308,483 | 1803 | 33,000 | 141 | + | Third Census | 1810 | 7,239,881 | 1813 | 35,000 | 181 | + | Fourth Census | 1820 | 9,633,822 | 1823 | 40,000 | 213 | + | Fifth Census | 1830 | 12,866,020 | 1833 | 47,700 | 240 | + | Sixth Census | 1840 | 17,069,453 | 1843 | 70,680 | 223 | + | Seventh Census | 1850 | 23,191,876 | 1853 | 93,423 | 234 | + | Eighth Census | 1860 | 31,443,321 | 1863 | 127,381 | 241 | + | Ninth Census | 1870 | 38,558,371 | 1873 | 131,425 | 292 | + | Tenth Census | 1880 | 50,155,783 | 1883 | 151,911 | 325 | + | Eleventh Census | 1890 | 62,622,250 | 1893 | 173,901 | 356 | + | Twelfth Census | 1900 | 75,568,686 | 1903 | 194,182 | 386 | + +-----------------+------+------------+------+---------+-----------+ + +The same term is applied to the acts passed by the state legislatures +for correcting and redistributing the representation of the counties. +Such acts are usually passed at decennial intervals, more often after +the federal census, but the dates may vary in different states. The +state representatives are usually apportioned among the several counties +according to population and not by geographical position. The electoral +districts so formed are expected to be equal in proportion to the number +of inhabitants; but this method has led to much abuse in the past, +through the making of unequal districts for partisan purposes. (See +GERRYMANDER.) + +If a state has received an increase in the number of its representatives +and its legislature does not pass an apportionment bill before the next +congressional election, the votes of the whole state elect the +additional members on a general ticket and they are called +"congressmen-at-large." + + + + +APPRAISER (from Lat. _appretiare_, to value), one who sets a value upon +property, real or personal. In England the business of an appraiser is +usually combined with that of an auctioneer, while the word itself has +given place, to a great extent, to that of "valuer." (See the articles +AUCTIONS AND AUCTIONEERS, and VALUATION AND VALUERS.) + +In the United States appraiser is a term often used to describe a person +specially appointed by a judicial or quasi-judicial authority to put a +valuation on property, e.g. on the items of an inventory of the estate +of a deceased person or on land taken for public purposes by the right +of eminent domain. Appraisers of imported goods and boards of general +appraisers have extensive functions in administering the customs laws of +the United States. Merchant appraisers are sometimes appointed +temporarily under the revenue laws to value where there is no resident +appraiser without holding the office of appraiser (U.S. Rev. Stats. S +2609). + + + + +APPREHENSION (Lat. _ad_, to; _prehendere_, to seize), in psychology, a +term applied to a mode of consciousness in which nothing is affirmed or +denied of the object in question, but the mind is merely aware of +("seizes") it. "Judgment" (says Reid, ed. Hamilton, i. p. 414) "is an +act of the mind specifically different from simple apprehension or the +bare conception of a thing"; and again, "Simple apprehension or +conception can neither be true nor false." This distinction provides for +the large class of mental acts in which we are simply aware of or "take +in" a number of familiar objects, about which we in general make no +judgment unless our attention is suddenly called by a new feature. Or +again two alternatives may be apprehended without any resultant judgment +as to their respective merits. Similarly G.F. Stout points out that +while we have a very vivid idea of a character or an incident in a work +of fiction, we can hardly be said in any real sense to have any belief +or to make any judgment as to its existence or truth. With this mental +state may be compared the purely aesthetic contemplation of music, +wherein apart from, say, a false note, the faculty of judgment is for +the time inoperative. To these examples may be added the fact that one +can fully understand an argument in all its bearings without in any way +judging its validity. + +Without going into the question fully, it may be pointed out that the +distinction between judgment and apprehension is relative. In every kind +of thought there is judgment of some sort in a greater or less degree of +prominence. Judgment and thought are in fact psychologically +distinguishable merely as different, though correlative, activities of +consciousness. Professor Stout further investigates the phenomena of +apprehension, and comes to the conclusion that "it is possible to +distinguish and identify a whole without apprehending any of its +constituent details." On the other hand, if the attention focuses +itself for a time on the apprehended object, there is an expectation +that such details will as it were emerge into consciousness. Hence he +describes such apprehension as "implicit," and in so far as the implicit +apprehension determines the order of such emergence he describes it as +"schematic." A good example of this process is the use of formulae in +calculations; ordinarily the formula is used without question; if +attention is fixed upon it, the steps by which it is shown to be +universally applicable emerge and the "schema" is complete in detail. + +With this result may be compared Kant's theory of apprehension as a +synthetic act (the "synthesis of apprehension") by which the sensory +elements of a perception are subjected to the formal conditions of time +and space. + + See G.F. Stout, _Analytic Psychology_ (London, 1896); F. Brentano, + _Psychologie_ (bk. ii. ch. vii.), and _Vom Ursprung sittlicher + Erkenntnis_; B. Titchener, _Outlines of Psychology_ (New York, 1902), + and text-books of psychology. Also PSYCHOLOGY. + + + + +APPRENTICESHIP (from Fr. _apprendre_, to learn), a contract whereby one +person, called the master, binds himself to teach, and another, called +the apprentice, undertakes to learn, some trade or profession, the +apprentice serving his master for a certain time. + +Roman law is silent on the subject on this contract, nor does it seem to +have had any connexion with the division of the Roman citizens into +tribes or colleges. So far as can be seen it arose in the middle ages, +and formed an integral part of the system of trade gilds and +corporations by which skilled labourers of all kinds sought protection +against the feudal lords, and the maintenance of those exclusive +privileges with which in the interests of the public they were favoured. +In those times it was believed that neither arts nor sciences would +flourish unless such only were allowed to practise them as had given +proofs of reasonable proficiency and were formed into bodies corporate, +with certain powers of self-government and the exclusive monopoly of +their respective arts within certain localities; and the medieval +_universitas_ (corporation)--whether of smiths and tailors or of +scholars--included both such as were entitled to practise and teach and +such as were in course of learning. The former were the masters, the +latter the apprentices. Hence the term _apprentice_ was applied +indifferently to such as were being taught a trade or a learned +profession, and even to undergraduates or scholars who were qualifying +themselves for the degree of doctor or master in the liberal arts. When +barristers were first appointed by Edward I. of England they were styled +_apprenticii ad legem_--the serjeants-at-law being _servientes ad +legem_; and these two terms corresponded respectively to the trade names +of apprentices and journeymen. During the middle ages the term of +apprenticeship was seven years, and this period was thought no more than +sufficient to instruct the learner in his profession, craft or mystery +under a properly qualified master, teacher or doctor--for these names +were synonymous--and to reimburse the latter by service for the training +received. After this the apprentice became himself a master and a member +of the corporation, with full rights to practise the business and to +teach others in his turn; so also it would seem that undergraduates had +to pass through a curriculum of seven years before they could attain the +degree of doctor or master in the liberal arts. On the continent of +Europe these rules were observed with considerable rigour, both in the +learned professions and in those which we now designate as trades. In +England they made their way more slowly and did not receive much +countenance, there being always a jealousy of anything savouring of +interference with the freedom of trade. Nevertheless the formation of +gilds and companies of tradesmen in England dates probably from the 12th +century, and the institution of apprenticeships cannot be of much later +date. In 1388 and 1405 it is noticed in acts of parliament. By various +subsequent statutes provisions were made for the regulation of the +institution, and from them it appears that seven years was its ordinary +and normal term in the absence of special arrangement. By a statute of +1562 this was made the law of the land, and it was enacted that no +person should exercise any "trade or mystery" without having served a +seven years' apprenticeship. In no place did the apprentices become so +formidable by their numbers and organization as in London. During the +Great Rebellion they took an active part as a political body, and were +conspicuous after the Restoration by being frequently engaged in +tumults. It was probably owing to this circumstance, quite as much as to +economic considerations of freedom of trade, that the act of Elizabeth +never found much favour with the courts of law. Soon after the Great +Rebellion we find the apprentice laws strongly reprobated by the judges, +who endeavoured, on the theory that the act of Elizabeth could apply to +no trades which were not in existence at its date, to limit its +operation as far as possible. Such limitation of the act gave rise to +many absurd anomalies and inconsistencies, e.g. that a coachmaker could +not make his own wheels but must buy them of a wheelwright, while the +latter might make both wheels and coaches, because coach-making was not +a trade in England when the act of Elizabeth was passed. For the like +reason the great textile and metal manufactures which arose at +Manchester and Birmingham were held exempt from the operation of the +statute. Concurrently with the dislike to the apprentice laws which such +anomalies generated, the doctrines of Adam Smith, that all monopolies or +restrictions on the freedom of trade were injurious to the public +interest, had gradually been making their way, and notwithstanding much +opposition an act was passed in 1814 by which the statute of Elizabeth, +in so far as it enacts that no person shall engage in any trade without +a seven years' apprenticeship, was wholly repealed. The effect of this +act was to give every person the fullest right to exercise any +occupation or calling of a mechanical or trading kind for which he +deemed himself qualified. + +Apprenticeship, therefore, which was formerly a compulsory, now became a +voluntary contract. In the case of the learned professions the +principles and theories which gave birth to corporations with +monopolies, and required apprenticeship or its equivalents, +have--contrary to what has taken place in trade--been not only +maintained but intensified; that is to say, not only have such bodies +retained and even extended in some cases their exclusive privileges, but +in general no one is allowed to practise in such professions unless his +capabilities have been tested and approved by public authority. Thus no +man is allowed to practise law or medicine in any of their branches who +has not undergone the appropriate training by attendance at a university +or by apprenticeship--sometimes by both combined--and passed certain +examinations. Entrance to the church is guarded by similar checks. In +such instances the old principle--now generally abandoned in trade--of +granting a monopoly to those possessing a certain standard of +qualification is maintained in greater vigour than ever. + +In some kinds of manufacture the old conditions have been modified by +the subdivisions of labour or by the introduction of machinery, which +have reduced the amount of skill which formerly was requisite, and thus +they have passed out of the category of the higher skilled handicrafts, +as only a very slight or short training is necessary to make an +efficient worker; but a large number of the higher skilled trades remain +which require a long period of training at the bench, and a careful +inquiry into this subject has shown that in nearly all of such trades +there is a scarcity of skilled workers, which is due to the falling off +in the number of apprenticeships. Many persons qualified to form an +opinion deplore that something in the nature of the old standard of +qualification is not still applied to those trades, and consider that +the only method of restoring a high standard of skill is by +apprenticeship. The decay of apprenticeship in these trades is due, not +to any inherent defect in the system, nor to its having been superseded +by any other form of technical education, but to difficulties, +especially in London and some other large towns, which place it beyond +the reach of that class of persons who have the greatest need of it. +Among these difficulties are:--first, insufficient organization, and +secondly, want of funds to pay premiums where such are required. These +difficulties are accentuated in London and some other large towns, but +in many other districts apprenticeship is actively proceeded with. +Efforts are being made, notably by the National Institution of +Apprenticeship, to meet these difficulties. The Charity Commissioners in +their report for 1905 recognized the value of this institution, and +stated that they would in future enable the trustees of charity +endowments for apprenticeship to avail themselves of the practical +co-operation of the institution. The modern trade unions, on the other +hand, have done nothing to assist in restoring apprenticeship to its +proper place; on the contrary, they have hampered it by restrictions +which they have imposed, limiting the number of apprentices who may be +taken. The result of fewer apprentices has been not only to lower the +standard of skill in the higher trades, but to reduce the productive +capacity of the artisans. The altered conditions now attending +apprenticeship are, mainly, that the apprentice does not live with the +master, and that the term is generally five years instead of a longer +period; but the principle remains precisely the same, and the fact that +it is applied more and more largely in Austria, Germany and other +countries is an evidence of its necessity. + +The contract of apprenticeship is generally created by indenture, but +any writing properly expressed and attested will do. The full +consideration must be set out, and the instrument, whether a premium is +paid or not, must be duly stamped, except in the case of parish +apprentices and apprentices to the sea service (see SEAMEN, LAWS +RELATING TO). Where a charity or institution intervenes, it retains +control over the indentures until the end of the term of apprenticeship, +when the indenture should be cancelled and given up to the apprentice. +Any one who is capable of making a contract can take an apprentice, and +the law does not limit the number which may be taken by any master. Any +person of legal capacity can bind himself as an apprentice, provided he +is over seven years of age, though, as he is by the common law exempt +from all liability _ex contractu_, it is usual for the apprentice's +relations or friends to become bound for his service and good conduct +during the period of his apprenticeship. The consent of the apprentice, +however, must be expressed by his executing the indenture. No child +under nine can be bound as a parish apprentice. The master must teach +the apprentice the agreed trade or trades; should the master exercise +two trades (which he has agreed to teach) and give up one, it would be +good ground for dissolving the contract by the apprentice. An apprentice +is not bound to work on Sundays, but he may be required to work on bank +holidays. He cannot become a volunteer (soldier) without his master's +consent. It is usual in the indenture to state whether the apprentice is +to be paid wages or otherwise. If the contract is to pay wages, no +deduction can be made owing to illness or accident, unless it has been +so provided for in the indentures. Nor is the apprentice liable for +breakages or similar faults. The master has been supposed to have a +right to administer moderate corporal punishment, though he may not +delegate it. But this right is really obsolete. According to old custom +a master provided proper food for his apprentices, and medical +attendance when required; but the modern practice is for apprentices to +reside with their parents or friends who maintain them. A master cannot +assign indentures without the approval of the apprentice or such parties +as are named in the contract for this purpose, even if he should +transfer his business. The contract of apprenticeship may be dissolved +by (1) efflux of time; (2) by death (if the master dies, some part of +the premium is usually returnable, but if the apprentice dies no part is +returnable); (3) by consent; (4) in case of grave misconduct; (5) under +the Bankruptcy Act 1883, providing for discharge of the indentures of +apprenticeship and for payment on account of premium. Disputes between +master and apprentice, in cases where no premium has been paid, or where +the premium does not exceed L25, are dealt with by courts of summary +jurisdiction. Apprentices bound according to the "custom of London," who +are infants above the age of fourteen years and under twenty-one and +unmarried, are responsible upon covenants contained in indentures +executed by them just as if they were of full age. The term of +apprenticeship is usually not less than four years. Apprentices by the +custom of London in agreements made at the Guildhall are subject to the +jurisdiction of the chamberlain of London. + +Parish apprentices are those bound out by guardians of the poor in +England. By the Poor Relief Act 1601, overseers of the poor were +empowered, with the consent of two justices, to put out poor children as +apprentices "where they shall be convenient." Owing to the +disinclination to receive such apprentices it became necessary to make +the reception compulsory (1696), but this compulsion to receive them was +abolished in 1844. Many statutes have been passed from time to time +regulating the apprenticing of parish children, but it is now under the +control of the Local Government Board, which issues rules specifying +fully the manner in which such children are to be bound, assigned and +maintained. + + AUTHORITIES.--See E. Austin, _Law Relating to Apprentices_ (1890); + Addison, _On Contracts_ (1905). For the state of apprenticeship in + European countries, and, more particularly in France, see + _Apprentissage, enquete et documents_ (Paris, 1904, Conseil Superieur + du Travail, Ministere du Commerce, de l'Industrie, des Postes et des + Telegraphes, session de 1902). See also the literature issued by the + National Institution of Apprenticeship, London. (J. S. B.) + + + + +APPROPRIATION (from Lat. _appropriare_, to set aside), the act of +setting apart and applying to a particular use to the exclusion of all +other. In ecclesiastical law, appropriation is the perpetual annexation +of an ecclesiastical benefice to the use of some spiritual corporation, +either aggregate or sole. In the middle ages in England the custom grew +up of the monasteries reserving to their own use the greater part of the +tithes of their appropriated benefices, leaving only a small portion to +their vicars in the parishes. On the dissolution of the monasteries +these "great tithes" were often granted, with the monastic lands, to +laymen, whose successors, known as "lay impropriators" or "lay rectors," +still hold them, the system being known as _impropriation_. +Appropriation may be severed and the church become disappropriate, by +the presentation of a clerk, properly instituted and inducted, or by the +dissolution of the corporation possessing the benefice. + +In the law of debtor and creditor, appropriation of payments is the +application of a particular payment for the purpose of paying a +particular debt. When a creditor has two debts due to him from the same +debtor on distinct accounts, the general law as to the appropriation of +payments made by the debtor is that the debtor is entitled to apply the +payments to such account as he thinks fit; _solvitur in modum +solventis_. In default of appropriation by the debtor the creditor is +entitled to determine the application of the sums paid, and may +appropriate them even to the discharge of debts barred by the Statute of +Limitations. In default of appropriation by either debtor or creditor, +the law implies an appropriation of the earlier payments to the earlier +debts. + +In constitutional law, appropriation is the assignment of money for a +special purpose. In the United Kingdom an Appropriation Bill is a bill +passed at the end of each session of parliament, enumerating the money +grants made during the session, and appropriating the various sums, as +voted by committee of supply, to the various purposes for which it is to +be applied. The United States constitution (art. I. S 9) says: "No money +shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations +made by law." Bills for appropriating money originate in the House of +Representatives, but may be amended in the Senate. + + + + +APPURTENANCES (from late Lat. _appertinentia_, from _appertinere_, to +appertain), a legal term for what belongs to and goes with something +else, the accessories or things usually conjoined with the substantive +matter in question. + + + + +APRAKSIN, THEDOR MATVYEEVICH (1671-1728), Russian soldier, began life as +one of the pages of Tsar Theodore III., after whose death he served the +little tsar Peter in the same capacity. The playfellowship of the two +lads resulted in a lifelong friendship. In his twenty-first year +Apraksin was appointed governor of Archangel, then the most important +commercially of all the Russian provinces, and built ships capable of +weathering storms, to the great delight of the tsar. He won his +colonelcy at the siege of Azov (1696). In 1700 he was appointed chief of +the admiralty, in which post (from 1700 to 1706) his unusual technical +ability was of great service. While Peter was combating Charles XII., +Apraksin was constructing fleets, building fortresses and havens +(Taganrog). In 1707 he was transferred to Moscow. In 1708 he was +appointed commander-in-chief in Ingria, to defend the new capital +against the Swedes, whom he utterly routed, besides capturing Viborg in +Carelia. He held the chief command in the Black Sea during the campaign +of the Pruth (1711), and in 1713 materially assisted the conquest of +Finland by his operations from the side of the sea. In 1710-1720 he +personally conducted the descents upon Sweden, ravaging that country +mercilessly, and thus extorting the peace of Nystad, whereby she +surrendered the best part of her Baltic provinces to Russia. For these +great services he was made a senator and admiral-general of the empire. +His last expedition was to Reval in 1726, to cover the town from an +anticipated attack by the English government, with whom the relations of +Russia at the beginning of the reign of Catharine I. were strained +almost to breaking-point. Though frequently threatened with terrible +penalties by Peter the Great for his incurable vice of peculation, +Apraksin, nevertheless, contrived to save his head, though not his +pocket, chiefly through the mediation of the good-natured empress, +Catharine, who remained his friend to the last, and whom he assisted to +place on the throne on the death of Peter. Apraksin was the most genial +and kind-hearted of all Peter's pupils. He is said to have never made an +enemy. He died on the 10th of November 1728. + + See R. Nisbet Bain, _The Pupils of Peter the Great_ (London, 1897). + (R. N. B.) + + + + +APRICOT (from the Lat. _praecox_, or _praecoquus_, ripened early, +_coquere_, to cook, or ripen; the English form, formerly "apricock" and +"abrecox," comes through the Fr. _abricot_, from the Span. +_albaricoque_, which was an adaptation of the Arabic _al-burquk_, itself +a rendering of the late Gr. [Greek: prekokkia] or [Greek: praikokion], +adapted from the Latin; the derivation from _in aprico cactus_ is a mere +guess), the fruit of _Prunus armeniaca_, also called _Armeniaca +vulgaris_. Under the former name it is regarded as a species of the +genus to which the plums belong, the latter establishes it as a distinct +genus of the natural order _Rosaceae_. The apricot is, like the plum, a +stone fruit, cultivated generally throughout temperate regions, and used +chiefly in the form of preserves and in tarts. The tree has long been +cultivated in _Armenia_ (hence the name _Armeniaca_); it is a native of +north China and other parts of temperate Asia. It flowers very early in +the season, and is a hardy tree, but the fruit will scarcely ripen in +Britain unless the tree is trained against a wall. A great number of +varieties of the apricot, as of most cultivated fruits, are +distinguished by cultivators. The kernels of several varieties are +edible, and in Egypt those of the Musch-Musch variety form a +considerable article of commerce. The French liqueur _Eau de noyaux_ is +prepared from bitter apricot kernels. Large quantities of fruit are +imported from France into the United Kingdom. + +The apricot is propagated by budding on the mussel or common plum stock. +The tree succeeds in good well-drained loamy soil, rather light than +heavy. It is usually grown as a wall tree, the east and west aspects +being preferred to the south, which induces mealiness in the fruit, +though in Scotland the best aspects are necessary. The most usual and +best mode of training is the fan method. The fruit is produced on shoots +of the preceding year, and on small close spurs formed on the +two-year-old wood. The trees should be planted about 20 ft. apart. The +summer pruning should begin early in June, at which period all the +irregular foreright and useless shoots are pinched off; and, shortly +afterwards, those which remain are fastened to the wall. At the winter +pruning all branches not duly furnished with spurs and fruit buds are +removed. The young bearing shoots are moderately pruned at the points, +care being, however, taken to leave a terminal shoot or leader to each +branch. The most common error in the pruning of apricots is laying in +the bearing shoots too thickly; the branches naturally diverge in fan +training, and when they extend so as to be about 15 in. apart, a fresh +branch should be laid in, to be again subdivided as required. The +blossoms of the apricot open early in spring, but are more hardy than +those of the peach; the same means of protection when necessary may be +employed for both. If the fruit sets too numerously, it is thinned out +in June and in the beginning of July, the later thinnings being used for +tarts. In the south of England, where the soil is suitable, the hardier +sorts of apricot, as the Breda and Brussels, bear well as standard trees +in favourable seasons. In such cases the trees may be planted from 20 to +25 ft. apart. + +The ripening of the fruit of the apricot is accelerated by culture under +glass, the trees being either planted out like peaches or grown in pots +on the orchard-house system. They must be very gently excited, since +they naturally bloom when the spring temperature is comparatively low. +At first a maximum of 40 deg. only must be permitted; after two or three +weeks it may be raised to 45 deg., and later on to 50 deg. and 55 deg., +and thus continued till the trees are in flower, air being freely +admitted, and the minimum or night temperature ranging from 40 deg. to +45 deg. After the fruit is set the temperature should be gradually +raised, being kept higher in clear weather than in dull. When the fruit +has stoned, the temperature may be raised to 60 deg. or 65 deg. by day +and 60 deg. by night; and for ripening off it may be allowed to reach 70 +deg. or 80 deg. by sun heat. + +The Moorpark is one of the best and most useful sorts in cultivation, +and should be planted for all general purposes; the Peach is a very +similar variety, not quite identical; and the Hemskerk is also similar, +but hardier. The Large Early, which ripens in the end of July and +beginning of August, and the Kaisha, a sweet-kernelled variety, which +ripens in the middle of August, are also to be recommended. For standard +trees in favourable localities the Breda and Brussels may be added. + + + + +APRIES ([Greek: Apries]), the name by which Herodotus (ii. 161) and +Diodorus (i. 68) designate _Uehabre'_, [Greek: Onaphres] +(Pharaoh-Hophra), the fourth king (counting from Psammetichus I.) of the +twenty-sixth Egyptian dynasty. He reigned from 589 to 570 B.C. See EGYPT +and AMASIS. + + + + +APRIL, the second month of the ancient Roman, and the fourth of the +modern calendar, containing thirty days. The derivation of the name is +uncertain. The traditional etymology from Lat. _aperire_, "to open," in +allusion to its being the season when trees and flowers begin to "open," +is supported by comparison with the modern Greek use of [Greek: anoixis] +(opening) for spring. This seems very possible, though, as all the Roman +months were named in honour of divinities, and as April was sacred to +Venus, the _Festum Veneris et Fortunae Virilis_ being held on the first +day, it has been suggested that Aprilis was originally her month +Aphrilis, from her Greek name Aphrodite. Jacob Grimm suggests the name +of a hypothetical god or hero, _Aper_ or _Aprus_. On the fourth and the +five following days, games (_Ludi Megalenses_) were celebrated in honour +of Cybele; on the fifth there was the _Festum Fortunae Publicae_; on the +tenth (?) games in the circus, and on the nineteenth equestrian combats, +in honour of Ceres; on the twenty-first--which was regarded as the +birthday of Rome--the _Vinalia urbana_, when the wine of the previous +autumn was first tasted; on the twenty-fifth, the _Robigalia_, for the +averting of mildew; and on the twenty-eighth and four following days, +the riotous _Floralia_. The Anglo-Saxons called April _Oster-monath_ or +_Eostur-monath_, the period sacred to _Eostre_ or _Ostara_, the pagan +Saxon goddess of spring, from whose name is derived the modern Easter. +St George's day is the twenty-third of the month; and St Mark's Eve, +with its superstition that the ghosts of those who are doomed to die +within the year will be seen to pass into the church, falls on the +twenty-fourth. In China the symbolical ploughing of the earth by the +emperor and princes of the blood takes place in their third month, which +frequently corresponds to our April; and in Japan the feast of Dolls is +celebrated in the same month. The "days of April" (_journees d'avril_) +is a name appropriated in French history to a series of insurrections at +Lyons, Paris and elsewhere, against the government of Louis Philippe in +1834, which led to violent repressive measures, and to a famous trial +known as the _proces d'avril_. + + See Chambers's _Book of Days_; Grimm's _Geschichte der deutschen + Sprache_. Cap. "Monate"; also APRIL-FOOLS' DAY. + + + + +APRIL-FOOLS' DAY, or ALL-FOOLS' DAY, the name given to the 1st of April +in allusion to the custom of playing practical jokes on friends and +neighbours on that day, or sending them on fools' errands. The origin of +this custom has been much disputed, and many ludicrous solutions have +been suggested, e.g. that it is a farcical commemoration of Christ being +sent from Annas to Caiaphas, from Caiaphas to Pilate, from Pilate to +Herod, and from Herod back again to Pilate, the crucifixion having taken +place about the 1st of April. What seems certain is that it is in some +way or other a relic of those once universal festivities held at the +vernal equinox, which, beginning on old New Year's day, the 25th of +March, ended on the 1st of April. This view gains support from the fact +that the exact counterpart of April-fooling is found to have been an +immemorial custom in India. The festival of the spring equinox is there +termed the feast of Huli, the last day of which is the 31st of March, +upon which the chief amusement is the befooling of people by sending +them on fruitless errands. It has been plausibly suggested that Europe +derived its April-fooling from the French. They were the first nation to +adopt the reformed calendar, Charles IX. in 1564 decreeing that the year +should begin with the 1st of January. Thus the New Year's gifts and +visits of felicitation which had been the feature of the 1st of April +became associated with the first day of January, and those who disliked +the change were fair butts for those wits who amused themselves by +sending mock presents and paying calls of pretended ceremony on the 1st +of April. Though the 1st of April appears to have been anciently +observed in Great Britain as a general festival, it was apparently not +until the beginning of the 18th century that the making of April-fools +was a common custom. In Scotland the custom was known as "hunting the +gowk," i.e. the cuckoo, and April-fools were "April-gowks," the cuckoo +being there, as it is in most lands, a term of contempt. In France the +person befooled is known as _poisson d'avril_. This has been explained +from the association of ideas arising from the fact that in April the +sun quits the zodiacal sign of the fish. A far more natural explanation +would seem to be that the April fish would be a young fish and therefore +easily caught. + + + + +A PRIORI (Lat. a, from, _prior, prius_, that which is before, precedes), +(1) a phrase used popularly of a judgment based on general +considerations in the absence of particular evidence; (2) a logical term +first used, apparently, by Albert of Saxony (14th century), though the +theory which it denotes is as old as Aristotle. In the order of human +knowledge the particular facts of experience come first and are the +basis of generalized laws or causes (the Scholastic _notiora nobis_); +but in the order of nature the latter rank first as the self-existent, +fundamental truths of existence (_notiora naturae_). Thus to Aristotle +the _a priori_ argument is from law or cause to effect, as opposed to +what we call _a posteriori_ (_posterior_, subsequent, derived), from +effect to cause. Since Kant the two phrases have become purely +adjectival (instead of adverbial) with a technical controversial sense, +closely allied to the Aristotelian, in relation to knowledge and +judgments generally. _A priori_ is applied to judgments which are +regarded as independent of experience, and belonging to the essence of +thought; _a posteriori_ to those which are derived from particular +observations. The distinction is analogous to that between analysis and +synthesis, deduction and induction (but there may be a synthesis of _a +priori_ judgments, cf. Kant's "Synthetic Judgment _a priori_"). Round +this distinction a rather barren controversy has raged, and almost all +modern philosophers have labelled themselves either "Intuitionalist" (_a +priori_) or "Empiricist" (_a posteriori_) according to the view they +take of knowledge. In fact, however, the rival schools are generally +arguing at cross purposes; there is a knowledge based on particulars, +and also a knowledge of laws or causes. But the two work in different +spheres, and are complementary. The observation of isolated particulars +gives not necessity, but merely strong probability; necessity is purely +intellectual or "transcendental." If the empiricist denies the +intellectual element in scientific knowledge, he must not claim absolute +validity for his conclusions; but he may hold against the intuitionalist +that absolute laws are impossible to the human intellect. On the other +hand, pure _a priori_ knowledge can be nothing more than form without +content (e.g. formal logic, the laws of thought). The simple fact at the +bottom of the controversy is that in all empirical knowledge there is an +intellectual element, without which there is no correlation of empirical +data, and every judgment, however simple, postulates a correlation of +some sort if only that between the predicate and its contradictory. + + + + +APRON (a corruption arising from a wrong division of "a napron" into "an +apron," from the Fr. _naperon, napperon_, a diminutive of _nappe_, Lat. +_mappa_, a napkin), an article of costume used to protect the front of +the clothes. It forms part of the ceremonial dress of Freemasons. The +"apron" worn by church dignitaries is a shortened cassock (q.v.). The +word has many technical uses, as for the protecting slope in front of +the sill of dock-gates, or at the foot of weirs. + + + + +APSARAS, in Hindu mythology, a female spirit of the clouds and waters. +In the Rig-Veda there is one Apsaras, wife of Gandharva; in the later +scriptures there are many Apsaras who act as the handmaidens of Indra +and dance before his throne. They are able to change their form, and +specially rule over the fortunes of gaming. One of their duties is to +guide to paradise the heroes who fall in battle, whose wives they then +become. They are distinguished as _daivika_ ("divine") or _laukika_ +("worldly"). + + + + +APSE (Gr. [Greek: apsis], a fastening, especially the felloe of a wheel; +Lat. _absis_), in architecture, a semicircular recess covered with a +hemispherical vault. The term is applied also to the termination to the +choir, transept or aisle of any church which is either semicircular or +polygonal in plan, whether vaulted or covered with a timber roof; a +church is said to be "apsidal" when it terminates in an apse. + +The earliest example of an apse is found in the temple of Mars Ultor at +Rome (2 B.C.), and it formed afterwards the favourite feature +terminating the rear of any temple, and one which gave importance to the +statue of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated. Its use by the +Romans was not confined to the temples, as it is found in the palaces on +the Palatine Hill, the great Thermae (Baths) and other monuments. In the +civil basilicas the apse was screened off by columns, and constituted +the court of justice. In the Ulpian (Trajan's) Basilica the apses at +each end were of such great dimensions as to come better under the +definition of hemicycles (q.v.). In these apses the floor was raised, +and had an altar placed in the centre of its chord, where sacrifices +were made prior to the sittings. The only other two Roman basilicas in +which the semicircular apse can still be traced are that commenced by +Maxentius and completed by Constantine at Rome and the basilica at Trier +(Treves). + +In the earliest Christian basilica, St Peter's at Rome, built 330 A.D., +the apse, 57 ft. in diameter, raised above the confessio or crypt, was +placed at the west end of the church. This orientation was originally +followed in the churches of St Paul and St Lawrence (S. Lorenzo fuori le +Mura), both outside the walls of Rome, and is found in most of the +churches at Rome. On the other hand, in the Byzantine church, the apse +was built at the east end of the church. + +During the reign of Justin the Second (A.D. 565-574), owing to a change +in the liturgy, two more apses were added, one on each side of the +central apse. These in the Greek Church were provided not to hold altars +but for ceremonial purposes. One of the earliest examples is found in +the church of St Nicholas at Myra of the 6th century, and the basilica +erected in the great court of the temple at Baalbek shows the triple +apse. The earliest example in Rome is found in the church of Sta Maria +in Cosmedin (772-795), built probably by Greek craftsmen, who had been +exiled by the Iconoclasts. Other triapsal choirs are found in the +cathedral of Parenzo (542 A.D.), in St Mark's, Venice, in Sta Fosca and +the Duomo at Torcello, and in numerous examples throughout Italy and +Germany. In central Syria there is one example only, at Kalat Seman, +where the side apses were a later addition. + +There is one important distinction to be drawn between the Byzantine and +the Latin apses; they are both semicircular internally, but externally +the former are nearly always polygonal. It follows, therefore, that in +those churches in Italy where the apse is polygonal externally, it is a +sign of direct Byzantine influence. This is found in St Mark's, Venice; +Sta Fosca, Torcello; Murano; nearly all the churches at Ravenna; and in +the Crusaders' churches throughout Syria. + +In the Coptic church in Egypt we find other characteristics; in the +churches of the Red and White Monasteries, attributed to St Helena, an +unusual depth is given to the apse, in the walls of which niches are +sunk; in the church of St John at Antinoe there are no fewer than seven. +Similar niches are found in the apses of St Mark's, Venice, built in +A.D. 828, it is said in imitation of St Mark's in Alexandria, to receive +the relics of St Mark brought over from there. + +[Illustration: Apse of the White Monastery.] + +In a large number of the apses in the Coptic churches the seats round +the apse with the bishop's throne in the centre are still preserved; of +these the best examples are at Abu Sargah, Al 'Adra and Abu-s-Sifain. +Unfortunately there are no remains of the fittings in the tribunes of +the ancient Roman basilicas, but those in St Peter's at Rome, which were +probably copied from them, are recorded in drawings, there being two or +three rows of stone seats with the papal throne in the centre. It is +possible also that some may still exist in the other early Christian +basilicas at Rome, but there have been so many changes that it is not +possible to trace them. In the cathedral of Parenzo in Istria (A.D. +532-535), the hemicycle of marble seats for the clergy with the +episcopal chair in the centre still exists. A similar arrangement is +found in the apse of the church of the 6th century attached to the +church of St Helena in the island of Paros, where there are eight steep +grades of semicircular stone seats with the bishop's chair in the +centre. The aspect of the interior of this apse has in consequence very +much the appearance of a Roman theatre. A third example, better known, +exists at Torcello, with six concentric seats rising one above the +other, and in the centre the episcopal chair with a flight of thirteen +steps down in front of it. + +In the basilica at Bethlehem, the east end of which was reconstructed +probably in the 5th century, apses of similar dimensions to the eastern +apse were built at the north and south end of the transept. The same +disposition is found in the Coptic churches of the Red and White +Monasteries just referred to, in the church of St Elias at Salonica (c. +1012), the cathedral of Echmiadzin in Armenia, at Vatopedi, Mt. Athos, +and some other Byzantine churches. An early example in France exists in +the church of Germigny-des-Pres on the Loire (806; rebuilt 1868), where +the three apses are horseshoe on plan, and the same is found in the +church at Oberzell in the island of Reichenau, Lake of Constance, except +that the eastern apse there is square. Small examples also are found at +Querqueville and at St Wandrille near Caudebec, both in Normandy, but +the finest development takes place in the church of St Maria im Capitol +at Cologne, where the aisles are carried round both the northern and +southern apses. The same feature exists in the cathedral of Tournai in +Belgium and the churches at Cambrai, Soissons and Valenciennes (the last +destroyed at the Revolution) in France, and also in the cathedrals of +Como and of Pisa in Italy. Without aisles, there are examples in the +churches of the Apostles and of St Martin at Cologne; St Quirinus at +Neuss; at Roermond; St Cross, Breslau; the cathedral of Bonn; and, at a +later date, in the Marienkirche at Trier; S. Elizabeth at Marburg; the +church of Sta Maria-del-Fiore at Florence; and the cathedral of Parma. + +In consequence of a change made in the orientation of apses in the 6th +or 7th century, others were subsequently added at the west end of +existing churches, and this is considered to have been the case at +Canterbury; but in the German churches sometimes apses were built from +the first at both ends, such as are shown on the manuscript plan of St +Gall, of the 9th century. Western apses exist at Gernrode; Drubeck; +Huyseburg; the Obermunster of Regensburg; St Godehard in Hildesheim; the +cathedrals of Worms and Trier; the Abbey church of Laach; the Minster at +Bonn; and in St Pietro-in-Grado near Pisa. + +The triapsal churches, to which we have referred, are those in which the +side apses form the termination of the side aisles; but where there are +transepts, the aisles are sometimes not continued beyond them, and the +expansion of the transept to north and south gives more ample space for +apses; of these there are many examples, as in the Abbey church of Laach +in Germany; at Romsey; Christchurch, Hants; Gloucester, Ely, Norwich and +Canterbury cathedrals, in England; and at St Georges de Boscherville in +France; sometimes there being space for two apses on each side. + +In the beginning of the 13th century in France, the apses became +radiating chapels outside the choir aisle, henceforth known as the +chevet. These radiating chapels would seem to have been suggested in +Norwich and Canterbury cathedrals, but the feature is essentially a +French one and in England is found only in Westminster Abbey, into which +it was introduced by Henry III., to whom the chevets of Amiens, Beauvais +and Reims were probably well known. (R. P. S.) + + + + +APSE and APSIDES, in mechanics, either of the two points of an orbit +which are nearest to and farthest from the centre of motion. They are +called the lower or nearer, and the higher or more distant apsides +respectively. The "line of apsides" is that which joins them, forming +the major axis of the orbit. + + + + +APSINES of Gadara, a Greek rhetorician, who flourished during the 3rd +century A.D. After studying at Smyrna, he taught at Athens, and gained +such a reputation that he was raised to the consulship by the emperor +Maximinus (235-238). He was the friend of Philostratus, the author of +the _Lives of the Sophists_, who speaks of his wonderful memory and +accuracy. Two rhetorical treatises by him are extant: [Greek: technae +raetorikae], a handbook of rhetoric greatly interpolated, a considerable +portion being taken from the _Rhetoric_ of Longinus; and a smaller work, +[Greek: perhi eschaematismenon problaematon], on Propositions maintained +figuratively. + + Editions by Bake, 1849; Spengel-Hammer in _Rhetores Graeci_, ii. + (1894): see also Hammer, _De Apsine Rhetore_ (1876); Volkmann, + _Rhetorik der Griechen und Romer_ (1885). + + + + +APT, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of Vaucluse, on +the left bank of the Coulon, 41 m. E. of Avignon by rail. Pop. (1906) +4990. The town was formerly surrounded by massive ancient walls, but +these have now been for the most part replaced by boulevards; many of +its streets are narrow and irregular. The chief object of interest is +the church of Sainte-Anne (once the cathedral), the building of which +was begun about the year 1056 on the site of a much older edifice, but +not completed until the latter half of the 17th century. Many Roman +remains have been found in and near the town. A fine bridge, the Pont +Julien, spanning the Coulon below the town, dates from the 2nd or 3rd +century. A tribunal of first instance and a communal college are the +chief public institutions. The chief manufactures are silk, +confectionery and earthenware; and there is besides a considerable trade +in fruit, grain and cattle. Apt was at one time the chief town of the +Vulgientes, a Gallic tribe; it was destroyed by the Romans about 125 +B.C. and restored by Julius Caesar, who conferred upon it the title +_Apta Julia_; it was much injured by the Lombards and the Saracens, but +its fortifications were rebuilt by the counts of Provence. The +bishopric, founded in the 3rd century, was suppressed in 1790. + + + + +APTERA (Greek for "wingless"), a term in zoological classification +applied by Linnaeus to various groups of wingless arthropods, including +some of the insects, the centipedes, the millipedes, the Arachnida +(scorpions, spiders, &c.) and the Crustacea. In modern zoology the term +has become restricted to the lowest order of the class Hexapoda or true +insects. This order includes the bristle-tails and the springtails. + +[Illustration: From _Knowledge_ + +FIG. 1.--A typical Thysanuran (_Machilus maritima_). Female, ventral +view. + + ii.-x., Appendages on 2nd to 10th abdominal segments. The eversible + sacs on the abdominal segments are shown, some protruded and some + retracted. + Ovp, Ovipositor. + Mn, Mandible, and Mxl, maxillula, dissected out of head.] + +Many wingless insects--such as lice, fleas and certain earwigs and +cockroaches--are placed in various orders together with winged insects +to which they show evident relationships. In such cases the absence of +wings must be regarded as secondary--due to a parasitic or other special +manner of life. But the bristle-tails and springtails, which form the +modern order Aptera, are all without any trace of wings, and, on account +of several remarkable archaic characters which they exhibit, there is +reason for believing that they are primitively wingless--that they +represent an early offshoot which sprang from the ancestral stock of the +Hexapoda before organs of flight had been acquired by the class. + +_Characters._--In addition to the complete absence of wings and of +metamorphosis, the Aptera are characterized by peculiar elongate +mandibles (figs. 1, Mn.; 2, 4), with toothed apex and sub-apical +grinding surface, like those of certain Crustacea; by the presence +between the mandibles and maxillae of a pair of appendages (superlinguae +or maxillulae), fig. 1, Mxl., which are absent or vestigial in all other +insects; and, in most genera, by the presence in the adult of abdominal +appendages used for locomotion, these latter varying in number from one +to nine pairs. Among peculiarities of the internal organs the segmental +arrangement of the ovaries in most members of the order is noteworthy. +Many Aptera are covered with flattened scales like those of moths. + +_Classification._--The Aptera are divided into two divergent sub-orders, +the _Thysanura_ (q.v.) or bristle-tails, and the _Collembola_ or +springtails. + +_Thysanura._--The bristle-tails have an abdomen of eleven segments, the +tenth usually carrying a pair of long many-jointed tail-feelers (cerci, +fig. 1, x.); sometimes a median, jointed tail-appendage is also present. +To these feelers the popular name is due. There may also be abdominal +appendages--in the form of simple unjointed stylets (fig. 1, ii.-ix.), +accompanied by paired eversible sacs, probably respiratory in +function--on eight (or fewer) other abdominal segments. The head of a +bristle-tail carries a pair of compound eyes and a pair of elongate +many-jointed feelers. + +The air-tube system is developed in varying degree in different +bristle-tails, the number of pairs of spiracles being three +(_Campodea_), nine (_Machilis_), ten (_Lepisma_), or eleven (_Japyx_). + +Four families of Thysanura are usually recognized. In the _Machilidae_ +and _Lepismidae_ (these two families are known as the Ectotrophi) the +maxillae are like those of typical biting insects, and there is a median +tail-bristle in addition to the paired cerci; while in the _Campodeidae_ +and _Japygidae_ (which form the group Entotrophi) the jaws are +apparently sunk in the head, through a deep inpushing at the mouth, and +there is no median tail-bristle. The cerci in _Japyx_ are not, as usual, +jointed feelers, but strong, curved appendages forming a forceps as in +earwigs. + +[Illustration: From Carpenter, _Proc. R. Dub. Soc._, vol. xi. + +FIG. 2.--Structure of Collembola. + + 1. _Isotoma hibernica_. Side view. + 2. " Ocelli and post-antennal organ of right side. + 3. " Tip of terminal antennal segment with antennal + organ. + 4. " Mandible. + 5. " Tip of left dens with mucro. Outer view. + 6. " Hind-foot with claws. X 240. + 7. _Entomobrya anomala_. Catch.] + +_Collembola._--In springtails, or _Collembola_, the jaws are sunk into +the head, as in the entotrophous Thysanura; the head carries a pair of +feelers with not more than six (usually four) segments, and there are +eight (or fewer) distinct simple eyes on each side of the head (fig. 2, +1, 2). These are in some genera like the single elements (_ommatidia_) +of a compound insect eye, in others like simple ocelli. The abdomen +consists of six segments only. The first of these usually carries a +ventral tube, furnished with paired eversible sacs which assist the +insects in walking on smooth surfaces, and perhaps serve also as organs +for breathing. From the researches of V. Willem it appears that the +viscid fluid which causes the adherence of the ventral tube is secreted +by a pair of glands in the head whose ducts open into a superficial +groove leading from the second maxillae backward to the tube on the +first abdominal segment. The third abdominal segment usually carries a +pair of short appendages whose basal segments are fused together; this +is the "catch" (fig. 2, 7), whose function is to hold in place the +"spring," which is formed by the fourth pair of abdominal +appendages--also with fused basal segments. In most Collembola the +spring appears to belong to the fifth abdominal somite, but Willem, by +study of the muscles, has shown that it really belongs to the fourth. +The fused basal segments of the appendages form the "manubrium" of the +spring, which carries the two "dentes" (usually elongate and flexible), +each with a "mucro" at its tip (fig. 2, 5). The fifth abdominal segment +is the genital, and the sixth the anal somite. + +The spring serves the Collembola which possess it as an efficient +leaping-organ (see SPRINGTAIL). But in some genera it is greatly reduced +and in many quite vestigial. + +Most springtails are without air-tubes, and breathe through the general +cuticle of the body. But in one family (_Sminthuridae_) a spiracle, +opening on either side between the head and the prothorax, leads to a +branching system of air-tubes. The _Sminthuridae_ are further +characterized by the globular abdomen, which shows but little external +trace of segmentation, and by the well-developed spring. + +In the _Entomobryidae_ the body is elongate and clearly segmented, but +the dorsal region (tergum) of the prothorax is much reduced and the head +downwardly directed; the spring is well developed. In the _Achorutidae_ +the head is forwardly directed, the tergum of the prothorax conspicuous, +and the spring small or vestigial. + +In many genera of springtails a curious post-antennal organ, consisting +of sensory structures (often complex in form) surrounded by a firm ring, +is to be noticed on the cuticle of the head between the eyes and the +feelers. It may be of use as an organ of smell. Other sensory organs +occur on the third and fourth antennal segments in the _Achorutidae_ and +_Entomobryidae_ (fig. 2, 3). + +_Distribution and Habits._--The Aptera are probably the most widely +distributed of all insects. Among the bristle-tails we find the genus +_Machilis_, represented in Europe (including the Faeroe Islands) and in +Chile; while _Campodea_ lives high on the mountains and in the deepest +caves. The springtails have even a wider distribution. The genus +_Isotoma_, for example, has some of its numerous species in regions so +remote as Alaska, Franz Josef Land, the Sandwich Islands, the South +Orkneys, Graham Land, Kerguelen and South Victoria Land. As it is +unlikely that these delicate insects could be transported across +sea-channels, their wide and discontinuous range suggests both their +great antiquity and the former existence of continental tracts over +which they may have travelled to their present stations. + +Springtails and bristle-tails live in damp concealed places--under +stones or tree-bark, in moss, and in the decaying vegetable or animal +matter which serves as food for most of them. Some species, however, eat +fresh plant-tissues. A species of bristle-tail (_Machilis maritima_) and +quite a number of springtails haunt the sea-coast at or below high-water +mark. In such localities many thousands of individuals may sometimes be +found associated together. The insect fauna of limestone caves both in +Europe and North America is largely composed of Aptera, especially +Collembola. + +_Geological History._--A supposed Thysanuran from the Silurian of New +Brunswick has been described by G.F. Matthew, and another genus from the +French Carboniferous by C. Brongniart. Not till the Tertiary do we find +remains of Aptera in any quantity, species both of living and extinct +genera being represented in the amber. + +_Development._--The embryonic development of several genera of Aptera, +which has been carefully studied, will be more suitably described in +comparison with that of other insects than here (see HEXAPODA). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The modern study of the Aptera may be said to date from + the classical memoirs of T. Tullberg, "Sveriges Podurider," in _Kongl. + Svensk Vetensk. Akad. Handl._ x., 1872, and Sir J. Lubbock (Lord + Avebury), "Monograph of the Collembola and Thysanura," _Ray Society_, + 1873. In these, full references to the older literature will be found. + Subsequently our knowledge of the Thysanura has been markedly advanced + by J.T. Oudemans, _Bijdrage tot de Kennis den Thysanura en Collembola_ + (Amsterdam, 1888); B. Grassi, who published between 1885 and 1889 a + series of memoirs entitled "I progenitori dei Miriapodi e degli + Insetti," in the _Atti Accad. di Scienz. Nat. Catania_, and the + _Memor. R. Accad. dei Lincei_; and V. Willem, whose "Recherches sur + les Collemboles et les Thysanoures," in _Mem. Cour. Acad. Roy. + Belgique_, lviii., 1900, are indispensable to the student. In addition + to this work of Willem, valuable anatomical papers on Collembola have + been published by H.J. Hansen (_Zool. Anz._ xvi., 1893), J.W. Folsom + (_Bull. Mus. Comp. Anat. Harv._ xxxv., 1899), C. Borner (_Zool. Anz._ + xxiii., 1900), and K. Absolon (_Zool. Anz._ xxiii. and xxiv., 1900, + 1901), the two latter writers having paid especial attention to the + peculiar post-antennal and antennal sense-organs of springtails. + Absolon has also written on the Collembola of caves. These writers, + with H. Schott, C. Schaffer and others, have published many systematic + papers on Collembola, as has F. Silvestri on Thysanura. British + species are mentioned in Lubbock's monograph; for recent additions see + G.H. Carpenter and W. Evans (_Proc. R. Phys. Soc. Edinb._ xiv., 1899, + and xv., 1903). (G. H. C.) + + + + +APTERAL (from the Gr. [Greek: apteros], wingless, [Greek: a-], privative +and [Greek: pteros], a wing), an architectural term applied to +amphiprostyle temples which have no columns on the sides; in the Ionic +temple on the Acropolis at Athens known as Nike Apteros, the adjective +is used, not as applying to the goddess of victory but to the absence of +any peristyle on the sides. + + + + +APTIAN (Fr. _Aptien_, from Apt in Vaucluse, France), in geology, the +term introduced in 1843 by A. d'Orbigny (_Pal. France Cret._ ii.) for +the upper stage of the Lower Cretaceous rocks. In England it comprises +the Lower Greensand and part of the Speeton beds; in France it is +divided into two sub-stages, the lower, "Bedoulian," of Bedoule in +Provence, with _Hoplites deshayesei_ and _Ancyloceras Matheroni_; and an +upper, "Gargasian," from Gargas near Apt, with _Hoplites furcatus_ +(_Dufrenoyi_) and _Phylloceras Guettardi_. To this stage belong the +_Toucasia_ limestone and _Orbitolina_ marls of Spain; the +_Schrattenkalk_ (part) of the Alpine and Carpathian regions; and the +_Terebrirostra_ limestone of the same area. Parts of the Flysch of the +eastern Alps, the Biancone of Lombardy, and _argile scagliose_ of +Emilia, are of Aptian age; so also are the "Trinity Beds" of North +America. Deposits of bauxite occur in the Aptian hippurite limestone at +Les Baux near Aries, and in the Pyrenees. The Aptian rocks are generally +clays, marls and green glauconitic sands with occasional limestones. +(See GREENSAND and CRETACEOUS.) + + + + +APULEIUS, LUCIUS, Platonic philosopher and rhetorician, was born at +Madaura in Numidia about A.D. 125. As the son of one of the principal +officials, he received an excellent education, first at Carthage and +subsequently at Athens. After leaving Athens he undertook a long course +of travel, especially in the East, principally with the view of +obtaining initiation into religious mysteries. Having practised for some +time as an advocate at Rome, he returned to Africa. On a journey to +Alexandria he fell sick at Oea (Tripoli), where he made the acquaintance +of a rich widow, Aemilia Pudentilla, whom he subsequently married. The +members of her family disapproved of the marriage, and indicted Apuleius +on a charge of having gained her affections by magical arts. He easily +established his innocence, and his spirited, highly entertaining, but +inordinately long defence (_Apologia_ or _De Magia_) before the +proconsul Claudius Maximus is our principal authority for his biography. +From allusions in his subsequent writings, and the mention of him by St. +Augustine, we gather that the remainder of his prosperous life was +devoted to literature and philosophy. At Carthage he was elected +provincial priest of the imperial cult, in which capacity he occupied a +prominent position in the provincial council, had the duty of collecting +and managing the funds for the temples of the cult, and the +superintendence of the games in the amphitheatre. He lectured on +philosophy and rhetoric, like the Greek sophists, apparently with +success, since statues were erected in his honour at Carthage and +elsewhere. The year of his death is not known. + +The work on which the fame of Apuleius principally rests has little +claim to originality. The _Metamorphoses_ or _Golden Ass_ (the latter +title seems not to be the author's own, but to have been bestowed in +compliment, just as the _Libri Rerum Quotidianarum_ of Gaius were called +_Aurei_) was founded on a narrative in the _Metamorphoses_ of Lucius of +Patrae, a work extant in the time of Photius. From Photius's account +(impugned, however, by Wieland and Courier), this book would seem to +have consisted of a collection of marvellous stories, related in an +inartistic fashion, and in perfect good faith. The literary capabilities +of this particular narrative attracted the attention of Apuleius's +contemporary, Lucian, who proceeded to work it up in his own manner, +adhering, as Photius seems to indicate, very closely to the original, +but giving it a comic and satiric turn. Apuleius followed this +rifacimento, making it, however, the groundwork of an elaborate romance, +interspersed with numerous episodes, of which the beautiful story of +Cupid and Psyche is the most celebrated, and altering the _denouement_ +to suit the religious revival of which he was an apostle. + +The adventures of the youthful hero in the form of an ass are much the +same in both romances, but in Apuleius he is restored to human shape by +the aid of Isis, into whose mysteries he is initiated, and finally +becomes her priestess. The book is a remarkable illustration of the +contemporary reaction against a period of scepticism, of the general +appetite for miracle and magic, and of the influx of oriental and +Egyptian ideas into the old theology. It is also composed with a +well-marked literary aim, defined by Kretzschmann as the emulation of +the Greek sophists, and the transplantation of their _tours de force_ +into the Latin language. Nothing, indeed, is more characteristic of +Apuleius than his versatility, unless it be his ostentation and +self-confidence in the display of it. The dignified, the ludicrous, the +voluptuous, the horrible, succeed each other with bewildering rapidity; +fancy and feeling are everywhere apparent, but not less so affectation, +meretricious ornament, and that effort to say everything finely which +prevents anything being said well. The Latinity has a strong African +colouring, and is crammed with obsolete words, agreeably to the taste of +the time. When these defects are mitigated or overlooked, the _Golden +Ass_ will be pronounced a most successful work, invaluable as an +illustration of ancient manners, and full of entertainment from +beginning to end. The most famous and poetically beautiful portion is +the episode of Cupid and Psyche, adapted from a popular legend of which +traces are found in most fairy mythologies, which explains the seeming +incongruity of its being placed in the mouth of an old hag. The +allegorical purport he has infused into it is his own, and entirely in +the spirit of the Platonic philosophy. Don Quixote's adventure with the +wine-skins, and Gil Blas's captivity among the robbers, are palpably +borrowed from Apuleius; and several of the humorous episodes, probably +current as popular stories long before his time, reappear in Boccaccio. + +Of Apuleius's other writings, the _Apology_ has been already mentioned. +The _Florida_ (probably meaning simply "anthology," without any +reference to style) consists of a collection of excerpts from his +declamations, ingenious but highly affected, and in general perfect +examples of the sophistical art of saying nothing with emphasis. They +deal with the most varied subjects, and are intended to exemplify the +author's versatility. The pleasing little tract _On the God of Socrates_ +expounds the Platonic doctrine of beneficent daemons, an intermediate +class between gods and men. Two books on Plato (_De Platone et Ejus +Dogmate_) treat of his life, and his physical and ethical philosophy; a +third, treating of logic, is generally considered spurious. The _De +Mundo_ is an adaptation of the [Greek: Peri kosmou] wrongly attributed +to Aristotle. Apuleius informs us that he had also composed numerous +poems in almost all possible styles, and several works on natural +history, some in Greek. In the preparation of these he seems to have +attended more closely to actual anatomical research than was customary +with ancient naturalists. Some other works--dealing with theology, the +properties of herbs, medical remedies and physiognomy, are wrongly +attributed to him. + +The character of Apuleius, as delineated by himself, is attractive; he +appears vehement and passionate, but devoid of rancour; enterprising, +munificent, genial and an enthusiast for the beautiful and good. His +vanity and love of display are conspicuous, but are extenuated by a +genuine thirst for knowledge and a surprising versatility of +attainments. He prided himself on his proficiency in both Greek and +Latin. His place in letters is accidentally more important than his +genius strictly entitles him to hold. He is the only extant example in +Latin literature of an accomplished sophist in the good sense of the +term. The loss of other ancient romances has secured him a peculiar +influence on modern fiction; while his chronological position in a +transitional period renders him at once the evening star of the +Platonic, and the morning star of the Neo-Platonic philosophy. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Complete works: Editio princeps, ed. Andreas (1469); + Oudendorp (1786-1823); Hildebrand (1842); Helm (1905 et seq.); P. + Thomas (vol. iii. 1908). _Metamorphoses_, Eyssenhardt (1869), van der + Vliet (1897). _Psyche et Cupido_, Jahn-Michaelis (1883); Beck (1902). + _Apologia_, I. Casaubon (1594); Kruger (1864); (with the _Florida_), + van der Vliet (1900). _Florida_, Kruger (1883). _De Deo Socratis_, + Buckley (1844), Lutjohann (1878). _De Platone et ejus Dogmate_, + Goldbacher (1876) (including _De Mundo_ and _De Deo Socratis_). For + the relation between Lucian's [Greek: Ovos] and the _Metamorphoses_ of + Apuleius, see Rohde, _Uber Lucians Schrift [Greek: Loukios]_ (1869), + and Burger, _De Lucio Patrensi_ (1887). On the style of Apuleius + consult Kretzschmann, _De Latinitate L. Apulei_ (1865), and Koziol, + _Der Stil des A._ (1872). There is a complete English translation of + the works of Apuleius in Bohn's Classical Library. The translations + and imitations of the _Golden Ass_ in modern languages are numerous: + in English, by Adlington, 1566 and later eds. (reissued in the Tudor + translations and Temple Classics), Taylor (1822) (including the + philosophical works), Head (1851). Of the Cupid and Psyche episode + there are recent translations by Robert Bridges (1895) (in verse), + Stuttaford (1903); and it is beautifully introduced by Walter Pater + into his _Marius the Epicurean_. This episode has afforded the subject + of a drama to Thomas Heywood, and of narrative poems to Shakerley + Marmion, Mrs. Tighe, and William Morris (in the _Earthly Paradise_). + + + + +APULIA (sometimes APPULIA in manuscripts but never in inscriptions), the +district inhabited in ancient times by the Apuli. Strictly a Samnite +tribe (see SAMNITES) settled round Mount Garganus on the east coast of +Italy (Strabo vi. 3. 11), the Apuli mingled with the Iapygian tribes of +that part of the coast (Dauni, Peucetii, Poediculi) who, like the +Messapii, had come from Illyria, so that the name Apulia reached down to +the border of the ancient Calabria. Almost the only monument of Samnite +speech from the district is the famous _Tabula Bantina_ from Bantia, a +small city just inside the Peucetian part of Apulia, on the Lucanian +border. This inscription is one of the latest and in some ways the most +important monument of Oscan, though showing what appear to be some +southern peculiarities (see OSCA LINGUA). Its date is almost certainly +between 118 and 90 B.C., and it shows that Latin had not even then +spread over the district (cf. LUCANIA). Far older than this are some +coins from Ausculum and Teate (later known as Teanum Apulum), of which +the earliest belong to the 4th century B.C. Roman or Latin colonies were +few, Luceria (planted 314 B.C.) in the north and Brundisium (soon after +268) being the chief. (See R.S. Conway, _Italic Dialects_, xxviii.-xxx. +pp. 15 f.; and Mommsen's introduction to the opening sections of +_C.I.L._ ix.) (R. S. C.) + +The wars of the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C. brought a great part of the +pastures of the Apulian plain into the hands of the Roman state, and a +tax was paid on every head of cattle and every sheep, at first to the +tax farmer and later to the imperial procurator. It was under the Romans +that the system of migration for the flocks reached its full +development, and the practice is still continued; the sheep-tracks +(_tratturi_), 350 ft. wide, leading from the mountains of the Abruzzi to +the plain of Apulia date in the main at least from the Roman period, and +are mentioned in inscriptions. The plain, however, which once served as +winter grazing ground for a million sheep, now gives pasture to about +one-half of that number.[1] The shepherds, who were slaves, often gave +considerable trouble; we hear that some 7000 of them, who had made the +whole country unsafe, were condemned to death in 185 B.C. (Livy xxxix. +29). Sheep-farming on a large scale was no doubt detrimental to the +interests of the towns. We hear of repeated risings, for the last time +in the Social War. Even in the 4th century B.C. the then chief town of +Apulia, Teate or Teanum Apulum (see above), suffered in this way. +Luceria subsequently took its place, largely owing to its military +importance; but under the Empire it was succeeded by Canusium. + +The road system of Apulia, which touched all the important towns, +consisted of three main lines, the Via Appia (see APPIA, VIA), the Via +Traiana, and the coast road, running more or less parallel in an +east-south-east direction. The first (the southernmost), coming east +from Beneventum, entered Apulia at the Pons Aufidi, and ran through +Venusia to Tarentum, and thence, turning north-east, to Brundusium. The +second, coming north-east from Beneventum, turned east at Aecae, and ran +through Herdoniae, Canusium, Butuntum, Barium and Gnathia (Gnatia) to +Brundusium. There was also a short cut from Butuntum to Gnathia through +Caelia, keeping inland. The third parallel line ran to the north of the +Via Traiana, in continuation of the road along the north-east coast of +Picenum and Samnium; it entered Apulia near Larinum (whence a branch ran +south to Bovianum Undecimanorum), and thence, keeping in the plain to +the south of the Mons Garganus, rejoined the coast at Sipontum, where it +received a branch road from the Via Traiana at Aecae, passing through +Luceria and Arpi. It then passed through Barduli (where it was joined by +a road from Canusium by way of Cannae) to Barium, where it joined the +Via Traiana. From Barium a road probably ran direct to Caelia, and +thence south-south-east to join the Via Appia some 25 m. north-west of +Tarentum. + +Barium was an important harbour, though less so than Brundusium and +Tarentum, which, however, belonged to Calabria in the Roman sense. +Apulia, with Calabria, formed the second region of Augustus, though we +once find Calabria treated as a part of the third region, Lucania +(_C.I.L._ ix. 2213). The Hannibalic and later wars had, Strabo tells us, +destroyed the former prosperity of the country; in imperial times we +hear little or nothing of it. Both were governed by a _corrector_ from +the time of Constantine onwards, but in 668 the Lombards conquered +Calabria and Apulia, and it was then that the former name was +transferred to Bruttium, the meaning of the latter being extended to +include Calabria also. In the 10th century the greater part of this +territory was recovered by the Byzantine emperors, whose governor was +called [Greek: Katapanos], a name which, under the corrupt form +Capitanata, belonged to the province of Foggia till 1861. It was +conquered by the Normans under William Bras-de-fer, who took the title +of _comes Apuliae_ in 1042; it was raised to a dukedom with Calabria by +Robert Guiscard in 1059, and united to the Sicilian monarchy in 1127. +Many of the important towns possess fine Romanesque cathedrals, +constructed under the Normans and the Hohenstaufen rulers. It shared the +subsequent fate of Sicily, becoming a part of the kingdom of the Two +Sicilies in 1734, and being united with Italy in 1861. + + + Modern Apulia. + +Modern Apulia comprises the three provinces of Foggia, Bari and Lecce +(the latter corresponding roughly with the ancient Calabria, which, +however, extended somewhat farther north inland), and is often known as +Le Puglie; it stretches from Monte Gargano to the south-east extremity +of Italy, with an area of 7376 sq. m.; it is bounded on the north and +east by the Adriatic, on the south-east by the Gulf of Taranto, on the +south by Basilicata and on the west by Campania and the Abruzzi. The +three provinces correspond to the three natural divisions into which it +falls. That of Foggia, though it has mountains on the west and +south-west boundary, and the Monte Gargano at its north-east extremity, +is in the main a great plain called the Tavoliere (chessboard) di +Puglia, with considerable lagoons on its north and east coast. That of +Bari, east-south-east of Foggia and divided from it by the Ofanto +(Aufidus), the only considerable river of Apulia, 104 m. long, is a +hilly district with a coast strip along which are the majority of the +towns--the lack of villages is especially noticeable; in the +_circondario_ of Barletta, the north-east portion of the province, there +are only eleven communes, with a total population of 335,934. That of +Lecce, to the east-south-east again, is a low flat limestone terrace. + +The industries of Apulia are mainly pastoral or agricultural. Besides +sheep, a considerable number of horses, cattle and swine are bred; while +despite the lack of water, which is the great need of modern Apulia (in +1906 arrangements were made for a great aqueduct, to supply the three +provinces from the headwaters of the Sele), cultivation is actively +carried on, especially in the province of Bari, where grain, wine, +olives, almonds, lemons, oranges, tobacco, &c., are produced in +abundance, and the export of olive oil is attaining considerable +importance. The salt works of Margherita di Savoia produce large +quantities of salt, and nitre is extracted near Molfetta. + +Railway communications are fairly good, the main line from Bologna to +Brindisi passing through the whole length of Apulia, by way of Foggia +and Bari, and having branches from Foggia (the main railway centre of +Apulia) to Benevento and Caserta, to Manfredonia, to Lucera and to +Rocchetta S. Antonio (and thence to either Avellino, Potenza or Gioia +del Colle), from Ofantino to Margherita di Savoia, from Barletta to +Spinazzola (between Rocchetta S. Antonio and Gioia del Colle), from Bari +to Putignano, and via Gioia del Colle to Taranto, and from Brindisi to +Taranto, and to Lecce and Otranto; besides which, there is a steam +tramway from Barletta to Bari via Andria. + +The most important harbours of Apulia are Brindisi, Bari, Taranto, +Barletta, Molfetta and Gallipoli. The export of olive oil to foreign +countries from the province of Lecce in 1905 amounted to 1048 tons, as +against 3395 in 1901; but that to home ports increased from 7077 to 9025 +tons in the same period. The production of wine was 358,953 tons in 1905 +as against 203,995 tons in 1901 (an exceptionally bad year) and 284,156 +tons in 1902. Of this 211,872 tons were forwarded by rail and sea, in +the proportion of five to two respectively, the rest being used for home +consumption and as a reserve. The cultivation of oriental tobacco is +extending in the province (see _Consular Report_, No. 3672, July 1906). + +The population of the province of Foggia was 425,450 (1901) as against +322,755 in 1871, the chief towns being Foggia (53,151), Cerignola +(34,195), S. Severo (30,040), Monte S. Angelo (21,870), S. Marco in +Lamis (17,309), Lucera (17,515); that of Bari, 827,698 (1901) as against +604,540 in 1871, the chief towns being Bari (77,478), Andria (49,569), +Barletta (42,022), Corato (41,573), Molfetta (40,135), Trani (31,800), +Bisceglie (30,885), Bitonto (30,617), Canosa (24,169), Ruvo (23,776), +Terlizzi (23,232), Altamura(22,729), Monopoli (22,545), Gioia del Colle +(21,721); that of Lecce, 706,520 (1901) as against 493,594 in 1871, the +chief towns being Taranto (60,733), Lecce (32,687), Brindisi (25,317), +Martina Franca (25,007), Ostuni (22,997), Francavilla Fontana (20,422), +Ceglie Messapica (16,867), Nardo (14,387), Galatina (14,071), Gallipoli +(13,552), Manduria (13,113). (T. As.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The migration was made compulsory by Alphonso I. in 1442, and + remained so until 1865. Since that time the _tratturi_ have been to + some extent absorbed by private proprietors. + + + + +APURE, a river of western Venezuela, formed by the confluence of the +Sarare and Uribante at 6 deg. 45' N. lat. and 71 deg. W. long., and +flowing eastward across the Venezuelan _llanos_ to a junction with the +Orinoco at about 7 deg. 40' N. lat. and 66 deg. 45' W. long. Its +drainage area includes the slopes of both the Colombian and Venezuelan +Andes. It has a sluggish course across the _llanos_ for about 300 m., +and is navigable throughout its length. Its principal tributaries are +the Caparro, Portuguesa and Guarico on the north, and the Caucagua on +the south. Its lateral channels on the south mingle with those of the +Arauca for many miles, forming an extensive district subject to annual +inundations. + + + + +APURIMAC, a river of central Peru, rising in the Laguna de Villafra in +the western Cordilleras, 7 m. from Caylloma, a village in the department +of Arequipa, and less than 100 m. from the Pacific coast. It flows first +north-easterly, then north-westerly past Cuzco to the mouth of the +Perene tributary, thence east and north to its junction with the Ucayali +at 10 deg. 41' S. lat., and 73 deg. 34' W. long. It is known as the +Apurimac only down to the mouth of the Mantaro tributary, 11 deg. 45' S. +lat. and 1325 ft. above sea-level. Thence to the mouth of the Perene +(984 ft.) it is known as the Ene, and from that point to its junction +with the Ucayali (859 ft.) as the Tambo. + + + + +APURIMAC, an interior department of southern Peru, bounded N. by the +department of Ayacucho, E. by Cuzco, S. and W. by Cuzco and Ayacucho. +Area, 8187 sq. m.; pop. (1896) 177,387. The department was created in +1873 and comprises five provinces. Its physical features and productions +are very similar to those of Ayacucho (q.v.), with the exception that +sugar-cane is cultivated with noteworthy success in the low valley of +the province of Abancay. The capital, Abancay, 110 m. south-west of +Cuzco, which is only a village in size but is rich in historical +associations and Andahuaylas, in the north-west part of the department, +are its principal towns. + + + + +APYREXIA (Gr. [Greek: apyrexia], from [Greek: a-], privative, [Greek: +pyressein], to be in a fever, [Greek: pyr], fire, fever), in pathology, +the normal interval or period of intermission in a fever. + + + + +'AQIBA BEN JOSEPH (c. 50-132), Jewish Palestinian rabbi, of the circle +known as _tana_ (q.v.). It is almost impossible to separate the true +from the false in the numerous traditions respecting his life. He became +the chief teacher in the rabbinical school of Jaffa, where, it is said, +he had 24,000 scholars. Whatever their number, it seems certain that +among them was the celebrated Rabbi Meir, and that through him and +others 'Aqiba exerted a great influence on the development of the +doctrines embodied in the Mishnah. He sided with Bar Cochebas in the +last Jewish revolt against Rome, recognized him as the Messiah, and +acted as his sword-bearer. Being taken prisoner by the Romans under +Julius Severus, he was flayed alive with circumstances of great cruelty, +and met his fate, according to tradition, with marvellous steadfastness +and composure. He is said by some to have been a hundred and twenty +years old at the time of his death. He is one of the ten Jewish martyrs +whose names occur in a penitential prayer still used in the synagogue +service. 'Aqiba was among the first to systematize the Jewish tradition, +and he paved the way for the compilation of the Mishnah. From his school +emanated the Greek translation of the scriptures by Aquila. + + + + +AQUAE (Lat. for "waters"), a name given by the Romans to sites where +mineral springs issued from the earth. Over a hundred can be identified, +some declaring by their modern names their ancient use: Aix-les-Bains in +Savoy (_Aquae Sabaudicae_), Aix-en-Provence (_Aquae Sextiae_), +Aix-la-Chapelle or Aachen (_Aquae Grani_), &c. Only two occur in +Britain: _Aquae Sulis_--less correctly _Aquae Solis_--at Bath in +Somerset, which was famous, and Buxton (called _Aquae_ simply), which +seems to have been far less important. Aquae Sulis was occupied by the +Romans almost as soon as they entered the island in A.D. 43, and +flourished till the end of the Roman period. It was frequented by +soldiers quartered in Britain, by the Britons, and by visitors from +north Gaul, and its name was known in Italy, though patients probably +seldom travelled so far. Like most mineral springs known to the +ancients, it was under the protection of a local deity, the Celtic Sul, +whom the Romans equated with their Minerva. Stately remains of its baths +and temple have been found at various times, especially in 1790 and +1878-1895, and may still be seen there. + + + + +AQUAE CUTILIAE, a mineral spring in Italy, near the modern Cittaducale, +9 m. E. of Rieti. The lake near it was supposed by classical writers to +be the central point of Italy, and was renowned for its floating +islands, which, as in other cases, were formed from the partial +petrification of plants by the mineral substances contained in the +water. Considerable remains of baths may still be seen there--they were +apparently resorted to by both Vespasian and Titus in their last +illnesses, for both died there. + + + + +AQUAMARINE (Lat. _aqua marina_, "water of the sea"), a transparent +variety of beryl (q.v.), having a delicate blue or bluish-green colour, +suggestive of the tint of sea-water. It occurs at most localities which +yield ordinary beryl, some of the finest coming from Russia. The +gem-gravels of Ceylon contain aquamarine. Clear yellow beryl, such as +occurs in Brazil, is sometimes called aquamarine chrysolite. When +corundum presents the bluish tint of typical aquamarine, it is often +termed Oriental aquamarine. + + + + +AQUARELLE (from Ital. _acquarella_, water-colour), a form of painting +with thin water-colour or ink. + + + + +AQUARII, a name given to the Christians who substituted water for wine +in the Eucharist. They were not a sect, for we find the practice widely +in vogue at an early time, even among the orthodox. In Greek they were +called _Hydroparastatae_, or those who offer water. Theodosius, in his +persecuting edict of 382, classes them as a special sect with the +Manicheans, who also eschewed wine. See EUCHARIST. + + + + +AQUARIUM (plural _aquaria_), the name given to a receptacle for a marine +flora and fauna. Until comparatively recently, aquaria were little more +than domestic toys, or show-places of a popular character, but they have +now not only assumed a profound scientific importance for the convenient +study of anatomical and physiological problems in marine botany and +zoology, but have also attained an economic value, as offering the best +opportunities for that study of the habits and environment of marketable +food-fish without which no steps for the improvement of sea-fisheries +can be safely taken. The numerous "zoological stations" which have +sprung up, chiefly in Europe and the United States, but also in the +British colonies and Japan, often endeavour to unite these two aims, and +have in many cases become centres of experimental work in problems +relating to fisheries, as well as in less directly practical subjects. +Of these stations, the oldest and the most important is that at Naples, +which, though designed for purely scientific objects, also encourages +popular study by means of a public aquarium. The following account +(1902) of this station by Dr W. Giesbrecht, a member of the staff, will +serve to show the methods and aims, and the complex and expensive +equipment, of a modern aquarium:-- + +"The zoological station at Naples is an institution for the advancement +of biological science--that is, of comparative anatomy, zoology, botany, +physiology. It serves this end by providing the biologist with the +various objects of his study and the necessary appliances; it is not a +teaching institution. The station was founded by Dr Anton Dohrn, and +opened in the spring of 1874; it is the oldest and largest of all +biological stations, of which there are now about thirty in existence. +Its two buildings are situated near the seashore in the western town +park (Villa Nazionale) of Naples. The older and larger one, 33 metres +long, 24 m. deep, 16 m. high, contains on the ground floor the aquarium, +which is open to the public. On the first floor there is, facing south, +the principal library, ornamented with fresco paintings, and, facing +north, a large hall containing twelve working tables, several smaller +rooms and the secretarial offices. On the second floor is the +physiological laboratory, and on the third floor the small library, a +hall with several working tables, and the dark rooms used in developing +photographs. The ground floor of the smaller building, which was +finished in 1887, contains the rooms in which the animals are delivered, +sorted and preserved, and the fishing tackle kept, together with the +workshop of the engineer; on the first and second floors are workrooms, +amongst others the botanical laboratory; on the third floor are +store-rooms. In the basement of both buildings, which is continued +underneath the court, there are sea-water cisterns and filters, engines +and store-rooms. The materials for study which the station offers to the +biologist are specimens of marine animals and plants which abound in the +western part of the Mediterranean, and especially in the Gulf of Naples. +To obtain these, two screw-steamers and several rowing boats are +required, which are moored in the harbour of Mergellina, situated close +by. The larger steamer, 'Johannes Muller' (15 m. long, 2-1/2 m. wide, 1 +m. draught), which can steam eight to ten English miles per hour, is +provided with a steam dredge working to a depth of eighty fathoms. From +the small steamer, 'Frank Balfour,' and the rowing boats, the fishing is +done by means of tow-nets. Besides these there are fishermen and others +who daily supply living material for study. The plankton (small floating +animals) is distributed in the morning, other animals as required. The +animals brought in by the fishermen are at once distributed amongst the +biologists, whereas the material brought up by the dredges is placed in +flat revolving wooden vessels, so as to give the smaller animals time to +come out of their hiding-places. The students who work in the station +have the first claim on specimens of plants and animals; but specimens +are also supplied to museums, laboratories and schools, and to +individuals engaged in original research elsewhere. Up to the present +time about 4000 such parcels have been despatched, and not infrequently +live specimens of animals are sent to distant places. This side of the +work has been of very great value to science. The principal appliances +for study with which the station provides the biologist are workrooms +furnished with the apparatus and chemicals necessary for anatomical +research and physiological experiments and tanks. Every student receives +a tank for his own special use. The large tanks of the principal +aquarium are also at his disposal for purposes of observation and +experiment if necessary. + +"The water in the tanks is kept fresh by continual circulation, and is +thus charged with the oxygen necessary to the life of the organisms. It +is not pumped into the tanks directly from the sea, but from three large +cisterns (containing 300 cubic metres), to which it again returns from +the tanks. The water wasted or evaporated during this process is +replaced by new water pumped into the cisterns directly from the sea. +The water flows from the large cisterns into a smaller cistern, from +which it is distributed by means of an electric pump through vulcanite +or lead pipes to the various tanks. The water with which the tanks on +the upper floors are filled is first pumped into large wooden tanks +placed beneath the roof, thence it flows, under almost constant +pressure, into the tanks. The water circulated in this manner contains +by far the largest number of such animals as are capable of living in +captivity in good condition. Some of them even increase at an +undesirable rate, and it sometimes happens that young Mytilus or Ciona +stop up the pipes; in laying these, therefore, due regard must be had to +the arrangements for cleaning. For the cultivation of very delicate +animals it is necessary to keep the water absolutely free from harmful +bacteria; for this purpose large sand-filters have lately been placed in +the system, through which the water passes after leaving the cisterns. +Each of the smaller cisterns, which are fixed in the workrooms, consist +of two water-tanks, placed one above the other; their frames are of +wrought iron and the walls generally of glass. Vessels containing minute +animals can be placed between these two tanks, receiving their water +through a siphon from the upper tank; the water afterwards flows away +into the lower tank. + +"The twenty-six tanks of the public aquarium (the largest of which +contains 112 cubic metres of water) have stone walls, the front portion +alone being made of glass. As the tanks hold a very large number of +animals in proportion to the quantity of water, they require to be well +aerated. The pipes through which the water is conducted are therefore +placed above the surface of the water, and the fresh supply is driven +through them under strong pressure. A large quantity of air in the form +of fine bubbles is thus taken to the bottom of the tank and distributed +through the entire mass of water. Should the organisms which it is +desired to keep alive be very minute, there is a danger of their being +washed away by the circulating water. To obviate this, either the water +which flows away is passed through a strainer, or the water is not +changed at all, air being driven through it by means of an apparatus put +into motion by the drinking-water supply. + +"The library contains about 9000 volumes, which students use with the +help of a slip catalogue, arranged according to authors. The station has +published at intervals since 1879 two periodicals treating of the +organisms of the Mediterranean. One is _Fauna und Flora des Golfes van +Neapel_, the other _Mittheilungen aus der zoologischen Station zu +Neapel_. The former consists of monographs in which special groups of +animals and plants are most exhaustively treated and the Mediterranean +species portrayed according to life in natural colours; up to the +present time twenty-one zoological and five botanical monographs have +appeared, making altogether 1200 4to sheets with about 400 plates. Of +the Mittheilungen, which contain smaller articles on organisms of the +Mediterranean, fourteen volumes in 8vo have been published. The station +also publishes a _Zoologischer Jahresbericht_, which at first treated of +the entire field of zoology, but since 1886 has been confined +principally to comparative anatomy and ontogeny; it appears eight to +nine months after the end of the year reported. The _Guide to the +Aquarium_, with its descriptions and numerous pictures, is meant to give +the lay visitor an idea of the marine animal world. + +"There are about forty officials, amongst them six zoologists, one +physiologist, one secretary, two draughtsmen, one engineer. The station +is a private institution, open to biologists of all nations under the +following conditions: there are agreements with the governments of +Austria, Baden, Bavaria, Belgium, Hamburg, Holland, Hesse, Italy, +Prussia, Russia, Saxony, Switzerland, Hungary, Wurttemberg, the province +of Naples, and the universities of Cambridge, Oxford, Strassburg, +Columbia College (New York), and the British Association for the +Advancement of Science, the Smithsonian Institution, and a society of +women in the United States of North America (formerly also with +Bulgaria, Rumania, Spain, the Academy of Sciences in Berlin, Williams +College, University of Pennsylvania), by virtue of which the governments +and corporate bodies named have the right, on payment of L100 per annum, +to send a worker to the station; this places at his disposal a 'table' +or workplace, furnished with all the necessary appliances and materials +as set down in the agreement. At present there are agreements for +thirty-three tables, and since the foundation of the station nearly 1200 +biologists have worked there. The current expenses are paid out of the +table-rents, the entrance fees to the public aquarium, and an annual +subvention paid by the German empire." + +In England a station on similar lines, but on a smaller scale, is +maintained at Plymouth by the Marine Biological Association of the +United Kingdom, with the help of subsidies from the government and the +Fishmongers' Company. + +Little difficulty is experienced in maintaining, breeding and rearing +fresh-water animals in captivity, but for many various reasons it is +only by unremitting attention and foresight that most marine animals can +be kept even alive in aquaria, and very few indeed can be maintained in +a condition healthy enough to breed. Much experience, however, has been +gained of late years at considerable expense, both in England and +abroad. In starting a marine aquarium of whatever size, it should be +obvious that the first consideration must be a supply of the purest +possible water, as free as may be, not only from land-drainage and +sewage, but also from such suspended matters as chalk, fine sand or mud. +This is most ideally and economically secured by placing the station a +few feet above high-water mark, in as sheltered a position as possible, +on a rocky coast, pumping from the sea to a large reservoir above the +station, and allowing the water to circulate gently thence through the +tanks by gravity (Banyuls). At an inland aquarium (Berlin, Hamburg), +given pure water in the first instance, excellent if less complete +results may nevertheless, be obtained. The next consideration is the +method by which oxygen is to be supplied to the organisms in the +aquarium. Of the two methods hitherto in use, that of pumping a jet of +air into tanks otherwise stagnant or nearly so (Brighton), while +supplying sufficient oxygen, has so many other disadvantages, that it +has not been employed regularly in any of the more modern aquaria. It +is, however, still useful in aerating quite small bodies of water in +which hardy and minute organisms can be isolated and kept under control. +In the other method, now in general use, a fine jet of water under +pressure falls on to the surface of the tank; this carries down with it +a more than sufficient air-supply, analysis showing in some cases a +higher percentage of oxygen in aquarium water than in the open sea. + +The water supply is best effected by gravity from reservoirs placed +above the tanks, but may be also achieved by direct pumping from low +reservoirs or from the sea to the tanks. Provided that an unlimited +supply of pure water can be obtained cheaply, the overflow from the +tanks is best run to waste; but in aquaria less fortunately placed, it +returns to a storage low-level reservoir, from which it is again pumped, +thus circulating round and round (Naples, Plymouth). The storage +reservoirs should be in all cases very large in comparison with the bulk +of water in circulation; if practicable, they should be excavated in +rock, and lined with the best cement. Thera is no reason why they should +not be shallow, exposed to light and air, and cultivated as rock-pools +by the introduction of seaweeds and small animals, but they must then be +screened from rain, cold and dust. The pumps used in circulation will be +less likely to kill minute animals if of the plunger or ram type, rather +than rotary, and should be of gun-metal or one of the new bronze-alloys +which take a patina in salt water. For the circulating pipes many +materials have been tried. Vulcanite is not only expensive and brittle, +but has other disadvantages; common iron pipes, coated internally with +cement or asphalt or glazed internally, with all unions and joints +cemented, have been used with more or less success. Probably best of all +is common lead piping, the joints being served with red-lead; water +should be circulated through such pipes till they become coated with +insoluble carbonate, for some time before animals are put into the +tanks. For small installations glass may be used, the joints being made +with marine glue or other suitable cement. + +In building the tanks themselves, regard must be had to their special +purposes. If intended for show-tanks for popular admiration, or for the +study of large animals, they must be large with a plate-glass front; for +ordinary scientific work small tanks with all sides opaque are +preferable from every point of view. According to their character, size +and position, fixed tanks may be of brickwork, masonry or rock, coated +in each case with cement; asphalting the sides offers no particular +advantages, and often gives rise to great trouble and expense. All +materials, and especially the cements, must be of the finest quality +procurable. For smaller and movable tanks, slate slabs bolted or screwed +together have some disadvantages, notably those of expense, weight and +brittleness, but are often used. Better, cheaper and lighter, if less +permanent, are tanks of wood bolted together, pitched internally. Glass +bell-jars, useful in particular cases, should generally have their sides +darkened, except when required for observation. Provision should always +be made for cleaning every part of the tanks, pipes and reservoirs; all +rock-work in tanks should therefore be removable. As regards the +lighting of fixed tanks, it should always be directly from above. In all +tanks with glass sides, whether large or small, as much light as +possible should be kept from entering through the glass; otherwise, with +a side-light, many animals become restless, and wear themselves out +against the glass, affected by even so little light as comes through an +opposite tank. + +In cases where distance from the sea or other causes make it +impracticable to allow the overflow from the tanks to run to waste, +special precautions must be taken to keep the water pure. Chemically +speaking, the chief character of the water in an aquarium circulation, +when compared with that of the open sea, lies in the excessive quantity +of nitrogen present in various forms, and the reduced alkalinity; these +two being probably connected. The excess of nitrogen is referable to +dead animals, to waste food and to the excreta of the living organisms. +The first two of these sources of contamination may be reduced by care +and cleanliness, and by the maintenance of a flow of water sufficient to +prevent the excessive accumulation of sediment in the tanks. The +following experiment shows the rapid rise of nitrogen if unchecked. A +tank with a considerable fauna was isolated from the general circulation +and aerated by four air-jets, except during hours 124-166 of the +experiment; column I. shows per 100,000 the nitrogen estimated as +ammonia, column II. the total inorganic nitrogen:-- + + I. II. + Sea-water at source of original + supply 0.001 0.003 + Aquarium water in tank at + commencement of experiment 0.012 0.400 + After 22-1/2 hours 0.020 .. + " 75 " 0.025 1.200 + " 93 " 0.019 .. + " 121-1/2 " 0.012 .. + " 141 " 0.015 2.200 + " 165 " 0.025 .. + " 169 " 0.025 .. + " 189 " 0.012 .. + +During this time the alkalinity was reduced to the equivalent of 30 mg. +CaCO3 per litre, ocean water having an alkalinity equivalent to 50-55 +mg. per litre. It has been suggested that the organic nitrogen becomes +oxidized into nitrous, then into nitric acid, which lowers the carbonate +values. A great deal of reduction of this nitrogenous contamination can +be effected by filtration, a method first introduced successfully at +Hamburg, where a most thriving aquarium has been maintained by the local +Zoological Society for many years on the circulation principle, new +water being added only to compensate for waste and evaporation. The +filters consist of open double boxes, the inner having a bottom of +perforated slate on which rests rough gravel; on the latter is fine +gravel, then coarse, and finally fine sand. Filtration may be either +upwards or downwards through the inner box to the outer. Such filters, +intercalated between tanks and reservoir, have been shown by analysis to +stop a very large proportion of nitrogenous matter. It is doubtful +whether aquarium water will not always show an excess of nitrogenous +compounds, but they must be kept down in every way possible. In small +tanks, well lighted, seaweeds can be got to flourish in a way that has +not been found practicable in large tanks with a circulation; these, +with Lamellibranchs and small Crustacea as scavengers, will be found +useful in this connexion. Slight or occasional circulation should be +employed here also, to remove the film of dust and other matters, which +otherwise covers the surface of the water and prevents due oxygenation. + +In such small tanks for domestic use the fauna must be practically +limited to bottom-living animals, but for purposes of research it is +often desired to keep alive larval and other surface-swimming animals +(plankton). In this case a further difficulty is presented, that of +helping to suspend the animals in the water, and thus to avoid the +exhaustion and death which soon follow their unaided efforts to keep off +the bottom; this duty is effected in nature by specific gravity, tide +and surface current. In order to deal with this difficulty a simple but +efficient apparatus has been devised by Mr E.T. Browne; a "plunger," +generally a glass plate or filter funnel, moves slowly up and down in a +bell-jar or other small tank, with a period of rest between each stroke; +the motive power is obtained through a simple bucket-and-siphon +arrangement worked by the overflow from other tanks. This apparatus +(first used at the Plymouth Laboratory of the Marine Biological +Association in 1897, and since introduced into similar institutions), by +causing slight eddies in the water, keeps the floating fauna in +suspension, and has proved very successful in rearing larvae and in +similar work. (G. H. Fo.) + + + + +AQUARIUS (the "Water-bearer" or "Cup-bearer"), in astronomy, the +eleventh sign of the zodiac (q.v.), situated between Capricornus and +Pisces. Its symbol is [symbol], representing part of a stream of water, +probably in allusion to the fact that when the sun is in this part of +the heavens (January, February) the weather is rainy. It is also a +constellation mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd +century B.C.); Ptolemy catalogued forty-five stars, Tycho Brahe +forty-one, Hevelius forty-seven. [Zeta] _Aquarii_ is a well-defined +binary, having both components of the fourth magnitude; it is probably +of long period. + + + + +AQUATINT (Lat. _aqua_, water, and _tincta_, dyed), a kind of etching +(q.v.) which imitates washes with a brush. There are many ways of +preparing a plate for aquatint, the following being recommended by P.G. +Hamerton. Have three different solutions of rosin in rectified alcohol, +making them of various degrees of strength, but always thin enough to be +quite fluid, the weakest solution being almost colourless. First pour +the strongest solution on the plate. When it dries it will produce a +granulation; and you may now bite as in ordinary etching for your darker +tones, stopping out what the acid is not to operate upon, or you may use +a brush charged with acid, perchloride of iron being a very good mordant +for the purpose. After cleaning the plate, you proceed with the weaker +solutions in the same way, the weakest giving the finest granulation for +skies, distances, &c. The process requires a good deal of stopping-out, +and some burnishing, scraping, &c., at last. Aquatint may be effectively +used in combination with line etching, and still more harmoniously with +soft ground etching in which the line imitates that of the lead pencil. + + + + +AQUAVIVA, CLAUDIO (1542-1615), fifth general of the Jesuits, the +youngest son of the duke d'Altri, was born at Naples. He joined the +Jesuits at Rome in 1567, and his high administrative gifts marked him +out for the highest posts. He was soon nominated provincial of Naples +and then of Rome; and during this office he offered to join the Jesuit +mission to England that set out under Robert Parsons (q.v.) in the +spring of 1580. The following year, being then only thirty-seven years +old, he was elected, by a large majority, general of the society in +succession to Mercurian, to the great surprise of Gregory XIII.; but the +extraordinary political ability he displayed, and the vast increase that +came to the Society during his long generalate, abundantly justified the +votes of the electors. He, together with Lainez, may be regarded as the +real founder of the Society as it is known to history. A born ruler, he +secured all authority in his own hands, and insisted that those who +prided themselves on their obedience should act up to the profession. In +his first letter "On the happy increase of the Society" (25th of July +1581), he treats of the necessary qualifications for superiors, and +points out that government should be directed not by the maxims of human +wisdom but by those of supernatural prudence. He successfully quelled a +revolt among the Spanish Jesuits, which was supported by Philip II., and +he made use in this matter of Parsons. A more difficult task was the +management of Sixtus V., who was hostile to the Society. By consummate +tact and boldness Aquaviva succeeded in playing the king against the +pope, and Sixtus against Philip. For prudential reasons, he silenced +Mariana, whose doctrine on tyrannicide had produced deep indignation in +France; and he also appears to have discountenanced the action of the +French Jesuits in favour of the League, and was thus able to secure +solid advantages when Henry IV. overcame the confederacy. To him is due +the Jesuit system of education in the book _Ratio atque institutio +studiorum_ (Rome, 1586). But the Dominicans denounced it to the +Inquisition, and it was condemned both in Spain and in Rome, on account +of some opinions concerning the Thomist doctrines of the divine physical +premotion in secondary causes and predestination. The incriminated +chapters were withdrawn in the edition of 1591. In the fierce disputes +that arose between the Jesuit theologians and the Dominicans on the +subject of grace, Aquaviva managed, under Clement VIII. and Paul V., to +save his party from a condemnation that at one time seemed probable. He +died at Rome on the 31st of January 1615, leaving the Society numbering +13,000 members in 550 houses and 15 provinces. The subsequent influence +exercised by the Jesuits, in their golden age, was largely due to the +far-seeing policy of Aquaviva, who is undoubtedly the greatest general +that has governed the Society. (E. Tn.) + + + + +AQUEDUCT (Lat. _aqua_, water, and _ducere_, to lead; Gr. [Greek: +hydragogeion], [Greek: hydragogion], [Greek: hyponomos]), a term +properly including artificial works of every kind by means of which +water is conveyed from one place to another, but generally used in a +more limited sense. It is, in fact, rarely employed except in cases +where the work is of considerable magnitude and importance, and where +the water flows naturally by gravitation. The most important purpose for +which aqueducts are constructed is that of conveying pure water, from +sources more or less distant, to large masses of population. Aqueducts +are either below ground, on the surface, or raised on walls either solid +or pierced with arches; to the last the term is often confined in +popular language. The choice of method naturally depends on the contour +of the country. + + + Phoenician. + +I. _Ancient Aqueducts._--In Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria--flat countries +traversed by big rivers and subject to floods--water was supplied by +means of open canals with large basins. In Persia devices of all kinds +were adopted according to the nature of the country. In relation to the +achievements of Greece and Rome, the Phoenicians are the most important +among pre-classical engineers. In Cyprus water was supplied to temples +by rock-cut subterranean conduits carried across intervening valleys in +siphons. Such conduits have been found near Citium, Amathus, &c. +(Cesnola, _Cyprus_, pp. 187, 341). In Syria the most striking of +Phoenician waterworks is the well of Ras-el-Ain near Tyre, which +consisted of four strong octagonal towers through which rises to a +height of 18 to 20 ft. the water from four deep artesian wells. The +water thus accumulated was carried off in conduits to reservoirs near +the shore, and thence in vessels or skins to the island. The aqueduct +across to the island is, of course, of Roman work. + + + Jerusalem. + +It is not possible in all cases to find a satisfactory date for the +numerous conduits which have supplied Jerusalem; some probably go back +to the times of the kings of Judah. The principal reservoir consists of +the three Pools of Solomon which supplied the old aqueduct; the highest +is about 20 ft. above the middle one and 40 above the lowest. These +pools collected the water from Ain Saleh and other springs, and sent it +to the city by two conduits. The higher of these--probably the +older--was partly a rock-cut canal, partly carried on masonry; the +siphon-pipe system was adopted across the lower ground near Rachel's +Tomb, where the pipe (15 in. wide) is formed of large pierced stones +embedded in rubble masonry. The lower conduit is still complete; it +winds so much as to be altogether some 20 m. long. Near the +Birket-es-Sultan it passes over the valley of Hinnom on nine low arches +and reaches the city on the hill above the Tyropeon valley. It enters +the Haram enclosure at the Gate of the Chain (Bab es-Silsila), outside +which is a basin 84 ft. by 42 by 24 deep. It is interesting to note in +the case of the underground tunnel which brought water from the Virgin's +Fountain to the pool of Siloam, that the two boring parties had no +certain means of keeping the line; there is evidence that they had to +make shafts to discover their position, and that ultimately the parties +almost passed one another. Though the direct distance is 1100 ft., the +length of the conduit is over 1700 ft. Perrot and Chipiez incline to +attribute the Pools of Solomon to the Asmonaeans, followed by Roman +governors, whereas the earlier tunnels of the Kedron and Tyropeon valley +may be Punic-Jewish (see also _Palest. Explor. Fund Mem._, "Jerusalem," +pp. 346-365). Besides these conduits excavation has discovered traces of +many other cisterns, tunnels and conduits of various kinds. Many of them +point to periods of great prosperity and engineering enterprise which +gave to the city a water-supply far superior to that which exists at +present. + + See the publications of the Palestine Exploration Fund; A.S. Murray's + _Handbook to Syria and Palestine_ (1903), pp. 63-67; Perrot and + Chipiez, _History of Art in Sardinia, Judaea, &c._ (Eng. trans., + 1890), pp. 321 ff.; other authorities quoted under JERUSALEM. + + + Greek + +The earliest attempts in Europe to solve the problems of water-supply +were made by the Greeks, who perhaps derived their ideas from the +Phoenicians. It has generally been held, partly on the strength of a +passage in Strabo (v. 3. 8, p. 235), and partly owing to the comparative +unimportance of the remains discovered, that the Greek works were +altogether inferior to the Roman. Research in the Greek towns of Asia +Minor, together with a juster appreciation of the remains as a whole, +must be held to modify this view. Among the earliest examples of Greek +work are the tunnels or _emissaria_ which drained Lake Copais in +Boeotia; these, though not strictly aqueducts, were undoubtedly the +precursors of such works, consisting as they did of subterranean tunnels +([Greek: hyponomoi]) with vertical shafts ([Greek: phreatiai]), sixteen +of which are still recognizable, the deepest being about 150 ft. They +may be compared with that described by Polybius as conveying water from +Taurus to Hecatompylos, and with numerous other remains in Asia Minor, +Syria, Phoenicia and Palmyra. Popular legend ascribed them to Cadmus, +just as Argos referred the irrigation of its lands to Danaus. They are +undoubtedly of great antiquity. + +The insufficiency of water, supplied by natural springs and cisterns +hewn in the rock, which in an early age had satisfied the small +communities of Greece, had become a pressing public question by the time +of the Tyrants, of whom Polycrates of Samos and Peisistratus of Athens +were distinguished for their wisdom and enterprise in this respect. The +former obtained the services of Eupalinus, an engineer celebrated for +the skill with which he had carried out the works for the water-supply +of Megara (see _Athen. Mittheil._ xxv., 1900, 23) under the direction of +the Tyrant Theagenes (c. 625 B.C.). At Samos the difficulty lay in a +hill which rose between the town and the water source. Through this hill +Eupalinus cut a tunnel 8 ft. broad, 8 ft. high and 4200 ft. long, +building within the tunnel a channel 3 ft. broad and 11 ells deep. The +water, flowing by an accurately reckoned declivity, and all along open +to the fresh air, was received at the lower end by a conduit of masonry, +and so led into the town, where it supplied fountains, pipes, baths, +cloacae, &c., and ultimately passed into the harbour (Herod, iii. 60). +In Athens, under the rule of the Peisistratids (c. 560-510 B.C.), a +similarly extensive, if less difficult, series of works was completed to +bring water from the neighbouring hills to supplement the inadequate +supply from the springs. From Hymettus were two conduits passing under +the bed of the Ilissus, most of the course being cut in the rock. +Pentelicus, richer in water, supplied another conduit, which can still +be traced from the modern village of Chalandri by the air shafts built +several feet above the ground, and at a distance apart of 130-160 ft.; +the diameter of these shafts is 4-5 ft., and the number of them still +preserved is about sixty. Tributary channels conveyed into the main +stream the waters of the district through which it passed. Outside +Athens, those two conduits met in a large reservoir, from which the +water was distributed by a ramification of underground channels +throughout the city. These latter channels vary in form, being partly +round, partly square, and generally walled with stone; the chief one is +sufficiently large for two men to pass in it. The precise location of +the reservoir depends on the value of Dr Wilhelm Dorpfeld's theory as to +the site of the Enneacrunus of Thucydides and Pausanias (see ATHENS: +_Topography and Antiquity_). Dorpfeld places it south-west of the +Acropolis, where there is a cistern connected with an aqueduct which +passed under the theatre of Dionysus and on towards the Ilissus (see map +under ATHENS). Others have placed it south of the Olympieum in the +Ilissus bed. Beside these works water was brought from Pentelicus in an +underground conduit begun by the emperor Hadrian and completed by +Antoninus Pius. This aqueduct is still in use, having been repaired in +1869. + +In Sicily, the works by which Empedocles, it is said, brought the water +into the town of Selinus, are no longer visible; but it is probable +that, like those of Syracuse, they consisted chiefly of tunnels and +pipes laid under the ground. Syracuse was supplied by two aqueducts, one +of which the Athenians destroyed (Thuc. vi. 100). One was fed by an +affluent (the mod. Buttigliara) of the Anapus (mod. Anapo); it carried +the water up to the top of Epipolae, where the channel was open, and +thence down to the city and finally into the harbour. The other also +ascends to the top of Epipolae, skirts the city on the north, and then +proceeds along the coast. Its course is marked by rectangular shafts +(_spiragli_) at the bottom of which water is still visible. + +An example of what appears to have been the earliest form of aqueduct in +Greece was discovered in the island of Cos beside the fountain Burinna +(mod. Fountain of Hippocrates) on Mount Oromedon. It consists of a +bell-shaped chamber, built underground in the hill-side, to receive the +water of the spring and keep it cool; a shaft from the top of the +chamber supplied fresh air. From this reservoir the water was led by a +subterranean channel, 114 ft. long and 6-1/2 ft. high. (J. M. M.) + + + Roman. + +In comparing Greek and Roman aqueducts, many writers have enlarged on +the greatness of the latter as an example of Roman contempt for natural +obstacles, or even of Roman ignorance of the laws of nature. Now, in the +first place, the Romans were not unacquainted with the law that water +finds its own level (see Pliny, _Hist. Nat._ xxxi. 57, "subit +altitudinem exortus sui"), and took full advantage of it in the +construction of lofty fountains and the supplying of the upper floors of +houses. That they built aqueducts across valleys in preference to +carrying pipes underground was due simply to economy. Pipes had to be +made of lead which was weak, or of bronze which was expensive; and the +Romans were not sufficiently expert in the casting of large pipes which +would stand a very great pressure to employ them for the whole course of +a great aqueduct. Secondly, the water was so extremely hard that it was +important that the channels should be readily accessible for repair as +well as for the detection of leakage.[1] Moreover, as we shall see, the +Roman aqueducts did not, in fact, preserve a straight line regardless of +the configuration of the country. A striking example is the aqueduct of +Nemausus (Nimes), the springs of which are some 10 m. from the town, +though the actual distance traversed is about 25. Other devices, such as +changing the level and then modifying the slope, and siphon arrangements +of various kinds, were adopted (as in the aqueduct at Aspendus). + +Sextus Julius Frontinus, appointed _curator aquarum_ in A.D. 97, +mentions in his treatise _de aquaeductibus urbis Romae_ (on the +aqueducts of the city of Rome) nine aqueducts as being in use in his +time (the lengths of the aqueducts as given here follow his +measurements). These are: (1) AQUA APPIA, which took its rise between +the 6th and 7th milestones of the Via Collatina, and measured from its +source to the Porta Trigemina 11 Roman miles, of which all but about 300 +ft. were below ground. It appears to have been the first important +enterprise of the kind at Rome, and was the work of the censor Appius +Claudius Caecus, from whom it derived its name. The date of its +construction was 312 B.C. (2) ANIO VETUS, constructed in 272-269 B.C. by +the censor Manius Curius Dentatus. From its source near Tivoli, on the +left side of the Anio, it flowed some 43 m.,[2] of which only 1100 ft. +was above ground. At the distance of 2 m. from Rome (Frontinus, i. 21), +it parted into two courses, one of which led to the _horti Asiniani_, +and was thence distributed; while the other (_rectus ductus_) led by the +temple of Spes to the Porta Esquilina. (3) AQUA MARCIA, reconstructed in +1869-1870 under the name of Acqua Pia or Marcia-Pia after Pius IX. +(though from Tivoli to Rome the modern aqueduct takes an entirely +different course), rising on the left side of the Via Valeria near the +36th milestone. It traversed 61-3/4 m., of which 54-1/4 were +underground, and for the remaining distance was carried partly on +substructions and partly on arches. It was the work of the praetor +Quintus Marcius Rex (144-140 B.C.), not of Ancus Marcius, the fourth +king of Rome, as Pliny (_N.H._ xxxi. 3) fancied, and took its name from +its constructor. Its waters were celebrated for their coolness and +excellent quality. Its volume was largely increased by Augustus, who +added to it the Aqua Augusta; and it was repaired and restored by Titus, +Septimus Severus, Caracalla and Diocletian. (4) AQUA TEPULA, from its +source (now known as Sorgente Preziosa) in the district of Tusculum, to +Rome, was some 11 m. in length. The first portion of its course must +have been almost entirely subterranean and is not now traceable. For the +last 6-1/2 m. it ran on the same series of arches that carried the Aqua +Marcia, but at a higher level. It was the work of the censors Cn. +Servilius Caepio and L. Cassius Longinus, and was completed in the year +125 B.C. Its water is warm (about 63 deg. Fahr.) and not of the best +quality. (5) The AQUA JULIA, from a source 2 m. from that of the Tepula, +joined its course at the 10th milestone of the Via Latina. The combined +stream, after a distance of 4 m., was received in a reservoir, and then +once more divided into two channels. The entire length of the Julia was +15-1/2 m. It was constructed in the year 33 B.C. by M. Vipsanius +Agrippa, who also built the (6) AQUA VIRGO which, from its origin at a +copious spring in a marsh on the Via Collatina, measured 14 m. in +length; it was conveyed in a channel, partly under and partly above +ground. It was begun in the year 33 B.C. and was celebrated for the +excellence of its waters. It was restored to use by Pius V. in 1570. (7) +AQUA ALSIETINA or AUGUSTA, the source of which is the Lacus Alsietinus +(mod. Lago di Martignano), to the north of Rome, was over 22 m. in +length, of which 358 paces were on arches. It was the work of Augustus, +probably with the object of furnishing water for his _naumachia_ (a +basin for sham sea-fights), and not for drinking purposes. Its course is +unknown, as no remains of it exist, but an inscription relating to it +is given in _Notizie d. Scant_ (1887), p. 182. (8, 9) The AQUA CLAUDIA +and ANIO NOVUS were two aqueducts begun by Caligula in A.D. 38 and +completed by Claudius in A.D. 52. The springs of the former belonged to +the same group as those of the Marcia, and were situated near the 38th +milestone of the Via Sublacensis, not far from its divergence from the +Via Valeria, while the original intake of the latter from the river Anio +was 4 m. farther along the same road. As the water was thick it was +collected in a purifying tank, and 4 m. below, a branch stream, the +Rivus Herculaneus, was added to it. According to Frontinus, over 10 m. +of the course of the Claudia and nearly 9-1/2 of that of the Anio Novus +were above ground. Seven miles out of Rome they united and ran from that +point into Rome, following a natural isthmus formed by a lava stream +from the Alban volcano, upon a line of arches, which still forms one of +the most conspicuous features of the Campagna. The original inscription +of Claudius (A.D. 52) on the Porta Maggiore, by which the Aqua Claudia +and Anio Novus crossed the Via Praenestina and the Via Labicana, gives +the length of the Aqua Claudia as 45 m., and that of the Anio Novus as +62 m. Frontinus, on the other hand, gives 46.406 m. (i.e. about 43 +English miles) and 58.700 m. (i.e. about 54 English miles). Albertini +(_Melanges de l'Ecole Francaise_, 1906, 305) explains the difference as +due to the fact that Frontinus was calculating the length of the Claudia +from the farthest spring, the Fons Albudinus, and that of the Anio Novus +from the new intake constructed by Trajan in one of the three lakes +constructed by Nero for the adornment of his villa above Subiaco. Two +other inscriptions on the Porta Maggiore record restorations by +Vespasian in A.D. 70, and by Titus in A.D. 80. That the aqueducts should +be spoken of as _vetustate dilapsi_ so soon after their construction is +not a little surprising, and may be attributed either to hasty +construction in order to complete them by a fixed date, or to jobbery by +the imperial freedmen who under Claudius were especially powerful, or to +the fact that a line of arches intended originally in all probability +for the Aqua Claudia alone was made to carry the Anio Novus as well. + +The size of the channels (_specus_) of the principal aqueducts varies +considerably at different points of their course. The Anio Novus has the +largest of them all, measuring 3 to 4 ft. wide and 9 ft. high to the top +of the roof, which is pointed. They are lined with hard cement (_opus +signinum_) containing fragments of broken brick. Those aqueducts of +which the most conspicuous remains exist in the neighbourhood of Rome +are the four from the upper valley of the Anio, the two which took their +supply and their name from the river itself, and the Marcia and the +Claudia, which originated from the same group of springs, in the floor +of the Anio valley 6 m. below Subiaco. Those of the Anio Vetus, which +travelled at a considerably lower level than the other three, are the +least conspicuous, while the Claudia and Anio Novus as a rule kept close +together, the latter at the highest level of all. The ruins of bridges +and substructions in the Anio valley down to Tivoli, though +comparatively little known, are of great importance. In all the +aqueducts the original construction of the bridges was in _opus +quadratum_ (masonry), while the substructions are in brick-faced +concrete; but the bridges are as a rule strengthened (and often several +times) with reinforcing walls of concrete faced with _opus reticulatum_ +or brickwork. Below Tivoli, where the Anio leaves its narrow valley, the +aqueducts sweep round towards the Alban hills, and pass through some +very difficult country between Tivoli and Gallicano, alternately +crossing ravines, some of which are as much as 300 ft. deep, and +tunnelling through hills.[3] + +The engineering skill displayed is remarkable, and one wonders what +instruments were employed--probably the so-called _chorobates_, an +improvement upon the ordinary water-level (Vitruvius viii. 6), though +this would be slow and complicated. The optical properties of glass +lenses were, however, unknown to the ancients, and the _dioptra_, or +angle measure, was considered by Vitruvius less trustworthy than the +_chorobates_ for the planning of aqueducts (cf. E. Hultsch, _s.v_. in +Pauly-Wissowa, _Real-encyclopadie_). The aqueducts as a rule were +carried on separate bridges, though all four united at the Ponte Lupo, a +huge structure, which after the addition of all the four, and with the +inclusion of all the later strengthening walls that were found necessary +in course of time, measures 105 ft. in height, 508 in length, and 46 in +thickness at the bottom, without including the buttresses. From +Gallicano onwards the course of these four aqueducts follows the lower +slopes of the Alban Hills. Previous writers on the subject have been +unable to determine their course, which is largely subterranean; but it +can be followed step by step with the indications given by the presence +of the calcareous deposit which was thrown out at the _putei_ or shafts +(which were, as a rule, placed at intervals of 240 ft., as were the +_cippi_) when the _specus_ was cleaned; and remains of bridges, though +less important, owing to the less difficult character of the country, +are not entirely absent (cf. the works by T. Ashby cited in +bibliography).[4] Near the 7th milestone of the Via Latina at Le +Capanelle, the Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus emerge from their underground +course, and run into Rome upon the long series of arches already +mentioned, passing over the Porta Maggiore. The Claudia sent off an +important branch from the Porta Maggiore over the Caclian to the +Palatine, but the main aqueduct soon reached its termination. A mile +farther on the Aqua Marcia also, owing to the gradual slope of the +ground towards Rome, begins to be supported on arches, which were also +used to carry the Aqua Tepula and the Aqua Julia (of the two latter, +before their junction with the Marcia, no remains exist above ground, +but inscribed _cippi_ of the last named and its underground channel have +been found at Le Capanelle, and _cippi_ also close to its springs, which +are a little way above Grottaferrata at Gli Squarciarelli). The Anio +Vetus followed the same line, but kept underground (as was natural at +the early period at which it was constructed) until the immediate +neighbourhood of Rome, near the locality known as "ad Spem veterem" +(from a temple of Spes, of which no remains are known) close to the +Porta Maggiore. At this point, besides the aqueducts named, the Aqua +Appia, as we are told by Frontinus, entered the city, and received an +important branch, the Appia Augusta. No remains of either have been +discovered outside the city. + +The Aqua Alexandrina must also have entered the city here, though its +channel, which lay at some depth below ground, has not been discovered. +Considerable remains of its brick aqueducts exist in the district +between the Via Praenestina and the Via Labicana. + +Of the two aqueducts on the right bank of the Tiber, the Alsietina, as +we have said, has no remains at all, while those of the Traiana are not +of great importance. The line of the aqueducts was marked by _cippi_, +inscribed (in the case of the Anio Vetus, Marcia, Tepula, Julia and +Virgo--those of the Claudia and Anio Novus are uninscribed, and those of +the Traiana are differently worded) with the name of the aqueduct, the +distance from the next _cippus_ (generally 240 ft.) and the number, +counting from Rome (not from the springs). These boundary stones were +erected in pairs, to mark off the strip of land 30 ft. in width reserved +for the aqueduct, and for the road or path which generally followed it. +The shafts (_putei_) often stood, but not necessarily, at the same +points as the _cippi_. + +To these nine must be added the two following, constructed after +Frontinus's time: (10) AQUA TRAIANA, from springs to the north-west of +the Lacus Sabatinus (Lago di Bracciano), constructed by Trajan in A.D. +109, about 36-1/2 English miles in length. It was restored by Paul V. in +1611, who made use of and largely transformed the remains of the ancient +aqueduct; he allowed some of the inferior water of the lake to flow into +the channel, and it is thus no longer used for drinking. (11) AQUA +ALEXANDRINA, rising about 14 English miles from Rome, between the Via +Praenestina and the Via Labicana, the work of Alexander Severus (A.D. +226). The springs now supply the modern Acqua Felice, constructed by +Sixtus V. in 1585, but the course of the latter is mainly subterranean +and not identical with that of the former. + +[Illustration: PLATE I. + + _Photo, Altnari._ + AQUA CLAUDIA, ROME. + + _Photo, Neurdein._ + PONT DU CARD, NIMES (NEMAUSUS).] + +[Illustration: PLATE II. + + _Photo, Laureat y Cia._ + ROMAN AQUEDUCT AT SEGOVIA. + + AQUEDUCT OF ROQUEFAVOUR, MARSEILLES. + Early nineteenth century. + + _Photo, Brogi._ + PISCINA MIRABILIS AT BAIAE. + + _Photo, Dr T. Ashby._ + AQUA MARCIA, ROME.] + +It is agreed that these eleven are all that were constructed. Procopius +speaks of fourteen (and the Regionary catalogues mention others), but +this number includes branch conduits. All the aqueducts ended in the +city in huge _castella_ or reservoirs for the purpose of distribution. +Vitruvius recommends the division of these into three parts--one for the +supply of fountains, &c., one for the public baths and one for private +consumers. In the Piazza Vittorio Emmanuele at Rome there are still to +be seen the remains of a large ornamental fountain built probably for +the Aqua Julia by Domitian or Alexander Severus (Jordan-Hulsen, +_Topographie_, i. 3350). Besides these main _castella_ there were also +many minor _castella_ in various parts of the city for sub-distribution. +To allow the water to purify itself before being distributed in the +city, filtering and settling tanks (_piscinae limariae_) were built +outside the walls. These _piscinae_ were covered in with a vaulted roof, +and were sometimes on a very large scale, as in the example still +preserved at Fermo, which consists of two stories, each having three +oblong basins communicating with each other; or the Piscina Mirabilis at +Baiae, which is covered in by a vaulted roof, supported on forty-eight +pillars and perforated to permit the escape of foul air. Two stairs lead +by forty steps to the bottom of the reservoir. In the middle of the +basin is a sinking to collect the deposit of the water. The walls and +pillars are coated with a stucco so hard as to resist a tool. + +The oversight of aqueducts was placed, in the times of the republic, +under the aediles, who were not, however, the constructors of them; of +the four aqueducts built during this period, three are the work of +censors, one (the Marcia) of a praetor. Under the empire this task +devolved on special officials styled _Curatores Aquarum_, instituted by +Augustus, who, as he himself says, "rivos aquarum omnium refecit" +(inscription on the arch by which the Aqua Marcia crossed the Via +Tiburtina). (T. As.) + +Among the aqueducts outside Italy, constructed in Roman times and +existing still, the most remarkable are: (1) the aqueduct at Nimes +(Nemausus), erected probably by Vipsanius Agrippa in the time of +Augustus, which rose to 160 ft. The Pont du Card, as this aqueduct is +now called, consists of three tiers of arches across the valley of the +river Gardon. In the lowest tier are six arches, of which one has a span +of 75 ft., the others each 60 ft. In the second tier are eleven arches, +each with a span of 75 ft. In the third tier are thirty-five smaller +arches which carried the _specus_. As a bridge, the Pont du Gard has no +rival for lightness and boldness of design among the existing remains of +works of this class carried out in Roman times. (2) The aqueduct bridges +at Segovia (Merckel, _Ingenieurtechnik_, pp. 566-568), Tarragona +(_ibid._ 565-566), and Merida in Spain, the former being 2400 ft. long, +with 109 arches of fine masonry, in two tiers, and reaching the height +of 102 ft. The bridge at Tarragona is 876 ft. long and 83 ft. high. (3) +At Mainz are the ruins of an aqueduct 7000 yds. long, about half of +which is carried on from 500 to 600 pillars (_Archaeological Journal_, +xlvii., 1890, pp. 211-214). This aqueduct was built by the XIVth legion +and was for the use of the camp, not for the townspeople. For the +similar aqueduct at Luynes see _Arch. Journ._ xlv. (1888), pp. 235-237. +Similar witnesses of Roman occupation are to be seen in Dacia, Africa +(see especially under CARTHAGE), Greece and Asia Minor. (4) The aqueduct +at Jouy-aux-Arches, near Metz, which originally extended across the +Moselle, here very broad, conveyed to the city an abundance of excellent +water from Gorze. From a large reservoir at the source of the aqueduct +the water passed along subterranean channels built of hewn stone, and +sufficiently spacious for a man to walk in them upright. Similar +channels received the water after it had crossed the Moselle by this +bridge, at the distance of about 6 m. from Metz, and conveyed it to the +city. The bridge consisted of only one row of arches nearly 60 ft. high. +The middle arches have given way under the force of the water, but the +others are still perfectly solid. This aqueduct is probably to be +attributed to the latter half of the 4th century A.D. It is for the use +of the town; hence its size. (5) One of the principal bridges of the +aqueduct of Antioch in Syria is 700 ft. long, and at the deepest point +200 ft. high. The lower part consists almost entirely of solid wall, and +the upper part of a series of arches with very massive pillars. The +masonry and design are rude. The water supply was drawn from several +springs at a place called Beit el-Ma (anc. Daphne) about 4 or 5 m. from +Antioch. From these separate springs the water was conducted by channels +of hewn stone into a main channel, similarly constructed, which +traversed the rest of the distance, being carried across streams and +valleys by means of arches or bridges. (6) At the village of Moris, +about an hour's distance north-west from the town of Mytilene, is the +bridge of an aqueduct, carried by massive pillars built of large hewn +blocks of grey marble, and connected by means of three rows of arches, +of which the uppermost is of brick. The bridge extended about 500 ft. in +length, and at the deepest point was from 70 to 80 ft. high. Judged by +the masonry and the graceful design, it has been thought to be a work of +the age of Augustus. Remains of this aqueduct are to be seen at Larisson +Lamarousia, an hour's distance from Moris, and at St Demetri, two hours +and a half from Ayasos, on the road to Vasilika. + + + Asia Minor. + +The whole subject of the ancient and medieval aqueducts of Asia Minor +has been considered in great detail by G. Weber ("Wasserleitungen in +kleinasiatischen Stadten," in the _Jahrbuch des kaiserl. deutsch. +archaolog. Instit._ xix., 1904; see also earlier articles in _Jahrbuch_, +1892, 1899). The aqueducts examined are those at Pergamum, Laodicea and +Smyrna (in the earlier articles), and those at Metropolis (Ionia), +Tralles (Aidin), Antioch-on-Maeander, Aphrodisias, Trapezopolis, +Hierapolis, Apamea Cibotus and Antioch in Pisidia. In most of these +cases it is difficult or even impossible to decide whether the work is +Hellenistic or Roman; to the Romans Weber inclines to attribute, e.g. +those at Metropolis, Tralles (perhaps), Aphrodisias; to the Greeks, e.g. +those at Antioch-on-Maeander and Antioch in Pisidia. Since, therefore, a +detailed description of these remains does not provide material for any +satisfactory generalizations as to the distinctive features of +Hellenistic and Roman work, it will be sufficient here to mention a few +of the more interesting discoveries. + +In the case of Metropolis, the aqueduct in the valley of the Astraeus +consisted of an arcade about 13 to 16 ft. high. Nearer to the town in +the hills there are distinct traces of a canal with brick walls. It is +clear that the water could not have served more than the lower parts of +the town, the acropolis of which is nearly 200 ft. above the level of +the conduit. In the case of Tralles the water was supplied by a high +pressure conduit and distributed from the acropolis, where there are the +remains of a basin (13 ft. by 10) arched over with brick. The ancient +aqueduct is to be distinguished from a later, probably Byzantine, canal +conduit, the course of which avoids the deeper depressions, crossed by +the old aqueduct. Of the Antioch-on-Maeander aqueduct only a few +clay-pipes remain, and the same is true of the aqueduct which was built +by Carminius in the 2nd century A.D. to supply the community when +reinforced by the amalgamation of Plarasa and Tauropolis; two of its +basins are still distinguishable, but the two water-towers which are +still standing belong to a later Byzantine structure. Trapezopolis was +supplied from Mt. Salbacus (Baba Dagh): some twenty stone-pipes have +been found built into a low wall which varies from 3-1/4 to about 5 ft. +wide. Of the pillars which carried the conduit-pipe to Antioch in +Pisidia, nineteen are still standing. Each arch consists of eleven +keystones; no cement was used. The conduit, which was high-pressure, +ends in a distributing tower and reservoir. (J. M. M.) + +II. _Medieval._--The aqueduct near Spoleto, which now serves also as a +bridge, is deserving of notice as an early instance of the use of the +pointed arch, belonging as it does to the 7th or 8th century. It has +ten arches, remarkable for the elegance of their design and the airy +lightness of their proportions, each over 66 ft. in span, and about 300 +ft. in height. + + + Constantinople. + +The aqueduct of Pyrgos, near Constantinople, is a remarkable example of +works of this class carried out in the later times of the Roman empire, +and consisted of two branches. From this circumstance it was called Egri +Kemer ("the Crooked Aqueduct"), to distinguish it from the Long +Aqueduct, situated near the source of the waters. One of the branches +extends 670 ft. in length, and is 106 ft. in height at the deepest part. +It is composed of three tiers of arches, those in each row increasing in +width from the bottom to the top--an arrangement very properly +introduced with the view of saving materials without diminishing the +strength of the work. The two upper rows consisted of arches of +semicircles, the lower of Gothic arches; and this circumstance leads to +the belief that the date of the structure is about the 10th century. The +breadth of the building at the base was 21 ft., and it diminished with a +regular batter on each side to the top, where it was only 11 ft. The +base also was protected by strong buttresses or counterforts, erected +against each of the pillars. The other branch of the aqueduct was 300 +ft. long, and consisted of twelve semicircular arches. This aqueduct +serves to convey to Constantinople the waters of the valley of Belgrad, +one of the principal sources from which the city is supplied. These are +situated on the heights of Mount Haemus, the extremity of the Balkan +Mountains, which overhangs the Black Sea. The water rises about 15 m. +from the city, and between 3 and 4 m. west of the village of Belgrad, in +three sources, which run in three deep and very confined valleys. These +unite a little below the village, and then are collected into a large +reservoir. After flowing a mile or two from this reservoir, the waters +are augmented by two other streams, and conveyed by a channel of stone +to the Crooked Aqueduct. From this they are conveyed to another which is +the Long Aqueduct; and then, with various accessions, into a third, +termed the Aqueduct of Justinian. From this they enter a vaulted +conduit, which skirts the hills on the left side of the valley, and +crosses a broad valley 2 m. below the Aqueduct of Justinian, by means of +an aqueduct, with two tiers of arches of a very beautiful construction. +The conduit then proceeds onward in a circuitous route, till it reaches +the reservoir of Egri Kapu, situated just without and on the walls of +the city. From this the water is conducted to the various quarters of +the city, and also to the reservoir of St Sophia, which supplies the +seraglio of the grand signior. The Long Aqueduct (Usun Kemer) is more +imposing by its extent than the Crooked one, but is far inferior in the +regularity of design and disposition of the materials. It is evidently a +work of the Turks. It consists of two tiers of arches, the lower being +forty-eight in number, and the upper fifty. The whole length was about +2200 ft., and the height 80 ft. The aqueduct of Justinian (Muallak Kemer +or "Hanging Aqueduct") is without doubt one of the finest monuments +which remain to us of the middle ages. It consists of two tiers of large +pointed arches, pierced transversely. Those of the lower story have 55 +ft. of span, the upper ones 40 ft. The piers are supported by strong +buttresses, and at different heights they have little arches passing +through them laterally, which relieve the deadness of the solid pillar. +The length of this aqueduct is 720 ft. and the height 108 ft. This +aqueduct has been attributed both to Constantine I. and to Justinian, +the latter being perhaps the more probable. + +Besides the waters of Belgrad, Constantinople was supplied from several +other principal sources, one of which took its rise on the heights of +the same mountains, 3 or 4 m. east of Belgrad. This was conveyed in a +similar manner by an arched channel elevated, when it was necessary, on +aqueduct bridges, till it reached the northern parts of the city. It was +in the course of this aqueduct that the contrivance of the _souterasi_ +or hydraulic obelisks, described by Andreossy (on his voyage to the +Black Sea, the account of the Thracian Bosporus), was constructed, which +excited some attention, as being an improvement on the method of +conducting water by aqueduct bridges. "The souterasi," says Andreossy, +"are masses of masonry, having generally the form of a truncated pyramid +or an Egyptian obelisk. To form a conduit with souterasi, we choose +sources of water, the level of which is several feet higher than the +reservoir by which it is to be distributed over the city. We bring the +water from its sources in subterranean canals, slightly declining until +we come to the borders of a valley or broken ground. We there raise on +each side a souterasi, to which we adapt vertically leaden pipes of +determinate diameters, placed parallel to the two opposite sides of the +building. These pipes are disjoined at the upper part of the obelisk, +which forms a sort of basin, with which the pipes are connected. The one +permits the water to rise to the level from whence it had descended; by +the other, the water descends from this level to the foot of the +souterasi, where it enters another canal underground, which conducts it +to a second and to a third souterasi, where it rises and again descends, +as at the last station. Here a reservoir receives it and distributes it +in different directions by orifices of which the discharge is known." +Again he says, "it requires but little attention to perceive that this +system of conducting tubes is nothing but a series of siphons open at +their upper part, and communicating with each other. The expense of a +conduit by souterasi is estimated at only one-fifth of that of an +aqueduct with arcades." There seems to be really no advantage in these +pyramids, further than as they serve the purpose of discharging the air +which collects in the pipes. They are in themselves an evident +obstruction, and the water would flow more freely without any +interruption of the kind. In regard to the leaden pipes, again, they +would have required, with so little head pressure as is stated, to be +used of very extraordinary dimensions to pass the same quantity of water +as was discharged along the arched conduits (see also works quoted under +CONSTANTINOPLE). The other principal source from which Constantinople is +supplied, is from the high grounds 6 or 8 m. west of the town, from +which it is conducted by conduits and arches, in the same manner as the +others. The supply drawn from all these sources, as detailed by +Andreossy, amounted to 400,000 cubic ft. per day. + (A. S. M.; J. M. M.) + + + Aqueducts and water supply. + +III. _Modern Construction._--Where towns are favourably situated the +aqueduct may be very short and its cost bear a relatively small +proportion to the total outlay upon a scheme of water supply, but where +distant sources have to be relied upon the cost of the aqueduct becomes +one of the most important features in the scheme, and the quantity of +water obtainable must be considerable to justify the outlay. Hence it is +that only very large towns can undertake the responsibility for this +expenditure. In Great Britain it has in all large schemes become a +condition that, when a town is permitted to go outside its own +watershed, it shall, subject to a priority of a certain number of +gallons per day per head of its own inhabitants, allow local +authorities, any part of whose district is within a certain number of +miles of the aqueduct, to take a supply on reasonable terms. The first +case in which this principle was adopted on a large scale was the +Thirlmere scheme sanctioned by parliament in 1879, for augmenting the +supply of Manchester. The previous supply was derived from a source only +about 15 m. distant, and the cost of the aqueduct, chiefly cast-iron +pipes, was insignificant compared with the cost of the impounding +reservoirs. But Thirlmere is 96 m. distant from the service reservoir +near Manchester, and the cost of the aqueduct was more than 90% of the +total cost. As a supply of about 50,000,000 gallons a day is available +the outlay was justifiable, and the water is in fact very cheaply +obtained. Liverpool derives a supply of about 40,000,000 gallons a day +from the river Vyrnwy in North Wales, 68 m. distant, and Birmingham has +constructed works for impounding water in Radnorshire, and conveying it +a distance of 74 m., the supply being about 75,000,000 gallons a day. In +the year 1899 an act of parliament was passed authorizing the towns of +Derby, Leicester, Sheffield and Nottingham, jointly to obtain a supply +of water from the head waters of the river Derwent in Derbyshire. +Leicester is 60 m. distant from this source, and its share of the supply +is about 10,000,000 gallons a day. For more than half the distance, +however, the aqueduct is common to Derby and Nottingham, which together +are entitled to about 16,000,000 gallons a day, and the expense to +Leicester is correspondingly reduced. These are the most important cases +of long aqueducts in England, and all are subsequent to 1879. It is +obvious, therefore, how greatly the design and construction of the +aqueduct have grown in importance, and what care must be Exercised in +order that the supply upon which such large populations depend may not +be interrupted, and that the country through which such large volumes of +water are conveyed may not be flooded in consequence of the failure of +any of the works. + + + Construction. + +Practically only two types of aqueduct are used in England. The one is +built of concrete, brickwork, &c., the other of cast-iron (or, in +special circumstances, steel) pipes. In the former type the water +surface coincides with the hydraulic gradient, and the conditions are +those of an artificial river; the aqueduct must therefore be carefully +graded throughout, so that the fall available between source and +termination may be economically distributed. This condition requires +that the ground in which the work is built shall be at the proper +elevation; if at any point this is not the case, the aqueduct must be +carried on a substructure built up to the required level. Such large +structures are, however, extremely expensive, and require elaborate +devices for maintaining water-tightness against the expansion and +contraction of the masonry due to changes of temperature. They are now +only used where their length is very short, as in cases where mountain +streams have to be crossed, and even these short lengths are avoided by +some engineers, who arrange that the aqueduct shall pass, wherever +practicable, under the streams. Where wide valleys interrupt the course +of the built aqueduct, or where the absence of high ground prevents the +adoption of that type at any part of the route, the cast-iron pipes +hereafter referred to are used. + + + Masonry aqueducts. + +The built aqueduct may be either in tunnel, or cut-and-cover, the latter +term denoting the process of cutting the trench, building the floor, +side-walls, and roof, and covering with earth, the surface of the ground +being restored as before. For works conveying water for domestic supply, +the aqueduct is in these days, in England, always covered. Where, as is +usually the case, the water is derived from a tract of mountainous +country, the tunnel work is sometimes very heavy. In the case of the +Thirlmere aqueduct, out of the first 13 m. the length of the tunnelled +portions is 8 m., the longest tunnel being 3 m. in length. Conditions of +time, and the character of the rock, usually require the use of +machinery for driving, at any rate in the case of the longer tunnels. +For the comparatively small tunnels required for aqueducts, two +percussion drilling machines are usually mounted on a carriage, the +motive power being derived from compressed air sent up the tunnel in +pipes. The holes when driven are charged with explosives and fired. In +the Thirlmere tunnels, driven through very hard Lower Silurian strata, +the progress was about 13 yds. a week at each face, work being carried +on continuously day and night for six days a week. Where the character +of the country through which the aqueduct passes is much the same as +that from which the supply is derived, the tunnels need not be lined +with concrete, &c., more than is absolutely necessary for retaining the +water and supporting weak places in the rock; the floor, however, is +nearly always so treated. The lining, whether in tunnel or +cut-and-cover, may be either of concrete, or brickwork, or of concrete +faced with brickwork. To ensure the impermeability of work constructed +with these materials is in practice somewhat difficult, and no matter +how much care is taken by those supervising the workmen, and even by the +workmen themselves, it is impossible to guarantee entire freedom from +trouble in this respect. With a wall only about 15 in. thick, any +neglect is certain to make the work permeable; frequently the labourers +do not distribute the broken stone and fine material of the concrete +uniformly, and no matter how excellent the design, the quality of +materials, &c., a leak is sure to occur at such places (unless, indeed, +the pressure of the outside water is superior and an inflow occurs). A +further cause of trouble lies in the water which flows from the strata +on to the concrete, and washes away some of the cement upon which the +work depends for its watertightness, before it has time to set. For this +reason it is advisable to put in the floor before, and not after, the +sidewalls and arch have been built, otherwise the only outlet for the +water in the strata is through the ground on which the floor has to be +laid. Each length of about 20 ft. should be completely constructed +before the next is begun, the water then having an easy exit at the +leading end. Manholes, by which the aqueduct can be entered, are usually +placed in the roof at convenient intervals; thus, in the case of the +Thirlmere aqueduct, they occur at every quarter of a mile. + + + Timber aqueducts. + +In some parts of America aqueducts are frequently constructed of wood, +being then termed flumes. These are probably more extensively used in +California than in any other part of the world, for conveying large +quantities of water which is required for hydraulic mining, for +irrigation, for the supply of towns and for transporting timber. The +flumes are frequently carried along precipitous mountain slopes, and +across valleys, supported on trestles. In Fresno county, California, +there is a flume 52 m. in length for transporting timber from the Sierra +Nevada Mountains to the plain below; it has a rectangular V-shaped +section, 3 ft. 7 in. wide at the top, and 21 in. deep vertically. The +boards which form the sides are 1-1/4 in. thick, and some of the +trestlework is 130 ft. high. The steepest grade occurs where there is a +fall of 730 ft. in a length of 3000 ft. About 9,000,000 ft. of timber +were used in the construction. At San Diego there is a flume 35 m. long +for irrigation and domestic supply, the capacity being 50 ft. per +second; it has 315 trestle bridges (the longest of which is that across +Los Coches Creek, 1794 ft. in length and 65 ft. in height) and 8 +tunnels, and the cost was $900,000. The great bench flume of the +Highline canal, Colorado, is 2640 ft. in length, 28 ft. wide, and 7 ft. +deep; the gradient is 5.28 ft. per mile, and the discharge 1184 ft. per +second. + + + Aqueduct in iron piping. + +As previously stated, the type of aqueduct built of concrete, &c., can +only be adopted where the ground is sufficiently elevated to carry it, +and where the quantity of water to be conveyed makes it more economical +than piping. Where the falling contour is interrupted by valleys too +wide for a masonry structure above the surface of the ground, the +detached portions of the built aqueduct must be connected by rows of +pipes laid beneath, and following the main undulations of, the surface. +In such cases the built aqueduct terminates in a chamber of sufficient +size to enclose the mouths of the several pipes, which, thus charged, +carry the water under the valley up to a corresponding chamber on the +farther hillside from which the built aqueduct again carries on the +supply. These connecting pipes are sometimes called siphons, although +they have nothing whatever to do with the principle of a siphon, the +water simply flowing into the pipe at one end and out at the other under +the influence of gravity, and the pressure of the atmosphere being no +element in the case. The pipes are almost always made of cast-iron, +except in such cases as the lower part of some siphons, where the +pressure is very great, or where they are for use abroad, when +considerations of weight are of importance, and when they are made of +rolled steel with riveted or welded seams. It is frequently necessary to +lay them in deep cuttings, in which case cast-iron is much better +adapted for sustaining a heavy weight of earth than the thinner steel, +though the latter is more adapted to resist internal pressure. Mr D. +Clarke (_Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ vol. xxxviii. p. 93) gives some +particulars of a riveted steel pipe 24 m. long, 33 to 42 in. diameter, +varying in thickness from 0.22 in. to 0.375 in. After a length of 9 m. +had been laid, and the trench refilled, it was found that the crown of +the pipe had been flattened by an amount varying from 1/2 in. to 4 in. +Steel pipes suffer more from corrosion than those made of cast-iron, and +as the metal attacked is much thinner the strength is more seriously +reduced. These considerations have prevented any general change from +cast-iron to steel. + + Mr. Clemens Herschel has made some interesting remarks (_Proc. Inst. + C.E._ vol. cxv. p. 162) as to the circumstances in which steel pipes + have been found preferable to cast-iron. He says that it had been + demonstrated by practice that cast-iron cannot compete with + wrought-iron or steel pipes in the states west of the Rocky Mountains, + on the Pacific slope. This is due to the absence of coal and iron ore + in these states, and to the weight of the imported cast-iron pipes + compared with steel pipes of equal capacity and strength. The works of + the East Jersey Water Company for the supply of Newark, N.J., include + a riveted steel conduit 48 in. in diameter and 21 m. long. This + conduit is designed to resist only the pressure due to the hydraulic + gradient, in contradistinction to that which would be due to the + hydrostatic head, this arrangement saving 40% in the weight and cost + of the pipes. For the supply of Rochester, N.Y., there is a riveted + steel conduit 36 in. in diameter and 20 m. long; and for Allegheny + City, Pennsylvania, there is a steel conduit 5 ft. in diameter and + nearly 10 m. long. The works for bringing the water from La Vigne and + Verneuil to Paris include a steel main 5 ft. in diameter between St. + Cloud and Paris. + + Cast-iron pipes rarely exceed 48 in. in diameter, and even this + diameter is only practicable where the pressure of the water is low. + In the Thirlmere aqueduct the greatest pressure is nearly 180 lb. on + the square inch, the pipes where this occurs being 40 in. in diameter + and 1-3/4 in. thick. These large pipes, which are usually made in + lengths of 12 ft., are generally cast with a socket at one end for + receiving the spigot end of the next pipe, the annular space being run + with lead, which is prevented from flowing into the interior of the + pipe by a spring ring subsequently removed; the surface of the lead is + then caulked all round the outside of the pipe. A wrought-iron ring is + sometimes shrunk on the outer rim of the socket, previously turned to + receive it, in order to strengthen it against the wedging action of + the caulking tool. Sometimes the pipes are cast as plain tubes and + joined with double collars, which are run with lead as in the last + case. The reason for adopting the latter type is that the stresses set + up in the thicker metal of the socket by unequal cooling are thereby + avoided, a very usual place for pipes to crack under pressure being at + the back of the socket. The method of turning and boring a portion, + slightly tapered, of spigot and socket so as to ensure a watertight + junction by close annular metallic contact, is not suitable for large + pipes, though very convenient for smaller diameters in even ground. + Spherical joints are sometimes used where a line of main has to be + laid under a large river or estuary, and where, therefore, the pipes + must be jointed before being lowered into the previously dredged + trench. This was the case at the Willamette river, Portland, Oregon, + where a length of 2000 ft. was required. The pipes are of cast-iron 28 + in. in diameter, 1-1/2 in. thick, and 17 ft. long. The spigots were + turned to a spherical surface of 20 in. radius outside, the inside of + the sockets being of a radius 3/8 in. greater. After the insertion of + the spigot into the socket, a ring, 3 in. deep, turned inside to + correspond with the socket, was bolted to the latter, the annular + space then being run with lead. These pipes were laid on an inclined + cradle, one end of which rested on the bed of the river and the other + on a barge where the jointing was done; as the pipes were jointed the + barge was carefully advanced, thus trailing the pipes into the trench + (_Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ vol. xxxiii. p. 257). As may be conjectured + from the pressure which they have to stand, very great care has to be + taken in the manufacture and handling of cast-iron pipes of large + diameter, a care which must be unfailing from the time of casting + until they are jointed in their final position in the ground. They are + cast vertically, socket downwards, so that the densest metal may be at + the weakest part, and it is advisable to allow an extra head of metal + of about 12 in., which is subsequently cut off in a lathe. An + inspector representing the purchaser watches every detail of the + manufacture, and if, after being measured in every part and weighed, + they are found satisfactory they are proved with internal fluid + pressure, oil being preferable to water for this purpose. While under + pressure, they are rapped from end to end with a hand hammer of about + 5 lb. in weight, in order to discover defects. The wrought-iron rings + are then, if required, shrunk on to the sockets, and the pipes, after + being made hot in a stove, are dipped vertically in a composition of + pitch and oil, in order to preserve them from corrosion. All these + operations are performed under cover. A record should be kept of the + history of the pipe from the time it is cast to the time it is laid + and jointed in the ground, giving the date, number, diameter, length, + thickness, and proof pressure, with the name of the pipe-jointer whose + work closes the record. Such a history sometimes enables the cause + (which is often very obscure) of a burst in a pipe to be ascertained, + the position of every pipe being recorded. + + Cast-iron pipes, even when dipped in the composition referred to, + suffer considerably from corrosion caused by the water, especially + soft water, flowing through them. One pipe may be found in as good a + condition as when made, while the next may be covered with nodules of + rust. The effect of the rust is twofold; it reduces the area of the + pipe, and also, in consequence of the resistance offered by the rough + surface, retards the velocity of the water. These two results, + expecially the latter, may seriously diminish the capability of + discharge, and they should always be allowed for in deciding the + diameter. Automatic scrapers are sometimes used with good results, but + it is better to be independent of them as long as possible. In one + case the discharge of pipes, 40 in. in diameter, was found after a + period of about twelve years to have diminished at the rate of about + 1% per year; in another case, where the water was soft and where the + pipes were 40 in. in diameter, the discharge was diminished by 7% in + ten years. An account of the state of two cast-iron mains supplying + Boston with water is given in the _Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ vol. xxxv. p. + 241. These pipes, which were laid in 1877, are 48 in. in diameter and + 1800 ft. long. When they were examined in 1894-1895, it was estimated + that the tubercles of rust covered nearly one-third of the interior + surfaces, the bottom of the pipe being more encrusted than the sides + and top. They had central points of attachment to the iron, at which + no doubt the coating was defective, and from them the tubercles spread + over the surface of the surrounding coating. In this case they were + removed by hand, and the coating of the pipes was not injured in the + process. Cast-iron pipes must not be laid in contact with cinders from + a blast furnace with which roads are sometimes made, because these + corrode the metal. Mr Russell Aitken (_Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. cxv. p. + 93) found in India that cast-iron pipes buried in the soil rapidly + corroded, owing to the presence of nitric acid secreted by bacteria + which attacked the iron. The large cast-iron pipes conveying the water + from the Tansa reservoir to Bombay are laid above the surface of the + ground. Cast-iron pipes of these large diameters have not been in + existence sufficiently long to enable their life to be predicted. A + main, 40 in. in diameter, conveying soft water, after being in + existence fifty years at Manchester, was apparently as good as ever. + In 1867 Mr J.B. Francis found that no apparent deterioration had taken + place in a cast-iron main, 8 in. diameter, which was laid in the year + 1828, a period of thirty-nine years (_Trans. Soc. Am. C.E._ vol. i. p. + 26). These two instances are probably not exceptional. + + + Methods of laying. + +Pipes in England are usually laid with not less than 2 ft. 6 in. of +cover, in order that the water may not be frozen in a severe winter. +Where they are laid in deep cutting they should be partly surrounded +with concrete, so that they may not be fractured by the weight of earth +above them. Angles are turned by means of special bend pipes, the curves +being made of as large a radius as convenient. In the case of the +Thirlmere aqueduct, double socketed castings about 12 in. long +(exclusive of the sockets) were used, the sockets being inclined to each +other at the required angle. They were made to various angles, and for +any particular curve several would be used connected by straight pipes 3 +ft. long. As special castings are nearly double the price of the regular +pipes, the cost was much diminished by making them as short as possible, +while a curve, made up of the slight angles used, offered practically no +more impediment to the flow of water in consequence of its polygonal +form, than would be the case had special bend pipes been used. In all +cases of curves on a line of pipes under internal fluid pressure, there +exists a resultant force tending to displace the pipes. When the curve +is in a horizontal plane and the pipes are buried in the ground, the +side of the pipe trench offers sufficient resistance to this force. +Where, however, the pipes are above ground, or when the curve is in a +vertical plane, it is necessary to anchor them in position. In the case +of the Tansa aqueduct to Bombay, there is a curve of 500 ft. radius near +Bassein Creek. At this point the hydrostatic head is about 250 ft., and +the engineer, Mr Clerke, mentions that a tendency to an outward movement +of the line of pipes was observed. At the siphon under Kurla Creek the +curves on the approaches as originally laid down were sharp, the +hydrostatic head being there about 210 ft.; here the outward movement +was so marked that it was considered advisable to realign the approaches +with easier curves (_Proc. Inst. C.E._ vol. cxv. p. 34). In the case of +the Thirlmere aqueduct the greatest hydrostatic pressure, 410 ft., +occurs at the bridge over the river Lune, where the pipes are 40 in. in +diameter, and in descending from the bridge make reverse angles of +31-1/2 deg. The displacing force at each of these angles amounts to 54 +tons, and as the design includes five lines of pipes, it is obvious that +the anchoring arrangements must be very efficient. The steel straps used +for anchoring these and all other bends were curved to fit as closely as +possible the castings to be anchored. Naturally the metal was not in +perfect contact, but when the pipes were charged the disappearance of +all the slight inequalities showed that the straps were fulfilling their +intended purpose. At every summit on a line of pipes one or more valves +must be placed in order to allow the escape of air, and they must also +be provided on long level stretches, and at changes of gradient where +the depth of the point of change below the hydraulic gradient is less +than that at both sides, causing what may be called a virtual summit. +It is better to have too many than too few, as accumulations of air may +cause an enormous diminution in the quantity of water delivered. In all +depressions discharge valves should be placed for emptying the pipes +when desired, and for letting off the sediment which accumulates at such +points. Automatic valves are frequently placed at suitable distances for +cutting off the supply in case of a burst. At the inlet mouth of the +pipe they may depend for their action on the sudden lowering of the +water (due to a burst in the pipe) in the chamber from which they draw +their supply, causing a float to sink and set the closing arrangement in +motion. Those on the line of main are started by the increased velocity +in the water, caused by the burst on the pipe at a lower level. The +water, when thus accelerated, is able to move a disk hung in the pipe at +the end of a lever and weighted so as to resist the normal velocity; +this lever releases a catch, and a door is then gradually revolved by +weights until it entirely closes the pipe. Reflux valves on the +ascending leg of a siphon prevent water from flowing back in case of a +burst below them; they have doors hung on hinges, opening only in the +normal direction of flow. Due allowance must be made, in the amount of +head allotted to a pipe, for any head which may be absorbed by such +mechanical arrangements as those described where they offer opposition +to the flow of the water. These large mains require most careful and +gradual filling with water, and constant attention must be given to the +air-valves to see that the gutta-percha balls do not wedge themselves in +the openings. A large mass of water, having a considerable velocity, may +cause a great many bursts by water-ramming, due to the admission of the +water at too great a speed. In places where iron is absent and timber +plentiful, as in some parts of America, pipes, even of large diameter +and in the most important cases, are sometimes made of wooden staves +hooped with iron. A description of two of these will be found below. + + + Thirlmere. + + The _Thirlmere Aqueduct_ is capable of conveying 50,000,000 gallons a + day from Thirlmere, in the English lake district, to Manchester. The + total length of 96 m. is made up of 14 m. of tunnels, 37 m. of + cut-and-cover, and 45 m. of cast-iron pipes, five rows of the latter + being required. The tunnels where lined, and the cut-and-cover, are + formed of concrete, and are 7 ft. in height and width, the usual + thickness of the concrete being 15 in. The inclination is 20 in. per + mile. The floor is flat from side to side, and the side-walls are 5 + ft. high to the springing of the arch, which has a rise of 2 ft. The + water from the lake is received in a circular well 65 ft. deep and 40 + ft. in diameter, at the bottom of which there is a ring of wire-gauze + strainers. Wherever the concrete aqueduct is intersected by valleys, + cast-iron pipes are laid; in the first instance only two of the five + rows 40 in. in diameter were laid, the city not requiring its supply + to be augmented by more than 20,000,000 gallons a day, but in 1907 it + was decided to lay a third line. All the elaborate arrangements + described above for stopping the water in case of a burst have been + employed, and have perfectly fulfilled their duties in the few cases + in which they have been called into action. The water is received in a + service reservoir at Prestwich, near Manchester, from which it is + supplied to the city. The supply from this source was begun in 1894. + The total cost of the complete scheme may be taken at about + L5,000,000, of which rather under L3,000,000 had been spent up to the + date of the opening, at which time only one line of pipes had been + laid. + + + Vyrnwy. + + The _Vyrnwy Aqueduct_ was sanctioned by parliament in 1880 for the + supply of Liverpool from North Wales, the quantity of water obtainable + being at least 40,000,000 gallons a day. A tower built in the + artificial lake from which the supply is derived, contains the inlet + and arrangements for straining the water. The aqueduct is 68 m. in + length, and for nearly the whole distance will consist of three lines + of cast-iron pipes, two of which, varying in diameter from 42 in. to + 39 in., are now in use. As the total fall between Vyrnwy and the + termination at Prescot reservoirs is about 550 ft., arrangements had + to be made to ensure that no part of the aqueduct be subjected to a + greater pressure than is required for the actual discharge. Balancing + reservoirs have therefore been constructed at five points on the line, + advantage being taken of high ground where available, so that the + total pressure is broken up into sections. At one of these points, + where the ground level is 110 ft. below the hydraulic gradient, a + circular tower is built, making a most imposing architectural feature + in the landscape. At the crossing of the river Weaver, 100 ft. wide + and 15 ft. deep, the three pipes, here made of steel, were connected + together laterally, floated into position, and sunk into a dredged + trench prepared to receive them. Under the river Mersey the pipes are + carried in a tunnel, from which, during construction, the water was + excluded by compressed air. + + + Denver. + + _Denver Aqueduct._--The supply to Denver City, initiated by the + Citizens Water Company in 1889, is derived from the Platte river, + rising in the Rocky Mountains. The first aqueduct constructed is + rather over 20 m. in length, of which a length of 16-1/2 m. is made of + wooden stave pipe, 30 in. in diameter. The maximum pressure is that + due to 185 ft. of water; the average cost of the wooden pipe was + $1.36-1/2 per foot, and the capability of discharge 8,400,000 gallons + a day. Within a year of the completion of the first conduit, it became + evident that another of still greater capacity was required. This was + completed in April 1893; it is 34 in. in diameter and will deliver + 16,000,000 gallons a day. By increasing the head upon the first pipe, + the combined discharge is 30,000,000 gallons a day. An incident in + obtaining a temporary supply, without waiting for the completion of + the second pipe, was the construction of two wooden pipes, 13 in. in + diameter, crossing a stream with a span of 104 ft., and having no + support other than that derived from their arched form. One end of the + arch is 24-1/2 ft. above the other end, and, when filled with water, + the deflection with eight men on it was only 7/8 of an inch. A + somewhat similar arch, 60 ft. span, occurs on the 34-in. pipe where it + crosses a canal. Schuyler points out (_Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ vol. + xxxi. p. 148) that the fact that the entire water supply of a city of + 150,000 inhabitants is conveyed in wooden mains, is so radical a + departure from all precedents, that it is deserving of more than a + passing notice. He says that it is manifestly and unreservedly + successful, and has achieved an enormous saving in cost. The sum saved + by the use of wooden, in preference to cast-iron pipes, is estimated + at $1,100,000. It is perhaps necessary to state that the pipe is + buried in the ground in the same way as metal pipes. The edges of the + staves are dressed to the radius with a minute tongue 1/16 in. high on + one edge of each stave, but with no corresponding groove in the next + stave; its object is to ensure a close joint when the bands are + tightened up. Leaks seldom or never occur along the longitudinal + seams, but the end shrinkage caused troublesome joint leaks. The + shrinkage in California redwood, which had seasoned 60 to 90 days + before milling, was frequently as much as 3 in. in the 20 staves that + formed the 34-in. pipe, and the space so formed had to be filled by a + special closing stave. Metallic tongues, 3/4 in. deep, are inserted at + the ends of abutting staves, in a straight saw cut. The bands, which + are of mild steel, have a head at one end and a nut and washer at the + other; the ends are brought together on a wrought-iron shoe, against + which the nut and washer set. The staves forming the lower half of the + pipe are placed on an outside, and the top staves on an inside, mould. + While the bands are being adjusted the pipe is rounded out to bring + the staves out full, and the staves are carefully driven home on to + the abutting staves. The spacing of the bands depends on + circumstances, but is about 150 bands per 100 ft. With low heads the + limit of spacing was fixed at 17 in. The outer surface of the pipe, + when charged, shows moisture oozing slightly over the entire surface. + This condition Schuyler considers an ideal one for perfect + preservation, and the staves were kept as thin as possible to ensure + its occurrence. Samples taken from pipes in use from three to nine + years are quite sound, and it is concluded that the wood will last as + long as cast-iron if the pipe is kept constantly charged. The bands + are the only perishable portion, and their life is taken at from + fifteen to twenty years. Other portions of the second conduit for a + length of nearly 3 m. were formed of concrete piping, 38 in. diameter, + formed on a mould in the trench, the thickness being 2-1/2 to 3 in. So + successful an instance of the use of wooden piping on a large scale is + sure to lead to a large development of this type of aqueduct in + districts where timber is plentiful and iron absent. + + + Pioneer, Utah. + + _Pioneer Aqueduct, Utah._--The construction of the Pioneer Aqueduct, + Utah, was begun in 1896 by the Pioneer Electric Power Company, near + the city of Ogden, 35 m. north of Salt Lake City. The storage + reservoir, from which it draws its water, will coyer an area of 2000 + acres, and contain about 15,000 million gallons of water. The aqueduct + is a pipe 6 ft. in diameter, and of a total length of 6 m.; for a + distance of rather more than 5 m. it is formed of wooden staves, the + remainder, where the head exceeds 117 ft., being of steel. It is laid + in a trench and covered to a depth of 3 ft. The greatest pressure on + the steel pipe is 200 lb. per sq. in., and the thickness varies from + 3/8 to 11/16 in. The pipe was constructed according to the usual + practice of marine boiler-work for high pressures, and each section, + about 9 ft. long, was dipped in asphalt for an hour. These sections + were supported on timber blocking, placed from 5 to 9 ft. apart, and + consisting of three to six pieces of 6 X 6 in. timbers laid one on the + top of the other; they were then riveted together in the ordinary way. + The wooden stave-pipe is of the type successfully used in the Western + States for many years, but its diameter is believed to be unequalled + for any but short lengths. There were thirty-two staves in the circle, + 2 in. in thickness, and about 20 ft. long, hooped with round steel + rods 5/8 in. in diameter, each hoop being in two pieces. The pipe is + supported at intervals of 8 ft. by sills 6 X 8 in. and 8 ft. long. The + flow through it is 250 cubic ft. per second. + + + Santa Ana. + + The _Santa Ana Canal_ was constructed for irrigation purposes in + California, and is designed to carry 240 cub. ft. of water per second + (_Trans. Am. Soc. C.E._ vol. xxxiii. p. 99). The cross section of the + flumes shows an elliptical bottom and straight sides consisting of + wooden staves held together by iron and steel ribs. The width and + depth are each 5 ft. 6 in., the intended depth of water being 5 ft. + The staves are held by T-iron supports resting on wooden sills spaced + 8 ft. apart, and are compressed together by a framework. They were + caulked with oakum, on the top of which, to a third of the total + depth, hot asphalt was run. The use of nails was altogether avoided + except in parts of the framework, it being noticed that decay usually + starts at nail-holes. It was found possible to make the flume + absolutely watertight, and in case of repair being necessary at any + part the framework is easily taken to pieces so that new staves can be + inserted. The water in the flume has a velocity of 9.6 ft. per second. + The Warm Springs, Deep, and Morton canons on the line are crossed by + wooden stave pipes 52 in. in diameter, bound with round steel rods, + and laid above the surface of the ground. The work is planned for two + rows of pipes, each capable of carrying 123 cub. ft. per second; of + these one so far has been laid. The lengths of the pipes at each of + the three canons are 551, 964 and 756 ft. respectively, and the + maximum head at any place is 160 ft. The pipes are not painted, and it + has been suggested that they would suffer in their exposed position in + case of a bush fire, a contingency to which, of course, flumes are + also liable. + + + New York. + + _Aqueducts of New York._--There are three aqueducts in New York--the + Old Croton Aqueduct (1837-1843), the Bronx River Conduit (1880-1885), + and the New Croton Aqueduct (1884-1893), discharging respectively 95, + 28, and 302 million U.S. gallons a day; their combined delivery is + therefore 425 million gallons a day. The Old Croton Aqueduct is about + 41 m. in length, and was constructed as a masonry conduit, except at + the Harlem and Manhattan valleys, where two lines of 36-in. pipe were + used. The inclination of the former is at the rate of about 13 in. per + mile. The area of the cross-section is 53.34 sq. ft., the height is + 8-1/2 ft., and the greatest width 7 ft. 5 in.; the roof is + semicircular, the floor segmental, and the sides have a batter on the + face of 1/2 in. per foot. The sides and invert are of concrete, faced + with 4 in. of brickwork, the roof being entirely of brickwork. There + is a bridge over the Harlem river 1450 ft. in length, consisting of + fifteen semicircular arches; its soffit is 100 ft. above high water, + and its cost was $963,427. The construction of the New Croton Aqueduct + was begun in 1885, and the works were sufficiently advanced by the + 15th of July 1890 to allow the supply to be begun. The lengths of the + various parts of the aqueduct are as follows:-- + + Miles. + Tunnel 29.75 + Cut-and-cover 1.12 + Cast-iron pipes, 48 in. diameter, 8 rows. 2.38 + ----- + Croton Inlet to Central Park. 33.25 + ===== + + The length of tunnel under pressure (circular form) is 7.17 m., and + that not under pressure (horse-shoe form) 23.70 m. The maximum + pressure in the former is 55 lb. per sq. in. The width and height of + the horse-shoe form are each 13 ft. 7 in., and the diameter of the + circular form (with the exception of two short lengths) is 12 ft. 3 + in. The reason for constructing the aqueduct in tunnel for so long a + distance was the enhanced value of the low-lying ground near the old + aqueduct. The tunnel deviates from a straight line only for the + purpose of intersecting a few transverse valleys at which it could be + emptied. For 25 m. the gradient is 0.7 foot per mile; the tunnel is + then depressed below the hydraulic gradient, the maximum depth being + at the Harlem river, where it is 300 ft. below high water. The depth + of the tunnel varies from 50 to 500 ft. from the surface of the + ground. Forty-two shafts were sunk to facilitate driving, and in four + cases where the surface of the ground is below the hydraulic gradient + these are closed by watertight covers. The whole of the tunnel is + lined with brickwork from 1 to 2 ft. in thickness, the voids behind + the lining being filled with rubble-in-mortar. The entry to the old + and new aqueducts is controlled by a gatehouse of elaborate and + massive design, and the pipes which take up the supply at the end of + the tunnel are also commanded by a gate-house. The aqueduct, where it + passes under the Harlem river, is worthy of special notice. As it + approaches the river it has a considerable fall, and eventually ends + in a vertical shaft 12 ft. 3 in. in diameter (where the water has a + fall of 174 ft.), from the bottom of which, at a depth of 300 ft. + below high-water level, the tunnel under the river starts. The latter + is circular in form, the diameter being 10 ft. 6 in., and the length + is 1300 ft.; it terminates at the bottom of another vertical shaft + also 12 ft. 3 in. in diameter. The depth of this shaft, measured from + the floor of the lower tunnel to that of the upper tunnel leading away + from it, is 321 ft.; it is continued up to the surface of the ground, + though closed by double watertight covers a little above the level of + the upper tunnel. Adjoining this shaft is another shaft of equal + diameter, by means of which the water can be pumped out, and there is + also a communication with the river above high-water level, so that + the higher parts can be emptied by gravitation. The cost of the Old + Croton Aqueduct was $11,500,000; that of the new aqueduct is not far + short of $20,000,000. + + + Nadrai. + + The _Nadrai Aqueduct Bridge_, in India, opened at the end of 1889, is + the largest structure of its kind in existence. It was built to carry + the water of the Lower Ganges canal over the Kali Naddi, in connexion + with the irrigation canals of the north-west provinces. In the year + 1888-1889 this canal had 564 m. of main line, with 2050 m. of minor + distributaries, and irrigated 519,022 acres of crops. The new bridge + replaces one of much smaller size (five spans of 35 ft.), which was + completely destroyed by a high flood in July 1885. It gives the river + a waterway of 21,000 sq. ft., and the canal a waterway of 1040 sq. + ft., the latter representing a discharge of 4100 cub. ft. per second. + Its length is 1310 ft., and it is carried on fifteen arches having a + span of 60 ft. The width between the faces of the arches is 149 ft. + The foundations below the river-bed have a depth of 52 ft., and the + total height of the structure is 88 ft. It cost 44-1/2 lakhs of + rupees, and occupied four years in building. The foundations consist + of 268 circular brick cylinders, and the fifteen spans are arranged in + three groups, divided by abutment piers; the latter are founded on a + double row of 12-ft. cylinders, and the intermediate piers on a single + row of 20-ft. cylinders, all the cylinders being hearted with + hydraulic lime concrete filled in with skips. This aqueduct-bridge has + a very fine appearance, owing to its massive proportions and design. + (E. P. H.*) + + AUTHORITIES.--For ancient aqueducts in general: Curt Merckel, _Die + Ingenieurtechnik im Alterthum_ (Berlin, 1899); ch. vi. contains a very + full account from the earliest Assyrian aqueducts onwards, with + illustrations, measurements and an excellent bibliography. For Greek + aqueducts see E. Curtius, "Uber stadtische Wasserbauten der Hellenen," + in _Archaeologische Zeitung_ (1847); G. Weber (as above); papers in + _Athen. Mittheil._ (Samos), 1877, (Enneacrunus) 1892, 1893, 1894, + 1905, and articles on ATHENS, PERGAMUM, &c. For Roman aqueducts: R. + Lanciani, "I Commentari di Frontino intorno le acque e gli + acquedotti," in _Memorie dei Lincei_, serie iii. vol. iv. (Rome, + 1880), 215 sqq., and separately; C. Herschel, _The Two Books on the + Water Supply of the City of Rome of Sextus Julius Frontinus_ (Boston, + 1899); T. Ashby in _Classical Review_ (1902), 336, and articles in + _The Builder_; cf. also the maps to T. Ashby's "Classical Topography + of the Roman Campagna," in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, i., + in., iv. (in progress). + + For modern aqueducts, see Rickman's _Life of Telford_ (1838); + Schramke's _New York Croton Aqueduct; Second Annual Report of the + Department of Public Works of the City of New York in 1872; Report of + the Aqueduct Commissioners_ (1887-1895), and _The Water Supply of the + City of New York_ (1896), by Wegmann; _Memoires sur les eaux de + Paris_, presentes par le Prefet de la Seine au Conseil Municipal (1854 + and 1858); _Recherches statistiques sur les sources du bassin de la + Seine_, par M. Belgrand, Ingenieur en chef des ponts et chaussees + (1854); "Descriptions of Mechanical Arrangements of the Manchester + Waterworks," by John Frederic Bateman, F.R.S., Engineer-in-chief, from + the _Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical + Engineers_ (1866); _The Glasgow Waterworks_, by James M. Gale, Member + Inst. C.E. (1863 and 1864); _The Report of the Royal Commission on + Water Supply, and the Minutes of Evidence_ (1867 and 1868). For + accounts of other aqueducts, see the Transactions of the Societies of + Engineers in the different countries, and the Engineering Journals. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] There have been found at Caerwent, in Monmouthshire, clear traces + of wooden pipes (internal diameter about 2 in.) which must have + carried drinking-water, and almost certainly a pressure supply from + the surrounding hills. Some patches of lead also have been found + obviously nailed on to the pipes at points where they had burst (see + _Archaeologia_, 1908). + + [2] This distance will not agree with the length given on some of the + _cippi_ (Lanciani, _Bull. Com._, 1899, 38). + + [3] The course of the Aqua Claudia was considerably shortened by the + cutting of a tunnel 3 m. long under the Monte Affliano in the time of + Domitian (T. Ashby, in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, iii, + 133). + + [4] About 3 m. south-east of this point the presence of large + quantities of deposit and a sudden fall in the level of the channels + seems to indicate the existence of settling tanks, of which no actual + traces can be seen. + + + + +AQUILA [Greek: Akulas], (1) a Jew from Rome, who with his wife Prisca or +Priscilla had settled in Corinth, where Paul stayed with them (Acts +xviii. 2,3). They became Christians and fellow-workers with Paul, to +whom they seem to have shown their devotion in some special way (Rom. +xvi. 3, 4). (2) A native of Pontus, celebrated for a very literal and +accurate translation of the Old Testament into Greek. Epiphanius (_De +Pond. et Mens._ c. 15) preserves a tradition that he was a kinsman of +the emperor Hadrian, who employed him in rebuilding Jerusalem (Aelia +Capitolina, q.v.), and that he was converted to Christianity, but, on +being reproved for practising pagan astrology, apostatized to Judaism. +He is said also to have been a disciple of Rabbi 'Aqiba (d. A.D. 132), +and seems to be referred to in Jewish writings as [Hebrew: akiles]. +Aquila's version is said to have been used in place of the Septuagint in +the synagogues. The Christians generally disliked it, alleging without +due grounds that it rendered the Messianic passages incorrectly, but +Jerome and Origen speak in its praise. Origen incorporated it in his +_Hexapla_. + + It was thought that this was the only copy extant, but in 1897 + fragments of two codices were brought to the Cambridge University + Library. These have been published--the fragments containing 1 Kings + xx. 7-17; 2 Kings xxiii. 12-27 by F.C. Burkitt in 1897, those + containing parts of Psalms xc.-ciii. by C. Taylor in 1899. See F.C. + Burkitt's article in the _Jewish Encyclopaedia_. + + + + +AQUILA, CASPAR [KASPAR ADLER] (1488-1560), German reformer, was born at +Augsburg on the 7th of August 1488, educated there and at Ulm (1502), in +Italy (he met Erasmus in Rome), at Bern (1508), Leipzig (1510) and +Wittenberg (1513). According to his son, he entered the ministry in +August 1514, at Bern. He was for some time a military chaplain. In 1516 +he became pastor of Jenga, near Augsburg. Openly proclaiming his +adhesion to Luther's doctrine, he was imprisoned for half a year (1520 +or 1522) at Dillingen, by order of the bishop of Augsburg; a death +sentence was commuted to banishment through the influence of Isabella, +wife of Christian II. of Denmark and sister of Charles V. Returning to +Wittenberg he met Luther, acted as tutor to the sons of Franz von +Sickingen at Ebernburg, taught Hebrew at Wittenberg, and aided Luther in +his version of the Old Testament. The dates and particulars of his +career are uncertain till 1527, when he became pastor at Saalfeld, and +in 1528, superintendent. His vehement opposition to the Augsburg Interim +(1548) led him to take temporary shelter at Rudolstadt with Catherine, +countess of Schwarzburg. In 1550 he was appointed dean of the +Collegiatstift in Schmalkalden. Here he had a controversy with Andreas +Osiander. Restored to Saalfeld, not without opposition, in 1552, he +remained there, still engaged in controversy, till his death on the 12th +of November 1560. He was twice married, and left four sons. He published +numerous sermons, a few Old Testament expositions and some controversial +tracts. + + See G. Kawerau, in A. Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1896); _Allgemeine + deutsche Biog._ (1875); Lives by J. Avenarius (1718); J.G. Hillinger + (1731); Chr. Schlegel (1737); Fr. Gensler (1816). + + + + +AQUILA, SERAFINO DELL' (1466-1500), Italian poet and improvisatore, was +born in 1466 at the town of Aquila, from which he took his name, and +died in the year 1500. He spent several years at the courts of Cardinal +Sforza and Ferdinand, duke of Calabria; but his principal patrons were +the Borgias at Rome, from whom he received many favours. Aquila seems to +have aimed at an imitation of Dante and Petrarch; and his poems, which +were extravagantly praised during the author's lifetime, are +occasionally of considerable merit. His reputation was in great measure +due to his remarkable skill as an improvisatore and musician. His works +were printed at Venice in 1502, and there have been several subsequent +editions. + + + + +AQUILA, a city of the Abruzzi, Italy, the capital of the province of +Aquila, and the seat of an archbishop, 2360 ft. above sea-level, 50 m. +directly N.E. of Rome, and 145 m. by rail. Pop. (1901) town, 18,494; +commune, 21,261. It lies on a hill in the wide valley of the Aterno, +surrounded by mountains on all sides, the Gran Sasso d'Italia being +conspicuous on the north-east. It is a favourite summer resort of the +Italians, but is cold and windy in winter. In the highest part of the +town is the massive citadel, erected by the Spanish viceroy Don Pedro de +Toledo in 1534. The church of S. Bernardino di Siena (1472) has a fine +Renaissance facade by Nicolo Filotesio (commonly called Cola dell' +Amatrice), and contains the monumental tomb of the saint, decorated with +beautiful sculptures, and executed by Silvestro Ariscola in 1480. The +church of S. Maria di Collemaggio, just outside the town, has a very +fine Romanesque facade of simple design (1270-1280) in red and white +marble, with three finely decorated portals and a rose-window above +each. The two side doors are also fine. The interior contains the +mausoleum of Pope Celestine V. (d. 1296) erected in 1517. Many smaller +churches in the town have similar facades (S. Giusta, S. Silvestro, +&c.). The town also contains some fine palaces: the municipality has a +museum, with a collection of Roman inscriptions and some illuminated +service books. The Palazzi Dragonetti and Persichetti contain private +collections of pictures. Outside the town is the _Fontana delle +novantanove cannelle_, a fountain with ninety-nine jets distributed +along three walls, constructed in 1272. Aquila has some trade in lace +and saffron, and possesses other smaller industries. It was a university +town in the middle ages, but most of its chairs have now been +suppressed. + +Aquila was founded by Conrad, son of the emperor Frederick II., about +1250, as a bulwark against the power of the papacy. It was destroyed by +Manfred in 1259, but soon rebuilt by Charles I. of Anjou. Its walls were +completed in 1316; and it maintained itself as an almost independent +republic until it was subdued in 1521 by the Spaniards, who had become +masters of the kingdom of Naples in 1503. It was twice sacked by the +French in 1799. + + See V. Bindi, _Monumenti storici ed artistici degli Abruzzi_ (Naples, + 1889), pp. 771 seq. + + + + +AQUILA, in astronomy, the "Eagle," sometimes named the "Vulture," a +constellation of the northern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th +cent. B.C.) and Aratus (3rd cent. B.C.). Ptolemy catalogued nineteen +stars jointly in this constellation and in the constellation _Antinous_, +which was named in the reign of the emperor Hadrian (A.D. 117-138), but +sometimes, and wrongly, attributed to Tycho Brahe, who catalogued twelve +stars in Aquila and seven in Antinous; Hevelius determined twenty-three +stars in the first, and nineteen in the second. The most brilliant star +of this constellation, [alpha]-_Aquilae_ or Altair, has a parallax of +0.23", and consequently is about eight times as bright as the sun; +[eta]-_Aquilae_ is a short-period variable, while _Nova Aquilae_ is a +"temporary" or "new" star, discovered by Mrs Fleming of Harvard in 1899. + + + + +AQUILA ROMANUS, a Latin grammarian who flourished in the second half of +the 3rd century A.D. He was the author of an extant treatise _De Figuris +Sententiarum et Elocutionis_, written as an instalment of a complete +rhetorical handbook for the use of a young and eager correspondent. +While recommending Demosthenes and Cicero as models, he takes his own +examples almost exclusively from Cicero. His treatise is really adapted +from that by Alexander, son of Numenius, as is expressly stated by +Julius Rufinianus, who brought out a supplementary treatise, augmented +by material from other sources. Aquila's style is harsh and careless, +and the Latin is inferior. + + Halm, _Rhetores Latini minores_ (1863); Wensch, _De Aquila Romano_ + (1861). + + + + +AQUILEIA, an ancient town of Italy, at the head of the Adriatic at the +edge of the lagoons, about 6 m. from the sea, on the river Natiso (mod. +Natisone), the course of which has changed somewhat since Roman times. +It was founded by the Romans in 181 B.C. as a frontier fortress on the +north-east, not far from the site where, two years before, Gaulish +invaders had attempted to settle. The colony was led by two men of +consular and one of praetorian rank, and 3000 _pedites_ formed the bulk +of the settlers. It was probably connected by road with Bononia in 175 +B.C.; and subsequently with Genua in 148 B.C. by the Via Postumia, which +ran through Cremona, Bedriacum and Altinum, joining the first-mentioned +road at Concordia, while the construction of the Via Popilia from +Ariminum to Ad Portum near Altinum in 132 B.C. improved the +communications still further. In 169 B.C., 1500 more families were +settled there as a reinforcement to the garrison. The discovery of the +goldfields near the modern Klagenfurt in 150 B.C. (Strabo iv. 208) +brought it into notice, and it soon became a place of importance, not +only owing to its strategic position, but as a centre of trade, +especially in agricultural products. It also had, in later times at +least, considerable brickfields. It was originally a Latin colony, but +became a _municipium_ probably in 90 B.C. The customs boundary of Italy +was close by in Cicero's day. It was plundered by the Iapydes under +Augustus, but, in the period of peace which followed, was able to +develop its resources. Augustus visited it during the Pannonian wars in +12-10 B.C. and it was the birthplace of Tiberius's son by Julia, in the +latter year. It was the starting-point of several important roads +leading to the north-eastern portion of the empire--the road (Via Iulia +Augusta) by Iulium Carnicum to Veldidena (mod. Wilten, near Innsbruck), +from which branched off the road into Noricum, leading by Virunum +(Klagenfurt) to Lauricum (Lorch) on the Danube, the road into Pannonia, +leading to Emona (Laibach)[1] and Sirmium (Mitrowitz), the road to +Tarsatica (near Fiume) and Siscia (Sissek), and that to Tergeste +(Trieste) and the Istrian coast. + +In the war against the Marcomanni in A.D. 167, the town was hard +pressed; the fortifications had fallen into disrepair during the long +peace. In A.D. 238, when the town took the side of the senate against +the emperor Maximinus, they were hastily restored, and proved of +sufficient strength to resist for several months, until Maximinus +himself was assassinated. The 4th century marks, however, the greatest +importance of Aquileia; it became a naval station and, probably, the +seat of the _corrector Venetiarum et Histriae_; a mint was established +here, the coins of which are very numerous, and the bishop obtained the +rank of patriarch. An imperial palace was constructed here, in which the +emperors after the time of Diocletian frequently resided; and the city +often played a part in the struggles between the rulers of the 4th +century. At the end of the century, Ausonius enumerated it as the ninth +among the great cities of the world, placing Rome, Mediolanum and Capua +before it, and called it "moenibus et portu celeberrima." In A.D. 452, +however, it was destroyed by Attila, though it continued to exist until +the Lombard invasion of A.D. 568. After this the patriarchate was +transferred to Grado. In 606 the diocese was divided into two parts, and +the patriarchate of Aquileia, protected by the Lombards, was revived, +that of Grado being protected by the exarch of Ravenna and later by the +doges of Venice. In 1027 and 1044 Patriarch Poppo of Aquileia entered +and sacked Grado, and, though the pope reconfirmed the patriarch of the +latter in his dignities, the town never recovered, though it continued +to be the seat of the patriarchate until its formal transference to +Venice in 1450. The seat of the patriarchate of Aquileia had been +transferred to Udine in 1238, but returned in 1420 when Venice annexed +the territory of Udine. It was finally suppressed in 1751, and the sees +of Udine and Gorizia (Gorz) established in its stead. Its buildings +served as stone quarries for centuries, and no edifices of the Roman +period remain above ground. Excavations have revealed one street and the +north-west angle of the town walls, while the local museum contains over +2000 inscriptions, besides statues and other antiquities. The cathedral, +a flat-roofed basilica, was erected by Patriarch Poppo in 1031 on the +site of an earlier church, and rebuilt about 1379 in the Gothic style by +Patriarch Marquad. The narthex and baptistery belong to an earlier +period. Of the palace of the patriarchs only two isolated columns remain +standing. The modern village (pop. 2300) is rendered unhealthy by +rice-fields. + + See T.W. Jackson, _Dalmatia, Istria and the Quarnero_ (Oxford, 1887), + iii. 377 seq.; H. Maionica, _Aquileia zur Romerzeit_ (Gorz, 1881), + _Fundkarte van Aquileia_ (Gorz, 1893), "Inschriften in Grado" (Roman + inscriptions removed thither from Aquileia) in _Jahreshefte des + Osterr. Arch. Instituts_, i. (1898), Beiblatt, 83, 125. (T. As.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] This road is described in detail by O. Cuntz in _Jahreshefte des + Osterr. Arch. Inst._ v. (1902), Beiblatt, pp. 139 seq. + + + + +AQUILLIUS, MANIUS, Roman general, consul in 101 B.C. He successfully put +down a revolt of the slaves under Athenion in Sicily. After his return, +being accused of extortion, he was acquitted on account of his military +services, although there was little doubt of his guilt. In 88 he acted +as legate against Mithradates the Great, by whom he was defeated and +taken prisoner. Mithradates treated him with great cruelty, and is said +to have put him to death by pouring molten gold down his throat. + + Diodorus Siculus xxxvi. 3; Appian, _Mithrid_. ii. 17. 21; Vell. + Paterculus ii. 18; Cicero, _Verres_, iii. 54, _De Officiis_, ii. 14, + _Tusc_. v. 5. + + + + +AQUINAS, THOMAS [THOMAS OF AQUIN or AQUINO], (c. 1227-1274), scholastic +philosopher, known as _Doctor Angelicus, Doctor Universalis_, was of +noble descent, and nearly allied to several of the royal houses of +Europe. He was born in 1225 or 1227, at Roccasecca, the castle of his +father Landulf, count of Aquino, in the territories of Naples. Having +received his elementary education at the monastery of Monte Cassino, he +studied for six years at the university of Naples, leaving it in his +sixteenth year. While there he probably came under the influence of the +Dominicans, who were doing their utmost to enlist within their ranks the +ablest young scholars of the age, for in spite of the opposition of his +family, which was overcome only by the intervention of Pope Innocent +IV., he assumed the habit of St Dominic in his seventeenth year. + +His superiors, seeing his great aptitude for theological study, sent him +to the Dominican school in Cologne, where Albertus Magnus was lecturing +on philosophy and theology. In 1245 Albertus was called to Paris, and +there Aquinas followed him, and remained with him for three years, at +the end of which he graduated as bachelor of theology. In 1248 he +returned to Cologne with Albertus, and was appointed second lecturer and +_magister studentium_. This year may be taken as the beginning of his +literary activity and public life. Before he left Paris he had thrown +himself with ardour into the controversy raging between the university +and the Friar-Preachers respecting the liberty of teaching, resisting +both by speeches and pamphlets the authorities of the university; and +when the dispute was referred to the pope, the youthful Aquinas was +chosen to defend his order, which he did with such success as to +overcome the arguments of Guillaume de St Amour, the champion of the +university, and one of the most celebrated men of the day. In 1257, +along with his friend Bonaventura, he was created doctor of theology, +and began to give courses of lectures upon this subject in Paris, and +also in Rome and other towns in Italy. From this time onwards his life +was one of incessant toil; he was continually engaged in the active +service of his order, was frequently travelling upon long and tedious +journeys, and was constantly consulted on affairs of state by the +reigning pontiff. + +In 1263 we find him at the chapter of the Dominican order held in +London. In 1268 he was lecturing now in Rome and now in Bologna, all the +while engaged in the public business of the church. In 1271 he was again +in Paris, lecturing to the students, managing the affairs of the church +and consulted by the king, Louis VIII., his kinsman, on affairs of +state. In 1272 the commands of the chief of his order and the request of +King Charles brought him back to the professor's chair at Naples. All +this time he was preaching every day, writing homilies, disputations, +lectures, and finding time to work hard at his great work the _Summa +Theologiae_. Such rewards as the church could bestow had been offered to +him. He refused the archbishopric of Naples and the abbacy of Monte +Cassino. In January 1274 he was summoned by Pope Gregory X. to attend +the council convened at Lyons, to investigate and if possible settle the +differences between the Greek and Latin churches. Though suffering from +illness, he at once set out on the journey; finding his strength failing +on the way, he was carried to the Cistercian monastery of Fossa Nuova, +in the diocese of Terracina, where, after a lingering illness of seven +weeks, he died on the 7th of March 1274, Dante (_Purg_. xx. 69) asserts +that he was poisoned by order of Charles of Anjou. Villani (ix. 218) +quotes the belief, and the _Anonimo Fiorentino_ describes the crime and +its motive. But Muratori, reproducing the account given by one of +Thomas's friends, gives no hint of foul play. Aquinas was canonized in +1323 by Pope John XXII., and in 1567 Pius V. ranked the festival of St +Thomas with those of the four great Latin fathers, Ambrose, Augustine, +Jerome and Gregory. No theologian save Augustine has had an equal +influence on the theological thought and language of the Western Church, +a fact which was strongly emphasized by Leo XIII. (q.v.) in his +_Encyclical_ of August 4, 1879, which directed the clergy to take the +teachings of Aquinas as the basis of their theological position. In 1880 +he was declared patron of all Roman Catholic educational establishments. +In a monastery at Naples, near the cathedral of St Januarius, is still +shown a cell in which he is said to have lived. + +The writings of Thomas are of great importance for philosophy as well as +for theology, for by nature and education he is the spirit of +scholasticism incarnate. The principles on which his system rested were +these. He held that there were two sources of knowledge--the mysteries +of Christian faith and the truths of human reason. The distinction +between these two was made emphatic by Aquinas, who is at pains, +especially in his treatise _Contra Gentiles_, to make it plain that each +is a distinct fountain of knowledge, but that revelation is the more +important of the two. Revelation is a source of knowledge, rather than +the manifestation in the world of a divine life, and its chief +characteristic is that it presents men with mysteries, which are to be +believed even when they cannot be understood. Revelation is not +Scripture alone, for Scripture taken by itself does not correspond +exactly with his description; nor is it church tradition alone, for +church tradition must so far rest on Scripture. Revelation is a divine +source of knowledge, of which Scripture and church tradition are the +channels; and he who would rightly understand theology must familiarize +himself with Scripture, the teachings of the fathers, and the decisions +of councils, in such a way as to be able to make part of himself, as it +were, those channels along which this divine knowledge flowed. Aquinas's +conception of reason is in some way parallel with his conception of +revelation. Reason is in his idea not the individual reason, but the +fountain of natural truth, whose chief channels are the various systems +of heathen philosophy, and more especially the thoughts of Plato and the +methods of Aristotle. Reason and revelation are separate sources of +knowledge; and man can put himself in possession of each, because he can +bring himself into relation to the church on the one hand, and the +system of philosophy, or more strictly Aristotle, on the other. The +conception will be made clearer when it is remembered that Aquinas, +taught by the mysterious author of the writings of the pseudo-Dionysius, +who so marvellously influenced medieval writers, sometimes spoke of a +natural revelation, or of reason as a source of truths in themselves +mysterious, and was always accustomed to say that reason as well as +revelation contained two kinds of knowledge. The first kind lay quite +beyond the power of man to receive it, the second was within man's +reach. In reason, as in revelation, man can only attain to the lower +kind of knowledge; there is a higher kind which we may not hope to +reach. + +But while reason and revelation are two distinct sources of truths, the +truths are not contradictory; for in the last resort they rest on _one_ +absolute truth--they come from the one source of knowledge, God, the +Absolute One. Hence arises the compatibility of philosophy and theology +which was the fundamental axiom of scholasticism, and the possibility of +a Summa Theologiae, which is a Summa Philosophiae as well. All the many +writings of Thomas are preparatory to his great work the _Summa +Theologiae_, and show us the progress of his mind training for this his +life work. In the _Summa Catholicae Fidei contra Gentiles_ he shows how +a Christian theology is the sum and crown of all science. This work is +in its design apologetic, and is meant to bring within the range of +Christian thought all that is of value in Mahommedan science. He +carefully establishes the necessity of revelation as a source of +knowledge, not merely because it aids us in comprehending in a somewhat +better way the truths already furnished by reason, as some of the +Arabian philosophers and Maimonides had acknowledged, but because it is +the absolute source of our knowledge of the mysteries of the Christian +faith; and then he lays down the relations to be observed between reason +and revelation, between philosophy and theology. This work, _Contra +Gentiles_, may be taken as an elaborate exposition of the method of +Aquinas. That method, however, implied a careful study and comprehension +of the results which accrued to man from reason and revelation, and a +thorough grasp of all that had been done by man in relation to those two +sources of human knowledge; and so, in his preliminary writings, Thomas +proceeds to master the two provinces. The results of revelation he found +in the Holy Scriptures and in the writings of the fathers and the great +theologians of the church; and his method was to proceed backwards. He +began with Peter of Lombardy (who had reduced to theological order, in +his famous book on the _Sentences_, the various authoritative statements +of the church upon doctrine) in his _In Quatuor Sententiarum P. Lombardi +libros_. Then came his deliverances upon undecided points in theology, +in his _XII. Quodlibeta Disputata_, and his _Quaestiones Disputatae_. +His _Catena Aurea_ next appeared, which, under the form of a commentary +on the Gospels, was really an exhaustive summary of the theological +teaching of the greatest of the church fathers. This side of his +preparation was finished by a close study of Scripture, the results of +which are contained in his commentaries, _In omnes Epistolas Dim +Apostoli Expositio_, his _Super Isaiam et Jeremiam_, and his _In +Psalmos_. Turning now to the other side, we have evidence, not only from +tradition but from his writings, that he was acquainted with Plato and +the mystical Platonists; but he had the sagacity to perceive that +Aristotle was _the_ great representative of philosophy, and that his +writings contained the best results and method which the natural reason +had as yet attained to. Accordingly Aquinas prepared himself on this +side by commentaries on Aristotle's _De Interpretatione_, on his +_Posterior Analytics_, on the _Metaphysics_, the _Physics_, the _De +Anima_, and on Aristotle's other psychological and physical writings, +each commentary having for its aim to lay hold of the material and grasp +the method contained and employed in each treatise. Fortified by this +exhaustive preparation, Aquinas began his _Summa Theologiae_, which he +intended to be the sum of all known learning, arranged according to the +best method, and subordinate to the dictates of the church. Practically +it came to be the theological dicta of the church, explained according +to the philosophy of Aristotle and his Arabian commentators. The _Summa_ +is divided into three great parts, which shortly may be said to treat of +God, Man and the God-Man. The first and the second parts are wholly the +work of Aquinas, but of the third part only the first ninety quaestiones +are his; the rest of it was finished in accordance with his designs. The +first book, after a short introduction upon the nature of theology as +understood by Aquinas, proceeds in 119 questions to discuss the nature, +attributes and relations of God; and this is not done as in a modern +work on theology, but the questions raised in the physics of Aristotle +find a place alongside of the statements of Scripture, while all +subjects in any way related to the central theme are brought into the +discourse. The second part is divided into two, which are quoted as +_Prima Secundae_ and _Secunda Secundae_. This second part has often been +described as ethic, but this is scarcely true. The subject is man, +treated as Aristotle does, according to his [Greek: telos], and so +Aquinas discusses all the ethical, psychological and theological +questions which arise; but any theological discussion upon man must be +mainly ethical, and so a great proportion of the first part, and almost +the whole of the second, has to do with ethical questions. In his +ethical discussions (a full account of which is given under ETHICS) +Aquinas distinguishes theological from natural virtues and vices; the +theological virtues are faith, hope and charity; the natural, justice, +prudence and the like. The theological virtues are founded on faith, in +opposition to the natural, which are founded on reason; and as faith +with Aquinas is always belief in a proposition, not trust in a personal +Saviour, conformably with his idea that revelation is a new knowledge +rather than a new life, the relation of unbelief to virtue is very +strictly and narrowly laid down and enforced. The third part of the +_Summa_ is also divided into two parts, but by accident rather than by +design. Aquinas died ere he had finished his great work, and what has +been added to complete the scheme is appended as a _Supplementum Tertiae +Partis_. In this third part Aquinas discusses the person, office and +work of Christ, and had begun to discuss the sacraments, when death put +an end to his labours. + +The purely philosophical theories of Aquinas are explained in the +article SCHOLASTICISM. In connexion with the problem of universals, he +held that the diversity of individuals depends on the quantitative +division of matter (_materia signata_), and in this way he attracted the +criticism of the Scotists, who pointed out that this very matter is +individual and determinate, and, therefore, itself requires explanation. +In general, Aquinas maintained in different senses the real existence of +universals _ante rem_, _in re_ and _post rem_. + + The best modern edition of the works of Aquinas is that prepared at + the expense of Leo XIII. (Rome, 1882-1903). The Abbe Migne published a + very useful edition of the _Summa Theologiae_, in four 8vo vols., as + an appendix to his _Patrologiae Cursus Completus_; English editions, + J. Rickaby (London, 1872), J.M. Ashley (London, 1888). See _Acta + Sanct_., vii. Martii; A. Touron, _La Vie de St Thomas d'Aquin, avec un + expose de sa doctrine et de ses ouvrages_ (Paris, 1737); Karl Werner, + _Der Heilige Thomas van Aquino_ (1858); and R.B. Vaughan, _St Thomas + of Aquin, his Life and Labours_ (London, 1872): other lives by P. + Cavanagh (London, 1890); E. Desmousseaux de Giure (Paris, 1888); M. + Didot (Louvain, 1894). For the philosophy of Aquinas, see Albert + Stockl, _Geschichte der Philosophie des Mittelalters_, ii.; B. + Haureau, _De la philosophie scolastique_, vol. ii.; J. Frohschammer, + _Die Philos. d. Th. van A_. (Leipzig, 1889); K. Prantl, _Geschichte d. + Logik_, vol. iii.; C.M. Schneider, _Natur, Vernunft, Gott_ + (Regensburg, 1883), _Das Wissen Gottes nach d. Lehre des Th. v. A_. (4 + vols. Regensburg, 1884-1886), _Die socialistische Staatsidee + beleuchtet durch Th. v. A_. (Paderborn, 1894); A. Harnack, _Hist, of + Dogma_ (trans. Wm. Gilchrist, London, 1899); Ueberweg's _History of + Philosophy_, vol. i. See also H.C. O'Neill, _New Things and Old in St + Thomas Aquinas_ (1909), with biography. (T. M. L.; J. M. M.) + + + + +AQUINO, a town and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, in the province of +Caserta; it is 56 m. N.W. by rail from the town of Caserta, and 7-1/2 m. +N.W. of Cassino. Pop. (1901) 2672. The modern town, close to the +ancient, is unimportant, though the canons of the cathedral have the +privilege of wearing the mitre and _cappa magna_ at great festivals. It +is close to the site of the ancient Aquinum, a _municipium_ in the time +of Cicero, and made a colony by the Triumviri, the birthplace of Juvenal +and of the emperor Pescennius Niger. The Via Latina traversed it; one of +the gates through which it passed, now called Porta S. Lorenzo, is still +well preserved, and there are remains within the walls (portions of +which, built of large blocks of limestone, still remain) of two (so +called) temples, a basilica and an amphitheatre (see R. Delbruck in +_Rom. Mitteilungen_, 1903, p. 143). Outside, on the south is a +well-preserved triumphal arch with composite capitals, and close to it +the 11th-century basilica of S. Maria Libera, a handsome building in the +Romanesque style, but now roofless. Several Roman inscriptions are built +into it, and many others that have been found indicate the ancient +importance of the place, which, though it does not appear in early +history, is vouched for by Cicero and Strabo.[1] A colony was planted +here by the Triumviri. St Thomas Aquinas was born in the castle of +Roccasecca, 5 m. N. + + See E. Grossi, _Aquinum_ (Rome, 1907). (T. As.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] According to H. Nissen, _Ital. Landeskunde_ (Berlin, 1902), ii. + 665, a road ran from here to Minturnae; but no traces of it are to be + seen. + + + + +AQUITAINE, the name of an ancient province in France, the extent of +which has varied considerably from time to time. About the time of +Julius Caesar the name _Aquitania_ was given to that part of Gaul lying +between the Pyrenees and the Garonne, and its inhabitants were a race, +or races, distinct from the Celts. The name Aquitania is probably a form +of Auscetani, which in its turn is a lengthened form of Ausces, and is +thus cognate with the words Basque and Wasconia, i.e. Gascony. Although +many of the tribes of Aquitania submitted to Julius Caesar, it was not +until about 28 B.C. that the district was brought under the Roman yoke. +In keeping with the Roman policy of denationalization, the term +Aquitania was extended, and under Augustus it included the whole of Gaul +south and west of the Loire and the Allier, and thus ceased to possess +ethnographical importance. In the 3rd century A.D. this larger Aquitania +was divided into three parts: _Aquitania Prima_, the eastern part of the +district between the Loire and the Garonne; _Aquitania Secunda_, the +western part of the same district; and _Aquitania Tertia_, or +_Novempopulana_, the region between the Garonne and the Pyrenees, or the +original Aquitania. The seats of government were respectively Bourges, +Bordeaux and Eauze; the province contained twenty-six cities, and was in +the diocese of Vienne. Like the rest of Gaul, Aquitania absorbed a large +measure of Roman civilization, and this continued to distinguish the +district down to a late period. In the 5th century the Visigoths +established themselves in Aquitania Secunda, and also in parts of +Aquitania Prima and Novempopulana, but after the defeat of their king +Alaric II. by the Franks under Clovis in 507, they were supplanted by +their conquerors. Clovis and his successors extended their authority +nominally to the Pyrenees, but, as Guizot has remarked, "the conquest of +Aquitania by Clovis left it almost as alien to the people and king of +Franks as it had formerly been." Subsequently during the Merovingian +period it was contended for by the feeble rulers of the various Frankish +kingdoms, and was frequently partitioned among them; but the Aquitanians +had little difficulty in effectually resisting this authority, although +they did not establish themselves as a separate kingdom. About 628, +indeed, they gathered around Charibert, or Haribert, a brother of the +Frankish king, Dagobert I., in the hope of national independence; but +after his death in 630 they returned to their former condition. But this +effort, although a failure, brought about a certain measure of concord +between the two principal races inhabiting the district, and so prepared +the way for the stubborn resistance which, subsequently, the Aquitanians +were able to offer to the Franks. + +The first line of dukes began about 660 with one Felix, who, like his +successor, Lupus, probably owned allegiance to the Frankish kings, and +whose seat of government was Toulouse. About the end of the 7th century +an adventurer named Odo, or Eudes, made himself master of this region. +Attacked by the Saracens he inflicted on them a crushing defeat, but +when they reappeared, he was obliged to invoke the aid of Charles +Martel, who, as the price of his support, claimed and received the +homage of his ally. Odo was succeeded by his son Hunald, who after +carrying on a war against the Franks under Pippin the Short, retired to +a convent, leaving both the kingdom and the conflict to Waifer, or +Guaifer. For some years Waifer strenuously carried on an unequal +struggle with the Franks, but he was assassinated in 768, and with him +perished the national independence, although not the national +individuality, of the Aquitanians. In 781 Charlemagne bestowed Aquitaine +upon his young son, Louis, and as Louis was generally described as a +king, Aquitaine is referred to during the Carolingian period as a +kingdom, and not as a duchy. When Louis succeeded Charlemagne as emperor +in 814, he granted Aquitaine to his son Pippin, on whose death in 838 +the Aquitanians chose his son Pippin II. (d. 865) as their king. The +emperor Louis I., however, opposed this arrangement and gave the kingdom +to his youngest son Charles, afterwards the emperor Charles the Bald. +Now followed a time of confusion and conflict which resulted eventually +in the success of Charles, although from 845 to 852 Pippin was in +possession of the kingdom. In 852 Pippin was imprisoned by Charles the +Bald, who soon afterwards gave to the Aquitanians his own son Charles as +their king. On the death of the younger Charles in 866, his brother +Louis the Stammerer succeeded to the kingdom, and when, in 877, Louis +became king of the Franks, Aquitaine was united to the Frankish crown. + +A new period now begins in the history of Aquitaine. By a treaty made in +845 between Charles the Bald and Pippin II. the kingdom had been +diminished by the loss of Poitou, Saintonge and Angoumois, which had +been given to Rainulf I., count of Poitiers. Somewhat earlier than this +date the title of duke of the Aquitanians had been revived, and this was +now borne by Rainulf, although it was also claimed by the counts of +Toulouse. The new duchy of Aquitaine, comprising the three districts +already mentioned, remained in the hands of Rainulf's successors, in +spite of some trouble with their Frankish overlords, until 893 when +Count Rainulf II. was poisoned by order of King Charles III. the Simple. +Charles then bestowed the duchy upon William the Pious, count of +Auvergne, the founder of the abbey of Cluny, who was succeeded in 918 by +his nephew, Count William II., who died in 926. A succession of dukes +followed, one of whom, William IV., fought against Hugh Capet, king of +France, and another of whom, William V., called the Great, was able +considerably to strengthen and extend his authority, although he failed +in his attempt to secure the Lombard crown. William's duchy almost +reached the limits of the Roman Aquitania Prima and Secunda, but did not +stretch south of the Garonne, a district which was in the possession of +the Gascons. William died in 1030, and the names of William VI. (d. +1038), Odo or Eudes (d. 1039), who joined Gascony to his duchy, William +VII. and William VIII. bring us down to William IX. (d. 1127), who +succeeded in 1087, and made himself famous as a crusader and a +troubadour. William X. (d. 1137) married his daughter Eleanor to Louis +VII., king of France, and Aquitaine went as her dowry. When Eleanor was +divorced from Louis and was married in 1152 to Henry II. of England the +duchy passed to her new husband, who, having suppressed a revolt there, +gave it to his son Richard. When Richard died in 1199, it reverted to +Eleanor, and on her death five years later, was united to the English +crown and henceforward followed the fortunes of the English possessions +in France. Aquitaine as it came to the English kings stretched as of old +from the Loire to the Pyrenees, but its extent was curtailed on the +south-east by the wide lands of the counts of Toulouse. The name +Guienne, a corruption of Aquitaine, seems to have come into use about +the 10th century, and the subsequent history of Aquitaine is merged in +that of Gascony (q.v.) and Guienne (q.v.). + + See E. Desjardins, _Geographie historique el administrative de la + Gaule romaine_ (Paris, 1876, 93); A. Luchaire, _Les Origines + linguistiques de l'Aquitaine_ (Paris, 1877); A. Longnon, _Geographie + de la Gaule au VI^e siecle_ (Paris, 1876); A. Perroud, _Les Origines + du premier duche d'Aquitaine_ (Paris, 1881); and E. Mabille, _Le + Royaume d'Aquitaine et ses marches sous les Carlovingiens_ (Paris, + 1870). + + + + +ARABESQUE, a word meaning simply "Arabian," but technically used for a +certain form of decorative design in flowing lines intertwined; hence +comes the more metaphorical use of this word, whether in nature or in +morals, indicating a fantastic or complicated interweaving of lines +against a background. In decorative design the term is historically a +misnomer. It is applied to the grotesque decoration derived from Roman +remains of the early time of the empire, not to any style derived from +Arabian or Moorish work. Arabesque and Moresque are really distinct; the +latter is from the Arabian style of ornament, developed by the Byzantine +Greeks for their new masters, after the conquests of the followers of +Mahomet; and the former is a term pretty well restricted to varieties of +cinquecento decoration, which have nothing in common with any Arabian +examples in their details, but are a development derived from Greek and +Roman grotesque designs, such as we find them in the remains of ancient +palaces at Rome, and in ancient houses at Pompeii. These were reproduced +by Raphael and his pupils in the decoration of some of the corridors of +the Loggie of the Vatican at Rome: grotesque is thus a better name for +these decorations than Arabesque. This technical Arabesque, therefore, +is much more ancient than any Arabian or Moorish decoration, and has +really nothing in common with it except the mere symmetrical principles +of its arrangement. Pliny and Vitruvius give us no name for the +extravagant decorative wall-painting in vogue in their time, to which +the early Italian revivers of it seem to have given the designation of +grotesque, because it, was first discovered in the arched or underground +chambers (_grotte_) of Roman ruins--as in the golden house of Nero, or +the baths of Titus. What really took place in the Italian revival was in +some measure a supplanting of the Arabesque for the classical grotesque, +still retaining the original Arabian designation, while the genuine +Arabian art, the Saracenic, was distinguished as Moresque or Moorish. So +it is now the original Arabesque that is called by its specific names of +Saracenic, Moorish and Alhambresque, while the term Arabesque is applied +exclusively to the style developed from the debased classical grotesque +of the Roman empire. + +There is still much of the genuine Saracenic element in Renaissance +Arabesques, especially in that selected for book-borders and for +silver-work, the details of which consist largely of the conventional +Saracenic foliations. But the Arabesque developed in the Italian +cinquecento work repudiated all the original Arabian elements and +devices, and limited itself to the manipulating of the classical +elements, of which the most prominent feature is ever the floriated or +foliated scroll; and it is in this cinquecento decoration, whether in +sculpture or in painting, that _Arabesque_ has been perfected. + +In the Saracenic, as the elder sister of the two styles, which was +ingeniously developed by the Byzantine Greek artists for their Arabian +masters in the early times of Mahommedan conquest, every natural object +was proscribed; the artists were, therefore, reduced to making +symmetrical designs from forms which should have no positive meaning; +yet the Byzantine Greeks, who were Christians, managed to work even +their own ecclesiastical symbols, in a disguised manner, into their +tracery and diapers; as the lily, for instance. The cross was not so +introduced; this, of course, was inadmissible; but neither was the +crescent ever introduced into any of this early work in Damascus or +Cairo. The crescent was itself not a Mahommedan device till after the +conquest of Constantinople in 1453 A.D. The crescent, as the new moon, +was the symbol of Byzantium; and it was only after that capital of the +Eastern empire fell into the hands of the Turks that this symbol was +adopted by them. The crescent and the cross became antagonist standards, +therefore, first in the 15th century. And the crescent is not an element +of original Moorish decoration. + +The Alhambra diapers and original Majolica (Majorca) ware afford +admirable specimens of genuine Saracenic or Moorish decoration. A +conventional floriage is common in these diapers; tracery also is a +great feature in this work, in geometrical combinations, whether +rectilinear or curvilinear; and the designs are rich in colour; idolatry +was in the reproduction of natural forms, not in the fanciful +combination of natural colours. These curves and angles, therefore, or +interlacings, chiefly in stucco, constitute the prominent elements of an +Arabian ornamental design, combining also Arabic inscriptions; composed +of a mass of foliation or floral forms conventionally disguised, as the +exclusion of all natural images was the fundamental principle of the +style in its purity. The Alhambra displays almost endless specimens of +this peculiar work, all in relief, highly coloured, and profusely +enriched with gold. The mosque of Tulun, in Cairo, A.D. 876, the known +work of a Greek, affords the completest example of this art in its early +time; and Sicily contains many remains of this same exquisite Saracenic +decoration. + +Such is the genuine Arabesque of the Arabs, but a very different style +of design is implied by the Arabesque of the cinquecento, a purely +classical ornamentation. This owes its origin to the excavation and +recovery of ancient monuments, and was developed chiefly by the +sculptors of the north, and the painters of central Italy; by the +Lombardi of Venice, by Agostino Busti of Milan, by Bramante of Urbino, +by Raphael, by Giulio Romano, and others of nearly equal merit. Very +beautiful examples in sculpture of this cinquecento Arabesque are found +in the churches of Venice, Verona and Brescia; in painting, the most +complete specimens are those of the Vatican Loggie, and the Villa Madama +at Rome and the ducal palaces at Mantua. The Vatican Arabesques, chiefly +executed for Raphael by Giulio Romano, Gian Francesco Penni, and +Giovanni da Udine, though beautiful as works of painting, are often very +extravagant in their composition, ludicrous and sometimes aesthetically +offensive; as are also many of the decorations of Pompeii. The main +features of these designs are balanced scrolls in panels; or standards +variously composed, but symmetrically scrolled on either side, and on +the tendrils of these scrolls are suspended or placed birds and animals, +human figures and chimeras, of any or all kinds, or indeed any objects +that may take the fancy of the artist. The most perfect specimens of +cinquecento Arabesque are certainly found in sculpture. As specimens of +exquisite work may be mentioned the Martinengo tomb, in the church of +the Padri Riformati at Brescia, and the facade of the church of Santa +Maria del Miracoli there, by the Lombardi; and many of the carvings of +the Chateau de Gaillon, France--all of which fairly illustrate the +beauties and capabilities of the style. + + See also Wornum, _Analysis of Ornament_ (1874). (R. N. W.) + + + + +ARABGIR, or ARABKIR (Byz. _Arabraces_), a town of Turkey in Asia in the +Mamuret el-Aziz or Kharput vilayet, situated near the confluence of the +eastern and western Euphrates, but some miles from the right bank of the +combined streams. Pop. about 20,000, of which the larger half is +Mussulman. It is connected with Sivas by a _chaussee_, prolonged to the +Euphrates. The inhabitants are enterprising and prosperous, many of them +leaving their native city to push their fortunes elsewhere, while of +those that remain the greater part is employed in the manufacture of +silk and cotton goods, or in the production of fruit. The present town +was built at a comparatively recent date; but about 2 m. north-east is +the old town, now called Eski-Shehr, given (c. 1021) to Senekherim of +Armenia by the emperor Basil II. It contains the ruins of a castle and +of several Seljuk mosques. The Armenian population suffered severely +during the massacres of 1895. (D. G. H.) + + + + +ARABIA, a peninsula in the south-west of Asia, lying between 34 deg. 30' +and 12 deg. 45' N., and 32 deg. 30' and 60 deg. E., is bounded W. by the +Red Sea, S. by the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean, and E. by the Gulf +of Oman and the Persian Gulf. Its northern or land boundary is more +difficult to define; most authorities, however, agree in taking it from +El Arish on the Mediterranean, along the southern border of Palestine, +between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Akaba, then bending northwards +along the Syrian border nearly to Tadmur, thence eastwards to the edge +of the Euphrates valley near Anah, and thence south-east to the mouth of +the Shat el Arab at the head of the Persian Gulf,--the boundary so +defined includes the northern desert, which belongs geographically to +Arabia rather than to Syria; while on the same grounds lower Mesopotamia +and Irak, although occupied by an Arab population, are excluded. + +In shape, the peninsula forms a rough trapezium, with its greatest +length from north-west to south-east. The length of its western side +from Port Said to Aden is 1500 m.; its base from the Straits of +Bab-el-Mandeb (or Bab al Mandab) to Ras el Had is 1300 m., its northern +side from Port Said to the Euphrates 600 m.; its total area +approximately 1,200,000 sq. m. + + +GEOGRAPHY + +_General Features._--In general terms Arabia may be described as a +plateau sloping gently from south-west to north-east, and attaining its +greatest elevation in the extreme south-west. The western escarpment of +the plateau rises steeply from the Red Sea littoral to a height of from +4000 to 8000 ft., leaving a narrow belt of lowland rarely exceeding 30 +m. in width between the shore and the foot-hills. On the north-east and +east the plateau shelves gradually to the Euphrates and the Persian +Gulf; only in the extreme east is this general easterly slope arrested +by the lofty range of Jebel Akhdar, which from Ras Musandan to Ras el +Had borders the coast of Oman. + +Its chief characteristic is the bareness and aridity of its surface; +one-third of the whole desert, and of the remainder only a small +proportion is suited to settled life, owing to its scanty water-supply +and uncertain rainfall. Its mountains are insufficient in elevation and +extent to attract their full share of the monsoon rains, which fall so +abundantly on the Abyssinian highlands on the other side of the Red Sea; +for this reason Arabia has neither lakes nor forests to control the +water-supply and prevent its too rapid dissipation, and the rivers are +mere torrent beds sweeping down occasionally in heavy floods, but +otherwise dry. + +The country falls naturally into three main divisions, a northern, a +central and a southern; the first includes the area between the Midian +coast on the west and the head of the Persian Gulf on the east, a desert +tract throughout, stony in the north, sandy in the south, but furnishing +at certain seasons excellent pasturage; its population is almost +entirely nomad and pastoral. The central zone includes Hejaz (or Hijaz), +Nejd and El Hasa; much of it is a dry, stony or sandy steppe, with few +wells or watering-places, and only occupied by nomad tribes; but the +great wadis which intersect it contain many fertile stretches of +alluvial soil, where cultivation is possible and which support a +considerable settled population, with several large towns and numerous +villages. + +The third or southern division contains the highland plateaus of Asir +and Yemen in the west, and J. Akhdar in the east, which with a temperate +climate, due to their great elevation and their proximity to the sea, +deserve, if any part of Arabia does, the name of Arabia Felix--the +population is settled and agricultural, and the soil, wherever the +rainfall is sufficient, is productive. The Batina coast of Oman, +irrigated by the mountain streams of J. Akhdar, is perhaps the most +fertile district in the peninsula; Hadramut, too, contains many large +and prosperous villages, and the torrents from the Yemen highlands +fertilize several oases in the Tehama (or Tihama) or lowlands of the +western and southern coast. These favourable conditions of soil and +climate, however, extend only a comparatively short distance into the +interior, by far the larger part of which is covered by the great +southern desert, the Dahna, or Ruba el Khali, empty as its name implies, +and uninhabitable. + +_Exploration._--Before entering on a detailed description of the several +provinces of Arabia, our sources of information will be briefly +indicated. Except in the neighbourhood of Aden, no regular surveys +exist, and professional work is limited to the marine surveys of the +Indian government and the admiralty, which, while laying down the coast +line with fair accuracy, give little or no topographical information +inland. For the mapping of the whole vast interior, except in rare +cases, no data exist beyond the itineraries of explorers, travelling as +a rule under conditions which precluded the use of even the simplest +surveying instruments. These journeys, naturally following the most +frequented routes, often cover the same ground, while immense tracts, +owing to their difficulty of access, remain unvisited by any European. + +The region most thoroughly explored is Yemen, in the south-west corner +of the peninsula, where the labours of a succession of travellers from +Niebuhr in 1761 to E. Glaser and R. Manzoni in 1887 have led to a fairly +complete knowledge of all that part of the province west of the capital +Sana; while in 1902-1904 the operations of the Anglo-Turkish boundary +commission permitted the execution of a systematic topographical survey +of the British protectorate from the Red Sea to the Wadi Bana, 30 m. +east of Aden. North of Yemen up to the Hejaz border the only authority +is that of E.F. Jomard's map, published in 1839, based on the +information given by the French officers employed with Ibrahim Pasha's +army in Asir from 1824 to 1827, and of J. Halevy in Nejran. On the south +coast expeditions have penetrated but a short distance, the most notable +exceptions being those of L. Hirsch and J.T. Bent in 1887 to the +Hadramut valley. S.B. Miles, J.R. Wellsted, and S.M. Zwemer have +explored Oman in the extreme east; but the interior south of a line +drawn from Taif to El Katr on the Persian Gulf is still virgin ground. +In northern Arabia the Syrian desert and the great Nafud (Nefud) have +been crossed by several travellers, though a large area remains +unexplored in the north-east between Kasim and the gulf. In the centre, +the journeys of W. Palgrave, C. Doughty, W. Blunt and C. Huber have done +much to elucidate the main physical features of the country. Lastly, in +the north-west the Sinai peninsula has been thoroughly explored, and the +list of travellers who have visited the Holy Cities and traversed the +main pilgrim routes through Hejaz is a fairly long one, though, owing to +the difficulties peculiar to that region, the hydrography of southern +Hejaz is still incompletely known. + + + Modern Exploration in Yemen. + +The story of modern exploration begins with the despatch of C. Niebuhr's +mission by the Danish government in 1761. After a year spent in Egypt +and the Sinai peninsula the party reached Jidda towards the end of 1762, +and after a short stay sailed on to Lohaia in the north of Yemen, the +exploration of which formed the principal object of the expedition; +thence, travelling through the Tehama or lowlands, Niebuhr and his +companions visited the towns of Bet el Fakih, Zubed and Mokha, then the +great port for the coffee trade of Yemen. Continuing eastward they +crossed the mountainous region and reached the highlands of Yemen at +Uden, a small town and the centre of a district celebrated for its +coffee. Thence proceeding eastwards to higher altitudes where coffee +plantations give way to fields of wheat and barley, they reached the +town of Jibla situated among a group of mountains exceeding 10,000 ft. +above sea-level; and turning southwards to Taiz descended again to the +Tehama via Hes and Zubed to Mokha. The mission, reduced in numbers by +the death of its archaeologist, von Haven, again visited Taiz in June +1763, where after some delay permission was obtained to visit Sana, the +capital of the province and the residence of the ruling sovereign or +imam. The route lay by Jibla, passing the foot of the lofty Jebel Sorak, +where, in spite of illness, Forskal, the botanist of the party, was able +to make a last excursion; a few days later he died at Yarim. The mission +continued its march, passing Dhamar, the seat of a university of the +Zedi sect, then frequented by 500 students. Thence four marches, +generally over a stony plateau dominated by bare, sterile mountains, +brought them to Sana, where they received a cordial welcome from the +imam, el Mahdi Abbas. + +The aspect of the city must have been nearly the same as at present; +Niebuhr describes the _enceinte_ flanked by towers, the citadel at the +foot of J. Nukum which rises 1000 ft. above the valley, the fortress and +palace of the imams, now replaced by the Turkish military hospital, the +suburb of Bir el Azab with its scattered houses and gardens, the Jews' +quarter and the village of Rauda, a few miles to the north in a fertile, +irrigated plain which Niebuhr compares to that of Damascus. After a stay +of ten days at Sana the mission set out again for Mokha, travelling by +what is now the main route from the capital to Hodeda, through the rich +coffee-bearing district of J. Haraz, and thence southward to Mokha, +where they embarked for India. During the next year three other members +of the party died, leaving Niebuhr the sole survivor. Returning to +Arabia a year later, he visited Oman and the shores of the Persian Gulf, +and travelling from Basra through Syria and Palestine he reached Denmark +in 1764 after four years' absence. + +The period was perhaps specially favourable for a scientific mission of +the sort. The outburst of fanaticism which convulsed Arabia twenty years +later had not then reached Yemen, and Europeans, as such, were not +exposed to any special danger. The travellers were thus able to move +freely and to pursue their scientific enquiries without hindrance from +either people or ruler. The results published in 1772 gave for the first +time a comprehensive description not only of Yemen but of all Arabia; +while the parts actually visited by Niebuhr were described with a +fulness and accuracy of detail which left little or nothing for his +successors to discover. + + + Asir. + + Jauf and Marib. + +C.G. Ehrenberg and W.F. Hemprich in 1825 visited the Tehama and the +islands off the coast, and in 1836 P.E. Botta made an important journey +in southern Yemen with a view to botanical research, but the next +advance in geographical knowledge in south Arabia was due to the French +officers, M.O. Tamisier, Chedufau and Mary, belonging to the Egyptian +army in Asir; another Frenchman, L. Arnaud, formerly in the Egyptian +service, was the first to visit the southern Jauf and to report on the +rock-cut inscriptions and ruins of Marib, though it was not till 1869 +that a competent archaeologist, J. Halevy, was able to carry out any +complete exploration there. Starting from Sana, Halevy went +north-eastward to El Madid, a town of 5000 inhabitants and the capital +of the small district of Nihm; thence crossing a plateau, where he saw +the ruins of numerous crenellated towers, he reached the village of +Mijzar at the foot of J. Yam, on the borders of Jauf, a vast sandy +plain, extending eastwards to El Jail and El Hazm, where Halevy made his +most important discoveries of Sabaean inscriptions: here he explored +Main, the ancient capital of the Minaeans, Kamna on the banks of the W. +Kharid, the ancient Caminacum, and Kharibat el Beda, the Nesca of Pliny, +where the Sabaean army was defeated by the Romans under Aelius Gallus in +24 B.C. From El Jail Halevy travelled northward, passing the oasis of +Khab, and skirting the great desert, reached the fertile district of +Nejran, where he found a colony of Jews, with whom he spent several +weeks in the oasis of Makhlaf. An hour's march to the east he discovered +at the village of Medinat el Mahud the ruins of the Nagra metropolis of +Ptolemy. In June 1870 he at last reached the goal of his journey, Marib; +here he explored the ruins of Medinat an Nahas (so called from its +numerous inscriptions engraved on brass plates), and two hours to the +east he found the famous dam constructed by the Himyarites across the W. +Shibwan, on which the water-supply of their capital depended. + +One other explorer has since visited Marib, the Austrian archaeologist, +E. Glaser (1855-1908), who achieved more for science in Yemen than any +traveller since Niebuhr. Under Turkish protection, he visited the +territory of the Hashid and Bakil tribes north-east of Sana, and though +their hostile attitude compelled him to return after reaching their +first important town, Khamr, he had time to reconnoitre the plateau +lying between the two great wadis Kharid and Hirran, formerly covered +with Himyaritic towns and villages; and to trace the course of these +wadis to their junction at El Ish in the Dhu Husen country, and thence +onward to the Jauf. In 1889 he succeeded, again under Turkish escort, in +reaching Marib, where he obtained, during a stay of thirty days, a large +number of new Himyaritic inscriptions. He was unable, however, to +proceed farther east than his predecessors, and the problem of the Jauf +drainage and its possible connexion with the upper part of the Hadramut +valley still remains unsolved. + + + Exploration in Hadramut. + +The earliest attempt to penetrate into the interior from the south coast +was made in 1835 when Lieuts. C. Cruttenden and J.R. Wellsted of the +"Palinurus," employed on the marine survey of the Arabian coast, visited +the ruins of Nakb (el Hajar) in the W. Mefat. The Himyaritic +inscriptions found there and at Husn Ghurab near Mukalla, were the first +records discovered of ancient Arabian civilization in Hadramut. Neither +of these officers was able to follow up their discoveries, but in 1843 +Adolph von Wrede landed at Mukalla and, adopting the character of a +pilgrim to the shrine of the prophet Hud, made his way northward across +the high plateau into the W. Duwan, one of the main southern tributaries +of the Hadramut valley, and pushed on to the edge of the great southern +desert; on his return to the W. Duwan his disguise was detected and he +was obliged to return to Mukalla. Though he did not actually enter the +main Hadramut valley, which lay to the east of his track, his journey +established the existence of this populous and fertile district which +had been reported to the officers of the "Palinurus" as lying between +the coast range and the great desert to the north. This was at last +visited in 1893 by L. Hirsch under the protection of the sultan of +Mukalla, the head of the Kaiti family, and practically ruler of all +Hadramut, with the exception of the towns of Saiyun and Tarim, which +belong to the Kathiri tribe. Starting like von Wrede from Mukalla, +Hirsch first visited the W. Duwan and found ancient ruins and +inscriptions near the village of Hajren; thence he proceeded +north-eastward to Hauta in the main valley, where he was hospitably +received by the Kaiti sultan, and sent on to his deputy at Shibam. Here +he procured a Kathiri escort and pushed on through Saiyun to Tarim, the +former capital. After a very brief stay, however, he was compelled by +the hostility of the people to return in haste to Shibam, from which he +travelled by the W. bin Ali and W. Adim back to Mukalla. J. Theodore +Bent and his wife followed in the same track a few months later with a +well-equipped party including a surveyor, Imam Sharif, lent by the +Indian government, who made a very valuable survey of the country passed +through. Both parties visited many sites where Himyaritic remains and +inscriptions were found, but the hostile attitude of the natives, more +particularly of the Seyyids, the religious hierarchy of Hadramut, +prevented any adequate examination, and much of archaeological interest +undoubtedly remains for future travellers to discover. + + + Exploration in Oman. + +In Oman, where the conditions are more favourable, explorers have +penetrated only a short distance from the coast. Niebuhr did not go +inland from Muscat; the operations by a British Indian force on the +Pirate coast in 1810 gave no opportunities for visiting the interior, +and it was not till 1835 that J.R. Wellsted, who had already tried to +penetrate into Hadramut from the south, landed at Muscat with the idea +of reaching it from the north-east. Sailing thence to Sur near Ras el +Had, he travelled southward through the country of the Bani bu Ali to +the borders of the desert, then turning north-west up the Wadi Betha +through a fertile, well-watered country, running up to the southern +slopes of J. Akhdar, inhabited by a friendly people who seem to have +welcomed him everywhere, he visited Ibra, Semed and Nizwa at the +southern foot of the mountains. Owing to the disturbed state of the +country, due to the presence of raiding parties from Nejd, Wellsted was +unable to carry out his original intention of exploring the country to +the west, and after an excursion along the Batina coast to Sohar he +returned to India. + +In 1876 Colonel S.B. Miles, who had already done much to advance +geographical interests in south Arabia, continued Wellsted's work in +Oman; starting from Sohar on the Batina coast he crossed the dividing +range into the Dhahira, and reached Birema, one of its principal oases. +His investigations show that the Dhahira contains many settlements, with +an industrious agricultural population, and that the unexplored tract +extending 250 m. west to the peninsula of El Katr is a desolate gravelly +steppe, shelving gradually down to the salt marshes which border the +shores of the gulf. + + + Exploration in Hejaz. + +Leaving southern Arabia, we now come to the centre and north. The first +explorer to enter the sacred Hejaz with a definite scientific object was +the Spaniard, Badia y Leblich, who, under the name of Ali Bey and +claiming to be the last representative of the Abbasid Caliphs, arrived +at Jidda in 1807, and performed the pilgrimage to Mecca. Besides giving +to the world the first accurate description of the holy city and the Haj +ceremonies, he was the first to fix the position of Mecca by +astronomical observations, and to describe the physical character of its +surroundings. But the true pioneer of exploration in Hejaz was J.L. +Burckhardt, who had already won a reputation as the discoverer of Petra, +and whose experience of travel in Arab lands and knowledge of Arab life +qualified him to pass as a Moslem, even in the headquarters of Islam. +Burckhardt landed in Jidda in July 1814, when Mehemet Ali had already +driven the Wahhabi invaders out of Hejaz, and was preparing for his +farther advance against their stronghold in Nejd. He first visited Taif +at the invitation of the pasha, thence he proceeded to Mecca, where he +spent three months studying every detail of the topography of the holy +places, and going through all the ceremonies incumbent on a Moslem +pilgrim. In January 1815 he travelled to Medina by the western or coast +route, and arrived there safely but broken in health by the hardships of +the journey. His illness did not, however, prevent his seeing and +recording everything of interest in Medina with the same care as at +Mecca, though it compelled him to cut short the further journey he had +proposed to himself, and to return by Yambu and the sea to Cairo, where +he died only two years later. + +His striking successor, Sir Richard Burton, covered nearly the same +ground thirty-eight years afterwards. He, too, travelling as a Moslem +pilgrim, noted the whole ritual of the pilgrimage with the same keen +observation as Burckhardt, and while amplifying somewhat the latter's +description of Medina, confirms the accuracy of his work there and at +Mecca in almost every detail. Burton's topographical descriptions are +fuller, and his march to Mecca from Medina by the eastern route led him +over ground not traversed by any other explorer in Hejaz: this route +leads at first south-east from Medina, and then south across the lava +beds of the Harra, keeping throughout its length on the high plateau +which forms the borderland between Hejaz and Nejd. His original +intention had been after visiting Mecca to find his way across the +peninsula to Oman, but the time at his disposal (as an Indian officer on +leave) was insufficient for so extended a journey; and his further +contributions to Arabian geography were not made until twenty-five years +later, when he was deputed by the Egyptian government to examine the +reported gold deposits of Midian. Traces of ancient workings were found +in several places, but the ores did not contain gold in paying +quantities. Interesting archaeological discoveries were made, and a +valuable topographical survey was carried out, covering the whole Midian +coast from the head of the Gulf of Akaba to the mouth of the Wadi Hamd, +and including both the Tehama range and the Hisma valley behind it; +while the importance of the W. Hamd and the extent of the area drained +by its tributaries was for the first time brought to light. + + + Exploration in Nejd. + +Burckhardt had hoped in 1815 that the advance of the Egyptian expedition +would have given him the opportunity to see something of Nejd, but he +had already left Arabia before the overthrow of the Wahhabi power by +Ibrahim Pasha had opened Nejd to travellers from Hejaz, and though +several European officers accompanied the expedition, none of them left +any record of his experience. It is, however, to the Egyptian conquest +that the first visit of a British traveller to Nejd is due. The Indian +government, wishing to enter into relations with Ibrahim Pasha, as _de +facto_ ruler of Nejd and El Hasa, with a view to putting down piracy in +the Persian Gulf, which was seriously affecting Indian trade, sent a +small mission under Captain G.F. Sadlier to congratulate the pasha on +the success of the Egyptian arms, and no doubt with the ulterior object +of obtaining a first-hand report on the real situation. On his arrival +at Hofuf, Sadlier found that Ibrahim had already left Deraiya, but still +hoping to intercept him before quitting Nejd, he followed up the +retreating Egyptians through Yemama, and Wushm to Ras in Kasim, where he +caught up the main body of Ibrahim's army, though the pasha himself had +gone on to Medina. Sadlier hesitated about going farther, but he was +unable to obtain a safe conduct to Basra, or to return by the way he had +come, and was compelled reluctantly to accompany the army to Medina. +Here he at last met Ibrahim, but though courteously received, the +interview had no results, and Sadlier soon after left for Yambu, whence +he embarked for Jidda, and after another fruitless attempt to treat with +Ibrahim, sailed for India. If the political results of the mission were +_nil_, the value to geographical science was immense; for though no +geographer himself, Sadlier's route across Arabia made it possible for +the first time to locate the principal places in something like their +proper relative positions; incidentally, too, it showed the +practicability of a considerable body of regular troops crossing the +deserts of Nejd even in the months of July and August. + +Sadlier's route had left Jebel Shammar to one side; his successor, G.A. +Wallin, was to make that the objective of his journey. Commissioned by +Mehemet Ali to inform him about the situation in Nejd brought about by +the rising power of Abdallah Ibn Rashid, Wallin left Cairo in April +1845, and crossing the pilgrim road at Ma'an, pushed on across the +Syrian desert to the Wadi Sirhan and the Jauf oasis, where he halted +during the hot summer months. From the wells of Shakik he crossed the +waterless Nafud in four days to Jubba, and after a halt there in the +nomad camps, he moved on to Hail, already a thriving town, and the +capital of the Shammar state whose limits included all northern Arabia +from Kasim to the Syrian border. After a stay in Hail, where he had +every opportunity of observing the character of the country and its +inhabitants, and the hospitality and patriarchal, if sometimes stern, +justice of its chief, he travelled on to Medina and Mecca, and returned +thence to Cairo to report to his patron. Early in 1848 he again returned +to Arabia, avoiding the long desert journey by landing at Muwela, thence +striking inland to Tebuk on the pilgrim road, and re-entering Shammar +territory at the oasis of Tema, he again visited Hail; and after +spending a month there travelled northwards to Kerbela and Bagdad. + + + Palgrave's journey to Nejd. + +The effects of the Egyptian invasion had passed away, and central Arabia +had settled down again under its native rulers when W.G. Palgrave made +his adventurous journey through Nejd, and published the remarkable +narrative which has taken its place as the classic of Arabian +exploration. Like Burton he was once an officer in the Indian army, but +for some time before his journey he had been connected with the Jesuit +mission in Syria. By training and temperament he was better qualified to +appreciate and describe the social life of the people than their +physical surroundings, and if the results of his great journey are +disappointing to the geographer, his account of the society of the oasis +towns, and of the remarkable men who were then ruling in Hail and Riad, +must always possess an absorbing interest as a portrait of Arab life in +its freest development. + +Following Wallin's route across the desert by Ma'an and Jauf, Palgrave +and his companion, a Syrian Christian, reached Hail in July 1862; here +they were hospitably entertained by the amir Talal, nephew of the +founder of the Ibn Rashid dynasty, and after some stay passed on with +his countenance through Kasim to southern Nejd. Palgrave says little of +the desert part of the journey or of its Bedouin inhabitants, but much +of the fertility of the oases and of the civility of the townsmen; and +like other travellers in Nejd he speaks with enthusiasm of its bright, +exhilarating climate. At Riad, Fesal, who had been in power since the +Egyptian retirement, was still reigning; and the religious tyranny of +Wahhabism prevailed, in marked contrast to the liberal regime of Talal +in Jebel Shammar. Still, Palgrave and his companions, though known as +Christians, spent nearly two months in the capital without molestation, +making short excursions in the neighbourhood, the most important of +which was to El Kharfa in Aflaj, the most southerly district of Nejd. +Leaving Riad, they passed through Yemama, and across a strip of sandy +desert to El Hasa where Palgrave found himself in more congenial +surroundings. Finally, a voyage to the Oman coast and a brief stay there +brought his adventures in Arabia to a successful ending. + + + Doughty. + +Charles Doughty, the next Englishman to visit northern Arabia, though he +covered little new ground, saw more of the desert life, and has +described it more minutely and faithfully than any other explorer. +Travelling down from Damascus in 1875 with the Haj caravan, he stopped +at El Hajr, one of the pilgrim stations, with the intention of awaiting +the return of the caravan and in the meantime of exploring the rock-cut +tombs of Medain Salih and El Ala. Having successfully completed his +investigations and sent copies of inscriptions and drawings of the tombs +to Renan in Paris, he determined to push on farther into the desert. +Under the protection of a sheikh of the Fukara Bedouin he wandered over +the whole of the borderland between Hejaz and Nejd. Visiting Tema, where +among other ancient remains he discovered the famous inscribed stone, +afterwards acquired by Huber for the Louvre. Next summer he went on to +Hail and thence back to Khaibar, where the negro governor and townsmen, +less tolerant than his former Bedouin hosts, ill-treated him and even +threatened his life. Returning to Hail in the absence of the amir, he +was expelled by the governor; he succeeded, however, in finding +protection at Aneza, where he spent several months, and eventually after +many hardships and perils found his way to the coast at Jidda. + +Three years later Mr Wilfrid and Lady Anne Blunt made their expedition +to J. Shammar. In their previous travels in Syria they had gained the +confidence and friendship of a young sheikh whose family, though long +settled at Tadmur, came originally from Nejd, and who was anxious to +renew the connexion with his kinsmen by seeking a bride among them. In +his company the Blunts set out from Damascus, and travelled across the +Syrian desert by the Wadi Sirhan to Jauf. Here the sheikh found some of +his relations and the matrimonial alliance was soon arranged; but though +the object of the journey had been attained, the Blunts were anxious to +visit Hail and make the acquaintance of the amir Ibn Rashid, of whose +might and generosity they daily heard from their hosts in Jauf. The long +stretch of waterless desert between Jauf and J. Shammar was crossed +without difficulty, and the party was welcomed by the amir and +hospitably entertained for a month, after which they travelled +northwards in company with the Persian pilgrim caravan returning to +Kerbela and Bagdad. + + + Huber. + +In 1883 the French traveller, C. Huber, accompanied by the +archaeologist, J. Euting, followed the same route from Damascus to Hail. +The narrative of the last named forms a valuable supplement to that +published by the Blunts, and together with Doughty's, furnishes as +complete a picture as could be wished for of the social and political +life of J. Shammar, and of the general nature of the country. Huber's +journal, published after his death from his original notes, contains a +mass of topographical and archaeological detail of the greatest +scientific value: his routes and observations form, in fact, the first +and only scientific data for the construction of the map of northern +Arabia. To archaeology also his services were of equal importance, for, +besides copying numerous inscriptions in the district between Hail and +Tema, he succeeded in gaining possession of the since famous Tema stone, +which ranks with the Moabite stone among the most valuable of Semitic +inscriptions. From Hail Huber followed nearly in Doughty's track to +Aneza and thence across central Nejd to Mecca and Jidda, where he +despatched his notes and copies of inscriptions. A month later, in July +1884, he was murdered by his guides a few marches north of Jidda, on his +way back to Hail. + +One other traveller visited Hail during the lifetime of the amir +Mahommed--Baron E. Nolde--who arrived there in 1893, not long after the +amir had by his victory over the combined forces of Riad and Kasim +brought the whole of Nejd under his dominion. Nolde crossed the Nafud to +Haiyania by a more direct track than that from Shakik to Jubba. The amir +was away from his capital settling the affairs of his newly acquired +territory; Nolde therefore, after a short halt at Hail, journeyed on to +Ibn Rashid's camp somewhere in the neighbourhood of Shakra. Here he was +on new ground, but unfortunately he gives little or no description of +his route thither, or of his journey northwards by the Persian pilgrim +road, already traversed by Huber in 1881. His narrative thus, while +containing much of general interest on the climate and on the animal +life of northern Arabia, its horses and camels in particular, adds +little to those of his predecessors as regards topographical detail. + + + General results of exploration. + +If the journeys detailed above be traced on the map they will be found +to cover the northern half of the peninsula above the line Mecca-Hofuf, +with a network of routes, which, though sometimes separated by wide +intervals, are still close enough to ensure that no important +geographical feature can have been overlooked, especially in a country +whose general character varies so little over wide areas. In the +southern half, on the other hand, except in Nejran and Jauf, no European +traveller has penetrated 100 m. in a direct line from the coast. The +vast extent of the Dahna, or great southern desert, covering perhaps +250,000 sq. m., accounts for about a third of this area, but some of the +most favoured districts in Arabia--Asir and northern Yemen--remain +unexplored, and the hydrography of the Dawasir basin offers some +interesting problems, while a great field remains for the archaeologist +in the seat of the old Sabaean kingdom from Jauf to the Hadramut valley. + + + Sinai Peninsula. + + _Topographical Details._--Beginning from the north-west, the Sinai + peninsula belongs to Egypt, though geographically part of Arabia. It + is bounded on the E. by a line drawn from Ar Rafa, a few miles E. of + El Arish on the Mediterranean, to the head of the Gulf of Akaba; and + on the W. by the Suez Canal; its length from El Arish to its most + southern point is 240 m., and its breadth from Suez to Akaba is nearly + 160 m. The greater part drains to the Mediterranean, from which the + land rises gradually to the summit of the Tih plateau. The deep + depression of Wadi Feran separates the Tih from the higher mass of + Sinai (q.v.), in which J. Katherine attains a height of 8500 ft.; + except in W. Feran there is little cultivable land, the greater part + consisting of bare, rocky hills and sandy valleys, sparsely covered + with tamarisk and acacia bushes. The Egyptian pilgrim road crosses the + peninsula from Suez to Akaba, passing the post of An Nakhl, with a + reservoir and a little cultivation, about half way; a steep descent + leads down from the edge of the Tih plateau to Akaba. + + + Syrian desert. + + The rest of the northern borderland is covered by the Syrian desert, + extending from the borders of Palestine to the edge of the Euphrates + valley. This tract, known as the Hamad, is a gravelly plain unbroken + by any considerable range of hills or any continuous watercourse + except the Wadi Hauran, which in rainy seasons forms a succession of + pools from J. Hauran to the Euphrates. Its general slope is to the + north-east from the volcanic plateau of the Harra south of J. Hauran + to the edge of the Euphrates valley. The Wadi Sirhan, a broad + depression some 500 ft. below the average level of the Hamad, crosses + it from north-east to south-west between Hauran and Jauf; it has a + nearly uniform height above sea-level of 1850 ft., and appears to be + the bed of an inland sea rather than a true watercourse. Water is + found in it a few feet below the surface, and a little cultivation is + carried on at the small oases of Kaf and Ithri, whence salt produced + in the neighbouring salt lakes is exported. The W. Sirhan is + continuous with the depression known as the Jauf, situated on the + northern edge of the Nefud or Nafud, and the halfway station between + Damascus and Hail; and it is possible that this depression continues + eastward towards the Euphrates along a line a little north of the + thirtieth parallel, where wells and pasturages are known to exist. + Jauf is a small town consisting, at the time of the Blunts' visit in + 1879, of not more than 500 houses. The town with its gardens, + surrounded by a mud wall, covers a space of 2 m. in length by half a + mile in width; the basin in which it lies is barely 3 m. across, and + except for the palm gardens and a few patches of corn, it is a dead + flat of white sand, closed in by high sandstone cliffs, beyond which + lies the open desert. The oases of Sakaka and Kara are situated in a + similar basin 15 m. to the east; the former a town of 10,000 + inhabitants and somewhat larger than Jauf according to Huber. + + + The Nafud. + + A short distance south of Jauf the character of the desert changes + abruptly from a level black expanse of gravel to the red sands of the + Nafud. The northern edge of this great desert follows very nearly the + line of the thirtieth parallel, along which it extends east and west + for a length of some 400 m.; its breadth from north to south is 200 m. + Though almost waterless, it is in fact better wooded and richer in + pasture than any part of the Hamad; the sand-hills are dotted with + _ghada_, a species of tamarisk, and other bushes, and several grasses + and succulent plants --among them the _adar_, on which sheep are said + to feed for a month without requiring water--are found in abundance in + good seasons. In the spring months, when their camels are in milk, the + Bedouins care nothing for water, and wander far into the Nafud with + their flocks in search of the green pasture which springs up + everywhere after the winter rains. A few wells exist actually in the + Nafud in the district called El Hajra, near its north-eastern border, + and along its southern border, between J. Shammar and Tema, there are + numerous wells and artificial as well as natural reservoirs resorted + to by the nomad tribes. + + Owing to the great extent of the Nafud desert, the formation of + sand-dunes is exemplified on a proportionate scale. In many places + longitudinal dunes are found exceeding a day's journey in length, the + valleys between which take three or four hours to cross; but the most + striking feature of the Nafud are the high crescent-shaped sand-hills, + known locally as _falk_ or _falj_, described by Blunt and Huber, who + devoted some time to their investigation. The falks enclose a deep + hollow (known as _ka'r_), the floor of which is often hard soil bare + of sand, and from which the inner slopes of the falk rise as steeply + as the sand will lie (about 50 deg.). On the summit of the falk there + is generally a mound known as _tas_ or _barkhus_ composed of white + sand which stands out conspicuously against the deep red of the + surrounding deserts; the exterior slopes are comparatively gentle. The + falks are singularly uniform in shape, but vary greatly in size; the + largest were estimated by Huber and Euting at 1-1/4 m. across and 330 + ft. deep. They run in strings irregularly from east to west, + corresponding in this with their individual direction, the convex face + of the falk being towards the west, i.e. the direction of the + prevailing wind, and the cusps to leeward. In the south of the Nafud, + where Huber found the prevailing wind to be from the south, the falks + are turned in that direction. Though perhaps subject to slight changes + in the course of years, there is no doubt that these dunes are + practically permanent features; the more prominent ones serve as + landmarks and have well-known distinctive names. The character of the + vegetation which clothes their slopes shows that even superficial + changes must be slight. The general level of the Nafud was found by + Huber's observations to be about 3000 ft. above sea-level; the highest + point on the Jauf-Hail route is at Falk Alam, the rocky peaks of which + rise 200 or 300 ft. above the surface of the sand. Other peaks + cropping out of the Nafud are Jebel Tawil, near the wells of Shakik, + and J. Abrak Rada, a long black ridge in the middle of the desert. + + + The Harra. + + The high plateau which from. J. Hauran southward forms the main + watershed of the peninsula is covered in places by deep beds of lava, + which from their hardness have preserved the underlying sandstones + from degradation, and now stand up considerably above the general + level. These tracts are known as _harra_; the most remarkable is the + Harrat El Awerid, west of the Haj route from Tebuk to El Ala, a + mountain mass 100 m. in length with an average height of over 5000 + ft., and the highest summit of which, J. Anaz, exceeds 7000 ft. The + harra east of Khaibar is also of considerable extent, and the same + formation is found all along the Hejaz border from Medina to the Jebel + el Kura, east of Mecca. The surface of the harra is extremely broken, + forming a labyrinth of lava crags and blocks of every size; the whole + region is sterile and almost waterless, and compared with the Nafud it + produces little vegetation; but it is resorted to by the Bedouin in + the spring and summer months when the air is always fresh and cool. In + winter it is cold and snow often lies for some time. + + + Hejaz. + + Hejaz, if we except the Taif district in the south, which is properly + a part of the Yemen plateau, forms a well-marked physical division, + lying on the western slope of the peninsula, where that slope is at + its widest, between the Harra and the Red Sea. A high range of granite + hills, known as the Tehama range, the highest point of which, J. Shar, + in Midian, exceeds 6500 ft., divides it longitudinally into a narrow + littoral and a broader upland zone 2000 or 3000 ft. above the sea. + Both are generally bare and unproductive, the uplands, however, + contain the fertile valleys of Khaibar and Medina, draining to the + Wadi Hamd, the principal river system of western Arabia; and the Wadi + Jadid or Es Safra, rising in the Harra between Medina and Es Safina, + which contain several settlements, of which the principal produce is + dates. The quartz reefs which crop out in the granite ranges of the + Tehama contain traces of gold. These and the ancient copper workings + were investigated by Burton in 1877. The richer veins had evidently + been long ago worked out, and nothing of sufficient value to justify + further outlay was discovered. The coast-line is fringed with small + islets and shoals and reefs, which make navigation dangerous. The only + ports of importance are Yambu and Jidda, which serve respectively + Medina and Mecca; they depend entirely on the pilgrim traffic to the + holy cities, without which they could not exist. + + + Nejd. + + The great central province of Nejd occupies all inner Arabia between + the Nafud and the southern desert. Its northern part forms the basin + of the Wadi Rumma, which, rising in the Khaibar harra, runs + north-eastward across the whole width of Nejd, till it is lost in the + sands of the eastern Nafud, north of Aneza. The greater portion of + this region is an open steppe, sandy in places and in others dotted + with low volcanic hills, but with occasional ground water and in + favourable seasons furnishing support for a considerable pastoral + population. Its elevation varies from about 5000 ft. in the west to + 2500 ft. in the east. In Jebel Shammar, Kasim and Wushm, where the + water in the wadi beds rises nearly to the ground level, numerous + fertile oases are found with thriving villages and towns. + + Jebel Shammar, from which the northern district of Nejd takes its + name, is a double range of mountains some 20 m. apart, rising sharply + out of the desert in bare, granite cliffs. J. Aja, the western and + higher of the two ranges, has a length of about 100 m. from north-east + to south-west, where it merges into the high plateau extending from + and continuous with the Khaibar harra. The highest point, J. Kara, + near its north-eastern extremity, is about 4600 ft. above sea-level, + or 1600 ft. above the town of Hail, which, like most of the larger + villages, lies along the wadi bed at the foot of J. Aja. The town, + which has risen with the fortunes of the Ibn Rashid family to be the + capital of Upper Nejd, is at the mouth of the valley between the twin + ranges, about 2 m. from the foot of J. Aja, and contained at the time + of Nolde's visit in 1893 about 12,000 inhabitants. + + The principal tributaries of the W. Rumma converge in lower Kasim, and + at Aneza Doughty says its bed is 3 m. wide from bank to bank. Forty + years before his visit a flood is said to have occurred, which passed + down the river till it was blocked by sand-drifts at Thuwerat, 50 m. + lower down, and for two years a lake stood nearly 100 m. long, crowded + by waterfowl not known before in that desert country. Below this its + course has not been followed by any European traveller, but it may be + inferred from the line of watering-places on the road to Kuwet, that + it runs out to the Persian Gulf in that neighbourhood. + + East of Kasim the land rises gradually to the high plateau culminating + in the ranges of Jebel Tuwek and J. Arid. The general direction of + these hills is from north-west to south-east. On the west they rise + somewhat steeply, exposing high cliffs of white limestone, which + perhaps gave Palgrave the impression that the range is of greater + absolute height than is actually the case. J. Tuwek in any case forms + an important geographical feature in eastern Nejd, interrupting by a + transverse barrier 200 m. in length the general north-easterly slope + of the peninusla, and separating the basin of the W. Rumma from that + of the other great river system of central Arabia, the Wadi Dawasir. + The districts of Suder and Wushm lie on its northern side, Arid in the + centre, and Aflaj, Harik and Yemama on its south, in the basin of the + W. Dawasir; the whole of this hilly region of eastern Nejd is, + perhaps, rather a rolling down country than truly mountainous, in + which high pastures alternate with deep fertile valleys, supporting + numerous villages with a large agricultural population. The W. Hanifa + is its principal watercourse; its course is marked by an almost + continuous series of palm groves and settlements, among which Deraiya + the former, and Riad the present, capital of the Ibn Saud kingdom are + the most extensive. Its lower course is uncertain, but it probably + continues in a south-east direction to the districts of El Harik and + Yemama when, joined by the drainage from Aflaj and the W. Dawasir, it + runs eastward till it disappears in the belt of sandy desert 100 m. in + width that forms the eastern boundary of Nejd, to reappear in the + copious springs that fertilize El Hasa and the Bahrein littoral. + + + Unexplored region of S. Nejd. + + As regards the unexplored southern region, Palgrave's informants in + Aflaj, the most southerly district visited by him, stated that a day's + march south of that place the Yemen road enters the W. Dawasir, up + which it runs for ten days, perhaps 200 m., to El Kura, a thinly + peopled district on the borders of Asir; this accords with the + information of the French officers of the Egyptian army in that + district, and with that of Halevy, who makes all the drainage from + Nejran northward run to the same great wadi. Whether there be any + second line of drainage in southern Nejd skirting the edge of the + great desert and following the depression of the W. Yabrin must remain + a matter of conjecture. Colonel Miles concluded, from his enquiries, + that the low salt swamp, extending inland for some distance from Khor + ed Duwan, in the bay east of El Katr, was the outlet of an extensive + drainage system which may well be continuous with the W. Yabrin and + extend far into the interior, if not to Nejran itself. + + + El Hasa. + + East of Nejd a strip of sandy desert 50 m. in width extends almost + continuously from the great Nafud to the Dahna. East of this again a + succession of stony ridges running parallel to the coast has to be + crossed before El Hasa is reached. This province, which skirts the + Persian Gulf from the mouth of the Euphrates to the frontiers of Oman, + is low and hot; its shores are flat, and with the exception of Kuwet + at the north-west corner of the gulf, it possesses no deep water + port. North of Katif it is desert and only inhabited by nomads; at + Katif, however, and throughout the district to the south bordering on + the Gulf of Bahrein there are ample supplies of underground water, + welling up in abundant springs often at a high temperature, and + bringing fertility to an extensive district of which El Hofuf, a town + of 15,000 to 20,000 inhabitants, is the most important centre. + + + South-western Arabia. + + South-western Arabia, from the twenty-first parallel down to the Gulf + of Aden, including the Taif district of Hejaz, Asir and Yemen, forms + one province geographically. Throughout its length it consists of + three zones, a narrow coastal strip, rarely exceeding 20 m. in width, + a central mountainous tract, embracing the great chain which runs + parallel to the coast from near Taif to within 50 m. of Aden, and an + inner plateau falling gradually to the north-east till it merges in + the Nejd steppes or the sands of the great desert. + + The lowland strip or Tehama consists partly of a gravelly plain, the + _Khabt_, covered sparsely with acacia and other desert shrubs and + trees, and furnishing pasturage for large flocks of goats and camels; + and partly of sterile wastes of sand like the _Ramla_, which extends + on either side of Aden almost from the seashore to the foot of the + hills. The Tehama is, however, by no means all desert, the mountain + torrents where they debouch into the plain have formed considerable + tracts of alluvial soil of the highest degree of fertility producing + in that warm equable climate two and even three crops in the year. The + flood-water is controlled by a system of dams and channels constructed + so as to utilize every drop, and the extent of cultivation is limited + more by the supply of water available than by the amount of suitable + soil. These districts support a large settled population and several + considerable towns, of which Bet el Fakih and Zubed in the western and + Lahej in the southern Tehama, with 4000 to 6000 inhabitants, are the + most important. There are signs that this coastal strip was until a + geologically recent period below sea-level; and that the coast-line is + still receding is evidenced by the history of the town of Muza, once a + flourishing port, now 20 m. inland; while Bet el Fakih and Zubed, once + important centres of the coffee trade, have lost their position + through the silting up of the ports which formerly served them. + + The jebel or mountain-land is, however, the typical Yemen, the _Arabia + Felix_ of the ancients. Deep valleys winding through the barren + foothills lead gradually up to the higher mountains, and as the track + ascends the scenery and vegetation change their character; the trees + which line the banks of the wadi are overgrown with creepers, and the + running stream is dammed at frequent intervals, and led off in + artificial channels to irrigate the fields on either side; the steeper + parts of the road are paved with large stones, substantially built + villages, with their masonry towers or _dars_, crowning every height, + replace the collection of mud walls and brushwood huts of the low + country; while tier above tier, terraced fields cover the hill slopes + and attest the industry of the inhabitants and the fertility of their + mountains. On the main route from Hodeda to Sana the first coffee + plantations are reached at Usil, at an altitude of 4300 ft., and + throughout the western slopes of the range up to an altitude of 7000 + ft. it is the most important crop. Jebel Haraz, of which Manakha, a + small town of 3000 inhabitants is the chief place, is described by + Glaser as one vast coffee garden. Here the traveller ascending from + the coast sees the first example of the jebel or highland towns, with + their high three-storeyed houses, built of quarried stone, their + narrow facades pierced with small windows with whitewashed borders and + ornamented with varied arabesque patterns; each dar has the appearance + of a small castle complete in itself, and the general effect is rather + that of a cluster of separate forts than of a town occupied by a + united community. + + The scenery in this mountain region is of the most varied description; + bare precipitous hill-sides seamed with dry, rocky watercourses give + place with almost startling rapidity to fertile slopes, terraced + literally for thousands of feet. General Haig in describing them says: + "One can hardly realize the enormous labour, toil and perseverance + that these represent; the terrace walls are usually 5 to 8 ft. in + height, but towards the top of the mountains they are sometimes as + much as 15 or 18 ft.; they are built entirely of rough stone without + mortar, and I reckon that on an average each wall retains not more + than twice its own height in breadth, and I do not think I saw a + single break in them unrepaired." + + The highest summits as determined by actual survey are between 10,000 + and 11,000 ft. above sea-level. J. Sabur, a conspicuous mass in the + extreme south, is 9900 ft., with a fall to the Taiz valley of 5000 + ft.; farther north several points in the mountains above Ibb and Yarim + attain a height of 10,500 ft., and J. Hadur, near the Sana-Hodeda + road, exceeds 10,000 ft. From the crest of the range there is a short + drop of 2000 or 3000 ft. to the broad open valleys which form the + principal feature of the inner plateau. The town of Yarim lies near + its southern extremity at an altitude of about 8000 ft.; within a + short distance are the sources of the W. Yakla, W. Bana and W. Zubed, + running respectively east and south and west. The first named is a dry + watercourse ultimately joining the basin of the W. Hadramut; the two + others run for a long distance through fertile valleys and, like many + of the wadis on the seaward side of the range, have perennial streams + down to within a few miles of the sea. Sana, the capital of Yemen, + lies in a broad valley 7300 ft. above sea-level, sloping northwards to + the W. Kharid which, with the Ghail Hirran, the sources of which are + on the eastern slopes of J. Hadur, run north-eastward to the Jauf + depression. The Arhab district, through which these two great wadis + run, was formerly the centre of the Himyar kingdom; cultivation is now + only to be found in the lower parts on the borders of the + watercourses, all above being naked rock from which every particle of + soil has been denuded. In the higher parts there are fine plains where + Glaser found numerous Himyaritic remains, and which he considers were + undoubtedly cultivated formerly, but they have long fallen out of + cultivation owing to denudation and desiccation--the impoverishment of + the country from these causes is increasing. Eastward the plateau + becomes still more sterile, and its elevation probably falls more + rapidly till it reaches the level of the Jauf and Nejran valleys on + the borders of the desert. The water-parting between central and + southern Arabia seems to be somewhere to the south of Nejran, which, + according to Halevy, drains northward to the W. Dawasir, while the + Jauf is either an isolated depression, or perhaps forms part of the + Hadramut basin. + + + Asir. + + Farther north, in Asir, the plateau is more mountainous and contains + many fertile valleys. Of these may be mentioned Khamis Mishet and the + Wadi Shahran rising among the high summits of the maritime chain, and + the principal affluents of the Wadi Besha; the latter is a broad + well-watered valley, with numerous scattered hamlets, four days' + journey (perhaps 80 m.) from the crest of the range. Still farther + north is the Wadi Taraba and its branches running down from the + highland district of Zahran. The lower valleys produce dates in + abundance, and at higher elevations wheat, barley, millets and + excellent fruit are grown, while juniper forests are said to cover the + mountain slopes. In Yemen this tree was probably more common formerly; + the place-name Arar, signifying juniper, is still often found where + the tree no longer exists. + + + Coast of Yemen. + + Hadramut. + + The western coast of Yemen, like that of Hejaz, is studded with shoals + and islands, of which Perim in the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, Kamaran, + the Turkish quarantine post, 40 m. north of Hodeda, and the Farsan + group, off the Abu Arish coast, are the principal. Hodeda is the only + port of any importance since the days of steamships began; the other + ports, Mokha, Lohaia and Kanfuda merely share in the coasting trade. + The south coast is free from the shoals that imperil the navigation of + the Red Sea, and in Aden it possesses the only safe natural harbour on + the route between Suez and India. Several isolated volcanic hills crop + out on the shore line between Aden and the straits; the most + remarkable are J. Kharaz, 2500 ft., and J. Shamshan, 1700 ft., at the + base of which Aden itself is built. In both of these the crater form + is very clearly marked. A low maritime plain, similar to the Tehama of + the western coast, extends for some 200 m. east of the Straits of + Bab-el-Mandeb, backed by mountains rising to 7000 ft. or more; farther + east the elevation of the highland decreases steadily, and in the + Hadramut, north of Mukalla, does not much exceed 4000 ft. The mountain + chain, too, is less distinctly marked, and becomes little more than + the seaward escarpment of the plateau which intervenes between the + coast and the Hadramut valley. This valley runs nearly east and west + for a distance of 500 m. from the eastern slopes of the Yemen + highlands to its mouth on the Mahra coast near Sihut. The greater part + of it is desert, but a short stretch lying between the 48th and 50th + meridians is well watered and exceptionally fertile. This begins a + little to the east of Shabwa, the ancient capital, now half buried in + the advancing sand, and for a distance of over 70 m. a succession of + villages and towns surrounded by fields and date groves extends along + the main valley and into the tributaries which join it from the south. + Shibam, Saiyun and Tarim are towns of 6000 or more inhabitants, and + Hajren and Haura in the W. Duwan are among the larger villages. + Himyaritic remains have been found here and in the W. Mefat which + enters the Gulf of Aden near Balhaf. A few small fishing villages or + ports are scattered along the coast, but except Mukalla and Shihr none + is of any importance. + + The Gara coast was visited by the Bents, who went inland from Dhafar, + one of the centres of the old frankincense trade, to the crest of the + plateau. The narrow coastal strip seems to be moderately fertile, and + the hills which in places come down to the seashore are covered with + trees, among which the frankincense and other gum-bearing trees are + found. On the plateau, which has an altitude of 4000 ft., there is + good pasturage; inland the country slopes gently to a broad valley + beyond which the view was bounded by the level horizon of the desert. + + + Oman. + + Oman (q.v.) includes all the south-eastern corner of the peninsula. + Its chief feature is the lofty range of J. Akhdar, 10,000 ft. above + sea-level. Like the great range of western Arabia, it runs parallel to + the coast; it differs, however, from the western range in that its + fall on the landward side is as abrupt and nearly as great as on its + seaward side. Its northern extremity, Ras Musandan, rises + precipitously from the straits of Hormuz; farther south the range + curves inland somewhat, leaving a narrow but fertile strip, known as + the Batina coast, between it and the sea, and containing several + populous towns and villages of which Sohar, Barka and Sib are the + chief. Muscat, the capital of the province and the principal port on + the coast, is surrounded on three sides by bare, rocky hills, and has + the reputation of being the hottest place in Arabia. Zwemer says the + fertility of the highland region of J. Akhdar is wonderful and is in + striking contrast to the barrenness of so much of the coast; water + issues in perennial springs from many rocky clefts, and is carefully + husbanded by the ingenuity of the people; underground channels, known + here as _faluj_, precisely similar to the _kanat_ or _karez_ of Persia + and Afghanistan, are also largely used. The principal villages on the + eastern slopes are Rustak, Nakhl and Semail in the well-watered valley + of the same name; on the western slopes are Tanuf and Nizwa, lying + immediately below the highest summit of the range; Semed, Ibra and + Bidiya in the W. Betha are all well-built villages with palm-groves + and irrigated fields. In the north-west the Dhahira district sloping + towards the Jewasimi coast is more steppe-like in character; but there + two oases of great fertility are found, of which Birema, visited by + both Miles and Zwemer, supports a population of 15,000. West of Abu + Dhabi a low flat steppe with no settled inhabitants extends up to the + Katr peninsula, merging on the north into the saline marshes which + border the Persian Gulf, and on the south into the desert. + + + The southern desert. + + The great desert known as the Dahna or the Rub'a el Khali ("the empty + quarter") is believed to cover all the interior of southern Arabia + from the borders of Yemen in the west to those of Oman in the east. + Halevy in Nejran, Von Wrede in Hadramut, and Wellsted in Oman reached + its edge, though none of them actually entered it, and the guides + accompanying them all concurred in describing it as uninhabitable and + uncrossed by any track. Its northern fringe is no doubt frequented by + the Bedouin tribes of southern Nejd after the rains, when its sands, + like those of the northern desert, produce herbage; but towards the + east, according to Burckhardt's information, it is quite without + vegetation even in the winter and spring. The farthest habitable spot + to the south of Nejd is the Wadi Yabrin, which L. Pelly heard of from + the Ahl Murra Bedouins as once a fertile district, and which still + produces dates, though, owing to malaria, it is now deserted; thence + southward to the Hadramut valley no communication is known to exist. + + [_Geology._--The geological structure of Arabia is very similar to + that of Egypt. The oldest rocks consist of granite and schist, + penetrated by intrusive dykes, and upon this foundation rest the + flat-lying sedimentary deposits, beginning with a sandstone like the + Nubian sandstone of Egypt. In the northern part of Arabia the + crystalline rocks form a broad area extending from the peninsula of + Sinai eastwards to Hail and southwards at least as far as Mecca. + Towards the north the crystalline floor is overlaid by the great + sandstone series which covers nearly the whole of the country north of + Hail. Upon the sandstone rest a few scattered outliers of limestone, + probably of Cretaceous age, the largest of which occur near Jauf and + east of Bureda. Over both sandstone and granite great sheets of lava + have been poured, and these, protecting the softer beds beneath from + further denudation, now stand up as the high plateaus and hills called + _harra_. Volcanic cones still exist in large numbers, and the sheets + of lava appear as fresh as any recent flows of Etna or Vesuvius. + Arabian manuscripts describe an eruption on the harra near Medina in + A.D. 1256. In the south of Arabia the crystalline floor appears at + intervals along the southern coast and on the shores of the Gulf of + Oman. At Marbat the granite is overlaid by sandstone, presumably the + Nubian sandstone: this is followed by marls containing Cenomanian + fossils; and these are overlaid by Upper Cretaceous limestones, upon + which rest isolated patches of _Alveolina_ limestone. Generally, + however, the Cretaceous beds do not appear, and the greater part of + southern Arabia seems to be formed of _Alveolina_ and nummulite + limestones of Tertiary age. An extinct volcano occurs at Aden, and + volcanic rocks are found at other places near the Straits of + Bab-el-Mandeb. Throughout the whole of Arabia, so far as is known, the + sedimentary beds show no signs of any but the most gentle folding. + Faulting, however, is by no means absent, and some of the faults are + of considerable magnitude. The Gulf of Akaba is a strip of country + which has been let down between two parallel faults, and several + similar faulted troughs occur in the Sinai peninsula. The Red Sea + itself is a great trough bounded by faults along each side.] + + _Climate._--Owing to its low latitude and generally arid surface, + Arabia is on the whole one of the hottest regions of the earth; this + is especially the case along the coasts of the Persian Gulf and the + southern half of the Red Sea, where the moist heat throughout the year + is almost intolerable to Europeans. In the interior of northern and + central Arabia, however, where the average level of the country + exceeds 3000 ft., the fiery heat of the summer days is followed by + cool nights, and the winter climate is fresh and invigorating; while + in the highlands of Asir and Yemen in the south-west, and of Oman in + the east, the summer heat is never excessive, and the winters are, + comparatively speaking, cold. + + In the northern desert the temperature is subject to extreme + variations. Nolde states that on the 1st of February 1893 in the + desert north of Hail the thermometer fell from 78 deg. a little before + sunset to 18 deg. a quarter of an hour after. The midday temperatures + recorded by Huber at Hail during January and the first half of + February average about 65 deg. F., and water froze on several nights; + at Medina the winters are cold and night frosts of frequent + occurrence, and these conditions prevail over all the western part of + the Nejd plateau. In the east where the elevation is lower the climate + is warmer. In the elevated highland district which extends from Taif + to within 50 m. of Aden, the summer heat is tempered by the monsoon + winds, and the seasonal variation of temperature is less marked. From + observations made at Sana by Manzoni, Deflers and Glaser, the mean + temperature for the year of that city at an altitude of 7300 ft. and + in 15 deg. 22' N. appears to be 60 deg. F.; for July the mean maximum + was 77 deg., mean minimum 54 deg.; for January the figures were 62 + deg.and 40 deg. respectively, the lowest recorded temperature in 1878 + was 26.6 deg. on the 26th of January. At Aden at the sea-level the + mean temperature for the year is 83 deg.; the highest observed + temperature in 1904 was 97.3 deg., the lowest 67.4 deg. + + The rainfall throughout northern and central Arabia is chiefly in the + winter months between October and April, and is scanty and irregular. + Doughty states that in 1876 rain to wet the ground had not fallen for + three years at Medain Salih; in that year showers fell on the 29th of + December and on two days in January and again in March. After a very + hot summer the bright weather changed to clouded skies on the 2nd of + October, rain fell tempestuously the same evening, and there were + showery days and nights till the 14th. The autumn rains fell that year + abundantly in the Nafud towards Jauf, but very little in the basin of + the W. Hamd (on the western slope). Doughty adds that the Nejd + highlands between Kasim and Mecca are watered yearly by seasonable + rains, which at Taif are expected about the end of August and last + commonly from four to six weeks. This appears to be about the northern + limit reached by the south-west monsoon, which from June to September + brings a fairly abundant rainfall to the Yemen highlands, though the + Tehama remains almost entirely rainless. The rainfall is heaviest + along the western fringe of the plateau, and penetrates inland in + decreasing quantity over a zone which perhaps extends to 100 m. in + width. In good seasons it is sufficient for the cultivation of the + summer crop of millet, and for the supply of the perennial streams and + springs, on which the irrigation of the winter crops of wheat and + barley depend. The amount measured at Dhala at the extreme south of + the plateau at an elevation of 4800 ft. was in 1902 as follows:--June, + 4.0 in.; July, 5.5; August, 5.8; September, 1.9. Only slight showers + were recorded in the other months of the year. At higher elevations + the rainfall is no doubt heavier; Manzoni mentions that at Sana there + was constant rain throughout August and September 1878, and that the + thermometer during August did not reach 65 deg. In the Tehama + occasional showers fall during the winter months; at Aden the average + rainfall for the year is 2.97 in., but during 1904 only 0.5 in. was + recorded. Snow falls on the Harra and on the Tehama range in northern + Arabia, and Nolde records a fall of snow which lay on the Nafud on the + 1st of February 1893. It also falls on J. Akhdar in Oman, but is very + rarely known on the Yemen mountains, probably because the + precipitation during the winter months is so slight. + + The prevailing winds in northern Arabia as far as is known are from + the west; along the southern coast they are from the east; at Sana + there is generally a light breeze from the north-north-west from 9 to + 11 A.M., from noon till 4 P.M. a steady and often strong wind blows + from the south-south-east, which dies away later. The climate is + extremely dry, but this is compensated for by the heavy mists which + sweep up from the plains during the rainless months and exercise a + most beneficial effect in the coffee-growing districts. This + phenomenon is known as the sukhemani or amama. In the morning the + Tehama, as seen from the mountain tops, appears buried in a sea of + white cloud; towards noon the clouds drift up the mountain slopes and + cover the summits with wreaths of light mist charged with moisture + which condenses on the trees and vegetation; in the afternoon they + disappear, and the evenings are generally clear and still. + + _Fauna._--The wild animals of Arabia are all of the desert-loving + type: antelopes and gazelles are found in small numbers throughout the + peninsula; the latter are similar to the _chikara_ or ravine deer of + India. The larger antelopes, so common on the African side of the Gulf + of Aden, are not found, except one variety, the _Oryx beatrix_ (called + by the Arabs, wild cow), which is an inhabitant of the Nafud between + Tema and Hail; it is about the size of a donkey, white, and with long + straight horns. Hares are numerous both in the desert and in + cultivated tracts. In the Yemen mountains the _wal_, a wild goat with + massive horns, similar to the Kashmir ibex, is found; monkeys also + abound. Among smaller animals the jerboa and other descriptions of + rat, and the _wabar_ or cony are common; lizards and snakes are + numerous, most of the latter being venomous. Hyenas, wolves and + panthers are found in most parts of the country, and in the mountains + the leopard and wild cat. Of birds the ostrich is found in the Nafud + and in the W. Dawasir. Among game birds the bustard, guinea fowl, sand + grouse (_kata_), blue rock, green pigeon, partridge, including a large + chikor (_akb_) and a small species similar to the Punjab sisi; quail + and several kinds of duck and snipe are met with. In the cultivated + parts of Yemen and Tehama small birds are very numerous, so also are + birds of prey, vultures, kites and hawks. + + Insects of all sorts abound; scorpions, centipedes, spiders, and an + ugly but harmless millipede known in Yemen as _hablub_ are very common + in summer. Ants and beetles too are very numerous, and anthills are + prominent features in many places. Locusts appear in great swarms and + do much damage; fires are lighted at night to attract them, and large + quantities are caught and eaten by the poorer people. Bees are kept, + and in Yemen and Hadramut the honey is exceptionally good. + + + Camel. + + Of domesticated animals the camel is far the most useful to the Arab. + Owing to its endurance of thirst the long desert journeys which + separate the populous centres are made practicable, and in the spring + months, when green forage is plentiful in the desert, the Bedouins + pitch their camps for long periods far from any water, and not only + men but horses subsist on camel's milk. The Arabian camel belongs to + the one-humped species, though there are many varieties differing in + appearance as much as the thoroughbred race-horse from the English + cart-horse. The ordinary load for a pack camel is about 400 lb., and + in hot weather good camels will march 20 to 25 m. daily and only + require water every third or fourth day: in cool weather, with ample + green fodder they can go twenty-five days or more without drinking. A + good _dalul_ or riding camel will carry his rider 100 m. a day for a + week on end. Nolde gives an instance from his own experience of a + camel rider covering 62 m. in seven hours. The pure-bred riding camel + is only found in perfection in inner Arabia; for some unexplained + reason when taken out of their own country or north of the 30th degree + they rapidly degenerate. + + + Horse. + + The horse does not occupy the important position in the Bedouin + economy that is popularly supposed. In Nejd the number of horses is, + comparatively speaking, very small; the want of water in the Nafud + where alone forage is obtainable, and the absence of forage in the + neighbourhood of the towns makes horse-breeding on a large scale + impracticable there. Horses are in fact only kept by the principal + sheiks, and by far the larger proportion of those now in Nejd are the + property of the amir and his family. These are kept most of the year + in the Nafud, five or ten days' march from Hail, where they find their + own food on the desert herbage. When a raid is in contemplation, they + are brought in and given a little barley for a few weeks. Reared in + this way they are capable of marvellous endurance, marching during a + raid twenty hours a day for eight or ten days together. As a rule, + they are only mounted at the moment of attack, or in pursuit. Water + and forage have to be carried for them on camels. + + The great majority of the horses that come into the market as Arabs, + are bred in the northern desert and in Mesopotamia, by the various + sections of the Aneza and Shammar tribes, who emigrated from Nejd + generations ago, taking with them the original Nejd stock. In size and + appearance, and in everything but endurance, these northern horses are + admittedly superior to the true Nejdi. A few of the latter are + collected by dealers in the nomad camps and exported chiefly from + Kuwet. The amir Mahommed Ibn Rashid used to send down about one + hundred young horses yearly. + + Asses of excellent quality are bred all over the country; they are + much used as mounts by the richer townsmen. Except in the settled + districts horned cattle are not numerous; they are similar to the + Indian humped cattle, but are greatly superior in milking qualities. + The great wealth of the Arabs is in their flocks of sheep and goats; + they are led out to pasture soon after sunrise, and in the hotter + months drink every second day. In the spring when the succulent + _ashub_ and _adar_ grow plentifully in the desert, they go for weeks + without drinking. They are milked once a day about sunset by the women + (the men milk the camels), and a large proportion of the milk is made + into _samn_, clarified butter, or _marisi_, dried curd. The wool is + not of much value, and is spun by the women and woven into rugs, and + made up into saddlebags or into the black Bedouin tents. + + _Flora._--The flora of Arabia has been investigated by P. Forskal, the + botanist of Niebuhr's mission, P.E. Botta, G. Schweinfurth and A. + Deflers, to whose publications the technical reader is referred. Its + general type approaches more closely to the African than to that of + southern Asia. In the higher regions the principal trees are various + species of fig, tamarind, carob and numerous kinds of cactiform + _Euphorbia_, of which one, the _Euphorbia arborea_, grows to a height + of 20 ft. Of Coniferae the juniper is found on the higher slopes of J. + Sabur near Taiz, where Botta describes it as forming an extensive + forest and growing to a large size; it is also found in the range + overlooking the W. Madin, 50 m. W. of Aden. Considerable forests are + said to exist in Asir, and Burton found a few fine specimens which he + regarded as the remains of an old forest, on the Tehama range in + Midian. On the rocky hill-sides in Yemen the _Adenium Obesum_ is + worthy of notice, with its enormous bulb-like stems and brilliant red + flowers. Some fine aloes or agaves are also found. In the cultivated + upland valleys all over Arabia the _Zisyphus jujuba_, called by some + travellers lotus, grows to a large tree; its thorny branches are + clipped yearly and used to fence the cornfields among which it grows. + In the broad sandy wadi beds the tamarisk (_athl_) is everywhere + found; its wood is used for making domestic implements of all sorts. + Among fruit trees the vine, apricot, peach, apple, quince, fig and + banana are cultivated in the highlands, and in the lower country the + date palm flourishes, particularly throughout the central zone of + Arabia, in Hejaz, Nejd and El Hasa, where it is the prime article of + food. A hundred kinds of date are said to grow at Medina, of which the + _birni_ is considered the most wholesome; the _halwa_ and the _jalebi_ + are the most delicately flavoured and sell at very high rates; the + _khulas_ of El Hasa is also much esteemed. + + Of cereals the common millets, _dhura_ and _dukhn_, are grown in all + parts of the country as the summer crop, and in the hot irrigated + Tehama districts three crops are reaped in the year; in the highlands + maize, wheat and barley are grown to a limited extent as the winter + crop, ripening at the end of March or in April. Among vegetables the + common kinds grown include radishes, pumpkins, cucumbers, melons, + potatoes, onions and leeks. Roses are grown in some places for the + manufacture of _atr_, or attar of roses; mignonette, jasmine, thyme, + lavender and other aromatic plants are favourites in Yemen, when the + Arabs often stick a bunch in their head-dress. + + + Coffee. + + Of the products special to Arabia coffee comes first; it is nowhere + found wild, and is believed to have been introduced from Abyssinia in + the 6th century A.D. It thrives on the seaward slopes of the western + range in the zone of the tropical rains, at altitudes between 4000 and + 7000 ft. The principal centres of production are the upper valleys of + the W. Surdad, between Kaukaban and Manakha, and particularly on J. + Haraz; in the Wadi Zubed west of Uden; in Hajaria on the slopes of J. + Sabur, and in the Yafa district north-east of Aden. It is planted in + terraces on the mountain slopes; shady trees, such as tamarind and + fig, are planted in the border as a protection from the sun, and the + terraces are irrigated by channels led from a neighbouring rivulet or + spring. The plants are raised from seedlings, and when six or seven + weeks old they are transplanted in rows 4 to 6 ft. apart; they require + watering twice a month, and bear in two to four years. The berries are + dried in the sun and sent down to Hodeda or Aden, where they are + subjected to a process for separating the husk from the bean; the + result is about 50% of cleaned berries, _bun safi_, which is exported, + and a residue of husk or _kishr_, from which the Yemenis make their + favourite beverage. + + Another plant universally used as a stimulant in Southern Arabia is + _khat_ (_Catha edulis_). The best is grown on J. Sabur and the + mountainous country round Taiz. It is a small bush propagated from + cuttings which are left to grow for three years; the leaves are then + stripped, except a few buds which develop next year into young shoots, + these being cut and sold in bunches under the name of _khat mubarak_; + next year on the branches cut back new shoots grow; these are sold as + _khat malhani_, or second-year kat, which commands the highest price. + The bush is then left for three years, when the process is repeated. + The leaves and young shoots are chewed; they have stimulating + properties, comparable with those of the coca of Peru. + + The aromatic gums for which Arabia was famed in ancient times are + still produced, though the trade is a very small one. The tree from + which myrrh is extracted grows in many places, but the industry is + chiefly carried on at Suda, 60 m. north-north-east of Sana. + Longitudinal slits are made in the bark, and the gum is caught in cups + fixed beneath. The balsam of Mecca is produced in the same way, + chiefly in the mountains near the W. Safra between Yambu and Medina. + + The stony plains which cover so large a part of the country are often + covered with acacia jungle, and in the dry water-courses a kind of + wild palm, the _dom_, abounds, from the leaves of which baskets and + mats are woven. Brushwood and rough pasturage of some sort is found + almost everywhere, except in the neighbourhood of the larger + settlements, where forage and firewood have to be brought in from long + distances. The Nafud sands, too, are tufted in many places with bushes + or small trees, and after the winter rains they produce excellent + pasture. + +_Population._--The people, according to their own traditions, are +derived from two stocks, the pure Arabs, descended from Kahtan or +Joktan, fourth in descent from Shem; and the Mustarab or naturalized +Arabs, from Ishmael. The former are represented at the present day by +the inhabitants of Yemen, Hadramut and Oman, in general a settled +agricultural population; the latter by those of Hejaz, Nejd, El Hasa, +the Syrian desert and Mesopotamia, consisting of the Bedouin or pastoral +tribes (see ARABS and BEDOUINS). This distinction between the +characteristics of the two races is only true in a general sense, for a +considerable population of true Bedouin origin has settled down to +agricultural life in the oases of Hejaz and Nejd, while in southern +Arabia the tribes dwelling on the fringe of the great desert have to a +certain extent adopted the nomad life. + +Both among the nomad and settled Arabs the organization is essentially +tribal. The affairs of the tribe are administered by the sheiks, or +heads of clans and families; the position of sheik in itself gives no +real governing power, his word and counsel carry weight, but his +influence depends on his own personal qualities. All matters affecting +the community are discussed in the _majlis_ or assembly, to which any +tribesman has access; here, too, are brought the tribesmen's causes; +both sides plead and judgment is given impartially, the loser is fined +so many head of small cattle or camels, which he must pay or go into +exile. Murder can be expiated by the payment of _diya_ or blood-money, +if the kinsmen of the murdered man consent; they may, however, claim the +life of the murderer, and long and troublesome blood feuds often ensue, +involving the relatives of both sides for generations. + +Apart from the tribesmen there is in Hejaz and south Arabia a +privileged, religious class, the Sharifs or Seyyids, who claim descent +from Mahomet through his daughter Fatima. Until the Egyptian invasion in +1814 the Sharifs of Mecca were the recognized rulers of Hejaz, and +though the Turks have attempted to suppress their importance, the Sharif +still executes justice according to the Mahommedan law in the holy +cities, though, nominally, as a Turkish official. In Yemen and Hadramut +many villages are occupied exclusively by this religious hierarchy, who +are known as Ashraf, Sada or Kudha (i.e. Sharifs, Seyyids or Kadhis); +the religious affairs of the tribes are left in their hands; they do +not, however, interfere in tribal matters generally, or join in +fighting. + +Below these two classes, which may be looked on as the priestly and the +military castes, there is, especially in the settled districts, a large +population of artisans and labourers, besides negro slaves and their +descendants, slave or free. The population of Khaibar consists almost +entirely of the latter, and in Hail Huber estimates the pure Arab +inhabitants at only one-third of the whole. In the desert, too, there is +a widely scattered tribe, the Salubi, which from its name (_Salib_, +cross) is conjectured to be of early Christian origin; they are great +hunters, killing ostriches and gazelles; the Arabs despise them as an +inferior race, but do not harm them; they pay a small tax to the tribe +under whose protection they live, and render service as labourers, for +which they receive in the spring milk and cheese; at the date harvest +they get wages in kind; with this, and the produce of the chase, they +manage to exist in the desert without agriculture or flocks. + + + The Jews in Arabia. + +In southern Arabia the Jews form a large element in the town population. +According to one authority their presence in Yemen dates from the time +of Solomon, others say from the capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezzar. +Manzoni estimated their number in Sana in 1878 at 1700 out of a total +population of 20,000; at Aden they are a numerous and wealthy community, +with agents in most of the towns of Yemen. Even in remote Nejran, +Halevy, himself a Jew, found a considerable colony of his +co-religionists. They wear a distinctive garb and are not allowed to +carry arms or live in the same quarter as Moslems. Another foreign +element of considerable strength in the coast towns of Muscat, Aden and +Jidda, is the British Indian trading class; many families of Indian +origin also have settled at Mecca, having originally come as pilgrims. + +Estimates of the population of Arabia vary enormously, and the figures +given in the following table can only be regarded as a very rough +approximation:-- + + Hejaz 300,000 + Yemen and Asir 1,800,000 + Nejd 1,000,000 + Hadramut 150,000 + Oman 1,000,000 + El Hasa 300,000 + Syrian desert and border 275,000 + --------- + 4,825,000 + +_Communications._--The principal land routes in Arabia are those leading +to the holy cities. In the present day the Syrian pilgrim route, or Darb +el Haj, from Damascus to Medina and Mecca is the most used. The annual +pilgrim caravan or haj, numbering some 6000 people with 10,000 pack +animals, is escorted by a few Turkish irregulars known as _agel_; small +fortified posts have been established at the regular halting-places some +30 m. apart, each furnished with a well and reservoir, and for the +further protection of the haj, payments are made to the Bedouin tribes +through whose territories the route passes. The road is a mere camel +track across the desert, the chief places passed are Ma'an on the Syrian +border, a station on the old Sabaean trade route to Petra, and Medain +Salih, the site of the rock-cut tombs and inscriptions first brought to +notice by Doughty. From Medina the route usually followed descends the +W. Safra to Badr Hunen, whence it keeps near the coast passing Rabigh +and Khulesa to Mecca. The total distance, 1300 m., is covered in forty +days. + +The Egyptian pilgrim route from Cairo, across the Sinai peninsula and +down the Midian coast to El Wijh, joins the Syrian route at Badr Hunen. +It also was formerly provided with stations and reservoirs, but owing to +the greater facilities of the sea journey from Suez to Jidda it is now +little used. Another important route is that taken by the Persian or +Shia pilgrims from Bagdad and Kerbela across the desert, by the wells of +Lina, to Bureda in Kasim; thence across the steppes of western Nejd till +it crosses the Hejaz border at the Ria Mecca, 50 m. north-east of the +city. It lies almost entirely in the territory of the amir Ibn Rashid of +J. Shammar, who derives a considerable revenue from the pilgrimage. The +old reservoirs on this route attributed to Zubeda, wife of Harun al +Rashid, were destroyed during the Wahhabi raids early in the 19th +century, and have not been repaired. The Yemen pilgrim route, known as +the Haj el Kabsi, led from Sada through Asir to Taif and Mecca, but it +is no longer used. + +The principal trade routes are those leading from Damascus to Jauf and +across the Nafud to Hail. Other important routes leading to Nejd are +those from Kuwet to Hail, and from El Hasa to Riad respectively. In the +west and south the principal routes, other than those already mentioned, +are from Yambu to Medina, from Jidda to Mecca, Hodeda to Sana, Aden to +Sana, and from Mukalla to the Hadramut valley. Railway construction has +begun in Arabia, and in 1908 the Hejaz line, intended to connect +Damascus with Mecca, had reached Medina, 500 m. south of Ma'an. This +line is of great strategical importance, as strengthening the Turkish +hold on the Red Sea provinces. But the principal means of commercial +communication for a country like Arabia must always be by sea. Bahrein, +Kuwet and Muscat are in steam communication with India, and the Persian +Gulf ports; all the great lines of steamships call at Aden on their way +between Suez and the East, and regular services are maintained between +Suez, Jidda, Hodeda and Aden, as well as to the ports on the African +coast, while native coasting craft trade to the smaller ports on the Red +Sea and Indian Ocean. + + _Commerce._--The total value of the trade of Aden for 1904 amounted to + over L6,000,000. The imports to Jidda in the same year were + L1,405,000, largely consisting of rice, wheat and other food stuffs + from India; the exports, which have dwindled away in late years, + amounted in 1904 to only L25,000. To balance the exports and imports + specie was exported in the three years 1902-1904 amounting to + L2,319,000; a large proportion of this was perhaps provided by cash + brought into the country by pilgrims. + + The pilgrim traffic increased largely in 1904 as compared with + previous years; 74,600 persons landed at Jidda, 18,000 of whom were + from British India, 13,000 from Java and the Straits Settlements, and + the remainder from Turkish territory, Egypt and other countries: 235 + out of a total of 334 steamships engaged in this traffic were British. + + The trade of Hodeda, which contributes by far the largest share to + that of Turkish Yemen, fell off considerably during the period from + 1901-1905, chiefly owing to the disturbed state of the country. In the + latter year the imports amounted to L467,000, and the exports to + L451,000; coffee, the mainstay of Yemen trade, shows a serious decline + from L302,000 in 1902 to L229,000 in 1904; this is attributable partly + to the great increase of production in other countries, but mainly to + the insecurity of the trade routes and the exorbitant transit dues + levied by the Turkish administration. + + Oman, through its chief port Muscat, had a total trade of about + L550,000, two-thirds of which is due to imports and one-third to + exports. The chief items of imports are arms and ammunition, rice, + coffee and piece goods; the staple export is dates, which in a good + year accounts for nearly half the total; much of the trade is in the + hands of British Indians, and of the shipping 92% is British. + + The principal trade centre of the Arabian side of the Persian Gulf is + Bahrein; the total volume of trade of which amounted in 1904 to + L1,900,000, nearly equally divided between imports and exports; rice, + piece goods, &c., form the bulk of the former, while pearls are the + most valuable part of the latter. (R. A. W.) + + +ANTIQUITIES + +Arabia cannot be said to be "destitute of antiquities," but the material +for the study of these is still very incomplete. The difficulties in +the way of travelling in Arabia with a view to scientific investigation +are such that little or nothing is being done, and the systematic work +which has given such good results in Egypt, Palestine and +Babylonia-Assyria is unknown in Arabia. Yet the passing notes of +travellers from the time of Carsten Niebuhr show that antiquities are to +be found. + +_Prehistoric Remains._--Since prehistoric remains must be studied where +they are found, the difficulty in the way of exploration makes itself +severely felt. That such remains exist seems clear from the casual +remarks of travellers. Thus Palgrave (_Central and Eastern Arabia_, vol. +i. ch. 6) speaks of part of a circle of roughly shaped stones taken from +the adjacent limestone mountains in the Nejd. Eight or nine of these +stones still exist, some of them 15 ft. high. Two of them, 10 to 12 ft. +apart, still bear their horizontal lintel. They are all without +ornament. Palgrave compares them with the remains at Stonehenge and +Karnak. Doughty (_Arabia Deserta_, vol. ii.), travelling in north-west +Arabia, saw stones of granite in a row and "flagstones set edgewise" +(though he does not regard these as religious), also "round heaps, +perhaps barrows," and "dry-built round chambers," which may be ancient +tombs. J.T. Bent (_Southern Arabia_, pp. 24 ff.) explored one of several +mounds in Bahrein. It proved to be a tomb, and the remains in it are +said to be Phoenician. + +_Castles and Walls._--In the south of Arabia, where an advanced +civilization existed for centuries before the Christian era, the ruins +of castles and city-walls are still in existence, and have been +mentioned, though not examined carefully, by several travellers. In +Yemen and Hadramut especially these ruins abound, and in some cases +inscriptions seem to be still _in situ_. Great castles are often +mentioned in early Arabian literature. One in the neighbourhood of San'a +was described as one of the wonders of the world by Qazwini (_Athar +ul-Bilad_, p. 33, ed. Wustenfeld, Gottingen, 1847, cf. _Journal of the +German Oriental Society_, vol. 7, pp. 472, 476, and for other castles +vol. 10, pp. 20 ff.). The ruins of the city of Ma'rib, the old Sabaean +capital, have been visited by Arnaud, Halevy and Glaser, but call for +further description, as Arnaud confined himself to a description of the +dike (see below), while Halevy and Glaser were interested chiefly in the +inscriptions. + +_Wells and Dikes._--From the earliest times the conservation of water +has been one of the serious cares of the Arabs. All over the country +wells are to be found, and the masonry of some of them is undoubtedly +ancient. Inscriptions are still found in some of these in the south. The +famous well Zemzem at Mecca is said to belong to the early times, when +the eastern traffic passed from the south to the north-west of Arabia +through the Hejaz, and to have been rediscovered shortly before the time +of Mahomet. Among the most famous remains of Ma'rib are those of a great +dike reminding one of the restored tanks familiar to visitors at Aden. +These remains were first described by Arnaud (_Journal asiatique_, +January 1874, with plan). Their importance was afterwards emphasized by +Glaser's publication of two long inscriptions concerning their +restoration in the 5th and 6th centuries A.D. ("Zwei Inschriften uber +den Dammbruch von Marib," in the _Mitteilungen der Vorderasiatischen +Gesellschaft_, Berlin, 1897). Another dike about 150 yds. long was seen +by W.B. Harris at Hirran in Yemen. Above it was a series of three tanks +(_A Journey through the Yemen_, p. 279, London, 1893). + +_Stones and Bronzes._--The 19th century has brought to the museums of +Europe (especially to London, Paris, Berlin and Vienna) a number of +inscriptions in the languages of Minea and Saba, and a few in those of +Hadramut and Katabania (Qatta-bania). These inscriptions are generally +on limestone or marble or on tablets of bronze, and vary from a few +inches to some feet in length and height. In some cases the originals +have been brought to Europe, in other cases only squeezes of the +inscriptions. The characters employed are apparently derived from the +Phoenician (cf. Lidzbarski's _Ephemeris_, vol. i. pp. 109 ff.). The +languages employed have been the subject of much study (cf. F. Hommel's +_Sud-arabische Chrestomathie_, Munich, 1893), but the archaeological +value of these remains has not been so fully treated. Very many of them +are votive inscriptions and contain little more than the names of gods +and princes or private men. A few are historical, but being (with few +and late exceptions) undated, have given rise to much controversy among +scholars. Their range seems to be from about 800 B.C. (or 1500 B.C. +according to E. Glaser) to the 6th century A.D. Few are still _in situ_, +the majority having been taken from their original positions and built +into houses, mosques or wells of more recent date. Among these remains +are altars, and bases for statues of gods or for golden images of +animals dedicated to gods. The earlier stones are devoid of +ornamentation, but the later stones and bronzes are sometimes ornamented +with designs of leaves, flowers, ox-heads, men and women. Some bear +figures of the conventionalized sacred tree with worshippers, similar to +Babylonian designs. Besides these there are gravestones, stelae with +human heads, fragments of limestone, architectural designs as well as +bronze castings of camels, horses, mice, serpents, &c. (cf. D.H. +Muller's _Sudarabische Alterthumer im Kunsthistorischen Museum_, Vienna, +1899, with plates). + +_Seals, Weights and Coins._--The Vienna Museum possesses a small number +of seals and gems. The seals are inscribed with Sabaean writing and are +of bronze, copper, silver and stone. The gems of onyx, carnelian and +agate are later and bear various figures, and in some cases Arabic +inscriptions. One or two weights are also in existence. A number of +coins have been brought to the British Museum from Aden, San'a and +Ma'rib. Others were purchased by G. Schlumberger in Constantinople; +others have been brought to Europe by Glaser, and are now in the Vienna +Museum. These are imitations of Greek models, while the inscriptions are +in Sabaean characters (cf. B.V. Head, in the _Numismatic Chronicle_, +1878, pp. 273-284; G. Schlumberger, _Le Tresor de San'a_, Paris, 1880; +D.H. Muller, _op. cit._ pp. 65 ff. and plates). + + For the problem of Arabic antiquities in Rhodesia see RHODESIA and + ZIMBABWE. (G. W. T.) + + +HISTORY + +_Introduction._--Arabia is a land of Semites, and is supposed by some +scholars to have been the original home of the Semitic peoples. Although +this cannot be said to be proved, the studies, linguistic and +archaeological, of Semitic scholars have shown it to be probable. The +dispersion from Arabia is easy to imagine. The migration into Babylonia +was simple, as there are no natural boundaries to separate it from +north-east Arabia, and similar migrations have taken place in historic +times. That of the Aramaeans at an early period is likewise free from +any natural hindrance. The connexion with Palestine has always been +close; and the Abyssinian settlement is probably as late as the +beginning of the Christian era. Of these migrations, however, history +knows nothing, nor are they expressed in literature. Arabian literature +has its own version of prehistoric times, but it is entirely legendary +and apocryphal. It was, and still is, the custom of Arabian historians +to begin with the creation of the world and tell the history from then +to the time of which they are writing. Consequently even the more sober +histories contain a mass of fables about early days. Many of these, +taken in part from Jewish and Christian sources, find a place in the +Koran. Of all these stories current at the time of Mahomet, the only +ones of any value are the accounts of the "days of the Arabs," i.e. +accounts of some famous inter-tribal battles in Arabia. + +_Authorities._--Until recently the Arab traditions were practically the +only source for the pre-Islamic history of Arabia. The Old Testament +references to Arabs were obscure. The classical accounts of the invasion +of Aelius Callus in 26 B.C. threw little light on the state of Arabia at +the time, still less on its past history. The Greek writers from +Theophrastus in the 4th century B.C. to Ptolemy in the 2nd century A.D. +mention many names of Arabian peoples and describe the situation of +their cities, but contribute little to their history, and that little +could not be controlled. The same applies to the information of Pliny in +his _Natural History_. In the 19th century the discovery and +decipherment of the Assyrian inscriptions gave a slight glance into the +relations between Arabs and Assyrians from the 8th century B.C. But the +great contribution of the century to the early history of Arabia was the +collecting and translating of numerous early Arabian inscriptions (cf. +section _Antiquities_ above), which have done service both by their own +indication of a great civilization in Arabia for nearly (or more than) a +thousand years before the Christian era, and by the new stimulus which +they gave to the study and appreciation of the materials in the Assyrian +inscriptions, the Old Testament, and the Greek and Roman writers. At the +same time the facts that the inscriptions are undated until a late +period, that few are historical in their contents, and for the most part +yield only names of gods and rulers and domestic and religious details, +and that our collection is still very incomplete, have led to much +serious disagreement among scholars as to the reconstruction of the +history of Arabia in the pre-Christian centuries. + +All scholars, however, are agreed that the inscriptions reach as far +back as the 9th century B.C. (some say to the 16th) and prove the +existence of at least four civilized kingdoms during these centuries. +These are the kingdoms of Ma'in (Minaean), of Saba (Sabaean), of +Hadramaut (Hadramut) and of Katabania (Katabanu). Of the two latter +little is known. That of Hadramut had kings from the time of the +Minaeans to about A.D. 300, when it was conquered by Ethiopia. The +limits of the kingdom of Katabania are not known, but it has its own +inscriptions. + +As to the Sabaean kingdom there is fair agreement among scholars. The +inscriptions go back to 800 B.C. or earlier, and the same applies to the +kingdom. A queen of this people (the "Queen of Sheba") is said (1 Kings +x.) to have visited Solomon about 950 B.C. There is, however, no mention +of such a queen in the inscriptions. An Assyrian inscription mentions +Ith'amara the Sabaean who paid tribute to Sargon in 715 B.C. At this +time the Sabaeans must have been in north Arabia unless the inscription +refers to a northern colony of the southern Sabaeans. The former opinion +is held by E. Glaser, who thinks that in the 9th and 8th centuries they +moved down along the west coast to the south, where they conquered the +Minaeans (see below). The Sabaean rule is generally divided into periods +indicated by the titles given to their rulers. In the first of these +ruled the Makarib, who seem to have been priest-kings. Their first +capital was at Sirwah. Ten such rulers are mentioned in the +inscriptions. Their rule extended from the 9th to the 6th century. The +second period begins about 550 B.C. The rulers are known as "kings of +Saba." Their capital was Ma'rib. The names of seventeen of these kings +are known from the inscriptions. Their sway lasted until about 115 B.C., +when they were succeeded by the Himyarites. During this period they were +engaged in constant strife with the neighbouring kingdoms of Hadramut +and Katabania. The great prosperity of south-west Arabia at this time +was due in large measure to the fact that the trade from India with +Egypt came there by sea and then went by land up the west coast. This +trade, however, was lost during this period, as the Ptolemies +established an overland route from India to Alexandria. The connexion of +Saba with the north, where the Nabataeans (q.v.) had existed from about +200 B.C., was now broken. The decay that followed caused a number of +Sabaeans to migrate to other parts of Arabia. + +The Minaean kingdom extended over the south Arabian Jauf, its chief +cities being Karnau, Ma'in and Yathil. Some twenty-five kings are known +from the inscriptions; of these twenty are known to be related to one +another. Their history must thus cover several centuries. As +inscriptions in the Minaean language are found in al-'Ula in north +Arabia, it is probable that they had colonies in that district. With +regard to their date opinion is very much divided; some, with E. Glaser +and F. Hommel, maintaining that their kingdom existed prior to that of +Saba, probably from about 1500 B.C. or earlier until the Sabaeans came +from their home in the north and conquered them in the 9th century. +Other scholars think, with D.H. Muller, partly on palaeographical +grounds (cf. M. Lidzbarski's _Ephemeris_, vol. i. pp. 109 seq., Giessen, +1902), that none of the inscriptions are earlier than about 800 B.C. and +that the Minaean kingdom existed side by side with the Sabaean. It is +curious that the Sabaean inscriptions contain no mention of the +Minaeans, though this may be due to the fact that very few of the +inscriptions are historical in content. + +About 115 B.C. the power over south Arabia passed from the Sabaeans to +the Himyarites, a people from the extreme south-west of Arabia; and +about this time the kingdom of Katabania came to an end. The title taken +by the new rulers was "king of Saba and Raidan." Twenty-six kings of +this period are known from the inscriptions, some of which are dated. In +this period the Romans made their one attempt at direct interference in +the affairs of Arabia. The invasion under Aelius Gallus was an absolute +failure, the expedition being betrayed by the guides and lost in the +sands of the desert. During the latter part of this time the +Abyssinians, who had earlier migrated from Arabia to the opposite coast +of Africa, began to flow back to the south of Arabia, where they seem to +have settled gradually and increased in importance until about A.D. 300, +when they became strong enough to overturn the Himyarite kings and +establish a dynasty of their own. The title assumed by them was "king of +Saba, Raidan, Hadramut and Yemen." The Himyarites were, however, still +active, and after a struggle succeeded in establishing a Jewish Sabaean +kingdom, having previously accepted Judaism as their religion. Their +best-known king was Dhu Nuwas. The struggle between them and the +Abyssinians now became one of Judaism against Christianity. The +persecution of the Christians was very severe (see E. Glaser's _Die +Abyssinier in Arabien und Afrika_, Munich, 1895, and F.M.E. Pereira's +_Historia dos Martyres de Nagran_, Lisbon, 1899). Apparently for this +reason Christian Abyssinia was supported from Byzantium in its attempts +to regain power. These attempts were crowned with success in 525. Of the +Christian Abyssinian kings in Arabia tradition tells of four, one only +of whom is mentioned in inscriptions. The famous expedition of Abraha, +the Abyssinian viceroy, against Mecca, took place in 570. Five years +later the Persians, who had been called in by the opponents of +Christianity, succeeded in taking over the rule and in appointing +governors over Yemen. (See further ETHIOPIA: _The Axumite Kingdom_.) + +_Hira, Ghassan and Kinda._--Before passing to the time of Mahomet it is +necessary to take account of three other Arabian powers, those of Hira, +Ghassan and Kinda. + + + Hira. + +The kingdom of Hira (Hira) was established in the boundary land between +the Euphrates and the Arabian desert, a district renowned for its good +air and extraordinary fertility. The chief town was Hira, a few miles +south of the site of the later town of Kufa. The inhabitants of this +land are said in Tabari's history to have been of three classes:--(1) +The Tanukh (Tnuhs), who lived in tents and were made up of Arabs from +the Tehama and Nejd, who had united in Bahrein to form a new tribe, and +who migrated from there to Hira, probably at the beginning or middle of +the 3rd century A.D., when the Arsacid power was growing weak. The +Arabian historians relate their conflict with Zenobia. (2) The 'Ibad or +'Ibadites, who dwelt in the town of Hira in houses and so led a settled +life. These were Christians, whose ecclesiastical language was Syriac, +though the language of intercourse was Arabic. A Christian bishop of +Hira is known to have attended a synod in 410. In the 5th century they +became Nestorians. (3) Refugees of various tribes, who came into the +land but did not belong to the Tanukh or the 'Ibad. There is no +trustworthy information as to the earlier chiefs of this people. The +dynasty of the Lakhmids, famed in Arabian history and literature, arose +towards the end of the 3rd century and lasted until about 602. The names +of twenty kings are given by Hisham al-Kalbi in Tabari's history. +Although so many of their subjects were Christian, the Lakhmids remained +heathen until Nu'man, the last of the dynasty. The kingdom of Hira was +never really independent, but always stood in a relation of dependence +on Persia, probably receiving pay from it and employing Persian +soldiers. At the height of its power it was able to render valuable aid +to its suzerain. Much of its time was spent in wars with Rome and +Ghassan. Its revenues were derived from the Bedouins of the surrounding +lands as well as from its own subjects at home. About 602 the Lakhmid +dynasty fell, and the Persian Chosroes (Khosrau) II. appointed as +governor an Arab of the tribe of Tai. Shortly after it came into +relation with Islam. + + See G. Rothstein's _Die Dynastie der Lakhmiden in al-Hira_ (Berlin, + 1899); Th. Noldeke's _Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der + Sassaniden_ (Leiden, 1879). + +[Illustration: ARABIA] + + + Ghassan. + +In the beginning of the 6th century A.D. a dynasty known as the Jafnids, +enter into the history alike of the Roman and Persian empires. They +ruled over the tribe of Ghassan in the extreme north-west of Arabia, +east of the Jordan, from near Petra in the south to the neighbourhood of +Rosafa in the north-east. Of their origin little is known except that +they came from the south. A part of the same tribe inhabited Yathrib +(Medina) at the time of Mahomet. The first certain prince of the Jafnid +house was Harith ibn Jabala, who, according to the chronicle of John +Malalas, conquered Mondhir (Mundhir) of Hira in 528. In the following +year, according to Procopius, Justinian perceived the value of the +Ghassanids as an outpost of the Roman empire, and as opponents of the +Persian dependants of Hira, and recognized Harith as king of the Arabs +and patrician of the Roman empire. He was thus constantly engaged in +battles against Hira. In 541 he fought under Belisarius in Mesopotamia. +After his death about 569 or 570 the friendly relations with the West +continued, but about 583 there was a breach. The Ghassanid kingdom split +into sections each with its own prince. Some passed under the sway of +Persia, others preserved their freedom at the expense of their +neighbours. At this point their history ceases to be mentioned in the +Western chronicles. There are references to the Ghassanid Nu'man in the +poems of Nabigha. Arabian tradition tells of their prince Jabala ibn +Aiham who accepted Islam, after fighting against it, but finding it too +democratic, returned to Christianity and exile in the Roman empire. As +Islam advanced, some of the Ghassanids retreated to Cappadocia, others +accepted the new faith. + + See Th. Noldeke, _Die ghassanischen Fursten aus dent Hause Gafna's_ + (Berlin, 1887). + + + Kinda. + +In the last decade of the 5th century a new power arose in central +Arabia. This was the tribe of Kinda under the sway of the family of Aqil +ul Murar, who came from the south. They seem to have stood in much the +same relation to the rulers of Yemen, as the people of Hira to the +Persians and the Ghassanids to Rome. Abraha in his invasion of the Hejaz +was accompanied by chiefs of Kinda. Details of their history are not +known, but they seem to have gained power at one time even over the +Lakhmids of Hira; and to have ruled over Bahrein as well as Yemama until +the battle of Shi'b ul Jabala, when they lost this province to Hira. The +poet Amru'ul Qais was a member of the princely family of Kinda. + + + Other parts of Arabia. + +Outside the territory of the powers mentioned above, Arabia in the 6th +century was in a state of political chaos. Bahrein, inhabited chiefly by +the Bani'Abd Qais and the Bani Bakr, was largely subject to Persian +influence near its coast, and a Persian governor, Sebocht, resided in +Hajar, its chief town. In Oman the Arabs, who were chiefly engaged in +fishing and seafaring, were Azdites mixed with Persians. The ruling +dynasty of Julanda in their capital Suhar lasted on till the Abbasid +period. No Persian officials are mentioned in this country; whether +Persians exercised authority over it is doubtful. On the west coast of +Arabia the influence of the kingdom of Yemen was felt in varying degree +according to the strength of the rulers of that land. Apart from this +influence the Hejaz was simply a collection of cities each with its own +government, while outside the cities the various tribes governed +themselves and fought continual battles with one another. + +_Time of Mahomet._--Thus at the time of Mahomet's advent the country was +peopled by various tribes, some more or less settled under the +governments of south Arabia, Kinda, Hira and Ghassan, these in turn +depending on Abyssinia, Persia and Rome (i.e. Byzantium); others as in +the Hejaz were ruled in smaller communities by members of leading +families, while in various parts of the peninsula were wandering Arabs +still maintaining the traditions of old family and tribal rule, forming +no state, sometimes passing, as suited them, under the influence and +protection of one or another of the greater powers. To these may be +added a certain number of Jewish tribes and families deriving their +origin partly from migrations from Palestine, partly from converts among +the Arabs themselves. Mahomet appealed at once to religion and +patriotism, or rather created a feeling for both. For Mahomet as a +religious teacher and for the details of his career see MAHOMET. It is +enough here to outline his actions in so far as he attempted to create a +united, and then a conquering, Arabia. Though the external conquests of +the Arabs belong more properly to the period of the caliphate, yet they +were the natural outcome of the prophet's ideas. His idea of Arabia for +the Arabians could only be realized by summoning the great kings of the +surrounding nations to recognize Islam; otherwise Abyssinia, Persia and +Rome (Byzantium) would continue their former endeavours to influence and +control the affairs of the peninsula. Tradition tells that a few years +before his death he did actually send letters to the emperor Heraclius, +to the negus of Abyssinia, the king of Persia, and Cyrus, patriarch of +Alexandria, the "Mukaukis" of Egypt, summoning them to accept Islam and +threatening them with punishment in case of refusal. But the task of +carrying out these threats fell to the lot of his successors; the work +of the prophet was to be the subjugating and uniting of Arabia. This +work, scarcely begun in Mecca, was really started after the migration to +Medina by the formation of a party of men--the _Muhajirun_ (Refugees or +Emigrants) and the _Ansar_ (Helpers or Defenders)--who accepted Mahomet +as their religious leader. As the necessity of overcoming his enemies +became urgent, this party became military. A few successes in battle +attracted to him men who were interested in fighting and who were +willing to accept his religion as a condition of membership of his +party, which soon began to assume a national form. Mahomet early found +an excuse for attacking the Jews, who were naturally in the way of his +schemes. The Bani Nadir were expelled, the Bani Quraiza slaughtered. By +the time he had successfully stormed the rich Jewish town of Khaibar, he +had found that it was better to allow industrious Jews to remain in +Arabia as payers of tribute than to expel or kill them: this policy he +followed afterwards. The capture of Mecca (630) was not only an evidence +of his growing power, which induced Arabs throughout the peninsula to +join him, but gave him a valuable centre of pilgrimage, in which he was +able by a politic adoption of some of the heathen Arabian ceremonies +into his own rites to win men over the more easily to his own cause. At +his death in 623 Mahomet left Arabia practically unified. It is true +that rival prophets were leading rebellions in various parts of Arabia, +that the tax-collectors were not always paid, and that the warriors of +the land were much distressed for want of work owing to the brotherhood +of Arabs proclaimed by Mahomet. The tribes were a seething mass of +restlessness, their old feuds ready to break out again. But they had +realized that they had common interests. The power of the foreigner in +Arabia was broken. Islam promised rich booty for those who fought and +won, paradise for those who fell. + +_Early Caliphs_.[1] 1. _Conquest._--One task of the early caliphs was to +find an outlet for the restless fighting spirit. Abu Bekr (632-634), the +first of these caliphs, was a man of simple life and profound faith. He +understood the intention of Mahomet as to foreign nations, and set +himself resolutely to carry it out in the face of much difficulty. Hence +as soon as he assumed office he sent out the army already chosen to +advance against the Romans in the north. The successful reduction of the +rebels in Arabia enabled him in his first year to send his great general +Khalid with his Arab warriors first against Persians, then against +Romans. His early death prevented him from seeing the fruits of his +policy. Under the second caliph Omar (634-644) the Persians were +defeated at Kadesiya (Kadessia), and Irak was completely subdued and the +new cities of Kufa and Basra were founded (635). In the same year +Damascus fell into the hands of the Arabs under Abu 'Ubaida. In 636 +Jerusalem fell and received a visit from the caliph. Three years later +the fateful step was taken of appointing Moawiya (Mu'awiyya) governor of +Syria. In 640 'Amr-ibn-el-Ass (Amr ibn al-'As) invaded Egypt and the +following year took Alexandria and founded Fostat (which later became +Cairo). The victory at Nehavend in 641 over the Persians, the flight of +the last Sassanid king and the capture of Rei or Rai (class. Rhagae) in +643 meant the entire subjugation of Persia and crowned the conquests of +Omar's caliphate. The reign of the third caliph Othman (644-656) was +marked by the beginning of that internal strife which was to ruin +Arabia; but the foreign conquests continued. In the north the Moslem +arms reached Armenia and Asia Minor; on the west they were successful as +far as Carthage on the north coast of Africa. After the murder of +Othman, 'Ali (656-661) became caliph, but Moawiya, governor of Syria, +soon rebelled on the pretext of avenging the death of Othman. After the +battle of Siffin (657) arbitration was resorted to for the settlement of +the rival claims. By a trick 'Ali was deposed (658), and the Omayyad +dynasty was established with its capital at Damascus. + + + Institution of navy. + +During these early years the Arabs had not only made conquests by land, +but had found an outlet for their energy at sea. In 640 Omar sent a +fleet of boats across the Red Sea to protect the Moslems on the +Abyssinian coast. The boats were wrecked. Omar was so terrified by this +that when Moawiya applied to him for permission to use ships for an +attack on the islands of the Levant, he resolutely refused. Othman was +less careful, and allowed a fleet from Africa to help in the conquests +of the Levant and Asia Minor. In 649 he sanctioned the establishment of +a maritime service, on condition that it should be voluntary. Abu Qais, +appointed admiral, showed its usefulness by the capture of Cyprus. In +652 Abu Sarh with a fleet from Egypt won a naval battle over the +Byzantine fleet near Alexandria. + +2. _Internal Affairs._--In the meantime what had become of Arabia and +its unification? The first task of Abu Bekr had been to reduce those +rebels who threatened to destroy that unity even before it was fully +established. This he did by the aid of the great general Khalid. First +he swept down on the Bani Hanifa in Yemama, who with their rival prophet +Mosailama (Mosailima) and 40,000 men were in arms. The battle of Yemama +(633) was fierce and decisive. Mosailama was slain. The Bani Hanifa +returned to Islam. Bahrein was influenced by this battle, and the +rebellion there, which was threatening, was crushed. Oman was +reconquered by Huddhaifa, who became its governor. Ikrima settled Mahra. +Muhajir, with the help of Ikrima, succeeded with difficulty, but +thoroughly, in defeating Amr ibn Ma'dikarib and Qais ibn 'Abd Yaghuth in +Yemen and Ashath ibn Qais in Hadramut. The Hejaz and Tehama were cleared +of the plundering nomads by 'Attab and Tahir. At the end of the first +year of his caliphate Abu Bekr saw Arabia united under Islam. The new +national feeling demanded that all Arabs should be free men, so the +caliph ordained that all Arab slaves should be freed on easy terms. The +solidarity of Arabia survived the first foreign conquests. It was not +intended that Arabs should settle in the conquered lands except as +armies of occupation. Thus it was at first forbidden that Arabs should +buy or possess land in these countries. Kufa was to be only a military +camp, as was Fostat in Egypt. The taxes with the booty from conquests +were to be sent to Arabia for distribution among the Moslems. Omar tried +to prevent the advance of conquests lest Arabia should suffer. "I would +rather the safety of my people than thousands of spoil and further +conquest." But men could not be prevented from pouring out from their +homes in search of new conquests and more booty. Many of those who went +forth did not return. They acquired property and rank in the new lands. +Kufa attracted chiefly men of south Arabia, Basra those of the north. +Both became great cities, each with a population of 150,000 to 200,000 +Arabians. Yet so long as the caliphs lived in Medina, the capital of +Arabia was the capital of the expanding Arabian empire. To it was +brought a large share of the booty. The caliphs were chosen there, and +there the rules for the administration were framed. Thence went out the +governors to their provinces. Omar was the great organizer of Arabian +affairs. He compiled the Koran, instituted the civil list, regulated the +military organization. He, too, desired that Mahomet's wish should be +carried out and that Arabia should be purely Moslem. To this end he +expelled the Christians from Nejran and gave them lands in Syria and +Irak, where they were allowed to live in peace on payment of tribute. +The Jews, too, were shortly after expelled from Khaibar. The secondary +position that Arabia was beginning to assume in the Arabian empire is +clearly marked in the progress of events during the caliphate of Othman. +In his appointments to governorships and other offices, as well as in +his distribution of spoil, Othman showed a marked preference for the +members of his own tribe the Koreish (Quraish) and the members of his +own family the Bani Omayya (Umayya). The other Arab tribes became +increasingly jealous of the Koreish, while among the Koreish themselves +the Hashimite family came to hate the Omayyad, which now had much power, +although it had been among the last to accept Islam and never was very +strict in its religious duties. But the quarrels which led to the murder +of Othman were fomented not so much in Arabia as in Kufa and Basra and +Fostat. In these cities the rival parties were composed of the most +energetic fighting men, who were brought into the most intimate contact +with one another, and who kept up their quarrels from the home land. In +Kufa a number of the Koreish had settled, and their arrogance became +insupportable. The governors of all these towns were of Othman's own +family. After some years of growing dissatisfaction deputies from these +places came to Medina, and the result was the murder of the caliph. +Syria alone remained loyal to the house of Omayya, and Othman had been +advised to take refuge there, but had refused. Arabia itself counted for +little in the strife. Yet its prestige was not altogether lost. After +the murder the rebels were unwilling to return home until a new caliph +had been chosen in the capital. The Egyptian rebels managed to gain most +influence, and, in accordance with their desire, 'Ali was appointed +caliph by the citizens of Medina. But Medina itself was being corrupted +by the constant influx of captives, who, employed at first as servants, +soon became powerful enough to dictate to their masters. In the struggle +that ensued upon the election of 'Ali, Arabia was involved. Ayesha, +Talha and Zobair, who were strong in Mecca, succeeded in obtaining +possession of Basra, but were defeated in 656 at the battle of the Camel +(see ALI). In the south of Arabia 'Ali succeeded in establishing his own +governor in Yemen, though the government treasure was carried off to +Mecca. But the centre of strife was not to be Arabia. When 'Ali left +Medina to secure Basra, he abandoned it as the capital of the Arabian +empire. With the success of Moawiya Damascus became the capital of the +caliphate (658) and Arabia became a mere province, though always of +importance because of its possession of the two sacred cities Mecca and +Medina. Both these cities were secured by Moawiya in 660, and at the +same time Yemen was punished for its adherence to 'Ali. The final blow +to any political pretensions of Medina was dealt by the caliph when he +had his son Yazid declared as his successor, thus taking away any claim +on the part of the citizens of Medina to elect to the caliphate. + +_The Omayyads._--The early years of the Omayyads were years of constant +strife in Arabia. The Kharijites who had opposed 'Ali on the ground that +he had no right to allow the appeal to arbitration, were defeated at +Nahrawan or Nahrwan (658), but those who escaped became fierce +propagandists against the Koreish, some claiming that the caliph should +be chosen by the Faithful from any tribe of the Arabs, some that there +should be no caliph at all, that God alone was their ruler and that the +government should be carried on by a council. They broke up into many +sects, and were long a disturbing political force in Arabia as +elsewhere. On the death of 'Ali his house was represented by his two +sons Hasan and Hosain (Husain). Hasan soon made peace with Moawiya. On +the accession of Yazid, Hosain refused homage and raised an army, but +was slain at Kerbela (680). 'Abdallah ibn Zobair (of the house of +Hashim) immediately stepped forward in Mecca as the avenger of 'Ali's +family and the champion of religion. The two sacred cities supported +him. Medina was besieged and sacked by the troops of Yazid (682) and +Mecca was besieged the following year. The siege was raised in the third +month on the news of the death of Yazid, but not before the Ka'ba had +been destroyed. 'Abdallah remained in Mecca recognized as caliph in +Arabia, and soon after in Egypt and even a part of Syria. He defeated +the troops of Merwan I., but could not win the support of the +Kharijites. In 691 Abdalmalik ('Abdul-Malik) determined to crush his +rival and sent his general Hajjaj against Mecca. The siege was begun in +March 692, and in October the city was taken and 'Abdallah slain. +Abdalmalik was now supreme in Arabia and throughout the Moslem world. +During the remaining years of the Omayyad dynasty (i.e. until 750) +little is heard of Arabia in history. The conquests of Islam in Spain on +the one side and India on the other had little or no effect on it. It +was merely a province. + +_The 'Abbasids._--The accession of Abul 'Abbas (of the house of Hashim) +and the transference of the capital of the caliphate from Damascus to +Kufa, then Anbar and soon after (in 760) to Bagdad meant still further +degradation to Arabia and Arabs. From the beginning the 'Abbasids +depended for help on Persians and Turks, and the chief offices of state +were frequently filled with foreigners. In one thing only the Arabs +conquered to the end; that was in their language. The study of Arabic +was taken up by lexicographers, grammarians and poets (mostly of foreign +origin) with a zeal rarely shown elsewhere. The old Arabian war spirit +was dying. Although the Arabians, as a rule, were in favour of the +Omayyad family, they could not affect the succession of the 'Abbasids. +They returned more and more to their old inter-tribal disputes. They +formed now not only a mere branch of the empire of the caliphate, but a +branch deriving little life from and giving less to the main stock. In +762 there was a rebellion in favour of a descendant of 'Ali, but it was +put down with great severity by the army of the caliph Mansur. A more +local 'Alyite revolt in Mecca and Medina was crushed in 785. In the +contest between the two sons of Harun al Rashid all Arabia sided with +Mamun (812). In 845-846 the lawless raids of Bedouin tribes compelled +the caliph Wathiq to send his Turkish general Bogha, who was more +successful in the north than in the centre and south of Arabia in +restoring peace. + +_The Carmathians._--Towards the close of the 9th century Arabia was +disturbed by the rise of a new movement which during the next hundred +years dominated the peninsula, and at its close left it shattered never +to be united again. In the year 880 Yemen was listening to the +propaganda of the new sect of the Carmathians (q.v.) or followers of +Hamdan Qarmat. Four years later these had become a public force. In 900 +'Abu Sa'id al-Jannabi, who had been sent to Bahrein by Hamdan, had +secured a large part of this province and had won the city of Katif +(Ketif) which contained many Jews and Persians. The Arabs who lived more +inland were mostly Bedouin who found the obligations of Islam irksome, +and do not seem to have made a very vigorous opposition to the +Carmathians who took Hajar the capital of Bahrein in 903. From this they +made successful attacks on Yemama (Yamama), and attempts only partially +successful at first at Oman. In 906 the court at Bagdad learned that +these sectaries had gained almost all Yemen and were threatening Mecca +and Medina. Abu Sa'id was assassinated (913) in his palace at Lahsa +(which in 926 was fortified and became the Carmathian capital of +Bahrein). His son Sa'id succeeded him, but proved too weak and was +deposed and succeeded by his brother Abu Tahir. His success was constant +and the caliphate was brought very low by him. In Arabia he subjugated +Oman, and swooping down on the west in 929 he horrified the Moslem world +by capturing Mecca and carrying off the sacred black stone to Bahrein. +The Fatimite caliph 'Obaidallah (see FATIMITES), to whom Abu Tahir +professed allegiance, publicly wrote to him to restore the stone, but +there is some reason to believe that he secretly encouraged him to +retain it. In 939, however, the stone was restored and pilgrimages to +the holy cities were allowed to pass unmolested on payment of a tax. So +long as Abu Tahir lived the Carmathians controlled Arabia. After his +death, however, they quarrelled with the Fatimite rulers of Egypt (969) +and began to lose their influence. In 985 they were completely defeated +in Irak, and soon after lost control of the pilgrimages. Oman recovered +its independence. Three years later Katif, at that time their chief +city, was besieged and taken by a Bedouin sheik, and subsequently their +political power in Arabia came to an end. It was significant that their +power fell into the hands of Bedouins. Arabia was now completely +disorganized, and was only nominally subject to the caliphate. The +attempt of Mahomet to unify Arabia had failed. The country was once more +split up into small governments, more or less independent, and groups of +wandering tribes carrying on their petty feuds. Of the history of these +during the next few centuries little is known, except in the case of the +Hejaz. Here the presence of the sacred cities led writers to record +their annals (cf. F. Wustenfeld's _Die Chroniken der Stadt Mekka_, 4 +vols., Leipzig, 1857-1861). The two cities were governed by Arabian +nobles (_sherifs_), often at feud with one another, recognizing formally +the overlordship of the caliph at Bagdad or the caliph of Egypt. Thus in +966 the name of the caliph Moti was banished from the prayers at Mecca, +and an 'Alyite took possession of the government of the city and +recognized the Egyptian caliph as his master. About a century later +(1075-1094) the 'Abbasid caliph was again recognized as spiritual head +owing to the success in arms of his protector, the Seljuk Malik-Shah. +With the fall of the Bagdad caliphate all attempts at control from that +quarter came to an end. After the visit of the Sultaft Bibars (1269) +Mecca was governed by an amir dependent on Egypt. Outside the two cities +anarchy prevailed, and the pilgrimage was frequently unsafe owing to +marauding Bedouins. In 1517 the Osmanli Turkish sultan Selim conquered +Egypt, and having received the right of succession to the caliphate was +solemnly presented by the sherif of Mecca with the keys of the city, and +recognized as the spiritual head of Islam and ruler of the Hejaz. At the +same time Yemen, which since the 9th century had been in the power of a +number of small dynasties ruling in Zubed, San'a, Sa'da and Aden, passed +into the hands of the Turk. + + For the history of Yemen during this period cf. H.C. Kay, _Omarah's + History of Yaman_ (London, 1892), and S. Lane-Poole, _The Mahommedan + Dynasties_, pp. 87-103 (Westminster, 1894). Little more than a century + later (1630), a Yemen noble Khasim succeeded in expelling the Turk and + establishing a native imamate, which lasted until 1871. For + descriptions of it in the 18th century cf. C. Niebuhr's accounts of + his travels in Arabia in 1761. + +_Oman._--Since the separation from the caliphate (before 1000 A.D.) Oman +had remained independent. For more than a century it was governed by +five elected imams, who were chosen from the tribe of al-Azd and +generally lived at Nizwa. After them the Bani Nebhan gained the upper +hand and established a succession of kings (_maliks_) who governed from +1154 to 1406. During this time the country was twice invaded by +Persians. The "kings of Hormuz" claimed authority over the coast land +until the beginning of the 16th century. In 1435 the people rose against +the tyranny of the Bani Nebhan and restored the imamate of the tribe +al-Azd. In 1508 the Portuguese under Albuquerque seized most of the east +coast of Oman. In 1624 a new dynasty arose in the interior, when Nasir +ibn Murshid of the Yariba (Ya'aruba) tribe (originally from Yemen) was +elected imam and established his capital at Rustak. He was able to +subdue the petty princes of the country, and the Portuguese were +compelled to give up several towns and pay tribute for their residence +at Muscat. About 1651 the Portuguese were finally expelled from this +city, and about 1698 from the Omanite settlements on the east coast of +Africa. + + For the history of Oman from 661 to 1856 cf. G.P. Badger, _History of + the Imams and Seyyids of Oman by Salil-ibn-Razik_ (London, Hakluyt + Society, 1871). (G. W. T.) + +_Wahhabi Movement._--Modern Arabian history begins with that of the +Wahhabi movement in the middle of the 18th century. Its originator, +Mahommed Ibn Abdul Wahhab, was born (1691) at Ayana in Nejd, and after +studying in Basra and Damascus, and making the pilgrimage to Mecca +returned to his native country and settled down at Huremala near +Deraiya. The abuses and corruptions which had overgrown the practice of +orthodox Islam had deeply impressed him, and he set to work to combat +them, and to inculcate on all good Moslems a return to the pure +simplicity of their original faith. In 1742 Mahommed Ibn Saud, sheik of +Deraiya, accepted his doctrines, and enforced them by his sword with +such effect that before his death in 1765 the whole of eastern Nejd and +El Hasa was converted to the faith of Abdul Wahhab, and accepted the +political supremacy of Ibn Saud. His son and successor, Abdul Aziz, in a +rapid series of successful campaigns, extended his dominion and that of +the reformed faith far beyond the limits of Nejd. His attacks on the +pilgrim caravans, begun in 1783 and constantly repeated, startled the +Mahommedan world,[2] and compelled the attention of the sultan, as the +nominal protector of the faithful. In 1798 a Turkish force was sent from +Bagdad into El Hasa, but was compelled to retreat without accomplishing +anything, and its discomfiture added much to the renown of the Wahhabi +power. In 1801 Saud, son of the amir Abdul Aziz, led an expedition to +the Euphrates, and on the festival of Bairam, the 20th of April, stormed +Kerbela, put the defenders to the sword, destroyed the sacred tomb, +scattered the sacred relics and returned laden with the treasures, +accumulated during centuries in the sanctuary of the Shia faith. Mecca +itself was taken; plundering was forbidden, but the tombs of the saints +and all objects of veneration were ruthlessly destroyed, and all +ceremonies which seemed in the eye of the stern puritan conqueror to +suggest the taint of idolatry were forbidden. + +On the 14th of October 1802 the amir Abdul Aziz, at the age of +eighty-two years, was murdered by a Shia fanatic when at prayers in the +mosque of Deraiya, and Saud, who had for many years led the Wahhabi +armies, became the reigning amir. In 1804 Medina was taken and with its +fall all resistance ceased. The Wahhabi empire had now attained its +zenith, a settled government was established able to enforce law and +order in the desert and in the towns, and a spirit of Arabian +nationality had grown up which bade fair to extend the Wahhabi dominion +over all the Arab race. It already, however, bore within it the germ of +decay; the accumulation of treasure in the capital had led to a +corruption of the simple manners of the earlier times; the exhaustion of +the tribes through the heavy blood tax had roused discontent among them; +the plundering of the holy places, the attacks on the pilgrim caravans +under the escort of Turkish soldiers, and finally, in 1810, the +desecration of the tomb of Mahomet and the removal of its costly +treasures, raised a cry of dismay throughout the Mahommedan world, and +made it clear even to the Turkish sultan that unless the Wahhabi power +were crushed his claims to the caliphate were at an end. + +But Turkey was herself fully occupied by affairs in Europe, and to +Mehemet Ali, then pasha of Egypt, was deputed the task of bringing the +Wahhabis into subjection. In October 1811 an expedition consisting of +10,000 men under Tusun Pasha, the pasha's son, a youth of sixteen, +landed in Hejaz without opposition. Saud with his main forces had +started northwards to attack Bagdad, but returning at once he met and +defeated Tusun with great loss and compelled him to retire. Medina and +subsequently Mecca were eventually taken by the Egyptians, but in spite +of continual reinforcements they could do little more than hold their +own in Hejaz. In 1813 Mehemet Ali was compelled to take the field +himself with fresh troops, but was unable to achieve any decisive +success, and in 1814 Tusun was again defeated beyond Taif. In May 1814 +Saud died, and his son, Abdallah, attempted to negotiate, but Mehemet +Ali refused all overtures, and in January 1815 advanced into Nejd, +defeated the Wahhabi army and occupied Ras, then the chief town in +Kasim. Terms of peace were made, but on the retirement of the Egyptians +Abdallah refused to carry out the conditions agreed on, which included +the return of the jewels plundered by his father, and another campaign +had to be fought before his submission was obtained. Ibrahim Pasha +replaced Tusun in command, and on reaching Arabia in September 1816 his +first aim was to gain over the great Bedouin tribes holding the roads +between Hejaz and his objective in Nejd; having thus secured his line of +advance he pushed on boldly and defeated Abdallah at Wiya, where he put +to death all prisoners taken; thence rapidly advancing, with contingents +of the friendly Harb and Muter tribes in support of his regular troops, +he laid siege to Ras; this place, however, held out and after a four +months' siege he was compelled to give up the attack. Leaving it on one +side he pushed on eastwards, took Aneza after six days' bombardment and +occupied Bureda. Here he waited two months for reinforcements, and with +his Bedouin contingent, strengthened by the adhesion of the Ateba and +Bani Khalid tribes, advanced on Shakra in Wushm, which fell in January +1818 after a regular siege. After destroying Huremala and massacring its +inhabitants, he arrived before Deraiya on the 14th of April 1818. For +six months the siege went on with varying fortune, but at last the +courage and determination of Ibrahim triumphed, and on the 9th of +September, after a heroic resistance, Abdallah, with a remnant of four +hundred men, was compelled to surrender. The Wahhabi leader was soon +after sent to Constantinople, where, in spite of Mehemet Ali's +intercession, he and the companions who had followed him in his +captivity were condemned to death, and after being paraded through the +city with ignominy for three days were finally beheaded. + +Deraiya was razed to the ground and the principal towns of Nejd were +compelled to admit Egyptian garrisons; but though the Arabs saw +themselves powerless to stand before disciplined troops, the Egyptians, +on the other hand, had to confess that without useless sacrifices they +could not retain their hold on the interior. + +In 1824 Turki, son of the unfortunate Abdallah, headed a rising which +resulted in the re-establishment of the Wahhabi state with Riad as its +new capital; and during the next ten years he consolidated his power, +paying tribute to and under the nominal suzerainty of Egypt till his +murder in 1834. His son, Fesal, succeeded him, but in 1836 on his +refusal to pay tribute an Egyptian force was sent to depose him and he +was taken prisoner and sent to Cairo, while a rival claimant, Khalid, +was established as amir in Riad. Mehemet Ali and his son Ibrahim Pasha +were, however, now committed to their conflict with Turkey for Syria and +Asia Minor, and had no troops to spare for the thankless task of holding +the Arabian deserts; the garrisons were gradually withdrawn, and in 1842 +Fesal, who had escaped from his prison at Cairo reappeared and was +everywhere recognized as amir. The few remaining Egyptian troops were +ejected from Riad, and with them all semblance of Egyptian or Turkish +rule disappeared from central Arabia. + +For a time it looked as if the supremacy of the Wahhabi empire was to be +renewed; El Hasa, Harik, Kasim and Asir returned to their allegiance, +but over Oman and Yemen Fesal never re-established his dominion, and the +Bahrein sheiks with British support kept their independence. + + + Ibn Rashid. + +A rival state had, however, arisen, under Abdallah Ibn Rashid in Jebel +Shammar. Driven into exile owing to a feud between his family and the +Ibn Ali, the leading family of the Shammar, Abdallah came to Riad in +1830, and was favourably received by the amir Turki. In 1834 he was with +Fesal on an expedition against El Hasa when news came of the amir's +murder by his cousin Masharah. By Abdallah's advice the expedition was +abandoned; Fesal hastened back with all his forces to Riad, and invested +the citadel where Masharah had taken refuge, but failed to gain +possession of it, until Abdallah with two companions found his way into +the palace, killed Masharah, and placed Fesal on the throne of his +father. As a reward for his services Abdallah was appointed governor of +Jebel Shammar, and had already established himself in Hail when the +Egyptian expedition of 1836 removed Fesal temporarily from Nejd. During +the exile of the latter he steadily consolidated his power, extending +his influence more especially over the desert tribes, till on Fesal's +return in 1842 he had created a state subject only in name to that of +which Riad was the capital. + +On the death of Abdallah in 1843, his son Talal succeeded. He set +himself to work to establish law and order throughout the state, to +arrange its finances, and to encourage the settlement in Hail of +artificers and merchants from abroad; the building of the citadel and +palace commenced by Mehemet Ali, and continued by Abdallah Ibn Rashid, +was completed by Talal. The town walls were strengthened, new wells dug, +gardens planted, mosques and schools built. His uncle Obed, to whom +equally with Abdallah is due the foundation of the Ibn Rashid dynasty, +laboured to extend the Shammar boundaries. Khaibar, Tema and Jauf became +tributary to Hail. + +Though tolerant in religion Talal was careful to avoid the suspicion of +lukewarmness towards the Wahhabi formulas. Luxury in clothing and the +use of tobacco were prohibited; attendance at the mosque was enforced: +any doubt as to his orthodoxy was silenced by the amount and regularity +of the tribute sent by him to Riad. Equally guarded was his attitude to +the Turkish authorities; it is not improbable that Talal had also +entered into relations with the viceroy of Egypt to ensure his position +in case of a collision with the Porte. During his twenty years' reign +Jebel Shammar became a model state, where justice and security ruled in +a manner before unheard of. Fesal may well have watched with jealous +anxiety the growing strength of his neighbour's state as compared with +his own, where all progress was arrested by the deadening tyranny of +religious fanaticism. + + + The amir Mahommed. + +On the 11th of March 1868 Talal, smitten with an incurable malady, fell +by his own hand and was succeeded by his brother Matab; after a brief +reign he was murdered by his nephews, the elder of whom, Bandar, became +amir. Mahommed, the third son of the amir Abdallah, was at the time +absent; with a view of getting his uncle into his power, Bandar invited +him to return to Hail, and on his arrival went out to meet him +accompanied by Hamud, son of Obed, and a small following. Warned by a +hurried sign by Hamud that his life was in danger, Mahommed at once +attacked Bandar, stabbed him and took possession of the citadel; a +general massacre of all members of the house of Ibn Rashid followed, and +next day Mahommed appeared with his cousin Hamud in the market-place of +Hail, and announced his assumption of the amirship. A strong and capable +ruler, he soon established his authority over all northern and western +Nejd, and in 1872 the opportunity arrived for his intervention in the +east. In that year Abdallah, who had succeeded Fesal in Riad in 1867, +was deposed, but with the assistance of Mahommed was reinstated; two +years later, however, he was again deposed and forced to seek refuge at +Hail, from which place he appealed for assistance to the Turkish +authorities at Bagdad. Midhat Pasha, then governor-general, seized the +occasion of asserting Turkish dominion on the Persian Gulf coast, and in +1875, in spite of British protests, occupied El Hasa and established a +new province under the title of Nejd, with its headquarters at Hofuf, of +which Abdallah was appointed governor. This was an event of some +importance, as it constituted the first Turkish claim to the sovereignty +over Nejd abandoned by Egypt thirty-three years earlier. The Turks did +not support their client by advancing into Nejd itself, and he and his +rivals were left to fight out their battles among themselves. Turkey was +indeed too much occupied by the war with Russia to pay much attention to +Arab affairs, though a few years later she attempted to occupy Bahrein +by a _coup de main_, which was only frustrated by the action of a +British gunboat. + +Owing to the dissensions among the ruling family of Riad, the towns of +eastern Nejd gradually reverted to their former condition of +independence, but menaced in turn by the growing power of Hail, they +formed a coalition under the leadership of Zamil, sheik of Aneza, and in +the spring of 1891, Aneza, Bureda, Shakra, Ras and Riad assembled their +contingents to contest with Ibn Rashid the supremacy in Nejd. The latter +had besides 20,000 of his own south Shammar tribesmen, the whole +strength of the Harb Bedouins, some 10,000 men, and an additional +support of 1000 mounted men from his kinsmen, the northern Shammar from +the Euphrates, while the Muter and Ateba tribes took part with the +allies. The total strength of each side amounted to about 30,000 men. +Zamil's forces held a strong position between Aneza and Bureda, and for +over a month desultory fighting went on; finally an attack was made +against the defenders' centre, covered by 20,000 camel riders; the men +of Aneza broke and the whole allied forces fled in disorder; Zamil and +his eldest son were killed, as were also two of the Ibn Saud family, +while the remainder were taken prisoners. Aneza and Bureda surrendered +the same day, and shortly after Ras, Shakra and Riad tendered their +submission. + +This victory placed the whole of northern and central Arabia under the +supremacy of Mahommed Ibn Rashid, which he held undisputed during the +rest of his life. + + + Recent history. + +On his death in 1897 his nephew Abdul-Aziz, son of the murdered amir +Matab, succeeded; during his reign a new element has been introduced +into Nejd politics by the rising importance of Kuwet (Koweit) and the +attempts of Turkey to obtain possession of its important harbour. In +1901 a quarrel arose between Sheik Mubarak of Kuwet and the amir of Hail +whose cause was supported by Turkey. A force was equipped at Basra under +Ahmad Feizi Pasha with the intention of occupying Kuwet; Mubarak +thereupon appealed to Great Britain and action was taken which prevented +the Turkish designs from being carried out. Kuwet was not formally +placed under British protection, but it was officially announced by the +government on the 5th of May 1903 "that the establishment of a naval +base or fortified port in the Persian Gulf by any other power would be +regarded as a very grave menace to British interests which would +certainly be resisted with all the means at its disposal." + +In the meantime Sheik Mubarak had found useful allies in the Muntafik +Arabs from the lower Euphrates, and the Wahhabis of Riad; the latter +under the amir Ibn Saud marched against Ibn Rashid, who at the +instigation of the Porte had again threatened Kuwet (Koweit), compelled +him to retire to his own territory and took possession of the towns of +Bureda and Aneza. Sheik Mubarak and his allies continued their advance, +defeated Ibn Rashid in two engagements on the 22nd of July and the 26th +of September 1904, and drove him back on his capital, Hail. The Porte +now made another effort to assist its protege; two columns were +despatched from Medina and Basra respectively, to relieve Hail, and +drive out the Wahhabis. Ahmad Feizi Pasha, in command of the Basra +column, 4200 strong, crossed the desert and reached the wells of Lina, +200 m. from Hail, on the 5th of March 1905; here, however, he received +orders to halt and negotiate before proceeding farther. The Turkish +government realized by this time the strength of the hostile +combination, and in view of the serious state of affairs in Yemen, +hesitated to undertake another campaign in the deserts of Nejd. +Arrangements were accordingly made with the Wahhabis, and on the 10th of +April Ahmad Feizi Pasha left Lina, ostensibly with the object of +protecting the pilgrim road, and joined the Medina column by the end of +the month. Bureda and Aneza were occupied without opposition, the +rebellious sheiks amnestied by the sultan and loaded with gifts, and +formal peace was made between the rival factions. + + + History of European influence. + + British intervention in Oman. + +European influence was not felt in Arabia until the arrival of the +Portuguese in the eastern seas, following on the discovery of the Cape +route. In 1506 Hormuz was taken by Albuquerque, and Muscat and the coast +of Oman (q.v.) were occupied by the Portuguese till 1650. In 1516 their +fleets appeared in the Red Sea and an unsuccessful attempt was made +against Jidda; but the effective occupation of Yemen by the Turks in the +next few years frustrated any designs the Portuguese may have had in +S.W. Arabia. Even in Oman their hold on the country was limited to +Muscat and the adjacent ports, while the interior was ruled by the old +Yariba (Ya-'aruba) dynasty from their capital at Rustak. The Persian +occupation, which followed that of the Portuguese, came to an end in the +middle of the 18th century, when Ahmad Ibn Said expelled the invaders +and in 1759 established the Ghafari dynasty which still reigns in Oman. +He was succeeded by his son, who in 1798 made a treaty with the East +India Company with the object of excluding the French from Oman, and the +connexion with Great Britain was further strengthened during the long +reign of his grandson Sultan Said, 1804-1856. During the earlier years +of his reign he was constantly at war with the Wahhabi empire, to which +Oman became for a time tributary. The piracies committed by the Jawasimi +Arabs in the gulf compelled the intervention of England, and in 1810 +their strongholds were destroyed by a British-Indian expedition. The +overthrow of the Wahhabis in 1817 restored Sultan Said to independence; +he equipped and armed on Western models a fleet built in Indian ports, +and took possession of Sokotra and Zanzibar, as well as the Persian +coast north of the straits of Hormuz as far east as Gwadur, while by his +liberal policy at home Sohar, Barka and Muscat became prosperous +commercial ports. + +On his death in 1856 the kingdom was divided, Majid, a younger son, +taking Zanzibar, while the two elder sons contested the succession to +Oman. The eldest, Thuweni, with British support, finally obtained the +throne, and in 1862 an engagement was entered into by the French and +English governments respecting the independence of the sultans of Oman. +He was assassinated in 1866, and his successor, Seyyid Turki, reigned +till 1888. On his death several claimants disputed the succession; +ultimately his son Fesal was recognized by the British government, and +was granted a subsidy from British-Indian revenues, in consideration of +which he engaged not to cede any of his territory without the consent of +the British government; similar engagements have been entered into by +the tribes who occupy the south coast from the borders of Oman westward +to the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. + + + British sphere of influence. + +The opening of the overland route to India again brought the west coast +of Arabia into importance. Aden was occupied by the British in 1839. The +Hejaz coast and some of the Yemen ports were still held by Mehemet Ali, +as viceroy of Egypt, but on his final withdrawal from Arabia in 1845, +Hejaz came under direct Turkish rule, and the conquest of Yemen in 1872 +placed the whole Red Sea littoral (with the exception of the Midian +coast, ceded by Egypt on the accession of Abbas Hilmi Pasha) under +Ottoman administration. The island of Perim at the southern entrance of +the Red Sea has been a British possession since 1857, while the +promontory of Shekh Said on the Arabian side of the strait is in Turkish +occupation. In order to define the limits between Turkish territory and +that of the independent Arab tribes in political relations with Great +Britain, a joint commission of British and Turkish officers in 1902-1905 +laid down a boundary line from Shekh Said to a point on the river Bana, +12 m. north-east of the small town of Kataba, from which it is continued +in a north-easterly direction up to the great desert. This delimitation +places the whole of southern Arabia, east of this line, within the +British sphere of influence, which thus includes the district +surrounding Aden (q.v.), the Hadramut and Oman with its dependencies. + + + Turkish rule. + +The provinces of Hejaz and Yemen are each administered by a Turkish +governor-general, with headquarters at Taif and Sana respectively; the +country is nominally divided up into divisions and districts under minor +officials, but Turkish rule has never been acquiesced in by the +inhabitants, and beyond the larger towns, all of which are held by +strong garrisons, Turkish authority hardly exists. The powerful Bedouin +tribes of Hejaz have always asserted their independence, and are only +kept quiet by the large money payments made them by the sultan on the +occasion of the annual pilgrimage to the holy cities. A large part of +Asir and northern Yemen has never been visited by Turkish troops, and +such revenues as are collected, mainly from vexatious customs and +transit duties, are quite insufficient to meet the salaries of the +officials, while the troops, ill-fed and their pay indefinitely in +arrears, live on the country as best they can. + + + Yemen revolt. + +A serious revolt broke out in Yemen in 1892. A Turkish detachment +collecting taxes in the Bani Merwan lands north of Hodeda was destroyed +by a body of Arabs. This reverse set all Yemen aflame; under the +leadership of the imam, who had, since the Turkish occupation, lived in +retirement at Sada, 120 m. north of the capital, the powerful tribes +between Asir and Sana advanced southwards, occupied the principal towns +and besieged the few Turkish fortified posts that still held out. In +many cases the garrisons, Arab troops from Syria, went over to the +insurgents. Meanwhile, reinforcements under General Ahmad Feizi Pasha +reached Hodeda, Manakha was retaken, Sana relieved, and by the end of +January 1893 the country with the exception of the northern mountainous +districts was reconquered. + +A state of intermittent rebellion, however, continued, and in 1904 a +general revolt took place with which the normal garrison of Yemen, the +7th army corps, was quite unable to cope. The military posts were +everywhere besieged, and Sana, the capital, was cut off from all +communication with the coast. During February 1905 reinforcements were +sent up which raised the garrison of Sana to a strength of eight +battalions, and in March a further reinforcement of about the same +strength arrived, and fought its way into the capital with the loss of +almost all its guns and train. The position was then desperate, +wholesale desertion and starvation had decimated the garrison, and three +weeks later Ali Riza Pasha, the Turkish commander, was compelled to +surrender. The fall of Sana made a deep impression at Constantinople, +every effort was made to hasten out reinforcements, the veteran Ahmad +Feizi Pasha was nominated to the supreme command, and Anatolian troops +in place of the unreliable Syrian element were detailed. The scale of +the operations may be judged from the fact that the total number of +troops mobilized up to the beginning of July 1905 amounted to 126 +battalions, 8 squadrons and 15 batteries; the rebel leader Mahommed +Yahiya had at this time a following of 50,000. + +By the end of June, Ahmad Feizi Pasha was in a position to advance on +Manakha, where he organized an efficient transport, rallied the +scattered remnants of Ali Riza's army, and with the newly arrived troops +had by the middle of July a force of some 40 battalions available for +the advance on Sana. He left Manakha on the 17th of July, and after +almost daily fighting reached Sana on the 30th of August; on the 31st he +entered the city without serious opposition, the insurgents having +retreated northward. + + AUTHORITIES.--D.G. Hogarth, _Penetration of Arabia_ (London, 1904); C. + Niebuhr, _Travels and Description of Arabia_ (Amsterdam, 1774); A. + Zehme, _Arabien und die Araber seit Hundert Jahren_ (Halle, 1875); + J.L. Burckhardt, _Travels in Arabia_ (London, 1829); R.F. Burton, + _Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Meccah_ (London, 1855), _Midian + revisited_ (1879); W.G. Palgrave, _Central and Eastern Arabia_ + (London, 1865); C. Doughty, _Arabia Deserta_ (Cambridge, 1888), and an + abridgment, containing mainly the personal narrative, under the title + of _Wanderings in Arabia_ (London, 1908); L. van den Berg, _Le + Hadramut et les colonies arabes_, &c. (Batavia, 1885); C. Huber, + _Journal d'un voyage en Arabie_ (Paris, 1891); J. Euting, _Reise in + inner Arabien_ (Leiden, 1896); E. Nolde, _Reise nach inner Arabien_ + (Brunswick, 1895); L. Hirsch, _Reise in Sud Arabien_ (Leiden, 1897); + J.T. Bent, _Southern Arabia_ (1895); R. Manzoni, _Il Yemen_ (Rome, + 1884); A. Deflers, _Voyage en Yemen_ (Paris, 1889); J. Halevy, + _Journal Asiatique_ (1872); Lady Anne Blunt, _Pilgrimage to Nejd_ + (London, 1881); E. Glaser, _Petermann's Mitt._ (1886, 1888 and 1889); + W.B. Harris, _Journey through Yemen_ (Edinburgh, 1893); J.R. Wellsted, + _Travels in Arabia_ (London, 1838); Capt. F.M. Hunter, _Aden_ (London, + 1877). Consult also _Proc. R.G.S._ and _Geogr. Journal_. For geology + see H.J. Carter, "Memoir on the Geology of the South-East Coast of + Arabia," _Journ. Bombay Branch Roy. Asiat. Soc._ vol. iv. pp. 21-96 + (1852); Doughty's _Arabia Deserta_; W.F. Hume, _The Rift Valleys and + Geology of Eastern Sinai_ (London, 1901). For ancient geography of + Arabia:--A. Sprenger, _Alte Geographie Arabiens_ (Berne, 1875); E.H. + Bunbury, _History of Ancient Geography_ (London, 1883); D.H. Muller, + _Hamdani's Geographie_ (Leiden, 1884); E. Glaser, _Geschichte und + Geographie Arabiens_ (Berlin, 1890). (R. A. W.) + + +LITERATURE + +The literature of Arabia has its origin in the songs, improvisations, +recitations and stories of the pre-Mahommedan Arabs. Of written +literature in those days there was, so far as we know, none. But where +books failed memory was strong and the power of retaining things heard +was not confined to a professional class. At every festive meeting many +could contribute a poem or a story, many could even improvise the one or +the other. When members of different tribes met in peace (as at the fair +of 'Ukaz) the most skilful reciters strove to maintain the honour of +their own people, and a ready improviser was held in high esteem. The +smartest epigrams, the fairest similes, the keenest satires, spoken or +sung on such occasions, were treasured in the memory of the hearers and +carried by them to their homes. But the experience of all peoples in +that memory requires to be helped by form. Sentences became balanced and +were made clear by some sort of definite ending. The simplest form of +this in Arabian literature is the _saj'_ or rhymed prose, in which the +sentences are usually (though not always) short and end in a rhyme or +assonance. Mahomet used this form in many parts of the Koran (e.g. +_Sura_, 81). The next step was the introduction of metre into the body +of the sentence and the restriction of the passages to a definite +length. This in its simplest form gave rise to the _rajaz_ verses, where +each half-line ends in the same rhyme and consists of three feet of the +measure /u - u -. Other metres were introduced later until sixteen +altogether were recognized. In all forms the rhyme is the same +throughout the poem, and is confined to the second half of the line +except in the first line where the two halves rhyme. While, however, +these measures were in early use, they were not systematically analysed +or their rules enunciated until the time of Khalil ibn Ahmad in the 8th +century. Two other features of Arabian poetry are probably connected +with the necessity for aiding the memory. The first of these is the +requirement that each line should have a complete sense in itself; this +produces a certain jerkiness, and often led among the Arabs to +displacement in the order of the lines in a long poem. The other +feature, peculiar to the long poem (_qasida_, elegy), is that, whatever +its real object, whatever its metre, it has a regular scheme in the +arrangement of its material. It begins with a description of the old +camping-ground, before which the poet calls on his companion to stop, +while he bewails the traces of those who have left for other places. +Then he tells of his love and how he had suffered from it, how he had +journeyed through the desert (this part often contains some of the most +famous descriptions and praises of animals) until his beast became thin +and worn-out. Then at last comes the real subject of the poem, usually +the panegyric of some man of influence or wealth to whom the poet has +come in hope of reward and before whom he recites the poem. + +_Poetry._--The influence of the poet in pre-Mahommedan days was very +great. As his name, _ash-Sha'ir_, "the knowing man," indicates, he was +supposed to have more than natural knowledge and power. Panegyric and +satire (_hija'_) were his chief instruments. The praise of the tribe in +well-chosen verses ennobled it throughout the land, a biting satire was +enough to destroy its reputation (cf. I. Goldziher's _Abhandlungen zur +arabischen Philologie_, i. pp. 1-105). Before Mahomet the ethics of the +Arabs were summed up in _muruwwa_ (custom). Hospitality, generosity, +personal bravery were the subjects of praise; meanness and cowardice +those of satire. The existence of poetry among the northern Arabs was +known to the Greeks even in the 4th century (cf. St Nilos in Migne's +_Patrologia Graeca_, vol. 79, col. 648, and Sozomen's _Ecclesiastical +History_, bk. 6, ch. 38). Women as well as men composed and recited +poems before the days of the Prophet (cf. L. Cheikho's _Poetesses of the +Jahiliyya_, in Arabic, Beirut, 1897). + +The transmission of early Arabic poetry has been very imperfect. Many of +the reciters were slain in battle, and it was not till the 8th to the +10th centuries and even later that the earliest collections of these +poems were made. Many have to be recovered from grammars, dictionaries, +&c., where single lines or groups of lines are quoted to illustrate the +proper use of words, phrases or idioms. Moreover, many a reciter was not +content to declaim the genuine verses of ancient poets, but interpolated +some of his own composition, and the change of religion introduced by +Islam led to the mutilation of many verses to suit the doctrines of the +new creed.[3] + +The language of the poems, as of all the best Arabian literature, was +that of the desert Arabs of central Arabia; and to use it aright was the +ambition of poets and scholars even in the Abbasid period. For the man +of the towns its vocabulary was too copious to be easily understood, and +in the age of linguistic studies many commentaries were written to +explain words and idioms. + +Of the pre-Mahommedan poets the most famous were the six whose poems +were collected by Asma'i about the beginning of the 9th century (ed. W. +Ahlwardt, _The Diwans of the Six Ancient Arabic Poets_, London, 1870). +Single poems of four of these--Amru-ul-Qais, Tarafa, Zuhair and +'Antara--appear in the Mo'allakat (q.v.). The other two were Nabigha +(q.v.) and 'Alqama (q.v.). But besides these there were many others +whose names were famous; such as Ta'abbata Sharran, a popular hero who +recites his own adventures with great gusto; his companion Shanfara, +whose fame rests on a fine poem which has been translated into French by +de Sacy (in his _Chrestomathie Arabe_) and into English by G. Hughes +(London, 1896); Aus ibn Hajar of the Bani Tamin, famous for his +descriptions of weapons and hunting scenes (ed. R. Geyer, Vienna, 1892); +Hatim Ta'i, renowned for his open-handed generosity as well as for his +poetry (ed. F. Schulthess, Leipzig, 1897, with German translation); and +'Urwa ibn ul-Ward of the tribe of 'Abs, rival of Hatim in generosity as +well as in poetry (ed. Th. Noldeke, Gottingen, 1863). Among these early +poets are found one Jew of repute, Samau'al (Samuel) ibn Adiya (cf. Th. +Noldeke's _Beitrage_, pp. 52-86; art. _s.v._ "Samuel ibn Adiya" in +_Jewish Encyc._ and authorities there quoted), and some Christians such +as 'Adi'ibn Zaid of Hira, who sang alike of the pleasures of drink and +of death (ed. by Louis Cheikho in his _Les Poetes arabes chretiens_, pp. +439-474, Beirut, 1890; in this work many Arabian poets are considered to +be Christian without sufficient reason). One poet, a younger +contemporary of Mahomet, has attracted much attention because his poems +were religious and he was a monotheist. This is Umayya ibn Abi-s-Salt, a +Meccan who did not accept Islam and died in 630. His poems are discussed +by F. Schulthess in the _Orientalische Studien_ dedicated by Th. +Noldeke, Giessen, 1906, and his relation to Mahomet by E. Power (in the +_Melanges de la faculte orientale de l'universite Saint-Joseph_, Beirut, +1906). Mahomet's relation to the poets generally was one of antagonism +because of their influence over the Arabs and their devotion to the old +religion and customs. Ka'b ibn Zuhair, however, first condemned to +death, then pardoned, later won great favour for himself by writing a +panegyric of the Prophet (ed. G. Freytag, Halle, 1823). Another poet, +A'sha (q.v.), followed his example. Labid (q.v.) and Hassan ibn Thabit +(q.v.) were also contemporary. Among the poetesses of the time Khansa +(q.v.) is supreme. In the scarcity of poets at this time two others +deserve mention; Abu Mihjan, who made peace with Islam in 630 but was +exiled for his love of wine, which he celebrated in his verse (ed. L. +Abel, Leiden, 1887; cf. C. Landberg's _Primeurs arabes_, 1, Leiden, +1886), and Jarwal ibn Aus, known as al-Hutai'a, a wandering poet whose +keen satires led to his imprisonment by Omar (Poems, ed. by I. Goldziher +in the _Journal of the German Oriental Society_, vols. 46 and 47). + +Had the simplicity and religious severity of the first four caliphs +continued in their successors, the fate of poetry would have been hard. +Probably little but religious poetry would have been allowed. But the +Omayyads (with one exception) were not religious men and, while +preserving the outward forms of Islam, allowed full liberty to the +pre-Islamic customs of the Arabs and the beliefs and practices of +Christians. At the same time the circumstances of the poet's life were +altered. Poetry depended on patronage, and that was to be had now +chiefly in the court of the caliph and the residences of his governors. +Hence the centre of attraction was now the city with its interests, not +the desert. Yet the old forms of poetry were kept. The _qasida_ still +required the long introduction (see above), which was entirely occupied +with the affairs of the desert. Thus poetry became more and more +artificial, until in the Abbasid period poets arose who felt themselves +strong enough to give up the worn-out forms and adopt others more +suitable. The names of three great poets adorn the Omayyad period: +Akhtal, Farazdaq and Jarir were contemporaries (see separate articles). +The first was a Christian of the tribe of Taghlib, whose Christianity +enabled him to write many verses which would have been impossible to a +professing Moslem. Protected by the caliph he employed the old weapons +of satire to support them against the "Helpers" and to exalt his own +tribe against the Qaisites. Farazdaq of the Bani Tamim, a good Moslem +but loose in morals, lived chiefly in Medina and Kufa, and was renowned +for his command of language. Jarir of another branch of the Bani Tamim +lived in Irak and courted the favour of Hajjaj, its governor. His +satires were so effective that he is said to have crushed forty-three +rivals. His great efforts were against Farazdaq, who was supported by +Akhtal (cf. _The Naka'id of Jarir and al-Farazdaq_, ed. A.A. Bevan, +Leiden, 1906 foll.). Among many minor poets one woman is conspicuous. +Laila ul-Akhyaliyya (d. 706) was married to a stranger. On the death of +her lover in battle, she wrote numerous elegies bewailing him, and so +became famous and devoted the rest of her life to the writing of verse. +Two poets of the Koreish attained celebrity in Arabia itself at this +time. Qais ur-Ruqayyat was the poet of 'Abdallah ibn uz-Zubair (Abdallah +ibn Zobair) and helped him until circumstances went against him, when he +made his peace with the caliph. His poems are chiefly panegyrics and +love songs (ed. N. Rhodonakis, Vienna, 1902). 'Umar ibn Abi Rabi'a (c. +643-719) was a wealthy man, who lived a life of ease in his native town +of Mecca, and devoted himself to intrigues and writing love songs (ed. +P. Schwarz, Leipzig, 1901-1902). His poems were very popular throughout +Arabia. As a dweller in the town he was independent of the old forms of +poetry, which controlled all others, but his influence among poets was +not great enough to perpetuate the new style. One other short-lived +movement of the Omayyad period should be mentioned. The _rajaz_ poems +(see above) had been a subordinate class generally used for +improvisations in pre-Mahommedan times. In the 7th and 8th centuries, +however, a group of poets employed them more seriously. The most +celebrated of these were 'Ajjaj and his son Ru'ba of the Bani Tamim +(editions by W. Ahlwardt, Berlin, 1903; German trans. of Ru'ba's poems +by Ahlwardt, Berlin, 1904). + +With the establishment of the Abbasid dynasty, a new epoch in Arabian +poetry began. The stereotyped beginning of the _qasida_ had been +recognized as antiquated and out of place in city life even in the +Omayyad period (cf. Goldziher, _Abhandlungen_, i. 144 ff). This form had +been ridiculed but now it lost its hold altogether, and was only +employed occasionally by way of direct imitation of the antique. The +rise of Persian influence made itself felt in much the same way as the +Norman influence in England by bringing a newer refinement into poetry. +Tribal feuds are no longer the main incentives to verse. Individual +experiences of life and matters of human interest become more usual +subjects. Cynicism, often followed by religion in a poet's later life, +is common. The tumultuous mixture of interests and passions to be found +in a city like Bagdad are the subjects of a poet's verse. One of the +earliest of these poets, Muti' ibn Ayas, shows the new depth of personal +feeling and refinement of expression. Bashshar ibn Burd (d. 783), a +blind poet of Persian descent, shows the ascendancy of Persian influence +as he openly rails at the Arabs and makes clear his own leaning to the +Persian religion. In the 8th century Abu Nuwas (q.v.) is the greatest +poet of his time. His language has the purity of the desert, his morals +are those of the city, his universalism is that of the man of the world. +Abu-l-'Atahiya (q.v.), his contemporary, is fluent, simple and often +didactic. Muslim ibn ul-Walid (ed. de Goeje, Leiden, 1875), also +contemporary, is more conservative of old forms and given to panegyric +and satire. In the 9th century two of the best-known poets--Abu Tammam +(q.v.) and Buhturi (q.v.) --were renowned for their knowledge of old +poetry (see HAMASA) and were influenced by it in their own verse. On the +other hand Ibn ul-Mo'tazz (son of the caliph) was the writer of +brilliant occasional verse, free of all imitation. In the 10th century +the centre of interest is in the court of Saif ud-Daula (addaula) at +Aleppo. Here in Motanabbi (q.v.) the claims of modern poetry not only to +equal but to excel the ancient were put forward and in part at any rate +recognized. Abu Firas (932-968) was a member of the family of Saif +ud-Daula, a soldier whose poems have all the charm that comes from the +fact that the writer has lived through the events he narrates (ed. by R. +Dvorak, Leiden, 1895). Many Arabian writers count Motanabbi the last of +the great poets. Yet Abu-l-'Ala ul-Ma'arri (q.v.) was original alike in +his use of rhymes and in the philosophical nature of his poems. Ibn +Farid (q.v.) is the greatest of the mystic poets, and Busiri (q.v.) +wrote the most famous poem extant in praise of the Prophet. In the +provinces of the caliphate there were many poets, who, however, seldom +produced original work. Spain, however, produced Ibn 'Abdun (d. 1126), +famous for the grace and finish of his style (ed. with commentary of Ibn +Badrun by R.P.A. Dozy, Leiden, 1846). The Sicilian Ibn Hamdis +(1048-1132) spent the last fifty years of his life in Spain (_Diwan_, +ed. Moacada, Palermo, 1883; _Canzoniere_, ed. Schiaparelli, Rome, 1897). +It was also apparently in this country that the strophe form was first +used in Arabic poems (cf. M. Hartmann's _Das arabische Strophengedicht_, +Weimar, 1897), and Ibn Quzman (12th century), a wandering singer, here +first used the language of everyday life in the form of verse known as +_Zajal_. + +_Anthologies._--As supplemental to the account of poetry may be +mentioned here some of the chief collections of ancient verse, sometimes +made for the sake of the poems themselves, sometimes to give a _locus +classicus_ for usages of grammar or lexicography, sometimes to +illustrate ancient manners and customs. The earliest of these is the +_Mo'allakat_ (q.v.). In the 8th century Ibn Mofaddal compiled the +collection named after him the _Mofaddaliyat_. From the 9th century we +have the Hamasas of Abu Tammam and Buhturi, and a collection of poems of +the tribe Hudhail (second half ed. in part by J.G.L. Kosegarten, London, +1854; completed by J. Wellhausen in _Skizzen und Vorarbeiten_, i. +Berlin, 1884). The numerous quotations of Ibn Qutaiba (q.v.) in the +'Uyun ul-Akhbar (ed. C. Brockelmann, Strassburg, 1900 ff.) and the _Book +of Poetry and Poets_ (ed. M.J. de Goeje, Leiden, 1904) bring these works +into this class. In the 10th century were compiled the _Jamharat ash'ar +al Arab_, containing forty-nine poems (ed. Bulaq, 1890), the work +_al-'Iqd ul-Farid_ of Ibn' Abdi-r-Rabbihi (ed. Cairo, various years), +and the greatest work of all this class, the _Kitab ul-Aghani_ ("Book of +Songs") (cf. ABU-L FARAJ). The 12th century contributes the _Diwan +Mukhtarat ush-Shu'ara'i_ with fifty qasidas. The _Khizanai ul-Adab_ of +Abdulqadir, written in the 17th century in the form of a commentary on +verses cited in a grammar, contains much old verse (ed. 4 vols., Bulaq, +1882). + +_Belles-Lettres and Romances._--Mahomet in the Koran had made extensive +use of _saj'_ or rhymed prose (see above). This form then dropped out of +use almost entirely for some time. In the 10th century, however, it was +revived, occurring almost simultaneously in the _Sermons_ of Ibn Nubata +(946-984) and the _Letters_ of Abu Bakr ul-Khwarizmi. Both have been +published several times in the East. The epistolary style was further +cultivated by Hamadhani (q.v.) and carried to perfection by Abu-l'Ala +ul-Ma'arri. Hamadhini was also the first to write in this rhymed prose a +new form of work, the _Maqama_ ("assembly"). The name arose from the +fact that scholars were accustomed to assemble for the purpose of +rivalling one another in orations showing their knowledge of Arabic +language, proverb and verse. In the _Maqamas_ of Hamadhani a narrator +describes how in various places he met a wandering scholar who in these +assemblies puts all his rivals to shame by his eloquence. Each oration +forms the substance of a _Maqama_, while the _Maqamas_ themselves are +united to one another by the constant meetings of narrator and scholar. +Hariri (q.v.) quite eclipsed the fame of his predecessor in this +department, and his _Maqamas_ retain their influence over Arabian +literature to the present day. As late as the 19th century the sheik +Nasif ul Yaziji (1800-1871) distinguished himself by writing sixty +clever _Maqamas_ in the style of Hariri (ed. Beirut, 1856, 1872). While +this class of literature had devoted itself chiefly to the finesses of +the language, another set of works was given to meeting the requirements +of moral education and the training of a gentleman. This, which is known +as "Adab literature," is anecdotic in style with much quotation of early +poetry and proverb. Thus government, war, friendship, morality, piety, +eloquence, are some of the titles under which Ibn Qutaiba groups his +stories and verses in the _'Uyun ul Akhbar_. _Jahiz_ (q.v.) in the 9th +century and Baihaqi (_The Kitab al-Mahasin val-Masawi_, ed. F. Schwally, +Giessen, 1900-1902) early in the 10th, wrote works of this class. A +little later a Spaniard, Ibn 'Abdrabbihi (Abdi-r-Rabbihi), wrote his +_'Iqd ul-Farid_ (see section _Anthologies_). The growth of city life in +the Abbasid capital led to the desire for a new form of story, differing +from the old tales of desert life. This was met in the first place by +borrowing. In the 8th century Ibn Muqaffa', a convert from Mazdaism to +Islam, translated the Pahlavi version of Bidpai's fables (itself a +version of the Indian _Panchatantra_) into Arabic with the title _Kalila +wa Dimna_ (ed. Beirut, various years). Owing to the purity of its +language and style it has remained a classic work. The _Book of the 1001 +Nights_ (_Arabian Nights_) also has its basis in translations from the +Indian through the Persian, made as early as the 9th century. To these +stories have been added others originating in Bagdad and Egypt and a few +others, which were at first in independent circulation. The whole work +seems to have taken its present form (with local variations) about the +13th century. Several other romances of considerable length are extant, +such as the _Story of 'Antar_ (ed. 32 vols., Cairo, 1869, &c., +translated in part by Terrick Hamilton, 4 vols., London, 1820), and the +_Story of Saif ibn Dhi Yezen_ (ed. Cairo, 1892). (G. W. T.) + +_Historical Literature._--Arabian historians differ from all others in +the unique form of their compositions. Each event is related in the +words of eye-witnesses or contemporaries transmitted to the final +narrator through a chain of intermediate reporters (_rawis_), each of +whom passed on the original report to his successor. Often the same +account is given in two or more slightly divergent forms, which have +come down through different chains of reporters. Often, too, one event +or one important detail is told in several ways on the basis of several +contemporary statements transmitted to the final narrator through +distinct lines of tradition. The writer, therefore, exercises no +independent criticism except as regards the choice of authorities; for +he rejects accounts of which the first author or one of the intermediate +links seems to him unworthy of credit, and sometimes he states which of +several accounts seems to him the best. + +A second type of Arabian historiography is that in which an author +combines the different traditions about one occurrence into one +continuous narrative, but prefixes a statement as to the lines of +authorities used and states which of them he mainly follows. In this +case the writer recurs to the first method, already described, only when +the different traditions are greatly at variance with one another. In +yet a third type of history the old method is entirely forsaken and we +have a continuous narrative only occasionally interrupted by citation of +the authority for some particular point. But the principle still is that +what has been well said once need not be told again in other words. The +writer, therefore, keeps as close as he can to the letter of his +sources, so that quite a late writer often reproduces the very words of +the first narrator. + +From very early times story-tellers and singers found their subjects in +the doughty deeds of the tribe on its forays, and sometimes in contests +with foreign powers and in the impression produced by the wealth and +might of the sovereigns of Persia and Constantinople. The appearance of +the Prophet with the great changes that ensued, the conquests that made +the Arabs lords of half the civilized world, supplied a vast store of +new matter for relations which men were never weary of hearing and +recounting. They wished to know everything about the apostle of God. +Every one who had known or seen him was questioned and was eager to +answer. Moreover, the word of God in the Koran left many practical +points undecided, and therefore it was of the highest importance to know +exactly how the Prophet had spoken and acted in various circumstances. +Where could this be better learned than at Medina, where he had lived so +long and where the majority of his companions continued to live? So at +Medina a school was gradually formed, where the chief part of the +traditions about Mahomet and his first successors took a form more or +less fixed. Soon men began to assist memory by making notes, and pupils +sought to take written jottings of what they had heard from their +teachers. Thus by the close of the 1st century many _dictata_ were +already in circulation. For example, Hasan of Basra (d. 728 A.D.) had a +great mass of such notes, and he was accused of sometimes passing off as +oral tradition things he had really drawn from books; for oral tradition +was still the one recognized authority, and it is related of more than +one old scholar, and even of Hasan of Basra himself, that he directed +his books to be burned at his death. The books were mere helps. Long +after this date, when all scholars drew mainly from books, the old forms +were still kept up. Tabari, for example, when he cites a book expresses +himself as if he had heard what he quotes from the master with whom he +read the passage or from whose copy he transcribed it. He even expresses +himself in this wise: "'Omar b. Shabba has _related_ to me in his book +on the history of Basra." No independent book of the 1st century from +the Flight (i.e. 622-719) has come down to us. It is told, however, that +Moawiya summoned an old man named 'Abid ibn Sharya from Yemen to +Damascus to tell him all he knew about ancient history and that he +induced him to write down his information. This very likely formed the +nucleus of a book which bore the name of that sheik and was much read in +the 3rd century from the Flight. It seems to be lost now. But in the 2nd +century (719-816) real books began to be composed. The materials were +supplied in the first place by oral tradition, in the second by the +_dictata_ of older scholars, and finally by various kinds of documents, +such as treaties, letters, collections of poetry and genealogical lists. +Genealogical studies had become necessary through Omar's system of +assigning state pensions to certain classes of persons according to +their kinship with the Prophet, or their deserts during his lifetime. +This subject received much attention even in the 1st century, but books +about it were first written in the 2nd, the most famous being those of +Ibn al-Kalbi (d. 763), of his son Hisham (d. 819), and of Al-Sharqi ibn +al-Qutami. Genealogy, which often called for elucidations, led on to +history. Baladhuri's excellent _Ansab al-Ashraf_ (Genealogies of the +Nobles) is a history of the Arabs on a genealogical plan. + +The oldest extant history is the biography of the Prophet by Ibn Ishaq +(d. 767). This work is generally trustworthy. Mahomet's life before he +appeared as a prophet and the story of his ancestors are indeed mixed +with many fables illustrated by spurious verses. But in Ibn Ishaq's day +these fables were generally accepted as history--for many of them had +been first related by contemporaries of Mahomet--and no one certainly +thought it blameworthy to put pious verses in the mouth of the Prophet's +forefathers, though, according to the _Fihrist_ (p. 92), Ibn Ishaq was +duped by others with regard to the poems he quotes. The original work of +Ibn Ishaq seems to be lost. That which we possess is an edition of it by +Ibn Hisham (d. 834) with additions and omissions (text ed. by F. +Wustenfeld, Gottingen, 1858-1860; German translation by Weil, Stuttgart, +1864). + +The _Life_ of the Prophet by Ibn Oqba (d. 758), based on the statements +of two very trustworthy men, 'Urwa ibn az-Zubair (d. 713) and Az-zuhri +(d. 742), was still much read in Syria in the 14th century. Fragments of +this have been edited by E. Sachau, Berlin, 1904. We fortunately possess +the _Book of the Campaigns_ of the Prophet by al-Waqidi (d. 822) and the +important _Book of Classes_ of his disciple Ibn Sa'd (q.v.). Waqidi had +much more copious materials than Ibn Ishaq, but gives way much more to a +popular and sometimes romancing style of treatment. Nevertheless he +sometimes helps us to recognize in Ibn Ishaq's narrative modifications +of the genuine tradition made for a purpose, and the additional details +he supplies set various events before us in a clearer light. Apart from +this his chief merits lie in his studies on the subject of the +traditional authorities, the results of which are given by Ibn Sa'd, and +in his chronology, which is often excellent. A special study of the +traditions about the conquest of Syria made by M.J. de Goeje in 1864 +(_Memoires sur la conquete de la Syrie_, 2nd ed., Leiden, 1900), led to +the conclusion that Waqidi's chronology is sound as regards the main +events, and that later historians have gone astray by forsaking his +guidance. This result has been confirmed by certain contemporary notices +found by Th. Noldeke in 1874 in a Syriac MS. of the British Museum. And +that Ibn Ishaq agrees with Waqidi in certain main dates is important +evidence for the trustworthiness of the former also. For the chronology +before the year 10 of the Flight Waqidi did his best, but here, the +material being defective, many of his conclusions are precarious. Waqidi +had already a great library at his disposal. He is said to have had 600 +chests of books, chiefly _dictata_ written by or for himself, but in +part real books by Abu Mikhnaf (d. 748), Ibn Ishaq (whom he uses but +does not name), 'Awana (d. 764), Abu Mashar (d. 791) and other authors. +Abu Mikhnaf left a great number of monographs on the chief events from +the death of the Prophet to the caliphate of Walid II. These were much +used by later writers, and we have many extracts from them, but none of +the works themselves except a sort of romance based on his account of +the death of Hosain (Husain) of which Wustenfeld has given a +translation. With regard to the history of Irak in particular he was +deemed to have the best information, and for this subject he is Tabari's +chief source, just as Madaini, a younger contemporary of Waqidi, is +followed by preference in all that relates to Khorasan. Madaini's +_History of the Caliphs_ is the best, if not the oldest, published +before Tabari; but this book is known only by the excerpts given by +later writers, particularly Baladhuri and Tabari. From these we judge +that he had great narrative power, with much clear and exact learning, +and must be placed high as a critical historian. His plan was to record +the various traditions about an event, choosing them with critical +skill; sometimes, however, he fused the several traditions into a +continuous narrative. A just estimate of the relative value of the +historians can only be reached by careful comparison in detail. This has +been essayed by Brunnow in his study on the Kharijites (Leiden, 1884), +in which the narrative of Mubarrad in the Kamil is compared with the +excerpts of Madaini given by Baladhuri and those of Abu Mikhnaf given by +Tabari. The conclusion reached is that Abu Mikhnaf and Madaini are both +well informed and impartial. + +Among the contemporaries of Waqidi and Madaini were Ibn Khidash (d. +838), the historian of the family Muhallab, whose work was one of +Mubarrad's sources for the _History of the Kharijites_; Haitham ibn 'Adi +(d. 822), whose works, though now lost, are often cited; and Saif ibn +'Omar at-Tamimi, whose book on the revolt of the tribes under Abu-Bekr +and on the Mahommedan conquests was much used by Tabari. His narratives +are detailed and often tinged with romance, and he is certainly much +inferior to Waqidi in accuracy. Wellhausen has thoroughly examined the +work of Saif in _Skizzen und Vorarbeiten_, vi. Besides these are to be +mentioned Abu 'Ubaida (d. 825), who was celebrated as a philologist and +wrote several historical monographs that are often cited, and Azraqi, +whose excellent _History of Mecca_ was published after his death by his +grandson (d. 858). With these writers we pass into the 3rd century of +Islam. But we have still an important point to notice in the 2nd +century; for in it learned Persians began to take part in the creation +of Arabic historical literature. Ibn Muqaffa' translated the great _Book +of Persian Kings_, and others followed his example. Tabari and his +contemporaries, senior and junior, such as Ibn Qutaiba, Ya'qubi, +Dinawari, preserve to us a good part of the information about Persian +history made known through such translations.[4] But even more important +than the knowledge conveyed by these works was their influence on +literary style and composition. Half a century later began versions from +the Greek either direct or through the Syriac. The pieces translated +were mostly philosophical; but the Arabs also learned something, however +superficially, of ancient history. + +The 3rd century (816-913) was far more productive than the 2nd. Abu +'Ubaida was succeeded by Ibn al-A'rabi (d. 846), who in like manner was +chiefly famous as a philologist, and who wrote about ancient poems and +battles. Much that he wrote is quoted in Tabrizi's commentary on the +_Hamasa_, which is still richer in extracts from the historical +elucidations of early poems given by ar-Riyashi (d. 871). Of special +fame as a genealogist was Ibn Habib (d. 859), of whom we have a booklet +on Arabian tribal names (ed. Wustenfeld, 1850). Azraqi again was +followed by Fakihi, who wrote a _History of Mecca_ in 885,[5] and 'Omar +b. Shabba (d. 876), who composed an excellent history of Basra, known to +us only by excerpts. Of the works of Zubair b. Bakkar (d. 870), one of +Tabari's teachers, a learned historian and genealogist much consulted by +later writers, there is a fragment in the Koprulu library at +Constantinople, and another in Gottingen, part of which has been made +known by Wustenfeld (_Die Familie Al-Zobair_, Gottingen, 1878). Ya'qubi +(Ibn Wadih) wrote a short general history of much value (published by +Houtsma, Leiden, 1883). About India he knows more than his predecessors +and more than his successors down to Beruni. Ibn Khordadhbeh's +historical works are lost. Ibn 'Abdalhakam (d. 871) wrote of the +conquest of Egypt and the West. Extracts from this book are given by +M'G. de Slane in his _Histoire des Berberes_, from which we gather that +it was a medley of true tradition and romance, and must be reckoned, +with the book of his slightly senior contemporary, the Spaniard Ibn +Habib, in the class of historical romances. A high place must be +assigned to the historian Ibn Qutaiba or Kotaiba (d. 889), who wrote a +very useful _Handbook of History_ (ed. Wustenfeld, Gottingen, 1850). +Much more eminent is Baladhuri (d. 893), whose book on the Arab conquest +(ed. M.J. de Goeje, Leiden, 1865-1866) merits the special praise given +to it by Mas'udi, and who also wrote a large work, the _Ansab +al-Ashraf_. A contemporary, Ibn abi Tahir Taifur (d. 894), wrote on the +Abbasid caliphs and was drawn on by Tabari. The sixth part of his work +is in the British Museum. The universal history of Dinawari (d. 896), +entitled _The Long Narratives_, has been edited by Girgas (1887). + +All these histories are more or less thrown into the shade by the great +work of Tabari (q.v.), whose fame has never faded from his own day to +ours. The _Annals_ (ed. M. de Goeje, Leiden, 1879-1901) are a general +history from the creation to 302 A.H. (= A.D. 915). As a literary +composition they do not rank very high, which may be due partly to the +author's years, partly to the inequality of his sources, sometimes +superabundant, sometimes defective, partly perhaps to the somewhat hasty +condensation of his original draft. Nevertheless the value of the book +is very great: the author's selection of traditions is usually happy, +and the episodes of most importance are treated with most fulness of +detail, so that it deserves the high reputation it has enjoyed from the +first. This reputation rose steadily; there were twenty copies (one of +them written by Tabari's own hand) in the library of the Fatimite caliph +'Aziz (latter half of the 4th century), whereas, when Saladin became +lord of Egypt, the princely library contained 1200 copies (Maqrizi, i. +408 seq.). + +The _Annals_ soon came to be dealt with in various ways. They were +published in shorter form with the omission of the names of authorities +and of most of the poems cited; some passages quoted by later writers +are not found even in the Leiden edition. On the other hand, some +interpolations took place, one in the author's lifetime and perhaps by +his own hand. Then many supplements were written, e.g. by Ferghani (not +extant) and by Hamadhani (partly preserved in Paris). 'Arib of Cordova +made an abridgment, adding the history of the West and continuing the +story to about 975.[6] Ibn Mashkawaih wrote a history from the creation +to 980, with the purpose of drawing the lessons of the story, following +Tabari closely, as far as his book is known, and seldom recurring to +other sources before the reign of Moqtadir; what follows is his own +composition and shows him to be a writer of talent.[7] In 963 an +abridgment of the _Annals_ was translated into Persian by Bal'ami, who, +however, interwove many fables.[8] Ibn al-Athir (d. 1234) abridged the +whole work, usually with judgment, but sometimes too hastily. Though he +sometimes glided lightly over difficulties, his work is of service in +fixing the text of Tabari. He also furnished a continuation to the year +1224. Later writers took Tabari as their main authority, but sometimes +consulted other sources, and so add to our knowledge--especially Ibn +al-Jauzi (d. 1201), who adds many important details. These later +historians had valuable help from the biographies of famous men and +special histories of countries and cities, dynasties and princes, on +which much labour was spent from the 4th century from the Flight +onwards. + +The chief historians after Tabari may be briefly mentioned in +chronological order. Razi (d. A.D. 932) wrote a _History of Spain_; +Eutychius (d. 940) wrote _Annals_ (ed. L. Cheikho, Paris, 1906), which +are very important because he gives the Christian tradition; Suli (d. +946) wrote on the Abbasid caliphs, their viziers and court poets; +Mas'udi (q.v.) composed various historical and geographical works (d. +956). Of Tabari's contemporary Hamza Ispahani (c. 940) we have the +Annals (ed. Gottwaldt, St Petersburg, 1844); Ibn al-Qutiya wrote a +_History of Spain_; Ibn Zulaq (d. 997) a _History of Egypt_; 'Otbi wrote +the _History of Mahmud of Ghazna_, at whose court he lived (printed on +the margin of the Egyptian edition of Ibn al-Athir); Tha'labi (d. 1036) +wrote a well-known _History of the Old Prophets_; Abu Nu'aim al-Ispahani +(d. 1039) wrote a _History of Ispahan_, chiefly of the scholars of that +city; Tha'alibi (d. c. 1038) wrote, _inter alia_, a well-known _History +of the Poets of his Time_, published at Damascus, 1887; Biruni (q.v.) +(d. 1048) takes a high place among historians; Koda'i (d. 1062) wrote a +_Description of Egypt_ and also various historical pieces, of which some +are extant; Ibn Sa'id of Cordova (d. 1070) wrote a _View of the History +of the Various Nations_. Bagdad and its learned men found an excellent +historian in al-Khatib al-Baghdadi (d. 1071), and Spain in Ibn Hayan (d. +1076), and half a century later in Ibn Khaqan (d. 1135) and Ibn Bassam +(d. 1147). Sam'ani (d. 1167) wrote an excellent book on genealogies; +'Umara (d. 1175) wrote a _History of Yemen_ (ed. H.C. Kay, London, +1892); Ibn 'Asaqir (d. 1176) a _History of Damascus and her Scholars_, +which is of great value, and exists in whole or in part in several +libraries. The _Biographical Dictionary_ of the Spaniard Ibn Pascual (d. +1182) and that of Dabbi, a somewhat junior contemporary, are edited in +Codera's _Bibliotheca Arab. Hisp._ (1883-1885); Saladin found his +historian in the famous 'Imad uddin (d. 1201) (Arabic text, ed. C. +Landberg, Leiden, 1888). Ibn ul-Jauzi, who died in the same year, has +been already mentioned. Abdulwahid's _History of the Almohades_, written +in 1224, was published by Dozy (2nd ed., 1881). Abdullatif or Abdallatif +(d. 1232) is known by his writings about Egypt (trans. de Sacy, 1810); +Ibn al-Athir (d. 1233) wrote, in addition to the _Chronicle_ already +mentioned, a _Biographical Dictionary of Contemporaries of the Prophet_. +Qifti (d. 1248) is especially known by his _History of Arabic +Philologists_. Sibt ibn al-Jauzi (d. 1256), grandson of the Ibn al-Jauzi +already mentioned, wrote a great _Chronicle_, of which much the larger +part still exists. Codera has edited (Madrid, 1886) Ibn al-'Abbar's (d. +1260) _Biographical Lexicon_, already known by Dozy's excerpts from it. +Ibn al-'Adim (d. 1262) is famed for his _History of Aleppo_, and Abu +Shama (d. 1267) wrote a well-known _History of Saladin and Nureddin_, +taking a great deal from 'Imad uddin. Ibn abi Usaibia (d. 1269) wrote a +_History of Physicians_, ed. A. Muller. The _History_ of Ibn al-'Amid +(d. 1276), better known as Elmacin, was printed by Erpenius in 1625. Ibn +Sa'id al-Maghribi (d. 1274 or 1286) is famous for his histories, but +still more for his geographical writings. The noted theologian Nawawi +(q.v.; d. 1278) wrote a _Biographical Dictionary of the Worthies of the +First Ages of Islam_. Preeminent as a biographer is Ibn Khallikan (q.v.; +d. 1282), whose much-used work was partly edited by de Slane and +completely by Wustenfeld (1835-1840), and translated into English by the +former scholar (4 vols., 1843-1871). + +Abu 'l-Faraj, better known as Bar-Hebraeus (d. 1286), wrote, besides his +Syriac _Chronicle_, an Arabic _History of Dynasties_ (ed. E. Pocock, +Oxford, 1663, Beirut, 1890). Ibn 'Adhari's _History of Africa and Spain_ +has been published by Dozy (2 vols., Leiden, 1848-1851), and the +_Qartas_ of Ibn abi Zar' by Tornberg (1843). One of the best-known of +Arab writers is Abulfeda (d. 1331) (q.v.). Not less famous is the great +_Encyclopaedia_ of his contemporary Nuwairi (d. 1332), but only extracts +from it have been printed. Ibn Sayyid an-Nas (d. 1334) wrote a full +biography of the Prophet; Mizzi (d. 1341) an extensive work on the men +from whom traditions have been derived. We still possess, nearly +complete, the great _Chronicle_ of Dhahabi (d. 1347), a very learned +biographer and historian. The geographical and historical _Masalik +al-Absar_ of Ibn Fadlallah (d. 1348) is known at present by extracts +given by Quatremere and Amari. Ibn al-Wardi (d. c. 1349), best known by +his _Cosmography_, wrote a _Chronicle_ which has been printed in Egypt. +Safadi (d., 1363) got a great name as a biographer. Yafi'i (d. 1367) +wrote a _Chronicle of Islam_ and _Lives of Saints_. Subki (d. 1369) +published _Lives of the Theologians of the Shafi'ite School_. Of Ibn +Kathir's _History_ the greatest part is extant. For the history of Spain +and the Maghrib the writings of Ibn al-Khatib (d. 1374) are of +acknowledged value. Another history, of which we possess the greater +part, is the large work of Ibn al-Furat (d. 1404). Far superior to all +these, however, is the famous Ibn Khaldun (q.v.) (d. 1406). Of the +historical works of the famous lexicographer Fairuzabadi (q.v.) (d. +1414) only a _Life of the Prophet_ remains. Maqrizi (d. 1442) is the +subject of a separate article; Ibn Hajar (d. 1448) is best known by his +_Biographical Dictionary of Contemporaries of the Prophet_, published in +the _Bibliotheca Indica_. Ibn 'Arabshah (d. 1450) is known by his +_History of Timur_ (Leeuwarden, 1767). 'Aini (d. 1451) wrote a _General +History_, still extant. Abu'l-Mahasin ibn Taghribirdi (d. 1469) wrote at +length on the history of Egypt; the first two parts have been published +by Juynboll and Matthes, Leiden, 1855-1861. Flugel has published Ibn +Kotlubogha's _Biographies of the Hanifite Jurists_. Ibn Shihna (d. 1485) +wrote a _History of Aleppo_. Of Sakhawi we possess a bibliographical +work on the historians. The polymath Suyuti (q.v.) (d. 1505) contributed +a _History of the Caliphs_ and many biographical pieces. Samhudi's +_History of Medina_ is known through the excerpts of Wustenfeld (1861). +Ibn Iyas (d. 1524) wrote a _History of Egypt_, and Diarbekri (d. 1559) a +_Life of Mahomet_. To these names must be added Maqqari (Makkari) (q.v.) +and Hajji Khalifa (q.v.) (d. 1658). He made use of European sources, and +with him Arabic historiography may be said to cease, though he had some +unimportant successors. + +A word must be said of the historical romances, the beginnings of which +go back to the first centuries of Islam. The interest in all that +concerned Mahomet and in the allusions of the Koran to old prophets and +races led many professional narrators to choose these subjects. The +increasing veneration paid to the Prophet and love for the marvellous +soon gave rise to fables about his childhood, his visit to heaven, &c., +which have found their way even into sober histories, just as many +Jewish legends told by the converted Jew Ka'b al-Ahbar and by Wahb ibn +Monabbih, and many fables about the old princes of Yemen told by 'Abid, +are taken as genuine history (see, however, Mas'udi, iv. 88 seq.). A +fresh field for romantic legend was found in the history of the +victories of Islam, the exploits of the first heroes of the faith, the +fortunes of 'Ali and his house. Then, too, history was often expressly +forged for party ends. The people accepted all this, and so a romantic +tradition sprang up side by side with the historical, and had a +literature of its own, the beginnings of which must be placed as early +as the 2nd century of the Flight. The oldest specimens still extant are +the fables about the conquest of Spain ascribed to Ibn Habib (d. 852), +and those about the conquest of Egypt and the West by Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam +(d. 871). In these truth and falsehood are mingled. But most of the +extant literature of this kind is, in its present form, much more +recent; e.g. the _Story of the Death of Hosain_ by the pseudo-Abu +Mikhnaf (translated by Wustenfeld); the _Conquest of Syria_ by Abu +Isma'il al-Basri (edited by Nassau Lees, Calcutta, 1854, and discussed +by de Goeje, 1864); the pseudo-Waqidi (see Hamaker, _De Expugnatione +Memphidis et Alexandriae_, Leiden, 1835); the pseudo-Ibn Qutaiba (see +Dozy, _Recherches_); the book ascribed to A'sam Kufi, &c. Further +inquiry into the origin of these works is called for, but some of them +were plainly directed to stirring up fresh zeal against the Christians. +In the 6th century of the Flight some of these books had gained so much +authority that they were used as sources, and thus many untruths crept +into accepted history. (M. J. de G.; G. W. T.) + + _Geography._--The writing of geographical books naturally began with + the description of the Moslem world, and that for practical purposes. + Ibn Khordadhbeh, in the middle of the 9th century, wrote a _Book of + Roads and Provinces_ to give an account of the highways, the + posting-stations and the revenues of the provinces. In the same + century Ya'qubi wrote his _Book of Countries_, describing specially + the great cities of the empire. A similar work describing the + provinces in some detail was that of Qudama or Kodama (d. 922). + Hamdani (q.v.) was led to write his great geography of Arabia by his + love for the ancient history of his land. Muqaddasi (Mokaddasi) at the + end of the 10th century was one of the early travellers whose works + were founded on their own observation. The study of Ptolemy's + geography led to a wider outlook, and the writing of works on + geography (q.v.) in general. A third class of Arabian geographical + works were those written to explain the names of places which occur in + the older poets. Such books were written by Bakri (q.v.) and Yaqut + (q.v.)[9] + + _Grammar and Lexicography._--Arab tradition ascribes the first + grammatical treatment of the language to Abu-l-Aswad ud-Du'ali (latter + half of the 7th century), but the certain beginnings of Arabic grammar + are found a hundred years later. The Arabs from early times have + always been proud of their language, but its systematic study seems to + have arisen from contact with Persian and from the respect for the + language of the Koran. In Irak the two towns of Basra and Kufa + produced two rival schools of philologists. Bagdad soon had one of its + own (cf. G. Flugel's _Die grammatischen Schulen der Araber_, Leipzig, + 1862). Khalil ibn Ahmad (718-791), an Arab from Oman, of the school of + Basra, was the first to enunciate the laws of Arabic metre and the + first to write a dictionary. His pupil Sibawaihi (q.v.), a Persian, + wrote the grammar known simply as _The Book_, which is generally + regarded in the East as authoritative and almost above criticism. + Other members of the school of Basra were Abu 'Ubaida (q.v.), Asma'i + (q.v.), Mubarrad (q.v.) and Ibn Duraid (q.v.). The school of Kufa + claimed to pay more attention to the living language (spoken among the + Bedouins) than to written laws of grammar. Among its teachers were + Kisa'i, the tutor of Harun al-Rashid's sons, Ibn A'rabi, Ibn as-Sikkit + (d. 857) and Ibn ul-Anbari (885-939). In the fourth century of Islam + the two schools of Kufa and Basra declined in importance before the + increasing power of Bagdad, where Ibn Qutaiba, Ibn Jinni (941-1002) + and others carried on the work, but without the former rivalry of the + older schools. Persia from the beginning of the 10th century produced + some outstanding students of Arabic. Hamadhani (d. 932) wrote a book + of synonyms (ed. L. Cheikho, Beirut, 1885). Jauhari (q.v.) wrote his + great dictionary the _Sahah_. Tha'alibi (q.v.) and Jurjani (q.v.) were + almost contemporary, and a little later came Zamakhshari (q.v.), whose + philological works are almost as famous as his commentary on the + Koran. The most important dictionaries of Arabic are late in origin. + The immense work, _Lisan ul Arab_ (ed. 20 vols, Bulaq, 1883-1889), was + compiled by Ibn Manzur (1232-1311), the _Qamus_ by Fairuzabadi, the + _Taj ul'Arus_ (ed. 10 vols., Bulaq, 1890), founded on the _Qamus_, by + Murtada uz-Zabidi (1732-1790). + + _Scientific Literature._--The literature of the various sciences is + dealt with elsewhere. It is enough here to mention that such existed, + and that it was not indigenous. It was in the early Abbasid period + that the scientific works of Greece were translated into Arabic, often + through the Syriac, and at the same time the influence of Sanskrit + works made itself felt. Astronomy seems in this way to have come + chiefly from India. The study of mathematics learned from Greece and + India was developed by Arabian writers, who in turn became the + teachers of Europe in the 16th century. Medical literature was + indebted for its origin to the works of Galen and the medical school + of Gondesapur. Many of the Arabian philosophers were also physicians + and wrote on medicine. Chemistry proper was not understood, but + Arabian writings on alchemy led Europe to it later. So also the + literature of the animal world (cf. Damiri) is not zoological but + legendary, and the works on minerals are practical and not scientific. + See ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY and historical sections of such scientific + articles as ASTRONOMY, &c. (G. W. T.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] For the general history of the succeeding period see CALIPHATE; + EGYPT: _History_, S "Mahommedan." + + [2] For further details of this period, see Egypt: _History_, + "Mahommedan Period," S 8. + + [3] On the subject of transmission cf. Th. Noldeke's _Beitrage zur + Kenntniss der Poesie der alten Araber_ (Hanover, 1804); and W. + Ahlwardt's _Bemerkungen uber die Aechtheit der alten arabischen + Gedickte_ (Greifswald, 1872). + + [4] For details see the introduction to Noldeke's translation of + Tabari's _Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der Sasaniden_ + (Leiden, 1879). + + [5] Published in excerpt by Wustenfeld along with Azraqi (Leipzig, + 1857-1859). + + [6] Of this work the Gotha Library has a portion containing 290-320 + A.H., of which the part about the West has been printed by Dozy in + the Bayan, and the rest was published at Leiden in 1897. + + [7] A fragment (198-251 A.H.) is printed in de Goeje, _Fragm. Hist. + Ar._ (vol. ii., Leiden, 1871). + + [8] The first part was rendered into French by Dubeux in 1836. There + is an excellent French translation by Zotenberg (1874). + + [9] The chief Arabian geographical works have been edited by M.J. de + Goeje in his _Bibliotheca Geographorum arabicorum_ (Leiden, 1874 + ff.). + + + + +ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY. What is known as "Arabian" philosophy owed to Arabia +little more than its name and its language. It was a system of Greek +thought, expressed in a Semitic tongue, and modified by Oriental +influences, called into existence amongst the Moslem people by the +patronage of their more liberal princes, and kept alive by the +intrepidity and zeal of a small band of thinkers, who stood suspected +and disliked in the eyes of their nation. Their chief claim to the +notice of the historian of speculation comes from their warm reception +of Greek philosophy when it had been banished from its original soil, +and whilst western Europe was still too rude and ignorant to be its home +(9th to 12th century). + + + Origin. + +In the course of that exile the traces of Semitic or Mahommedan +influence gradually faded away, and the last of the line of Saracenic +thinkers was a truer exponent of the one philosophy which they all +professed to teach than the first. The whole movement is little else +than a chapter in the history of Aristotelianism. That system of +thought, after passing through the minds of those who saw it in the hazy +light of an orientalized Platonism, and finding many laborious but +narrow-purposed cultivators in the monastic schools of heretical Syria, +was then brought into contact with the ideas and mental habits of Islam. +But those in whom the two currents converged did not belong to the pure +Arab race. Of the so-called Arabian philosophers of the East, al-Farabi, +Ibn-Sina and al-Ghazali were natives of Khorasan, Bokhara and the +outlying provinces of north-eastern Persia; whilst al-Kindi, the +earliest of them, sprang from Basra, on the Persian Gulf, on the +debatable ground between the Semite and the Aryan. In Spain, again, +where Ibn-Bajja, Ibn-Tufail and Ibn Rushd rivalled or exceeded the fame +of the Eastern schools, the Arabians of pure blood were few, and the +Moorish ruling class was deeply intersected by Jewish colonies, and even +by the natives of Christian Spain. Thus, alike at Bagdad and at Cordova, +Arabian philosophy represents the temporary victory of exotic ideas and +of subject races over the theological one-sidedness of Islam, and the +illiterate simplicity of the early Saracens. + +Islam had, it is true, a philosophy of its own among its theologians +(see MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION). It was with them that the Moslem +theology--the science of the word (_Kalam_)--first came into existence. +Its professors, the _Mutakallimun_ (known in Hebrew as _Medabberim_, and +as _Loquentes_ in the Latin versions), may be compared with the +scholastic doctors of the Catholic Church. Driven in the first instance +to speculation in theology by the needs of their natural reason, they +came, in after days, when Greek philosophy had been naturalized in the +Caliphate, to adapt its methods and doctrines to the support of their +views. They employed a quasi-philosophical method, by which, according +to Maimonides, they first reflected how things ought to be in order to +support, or at least not contradict, their opinions, and then, when +their minds were made up with regard to this imaginary system, declared +that the world was no otherwise constituted. The dogmas of creation and +providence, of divine omnipotence, chiefly exercised them; and they +sought to assert for God an immediate action in the making and the +keeping of the world. Space they looked upon as pervaded by atoms +possessing no quality or extension, and time was similarly divided into +innumerable instants. Each change in the constitution of the atoms is a +direct act of the Almighty. When the fire burns, or the water moistens, +these terms merely express the habitual connexion which our senses +perceive between one thing and another. It is not the man that throws a +stone who is its real mover: the supreme agent has for the moment +created motion. If a living being die, it is because God has created the +attribute of death; and the body remains dead, only because that +attribute is unceasingly created. Thus, on the one hand, the object +called the cause is denied to have any efficient power to produce the +so-called effect; and, on the other hand, the regularities or laws of +nature are explained to be direct interferences by the Deity. The +supposed uniformity and necessity of causation is only an effect of +custom, and may be at any moment rescinded. In this way, by a theory +which, according to Averroes, involves the negation of science, the +Moslem theologians believed that they had exalted God beyond the limits +of the metaphysical and scientific conceptions of law, form and matter; +whilst they at the same time stood aloof from the vulgar doctrines, +attributing a causality to things. Thus they deemed they had left a +clear ground for the possibility of miracles. + +But at least one point was common to the theological and the +philosophical doctrine. Carrying out, it may be, the principles of the +Neo-Platonists, they kept the sanctuary of the Deity securely guarded, +and interposed between him and his creatures a spiritual order of potent +principles, from the Intelligence, which is the first-born image of the +great unity, to the Soul and Nature, which come later in the spiritual +rank. Of God the philosophers said we could not tell what He is, but +only what He is not. The highest point, beyond which strictly +philosophical inquirers did not penetrate, was the active intellect,--a +sort of soul of the world in Aristotelian garb--the principle which +inspires and regulates the development of humanity, and in which lies +the goal of perfection for the human spirit. In theological language the +active intellect is described as an angel. The inspirations which the +prophet receives by angelic messengers are compared with the irradiation +of intellectual light, which the philosopher wins by contemplation of +truth and increasing purity of life. But while the theologian +incessantly postulated the agency of that God whose nature he deemed +beyond the pale of science, the philosopher, following a purely human +and natural aim, directed his efforts to the gradual elevation of his +part of reason from its unformed state, and to its final union with the +controlling intellect which moves and draws to itself the spirits of +those who prepare themselves for its influences. The philosophers in +their way, like the mystics of Persia (the Sufites) in another, tended +towards a theory of the communion of man with the spiritual world, which +may be considered a protest against the practical and almost prosaic +definiteness of the creed of Mahomet. + +Arabian philosophy, at the outset of its career in the 9th century, was +able without difficulty to take possession of those resources for +speculative thought which the Latins had barely achieved at the close of +the 12th century by the slow process of rediscovering the Aristotelian +logic from the commentaries and verses of Boetius. What the Latins +painfully accomplished, owing to their fragmentary and unintelligent +acquaintance with ancient philosophy, was already done for the Arabians +by the scholars of Syria. In the early centuries of the Christian era, +both within and without the ranks of the church, the Platonic tone and +method were paramount throughout the East. Their influence was felt in +the creeds which formulated the orthodox dogmas in regard to the Trinity +and the Incarnation. But in its later days the Neo-Platonist school came +more and more to find in Aristotle the best exponent and interpreter of +the philosopher whom they thought divine. It was in this spirit that +Porphyry, Themistius and Joannes Philoponus composed their commentaries +on the treatises of the Peripatetic system which, modified often +unconsciously by the dominant ideas of its expositors, became in the 6th +and 7th centuries the philosophy of the Eastern Church. But the +instrument which, in the hands of John of Damascus (Damascenus), was +made subservient to theological interests, became in the hands of others +a dissolvent of the doctrines which had been reduced to shape under the +prevalence of the elder Platonism. Peripatetic studies became the source +of heresies; and conversely, the heretical sects prosecuted the study of +Aristotle with peculiar zeal. The church of the Nestorians, and that of +the Monophysites, in their several schools and monasteries, carried on +from the 5th to the 8th century the study of the earlier part of the +Organon, with almost the same means, purposes and results as were found +among the Latin schoolmen of the earlier centuries. Up to the time when +the religious zeal of the emperor Zeno put a stop to the Nestorian +school at Edessa, this "Athens of Syria" was active in translating and +popularizing the Aristotelian logic. Their banishment from Edessa in 489 +drove the Nestorian scholars to Persia, where the Sassanid rulers gave +them a welcome; and there they continued their labours on the Organon. A +new seminary of logic and theology sprang up at Nisibis, not far from +the old locality; and at Gandisapora (or Nishapur), in the east of +Persia, there arose a medical school, whence Greek medicine, and in its +company Greek science and philosophy, ere long spread over the lands of +Iran. Meanwhile the Monophysites had followed in the steps of the +Nestorians, multiplying Syriac versions of the logical and medical +science of the Greeks. Their school at Resaina is known from the name of +Sergius, one of the first of these translators, in the days of +Justinian; and from their monasteries at Kinnesrin (Chalcis) issued +numerous versions of the introductory treatises of the Aristotelian +logic. To the Isagoge of Porphyry, the Categories and the Hermeneutica +of Aristotle, the labours of these Syrian schoolmen were confined. These +they expounded, translated, epitomized and made the basis of their +compilations, and the few who were bold enough to attempt the Analytics +seem to have left their task unaccomplished. + +The energy of the Monophysites, however, began to sink with the rise of +the Moslem empire; and when philosophy revived amongst them in the 13th +century, in the person of Gregorius Bat-Hebraeus (Abulfaragius) +(1226-1286), the revival was due to the example and influence of the +Arabian thinkers. It was otherwise with the Nestorians. Gaining by means +of their professional skill as physicians a high rank in the society of +the Moslem world, the Nestorian scholars soon made Bagdad familiar with +the knowledge of Greek philosophy and science which they possessed. But +the narrow limits of the Syrian studies, which added to a scanty +knowledge of Aristotle some acquaintance with his Syrian commentators, +were soon passed by the curiosity and zeal of the students in the +Caliphate. During the 8th and 9th centuries, rough but generally +faithful versions of Aristotle's principal works were made into Syriac, +and then from the Syriac into Arabic. The names of some of these +translators, such as Johannitius (Hunain ibn-Ishaq), were heard even in +the Latin schools. By the labours of Hunain and his family the great +body of Greek science, medical, astronomical and mathematical, became +accessible to the Arab-speaking races. But for the next three centuries +fresh versions, both of the philosopher and of his commentators, +continued to succeed each other. + +To the Arabians Aristotle represented and summed up Greek philosophy, +even as Galen became to them the code of Greek medicine. They adopted +the doctrine and system which the progress of human affairs had made the +intellectual aliment of their Syrian guides. From first to last Arabian +philosophers made no claim to originality; their aim was merely to +propagate the truth of Peripateticism as it had been delivered to them. +It was with them that the deification of Aristotle began; and from them +the belief that in him human intelligence had reached its limit passed +to the later schoolmen (see SCHOLASTICISM). The progress amongst the +Arabians on this side lies in a closer adherence to their text, a nearer +approach to the bare exegesis of their author, and an increasing +emancipation from control by the tenets of the popular religion. + + + Under the Caliphate. + +Secular philosophy found its first entrance amongst the Saracens in the +days of the early caliphs of the Abbasid dynasty, whose ways and +thoughts had been moulded by their residence in Persia amid the +influences of an older creed, and of ideas which had in the last resort +sprung from the Greeks. The seat of empire had been transferred to +Bagdad, on the highway of Oriental commerce; and the distant Khorasan +became the favourite province of the caliph. Then was inaugurated the +period of Persian supremacy, during which Islam was laid open to the +full current of alien ideas and culture. The incitement came, however, +not from the people, but from the prince: it was in the light of court +favour that the colleges of Bagdad and Nishapur first came to attract +students from every quarter, from the valleys of Andalusia as well as +the upland plains of Transoxiana. Mansur, the second of the Abbasids, +encouraged the appropriation of Greek science; but it was al-Ma'mun, the +son of Harun al-Rashid, who deserves in the Mahommedan empire the same +position of royal founder and benefactor which is held by Charlemagne in +the history of the Latin schools. In his reign (813-833) Aristotle was +first translated into Arabic. Orthodox Moslems, however, distrusted the +course on which their chief had entered, and his philosophical +proclivities became one ground for doubting as to his final salvation. + +In the eastern provinces the chief names of Arabian philosophy are those +known to the Latin schoolmen as Alkindius, Aliarabius, Avicenna and +Algazel, or under forms resembling these. The first of these, Alkindius +(_see_ KINDI), flourished at the court of Bagdad in the first half of +the 9th century. His claims to notice at the present day rest upon a few +works on medicine, theology, music and natural science. With him begins +that encyclopaedic character--the simultaneous cultivation of the whole +field of investigation which is reflected from Aristotle on the Arabian +school. In him too is found the union of Platonism and Aristotelianism +expressed in Neo-Platonic terms. Towards the close of the 10th century +the presentation of an entire scheme of knowledge, beginning with logic +and mathematics, and ascending through the various departments of +physical inquiry to the region of religious doctrine, was accomplished +by a society which had its chief seat at Basra, the native town of +al-Kindi. This society--the Brothers of Purity or Sincerity (Ikhwan us +Safa'i)--divided into four orders, wrought in the interests of religion +no less than of science; and though its attempt to compile an +encyclopaedia of existing knowledge may have been premature, it yet +contributed to spread abroad a desire for further information. The +proposed reconciliation between science and faith was not accomplished, +because the compromise could please neither party. The fifty-one +treatises of which this encyclopaedia consists are interspersed with +apologues in true Oriental style, and the idea of goodness, of moral +perfection, is as prominent an end in every discourse as it was in the +alleged dream of al-Ma'mun. The materials of the work come chiefly from +Aristotle, but they are conceived in a Platonizing spirit, which places +as the bond of all things a universal soul of the world with its partial +or fragmentary souls. Contemporary with this semi-religious and +semi-philosophical society lived Alfarabius (see FARABI), who died in +950. His paraphrases of Aristotle formed the basis on which Avicenna +constructed his system, and his logical treatises produced a permanent +effect on the logic of the Latin scholars. He gave the tone and +direction to nearly all subsequent speculations among the Arabians. His +order and enumeration of the principles of being, his doctrine of the +double aspect of intellect, and of the perfect beatitude which consists +in the aggregation of noble minds when they are delivered from the +separating barriers of individual bodies, present at least in germ the +characteristic theory of Averroes. But al-Farabi was not always +consistent in his views; a certain sobriety checked his speculative +flights, and although holding that the true perfection of man is reached +in this life by the elevation of the intellectual nature, he came +towards the close to think the separate existence of intellect no better +than a delusion. + + + Avicenna. + +Unquestionably the most illustrious name amongst the Oriental Moslems +was Avicenna (980-1037). His rank in the medieval world as a philosopher +was far beneath his fame as a physician. Still, the logic of Albertus +Magnus and succeeding doctors was largely indebted to him for its +formulae. In logic Avicenna starts from distinguishing between the +isolated concept and the judgment or assertion; from which two primitive +elements of knowledge there is artificially generated a complete and +scientific knowledge by the two processes of definition and syllogism. +But the chief interest for the history of logic belongs to his doctrine +in so far as it bears upon the nature and function of abstract ideas. +The question had been suggested alike to East and West by Porphyry, and +the Arabians were the first to approach the full statement of the +problem. Farabi had pointed out that the universal and individual are +not distinguished from each other as understanding from the senses, but +that both universal and individual are in one respect intellectual, just +as in another connexion they play a part in perception. He had +distinguished the universal essence in its abstract nature, from the +universal considered in relation to a number of singulars. These +suggestions formed the basis of Avicenna's doctrine. The essences or +forms--the _intelligibilia_ which constitute the world of real +knowledge--may be looked at in themselves (metaphysically), or as +embodied in the things of sense (physically), or as expressing the +processes of thought (logically). The first of these three points of +view deals with the form or idea as self-contained in the principles of +its own being, apart from those connexions and distinctions which it +receives in real (sensuous) science, and through the act of intellect. +Secondly, the form may be looked at as the similarity evolved by a +process of comparison, as the work of mental reflection, and in that way +as essentially expressing a relation. When thus considered as the common +features derived by examination from singular instances, it becomes a +universal or common term strictly so called. It is intellect which first +makes the abstract idea a true universal. _Intellectus in formis agit +universalitatem._ In the third place, the form or essence may be looked +upon as embodied in outward things (_in singularibus propriis_), and +thus it is the type more or less represented by the members of a natural +kind. It is the designation of these outward things which forms the +"first intention" of names; and it is only at a later stage, when +thought comes to observe its own modes, that names, looked upon as +predicables and universals, are taken in their "second intention." Logic +deals with such second intentions. It does not consider the forms _ante +multiplicitatem_, i.e. as eternal ideas--nor in _multiplicitate_, i.e. +as immersed in the matter of the phenomenal world--but _post +multiplicitatem_, _i. e._ as they exist in and for the intellect which +has examined and compared. Logic does not come in contact with things, +except as they are subject to modification by intellectual forms. In +other words, universality, individuality and speciality are all equally +modes of our comprehension or notion; their meaning consists in their +setting forth the relations attaching to any object of our conception. +In the mind, e.g., one form may be placed in reference to a multitude of +things, and as thus related will be universal. The form animal, e.g., is +an abstract intelligible or metaphysical idea. When an act of thought +employs it as a schema to unify several species, it acquires its logical +aspect (_respectus_) of generality; and the various living beings +qualified to have the name animal applied to them constitute the natural +class or kind. Avicenna's view of the universal may be compared with +that of Abelard, which calls it "that whose nature it is to be +predicated of several," as if the generality became explicit only in the +act of predication, in the _sermo_ or proposition, and not in the +abstract, unrelated form or essence. The three modes of the universal +before things, in things, and after things, spring from Arabian +influence, but depart somewhat from his standpoint. + +The place of Avicenna amongst Moslem philosophers is seen in the fact +that Shahrastani takes him as the type of all, and that Ghazali's attack +against philosophy is in reality almost entirely directed against +Avicenna. His system is in the main a codification of Aristotle modified +by fundamental views of Neo-Platonist origin, and it tends to be a +compromise with theology. In order, for example, to maintain the +necessity of creation, he taught that all things except God were +admissible or possible in their own nature, but that certain of them +were rendered necessary by the act of the creative first agent,--in +other words, that the possible could be transformed into the necessary. +Avicenna's theory of the process of knowledge is an interesting part of +his doctrine. Man has a rational soul, one face of which is turned +towards the body, and, by the help of the higher aspect, acts as +practical understanding; the other face lies open to the reception and +acquisition of the intelligible forms, and its aim is to become a +reasonable world, reproducing the forms of the universe and their +intelligible order. In man there is only the susceptibility to reason, +which is sustained and helped by the light of the active intellect. Man +may prepare himself for this influx by removing the obstacles which +prevent the union of the intellect with the human vessel destined for +its reception. The stages of this process to the acquisition of mind are +generally enumerated by Avicenna as four; in this part he follows not +Aristotle, but the Greek commentator. The first stage is that of the +hylic or material intellect, a state of mere potentiality, like that of +a child for writing, before he has ever put pen to paper. The second +stage is called _in habitu_; it is compared to the case of a child that +has learned the elements of writing, when the bare possibility is on the +way to be developed, and is seen to be real. In this period of +half-trained reason, it appears as happy conjecture, not yet transformed +into art or science proper. When the power of writing has been +actualized, we have a parallel to the _intellectus in actu_--the way of +science and demonstration is entered. And when writing has been made a +permanent accomplishment, or lasting property of the subject, to be +taken up at will, it corresponds to the _intellectus adeptus_--the +complete mastery of science. The whole process may be compared to the +gradual illumination of a body naturally capable of receiving light. +There are, however, grades of susceptibility to the active intellect, +i.e. in theological language, to communication with God and his angels. +Sometimes the receptivity is so vigorous in its affinity, that without +teaching it rises at one step to the vision of truth, by a certain "holy +force" above ordinary measure. (In this way philosophy tried to account +for the phenomenon of prophecy, one of the ruling ideas of Islam.) But +the active intellect is not merely influential on human souls. It is the +universal giver of forms in the world. + +In several points Avicenna endeavoured to give a _rationale_ of +theological dogmas, particularly of prophetic rule, of miracles, divine +providence and immortality. The permanence of individual souls he +supports by arguments borrowed from those of Plato. The existence of a +prophet is shown to be a corollary from a belief in God as a moral +governor, and the phenomena of miracles are required to evidence the +genuineness of the prophetic mission. Thus Avicenna, like his +predecessors, tried to harmonize the abstract forms of philosphy with +the religious faith of his nation. But his arguments are generally +vitiated by the fallacy of assuming what they profess to prove. His +failure is made obvious by the attack of Ghazali on the tendencies and +results of speculation. + + + Ghazali. + +To Ghazali (q.v.) it seemed that the study of secular philosophy had +resulted in a general indifference to religion, and that the scepticism +which concealed itself under a pretence of piety was destroying the life +and purity of the nation. With these views he carried into the fields of +philosophy the aims and spirit of the Moslem theologian. His restless +life was the reflex of a mental history disturbed by prolonged +agitation. Revolting, in the height of his success, against the current +creed, he began to examine the foundations of knowledge. The senses are +contradicted by one another, and disproved by reason. Reason, indeed, +professes to furnish us with necessary truths; but what assurance have +we that the verdicts of reason may not be reversed by some higher +authority? Ghazali then interrogated all the sects in succession to +learn their criterion of truth. He first applied to the theological +schoolmen, who grounded their religion on reason; but their aim was only +to preserve the faith from heresy. He turned to the philosophers, and +examined the accepted Aristotelianism in a treatise which has come down +to us--_The Destruction of the Philosophers_. He assails them on twenty +points of their mixed physical and metaphysical peripateticism, from the +statement of which, in spite of his pretended scepticism, we can deduce +some very positive metaphysical opinions of his own. He claims to have +shown that the dogmas of the eternity of matter and the permanence of +the world are false; that their description of the Deity as the +demiurgos is unspiritual; that they fail to prove the existence, the +unity, the simplicity, the incorporeality or the knowledge (both of +species and accidents) of God; that their ascription of souls to the +celestial spheres is unproved; that their theory of causation, which +attributes effects to the very natures of the causes, is false, for that +all actions and events are to be ascribed to the Deity; and, finally, +that they cannot establish the spirituality of the soul, nor prove its +mortality. These criticisms disclose nothing like a sceptical state of +mind, but rather a reversion from the metaphysical to the theological +stage of thought. He denies the intrinsic tendencies, or souls, by which +the Aristotelians explained the motion of the spheres, because he +ascribes their motion to God. The sceptic would have denied both. G.H. +Lewes censures Renan for asserting of Ghazali's theory of +causation--"_Hume n'a rien dit plus_." It is true that Ghazali maintains +that the natural law according to which effects proceed inevitably from +their causes is only custom, and that there is no _necessary_ connexion +between them. But while Hume absolutely denies the necessity, Ghazali +merely removes it one stage farther back, and plants it in the mind of +the Deity. This, of course, is not metaphysics, but theology. Having, as +he believed, refuted the opinions of the philosophers, he next +investigated the pretensions of the Allegorists, who derived their +doctrines from an imam. These Arabian ultramontanes had no word for the +doubter. They could not, he says, even understand the problems they +sought to resolve by the assumption of infallibility, and he turned +again, in his despair, to the instructors of his youth--the Sufis. In +their mystical intuition of the laws of life, and absorption in the +immanent Deity, he at last found peace. This shows the true character of +the treatise which, alike in medieval and modern times, has been quoted +as containing an exposition of his opinions. The work called _The +Tendencies of the Philosophers_, translated in 1506, with the title +_Logica et Philosophia Algazelis Arabis_, contains neither the logic nor +the philosophy of Ghazali. It is a mere abstract or statement of the +Peripatetic systems, and was made preliminary to that _Destruction_ of +which we have already spoken. + +This indictment against liberal thought from the standpoint of the +theological school was afterwards answered in Spain by Averroes; but in +Bagdad it heralded the extinction of the light of philosophy. Moderate +and compliant with the popular religion as Alfarabius and Avicenna had +always been, as compared with their Spanish successor, they had equally +failed to conciliate the popular spirit, and were classed in the same +category with the heretic or the member of an immoral sect. The 12th +century exhibits the decay of liberal intellectual activity in the +Caliphate, and the gradual ascendancy of Turkish races animated with all +the intolerance of semi-barbarian proselytes to the Mahommedan faith. +Philosophy, which had only sprung up when the purely Arabian influences +ceased to predominate, came to an end when the sceptre of the Moslem +world passed away from the dynasty of Persia. Even in 1150 Bagdad had +seen a library of philosophical books burned by command of the caliph +Mostanjid; and in 1192 the same place might have witnessed a strange +scene, in which the books of a physician were first publicly cursed, and +then committed to the flames, while their owner was incarcerated. Thus, +while the Latin church showed a marvellous receptivity for ethnic +philosophy, and assimilated doctrines which it had at an earlier date +declared impious, in Islam the theological system entrenched itself +towards the end of the 12th century in the narrow orthodoxy of the +Asharites, and reduced the votaries of Greek philosophy to silence. + + + In Spain. + +The same phenomena were repeated in Spain under the Mahommedan rulers of +Andalusia and Morocco, with this difference, that the time of +philosophical development was shorter, and the heights to which Spanish +thinkers soared were greater. The reign of al-Hakam the Second (961-976) +inaugurated in Andalusia those scientific and philosophical studies +which were simultaneously prosecuted by the Society of Basra. From +Cairo, Bagdad, Damascus and Alexandria, books both old and new were +procured at any price for the library of the prince; twenty-seven free +schools were opened in Cordova for the education of the poor; and +intelligent knowledge was perhaps more widely diffused in Mahommedan +Spain than in any other part of Europe at that day. The mosques of the +city were filled with crowds who listened to lectures on science and +literature, law and religion. But the future glory thus promised was +long postponed. The usurping successor of Hakam found it a politic step +to request the most notable doctors of the sacred law to examine the +royal library; and every book treating of philosophy, astronomy and +other forbidden topics was condemned to the flames. But the spirit of +research, fostered by the fusion of races and the social and +intellectual competition thus engendered, was not crushed by these +proceedings; and for the next century and more the higher minds of Spain +found in Damascus and Bagdad the intellectual aliment which they +desired. At last, towards the close of the 11th century, the long-pent +spiritual energies of Mahommedan Spain burst forth in a brief series of +illustrious men. Whilst the native Spaniards were narrowing the limits +of the Moorish kingdoms, and whilst the generally fanatical dynasty of +the Almohades might have been expected to repress speculation, the +century preceding the close of Mahommedan sway saw philosophy cultivated +by Avempace, Abubacer and Averroes. Even amongst the Almohades there +were princes, such as Yusuf (who began his reign in 1163) and Yaqub +Almansur (who succeeded in 1184), who welcomed the philosopher at their +courts and treated him as an intellectual compeer. But about 1195 the +old distrust of philosophy revived; the philosophers were banished in +disgrace; works on philosophical topics were ordered to be confiscated +and burned; and the son of Almansur condemned a certain Ibn-Habib to +death for the crime of philosophizing. + + + Avempace. + +Arabian speculation in Spain was heralded by Avicebron or Ibn Gabirol +(q.v.), a Jewish philosopher (1021-1058). About a generation later the +rank of Moslem thinkers was introduced by Abu-Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya, +surnamed Ibn-Bajja, and known to the Latin world as Avempace. He was +born at Saragossa, and died comparatively young at Fez in 1138. Besides +commenting on various physical treatises of Aristotle's, he wrote some +philosophical essays, notably one on the _Republic or Regime of the +Solitary_, understanding by that the organized system of rules, by +obedience to which the individual may rise from the mere life of the +senses to the perception of pure intelligible principles and may +participate in the divine thought which sustains the world. These rules +for the individual are but the image or reflex of the political +organization of the perfect or ideal state; and the man who strives to +lead this life is called the _solitary_, not because he withdraws from +society, but because, while in it, he guides himself by reference to a +higher state, an ideal society. Avempace does not develop at any length +this curious Platonic idea of the perfect state. His object is to +discover the highest end of human life, and with this view he classifies +the various activities of the human soul, rejects such as are material +or animal, and then analyses the various spiritual forms to which the +activities may be directed. He points out the graduated scale of such +forms, through which the soul may rise, and shows that none are final or +complete in themselves, except the pure intelligible forms, the ideas of +ideas. These the intellect can grasp, and in so doing it becomes what he +calls _intellectus acquisitus_, and is in a measure divine. This +self-consciousness of pure reason is the highest object of human +activity, and is to be attained by the speculative method. The intellect +has in itself power to know ultimate truth and intelligence, and does +not require a mystical illumination as Ghazali taught. Avempace's +principles, it is clear, lead directly to the Averroistic doctrine of +the unity of intellect, but the obscurity and incompleteness of the +Regime do not permit us to judge how far he anticipated the later +thinker. (See Munk, _Melanges de phil. juive et arabe_, pp. 383-410.) + +The same theme was developed by Ibn.-Tufail (q.v.) in his philosophical +romance, called _Hayy ibn-Yakdhan_ (the Living, Son of the Waking One), +best known by Pococke's Latin version, as the _Philosophus +Autodidactus_. It describes the process by which an isolated +truth-seeker detaches himself from his lower passions, and raises +himself above the material earth and the orbs of heaven to the forms +which are the source of their movement, until he arrives at a union with +the supreme intellect. The experiences of the religious mystic are +paralleled with the ecstatic vision in which the philosophical hermit +sees a world of pure intelligences, where birth and decease are unknown. +It was this theory which Averroes (1126-1198), the last and most famous +of the thinkers of Moslem Spain, carried out to his doctrine of the +unity of intellect. + + + Averroes. + +For Aristotle the reverence of Averroes was unbounded, and to expound +him was his chosen task. The uncritical receptivity of his age, the +defects of the Arabic versions, the emphatic theism of his creed, and +the rationalizing mysticism of some Oriental thought, may have sometimes +led him astray, and given prominence to the less obvious features of +Aristotelianism. But in his conception of the relation between +philosophy and religion, Averroes had a light which the Latins were +without. The science, falsely so called, of the several theological +schools, their groundless distinctions and sophistical demonstrations, +he regarded as the great source of heresy and scepticism. The +allegorical interpretations and metaphysics which had been imported into +religion had taken men's minds away from the plain sense of the Koran. +God had declared a truth meet for all men, which needed no intellectual +superiority to understand, in a tongue which each human soul could +apprehend. Accordingly, the expositors of religious metaphysics, Ghazali +included, are the enemies of true religion, because they make it a mere +matter of syllogism. Averroes maintains that a return must be made to +the words and teaching of the prophet; that science must not expend +itself in dogmatizing on the metaphysical consequences of fragments of +doctrine for popular acceptance, but must proceed to reflect upon and +examine the existing things of the world. Averroes, at the same time, +condemns the attempts of those who tried to give demonstrative science +where the mind was not capable of more than rhetoric: they harm religion +by their mere negations, destroying an old sensuous creed, but cannot +build up a higher and intellectual faith. + +In this spirit Averroes does not allow the fancied needs of theological +reasoning to interfere with his study of Aristotle, whom he simply +interprets as a truth-seeker. The points by which he told on Europe were +all implicit in Aristotle, but Averroes set in relief what the original +had left obscure, and emphasized things which the Christian theologian +passed by or misconceived. Thus Averroes had a double effect. He was the +great interpreter of Aristotle to the later Schoolmen. On the other +hand, he came to represent those aspects of Peripateticism most alien to +the spirit of Christendom; and the deeply religious Moslem gave his name +to the anti-sacerdotal party, to the materialists, sceptics and +atheists, who defied or undermined the dominant beliefs of the church. + +On three points Averroes, like other Moslem thinkers, came specially +into relation, real or supposed, with the religious creed, viz. the +creation of the world, the divine knowledge of particular things, and +the future of the human soul. + +The real grandeur of Averroes is seen in his resolute prosecution of the +standpoint of science in matters of this world, and in his recognition +that religion is not a branch of knowledge to be reduced to propositions +and systems of dogma, but a personal and inward power, an individual +truth which stands distinct from, but not contradictory to, the +universalities of scientific law. In his science he followed the Greeks, +and to the Schoolmen he and his compatriots rightly seemed philosophers +of the ancient world. He maintained alike the claim of demonstrative +science with its generalities for the few who could live in that +ethereal world, and the claim of religion for all--the common life of +each soul as an individual and personal consciousness. But theology, or +the mixture of the two, he regarded as a source of evil to +both--fostering the vain belief in a hostility of philosophers to +religion, and meanwhile corrupting religion by a pseudo-science. + +The latent nominalism of Aristotle only came gradually to be emphasized +through the prominence which Christianity gave to the individual life, +and, apart from passing notices as in Abelard, first found clear +enunciation in the school of Duns Scotus. The Arabians, on the contrary, +emphasized the idealist aspect which had been adopted and promoted by +the Neo-Platonist commentators. Hence, to Averroes the eternity of the +world finds its true expression in the eternity of God. The ceaseless +movement of growth and change, which presents matter in form after form +as a continual search after a finality which in time and movement is not +and cannot be reached, represents only the aspect the world shows to the +physicist and to the senses. In the eye of reason the full fruition of +this desired finality is already and always attained; the actualization, +invisible to the senses, is achieved now and ever, and is thus beyond +the element of time. This transcendent or abstract being is that which +the world of nature is always seeking. He is thought or intellect, the +actuality, of which movement is but the fragmentary attainment in +successive instants of time. Such a mind is not in the theological sense +a creator, yet the onward movement is not the same as what some modern +thinkers seem to mean by development. For the perfect and absolute, the +consummation of movement is not generated at any point in the process; +it is an ideal end, which guides the operations of nature, and does not +wait upon them for its achievement. God is the unchanging essence of the +movement, and therefore its eternal cause. + +A special application of this relation between the prior perfect, and +the imperfect, which it influences, is found in the doctrine of the +connexion of the abstract (transcendent) intellect with man. This +transcendent mind is sometimes connected with the moon, according to the +theory of Aristotle, who assigned an imperishable matter to the sphere +beyond the sublunary, and in general looked upon the celestial orbs as +living and intelligent. Such an intellect, named active or productive, +as being the author of the development of reason in man, is the +permanent, eternal thought, which is the truth of the cosmic and +physical movement. It is in man that the physical or sensible passes +most evidently into the metaphysical and rational. Humanity is the +chosen vessel in which the light of the intellect is revealed; and so +long as mankind lasts there must always be some individuals destined to +receive this light. What seems from the material point of view to be the +acquisition of learning, study and a moral life, is from the higher +point of view the manifestation of the transcendent intellect in the +individual. The preparation of the heart and faculties gives rise to a +series of grades between the original predisposition and the full +acquisition of actual intellect. These grades in the main resemble those +given by Avicenna. But beyond these, Averroes claims as the highest +bliss of the soul a union in this life with the actual intellect. The +intellect, therefore, is one and continuous in all individuals, who +differ only in the degree which their illumination has attained. Such +was the Averroist doctrine of the unity of intellect--the eternal and +universal nature of true intellectual life. By his interpreters it was +transformed into a theory of one soul common to all mankind, and when +thus corrupted conflicted not unreasonably with the doctrines of a +future life, common to Islam and Christendom. + + + Opponents of Averoism. + +Averroes, rejected by his Moslem countrymen, found a hearing among the +Jews, to whom Maimonides had shown the free paths of Greek speculation. +In the cities of Languedoc and of Provence to which they had been driven +by Spanish fanaticism, the Jews no longer used the learned Arabic, and +translations of the works of Averroes became necessary. His writings +became the text-book of Levi ben Gerson at Perpignan, and of Moses of +Narbonne. Meanwhile, before 1250, Averroes became accessible to the +Latin Schoolmen by means of versions, accredited by the names of Michael +Scot and others. William of Auvergne is the first Schoolman who +criticizes the doctrines of Averroes, not, however, by name. Albertus +Magnus and St Thomas devote special treatises to an examination of the +Averroist theory of the unity of intellect, which they labour to confute +in order to establish the orthodoxy of Aristotle. But as early as +Aegidius Romanus (1247-1316). Averroes had been stamped as the patron of +indifference to theological dogmas, and credited with the emancipation +which was equally due to wider experience and the lessons of the +Crusades. There had never been an absence of protest against the +hierarchical doctrine. Berengar of Tours (11th century) had struggled in +that interest, and with Abelard, in the 12th century, the revolt against +authority in belief grew loud. The dialogue between a Christian, a Jew +and a philosopher suggested a comparative estimate of religions, and +placed the natural religion of the moral law above all positive +revelations. Nihilists and naturalists, who deified logic and science at +the expense of faith, were not unknown at Paris in the days of John of +Salisbury. In such a critical generation the words of Averroism found +willing ears, and pupils who outran their teacher. Paris became the +centre of a sceptical society, which the decrees of bishops and +councils, and the enthusiasm of the orthodox doctors and knights-errant +of Catholicism, were powerless to extinguish. At Oxford Averroes told +more as the great commentator. In the days of Roger Bacon he had become +an authority. Bacon, placing him beside Aristotle and Avicenna, +recommends the study of Arabic as the only way of getting the knowledge +which bad versions made almost hopeless. In Duns Scotus, Averroes and +Aristotle are the unequalled masters of the science of proof; and he +pronounces distinctly the separation between Catholic and philosophical +truth, which became the watchword of Averroism. By the 14th century +Averroism was the common leaven of philosophy; John Baconthorpe is the +chief of Averroists, and Walter Burley has similar tendencies. + +Meanwhile Averrcism had come to be regarded by the great Dominican +school as the arch-enemy of the truth. When the emperor Frederick II. +consulted a Moslem free-thinker on the mysteries of the faith, when the +phrase or legend of the "Three Impostors" presented in its most +offensive form the scientific survey of the three laws of Moses, Christ +and Mahomet, and when the characteristic doctrines of Averroes were +misunderstood, it soon followed that his name became the badge of the +scoffer and the sceptic. What had begun with the subtle disputes of the +universities of Paris, went on to the materialist teachers in the +medical schools and the sceptical men of the world in the cities of +northern Italy. The patricians of Venice and the lecturers of Padua made +Averroism synonymous with doubt and criticism in theology, and with +sarcasm against the hierarchy. Petrarch refuses to believe that any good +thing can come out of Arabia, and speaks of Averroes as a mad dog +barking against the church. In works of contemporary art Averroes is at +one time the comrade of Mahomet and Antichrist; at another he lies with +Arius and Sabellius, vanquished by the lance of St Thomas. + + + The school of Padua. + +It was in the universities of north Italy that Averroism finally +settled, and there for three centuries it continued as a stronghold of +Scholasticism to resist the efforts of revived antiquity and of +advancing science. Padua became the seat of Averroist Aristotelianism; +and, when Padua was conquered by Venice in 1405, the printers of the +republic spread abroad the teaching of the professors in the university. +As early as 1300, at Padua, Petrus Aponensis, a notable expositor of +medical theories, had betrayed a heterodoxy in faith; and John of +Jandun, one of the pamphleteers on the side of Louis of Bavaria, was a +keen follower of Averroes, whom he styles a "perfect and most glorious +physicist." Urbanus of Bologna, Paul of Venice (d. 1428), and Cajetanus +de Thienis (1387-1465), established by their lectures and their +discussions the authority of Averroes; and a long list of manuscripts +rests in the libraries of Lombardy to witness the diligence of these +writers and their successors. Even a lady of Venice, Cassandra Fedele, +in 1480, gained her laurels in defence of Averroist theses. + +With Pietro Pomponazzi (q.v.) in 1495, a brilliant epoch began for the +school of Padua. Questions of permanent and present interest took the +place of outworn scholastic problems. The disputants ranged themselves +under the rival commentators, Alexander and Averroes; and the +immortality of the soul became the battle-ground of the two parties. +Pomponazzi defended the Alexandrist doctrine of the utter mortality of +the soul, whilst Agostino Nifo (q.v.), the Averroist, was entrusted by +Leo X. with the task of defending the Catholic doctrine. The parties +seemed to have changed when Averroism thus took the side of the church; +but the change was probably due to compulsion. Nifo had edited the works +of Averroes (1495-1497); but his expressions gave offence to the +dominant theologians, and he had to save himself by distinguishing his +personal faith from his editorial capacity. Alessandro Achillini, the +persistent philosophical adversary of Pomponazzi, both at Padua and +subsequently at Bologna, attempted, along with other moderate but not +brilliant Averroists, to accommodate their philosophical theory with the +requirements of Catholicism. It was this comparatively mild Averroism, +reduced to the merely explanatory activity of a commentator, which +continued to be the official dogma at Padua during the 16th century. Its +typical representative is Marc-Antonio Zimara (d. 1552), the author of a +reconciliation between the tenets of Averroes and those of Aristotle. + + + Summary. + +Meanwhile, in 1497, Aristotle was for the first time expounded in Greek +at Padua. Plato had long been the favourite study at Florence; and +Humanists, like Erasmus, Ludovicus Vives and Nizolius, enamoured of the +popular philosophy of Cicero and Quintilian, poured out the vials of +their contempt on scholastic barbarism with its "impious and +thrice-accursed Averroes." The editors of Averroes complain that the +popular taste had forsaken them for the Greek. Nevertheless, while +Fallopius, Vesalius and Galileo were claiming attention to their +discoveries, G. Zabarella, Francesco Piccolomini (1520-1604) and Cesare +Cremonini (1550-1631) continued the traditions of Averroism, not without +changes and additions. Cremonini, the last of them, died in 1631, after +lecturing twelve years at Ferrara, and forty at Padua. The great +educational value of Arabian philosophy for the later schoolmen +consisted in its making them acquainted with an entire Aristotle. At the +moment when it seemed as if everything had been made that could be made +out of the fragments of Aristotle, and the compilations of Capella, +Cassiodorus and others, and when mysticism and scepticism seemed the +only resources left for the mind, the horizon of knowledge was suddenly +widened by the acquisition of a complete Aristotle. Thus the mistakes +inevitable in the isolated study of an imperfect _Organon_ could not +henceforth be made. The real bearing of old questions, and the +meaninglessness of many disputes, were seen in the new conception of +Aristotelianism given by the _Metaphysics_ and other treatises. The +former Realism and Nominalism were lifted into a higher phase by the +principle of the universalizing action of intellect--_Intellectus in +formis agit universalitatem_. The commentaries of the Arabians in this +respect supplied nutriment more readily assimilated by the pupils than +the pure text would have been. + +Arabian philosophy, whilst it promoted the exegesis of Aristotle and +increased his authority, was not less notable as the source of the +separation between theology and philosophy. Speculation fell on +irreligious paths. In many cases the heretical movement was due less to +foreign example than to the indwelling tendencies of the dominant school +of realism. But it is not less certain that the very considerable +freedom of the Arabians from theological bias prepared the time when +philosophy shook off its ecclesiastical vestments. In the hurry of first +terror, the church struck Aristotle with the anathema launched against +innovations in philosophy. The provincial council of Paris in 1209, +which condemned Amalricus and his followers, as well as David of +Dinant's works, forbade the study of Aristotle's _Natural Philosophy_ +and the _Commentaries_. In 1215 the same prohibition was repeated, +specifying the _Metaphysics_ and _Physics_, and the _Commentaries_ by +the Spaniard Mauritius (i.e. probably Averroes). Meanwhile Albertus +Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, accepting the exegetical services of the +Arabians, did their best to controvert the obnoxious doctrine of the +Intellect, and to defend the orthodoxy of Aristotle against the unholy +glosses of infidels. But it is doubtful whether even they kept as pure +from the infection of illegitimate doctrine as they supposed. The tide +meanwhile flowed in stronger and stronger. In 1270 Etienne Tempier, +bishop of Paris, supported by an assembly of theologians, anathematized +thirteen propositions bearing the stamp of Arabian authorship; but in +1277 the same views and others more directly offensive to Christians and +theologians had to be censured again. Raymond Lully, in a dialogue with +an infidel thinker, broke a lance in support of the orthodox doctrine, +and carried on a crusade against the Arabians in every university; and a +disciple of Thomas Aquinas drew up a list (_De erroribus philosophorum_) +of the several delusions and errors of each of the thinkers from Kindi +to Averroes. Strong in their conviction of the truth of Aristotelianism, +the Arabians carried out their logical results in the theological field, +and made the distinction of necessary and possible, of form and matter, +the basis of conclusions in the most momentous questions. They refused +to accept the doctrine of creation because it conflicted with the +explanation of forms as the necessary evolution of matter. They denied +the particular providence of God, because knowledge in the divine sphere +did not descend to singulars. They excluded the Deity from all direct +action upon the world, and substituted for a cosmic principle the active +intellect,--thus holding a form of Pantheism. But all did not go the +same length in their divergence from the popular creed. + +The half-legendary accounts which attribute the introduction of Arabian +science to Gerbert, afterwards Pope Sylvester II., to Constantinus +Africanus and to Adelard of Bath, if they have any value, refer mainly +to medical science and mathematics. It was not till about the middle of +the 12th century that under the patronage of Raymond, archbishop of +Toledo, a society of translators, with the archdeacon Dominicus +Gundisalvi at their head, produced Latin versions of the _Commentaries_ +of Avicenna, and Ghazali, of the _Fons Vitae_ of Avicebron, and of +several Aristotelian treatises. The working translators were converted +Jews, the best-known among them being Joannes Avendeath. With this +effort began the chief translating epoch for Arabic works. Avicenna's +_Canon of Medicine_ was first translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona +(d. 1187), to whom versions of other medical and astronomical works are +due. The movement towards introducing Arabian science and philosophy +into Europe, however, culminated under the patronage of the emperor +Frederick II. (1212-1250). Partly from superiority to the narrowness of +his age, and partly in the interest of his struggle with the Papacy, +this _Malleus ecclesiae Romanae_ drew to his court those savants whose +pursuits were discouraged by the church, and especially students in the +forbidden lore of the Arabians. He is said to have pensioned Jews for +purposes of translation. One of the scholars to whom Frederick gave a +welcome was Michael Scot, the first translator of Averroes. Scot had +sojourned at Toledo about 1217, and had accomplished the versions of +several astronomical and physical treatises, mainly, if we believe Roger +Bacon, by the labours of a Jew named Andrew. But Bacon is apparently +hypercritical in his estimate of the translators from the Arabic. +Another protege of Frederick's was Hermann the German (Alemannus), who, +between the years 1243 and 1256, translated amongst other things a +paraphrase of al-Farabi on the _Rhetoric_, and of Averroes on the +_Poetics_ and _Ethics_ of Aristotle. Jewish scholars held an honourable +place in transmitting the Arabian commentators to the schoolmen. It was +amongst them, especially in Maimonides, that Aristotelianism found +refuge after the light of philosophy was extinguished in Islam; and the +Jewish family of the Ben-Tibbon were mainly instrumental in making +Averroes known to southern France. + + See S. Munk, _Melanges de philosophie juive et arabe_ (Paris, 1859); + E. Renan, _De Philosophia Peripatetica apud Syros_ (1852), and + _Averroes et l'Averroisme_ (Paris, 3rd ed., 1867); Am. Jourdain, + _Recherches critiques sur l'age et l'origine des traductions latines + d'Aristote_ (Paris, 2^me ed., 1843); B. Haureau, _Philosophie + scolastique_ (Paris, 1850), tome i. p. 359; E. Vacherot, _Ecole + d'Alexandrie_ (1846-1851), tome iii. p. 85; Schmolders, _Documenta + philosophiae Arabum_ (Bonn, 1836), and _Essai sur les ecoles + philosophiques chez les Arabes_ (Paris, 1842); Shahrastani, _History + of Religious and Philosophical Sects_, in German translation by + Haarbrucker (Halle, 1850-1851); Dieterici, _Streit zwischen Mensch und + Thier_ (Berlin, 1858), and his other translations of the + _Encyclopaedia of the Brothers of Sincerity_ (1861 to 1872); T.J. de + Boer, _The History of Philosophy in Islam_ (London, 1903); K. Prantl, + _Geschichte der Logik_ (Leipzig, 1861); and the Histories of + Philosophy; also the literature under the biographies of philosophers + mentioned. (W. W.; G. W. T.) + + + + +ARABIAN SEA (anc. _Mare Erythraeum_), the name applied to the portion of +the Indian Ocean bounded E. by India, N. by Baluchistan and part of the +southern Persian littoral, W. by Arabia, and S., approximately, by a +line between Cape Guardafui, the north-east point of Somaliland, and +Cape Comorin in India. It has two important branches--at the south-west +the Gulf of Aden, connecting with the Red Sea through the strait of +Bab-el-Mandeb; and at the north-west the Gulf of Oman, connecting with +the Persian Gulf. Besides these larger ramifications, there are the +Gulfs of Cambay and Kach on the Indian coast. An interest and importance +belong to this sea as forming part of the chief highway between Europe +and India. Its islands are few and insignificant, the chief being +Sokotra, off the African, and the Laccadives, off the Indian coast. + + + + +ARABICI, a religious sect originating about the beginning of the 3rd +century, which is mentioned by Augustine (_De Haeres_. c. lxxxiii.), and +called also [Greek: thnetopseuchitai] ("mortal-souled") by John of +Damascus (_De Haeres_. c. xc.) The name is given to the Arabians +mentioned by Eusebius (_Hist. Eccl_. vi. 37), whose distinctive doctrine +was a form of Christian materialism, showing itself in the belief that +the soul perished and was restored to life along with the body. We may +compare Tatian's view of the soul as a subtler variety of matter. +According to Eusebius, they were convinced of their error by Origen, and +renounced it at a council held about A.D. 246. + + + + +ARABI PASHA (c. 1839- ), more correctly AHMAD 'ARABI, to which in +later years he added the epithet _al-Misri_, "the Egyptian," Egyptian +soldier and revolutionary leader, was born in Lower Egypt in 1839 or +1840 of a fellah family. Having entered the army as a conscript he was +made an officer by Said Pasha in 1862, and was employed in the transport +department in the Abyssinian campaign of 1875 under Ismail Pasha. A +charge of peculation, unproved, was made against him in connexion with +this expedition and he was placed on half-pay. During this time he +joined a secret society formed by Ali Rubi with the object of getting +rid of Turkish officers from the Egyptian army. Arabi also attended +lectures at the mosque El Azhar and acquired a reputation as an orator. +In 1878 he was employed by Ismail in fomenting a disturbance against the +ministry of Nubar, Rivers Wilson and de Blignieres, and received in +payment a wife from Ismail's harem and the command of a regiment. This +increased his influence with the secret society, which, under the feeble +government of Tewfik Pasha and the Dual Control, began to agitate +against Europeans. In all that followed Arabi was put forward as the +leader of the discontented Egyptians; he was in reality little more than +the mouthpiece and puppet of abler men such as Ali Rubi and Mahmud Sami. +On the 1st of February 1881 Arabi and two other Egyptian colonels, +summoned before a court-martial for acts of disobedience, were rescued +by their soldiers, and the khedive was forced to dismiss his then +minister of war in favour of Mahmud Sami. A military demonstration on +the 8th of September 1881, led by Arabi, forced the khedive to increase +the numbers and pay of the army, to substitute Sherif Pasha for Riaz +Pasha as prime minister, and to convene an assembly of notables. Arabi +became under-secretary for war at the beginning of 1882, but continued +his intrigues. The assembly of notables claimed the right of voting the +budget, and thus came into conflict with the foreign controllers who had +been appointed to guard the interests of the bondholders in the +management of the Egyptian finances. Sherif fell in February, Mahmud +Sami became prime minister, and Arabi (created a pasha) minister of war. +Arabi, after a brief fall from office, acquired a dictatorial power that +alarmed the British government. British and French warships went to +Alexandria at the beginning of June; on the 11th of that month rioting +in that city led to the sacrifice of many European lives. Order could +only be restored through the intervention of Arabi, who now adopted a +more distinctly anti-European attitude. His arming of the forts at +Alexandria was held to constitute a menace to the British fleet. On the +refusal of France to co-operate, the British fleet bombarded the forts +(11th July), and a British force, under Sir Garnet Wolseley, defeated +Arabi on the 13th of September at Tel-el-Kebir. Arabi fled to Cairo +where he surrendered, and was tried (3rd of December) for rebellion. In +accordance with an understanding made with the British representative, +Lord Dufferin, Arabi pleaded guilty, and sentence of death was +immediately commuted to one of banishment for life to Ceylon. The same +sentence was passed on Mahmud Sami and others. After Arabi's exile had +lasted for nearly twenty years, however, the khedive Abbas II. exercised +his prerogative of mercy, and in May 1901 Arabi was permitted to return +to Egypt. Arabi, as has been said, was rather the figurehead than the +inspirer of the movement of 1881-1882; and was probably more honest, as +he was certainly less intelligent, than those whose tool, in a large +measure, he was. The movement which he represented in the eye of Europe, +whatever the motives of its leaders, "was in its essence a genuine +revolt against misgovernment,"[1] and it was a dim recognition of this +fact which led Arabi to style himself "the Egyptian." + + See EGYPT: _History_; also the accounts of Arabi in _Khedives and + Pashas_, by C.F. Moberly Bell (1884); and in Lord Cromer's _Modern + Egypt_ (1908). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Lord Cromer in _Egypt_, No. 1, 1905, p. 2. + + + + +ARABISTAN (formerly KHUZISTAN), a province of Persia, bounded on the S. +by the Persian Gulf, on the W. by Turkish territory, on the N. by +Luristan and on the E. by the Bakhtiari district and Fars. It has its +modern name, signifying "land of the Arabs," from the Arabs who form the +bulk of the population, and is subdivided into the districts of +Muhamrah, Fellahiyeh (the old Dorak), Ram Hormuz (popularly known as +Ramiz), Havizeh, Shushter and Dizful. It has a population of about +200,000 and pays a yearly revenue of about L30,000. The soil is very +fertile, but since the dam over the Karun at Ahvaz was swept away and +the numerous canals which diverted the waters of the river for +irrigation became useless, a great part of the province is uncultivated, +and most of the crops and produce depend for water on rainfall and +wells. The climate is hot, and in the low-lying, swampy districts very +unhealthy; the prevailing winds are north-west and south-east, the +former hot and dry from the arid districts west of Mesopotamia, the +latter bearing much moisture from the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. +The principal Arab tribes are the Kab (generally known as Chaab) and +Beni Lam, the former mostly settled in towns and villages and by +religion Shi'ites, the latter nomads and Sunnites. The staples of food +are dates and fish in the south, elsewhere the produce of the herds and +flocks and rice, wheat and barley. Other products are maize, cotton, +silk and indigo, and the manufactures include carpets without pile, +coarse woollens, cottons and silk nettings. Dyeing is extensively +carried on in Dizful where most of the indigo is grown. + +Khuzistan (meaning "the land of the Khuz") was a part of the Biblical +Elam, the classical Susiana, and appears in the great inscription of +Darius as Uvaja. + + + + +ARABS, the name given to that branch of the Semitic race which from the +earliest historic times inhabited the south-western portion of the +Arabian peninsula. The name, to-day the collective term for the +overwhelming majority of the surviving Semitic peoples, was originally +restricted to the nomad tribes who ranged the north of the peninsula +east of Palestine and the Syro-Arabian desert. In this narrow sense +"Arab" is used in the Assyrian inscriptions, in the Old Testament and in +the Minaean inscriptions. Before the Christian era it had come to +include all the inhabitants of the peninsula. This, it is suggested, may +have been due to the fact that the "Arabs" were the chief people near +the Greek and Roman colonies in Syria and Mesopotamia. Classical writers +use the term both in its local and general sense. The Arabs to-day +occupy, besides Arabia, a part of Mesopotamia, the western shores of the +Red Sea, the eastern coast of the Persian Gulf and the north of Africa. +The finest type of the race is found in south Arabia among the Ariba +Arabs, among the mountaineers of Hadramut and Yemen and among the +Bedouin tribes roaming over the interior of central and northern Arabia. +The Arabs of the coasts and those of Mesopotamia are hybrids, showing +Turkish, Negroid and Hamitic crossings. The people of Syria and +Palestine are hybrids of Arab, Phoenician and Jewish descent. The theory +that early Arab settlements were made on the east coast of Africa as far +as Sofala south of the Zambezi, is without foundation; the earliest Arab +settlement on the east coast of Africa that can be proved is Magadoxo +(Mukdishu) in the 10th century, and the ruined cities of Mashonaland, +once supposed to be the remains of Arab settlements, are now known to be +of medieval African origin. On the East African coast-lands Arab +influence is still considerable. Traces of the Arab type are met with in +Asia Minor, the Caucasus, western Persia and India, while the influence +of the Arab language and civilization is found in Europe (Malta and +Spain), China and Central Asia. + + + Ethnology. + +The Arabs are at once the most ancient as they in many ways are the +purest surviving type of the true Semite. Certainly the inhabitants of +Yemen are not, and in historic times never were, pure Semites. Somali +and other elements, generally described under the collective racial name +of Hamitic, are clearly traceable; but the inland Arabs still present +the nearest approach to the primitive Semitic type. The origin of the +Arab race can only be a matter of conjecture. From the remotest historic +times it has been divided into two branches, which from their +geographical position it is simplest to call the North Arabians and the +South Arabians. Arabic and Jewish tradition trace the descent of the +latter from Joktan (Arabic _Kahtan_) son of Heber, of the former from +Ishmael. The South Arabians--the older branch--were settled in the +south-western part of the peninsula centuries before the uprise of the +Ishmaelites. These latter include not only Ishmael's direct descendants +through the twelve princes (Gen. xxv. 16), but the Edomites, Moabites, +Ammonites, Midianites and other tribes. This ancient and undoubted +division of the Arab race --roughly represented to-day by the +universally adopted classification into Arabs proper and Bedouin Arabs +(see BEDOUINS)-has caused much dispute among ethnologists. All +authorities agree in declaring the race to be Semitic in the broadest +ethnological signification of that term, but some thought they saw in +this division of the race an indication of a dual origin. They asserted +that the purer branch of the Arab family was represented by the +sedentary Arabs who were of Hamitic (Biblical Cushite), i.e. African +ancestry, and that the nomad Arabs were Arabs only by adoption, and were +nearer akin to the true Semite as sons of Ishmael. Many arguments were +adduced in support of this theory, (1) The unquestioned division in +remote historic times of the Arab race, and the immemorial hostility +between the two branches. (2) The concurrence of pre-Islamitic +literature and records in representing the first settlement of the +"pure" Arab as made in the extreme south-western part of the peninsula, +near Aden. (3) The use of Himyar, "dusky" or "red" (suggesting African +affinities), as the name sometimes for the ruling class, sometimes for +the entire people. (4) The African affinities of the Himyaritic +language. (5) The resemblance of the grammar of the Arabic now spoken by +the "pure" Arabs, where it differs from that of the North, to the +Abyssinian grammar. (6) The marked resemblance of the pre-Islamitic +institutions of Yemen and its allied provinces-its monarchies, courts, +armies and serfs--to the historical Africo-Egyptian type and even to +modern Abyssinia. (7) The physique of the "pure" Arab, the shape and +size of the head, the slenderness of the lower limbs, all suggesting an +African rather than an Asiatic origin. (8) The habits of the people, +viz. their sedentary rather than nomad occupations, their fondness for +village life, for dancing, music and society, their cultivation of the +soil, having more in common with African life than with that of the +western Asiatic continent. (9) The extreme facility of marriage which +exists in all classes of the southern Arabs with the African races, the +fecundity of such unions and the slightness or even total absence of any +caste feeling between the dusky "pure" Arab and the still darker +African, pointing to a community of origin. And further arguments were +found in the characteristics of the Bedouins, their pastoral and nomad +tendencies; the peculiarities of their idiom allied to the Hebrew; their +strong clan feeling, their continued resistance to anything like regal +power or centralized organization. + +Such, briefly, were the more important arguments; but latterly +ethnologists are inclined to agree that there is little really to be +said for the African ancestry theory and that the Arab race had its +beginning in the deserts of south Arabia, that in short the true Arabs +are aborigines. + +Mahommedans call the centuries before the Prophet's birth waqt-el +jahiliya, "the time of ignorance," but the fact is that the Arab world +has in some respects never since reached so high a level as it had in +those days which it suits Moslems to paint in dreary colours. Writing +was a fine art and poetry flourished. Eloquence was an accomplishment +all strove to acquire, and each year there were assemblies, lasting +sometimes a month, which were devoted to contests of skill among the +orators and poets, to listen to whose friendly rivalry tribesmen +journeyed long distances. Last, that surest index of a people's +civilization--the treatment of women--contrasted very favourably with +their position under the Koran. Women had rights and were respected. The +veil and the harem system were unknown before Mahomet. According to +Noldeke the Nabataean inscriptions and coins show that women held a high +social position in northern Arabia, owning large estates and trading +independently. Polyandry and polygamy, it is true, were practised, but +the right of divorce belonged to the woman as well as the man. Two kinds +of marriage were celebrated. One was a purely personal contract, with no +witnesses, the wife not leaving her home or passing under marital +authority. The other was a formal marriage, the woman becoming subject +to her husband by purchase or capture. Even captive women were not kept +in slavery. Arabic wealth and culture had indeed thus early reached a +stage which justified Professor Robertson Smith in writing, "In this +period the name of Arab was associated to Western writers with ideas of +effeminate indolence and peaceful opulence ... the golden age of Yemen." +But long before Mahomet's time this early Arab predominance was at an +end, possibly due in great measure to the loss of the caravan trade +through the increase of shipping. The abandonment of great cities and +the ruin of many tribes contributed to the apparent nationalization of +the Arab peoples. Though the traditional jealousy and hostility of the +two branches, the Yemenites and Maadites or Ishmaelites, remained, the +Arab world had attained by the levelling process of common misfortune +the superficial unity it presents to-day. The nation thus formed, never +a nation in the strict sense of the word, was distinctively and +thoroughly Semitic in character and language, and has remained unchanged +to the present day. The sporadic brilliancy of the ancient Arab kingdoms +gave place to a social and political lethargy, the continuation of which +for many centuries made the uprise of Saracenic empires seem a miracle +to a world ignorant of the Arab past. The Arab race up to Mahomet's day +had been in the main pagan. Monotheism, if it ever prevailed, early gave +place to sun and star worship, or simple idolatry. Professor Robertson +Smith suggests that totemism was the earliest form of Arabian idolatry, +and that each tribe had its sacred animal. This he supports by the fact +that some tribal names were derived from those of animals, and that +animal-worship was not unknown in Arabia. What seems certain is that +Arab religion was of a complex hybrid nature, not much to be wondered at +when one remembers that Arabia was the asylum of many religious +refugees, Zoroastrians, Jews, Christians. In the later pre-Islamitic +times spirits, or jinns, as they were called, of which each tribe or +family had its own, were worshipped, and there was but a vague idea of a +Supreme Being. Images of the jinns to the number of 360, one for each +day of the lunar year, were collected in the temple at Mecca, the chief +seat of their worship. That worship was of a sanguinary nature. Human +sacrifice was fairly frequent. Under the guise of religion female +infanticide was a common practice. At Mecca the great object of worship +was a plain black stone, and to it pilgrimages were made from every part +of Arabia. This stone was so sacred to the Arabs that even Mahomet dared +not dispense with it, and it remains the central object of sanctity in +the Ka'ba to-day. The temples of the Sabaeans and the Minaeans were +built east of their cities, a fact suggesting sun-worship, yet this is +not believed to have been the cult of the Minaeans. Common to both was +the worship of Attar, the male Ashtoreth. + +With the appearance of Mahomet the Arabs took anew a place in the +world's history. + + + Physique. + +Physically the Arabs are one of the strongest and noblest races of the +world. Baron de Larrey, surgeon-general to Napoleon on his expedition to +Egypt and Syria, writes: "Their physical structure is in all respects +more perfect than that of Europeans; their organs of sense exquisitely +acute, their size above the average of men in general, their figure +robust and elegant, their colour brown; their intelligence proportionate +to their physical perfection and without doubt superior, other things +being equal, to that of other nations." The typical Arab face is of an +oval form, lean-featured; the eyes a brilliant black, deep-set under +bushy eyebrows; nose aquiline, forehead straight but not high. In body +the Arab is muscular and long-limbed, but lean. Deformed individuals or +dwarfs are rare among Arabs; nor, except leprosy, which is common, does +any disease seem to be hereditary among them. They often suffer from +ophthalmia, though not in the virulent Egyptian form. They are +scrupulously clean in their persons, and take special care of their +teeth, which are generally white and even. Simple and abstemious in +their habits, they often reach an extreme yet healthy old age; nor is it +common among them for the faculties of the mind to give way sooner than +those of the body. + + + Character. + +Thus, physically, they yield to few races, if any, of mankind; mentally, +they surpass most, and are only kept back in the march of progress by +the remarkable defect of organizing power and incapacity for combined +action. Lax and imperfect as are their forms of government, it is with +impatience that even these are borne; of the four caliphs who alone +reigned--if reign theirs could be called--in Arabia proper, three died a +violent death; and of the Wahhabi princes, the most genuine +representatives in later times of pure Arab rule, almost all have met +the same fate. The Arab face, which is not unkindly, but never smiling, +expresses that dignity and gravity which are typical of the race. While +the Arab is always polite, good-natured, manly and brave, he is also +revengeful, cruel, untruthful and superstitious. Of the Arab nature +Burckhardt (other authorities, e.g. Barth and Rohlfs, are far less +complimentary) wrote: "The Arab displays his manly character when he +defends his guest at the peril of his own life, and submits to the +reverses of fortune, to disappointment and distress, with the most +patient resignation. He is distinguished from a Turk by the virtues of +pity and gratitude. The Turk is cruel, the Arab of a more kind temper; +he pities and supports the wretched, and never forgets the generosity +shown to him even by an enemy." The Arab will lie and cheat and swear +false oaths, but once his word is pledged he may be trusted to the last. +There are some oaths such as _Wallah_ (by Allah) which mean nothing, but +such an oath as the threefold one with _wa, bi_ and _ta_ as particles of +swearing the meanest thief will not break. In temper, or at least in the +manifestation of it, the Arab is studiously calm; and he rarely so much +as raises his voice in a dispute. But this outward tranquillity covers +feelings alike keen and permanent; and the remembrance of a rash jest or +injurious word, uttered years before, leads only too often to that +blood-revenge which is a sacred duty everywhere in Arabia. + +There exist, however, marked tribal or almost semi-national diversities +of character among the Arabs. Thus, the inhabitants of Hejaz are noted +for courtesy and blamed for fickleness; those of Nejd are distinguished +by their stern tenacity and dignity of deportment; the nations of Yemen +are gentle and pliant, but revengeful; those of Hasa and Oman cheerful +and fond of sport, though at the same time turbulent and unsteady. +Anything approaching to a game is rare in Nejd, and in the Hejaz +religion and the yearly occurrence of the pilgrim ceremonies almost +exclude all public diversions; but in Yemen the well-known game of the +"jerid," or palm-stick, with dances and music is not rare. In Oman such +amusements are still more frequent. Again in Yemen and Oman, +coffee-houses, where people resort for conversation, and where public +recitals, songs and other amusements are indulged in, stand open all +day; while nothing of the sort is tolerated in Nejd. So too the +ceremonies of circumcision or marriage are occasions of gaiety and +pastime on the coast, but not in the central provinces. + + + Manners and customs. + +An Arab town, or even village, except it be the merest hamlet, is +invariably walled round; but seldom is a stronger material than dried +earth used; the walls are occasionally flanked by towers of like +construction. A dry ditch often surrounds the whole. The streets are +irregular and seldom parallel. The Arab, indeed, lacks an eye for the +straight. The Arab carpenter cannot form a right angle; an Arab servant +cannot place a cloth square on a table. The Ka'ba at Mecca has none of +its sides or angles equal. The houses are of one or two storeys, rarely +of three, with flat mud roofs, little windows and no external ornament. +If the town be large, the expansion of one or two streets becomes a +market-place, where are ranged a few shops of eatables, drugs, coffee, +cottons or other goods. Many of these shops are kept by women. The chief +mosque is always near the market-place; so is also the governor's +residence, which, except in size and in being more or less fortified +Arab fashion, does not differ from a private house. Drainage is +unthought of; but the extreme dryness of the air obviates the +inconvenience and disease that under other skies could not fail to +ensue, and which in the damper climates of the coast make themselves +seriously felt. But the streets are roughly swept every day, each +householder taking care of the roadway that lies before his own door. +Whitewash and colour are occasionally used in Yemen, Hejaz and Oman; +elsewhere a light ochre tint, the colour of the sun-dried bricks, +predominates, and gives an Arab town the appearance at a distance of a +large dust-heap in the centre of the bright green ring of gardens and +palm-groves. Baked bricks are unknown in Arabia, and stone buildings are +rare, especially in Nejd. Palm branches and the like, woven in wattles, +form the dwellings, of the poorer classes in the southern districts. +Many Arab towns possess watch-towers, like huge round factory chimneys +in appearance, built of sun-dried bricks, and varying in height from 50 +to 100 ft. or even more. Indeed, two of these constructions at the town +of Birkat-el-Mauj, in Oman, are said to be each of 170 ft. in height, +and that of Nezwah, in the same province, is reckoned at 140; but these +are of stone. + +The principal feature in the interior of an Arab house is the "kahwah" +or coffee-room. It is a large apartment spread with mats, and sometimes +furnished with carpets and a few cushions. At one end is a small furnace +or fireplace for preparing coffee. In this room the men congregate; here +guests are received, and even lodged; women rarely enter it, except at +times when strangers are unlikely to be present. Some of these +apartments are very spacious and supported by pillars; one wall is +usually built transversely to the compass direction of the Ka'ba; it +serves to facilitate the performance of prayer by those who may happen +to be in the kahwah at the appointed times. The other rooms are +ordinarily small. + +The Arabs are proverbially hospitable. A stranger's arrival is often the +occasion of an amicable dispute among the wealthier inhabitants as to +who shall have the privilege of receiving him. Arab cookery is of the +simplest. Roughly-ground wheat cooked with butter; bread in thin cakes, +prepared on a heated iron plate or against the walls of an open oven; a +few vegetables, generally of the leguminous kinds; boiled mutton or +camel's flesh, among the wealthy; dates and fruits--this is the _menu_ +of an ordinary meal. Rice is eaten by the rich and fish is common on the +coasts. Tea, introduced only a few decades back, is now largely drunk. A +food of which the Arabs are fond is locusts boiled in salt and water and +then dried in the sun. They taste like stale shrimps, but there is a +great sale for them. Spices are freely employed; butter much too largely +for a European taste. + +After eating, the hands are always washed, soap or the ashes of an +alkaline plant being used. A covered censer with burning incense is then +passed round, and each guest perfumes his hands, face, and sometimes his +clothes; this censer serves also on first receptions and whenever +special honour is intended. In Yemen and Oman scented water often does +duty for it. Coffee, without milk or sugar, but flavoured with an +aromatic seed brought from India, is served to all. This, too, is done +on the occasion of a first welcome, when the cups often make two or +three successive rounds; but, in fact, coffee is made and drunk at any +time, as frequently as the desire for it may suggest itself; and each +time fresh grains are sifted, roasted, pounded and boiled--a very +laborious process, and one that requires in the better sort of +establishments a special servant or slave for the work. Arabs generally +make but one solid meal a day--that of supper, soon after sunset. Even +then they do not eat much, gluttony being rare among them, and even +daintiness esteemed disgraceful. Wine, like other fermented drinks, is +prohibited by the Koran, and is, in fact, very rarely taken, though the +inhabitants of the mountains of Oman are said to indulge in it. On the +coast spirits of the worst quality are sometimes procured; opium and +hashish are sparingly indulged in. On the other hand, wherever +Wahhabiism has left freedom of action, tobacco-smoking prevails; short +pipes of clay, long pipes with large open bowls, or most frequently the +water-pipe or "nar-ghileh," being used. The tobacco smoked is generally +strong and is either brought from the neighbourhood of Bagdad or grown +in the country itself. The strongest quality is that of Oman; the leaf +is broad and coarse, and retains its green colour even when dried; a few +whiffs have been known to produce absolute stupor. The aversion of the +Wahhabis to tobacco is well known; they entitle it "mukhzi" or "the +shameful," and its use is punished with blows, as the public use of wine +would be elsewhere. + + + Dress. + +In dress much variety prevails. The loose cotton drawers girded at the +waist, which in hot climates do duty for trousers, are not often worn, +even by the upper classes, in Nejd or Yemama, where a kind of silk +dressing-gown is thrown over the long shirt; frequently, too, a brown or +black cloak distinguishes the wealthier citizen; his head-dress is a +handkerchief fastened round the head by a band. But in Hejaz, Yemen and +Oman, turbans are by no means uncommon; the ordinary colour is white; +they are worn over one or more skullcaps. Trousers also form part of the +dress in the two former of these districts; and a voluminous sash, in +which a dagger or an inkstand is stuck, is wrapped round the waist. The +poorer folk, however, and the villagers often content themselves with a +broad piece of cloth round the loins, and another across the shoulders. +In Oman trousers are rare, but over the shirt a long gown, of peculiar +and somewhat close-fitting cut, dyed yellow, is often worn. The women in +these provinces commonly put on loose drawers and some add veils to +their head-dresses; they are over-fond of ornaments (gold and silver); +their hair is generally arranged in a long plait hanging down behind. +All men allow their beards and moustaches full growth, though this is +usually scanty. Most Arabs shave their heads, and indeed all, strictly +speaking, ought by Mahommedan custom to do so. An Arab seldom or never +dyes his hair. Sandals are worn more often than shoes; none but the very +poorest go barefoot. + + + Slavery. + +Slavery is still, as of old times, a recognized institution throughout +Arabia; and an illicit traffic in blacks is carried on along the coasts +of the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. The slaves themselves were obtained +chiefly from the east African coast districts down as far as Zanzibar, +but this source of supply was practically closed by the end of the 19th +century. Slaves are usually employed in Arabia as herdsmen or as +domestic servants, rarely in agricultural work; they also form a +considerable portion of the bodyguards with which Eastern greatness +loves to surround itself. Like their countrymen elsewhere, they readily +embrace the religion of their masters and become zealous Mahommedans. +Arab custom enfranchises a slave who has accepted Islam at the end of +seven years of bondage, and when that period has arrived, the master, +instead of exacting from his slave the price of freedom, generally, on +giving him his liberty, adds the requisite means for supporting himself +and a family in comfort. Further, on every important occasion, such as a +birth, circumcision, a marriage or a death, one or more of the household +slaves are sure of acquiring their freedom. Hence Arabia has a +considerable free black population; and these again, by inter-marriage +with the whites around, have filled the land with a mulatto breed of +every shade, till, in the eastern and southern provinces especially, a +white skin is almost an exception. In Arabia no prejudice exists against +negro alliances; no social or political line separates the African from +the Arab. A negro may become a sheik, a kadi, an amir, or whatever his +industry and his talents may render him capable of being. This is +particularly so in Nejd, Yemen and Hadramut; in the Hejaz and the north +a faint line of demarcation may be observed between the races. + + + Military qualities. + +The Arabs are good soldiers but poor generals. Personal courage, +wonderful endurance of privation, fixity of purpose, and a contempt of +death are qualities common to almost every race, tribe and clan that +compose the Arab nation. In skirmishing and harassing they have few +equals, while at close quarters they have often shown themselves capable +of maintaining, armed with swords and spears alone, a desperate struggle +against guns and bayonets, neither giving nor receiving quarter. Nor are +they wholly ignorant of tactics, their armies, when engaged in regular +war, being divided into centre and wings, with skirmishers in front and +a reserve behind, often screened at the outset of the engagement by the +camels of the expedition. These animals, kneeling and ranged in long +parallel rows, form a sort of entrenchment, from behind which the +soldiers of the main body fire their matchlocks, while the front +divisions, opening out, act on either flank of the enemy. This +arrangement of troops may be traced in Arab records as far back as the +5th century, and was often exemplified during the Wahhabi wars. + +Arab women are scarcely less distinguished for their bravery than the +men. Records of armed heroines occur frequently in the chronicles or +myths of the pre-Islamitic time; and in authentic history the Battle of +the Camel, 656 A.D., where Ayesha, the wife of Mahomet, headed the +charge, is only the first of a number of instances in which Arab amazons +have taken, sword in hand, no inconsiderable share in the wars and +victories of Islam. Even now it is the custom for an Arab force to be +always accompanied by some courageous maiden, who, mounted on a +blackened camel, leads the onslaught, singing verses of encouragement +for her own, of insult for the opposing tribe. Round her litter the +fiercest of the battle rages, and her capture or death is the signal of +utter rout; it is hers also to head the triumph after the victory of her +clan. + + + Education. + +There is little education, in the European sense of the word, in Arabia. +Among the Bedouins there are no schools, and few, even of the most +elementary character, in the towns or villages. Where they exist, little +beyond the mechanical reading of the Koran, and the equally mechanical +learning of it by rote, is taught. On the other hand, Arab +male-children, brought up from early years among the grown-up men of the +house or tent, learn more from their own parents and at home than is +common in other countries; reading and writing are in most instances +thus acquired, or rather transmitted; besides such general principles +of grammar and eloquence, often of poetry and history, as the elders +themselves may be able to impart. To this family schooling too are due +the good manners, politeness, and self-restraint that early distinguish +Arab children. In the very few instances where a public school of a +higher class exists, writing, grammar and rhetoric sum up its teachings. +Law and theology, in the narrow sense that both these words have in the +Islamitic system, are explained in afternoon lectures given in most +mosques; and some verses of the Koran, with one of the accepted +commentaries, that of Baidawi for example, form the basis of the +instruction. Great attention is paid to accuracy of grammar and purity +of diction throughout Arabia; yet something of a dialectic difference +may be observed in the various districts. The purest Arabic, that which +is as nearly as possible identical in the choice of words and in its +inflections with the language of the Koran, is spoken in Nejd, and the +best again of that in the province of Suder. Next in purity comes the +Arabic of Shammar. Throughout the Hejaz in general, the language, though +extremely elegant, is not equally correct; in el-Hasa, Bahrein and Oman +it is decidedly influenced by the foreign element called Nabataean. In +Yemen, as in other southern districts of the peninsula, Arabic merges +insensibly into the Himyaritic or African dialect of Hadramut and Mahra. +(See SEMITIC LANGUAGES.) + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Lieutenant Wellsted, _Travels in Arabia_ (Lond., 1838); + "Narrative of a Journey to the Ruins of Nakeb el Hajar" (_Jour. R. + Geog. Soc._ vii. 20); Carsten Niebuhr. _Travels through Arabia_ + (transl. into English by Robert Heron, 2 vols., Edin., 1792); John + Lewis Burckhardt, _Travels in Arabia_ (2 vols., Lond., 1829); _Notes + on the Bedouins and Wahabis_, (2 vols., Lond., 1830; in German, + Weimar, 1831); C.J. Cruttenden, _Journal of an Excursion to Sana'a, + the Capital of Yemen_ (Bombay, 1838); A. Sprenger, _Die alte + Geographie Arabiens als Grundlage der Entwicklungsgeschichte des + Semitismus_ (Berne, 1875); Sir Richard F. Burton, _Personal Narrative + of a Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Meccah_ (Lond., 1855); W. Robertson + Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia_ (Cambridge); E. Reclus, + _Les Arabes_ (Brussels, 1898); Lady Anne Blunt, _A Pilgrimage to Nejd_ + (2 vols., Lond., 1881); C.M. Doughty, _Arabia Deserta_ (2 vols., + 1888); Rev. S.M. Zwemer, _Arabia: the Cradle of Islam_ (1900); + Albrecht Zehme, _Arabien und die Araber, seit hundert Jahren_ (1875). + + + + +ARACAJU, a city and seaport of Brazil, capital of the state of Sergipe, +170 m. N.N.E. of Bahia, on the river Cotinguiba, or Cotindiba, 6 m. from +the coast. The municipality, of which it forms a part, had a population +in 1890 of 16,336, about two-thirds of whom lived in the city itself. +Aracaju is a badly built town on the right bank of the river at the base +of a ridge of low sand-hills and has the usual features of an +unprogressive provincial capital. Good limestone is quarried in its +vicinity, and the country tributary to this port produces large +quantities of sugar. Cotton is also grown, and the back country sends +down hides and skins for shipment. The anchorage is good, but a +dangerous bar at the mouth of the river prevents the entrance of vessels +drawing more than 12 ft. The port is visited, therefore, only by the +smaller steamers of the coastwise lines. The river is navigable as far +as the town of Maroim, about 10 m. beyond Aracaju. The city was founded +in 1855. + + + + +ARACATY, or ARACATI, a city and port of Brazil, in the state of Ceara, +75 m. S.E. of Fortaleza, on the river Jaguaribe, 8 m. from the sea. Pop. +of the municipality (1890) 20,182, of whom about 12,000 belonged to the +city. A dangerous bar at the mouth of the river permits the entrance +only of the smaller coasting steamers, but the port is an important +commercial centre, and exports considerable quantities of cotton, hides, +manicoba, rubber, fruit, and palm wax. + + + + +ARACHNE, in Greek mythology, the daughter of Idmon of Colophon in Lydia, +a dyer in purple. She had acquired such skill in the art of weaving that +she ventured to challenge Athena. While the goddess took as subjects her +quarrel with Poseidon as to the naming and possession of Attica, and the +warning examples of those who ventured to pit themselves against the +immortals, Arachne depicted the metamorphoses of the gods and their +amorous adventures. Her work was so perfect that Athena, enraged at +being unable to find any blemish in it, tore it to pieces. Arachne +hanged herself in despair; but the goddess out of pity loosened the +rope, which became a cobweb, while Arachne herself was changed into a +spider (Ovid, _Metam_. vi. 5-145). The story probably indicates the +superiority of Asia over Greece in the textile arts. + + + + +ARACHNIDA, the zoological name given in 1815 by Lamarck (Gr. [Greek: +harachnae], a spider) to a class which he instituted for the reception +of the spiders, scorpions and mites, previously classified by Linnaeus +in the order Aptera of his great group Insecta. Lamarck at the same time +founded the class Crustacea for the lobsters, crabs and water-fleas, +also until then included in the order Aptera of Linnaeus. Lamarck +included the Thysanura and the Myriapoda in his class Arachnida. The +Insecta of Linnaeus was a group exactly equivalent to the Arthropoda +founded a hundred years later by Siebold and Stannius. It was thus +reduced by Lamarck in area, and made to comprise only the six-legged, +wing-bearing "Insecta." For these Lamarck proposed the name Hexapoda; +but that name has been little used, and they have retained to this day +the title of the much larger Linnaean group, viz. Insecta. The position +of the Arachnida in the great sub-phylum Arthropoda, according to recent +anatomical and embryological researches, is explained in the article + + + +ARTHROPODA. The Arachnida form a distinct class or line of descent in +the grade Euarthropoda, diverging (perhaps in common at the start with +the Crustacea) from primitive Euarthropods, which gave rise also to the +separate lines of descent known as the classes Diplopoda, Crustacea, +Chilopoda and Hexapoda. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Entosternum, entosternite or plastron of +_Limulus polyphemus_, Latr. Dorsal surface. + + LAP, Left anterior process. PLR, Posterior lateral rod or + RAP, Right anterior process. tendon. + PhN, Pharyngeal notch. PLP, Posterior lateral process. + ALR, Anterior lateial rod or tendon. Natural size. + +(From Lankester, _Q J. Mic. Sci._, N S vol. xxiv, 1884)] + +_Limulus an Arachnid._--Modern views as to the classification and +affinities of the Arachnida have been determined by the demonstration +that _Limulus_ and the extinct Eurypterines (_Pterygotus_, &c.) are +Arachnida; that is to say, are identical in the structure and relation +of so many important parts with _Scorpio_, whilst differing in those +respects from other Arthropoda, that it is impossible to suppose that +the identity is due to homoplasy or convergence, and the conclusion must +be accepted that the resemblances arise from close genetic relationship. +The view that Limulus, the king-crab, is an Arachnid was maintained as +long ago as 1829 by Strauss-Durckheim (1), on the ground of its +possession of an internal cartilaginous sternum--also possessed by the +Arachnida (see figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6)--and of the similarity of the +disposition of the six leg-like appendages around the mouth in the two +cases (see figs. 45 and 63). The evidence of the exact equivalence of +the segmentation and appendages of Limulus and Scorpio, and of a number +of remarkable points of agreement in structure, was furnished by Ray +Lankester in an article published in 1881 ("Limulus an Arachnid," +_Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. xxi. N.S.), and in a series of +subsequent memoirs, in which the structure of the entosternum, of the +coxal glands, of the eyes, of the veno-pericardiac muscles, of the +respiratory lamellae, and of other parts, was for the first time +described, and in which the new facts discovered were shown uniformly to +support the hypothesis that Limulus is an Arachnid. A list of these +memoirs is given at the close of this article (2, 3, 4, 5 and 13). The +Eurypterines (Gigantostraca) were included in the identification, +although at that time they were supposed to possess only five pairs of +anterior or prosomatic appendages. They have now been shown to possess +six pairs (fig. 47), as do Limulus and Scorpio. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Ventral surface of the entosternum of _Limulus +polyphemus_, Latr. Letters as in fig. 1 with the addition of NF, neural +fossa protecting the aggregated ganglia of the central nervous system; +PVP, left posterior ventral process; PMP, posterior median process. +Natural size. + +(From Lankester.)] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Entosternum of scorpion (_Palamnaeus Indus_, de +Geer); dorsal surface. + + asp, Paired anterior process of the sub-neural arch. + snp, Sub-neural arch. + ap, Anterior lateral process (same as RAP and LAP in fig. 1). + lmp, Lateral median process (same as ALR and PLR of fig. 1). + pp, Posterior process (same as PLP in fig. 1). + pf, Posterior flap or diaphragm of Newport. + m^1 and m^2, Perforations of the diaphragm for the passage of + muscles. + DR, The paired dorsal ridges. + GC, Gastric canal or foramen. + AC, Arterial canal or foramen. + +(After Lankester, _loc. cit._)] + +The various comparisons previously made between the structure of Limulus +and the Eurypterines on the one hand, and that of a typical Arachnid, +such as Scorpio, on the other, had been vitiated by erroneous notions as +to the origin of the nerves supplying the anterior appendages of Limulus +(which were finally removed by Alphonse Milne-Edwards in his beautiful +memoir (6) on the structure of that animal), and secondly by the +erroneous identification of the double sternal plates of Limulus, called +"chilaria," by Owen, with a pair of appendages (7). Once the identity of +the chilaria with the pentagonal sternal plate of the scorpion is +recognized--an identification first insisted on by Lankester--the whole +series of segments and appendages in the two animals, Limulus and +Scorpio, are seen to correspond most closely, segment for segment, with +one another (see figs. 7 and 8). The structure of the prosomatic +appendages or legs is also seen to present many significant points of +agreement (see figures), but a curious discrepancy existed in the +six-jointed structure of the limb in Limulus, which differed from the +seven-jointed limb of Scorpio by the defect of one joint. R.I. Pocock of +the British Museum has observed that in Limulus a marking exists on the +fourth joint, which apparently indicates a previous division of this +segment into two, and thus establishes the agreement of Limulus and +Scorpio in this small feature of the number of segments in the legs (see +fig. 11). + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Ventral surface of the same entosternum as that +drawn in fig. 3. Letters as in fig. 3 with the addition of NC, neural +canal or foramen. + +(After Lankester, _loc. cit._)] + + It is not desirable to occupy the limited space of this article by a + full description of the limbs and segments of Limulus and Scorpio. The + reader is referred to the complete series of figures here given, with + their explanatory legends (figs 12, 13, 14, 15). Certain matters, + however, require comment and explanation to render the comparison + intelligible. The tergites, or chitinized dorsal halves of the body + rings, are fused to form a "prosomatic carapace," or carapace of the + prosoma, in both Limulus and Scorpio (see figs. 7 and 8). This region + corresponds in both cases to six somites, as indicated by the presence + of six pairs of limbs. On the surface of the carapace there are in + both animals a pair of central eyes with simple lens and a pair of + lateral eye-tracts, which in Limulus consist of closely-aggregated + simple eyes, forming a "compound" eye, whilst in Scorpio they present + several separate small eyes. The microscopic structure of the central + and the lateral eyes has been shown by Lankester and A.G. Bourne (5) + to differ; but the lateral eyes of Scorpio were shown by them to be + similar in structure to the lateral eyes of Limulus, and the central + eyes of Scorpio to be identical in structure with the central eyes of + Limulus (see below). + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Entosternum of one of the mygalomorphous + spiders; ventral surface. Ph.N., pharyngeal notch. The posterior + median process with its repetition of triangular segments closely + resembles the same process in Limulus. + + (From Lankester, _loc. cit._)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Dorsal surface of the same entosternum as that + drawn in fig. 5. Ph.N., pharyngeal notch. + + (After Lankester, _loc. cit._)] + + Following the prosoma is a region consisting of six segments (figs. 14 + and 15), each carrying a pair of plate-like appendages in both Limulus + and Scorpio. This region is called the mesosoma. The tergites of this + region and those of the following region, the metasoma, are fused to + form a second or posterior carapace in Limulus, whilst remaining free + in Scorpio. The first pair of foliaceous appendages in each animal is + the genital operculum; beneath it are found the openings of the + genital ducts. The second pair of mesosomatic appendages in Scorpio + are known as the "pectens." Each consists of an axis, bearing numerous + blunt tooth-like processes arranged in a series. This is represented + in Limulus by the first gill-bearing appendage. The leaves (some 150 + in number) of the gill-book (see figure) correspond to the tooth-like + processes of the pectens of Scorpio. The next four pairs of appendages + (completing the mesosomatic series of six) consist, in both Scorpio + and Limulus, of a base carrying each 130 to 150 blood-holding, + leaf-like plates, lying on one another like the leaves of a book. + Their minute structure is closely similar in the two cases; the + leaf-like plates receive blood from the great sternal sinus, and serve + as respiratory organs. The difference between the gill-books of + Limulus and the lung-books of Scorpio depends on the fact that the + latter are adapted to aerial respiration, while the former serve for + aquatic respiration. The appendage carrying the gill-book stands out + on the surface of the body in Limulus, and has other portions + developed besides the gill-book and its base; it is fused with its + fellow of the opposite side. On the other hand, in Scorpio, the + gill-book-bearing appendage has sunk below the surface, forming a + recess or chamber for itself, which communicates with the exterior by + an oval or circular "stigma" (fig. 10, stg). That this in-sinking + has taken place, and that the lung-books or in-sunken gill-books of + Scorpio really represent appendages (that is to say, limbs or + parapodia) is proved by their developmental history (see figs. 17 and + 18). They appear at first as outstanding processes on the surface of + the body. + + The exact mode in which the in-sinking of superficial outstanding + limbs, carrying gill-lamellae, has historically taken place has been a + matter of much speculation. It was to be hoped that the specimen of + the Silurian scorpion (_Palaeophonus_) from Scotland, showing the + ventral surface of the mesosoma (fig. 49), would throw light on this + matter; but the specimen recently carefully studied by the writer and + Pocock reveals neither gill-bearing limbs nor stigmata. The + probability appears to be against an actual introversion of the + appendage and its lamellae, as was at one time suggested by Lankester. + It is probable that such an in-sinking as is shown in the accompanying + diagram has taken place (fig. 15); but we are yet in need of evidence + as to the exact equivalence of margins, axis, &c., obtaining between + the lung-book of Scorpio and the gill-book of Limulus. Zoologists are + familiar with many instances (fishes, crustaceans) in which the + protective walls of a water-breathing organ or gill-apparatus become + converted into an air-breathing organ or lung, but there is no other + case known of the conversion of gill processes themselves into + air-breathing plates. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Diagram of the dorsal surface of _Limulus + polyphemus_. + + oc, Lateral compound eyes. + oc', Central monomeniscous eyes. + PA, Post-anal spine. + I to VI, The six appendage-bearing somites of the prosoma. + VII, Usually considered to be the tergum of the genital somite, but + suggested by Pocock to be that of the otherwise suppressed + praegenital somite. + VIII to XIII, The six somites of the mesosoma, each with a movable + pleural spine and a pair of dorsal entopophysis or muscle-attaching + ingrowths. + XIV to XVIII, The confluent or unexpressed six somites of the + metasoma. + + [According to the system of numbering explained in the text, if VII + is the tergum of the praegenital somite (as is probable) it should + be labelled _Prg_ without any number, and the somites VIII to XIII + should be lettered 1 to 6, indicating that they are the six normal + somites of the mesosoma; whilst XV to XVIII should be replaced by + the numbers 7 to 12--an additional suppressed segment (making up the + typical six) being reckoned to the metasomatic fusion.] + + (From Lankester, _Q J. Micr Set_. vol. xxi., 1881)] + + The identification of the lung-books of Scorpio with the gill-books of + Limulus is practically settled by the existence of the pectens in + Scorpio (fig. 14, VIII) on the second mesosomatic somite. There is no + doubt that _these_ are parapodial or limb appendages, carrying + numerous imbricated secondary processes, and therefore comparable in + essential structure to the leaf-bearing plates of the second + mesosomatic somite of Limulus. They have remained unenclosed and + projecting on the surface of the body, as once were the appendages of + the four following somites. But they have lost their respiratory + function. In non-aquatic life such an unprotected organ cannot + subserve respiration. The "pectens" have become more firmly chitinized + and probably somewhat altered in shape as compared with their + condition in the aquatic ancestral scorpions. Their present function + in scorpions is not ascertained. They are not specially sensitive + under ordinary conditions, and may be touched or even pinched without + causing any discomfort to the scorpion. It is probable that they + acquire special sensibility at the breeding season and serve as + "guides" in copulation. The shape of the legs and the absence of + paired terminal claws in the Silurian _Palaeophonus_ (see figs. 48 and + 49) as compared with living scorpions (see fig. 10) show that the + early scorpions were aquatic, and we may hope some day in + better-preserved specimens than the two as yet discovered, to find the + respiratory organs of those creatures in the condition of projecting + appendages serving aquatic respiration somewhat as in Limulus, though + not necessarily repeating the exact form of the broad plates of + Limulus. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Diagram of the dorsal surface of a scorpion to + compare with fig. 7. Letters and Roman numerals as in fig. 7, + excepting that VII is here certainly the tergum of the first somite of + the mesosoma--the genital somite--and is _not_ a survival of the + embryonic praegenital somite. The anus (not seen) is on the sternal + surface. + + (From Lankester, _loc. cit._)] + + It is important to note that the series of lamellae of the lung-book + and the gill-book correspond _exactly_ in structure, the narrow, flat + blood-space in the lamellae being interrupted by pillar-like junctions + of the two surfaces in both cases (see Lankester (4)), and the free + surfaces of the adjacent lamellae being covered with a very delicate + chitinous cuticle which is drawn out into delicate hairs and + processes. The elongated axis which opens at the stigma in Scorpio and + which can be cleared of soft, surrounding tissues and coagulated blood + so as to present the appearance of a limb axis carrying the book-like + leaves of the lung is not really, as it would seem to be at first + sight, the limb axis. That is necessarily a blood-holding structure + and is obliterated and fused with soft tissues of the sternal region + so that the lamellae cannot be detached and presented as standing out + from it. The apparent axis or basal support of the scorpion's + lung-books shown in the figures, is a false or secondary axis and + merely a part of the infolded surface which forms the air-chamber. The + maceration of the soft parts of a scorpion preserved in weak spirit + and the cleaning of the chitinized in-grown cuticle give rise to the + false appearance of a limb axis carrying the lamellae. The margins of + the lamellae of the scorpion's lung-book, which are _lowermost_ in the + figures (fig. 15) and appear to be free, are really those which are + attached to the blood-holding axis. The true free ends are those + nearest the stigma. + + Passing on now from the mesosoma we come in Scorpio to the metasoma of + six segments, the first of which is broad whilst the rest are + cylindrical. The last is perforated by the anus and carries the + post-anal spine or sting. The somites of the metasoma carry no + parapodia. In Limulus the metasoma is practically suppressed. In the + allied extinct Eurypterines it is well developed, and resembles that + of Scorpio. In the embryo Limulus (fig. 42) the six somites of the + mesosoma are not fused to form a carapace at an early stage, and they + are followed by three separately marked metasomatic somites; the other + three somites of the metasoma have disappeared in Limulus, but are + represented by the unsegmented prae-anal region. It is probable that + we have in the metasoma of Limulus a case of the disappearance of once + clearly demarcated somites. It would be possible to suppose, on the + other hand, that new somites are only beginning to make their + appearance here. The balance of various considerations is against the + latter hypothesis. Following the metasoma in Limulus, we have as in + Scorpio the post-anal spine--in this case not a sting, but a powerful + and important organ of locomotion, serving to turn the animal over + when it has fallen upon its back. The nature of the post-anal spine + has been strangely misinterpreted by some writers. Owen (7) maintained + that it represented a number of coalesced somites, regardless of its + post-anal position and mode of development. The agreement of the + grouping of the somites, of the form of the parapodia (appendages, + limbs) in each region, of the position of the genital aperture and + operculum, of the position and character of the eyes, and of the + powerful post-anal spines not seen in other Arthropods, is very + convincing as to the affinity of Limulus and Scorpio. Perhaps the + most important general agreement of Scorpio compared with Limulus and + the Eurypterines is the division of the body into the three regions + (or tagmata)--prosoma, mesosoma and metasoma--each consisting of six + segments, the prosoma having leg-like appendages, the mesosoma having + foliaceous appendages, and the metasoma being destitute of appendages. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Ventral view of the posterior carapace or + meso-metasomatic (opisthospmatic) fusion of _Limulus polyphemus_. The + soft integument and limbs of the mesosoma have been removed as well as + all the viscera and muscles, so that the inner surface of the terga of + these somites with their entopophyses are seen. The unsegmented dense + chitinous sternal plate of the metasoma (XIII to XVIII) is not + removed. Letters as in fig. 7. + + (After Lankester, _loc. cit._)] + + In 1893, some years after the identification of the somites of Limulus + with those of Scorpio, thus indicated, had been published, zoologists + were startled by the discovery by a Japanese zoologist, Kishinouye + (8), of a seventh prosomatic somite in the embryo of Limulus + longispina. This was seen in longitudinal sections, as shown in fig. + 19. The simple identification of somite with somite in Limulus and + Scorpio seemed to be threatened by this discovery. But in 1896 Dr + August Brauer of Marburg (9) discovered in the embryo of Scorpio a + seventh prosomatic somite (see VII PrG, figs. 17 and 18), or, if we + please so to term it, a _praegenital_ somite, hitherto unrecognized. + In the case of Scorpio this segment is indicated in the embryo by the + presence of a pair of rudimentary appendages, carried by a well-marked + somite. As in Limulus, so in Scorpio, this unexpected somite and its + appendages disappear in the course of development. In fact, more or + less complete "excalation" of the somite takes place. Owing to its + position it is convenient to term the somite which is excalated in + Limulus and Scorpio "the praegenital somite." It appears not + improbable that the sternal plates wedged in between the last pair of + legs in both Scorpio and Limulus, viz. the pentagonal sternite of + Scorpio (fig. 10) and the chilaria of Limulus (see figs. 13 and 20), + may in part represent in the adult the sternum of the excalated + praegenital somite. This has not been demonstrated by an actual + following out of the development, but the position of these pieces and + the fact that they are (in Limulus) supplied by an independent + segmental nerve, favours the view that they may comprise the sternal + area of the vanished praegenital somite. This interpretation, however, + of the "metasternites" of Limulus and Scorpio is opposed by the + coexistence in Thelyphonus (figs. 55, 57 and 58) of a similar + metasternite with a complete praegenital somite. H.J. Hansen (10) has + recognized that the "praegenital somite" persists in a rudimentary + condition, forming a "waist" to the series of somites in the Pedipalpi + and Araneae. The present writer is of opinion that it will be found + most convenient to treat this evanescent somite as something special, + and not to attempt to reckon it to either the prosoma or the mesosoma. + These will then remain as typically composed each of six + appendage-bearing somites-the prosoma comprising in addition the + ocular prosthomere.[1] When the praegenital somite or traces of it are + present it should not be called "the seventh prosomatic" or the "first + mesosomatic," but simply the "praegenital somite." The first segment + of the mesosoma of Scorpio and Limulus thus remains the first segment, + and can be identified as such throughout the Eu-arachnida, carrying as + it always does the genital apertures. But it is necessary to remember, + in the light of recent discoveries, that the sixth prosomatic pair of + appendages is carried on the seventh somite of the whole series, there + being two prosthomeres or somites in front of the mouth, the first + carrying the eyes, the second the chelicerae; also that the first + mesosomatic or genital somite is not the seventh or even the eighth of + the whole senes of somites which have been historically present, but + is the ninth, owing to the presence or to the excalation of a + praegenital somite. It seems that confusion and trouble will be best + avoided by abstaining from the introduction of the non-evident + somites, the ocular and the praegenital, into the numerical + nomenclature of the component somites of the three great body regions. + We shall, therefore, ignoring the ocular somite, speak of the first, + second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth leg-bearing somites of the + prosoma, and indicate the appendages by the Roman numerals, I, II, + III, IV, V, VI, and whilst ignoring the praegenital somite we shall + speak of the first, second, third, &c., somite of the mesosoma or + opisthosoma (united mesosoma and metasoma) and indicate them by the + Arabic numerals. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Ventral view of a scorpion, _Palamnaeus + indus_, de Geer, to show the arrangement of the coxae of the limbs, + the sternal elements, genital plate and pectens. + + M, Mouth behind the oval median camerostome. + I, The chelicerae. + II, The chelae. + III to VI, the four pairs of walking legs. + VIIgo, The genital somite or first somite of the mesosoma with the + genital operculum (a fused pair of limbs). + VIIIp, The pectiniferous somite. + IXstg to XIIstg, the four pulmonary somites. + met, The pentagonal metasternite of the prosoma behind all the + coxae. + x, The sternum of the pectiniferous somite. + y, The broad first somite of the metasoma.] + + There are a number of other important points of structure besides + those referring to the somites and appendages in which Limulus agrees + with Scorpio or other Arachnida and differs from other Arthropoda. The + chief of these are as follows:-- + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Third leg of _Limulus polyphemus_, showing + the division of the fourth segment of the leg by a groove S into two, + thus giving seven segments to the leg as in scorpion. + + (From a drawing by Pocock.)] + + 1. _The Composition of the Head_ (that is to say, of the anterior part + of the prosoma) _with especial Reference to the Region in Front of the + Mouth._--It appears (see ARTHROPODA) that there is embryological + evidence of the existence of two somites in Arachnida which were + originally post-oral, but have become prae-oral by adaptational + shifting of the oral aperture. These forwardly-slipped somites are + called "prosthomeres." The first of these has, in Arachnids as in + other Arthropods, its pair of appendages represented by the eyes. The + second has for its pair of appendages the small pair of limbs which in + all living Arachnids is either chelate or retrovert (as in spiders), + and is known as the chelicerae. It is possible, as maintained by some + writers (Patten and others), that the lobes of the cerebral nervous + mass in Arachnids indicate a larger number of prosthomeres as having + fused in this region, but there is no _embryological_ evidence at + present which justifies us in assuming the existence in Arachnids of + more than two prosthomeres. The position of the chelicerae of Limulus + and of the ganglionic nerve-masses from which they receive their + nerve-supply, is closely similar to that of the same structures in + Scorpio. The cerebral mass is in Limulus more easily separated by + dissection as a median lobe distinct from the laterally-placed ganglia + of the chelceral somite than is the case in Scorpio, but the relations + are practically the same in the two forms. Formerly it was supposed + that in Limulus both the chelicerae and the next following pair of + appendages were prosthomerous, as in Crustacea, but the dissections of + Alphonse Milne-Edwards (6) demonstrated the true limitations of the + cerebrum, whilst embryological researches have done as much for + Scorpio. Limulus thus agrees with Scorpio and differs from the + Crustacea, in which there are three prosthomeres--one ocular and two + carrying palpiform appendages. It is true that in the lower Crustacea + (Apus, &c.) we have evidence of the gradual movement forward of the + nerve-ganglia belonging to these palpiform appendages. But although in + such lower Crustacea the nerve-ganglia of the third prosthomere have + not fused with the anterior nerve-mass, there is no question as to the + prae-oral position of two appendage-bearing somites in addition to the + ocular prosthomere. The Crustacea have, in fact, three prosthomeres in + the head and the Arachnida only two, and Limulus agrees with the + Arachnida in this respect and differs from the Crustacea. The central + nervous systems of Limulus and of Scorpio present closer agreement in + structure than can be found when a Crustacean is compared with either. + The wide divarication of the lateral cords in the prosoma and their + connexion by transverse commissures, together with the "attraction" of + ganglia to the prosomatic ganglion group which properly belong to + hinder segments, are very nearly identical in the two animals. The + form and disposition of the ganglion cells are also peculiar and + closely similar in the two. (See Patten (42) for important + observations on the neuromeres, &c., of Limulus and Scorpio.) + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.--The prosomatic appendages of _Limulus + polyphemus_ (right) and Scorpio (left), _Palamnaeus indus_ compared. + The corresponding appendages are marked with the same Roman numeral. + The Arabic numerals indicate the segments of the legs. + + cox, Coxa or basal segment of the leg. + stc, The sterno-coxal process or jaw-like up-growth of the coxa. + epc, The articulated movable outgrowth of the coxa, called the + epi-coxite (present only in III of the scorpion and III, IV and V + of Limulus). + ex^1, The exopodite of the sixth limb of Limulus. + a, b, c, d, Movable processes on the same leg (see for some + suggestions on the morphology of this leg, Pocock in _Quart. Journ. + Micr. Sci._ March 1901; see also fig. 50 below and explanation). + + (From Lankester, _loc. cit._)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Diagrams of the metasternite st, with genital + operculum op, and the first lamelligerous pair of appendages ga, with + uniting sternal element st of Scorpio (left) and Limulus (right). + + (From Lankester, _loc. cit._)] + + 2. _The Minute Structure of the Central Eyes and of the Lateral + Eyes._--Limulus agrees with Scorpio not only in having a pair of + central eyes and also lateral eyes, but in the microscopic structure + of those organs, which differs in the central and lateral eyes + respectively. The central eyes are "simple eyes," that is to say, have + a single lens, and are hence called "monomeniscous." The lateral eyes + are in Limulus "compound eyes," that is to say, consist of many lenses + placed close together; beneath each lens is a complex of protoplasmic + cells, in which the optic nerve terminates. Each such unit is termed + an "ommatidium." The lateral eyes of Scorpio consist of groups of + separate small lenses each with its ommatidium, but they do not form a + continuous compound eye as in Limulus. The ommatidium (soft structure + beneath the lens-unit of a compound eye) is very simple in both + Scorpio and Limulus. It consists of a single layer of cells, + continuous with those which secrete the general chitinous covering of + the prosoma. The cells of the ommatidium are a good deal larger than + the neighbouring common cells of the epidermis. They secrete the + knob-like lens (fig. 22). But they also receive the nerve fibres of + the optic nerve. They are at the same time both optic nerve-end cells, + that is to say, retina cells, and corneagen cells or secretors of the + chitinous lens-like cornea. In Limulus (fig. 23) each ommatidium has a + peculiar ganglion cell developed in a central position, whilst the + ommatidium of the lateral eyelets of Scorpio shows small intermediate + cells between the larger nerve-end cells. The structure of the lateral + eye of Limulus was first described by Grenacher, and further and more + accurately by Lankester and Bourne (5) and by Watase; that of Scorpio + by Lankester and Bourne, who showed that the statements of von Graber + were erroneous, and that the lateral eyes of Scorpio have a single + cell-layered or "monostichous" ommatidium like that of Limulus. Watase + has shown, in a very convincing way, how by deepening the pit-like set + of cells beneath a simple lens the more complex ommatidia of the + compound eyes of Crustacea and Hexapoda may be derived from such a + condition as that presented in the lateral eyes of Limulus and + Scorpio. (For details the reader is referred to Watase (11) and to + Lankester and Bourne (5).) The structure of the central eyes of + Scorpio and spiders and also of Limulus differs essentially from that + of the lateral eyes in having two layers of cells (hence called + diplostichous) beneath the lens, separated from one another by a + membrane (figs. 24 and 25). The upper layer is the corneagen and + secretes the lens, the lower is the retinal layer. The mass of soft + cell-structures beneath a large lens of a central eye is called an + "ommatoeum." It shows in Scorpio and Limulus a tendency to segregate + into minor groups or "ommatidia." It is found that in embryological + growth the retinal layer of the central eyes forms as a separate + pouch, which is pushed in laterally beneath the corneagen layer from + the epidermic cell layer. Hence it is in origin double, and consists + of a true retinal layer and a post-retinal layer (fig. 24, B), though + these are not separated by a membrane. Accordingly the diplostichous + ommatoeum or soft tissue of the Arachnid's central eye should strictly + be called "triplostichous," since the deep layer is itself doubled or + folded. The retinal cells of both the lateral and central eyes of + Limulus and Scorpio produce cuticular structures on their sides; each + such piece is a rhabdomere and a number (five or ten) uniting form a + rhabdom (fig. 26). In the specialized ommatidia of the compound eyes + of Crustacea and Hexapods the rhabdom is an important structure.[2] It + is a very significant fact that the lateral and central eyes of + Limulus and Scorpio not only agree each with each in regard to their + monostichous and diplostichous structure, but also in the formation in + both classes of eyes of rhabdomeres and rhabdoms in which the + component pieces are five or a multiple of five (fig. 26). Whilst each + unit of the lateral eye of Limulus has a rhabdom of ten[3] pieces + forming a star-like chitinous centre in section, each lateral eye of + Scorpio has several rhabdoms of five or less rhabdomeres, indicating + that the Limulus lateral eye-unit is more specialized than the + detached lateral eyelet of Scorpio, so as to present a coincidence of + one lens with one rhabdom. Numerous rhabdomeres (grouped as rhabdoms + in Limulus) are found in the retinal layer of the central eyes also. + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.--The first three pairs of mesosomatic + appendages of Scorpio and Limulus compared. + + VII, The genital operculum. + VIII, The pectens of Scorpio and the first branchial plate of + Limulus. + IX, The first pair of lung-books of Scorpio and the second branchial + plate of Limulus. + gp, Genital pore. + epst, Epistigmatic sclerite. + stg, Stigma or orifice of the hollow tendons of the branchial plates + of Limulus. + + (After Lankester, _loc. cit._)] + + Whilst Limulus agrees thus closely with Scorpio in regard to the eyes, + it is to be noted that no Crustacean has structures corresponding to + the peculiar diplostichous central eyes, though these occur again + (with differences in detail) in _Hexapoda_. Possibly, however, an + investigation of the development of the median eyes of some Crustacea + (Apus, Palaemon) may prove them to be diplostichous in origin. + + 3. _The so-called_ "_Coxal Glands_."--In 1882 (_Proc. Roy. Soc_. No. + 221) Lankester described under the name "coxal glands" a pair of + brilliantly white oviform bodies lying in the Scorpion's prosoma + immediately above the coxae of the fifth and sixth pairs of legs (fig. + 27). These bodies had been erroneously supposed by Newport (12) and + other observers to be glandular outgrowths of the alimentary canal. + They are really excretory glands, and communicate with the exterior by + a very minute aperture on the posterior face of the coxa of the fifth + limb on each side. When examined with the microscope, by means of the + usual section method, they are seen to consist of a labyrinthine tube + lined with peculiar cells, each cell having a deep vertically striated + border on the surface farthest from the lumen, as is seen in the cells + of some renal organs. The coils and branches of the tube are packed by + connective tissue and blood spaces. A similar pair of coxal glands, + lobate instead of ovoid in shape, was described by Lankester in + Mygale, and it was also shown by him that the structures in Limulus + called "brick-red glands" by Packard have the same structure and + position as the coxal glands of Scorpio and Mygale. In Limulus these + organs consist each of four horizontal lobes lying on the coxal margin + of the second, third, fourth, and fifth prosomatic limbs, the four + lobes being connected to one another by a transverse piece or stem + (fig. 28). Microscopically their structure is the same in essentials + as that of the coxal glands of Scorpio (13). Coxal glands have since + been recognized and described in other Arachnida. In 1900 it was shown + that the coxal gland of Limulus is provided with a very delicate + thin-walled coiled duct which opens, even in the adult condition, by a + minute pore on the coxa of the fifth leg (Patten and Hazen, 13A). + Previously to this, Lankester's pupil Gulland had shown (1885) that in + the embryo the coxal gland is a comparatively simple tube, which opens + to the exterior in this position and by its other extremity into a + coelomic space. Similar observations were made by Laurie (17) in + Lankester's laboratory (1890) with regard to the early condition of + the coxal gland of Scorpio, and by Bertkau (41) as to that of the + spider Atypus. H.M. Bernard (13B) showed that the opening remains in + the adult scorpion. In all the embryonic or permanent opening is on + the coxa of the fifth pair of prosomatic limbs. Thus an organ newly + discovered in Scorpio was found to have its counterpart in Limulus. + + The name "coxal gland" needs to be carefully distinguished from + "crural gland," with which it is apt to be confused. The crural + glands, which occur in many terrestrial Arthropods, are epidermal in + origin and totally distinct from the coxal glands. The coxal glands of + the Arachnida are structures of the same nature as the green glands of + the higher Crustacea and the so-called "shell glands" of the + Entomostraca. The latter open at the base of the fifth pair of limbs + of the Crustacean, just as the coxal glands open on the coxal joint of + the fifth pair of limbs of the Arachnid. Both belong to the category + of "coelomoducts," namely, tubular or funnel-like portions of the + coelom opening to the exterior in pairs in each somite (potentially,) + and usually persisting in only a few somites as either "urocoels" + (renal organs) or "gonocoets" (genital tubes). In Peripatus they occur + in every somite of the body. They have till recently been very + generally identified with the nephridia of Chaetopod worms, but there + is good reason for considering the true nephridia (typified by the + nephridia of the earthworm) as a distinct class of organs (see + Lankester in vol. ii. chap. in. of _A Treatise on Zoology_, 1900). The + genital ducts of Arthropoda are, like the green glands, shell glands + and coxal glands, to be regarded as coelomoducts (gonocoels). The + coxal glands do not establish any special connexion between Limulus + and Scorpio, since they also occur in the same somite in the lower + Crustacea, but it is to be noted that the coxal glands of Limulus are + in minute structure and probably in function more like those of + Arachnids than those of Crustacea. + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.--The remaining three pairs of mesosomatic + appendages of Scorpio and Limulus. Letters as in fig. 14. l130 + indicates that there are 130 lamellae in the scorpion's lung-book, + whilst l150 indicates that 150 similar lamellae are counted in the + gill of Limulus. + + (After Lankester, _loc. cit._)] + + 4. _The Entosternites and their Minute Structure._--Strauss-Durckheim + (1) was the first to insist on the affinity between Limulus and the + Arachnids, indicated by the presence of a free suspended entosternum + or plastron or entosternite in both. We have figured here (figs. 1 to + 6) the entosternites of Limulus, Scorpio and Mygale. Lankester some + years ago made a special study of the histology (3) of these + entosternites for the purpose of comparison, and also ascertained the + relations of the very numerous muscles which are inserted into them + (4). The entosternites are cartilaginous in texture, but they have + neither the chemical character nor the microscopic structure of the + hyaline cartilage of Vertebrates. They yield chitin in place of + chondrin or gelatin--as does also the cartilage of the Cephalopod's + endoskeleton. In microscopic structure they all present the closest + agreement with one another. We find a firm, homogeneous or sparsely + fibrillated matrix in which are embedded nucleated cells (corpuscles + of protoplasm) arranged in rows of three, six or eight, parallel with + the adjacent lines of fibrillation. + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Diagram to show the way in which an + outgrowing gill-process bearing blood-holding lamellae, may give rise, + if the sternal body wall sinks inwards, to a lung-chamber with + air-holding lamellae. + + I is the embryonic condition. + bs, Blood sinus. + L is the condition of outgrowth with gl, gill lamellae. + A is the condition of in-sinking of the sternal surface and + consequent enclosure of the lamelligerous surface of the appendage + in a chamber with narrow orifice--the pulmonary air-holding + chamber. + pl, Pulmonary lamellae. + bs, Blood sinus. + + (After Kingsley.)] + + A minute entosternite having the above-described structure is found in + the Crustacean Apus between the bases of the mandibles, and also in + the Decapoda in a similar position, but in no Crustacean does it + attain to any size or importance. On the other hand, the entosternite + of the Arachnida is a very large and important feature in the + structure of the prosoma, and must play an important part in the + economy of these organisms. In Limulus (figs. 1 and 2) it has as many + as twenty-five pairs of muscles attached to it, coming to it from the + bases of the surrounding limbs and from the dorsal carapace and from + the pharynx. It consists of an oblong plate 2 in. in length and 1 in + breadth, with a pair of tendinous outgrowths standing out from it at + right angles on each side. It "floats" between the prosomatic nerve + centres and the alimentary canal. In each somite of the mesosoma is a + small, free entosternite having a similar position, but below or + ventral to the nerve cords, and having a smaller number of muscles + attached to it. The entosternite was probably in origin part of the + fibrous connective tissue lying close to the integument of the sternal + surface--giving attachment to muscles corresponding more or less to + those at present attached to it. It became isolated and detached, why + or with what advantage to the organism it is difficult to say, and at + that period of Arachnidan development the great ventral nerve cords + occupied a more lateral position than they do at present. We know that + such a lateral position of the nerve cords preceded the median + position in both Arthropoda and Chaetopoda. Subsequently to the + floating off of the entosternite the approximation of the nerve cords + took place in the prosoma, and thus they were able to take up a + position below the entosternite. In the mesosoma the approximation had + occurred before the entosternites were formed. + + [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Embryo of scorpion, ventral view showing + somites and appendages. + + sgc, Frontal groove. + sa, Rudiment of lateral eyes. + obl, Camerostome (upper lip). + so, Sense-organ of Patten. + PrGabp^1, Rudiment of the appendage of the praegenital somite which + disappears. + abp^2, Rudiment of the right half of the genital operculum. + abp^3, Rudiment of the right pecten. + abp^4 to abp^7. Rudiments of the four appendages which carry the + pulmonary lamellae. + I to VI, Rudiments of the six limbs of the prosoma. + VIIPrG, The evanescent praegenital somite. + VIII, The first mesosomatic somite or genital somite. + IX, The second mesosomatic somite or pectiniferous somite. + X to XIII, The four pulmoniferous somites. + XIV, The first metasomatic somite. + + (After Brauer, _Zeitsch. wiss. Zool_., vol. lix., 1895.)] + + In the scorpion (figs. 3 and 4) the entosternite has tough + membrane-like outgrowths which connect it with the body-wall, both + dorsally and ventrally forming an oblique diaphragm, cutting off the + cavity of the prosoma from that of the mesosoma. It was described by + Newport as "the diaphragm." Only the central and horizontal parts of + this structure correspond precisely to the entosternite of Limulus: + the right and left anterior processes (marked ap in figs. 3 and 4, and + RAP, LAP, in figs. 1 and 2) correspond in the two animals, and the + median lateral process _lmp_ of the scorpion represents the tendinous + outgrowths ALR, PLR of Limulus. The scorpion's entosternite gives rise + to outgrowths, besides the great posterior flaps, pf, which form the + diaphragm, unrepresented in Limulus. These are a ventral arch forming + a neural canal through which the great nerve cords pass (figs. 3 and + 4, _snp_), and further a dorsal gastric canal and arterial canal which + transmit the alimentary tract and the dorsal artery respectively + (figs. 3 and 4, GC, DR). + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Portion of a similar embryo at a later stage + of growth. The praegenital somite, VII PrG, is still present, but has + lost its rudimentary appendages; go, the genital operculum, left half; + Km, the left pecten; abp^4 to abp^7, the rudimentary appendages of + the lung-sacs. + + (After Brauer, _loc. cit_.)] + + In Limulus small entosternites are found in each somite of the + appendage-bearing mesosoma, and we find in Scorpio, in the only somite + of the mesosoma which has a well-developed pair of appendages, that of + the pectens, a small entosternite with ten pairs of muscles inserted + into it. The supra-pectinal entosternite lies ventral to the nerve + cords. + + In Mygale (figs. 5 and 6) the form of the entosternite is more like + that of Limulus than is that of Scorpio. The anterior notch Ph.N. is + similar to that in Limulus, whilst the imbricate triangular pieces of + the posterior median region resemble the similarly-placed structures + of Limulus in a striking manner. + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Section through an early embryo of _Limulus + longispina_, showing seven transverse divisions in the region of the + unsegmented anterior carapace. The seventh, VII, is anterior to the + genital operculum, op, and is the cavity of the praegenital somite + which is more or less completely suppressed in subsequent development, + possibly indicated by the area marked VII in fig. 7 and by the great + entopophyses of the prosomatic carapace. + + (After Kishinouye, _Journ. Sci. Coll. Japan_, vol. v., 1892.)] + + It must be confessed that we are singularly ignorant as to the + functional significance of these remarkable organs--the entosternites. + Their movement in an upward or downward direction in Limulus and + Mygale must exert a pumping action on the blood contained in the + dorsal arteries and the ventral veins respectively. In Scorpio the + completion of the horizontal plate by oblique naps, so as to form an + actual diaphragm shutting off the cavity of the prosoma from the rest + of the body, possibly gives to the organs contained in the anterior + chamber a physiological advantage in respect of the supply of arterial + blood and its separation from the venous blood of the mesosoma. + Possibly the movement of the diaphragm may determine the passage of + air into or out of the lung-sacs. Muscular fibres connected with the + suctorial pharynx are in Limulus inserted into the entosternite, and + the activity of the two organs may be correlated. + + 5. _The Blood and the Blood-vascular System._--The blood fluids of + Limulus and Scorpio are very similar. Not only are the blood + corpuscles of Limulus more like in form and granulation to those of + Scorpio than to those of any Crustacean, but the fluid is in both + animals strongly impregnated with the blue-coloured respiratory + proteid, haemocyanin. This body occurs also in the blood of Crustacea + and of Molluscs, but its abundance in both Limulus and Scorpio is very + marked, and gives to the freshly-shed blood a strong indigo-blue tint. + + [Illustration: FIG. 20.--View of the ventral surface of the mid-line + of the prosomatic region of _Limulus polyphemus_. The coxae of the + five pairs of limbs following the chelicerae were arranged in a series + on each side between the mouth, M, and the metasternites, mets. + + sf, The sub-frontal median sclerite. + Ch, The chelicerae. + cam, The camerostome or upper lip. + M, The mouth. + pmst, The promesosternal sclerite of chitinous plate, unpaired. + mets, The right and left metasternites (corresponding to the + similarly placed pentagonal sternite of Scorpio). Natural size. + + (After Lankester.)] + + The great dorsal contractile vessel or "heart" of Limulus is closely + similar to that of Scorpio; its ostia or incurrent orifices are placed + in the same somites as those of Scorpio, but there is one additional + posterior pair. The origin of the paired arteries from the heart + differs in Limulus from the arrangement obtaining in Scorpio, in that + a pair of lateral commissural arteries exist in Limulus (as described + by Alphonse Milne-Edwards (6)) leading to a suppression of the more + primitive direct connexion of the four pairs of posterior lateral + arteries and of the great median posterior arteries with the heart + itself (fig. 29). The arterial system is very completely developed in + both Limulus and Scorpio, branching repeatedly until minute arterioles + are formed, not to be distinguished from true capillaries; these open + into irregular swollen vessels which are the veins or venous sinuses. + A very remarkable feature in Limulus, first described by Owen, is the + close accompaniment of the prosomatic nerve centres and nerves by + arteries, so close indeed that the great ganglion mass and its + out-running nerves are actually sunk in or invested by arteries. The + connexion is not so intimate in Scorpio, but is nevertheless a very + close one, closer than we find in any other Arthropods in which the + arterial system is well developed, e.g. the Myriapoda and some of the + arthrostracous Crustacea. It seems that there is a primitive tendency + in the Arthropoda for the arteries to accompany the nerve cords, and a + "supra-spinal" artery--that is to say, an artery in close relation to + the ventral nerve cords--has been described in several cases. On the + other hand, in many Arthropods, especially those which possess + tracheae, the arteries do not have a long course, but soon open into + wide blood sinuses. Scorpio certainly comes nearer to Limulus in the + high development of its arterial system, and the intimate relation of + the anterior aorta and its branches to the nerve centres and great + nerves, than does any other Arthropod. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2l.--Development of the lateral eyes of a + scorpion. h, Epidermic cell-layer; _mes_, mesoblastic connective + tissue; n, nerves; II, III, IV, V, depressions of the epidermis in + each of which a cuticular lens will be formed. + + (_From Korschelt and Heider, after Laurie_.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Section through the lateral eye of + _Euscorpius italicus_. + + lens, Cuticular lens. + nerv c, Retinal cells (nerve-end cells). + rhabd, Rhabdomes. + nerv f, Nerve fibres of the optic nerve. + int, Intermediate cells (lying between the bases of the retinal + cells). + + (After Lankester and Bourne from Parker and Habwell's _Text book of + Zoology_, Macmillan & Co.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Section through a portion of the lateral eye + of Limulus, showing three ommatidia--A, B and C. hyp, The epidermic + cell-layer (so-called hypodermis), the cells of which increase in + volume below each lens, l, and become nerve-end cells or + retinula-cells, rt; in A, the letters rh point to a rhabdomere + secreted by the cell rt; c, the peculiar central spherical cell; n, + nerve fibres; mes, mesoblastic skeletal tissue; ch, chitinous + cuticle. + + (From Korschelt and Heider after Watase.)] + + An arrangement of great functional importance in regard to the venous + system must now be described, which was shown in 1883 by Lankester to + be common to Limulus and Scorpio. This arrangement has not hitherto + been detected in any other class than the Arachnida, and if it should + ultimately prove to be peculiar to that group, would have considerable + weight as a proof of the close genetic affinity of Limulus and + Scorpio. + + [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Diagrams of the development and adult + structure of one of the paired central eyes of a scorpion. + + A, Early condition before the lens is deposited, showing the folding + of the epidermic cell-layer into three. + B, Diagram showing the nature of this infolding. + C, Section through the fully formed eye. + h, Epidermic cell-layer. + r, The retinal portion of the same which, owing to the infolding, + lies between gl, the corneagen or lens-forming portion, and pr, the + post-retinal or capsular portion or fold. + l, Cuticular lens. + g, Line separating lens from the lens-forming or corneagen cells of + the epidermis. + n, Nerve fibres. + rh, Rhabdomeres. + + [How the inversion of the nerve-end-cells and their connexion with + the nerve-fibres is to be reconciled with the condition found in the + adult, or with that of the monostichous eye, has not hitherto been + explained.] + + (From Korschelt and Heider.)] + + The great pericardial sinus is strongly developed in both animals. Its + walls are fibrous and complete, and it holds a considerable volume of + blood when the heart itself is contracted. Opening in pairs in each + somite, right and left into the pericardial sinus are large veins, + which bring the blood respectively from the gill-books and the + lung-books to that chamber, whence it passes by the ostia into the + heart. The blood is brought to the respiratory organs in both cases by + a great venous collecting sinus having a ventral median position. In + both animals _the wall of the pericardial sinus is connected by + vertical muscular bands to the wall of the ventral venous sinus_ (its + lateral expansions around the lung-books in Scorpio) in each somite + through which the pericardium passes. There are seven pairs of these + _veno-pericardiac vertical muscles_ in Scorpio, and eight in Limulus + (see figs. 30, 31, 32). It is obvious that the contraction of these + muscles must cause a depression of the floor of the pericardium and a + rising of the roof of the ventral blood sinus, and a consequent + increase of volume and flow of blood to each. Whether the pericardium + and the ventral sinus are made to expand simultaneously or all the + movement is made by one only of the surfaces concerned, must depend on + conditions of tension. In any case it is clear that we have in these + muscles an apparatus for causing the blood to flow differentially in + increased volume into either the pericardium, through the veins + leading from the respiratory organs, or from the body generally into + the great sinuses which bring the blood to the respiratory organs. + These muscles act so as to pump the blood through the respiratory + organs. + + [Illustration: FIG 25.--Section through one of the central eyes of a + young Limulus. + + L, Cuticular or corneous lens. + hy, Epidermic cell-layer. + corn, Its corneagen portion immediately underlying the lens. + ret, Retinula cells. + nf, Nerve fibres. + con. tiss, Connective tissue (mesoblastic skeletal tissue). + + (After Lankester and Bourne, _Q. J. Mic. Sci._, 1883.)] + + It is not surprising that with so highly developed an arterial system + Limulus and Scorpio should have a highly developed mechanism for + determining the flow of blood to the respiratory organs. That this is, + so to speak, a need of animals with localized respiratory organs is + seen by the existence of provisions serving a similar purpose in other + animals, e.g. the branchial hearts of the Cephalopoda. + + The veno-pericardiac muscles of Scorpio were seen and figured by + Newport but not described by him. Those of Limulus were described and + figured by Alphonse Milne-Edwards, but he called them merely + "transparent ligaments," and did not discover their muscular + structure. They are figured and their importance for the first time + recognized in the memoir on the muscular and skeletal systems of + Limulus and Scorpio by Lankester, Beck and Bourne (4). + + 6. _Alimentary Canal and Gastric Glands._--The alimentary canal in + Scorpio, as in Limulus, is provided with a powerful suctorial pharynx, + in the working of which extrinsic muscles take a part. The mouth is + relatively smaller in Scorpio than in Limulus--in fact is minute, as + it is in all the terrestrial Arachnida which suck the juices of either + animals or plants. In both, the alimentary canal takes a straight + course from the pharynx (which bends under it downwards and backwards + towards the mouth in Limulus) to the anus, and is a simple, narrow, + cylindrical tube (fig. 33). The only point in which the gut of Limulus + resembles that of Scorpio rather than that of any of the Crustacea, is + in possessing more than a single pair of ducts or lateral outgrowths + connected with ramified gastric glands or gastric caeca. Limulus has + two pairs of these, Scorpio as many as six pairs. The Crustacea never + have more than one pair. The minute microscopic structure of the + gastric glands in the two animals is practically identical. The + functions of these gastric diverticula have never been carefully + investigated. It is very probable that in Scorpio they do not serve + merely to secrete a digestive fluid (shown in other Arthropoda to + resemble the pancreatic fluid), but that they also become distended by + the juices of the prey sucked in by the scorpion--as certainly must + occur in the case of the simple unbranched gastric caeca of the + spiders. + + The most important difference which exists between the structure of + Limulus and that of Scorpio is found in the hinder region of the + alimentary canal. Scorpio is here provided with a single or double + pair of renal excretory tubes, which have been identified by earlier + authors with the Malpighian tubes of the Hexapod and Myriapod insects. + Limulus is devoid of any such tubes. We shall revert to this subject + below. + + [Illustration: FIG. 26. + + A, Diagram of a retinula of the central eye of a scorpion consisting + of five retina-cells (ret), with adherent branched pigment cells + (pig). + B, Rhabdom of the same, consisting of five confluent rhabdomeres. + C, Transverse section of the rhabdom of a retinula of the scorpion's + central eye, showing its five constituent rhabdomeres as rays of a + star. + D, Transverse section of a retinula of the lateral eye of Limulus, + showing ten retinula cells (ret), each bearing a rhabdomere (rhab). + + (After Lankester.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Diagram showing the position of the coxal + glands of a scorpion, _Buthus australis_, Lin., in relation to the + legs, diaphragm (entosternal flap), and the gastric caeca. + + 1 to 6, The bases of the six prosomatic limbs. + A, prosomatic gastric gland (sometimes called salivary). + B, Coxal gland. + C, Diaphragm of Newport = fibrous flap of the entosternum. + D, Mesosomatic gastric caeca (so-called liver). + E, Alimentary canal. + + (From Lankester, _Q. J. Mic. Sci._, vol. xxiv. N.S. p. 152.)] + + 7. _Ovaries and Spermaries: Gonocoels and Gonoducts._--The scorpion is + remarkable for having the specialized portion of coelom from the walls + of which egg-cells or sperm-cells are developed according to sex, in + the form of a simple but extensive network. It is not a pair of simple + tubes, nor of dendriform tubes, but a closed network. The same fact is + true of Limulus, as was shown by Owen (7) in regard to the ovary, and + by Benham (14) in regard to the testis. This is a very definite and + remarkable agreement, since such a reticular gonocoel is not found in + Crustacea (except in the male Apus). Moreover, there is a significant + agreement in the character of the spermatozoa of Limulus and Scorpio. + The Crustacea are--with the exception of the Cirrhipedia--remarkable + for having stiff, motionless spermatozoids. In Limulus Lankester found + (15) the spermatozoa to possess active flagelliform "tails," and to + resemble very closely those of Scorpio which, as are those of most + terrestrial Arthropoda, are actively motile. This is a microscopic + point of agreement, but is none the less significant. + + In regard to the important structures concerned with the fertilization + of the egg, Limulus and Scorpio differ entirely from one another. The + eggs of Limulus are fertilized in the sea after they have been laid. + Scorpio, being a terrestrial animal, fertilizes by copulation. The + male possesses elaborate copulatory structures of a chitinous nature, + and the eggs are fertilized in the female without even quitting the + place where they are formed on the wall of the reticular gonocoel. The + female scorpion is viviparous, and the young are produced in a highly + developed condition as fully formed scorpions. + + [Illustration: FIG. 28.--The right coxal gland of _Limulus + polyphemus_, Latr. + + a^2 to a^5, Posterior borders of the chitinous bases of the coxae of + the second, third, fourth and fifth prosomatic limbs. + b, Longitudinal lobe or stolon of the coxal gland. + c, Its four transverse lobes or outgrowths corresponding to the four + coxae. + + (From Lankester, _loc. cit_, after Packard.)] + + _Differences between Limulus and Scorpio._--We have now passed in + review the principal structural features in which Limulus agrees with + Scorpio and differs from other Arthropoda. There remains for + consideration the one important structural difference between the two + animals. Limulus agrees with the majority of the Crustacea in being + destitute of renal excretory caeca or tubes opening into the hinder + part of the gut. Scorpio, on the other hand, in common with all + air-breathing Arthropoda except Peripatus, possesses these tubules, + which are often called Malpighian tubes. A great deal has been made of + this difference by some writers. It has been considered by them as + proving that Limulus, in spite of all its special agreements with + Scorpio (which, however, have scarcely been appreciated by the writers + in question), really belongs to the Crustacean line of descent, whilst + Scorpio, by possessing Malpighian tubes, is declared to be + unmistakably tied together with the other Arachnida to the tracheate + Arthropods, the Hexapods, Diplopods, and Chilopods, which all possess + Malpighian tubes. + + [Illustration: FIG. 29.--Diagram of the arterial system of A, Scorpio, + and B, Limulus. The Roman numerals indicate the body somites and the + two figures are adjusted for comparison. ce, Cerebral arteries; sp, + supra-spinal or medullary artery; c, caudal artery; l, lateral + anastomotic artery of Limulus. The figure B also shows the peculiar + neural investiture formed by the cerebral arteries in Limulus and the + derivation from this of the arteries to the limbs, III, IV, VI, + whereas in Scorpio the latter have a separate origin from the anterior + aorta. + + (From Lankester, "Limulus an Arachnid.")] + + It must be pointed out that the presence or absence of such renal + excretory tubes opening into the intestine appears to be a question of + adaptation to the changed physiological conditions of respiration, and + not of morphological significance, since a pair of renal excretory + tubes of this nature is found in certain Amphipod Crustacea + (Talorchestia, &c.) which have abandoned a purely aquatic life. This + view has been accepted and supported by Professors Korschelt and + Heider (16). An important fact in its favour was discovered by Laurie + (17), who investigated the embryology of two species of Scorpio under + Lankester's direction. It appears that the Malpighian tubes of Scorpio + are developed from the mesenteron, viz. that portion of the gut which + is formed by the hypoblast, whereas in Hexapod insects the similar + caecal tubes are developed from the proctodaeum or in-pushed portion + of the gut which is formed from epiblast. In fact it is not possible + to maintain that the renal excretory tubes of the gut are of one + common origin in the Arthropoda. They have appeared independently in + connexion with a change in the excretion of nitrogenous waste in + Arachnids, Crustacea, and the other classes of Arthropoda when aerial, + as opposed to aquatic, respiration has been established--and they have + been formed in some cases from the mesenteron, in other cases from the + proctodaeum. Their appearance in the air-breathing Arachnids does not + separate those forms from the water-breathing Arachnids which are + devoid of them, any more than does their appearance in certain + Amphipoda separate those Crustaceans from the other members of the + class. + + Further, it is pointed out by Korschelt and Heider that the hinder + portion of the gut frequently acts in Arthropoda as an organ of + nitrogenous excretion in the absence of any special excretory tubules, + and that the production of such caeca from its surface in separate + lines of descent does not involve any elaborate or unlikely process of + growth. In other words, the Malpighian tubes of the terrestrial + Arachnida are _homoplastic_ with those of Hexapoda and Myriapoda, and + not _homogenetic_ with them. We are compelled to take a similar view + of the agreement between the tracheal air-tubes of Arachnida and other + tracheate Arthropods. They are homoplasts (see 18) one of another, and + do not owe their existence in the various classes compared to a common + inheritance of an ancestral tracheal system. + +[Illustration: FIG. 30.--View from below of a scorpion (_Buthus +occitanus_) opened and dissected so as to show the pericardium with its +muscles, the lateral arteries, and the tergo-sternal muscles. + + PRO, Prosoma. + dpm, Dorso-plastral muscle. + art, Lateral artery. + tsm^1, Tergo-sternal muscle (labelled dv in fig. 31) of the second + (pectiniferous) mesosomatic somite; this is the most anterior pair + of the series of six, none are present in the genital somite. + tsm^4, Tergo-sternal muscle of the fifth mesosomatic somite. + tsm^6, Tergo-sternal muscle of the enlarged first metasomatic + somite. + Per, Pericardium. + VPM^1 to VPM^7, The series of seven pairs of veno-pericardiac + muscles (labelled pv in fig. 31). + + There is some reason to admit the existence of another more anterior + pair of these muscles in Scorpio; this would make the number exactly + correspond with the number in Limulus. + +(After Lankester, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ vol. xi, 1883.)] + +_Conclusions arising from the Close Affinity of Limulus and +Scorpio._--When we consider the relationships of the various classes of +Arthropoda, having accepted and established the fact of the close +genetic affinity of Limulus and Scorpio, we are led to important +conclusions. In such a consideration we have to make use not only of the +fact just mentioned, but of three important generalizations which serve +as it were as implements for the proper estimation of the relationships +of any series of organic forms. First of all there is the generalization +that the relationships of the various forms of animals (or of plants) to +one another is that of the ultimate twigs of a much-branching +genealogical tree. Secondly, identity of structure in two organisms does +not necessarily indicate that the identical structure has been inherited +from an ancestor common to the two organisms compared (homogeny), but +may be due to independent development of a like structure in two +different lines of descent (homoplasy). Thirdly, those members of a +group which, whilst exhibiting undoubted structural characters +indicative of their proper assignment to that group, yet are simpler +than and inferior in elaboration of their organization to other members +of the group, are not necessarily representatives of the earlier and +primitive phases in the development of the group--but are very often +examples of retrogressive change or degeneration. The second and third +implements of analysis above cited are of the nature of cautions or +checks. Agreements are not _necessarily_ due to common inheritance; +simplicity is not _necessarily_ primitive and ancestral. + +On the other hand, we must not rashly set down agreements as due to +"homoplasy" or "convergence of development" if we find two or three or +more concurrent agreements. The probability is against agreement being +due to homoplasy when the agreement involves a number of really separate +(not correlated) coincidences. Whilst the chances are in favour of some +_one_ homoplastic coincidence or structural agreement occurring between +some member or other of a large group a and some member or other of a +large group b, the matter is very different when by such an initial +coincidence the two members have been particularized. The chances +against these two selected members exhibiting _another_ really +independent homoplastic agreement are enormous: let us say 10,000 to 1. +The chances against yet another coincidence are a hundred million to +one, and against yet one more "coincidence" they are the square of a +hundred million to one. Homoplasy can only be assumed when the +coincidence is of a simple nature, and is such as may be reasonably +supposed to have arisen by the action of like selective conditions upon +like material in two separate lines of descent.[4] + +So, too, degeneration is not to be lightly assumed as the explanation of +a simplicity of structure. There is a very definite criterion of the +simplicity due to degeneration, which can in most cases be applied. +Degenerative simplicity is never uniformly distributed over all the +structures of the organism. It affects many or nearly all the structures +of the body, but leaves some, it may be only one, at a high level of +elaboration and complexity. Ancestral simplicity is more uniform, and +does not co-exist with specialization and elaboration of a single organ. +Further: degeneration cannot be inferred safely by the examination of an +isolated case; usually we obtain a series of forms indicating the steps +of a change in structure--and what we have to decide is whether the +movement has been from the simple to the more complex, or from the more +complex to the simple. The feathers of a peacock afford a convenient +example of primitive and degenerative simplicity. The highest point of +elaboration in colour, pattern and form is shown by the great +eye-painted tail feathers. From these we can pass by gradual transitions +in two directions, viz. either to the simple lateral tail feathers with +a few rami only, developed only on one side of the shaft and of uniform +metallic coloration--or to the simple contour feathers of small size, +with the usual symmetrical series of numerous rami right and left of the +shaft and no remarkable colouring. The one-sided specialization and the +peculiar metallic colouring of the lateral tail feathers mark them as +the extreme terms of a degenerative series, whilst the symmetry, +likeness of constituent parts _inter se_, and absence of specialized +pigment, as well as the fact that they differ little from any average +feather of birds in general, mark the contour feather as primitively +simple, and as the starting-point from which the highly elaborated +eye-painted tail feather has gradually evolved. + +Applying these principles to the consideration of the Arachnida, we +arrive at the conclusion that the smaller and simpler Arachnids are not +the more primitive, but that the Acari or mites are, in fact, a +degenerate group. This was maintained by Lankester in 1878 (19), again +in 1881 (20); it was subsequently announced as a novelty by Claus in +1885 (21). Though the aquatic members of a class of animals are in some +instances derived from terrestrial forms, the usual transition is from +an aquatic ancestry to more recent land-living forms. There is no doubt, +from a consideration of the facts of structure, that the aquatic +water-breathing Arachnids, represented in the past by the Eurypterines +and to-day by the sole survivor Limulus, have preceded the terrestrial +air-breathing forms of that group. Hence we see at once that the +better-known Arachnida form a series, leading from Limulus-like aquatic +creatures through scorpions, spiders and harvest-men, to the degenerate +Acari or mites. The spiders are specialized and reduced in apparent +complexity, as compared with the scorpions, but they cannot be regarded +as degenerate since the concentration of structure which occurs in them +results in greater efficiency and power than are exhibited by the +scorpion. The determination of the relative degree of perfection of +organization attained by two animals compared is difficult when we +introduce, as seems inevitable, the question of efficiency and power, +and do not confine the question to the perfection of morphological +development. We have no measure of the degree of power manifested by +various animals--though it would be possible to arrive at some +conclusions as to how that "power" should be estimated. It is not +possible here to discuss that matter further. We must be content to +point out that it seems that the spiders, the pedipalps, and other large +Arachnids have not been derived from the scorpions directly, but have +independently developed from aquatic ancestors, and from one of these +independent groups--probably through the harvest-men from the +spiders--the Acari have finally resulted. + +[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Diagram of a lateral view of a longitudinal +section of a scorpion. + +After Beck, _Trans. Zool. Soc._ VOL. xi., 1883. + + d, Chelicera. + ch, Chela. + cam_, Camerostome. + m, Mouth. + ent_, Entosternum. + p, Pecten. + stig^1, First pulmonary aperture. + stig^4, Fourth pulmonary aperture. + dam, Muscle from carapace to a praeoral entosclerite. + ad, Muscle from carapace to entosternum. + md, Muscle from tergite of genital somite to entosternum (same as dpm + in fig. 30). + dv^1 to dv^6, Dorso-ventral muscles (same as the series labelled tsm + in fig. 30). + pv^1 to pv^7, The seven veno-pericardiac muscles of the right side + (labelled VPM in fig. 30).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Diagram of a lateral view of a longitudinal +section of Limulus. + +After Benham, _Trans Zool. Soc._ vol. xi, 1883. + + Suc, Suctorial pharynx. + al, Alimentary canal. + Ph, Pharynx. + M, Mouth. + Est, Entosternum. + VS, Ventral venous sinus. + chi, Chilaria. + go, Genital operculum. + br^1 to br^5, Branchial appendages, + met, Unsegmented metasoma. + Entap^4, Fourth dorsal entapophysis of left side. + tsm, Tergo-sternal muscles, six pairs as in Scorpio (labelled dv in + fig. 31). + VPM^1 to VPM^8, The eight pairs of veno-pericardiac muscles (labelled + pv in fig. 31). VPM^1 is probably represented in Scorpio, though not + marked in figs. 30 and 31.] + +Leaving that question for consideration in connexion with the systematic +statement of the characters of the various groups of Arachnida which +follows on p. 299, it is well now to consider the following question, +viz., seeing that Limulus and Scorpio are such highly developed and +specialized forms, and that they seem to constitute as it were the first +and second steps in the series of recognized Arachnida--what do we know, +or what are we led to suppose with regard to the more primitive +Arachnida from which the Eurypterines and Limulus and Scorpio have +sprung? Do we know in the recent or fossil condition any such primitive +Arachnids? Such a question is not only legitimate, but prompted by the +analogy of at least one other great class of Arthropods. The great +Arthropod class, the Crustacea, presents to the zoologist at the present +day an immense range of forms, comprising the primitive phyllopods, the +minute copepods, the parasitic cirrhipedes and the powerful crabs and +lobsters, and the highly elaborated sand-hoppers and slaters. It has +been insisted, by those who accepted Lankester's original doctrine of +the direct or genetic affinity of the Chaetopoda and Arthropoda, that +Apus and Branchipus really come very near to the ancestral forms which +connected those two great branches of Appendiculate (Parapodiate) +animals. On the other hand, the land crabs are at an immense distance +from these simple forms. The record of the Crustacean family-tree is, in +fact, a fairly complete one--the lower primitive members of the group +are still represented by living forms in great abundance. In the case of +the Arachnida, if we have to start their genealogical history with +Limulus and Scorpio, we are much in the same position as we should be in +dealing with the Crustacea, were the whole of the Entomostraca and the +whole of the Arthrostraca wiped out of existence and record. There is no +possibility of doubt that the series of forms corresponding in the +Arachnidan line of descent, to the forms distinguished in the Crustacean +line of descent as the lower grade--the Entomostraca--have ceased to +exist, and not only so, but have left little evidence in the form of +fossils as to their former existence and nature. It must, however, be +admitted as probable that we should find some evidence, in ancient rocks +or in the deep sea, of the early more primitive Arachnids. And it must +be remembered that such forms must be expected to exhibit, when found, +differences from Limulus and Scorpio as great as those which separate +Apus and Cancer. The existing Arachnida, like the higher Crustacea, are +"nomomeristic," that is to say, have a fixed typical number of somites +to the body. Further, they are like the higher Crustacea, +"somatotagmic," that is to say, they have this limited set of somites +grouped in three (or more) "tagmata" or regions of a fixed number of +similarly modified somites --each tagma differing in the modification of +its fixed number of somites from that characterizing a neighbouring +"tagma." The most primitive among the lower Crustacea, on the other +hand, for example, the Phyllopoda, have not a fixed number of somites, +some genera--even allied species--have more, some less, within wide +limits; they are "anomomeristic." They also, as is generally the case +with anomomeristic animals, do not exhibit any conformity to a fixed +plan of "tagmatism" or division of the somites of the body into regions +sharply marked off from one another; the head or prosomatic tagma is +followed by a trunk consisting of somites which either graduate in +character as we pass along the series or exhibit a large variety in +different genera, families and orders, of grouping of the somites. They +are anomotagmic, as well as anomomeristic. + +[Illustration: FIG. 33.--The alimentary canal and gastric glands of a +scorpion (A) and of Limulus (B). + +From Lankester, "Limulua an Arachnid." + + ps, Muscular suctorial enlargement of the pharynx. + sal, Prosomatic pair of gastric caeca in Scorpio, called salivary + glands by some writers. + c^1, and c^2, The anterior two pairs of gastric caeca and ducts of + the mesosomatic region. + c^3, c^4 and c^5. Caeca and ducts of Scorpio not represented in + Limulus. + M, The Malpighian or renal caecal diverticula of Scorpio. + pro, The proctodaeum or portion of gut leading to anus and formed + embryologically by an inversion of the epiblast at that orifice.] + +When it is admitted--as seems to be reasonable--that the primitive +Arachnida would, like the primitive Crustacea, be anomomeristic and +anomotagmic, we shall not demand of claimants for the rank of primitive +Arachnids agreement with Limulus and Scorpio in respect of the exact +number of their somites and the exact grouping of those somites; and +when we see how diverse are the modifications of the branches of the +appendages both in Arachnida and in other classes of Arthropoda (q.v.), +we shall not over-estimate a difference in the form of this or that +appendage exhibited by the claimant as compared with the higher +Arachnids. With those considerations in mind, the claim of the extinct +group of the trilobites to be considered as representatives of the lower +and more primitive steps in the Arachnidan genealogy must, it seems, +receive a favourable judgment. They differ from the Crustacea in that +they have only a single pair of prae-oral appendages, the second pair +being definitely developed as mandibles. This fact renders their +association with the Crustacea impossible, if classification is to be +the expression of genetic affinity inferred from structural coincidence. +On the contrary, this particular point is one in which they agree with +the higher Arachnida. But little is known of the structure of these +extinct animals; we are therefore compelled to deal with such special +points of resemblance and difference as their remains still exhibit. +They had lateral eyes[5] which resemble no known eyes so closely as the +lateral eyes of Limulus. The general form and structure of their +prosomatic carapace are in many striking features identical with that of +Limulus. The trilobation of the head and body--due to the expansion and +flattening of the sides or "pleura" of the tegumentary skeleton--is so +closely repeated in the young of Limulus that the latter has been called +"the trilobite stage" of Limulus (fig. 42 compared with fig. 41). No +Crustacean exhibits this trilobite form. But most important of the +evidences presented by the trilobites of affinity with Limulus, and +therefore with the Arachnida, is the tendency less marked in some, +strongly carried out in others, to form a pygidial or telsonic shield--a +fusion of the posterior somites of the body, which is precisely +identical in character with the metasomatic carapace of Limulus. When to +this is added the fact that a post-anal spine is developed to a large +size in some trilobites (fig. 38), like that of Limulus and Scorpio, and +that lateral spines on the pleura of the somites are frequent as in +Limulus, and that neither metasomatic fusion of somites nor post-anal +spine, nor lateral pleural spines are found in any Crustacean, nor all +three together in any Arthropod besides the trilobites and Limulus--the +claim of the trilobites to be considered as representing one order of a +lower grade of Arachnida, comparable to the grade Entomostraca of the +Crustacea, seems to be established. + +The fact that the single pair of prae-oral appendages of trilobites, +known only as yet in one genus, is in that particular case a pair of +uni-ramose antennae--does not render the association of trilobites and +Arachnids improbable. Although the prae-oral pair of appendages in the +higher Arachnida is usually chelate, it is not always so; in spiders it +is not so; nor in many Acari. The bi-ramose structure of the post-oral +limbs, demonstrated by Beecher in the trilobite Triarthrus, is no more +inconsistent with its claim to be a primitive Arachnid than is the +foliaceous modification of the limbs in Phyllopods inconsistent with +their relationship to the Arthrostracous Crustaceans such as Gammarus +and Oniscus. + +Thus, then, it seems that we have in the trilobites the representatives +of the lower phases of the Arachnidan pedigree. The simple anomomeristic +trilobite, with its equi-formal somites and equi-formal appendages, is +one term of the series which ends in the even more simple but degenerate +Acari. Between the two and at the highest point of the arc, so far as +morphological differentiation is concerned, stands the scorpion; near to +it in the trilobite's direction (that is, on the ascending side) are +Limulus and the Eurypterines--with a long gap, due to obliteration of +the record, separating them from the trilobite. On the other +side--tending downwards from the scorpion towards the Acari--are the +Pedipalpi, the spiders, the book-scorpions, the harvest-men and the +water-mites. + +The strange nobody-crabs or Pycnogonids occupy a place on the ascending +half of the arc below the Eurypterines and Limulus. They are strangely +modified and degenerate, but seem to be (as explained in the systematic +review) the remnant of an Arachnidan group holding the same relation to +the scorpions which the Laemodipoda hold to the Podophthalmate +Crustacea. + + * * * * * + +We have now to offer a classification of the Arachnida and to pass in +review the larger groups, with a brief statement of their structural +characteristics. + +In the bibliography at the close of this article (referred to by leaded +arabic numerals in brackets throughout these pages), the titles of works +are given which contain detailed information as to the genera and +species of each order or sub-order, their geographical distribution and +their habits and economy so far as they have been ascertained. The +limits of space do not permit of a fuller treatment of those matters +here. + + TABULAR CLASSIFICATION[6] OF THE ARACHNIDA. + + CLASS. ARACHNIDA. + + _Grade A. ANOMOMERISTICA._ + Sub-Class. TRILOBITAE. + Orders. Not satisfactorily determined. + + _Grade B. NOMOMERISTICA._ + Sub-Class I. PANTOPODA. + Order 1. Nymphonomorpha. + " 2. Ascorhynchomorpha. + " 3. Pycnogonomorpha. + Sub-Class II. EU-ARACHNIDA. + Grade a. DELOBRANCHIA, Lankester (_vel_ HYDROPNEUSTEA, Pocock). + Order 1. Xiphosura. + " 2. Gigantostraca. + Grade b. EMBOLOBRANCHIA, Lankester (_vel_ AEROPNEUSTEA, Pocock). + _Section_ [alpha]. _Pectinifera._ + Order 1. Scorpionidea. + Sub-order a. Apoxypoda. + " b. Dionychopoda. + _Section_ [beta]. _Epectinata._ + Order 2. Pedipalpi. + Sub-order a. Uropygi. + Tribe 1. Urotricha. + " 2. Tartarides. + Sub-order b. Amblypygi. + Order 3. Araneae. + Sub-order a. Mesothelae. + " b. Opisthothelae. + Tribe 1. Mygalomorphae. + " 2. Arachnomorphae. + Order 4. Palpigradi (= Microthelyphonidae). + Order 5. Solifugae (= Mycetophorae). + Order 6. Pseudoscorpiones (= Chelonethi). + Sub-order a. Panctenodactyli. + " b. Hemirtenodactyli. + Order 7. Podogona (= Ricinulel). + Order 8. Opiliones. + Sub-order a. Laniatores. + " b. Palpatores. + " c. Anepignathi. + Order 9. Rhynchostomi (= Acari). + Sub-order a. Notostigmata. + " b. Cryptostigmata. + " c. Metastigmata. + " d. Prostigmata. + " e. Astigmata. + " f. Vermiformia. + " g. Tetrapoda. + + CLASS. ARACHNIDA.--Euarthropoda having two prosthomeres (somites which + have passed from a post-oral to a prae-oral position), the appendages + of the first represented by eyes, of the second by solitary rami which + are rarely antenniform, more usually chelate. A tendency is exhibited + to the formation of a metasomatic as well as a prosomatic carapace by + fusion of the tergal surfaces of the somites. Intermediate somites + forming a mesosoma occur, but tend to fuse superficially with the + metasomatic carapace or to become co-ordinated with the somites of the + metasoma, whether fused or distinct to form one region, the + opisthosoma (abdomen of authors). In the most highly developed forms + the two anterior divisions (tagmata) of the body, prosoma and + mesosoma, each exhibit six pairs of limbs, pediform and plate-like + respectively, whilst the metasoma consists of six limbless somites and + a post-anal spine. The genital apertures are placed in the first + somite following the prosoma, excepting where a praegenital somite, + usually suppressed, is retained. Little is known of the form of the + appendages in the lowest archaic Arachnida, but the tendency of those + of the prosomatic somites has been (as in the Crustacea) to pass from + a generalized bi-ramose or multi-ramose form to that of uni-ramose + antennae, chelae and walking legs. + + The Arachnida are divisible into two grades of structure--according to + the fixity or non-fixity of the number of somites building up the + body:-- + + _Grade A_ (_of the Arachnida_). _ANOMOMERISTICA._--Extinct archaic + Arachnida, in which (as in the Entomostracous Crustacea) the number of + well-developed somites may be more or less than eighteen and may be + grouped only as head (prosoma) and trunk or may be further + differentiated. A telsonic tergal shield of greater or less size is + always present, which may be imperfectly divided into well-marked but + immovable tergites indicating incompletely differentiated somites. The + single pair of palpiform appendages in front of the mouth has been + found in one instance to be antenniform, whilst the numerous post-oral + appendages in the same genus were bi-ramose. The position of the + genital apertures is not known. Compound lateral eyes present; median + eyes wanting. The body and head have the two pleural regions of each + somite flattened and expanded on either side of the true gut-holding + body-axis. Hence the name of the sub-class signifying tri-lobed, a + condition realized also in the Xiphosurous Arachnids. The members of + this group, whilst resembling the lower Crustacea (as all lower groups + of a branching genealogical tree must do), differ from them + essentially in that the head exhibits only one prosthomere (in + addition to the eye-bearing prosthomere) with palpiform appendages (as + in all Arachnida) instead of two. The Anomomeristic Arachnida form a + single sub-class, of which only imperfect fossil remains are known. + + Sub-class (of the Anomomeristica). TRILOBITAE.--The single sub-class + Trilobitae constitutes the grade Anomomeristica. It has been variously + divided into orders by a number of writers. The greater or less + evolution and specialization of the metasomatic carapace appears to be + the most important basis for classification--but this has not been + made use of in the latest attempts at drawing up a system of the + Trilobites. The form of the middle and lateral regions of the + prosomatic shield has been used, and an excessive importance attached + to the demarcation of certain areas in that structure. Sutures are + stated to mark off some of these pieces, but in the proper sense of + that term as applied to the skeletal structures of the Vertebrata, no + sutures exist in the chitinous cuticle of Arthropoda. That any partial + fusion of originally distinct chitinous plates takes place in the + cephalic shield of Trilobites, comparable to the partial fusion of + bony pieces by suture in Vertebrata, is a suggestion contrary to fact. + + The Trilobites are known only as fossils, mostly Silurian and + prae-Silurian; a few are found in Carboniferous and Permian strata. As + many as two thousand species are known. Genera with small metasomatic + carapace, consisting of three to six fused segments distinctly marked + though not separated by soft membrane, are _Harpes_, _Paradoxides_ and + _Triarthrus_ (fig. 34). In _Calymene_, _Homalonotus_ and _Phacops_ + (fig. 38) from six to sixteen segments are clearly marked by ridges + and grooves in the metasomatic tagma, whilst in _Illaenus_ the shield + so formed is large but no somites are marked out on its surface. In + this genus ten free somites (mesosoma) occur between the prosomatic + and metasomatic carapaces. _Asaphus_ and _Megalaspis_ (fig. 39) are + similarly constituted. In _Agnostus_ (fig. 40) the anterior and + posterior carapaces constitute almost the entire body, the two + carapaces being connected by a mid-region of only two free somites. It + has been held that the forms with a small number of somites marked in + the posterior carapace and numerous free somites between the anterior + and posterior carapace, must be considered as anterior to those in + which a great number of posterior somites are traceable in the + metasomatic carapace, and that those in which the traces of distinct + somites in the posterior or metasomatic carapace are most completely + absent must be regarded as derived from those in which somites are + well marked in the posterior carapace and similar in appearance to + the free somites. The genus _Agnostus_, which belongs to the last + category, occurs abundantly in Cambrian strata and is one of the + earliest forms known. This would lead to the supposition that the + great development of metasomatic carapace is a primitive and not a + late character, were it not for the fact that _Paradoxides_ and + _Atops_, with an inconspicuous telsonic carapace and numerous free + somites, are also Cambrian in age, the latter indeed anterior in + horizon to _Agnostus_. + + [Illustration: FIG. 34.--Restoration of _Triarthrus Becki_, Green, as + determined by Beecher from specimens obtained from the Utica Slates + (Ordovician), New York. A, dorsal; B, ventral surface. In the latter + the single pair of antennae springing up from each side of the + camerostome or hypostome or upper lip-lobe are seen. Four pairs of + appendages besides these are seen to belong to the cephalic tergum. + All the appendages are pediform and bi-ramose; all have a prominent + gnathobase, and in all the exopodite carries a comb-like series of + secondary processes. + + (After Beecher, from Zittel.) ] + + On the other hand, it may well be doubted whether the pygidial or + posterior carapace is primarily due to a fusion of the tergites of + somites which were previously movable and well developed. The + posterior carapace of the Trilobites and of _Limulus_ is probably + enough in origin a telsonic carapace--that is to say, is the tergum of + the last segment of the body which carries the anus. From the front of + this region new segments are produced in the first instance, and are + added during growth to the existing series. This telson may enlarge, + it may possibly even become internally and sternally developed as + partially separate somites, and the tergum may remain without trace of + somite formation, or, as appears to be the case in _Limulus_, the + telson gives rise to a few well-marked somites (mesosoma and two + others) and then enlarges without further trace of segmentation, + whilst the chitinous integument which develops in increasing thickness + on the terga as growth advances welds together the unsegmented telson + and the somites in front of it, which were previously marked by + separate tergal thickenings. It must always be remembered that we are + liable (especially in the case of fossilized integuments) to attach an + unwarranted interpretation to the mere discontinuity or continuity of + the thickened plates of chitinous cuticle on the back of an Arthropod. + These plates may fuse, and yet the somites to which they belong may + remain distinct, and each have its pair of appendages well developed. + On the other hand, an unusually large tergal plate, whether terminal + or in the series, is not always due to fusion of the dorsal plates of + once-separate somites, but is often a case of growth and enlargement + of a single somite without formation of any trace of a new somite. For + the literature of Trilobites see (22*). + + [Illustration: FIG. 35.--_Triarthrus Becki_, Green. a, Restored + thoracic limbs in transverse section of the animal; b, section across + a posterior somite; c, section across one of the sub-terminal somites. + + (After Beecher.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 36.--_Triarthrus Becki_, Green. Dorsal view of + second thoracic leg with and without setae. en, Inner ramus; ex, Outer + ramus. + + (After Beecher.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 37.--_Deiphon Forbesii_, Barr. One of the + Cheiruridae. Silurian Bohemia. + + (From Zittel's Palaeontology.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 38.--_Dalmanites Kmulurus_, Green. One of the + _Phacopidae_, from the Silurian, New York. + + (From Zittel.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 39.--_Megalaspis extenuatus_. One of the + _Asaphidae_ allied to _Illaenus_, from the Ordovician of East + Gothland, Sweden. + + (From Zittel.)] + + _Grade B (of the Aracknida) NOMOMERISTICA._--Arachnida in which, + excluding from consideration the eye-bearing prosthomere, the somites + are primarily (that is to say, in the common ancestor of the grade) + grouped in three regions of six--(a) the "prosoma" with palpiform + appendages, (b) the "mesosoma" with plate-like appendages, and (c) the + "metasoma" with suppressed appendages. A somite placed between the + prosoma and mesosoma --the prae-genital somite--appears to have + belonged originally to the prosomatic series (which with its ocular + prosthomere and palpiform limbs [Pantopoda], would thus consist of + eight somites), but to have been gradually reduced. In living + Arachnids, excepting the Pantopoda, it is either fused (with loss of + its appendages) with the prosoma (_Limulus_,[7] _Scorpio_), after + embryonic appearance, or is retained as a rudimentary, separate, + detached somite in front of the mesosoma, or disappears altogether + (excalation). The atrophy and total disappearance of ancestrally + well-marked somites frequently take place (as in all Arthropoda) at + the posterior extremity of the body, whilst excalation of somites may + occur at the constricted areas which often separate adjacent + "regions," though there are very few instances in which it has been + recognized. Concentration of the organ-systems by fusion of + neighbouring regions (prosoma, mesosoma, metasoma), previously + distinct, has frequently occurred, together with obliteration of the + muscular and chitinous structures indicative of distinct somites. This + concentration and obliteration of somites, often accompanied by + dislocation of important segmental structures (such as appendages and + nerve-ganglia), may lead to highly developed specialization + (individuation, H. Spencer), as in the Araneae and Opiliones, and, on + the other hand, may terminate in simplification and degeneration, as + in the Acari. + + [Illustration: FIG. 40.--Four stages in the development of the + trilobite _Agnostus nudus_. A, Youngest stage with no mesosomatic + somites; B and C, stages with two mesosomatic somites between the + prosomatic and telsonic carapaces; D, adult condition, still with only + two free mesosomatic somites. + + (From Korschelt and Heider.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 41.--Five Stages in the development of the + trilobite _Sao hirsuta_. + + From Korschelt and Heider, after Barrande. + + A, Youngest stage. + B, Older stage with distinct pygidial carapace. + C, Stage with two free mesosomatic somites between the prosomatic + and telsonic carapaces. + D, Stace with seven free intermediate somites. + E, Stave with twelve free somites; the telsonic carapace has not + increased in size. + a, Lateral eye. + g, So-called facial "suture" (not really a suture). + p, Telsonic carapace.] + + The most important general change which has affected the structure of + the nomomeristic Arachnida in the course of their historic development + is the transition from an aquatic to a terrestrial life. This has been + accompanied by the conversion of the lamelliform gill-plates into + lamelliform lung-plates, and later the development from the + lung-chambers, and at independent sites, of tracheae or air-tubes (by + adaptation of the vasifactive tissue of the blood-vessels) similar to + those independently developed in _Peripatus_, Diplopoda, Hexapoda and + Chilopoda. Probably tracheae have developed independently by the same + process in several groups of tracheate Arachnids. The nomomeristic + Arachnids comprise two sub-classes--one a very small degenerate + offshoot from early ancestors; the other, the great bulk of the class. + + [Illustration: FIG. 42.--So-called "trilobite stage" of _Limulus + polyphemus_. A, Dorsal; B, ventral view. + + (from Korschelt and Heider, after Leuckart.)] + + Sub-Class I. (of the Nomomeristica). PANTOPODA.--Nomomeristic + Arachnids, in which the somites corresponding to mesosoma and metasoma + have entirely aborted. The seventh, and sometimes the eighth, + leg-bearing somite is present and has its leg-like appendages fully + developed. Monomeniscous eyes with a double (really triple) cell-layer + formed by invagination, as in the Eu-arachnida, are present The + Pantopoda stand in the same relation to _Limulus_ and _Scorpio_ that + _Cyamus_ holds to the thoracostracous Crustacea. The reduction of the + organism to seven leg-bearing somites, of which the first pair, as in + so many Eu-arachnida, are chelate, is a form of degeneration connected + with a peculiar quasi-parasitic habit resembling that of the + crustacean Laemodipoda. The genital pores are situate at the base of + the 7th pair of limbs, and may be repeated on the 4th, 5th, and 6th. + In all known Pantopoda the size of the body is quite minute as + compared with that of the limbs: the alimentary canal sends a long + caecum into each leg (cf. the Araneae) and the genital products are + developed in gonocoels also placed in the legs. + + [Illustration: FIG. 43.--One of the Nymphonomorphous Pantopoda, + _Nymphon hispidum_, showing the seven pairs of appendages 1 to 7; ab, + the rudimentary opisthosoma; s, the mouth-bearing proboscis. + + From Parker and Harwell's _Text-book of Zoology_, after Hoek.] + + The Pantopoda are divided into three orders, the characters of which + are dependent on variation in the presence of the full number of legs. + + Order 1. (of the Pantopoda). Nymphonomorpha, Pocock (nov.) (fig. + 43).--In primitive forms belonging to the family _Nymphonidae_ the + full complement of appendages is retained--the 1st (mandibular), the + 2nd (palpiform), and the 3rd (ovigerous) pairs being well developed in + both sexes. In certain derivative forms constituting the family + _Pallenidae_, however, the appendages of the 2nd pair are either + rudimentary or atrophied altogether. + + Two families: 1. Nymphonidae (genus _Nymphon_), and 2. Pallenidae + (genus _Pallene_). + + Order 2. Ascorhynchomorpha, Pocock (nov.).--Appendages of the 2nd and + 3rd pairs retained and developed, as in the more primitive types of + Nymphonomorpha; but those of the 1st pair are either rudimentary, as + in the _Ascorhynchidae_, or atrophied, as in the _Colossendeidae_. In + the latter a further specialization is shown in the fusion of the body + segments. + + Two families. 1. Ascorhynchidae (genera _Ascorhynchus_ and + _Ammothea_); 2. Colossendeidae (genera _Colossendeis_ and + _Discoarachne_). + + Order 3. Pycnogonomorpha, Pocock (nov.).--Derivative forms in which + the reduction in number of the anterior appendages is carried farther + than in the other orders, reaching its extreme in the _Pycnogonidae_, + where the 1st and 2nd pairs are absent in both sexes, and the 3rd pair + also are absent in the female. In the _Hannoniidae_, however, which + resemble the _Pycnogonidae_ in the absence of the 3rd pair in the + female and of the 2nd pair in both sexes, the 1st pair are retained in + both sexes. + + Two families: 1. Hannoniidae (genus _Hannonia_); 2. Pycnogonidae + (genera _Pycnogonum_ and _Phoxichilus_). + + _Remarks._--The Pantopoda are not known in the fossil condition. They + are entirely marine, and are not uncommon in the coralline zone of the + sea-coast. The species are few, not more than fifty (23). Some large + species of peculiar genera are taken at great depths. Their movements + are extremely sluggish. They are especially remarkable for the small + size of the body and the extension of viscera into the legs. Their + structure is eminently that of degenerate forms. Many frequent growths + of coralline Algae and hydroid polyps, upon the juices of which they + feed, and in some cases a species of gall is produced in hydroids by + the penetration of the larval Pantopod into the tissues of the polyp. + + Sub-Class II. (of the Nomomeristic Arachnida). EU-ARACHNIDA.--These + start from highly developed and specialized aquatic branchiferous + forms, exhibiting a prosoma with six pediform pairs of appendages, an + intermediate prae-genital somite, a mesosoma of six somites bearing + lamelliform pairs of appendages, and a metasoma of six somites devoid + of appendages, and the last provided with a post-anal spine. Median + eyes are present, which are monomeniscous, with distinct retinal and + corneagenous cell-layers, and placed centrally on the prosoma. Lateral + eyes also may be present, arranged in lateral groups, and having a + single or double cell-layer beneath the lens. The first pair of limbs + is often chelate or prehensile, rarely antenniform; whilst the second, + third and fourth may also be chelate, or may be simple palps or + walking legs. + + An internal skeletal plate, the so-called "entosternite" of + fibro-cartilaginous tissue, to which many muscles are attached, is + placed between the nerve-cords and the alimentary tract in the prosoma + of the larger forms (_Limulus_, _Scorpio_, _Mygale_). In the same and + other leading forms a pair of much-coiled glandular tubes, the coxal + glands (coelomocoels in origin), is found with a duct opening on the + coxa of the fifth pair of appendages of the prosoma. The vascular + system is highly developed (in the non-degenerate forms); large + arterial branches closely accompany or envelop the chief nerves; + capillaries are well developed. The blood-corpuscles are large + amoebiform cells, and the blood-plasma is coloured blue by + haemocyanin. + + The alimentary canal is uncoiled and cylindrical, and gives rise + laterally to large gastric glands, which are more than a single pair + in number (two to six pairs), and may assume the form of simple caeca. + The mouth is minute and the pharynx is always suctorial, never + gizzard-like. The gonadial tubes (gonocoels or gonadial coelom) are + originally reticular and paired, though they may be reduced to a + simpler condition. They open on the first somite of the mesosoma. In + the numerous degenerate forms simplification occurs by obliteration of + the demarcations of somites and the fusion of body-regions, together + with a gradual suppression of the lamelliferous respiratory organs and + the substitution for them of tracheae, which, in their turn, in the + smaller and most reduced members of the group, may also disappear. + + The Eu-arachnida are divided into two grades with reference to the + condition of the respiratory organs as adapted to aquatic or + terrestrial life. + + + Grade a (of the Eu-arachnida). DELOBRANCHIA (Hydropheustea). + + Mesosomatic segments furnished with large plate-like appendages, the + 1st pair acting as the genital operculum, the remaining pairs being + provided with branchial lamellae fitted for breathing oxygen dissolved + in water. The prae-genital somite partially or wholly obliterated in + the adult. The mouth lying far back, so that the basal segments of all + the prosomatic appendages, excepting those of the 1st pair, are + capable of acting as masticatory organs. Lateral eyes consisting of a + densely packed group of eye-units ("compound" eyes). + + Order 1. Xiphosura.--The prae-genital somite fuses in the embryo with + the prosoma and disappears (see fig. 19). Not free-swimming, none of + the prosomatic appendages modified to act as paddles; segments of the + mesosoma and metasoma (=opisthosoma) not more than ten in number, + distinct or coalesced. + + Family--Limulidae (_Limulus_). + " *Belinuridae (_Belinurus_, _Aglaspis_, _Prestwichia_). + " *Hemiaspidae (_Hemiaspis_, _Bunodes_). + + [Illustration: FIG. 44.--Dorsal view of _Limulus polyphemus_, Latr. + + (From Parker and Haswell, _Text book of Zoology_ after Leuckart.)] + + _Remarks_.--The Xiphosura are marine in habit, frequenting the shore. + They are represented at the present day by the single genus _Limulus_ + (figs. 44 and 45; also figs. 7, 9, 11, to 15 and 20), often termed the + king-crab, which occurs on the American coast of the Atlantic Ocean, + but not on its eastern coasts, and on the Asiatic coast of the + Pacific. The Atlantic species (_L. polyphemus_) is common on the + coasts of the United States, and is known as the king-crab or + horse-shoe crab. A single specimen was found in the harbour of + Copenhagen in the 18th century, having presumably been carried over by + a ship to which it clung. + + A species of _Limulus_ is found in the Buntersandstein of the Vosges; + _L. Walchi_ is abundant in the Oolitic lithographic slates of Bavaria. + + [Illustration: FIG. 45.--Ventral view of _Limulus polyphemus_. + + 1 to 6, The six prosomatic pairs of appendages. + abd, the solid opisthosomatic carapace. + tels, the post-anal spine (not the telson as the lettering would + seem to imply, but only its post-anal portion). + operc, the fused first pair of mesosomatic appendages forming the + genital operculum. + + (From Parker and Haswell, _Text book of Zoology_, after Leuckart.)] + + The genera _Belinurus_, _Aglaspis_, _Prestwichia_, _Hemiaspis_ and + _Bunodes_ consist of small forms which occur in Palaeozoic rocks. In + none of them are the appendages known, but in the form of the two + carapaces and the presence of free somites they are distinctly + intermediate between _Limulus_ and the Trilobitae. The young form of + _Limulus_ itself (fig. 40) is also similar to a Trilobite so far as + its segmentation and trilobation are concerned. The lateral eyes of + _Limulus_ appear to be identical in structure and position with those + of certain Trilobitae. + + [Illustration: FIG. 46.--_Eurypterus Fischeri_, Eichwald. Silurian of + Rootzikil. Restoration after Schmidt. The dorsal aspect is presented + showing the prosomatic shield with paired compound eyes and the + prosomatic appendages II. to VI. The small first pair of appendages is + concealed from view by the carapace, 1 to 12 are the somites of the + opisthosoma; 13, the post-anal spine. + + (From Zittel's _Text-book of Palaeontology_, The Macmillan Co, New + York, 1896.)] + + Order 2. Gigantostraca (figs. 46, 47).--Free-swimming forms, with the + appendages of the 6th or 5th and 6th pairs flattened or lengthened to + act as oars; segments of mesosoma and metasoma (= opisthosoma), twelve + in number. + + Appendages of anterior pair very large and chelate. + + Sub-order Pterygotomorpha, Pterygotidae (_Pterygotus_). + + Appendages of anterior pair minute and chelate. + + / Stylonuridae (_Stylonurus_). + Sub-order Eurypteromorpha < Eurypteridae (_Eurypterus_, + \ _Slimonia_). + + [Illustration: From Zittel's _Palaeontology_. + + FIG. 47.--_Pterygotus osiliensis_, Schmidt. Silurian of Rootzikil. + Restoration of the ventral surface, about a third natural size, after + Schmidt. + + a, Camerostome or epistoma. + m, Chilarium or metasternite of the prosoma (so-called metastoma). + oc, The compound eyes. + 1 to 8, Segments of the sixth prosomatic appendage. + I' to V', First five opisthosomatic somites. + 7', Sixth opisthosomatic somite. + + [Observe the powerful gnathobases of the sixth pair of prosomatic + limbs and the median plates behind m. The dotted line on somite I + indicates the position of the genital operculum which was probably + provided with branchial lamellae.]] + + _Remarks._--The Gigantostraca are frequently spoken of as "the + Eurypterines." Not more than thirty species are known. They became + extinct in Palaeozoic times, and are chiefly found in the Upper + Silurian, though extending upwards as far as the Carboniferous. They + may be regarded as "macrourous" Xiphosura; that is to say, Xiphosura + in which the nomomeristic number of eighteen well-developed somites is + present and the posterior ones form a long tail-like region of the + body. There still appears to be some doubt whether in the sub-order + Eurypteromorpha the first pair of prosomatic appendages (fig. 46) is + atrophied, or whether, if present, it has the form of a pair of + tactile palps or of minute chelae. Though there are indications of + lamelliform respiratory appendages on mesosomatic somites following + that bearing the genital operculum, we cannot be said to have any + proper knowledge as to such appendages, and further evidence with + regard to them is much to be desired. (For literature see Zittel, + 22*.) + + + Grade b (of the Eu-arachnida). EMBOLOBRANCHIA (Aeropneustea). + + In primitive forms the respiratory lamellae of the appendages of the + 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th, or of the 1st and 2nd mesosomatic somites are + sunk beneath the surface of the body, and become adapted to breathe + atmospheric oxygen, forming the leaves of the so-called lung-books. In + specialized forms these pulmonary sacs are wholly or partly replaced + by tracheal tubes. The appendages of the mesosoma generally + suppressed; in the more primitive forms one or two pairs may be + retained as organs subservient to reproduction or silk-spinning. Mouth + situated more forwards than in Delobranchia, no share in mastication + being taken by the basal segments of the 5th and 6th pairs of + prosomatic appendages. Lateral eyes, when present, represented by + separate ocelli. + + The prae-genital somite, after appearing in the embryo, either is + obliterated (_Scorpio, Galeodes, Opilio_and others) or is retained as + a reduced narrow region of the body, the "waist," between prosoma and + mesosoma. It is represented by a full-sized tergal plate in the + Pseudo-scorpiones. + + Section [alpha]. _Pectinifera._--The primitive distinction between the + mesosoma and the metasoma retained, the latter consisting of six + somites and the former of six somites in the adult, each of which is + furnished during growth with a pair of appendages. Including the + prae-genital somite (fig. 16), which is suppressed in the adult, there + are thirteen somites behind the prosoma. The appendages of the 1st and + 2nd mesosomatic somites persisting as the genital operculum and + pectones respectively, those of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th somites (? + in _Palaeophonus_) sinking below the surface during growth in + connexion with the formation of the four pairs of pulmonary sacs (see + fig. 17). Lateral eyes monostichous. + + [Illustration: Restored after Thorell's indications by R.I. Pocock. + + FIG. 48.--Dorsal view of a restoration of _Palaeophonus nuncius_, + Thorell. The Silurian scorpion from Gothland.] + + Order 1. Scorpiones.--Prosoma covered by a single dorsal shield, + bearing typically median and lateral eyes; its sternal elements + reduced to a single plate lodged between or behind the basal segments + of the 5th and 6th pairs of appendages. Appendages of 1st pair + tri-segmented, chelate; of 2nd pair chelate, with their basal segments + subserving mastication; of 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs similar in form + and function, except that in recent and Carboniferous forms the basal + segments of the 3rd and 4th are provided with sterno-coxal (maxillary) + lobes, those of the 4th pair meeting in the middle line and underlying + the mouth. The five posterior somites of the metasoma constricted to + form a "tail," the post-anal sclerite persisting as a weapon of + offence and provided with a pair of poison glands (see figs. 8, 10, + 12, 13, 14, 15, 21 and 22). + + Sub-order Apoxypoda.--The 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs of appendages + short, stout, tapering, the segments about as wide as long, except the + apical, which is distally slender, pointed, slightly curved, and + without distinct movable claws. + + Family--Palaeophonidae, _Palaeophonus_ (figs. 48 and 49). + + Sub-order Dionychopoda.--The 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs of appendages + slender, not evenly tapering, the segments longer than wide; the + apical segment short, distally truncate, and provided with a pair of + movable claws. Basal segments of the 5th and 6th pairs of appendages + abutting against the sternum of the prosoma (see fig. 10 and figs. 51, + 52 and 53). + + Family--Pandinidae (_Pandinus, Opisthophthalmus, Urodacus_). + " Vejovidae (_Vaejovis, Jurus, Euscorpius, Broteas_). + " Bothriuridae (_Bothriurus, Cercophonius_). + " Buthidae (_Buthus, Centrums_). + " *Cyclophthalmidae (_Cydophthalmus_) ( Carboniferous. + " *Eoscorpiidae (_Eoscorpius, Centromachus_) ( + + [Illustration: FIG. 49.--Ventral view of a restoration of + _Palaeophonus Hunteri_, Pocock, the Silurian scorpion from Lesmahagow, + Scotland. Restored by R.I. Pocock. The meeting of the coxae of all the + prosomatic limbs in front of the pentagonal sternum; the space for a + genital operculum; the pair of pectens, and the absence of any + evidence of pulmonary stigmata are noticeable in this specimen. + + (See Pocock, _Quart Jour. Micr. Sci._, 1901.)] + + _Remarks on the Order Scorpiones._--The Scorpion is one of the great + animals of ancient lore and tradition. It and the crab are the only + two invertebrates which had impressed the minds of early men + sufficiently to be raised to the dignity of astronomical + representation. It is all the more remarkable that the scorpion proves + to be the oldest animal form of high elaboration which has persisted + to the present day. In the Upper Silurian two specimens of a scorpion + have been found (figs. 48, 49), one in Gothland and one in Scotland, + which would be recognized at once as true scorpions by a child or a + savage. The Silurian scorpion _Palaeophonus_, differs, so far as + obvious points are concerned, from a modern scorpion only in the + thickness of its legs and in their terminating in strong spike-like + joints, instead of being slight and provided with a pair of terminal + claws. The legs of the modern scorpion (fig. 10; fig. 51) are those of + a terrestrial Arthropod, such as a beetle; whilst those of the + Silurian scorpion are the legs of an aquatic Arthropod, such as a crab + or lobster. It is probable that the Silurian scorpion was an aquatic + animal, and that its respiratory lamellae were still projecting from + the surface of the body to serve as branchiae. No trace of "stigmata," + the orifices of the lung-chambers of modern scorpions, can be found in + the Scottish specimen of _Palaeophonus_, which presents the ventral + surface of the animal to view. On the other hand, no trace of + respiratory appendages excepting the pectens can be detected in the + specimen (see fig. 49). + + [Illustration: FIG. 50.--Comparison of the sixth prosomatic limb of a + recent scorpion (B), of Palaeophonus (C), and of Limulus (A), showing + their agreement in the number of segments; in the existence of a + movable spine, Sp, at the distal border of the fifth segment; in the + correspondence of the two claws at the free end of the limb of Scorpio + with two spines similarly placed in Limulus; and, lastly, in the + correspondence of the three talon-like spines carried on the distal + margin of segment six of recent scorpions with the four larger but + similarly situated spines on the leg of Limulus; s, groove dividing + the ankylosed segments 4 and 5 of the Limulus leg into two. + + (After Pocock, _Q. J. Mic. Sci._, 1901.)] + + [Illustration: From Lankester, _Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool_. vol. xvi., + 1881. + + FIG. 51.--Drawing from life of the desert scorpion, _Buthusaustralis_, + Lin., from Biskra, N. Africa.] + + Fossil scorpions of the modern type are found in the Coal Measures. At + the present day scorpions of various genera are found in all the warm + regions of the world. In Europe they occur as far north as Bavaria and + the south of France. The largest species measure 9 in. from the front + of the head to the end of the sting, and occur in tropical India and + Africa. Between 200 and 300 species are known. The scorpions use their + large chelae for seizing prey and for fighting with one another. They + never use the sting when (as frequently happens) they attack another + scorpion, because, as was ascertained by A.G. Bourne (24), the poison + exuded by the sting has no injurious effect on another scorpion nor on + the scorpion itself. The stories of a scorpion stinging itself to + death when placed in a circle of burning coals are due to erroneous + observation. When placed in such a position the scorpion faints and + becomes inert. It is found (Bourne, 24) that some species of scorpion + faint at a temperature of 40 deg. Cent. They recover on being removed + to cooler conditions. A scorpion having seized its prey (usually a + large insect, or small reptile or mammal) with the large chelae brings + its tail over its head, and deliberately punctures the struggling + victim twice with its sting (fig. 52). The poison of the sting is + similar to snake-poison (Calmette), and rapidly paralyses animals + which are not immune to it. It is probably only sickly adults or young + children of the human race who can be actually killed by a scorpion's + sting. When the scorpion has paralysed its prey in this way, the two + short chelicerae are brought into play (fig. 53). By the crushing + action of their pincers, and an alternate backward and forward + movement, they bring the soft blood-holding tissues of the victim + close to the minute pin-hole aperture which is the scorpion's mouth. + The muscles acting on the bulb-like pharynx now set up a pumping + action (see Huxley, 26); and the juices--but no solid matter, + excepting such as is reduced to powder--are sucked into the scorpion's + alimentary canal. A scorpion appears to prefer for its food another + scorpion, and will suck out the juices of an individual as large as + itself. When this has taken place, the gorged scorpion becomes + distended and tense in the mesosomatic region. It is certain that the + absorbed juices do not occupy the alimentary canal alone, but pass + also into its caecal off-sets which are the ducts of the gastric + glands (see fig. 33). + + [Illustration: From Lankester, _Journ. Linn. Soc._ + + FIG. 52.--Drawing from life of the Italian scorpion _Euscorpius + italicus_, Herbst, holding a blue-bottle fly with its left chela, and + carefully piercing it between head and thorax with its sting. Two + insertions of the sting are effected and the fly is instantly + paralysed by the poison so introduced into its body.] + + [Illustration: From Lankester, _Journ. Linn. Soc._ + + FIG. 53.--The same scorpion carrying the now paralysed fly held in its + chelicerae, the chelae liberated for attack and defence. Drawn from + life.] + + All Arachnida, including _Limulus_, feed by suctorial action in + essentially the same way as _Scorpio_. + + Scorpions of various species have been observed to make a hissing + noise when disturbed, or even when not disturbed. The sound is + produced by stridulating organs developed on the basal joints of the + limbs, which differ in position and character in different genera (see + Pocock, 27). Scorpions copulate with the ventral surfaces in contact. + The eggs are fertilized, practically in the ovary, and develop _in + situ_. The young are born fully formed and are carried by the mother + on her back. As many as thirty have been counted in a brood. For + information as to the embryology of scorpions, the reader is referred + to the works named in the bibliography below. Scorpions do not possess + spinning organs nor form either snares or nests, so far as is known. + But some species inhabiting sandy deserts form extensive burrows. The + fifth pair of prosomatic appendages is used by these scorpions when + burrowing, to kick back the sand as the burrow is excavated by the + great chelae. + + References to works dealing with the taxonomy and geographical + distribution of scorpions are given at the end of this article (28). + + Section [beta]. _Epectinata._--The primitive distinction between the + mesosoma and the metasoma wholly or almost wholly obliterated, the two + regions uniting to form an opisthosoma, which never consists of more + than twelve somites and never bears appendages or breathing-organs + behind the 4th somite. The breathing-organs of the opisthosoma, when + present, represented by two pairs of stigmata, opening either upon the + 1st and 2nd (Pedipalpi) or the 2nd and 3rd somites (Solifugae, + Pseudo-scorpiones), or by a single pair upon the 3rd (? 2nd) somite + (Opiliones) of the opisthosoma, there being rarely an additional + stigma on the 4th (some Solifugae). The appendages of the 2nd somite + of the opisthosoma absent, rarely minute and bud-like (some + Amblypygi), never pectiniform. A prae-genital somite is often present + either in a reduced condition forming a waist (Pedipalpi, Araneae, + Palpigradi) or as a full-sized tergal plate (Pseudo-scorpiones); in + some it is entirely atrophied (Solifugae, Holosomata, and + Rhynchostomi). Lateral eyes when present diplostichous. + + _Remarks._--The Epectinate Arachnids do not stand so close to the + aquatic ancestors of the Embolobranchia as do the Pectiniferous + scorpions. At the same time we are not justified in supposing that the + scorpions stand in any way as an intermediate grade between any of the + existing Epectinata and the Delobranchia. It is probable that the + Pedipalpi, Araneae, and Podogona have been separately evolved as + distinct lines of descent from the ancient aquatic Arachnida. The + Holosomata and Rhynchostomi are probably offshoots from the stem of + the Araneae, and it is not unlikely (in view of the structure of the + prosomatic somites of the Tartarides) that the Solifugae are connected + in origin with the Pedipalpi. The appearance of tracheae in place of + lung-sacs cannot be regarded as a starting-point for a new line of + descent comprising all the tracheate forms; tracheae seem to have + developed independently in different lines of descent. On the whole, + the Epectinata are highly specialized and degenerate forms, though + there are few, if any, animals which surpass the spiders in rapidity + of movement, deadliness of attack and constructive instincts. + + [Illustration: From Lankester, _Q. J. Mic. Sci._ N.S. _vol_. xxi., + 1881. + + FIG. 54.--_Thelyphonus_, one of the Pedipalpi. + + A, Ventral view. + I, Chelicera (detached). + II, Chelae. + III, Palpiform limb. + IV to VI, The walking legs. + stc, Sterno-coxal process (gnathobase) of the chelae. + st^1, Anterior sternal plate of the prosoma. + st^2, Posterior sternal plate of the prosoma. + pregen, Position of the prae-genital somite (not seen). + l, l, Position of the two pulmonary sacs of the right side. + 1 to 11, Somites of the opisthosoma (mesosoma plus metasoma). + msg, Stigmata of the tergo-sternal muscles. + an, Anus. + B, Dorsal view of the opisthosoma of the same. + pregen, The prae-genital somite. + p, The tergal stigmata of the tergo-sternal muscles. + paf, Post-anal segmented filament corresponding to the post-anal + spine of Limulus.] + + Order 2. Pedipalpi (figs. 54 to 59).--Appendages of 1st pair + bisegmented, without poison gland; of 2nd pair prehensile, their basal + segments underlying the proboscis, and furnished with sterno-coxal + (maxillary) process, the apical segment tipped with a single movable + or immovable claw; appendages of 3rd pair different from the + remainder, tactile in function, with at least the apical segment + many-jointed and clawless. The ventral surface of the prosoma bears + prosternal, metasternal and usually mesosternal chitine-plates (fig. + 55). A narrow prae-genital somite is present between opisthosoma and + prosoma (figs. 55, 57). Opisthosoma consisting of eleven somites, + almost wholly without visible appendages. Intromittent organ of male + beneath the genital operculum (=sternum of the 1st somite of + opisthosoma). + + [Illustration: FIG. 55.--_Thelyphonus sp_. Ventral view of the + anterior portion of the body to show the three prosomatic sternal + plates a, b, c, and the rudimentary sternal element of the + prae-genital somite; opisth 1, first somite of the opisthosoma. + + (From a drawing made by Pickard - Cambridge, under the direction of + R.I. Pocock.)] + + _Note._--The possibility of another interpretation of the anterior + somites of the mesosoma and the prae-genital somite must be borne in + mind. Possibly, though not probably, the somites carrying the two + lung-sacs correspond to the first two lung-bearing somites of + _Scorpio_, and it is the genital opening which has shifted. The same + caution applies in the case of the Araneae. Excalation of one or of + two anterior mesosomatic somites, besides the prae-genital somite, + would then have to be supposed to have occurred also. + + Sub-order a. Uropygi.--Prosoma longer than wide, its sternal area very + narrow, furnished with a large prosternal and metasternal plate, and + often with a small mesosternal sclerite. Appendages of 2nd pair with + their basal segments united in the middle line and incapable of + lateral movement; appendages of 3rd pair with only the apical segment + many-jointed. Opisthosoma without trace of appendages; its posterior + somites narrowed to form a movable tail for the support of the + post-anal sclerite, which has no poison glands. + + [Illustration: FIG. 56.--_Thelyphonus assamensis_ [male]. Ventral + surface of the anterior region of the opisthosoma, the first somite + being pushed upwards and forwards so as to expose the subjacent + structures. _opistho_ 1, First somite of the opisthosoma; opistho 2, + second do.; g, genital aperture; l, edges of the lamellae of the + lung-books; m, stigmata of tergo-sternal muscles. + + (Original drawing by Pocock.)] + + Tribe 1. Urotricha.--Dorsal area of prosoma covered with a single + shield (? two in _Geralinura_), bearing median and lateral eyes. + Post-anal sclerite modified as a long, many-jointed feeler. Appendages + of 2nd pair folding in a horizontal plane, completely chelate, the + claw immovably united to the sixth segment. Respiratory organs present + in the form of pulmonary sacs. + + Family--Thelyphonidae (_Thelyphonus_ (fig. 54), _Hypoctonus_, + *_Geralinura_). + + Tribe 2. Tartarides.--Small degenerate forms with the dorsal area of + the prosoma furnished with two shields, a larger in front covering the + anterior four somites, and a smaller behind covering the 5th and 6th + somites; the latter generally subdivided into a right and left + portion. There is also a pair of narrow tergal sclerites interposed + between the anterior and posterior shields. Eyes evanescent or absent. + Appendages of 2nd pair folding in a vertical plane, not chelate, the + claw long and movable. Post-anal sclerite short and undivided. No + distinct respiratory stigmata behind the sterna of the 1st and 2nd + somites of the opisthosoma. + + Family--Hubbardiidae (_Schizomus_, _Hubbardia_) (figs. 57-59). + + [Illustration: FIG. 57.--_Schizomus crassicaudatus_, one of the + Tartarid Pedipalpi. Ventral view of a female with the appendages cut + short near the base. + + a, Prosternum of prosoma. + b, Metasternum of prosoma. + prae-gen, The prae-genital somite. + I opisth, First somite of the opisthosoma. + II opisth, Eleventh somite of the opisthosoma. + pa, Post-anal lobe of the female (compare the jointed filament in + _Thelyphonus_, fig. 54). + + (Original drawing by Pickard-Cambridge, directed by Pocock.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 58.--_Schizomus crassicaudatus_, a Tartarid + Pedipalp. Dorsal view of a male with the appendages cut short. + + I to VI. The prosomatic appendages. + a, Anterior plate. + b, Posterior plate of the prosomatic carapace. + prae-gen, Tergum of the prae-genital somite. + 11, The eleventh somite of the opisthosoma. + pa, Post-anal lobe of the male--a conical body with narrow basal + stalk. + + (Original as preceding.)] + + Sub-order b. Amblypygi.--Prosoma wider than long, covered above by a + single shield bearing median and lateral eyes, which have + diplostichous ommatea. Sternal area broad, with prosternal, two + mesosternal, and metasternal plates, the prosternum projecting + forwards beneath the coxae of the 2nd pair of appendages. Appendages + of 2nd pair folding in a horizontal plane; their basal segments + freely movable; claw free or fused; basal segments of 4th and 5th + pairs widely separated by the sternal area; appendages of 3rd pair + with all the segments except the proximal three, forming a + many-jointed flagellum. Opisthosoma without post-anal sclerite and + posterior caudal elongation: with frequently a pair of small lobate + appendages on the sternum of the 3rd somite. Respiratory organs, as in + Urotricha. + + Family -- Phrynichidae (_Phrynichus_, _Damon_). + " Admetidae (_Admetus_, _Heterophrynus_). + " Charontidae (_Charon_, _Sarax_). + (Family ?)--*_Graeophonus_. + + [Illustration: FIG. 59.--_Schizomus crassicaudatus_, one of the + Pedipalpi. Lateral view of a male. II to VI, the prosomatic + appendages, the first being concealed (see fig. 58); 5, the fifth, and + 11, the eleventh tergites of the opisthosoma; pa, the conical + post-anal lobe. + + (Original as preceding.)] + + _Remarks._--The Pedipalpi are confined to the tropics and warmer + temperate regions of both hemispheres. Fossil forms occur in the + Carboniferous. The small forms known as _Schizomus_ and _Hubbardia_ + are of special interest from a morphological point of view. The + Pedipalpi have no poison glands. (Reference to literature (29).) + + [Illustration: FIG. 60.--_Liphistius desultor_, Schiodte, one of the + Araneae Mesothelae. Dorsal view. I to VI, the prosomatic appendages; + 4, 5, 6, the fourth, fifth and sixth tergites of the opisthosoma. + Between the bases of the sixth pair of limbs and behind the prosomatic + carapace is seen the tergite of the small prae-genital somite. + + (Original by Pickard-Cambridge and Pocock.)] + + Order 3. Araneae (figs. 60 to 64.).--Prosoma covered with a single + shield and typically furnished with median and lateral eyes of + diplostichous structure, as in the Amblypygi. The sternal surface + wide, continuously chitinized, but with prosternal and metasternal + elements generally distinguishable at the anterior and posterior ends + respectively of the large mesosternurm. Prosternum underlying the + proboscis. Appendages of 1st pair have two segments, as in Pedipalpi, + but are furnished with poison gland, and are retroverts. Appendages of + 2nd pair not underlying the mouth, but freely movable and, except in + primitive forms, furnished with a maxillary lobe; the rest of the limb + like the legs, tipped with a single claw and quite unmodified (except + in [symbol: male]). Remaining pairs of appendages similar in form and + function, each tipped with two or three claws. Opisthosoma when + segmented showing the same number of somites as in the Pedipalpi; + usually unsegmented, the prae-genital somite constricted to form the + waist; the appendages of its 3rd and 4th somites retained as spinning + mammillae. Respiratory organs (see fig. 63, _stg_), as in the + Amblypygi, or with the posterior pair, rarely the anterior pair as + well, replaced by tracheal tubes. Intromittent organ of male in the + apical segment of the 2nd prosomatic appendage. + + [Illustration: FIG. 61.--_Liphistius desultor_. Ventral view with the + prosomatic appendages cut short excepting the chelicerae (i) whose + sharp retroverts are seen. Between the bases of the prosomatic limbs + an anterior and a posterior sternal plate (black) are seen. 1, The + sternum of the first opisthosomatic or genital somite covering the + genital aperture and the first pair of lung-sacs. In front of it the + narrow waist is formed by the soft sternal area of the praegenital + somite; 2, the sternite of the second opisthosomatic somite covering + the posterior pair of lung-sacs; 3 and 4, the spinning appendages + (limbs) of the opisthosoma; a, inner, b, outer ramus of the appendage; + ii, sternite of the eleventh somite of the opisthosoma: in front of it + other rudimentary sternites; an, anus. + + (Original as above.)] + + Sub-order a. Mesothelae (see figs. 60 to 62).--Opisthosoma distinctly + segmented, furnished with 11 tergal plates, as in the Amblypygi; the + ventral surface of the 1st and 2nd somites with large sternal plates, + covering the genital aperture and the two pairs of pulmonary sacs, the + sternal plates from the 6th to the 11th somites represented by + integumental ridges, weakly chitinized in the middle. The two pairs of + spinning appendages retain their primitive position in the middle of + the lower surface of the opisthosoma far in advance of the anus on the + 3rd and 4th somites, each appendage consisting of a stout, + many-jointed outer branch and a slender, unsegmented inner branch. + Prosoma as in the Mygalomorphae, except that the mesosternal area is + long and narrow. + + Family--Liphistiidae (_Liphistius_, *_Arthrolycosa_). + + Sub-order b. Opisthothelae (see fig. 63).--Opisthosoma without trace + of separate terga and sterna, the segmentation merely represented + posteriorly by slight integumental folds and the sterna of the 1st and + 2nd somites by the opercular plates of the pulmonary sacs. The + spinning appendages migrate to the posterior end of the opisthosoma + and take up a position close to the anus; the inner branches of the + anterior pair either atrophy or are represented homogenetically by a + plate, the cribellum, or by an undivided membranous lobe, the colulus. + + Tribe 1. Mygalomorphae.--The plane of the articulation of the + appendages of the 1st pair to the prosoma (the retrovert) vertical, + the basal segment projecting straight forwards at its proximal end, + the distal segment or fang closing backwards in a direction + subparallel to the long axis of the body. Two pairs of pulmonary sacs. + + Families--Theraphosidae (_Avicularia_, _Poecilotheria_). Barychelidae + (_Barychelus_, _Plagiobothrus_). Dipluridae (_Diplura_, _Macrothele_). + Ctenizidae (_Cteniza_, _Nemesia_). Atypidae (_Atypus_, _Calommata_). + + [Illustration: FIG. 62.--_Liphistius desultor_. Lateral view. + + I to VI, Appendages of the prosoma cut off at the base. + o, Ocular tubercle. + praegen, The prae-genital somite. + 1 and 2, Sternites of the first and second opisthosomatic somites. + 3 and 4, Appendages of the third and fourth opisthosomatic somites, + which are the spinning organs, and in this genus occupy their + primitive position instead of migrating to the anal region as in + other spiders. + 5, Tergite of the fifth opisthosomatic somite. + 11, Eleventh opisthosomatic somite; an, Anus. + + (Original.)] + + Tribe 2. Arachnomorpnae.--The plane of the articulation of the + appendages of the 1st pair to the prosoma horizontal, the basal + segment projecting vertically downwards, at least at its proximal end, + the distal segment or fang closing inwards nearly or quite at right + angles to the long axis of the body. The posterior pulmonary sacs + (except in _Hypochilus_) replaced by tracheal tubes; the anterior and + posterior pairs replaced by tracheal tubes in the Caponiidae. + + Principal families--Hypochilidae (_Hypochilus_). Dysderidae + (_Dysdera_, _Segestria_). Caponiidae (_Caponia_, _Nops_). Filistatidae + (_Filistata_). Uloboridae (_Uloborus_, _Dinopis_). Argiapidae + (_Nephila_, _Gasteracantha_). Pholcidae (_Pholcus_, _Artema_). + Agelenidae (_Tegenuria_). Lycosidae (_Lycosa_). Clubionidae + (_Clubiona_, _Olios_, _Sparassus_) Gnaphosidae (_Gnaphosa_, + _Hemiclaea_). Thomisidae (_Thomisus_). Attidae (_Salticus_). + Urocteidae (_Uroctea_). Eresidae (_Eresus_). + + _Remarks on the Araneae._--The Spiders are the most numerous and + diversified group of the Arachnida; about 2000 species are known. No + noteworthy fossil spiders are known; the best-preserved are in amber + of Oligocene age. _Protolycosa_ and _Arthrolycosa_ occur in the + Carboniferous. Morphologically, the spiders are remarkable for the + concentration and specialization of their structure, which is + accompanied with high physiological efficiency. The larger species of + Bird's Nest Spiders (_Avicularia_), the opisthosoma of which is as + large as a bantam's egg, undoubtedly attack young birds, and M'Cook + gives an account of the capture in its web by an ordinary house spider + of a small mouse. The "retrovert" or bent-back first pair of + appendages is provided with a poison gland opening on the fang or + terminal segment. Spiders form at least two kinds of + constructions--snares for the capture of prey and nests for the + preservation of the young. The latter are only formed by the female, + which is a larger and more powerful animal than the male. Like the + scorpions the spiders have a special tendency to cannibalism, and + accordingly the male, in approaching the female for the purpose of + fertilizing her, is liable to be fallen upon and sucked dry by the + object of his attentions. The sperm is removed by the male from the + genital aperture into a special receptacle on the terminal segment of + the 2nd prosomatic appendage. Thus held out at some distance from the + body, it is cautiously advanced by the male spider to the genital + aperture of the female. + + [Illustration: FIG. 63.--Ventral view of a male mygalomorphous spider. + + I to VI, The six pairs of prosomatic appendages. + a, Copulatory apparatus of the second appendage. + b, Process of the fifth joint of the third appendage. + M, Mouth. + pro, Prosternite of the prosoma. + mes, Mesosternite of the prosoma: observe the contact of the coxae + of the sixth pair of limbs behind it; compare _Liphistius_ (fig. + 61) where this does not occur. + stg, Lung aperture. + gn, Genital aperture. + a, Anus with a pair of backwardly migrated spinning appendages on + each side of it; compare the position of these appendages in + _Liphistius_ (fig. 61). + + (From Lankester, "Limulus an Arachnid.")] + + [Illustration: FIG. 64.--_Liphistius desultor_. Under side of the + uplifted genital or first opisthosomatic somite of the female; g, + genital aperture; p, pitted plate, probably a gland for the secretion + of adhesive material for the eggs; l, the edges of the lamellae of the + lung-books of the first pair. + + (Original drawing by Pocock.)] + + For an account of the courtship and dancing of spiders, of their webs + and floating lines, the reader is referred to the works of M'Cook (30) + and the Peckhams (31), whilst an excellent account of the nests of + trap-door spiders is given by Moggridge (32). References to systematic + works will also be found at the end of this article (33). + + Order 4. Palpigradi = Microthelyphonidae (see fig. 65).--Prosoma + covered above by three plates, a larger representing the dorsal + elements of the first four somites, and two smaller representing the + dorsal elements of the 5th and 6th. + + Its ventral surface provided with one prosternal, two mesosternal and + one metasternal plate. Appendages of 1st pair consisting of three + segments, completely chelate, without poison gland; of 2nd pair + slender, leg-like, tipped with three claws, the basal segment without + sterno-coxal process taking no share in mastication, and widely + separated from its fellow of the opposite side; 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th + appendages similar in form to the 2nd and to each other. + + Proboscis free, not supported from below by either the prosternum or + the basal segments of the appendages of the 2nd pair. + + [Illustration: FIG. 65.--_Koenenia mirabilis_, Grassi, one of the + Palpigradi. + + A, Ventral view of prosoma and anterior region of opisthosoma with + the appendages cut off near the base; a and b, prosternites; c, + mesosternite; and d, metasternite of the prosoma; f, ventral + surface of the prae-genital somite; g, sternite of the genital + somite (first opisthosomatic somite). + B, Dorsal view. I to VI, prosomatic appendages; 1 opisth, genital + somite (first opisthosomatic somite). + C, Lateral view, I to VI, prosomatic appendages; a, b, c, the three + tergal plates of the prosoma; prae-gen, the prae-genital somite; 1 + to 10, the ten somites of the opisthosoma. + D, Chelicera. + + (Original drawing by Pocock and Pickard-Cambridge, after Hansen and + Sorensen.)] + + Opisthosoma consisting of only ten somites, which have no tergal and + sternal elements, the prae-genital somite contracted to form a + "waist," as in the Pedipalpi; the last three narrowed to form a caudal + support for the many-jointed flagelliform telson, as in the Urotricha. + Respiratory organs atrophied. + + Family--Koeneniidae (_Koenenia_). + + _Remarks._--An extremely remarkable minute form originally described + by Grassi (34) from Sicily, and since further described by Hansen + (35). Recently the genus has been found in Texas, U.S.A. Only one + genus of the order is known. + + Order 5. Solifugae = Mycetophorae (see figs. 66 to 69).--Dorsal area + of prosoma covered with three distinct plates, two smaller + representing the terga of the 5th and 6th somites, and a larger + representing those of the anterior four somites, although the reduced + terga of the 3rd and 4th are traceable behind the larger plate. The + latter bears a pair of median eyes and obsolete lateral eyes on each + side. Sternal elements of prosoma almost entirely absent, traces of a + prosternum and metasternum alone remaining. Rostrum free, not + supported by either the prosternum or the basal segments of the + appendages. Appendages of 1st pair large, chelate, bisegmented, + articulated to the sides of the head-shield; appendages of 2nd pair + simple, pediform, with protrusible (? suctorial) organ, and no claws + at the tip; their basal segments united in the middle line and + furnished with sterno-coxal process. Remaining pairs of appendages + with their basal segments immovably fixed to the sternal surface, + similar in form, the posterior three pairs furnished with two claws + supported on long stalks; the basal segments of the 6th pair bearing + five pairs of tactile sensory organs or malleoli. The prae-genital + somite is suppressed. Opisthosoma composed of ten somites. Respiratory + organs tracheal, opening upon the ventral surface of the 2nd and 3rd, + and sometimes also of the 4th somite of the opisthosoma. A + supplementary pair of tracheae opening behind the basal segment of the + 4th appendage of the prosoma. + + (? Intromittent organ of male lodged on the dorsal side of the 1st + pair of prosomatic appendages.) + + Families--Hexisopodidae (_Hexisopus_). Solpugidae (_Solpuga_, + _Rhagodes_). Galeodidae (_Galeodes_). + + _Remarks._--These most strange-looking Arachnids occur in warmer + temperate, and tropical regions of Asia, Africa and America. Their + anatomy has not been studied, as yet, by means of freshly-killed + material, and is imperfectly known, though the presence of the coxal + glands was determined by Macleod in 1884. The proportionately enormous + chelae (chelicerae) of the first pair of appendages are not provided + with poison glands; their bite is not venomous. + + [Illustration: FIG. 66.--_Galeodes sp._, one of the Solifugae. Ventral + view to show legs and somites. + + I to VI, The six leg-bearing somites of the prosoma. + opisth 1, First or genital somite of the opisthosoma. + ge, Site of the genital aperture. + st, Thoracic tracheal aperture. + l^2, Anterior tracheal aperture of the opisthosoma in somite 2 of the + opisthosoma. + l^3, Tracheal aperture in somite 3 of the opisthosoma. + a, Anus. + + (From Lankester, "Limulus an Arachnid.")] + + [Illustration: FIG. 67.--_Galeodes sp._, one of the Solifugae. Ventral + view with the appendages cut off at the base. + + I to VI, Prosomatic appendages. + s, Prosomatic stigma or aperture of the tracheal system. + 1, First opisthosomatic sternite covering the genital aperture g. + 2, Second opisthosomatic sternite covering the second pair of + tracheal apertures sp1. + sp2, The third pair of tracheal apertures. + 10, The tenth opisthosomatic somite. + an, The anal aperture. + + (Original by Pickard-Cambridge and Pocock.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 68.--_Galeodes sp._, one of the Solifugae. Dorsal + view. + + I to VI, Bases of the prosomatic appendages. + o, Eyes. + a, Lateral region of the cephalic plate to which the first pair of + appendages are articulated. + b, Cephalic plate with median eye. + c, Dorsal element of somites bearing third and fourth pairs of + appendages. + d, Second plate of the prosoma with fifth pair of appendages. + e, Third or hindermost plate of the prosoma beneath which the sixth + pair of legs is articulated. + 1, 2, 9, 10, First, second, ninth and tenth somites of the + opisthosoma. + an, Anus. + + (Original.)] + + _Galeodes_ has been made the means of a comparison between the + structure of the Arachnida and Hexapod insects by Haeckel and other + writers, and it was at one time suggested that there was a genetic + affinity between the two groups--through _Galeodes_, or extinct forms + similar to it. The segmentation of the prosoma and the form of the + appendages bear a homoplastic similarity to the head, pro-, meso-, and + meta-thorax of a Hexapod with mandibles, maxillary palps and three + pairs of walking legs; while the opisthosoma agrees in form and number + of somites with the abdomen of a Hexapod, and the tracheal stigmata + present certain agreements in the two cases. Reference to literature + (36). + + [Illustration: FIG. 69.--_Galeodes sp._, one of the Solifugae. + + I to VI, The six prosomatic limbs cut short. + o, The eyes. + b, c, Demarcated areae of the cephalic or first prosomatic plate + corresponding respectively to appendages I, II, III, and to + appendage IV (see fig. 68). + d, Second plate of the prosoma-carrying appendage V. + e, Third plate of the prosoma-carrying appendage VI. The prae-genital + somite is absent. + 1, First somite of the opisthosoma. + 2, Second do. + S, Prosomatic tracheal aperture between legs IV and V. + S' and S", Opisthosomatic tracheal apertures. + 10, Tenth opisthosomatic somite. + an, Anus. + + (Original.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 70.--_Garypus litoralis_, one of the + Pseudoscorpiones. Ventral view. + + I to VI, Prosomatic appendages. + o, Sterno-coxal process of the basal segment of the second appendage. + 1, Sternite of the genital or first opisthosomatic somite; the + prae-genital somite, though represented by a tergum, has no + separate ternal plate. + 2 and 3, Sternites of the second and third somites of the + opisthosoma, each showing a tracheal stigma. + 10 and 11, Sternites of the tenth and eleventh somites of the + opisthosoma. + an, Anus. + + (Original by Pocock and Pickard-Cambridge.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 71.--_Garypus litoralis_, one of the + Pseudoscorpiones. Dorsal view. + + I to VI, The prosomatic appendages. + o, Eyes. + prae-gen, Prae-genital somite. + 1, Tergite of the genital or first opisthosomatic somite. + 10, Tergite of the tenthsomite of the opisthosoma. + 11, The evanescent eleventh somite of the opisthosoma. + an, Anus. + + (Original.)] + + Order 6. Pseudoscorpiones = Chelonethi, also called Chernetidia (see + figs. 70, 71, 72).--Prosoma covered by a single dorsal shield, at most + furnished with one or two diplostichous lateral eyes; sternal elements + obliterated or almost obliterated. Appendages of the 1st pair + bisegmented completely chelate, furnished with peculiar organs, the + _serrula_ and the _lamina_. Appendages of 2nd pair very large and + completely chelate, their basal segments meeting in the middle line, + as in the Uropygi, and provided in front with membranous lip-like + processes underlying the proboscis. Appendages of the 3rd, 4th, 5th + and 6th pairs similar in form and function, tipped with two claws, + their basal segments in contact in the median ventral line. The + prae-genital somite wide, not constricted, with large tergal plate, + but with its sternal plate small or inconspicuous. Opisthosoma + composed, at least in many cases, of eleven somites, the 11th somite + very small, often hidden within the both. Respiratory organs in the + form of tracheal tubes opening by a pair of stigmata in the 2nd and + 3rd somites of the opisthosoma. Intromittent organ of male beneath + sternum of the 1st somite of the opisthosoma. + + Sub-order a. Panctenodactyli.--Dorsal plate of prosoma (carapace) + narrowed in front; the appendages of the 1st pair small, much + narrower, taken together, than the posterior border of the carapace. + Serrula on movable digit of appendages of 1st pair fixed throughout + its length, and broader at its proximal than at its distal end; the + immovable digit with an external process. + + Family--Cheliferidae (_Chelifer_ (figs. 70, 71, 72), _Chiridium_). + " Garypidae (_Garypus_). + + [Illustration: FIG. 72.--_Garypus litoralis_, one of the + Pseudoscorpiones. Lateral view. + + I to VI, of the six prosomatic appendages. + o, Eyes. + prae-gen, Tergite of the prae-genital somite. + 1, Genital or first opisthosomatic somite. + 2, 3, 10, The second, third and tenth somites of the opisthosoma. + 11, The minute eleventh somite; + an, the anus. + + (Original.)] + + Sub-order b. Hemictenodactyli.--Dorsal plate of prosoma scarcely + narrowed in front; the appendages of the 1st pair large, not much + narrower, taken together, than the posterior border of the carapace. + The serrula or the movable digit free at its distal end, narrowed at + the base; no external lamina on the immovable digit. + + Family--Obisiidae (_Obisium, Pseudobisium_). + " Chthoniidae (_Chthonius, Tridenchthonius_). + + _Remarks._--The book-scorpions--so called because they were, in old + times, found not unfrequently in libraries--are found in rotten wood + and under stones. The similarity of the form of their appendages to + those of the scorpions suggests that they are a degenerate group + derived from the latter, but the large size of the prae-genital somite + in them would indicate a connexion with forms preceding the scorpions. + Reference to literature (37). + + [Illustration: FIG. 73.--_Cryptostemma Karschii_, one of the Podogona. + Dorsal view of male. + + III to VI, The third, fourth, fifth and sixth appendages of the + prosoma. + a, Movable (hinged) sclerite (so-called hood) overhanging the first + pair of appendages. + b, Fused terga of the prosoma followed by the opisthosoma of four + visible somites. + an, Orifice within which the caudal segments are withdrawn. + E, Extremity of the fifth appendage of the male modified to subserve + copulation. + + (Original drawing by Pocock and Pickard-Cambridge.)] + + Order 7. Podogona = Ricinulei (see figs. 73 to 76).--Dorsal area of + prosoma furnished with two shields, a larger behind representing, + probably, the tergal elements of the somites, and a smaller in front, + which is freely articulated to the former and folds over the + appendages of the 1st pair. Ventral area without distinct sternal + plates. Appendages of 1st pair, bisegmented, completely chelate. + Appendages of 2nd pair, with their basal segments uniting in the + middle line below the mouth, weakly chelate at apex. Appendages of + 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs similar in form; their basal segments in + contact in the middle line and immovably welded, except those of the + 3rd pair, which have been pushed aside so that the bases of the 2nd + and 4th pairs are in contact with each other. A movable membranous + joint between the prosoma and the opisthosoma, the generative aperture + opening upon the ventral side of the membrane. Prae-genital somite + suppressed; the opisthosma consisting of nine segments, whereof the + first and second are almost suppressed and concealed within the joint + between the prosoma and the opisthosoma; the following four large and + manifest, and the remaining three minute and forming a slender + generally-retracted tail like that of _Thelyphonus_. Respiratory + organs tracheal, opening by a pair of spiracles in the prosoma above + the base of the fifth appendage on each side. Intromittent organ of + male placed at the distal end of the appendage of the 5th pair. + + [Illustration: FIG. 74.--_Cryptostemma Karschii_, anterior aspect of + the prosoma with the "hood" removed. I to IV, first to fourth + appendages of the prosoma; a, basal segment of the second pair of + appendages meeting its fellow in the middle line (see fig. 75). + + (Original drawing by Pocock and Pickard-Cambridge.)] + + Family--Cryptostemmidae (_Cryptostemma, Poliochera_), Carboniferous. + + _Remarks on the Podogona._--The name given to this small but + remarkable group has reference to the position of the male + intromittent organ (fig. 73, E). They are small degenerate animals + with a relatively firm integument. Not more than four species and + twice that number of specimens are known. They have been found in West + Africa and South America. A fact of special interest in regard to them + is that the genus Poliochera, from the Coal Measures, appears to be a + member of the same group. The name Cryptostemma, given to the + first-known genus of the order, described by Guerin-Meneville, refers + to the supposed concealment of the eyes by the movable cephalic + sclerite. Reference to literature (38). + + [Illustration: FIG. 75.--_Cryptostemma Karschii_, one of the Podogona. + Ventral view. + + I to VI, The six pairs of appendages of the prosoma, the last three + cut short. + 1, 2, 3, 4, The four somites of the opisthosoma. + a, Visible hood overhanging the first pair of appendages. + b, Position of the genital orifice. + c, Part of 3rd appendage. + d, Fourth segment of 2nd appendage. Observe that the basal segment + of appendage III does _not_ meet its fellow in the middle line. + + (Original drawing by Pocock and Pickard-Cambridge.)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 76.--_Cryptostemma Karschii_. Extremity of the + fifth pair of appendages of the female for comparison with that of the + male E in fig. 73.] + + Order 8. Opilione (see fig. 77).--Dorsal area of prosoma covered by a + single shield usually bearing a pair of eyes. Sternal elements much + reduced. Appendages of 1st pair large, three segmented and completely + chelate; of 2nd pair either simple and pediform, or prehensile and + subchelate; of remaining four pairs, similar in form, ambulatory in + function; the basal segment of the 2nd, 3rd and sometimes of the 4th + pairs of appendages furnished with sterno-coxal (maxillary) lobe. + Opisthosoma confluent throughout its breadth with the prosoma, with + the dorsal plate of which its anterior tergal plates are more or less + fused; at most ten opisthosomatic somites traceable; the generative + aperture thrust far forwards between the basal segments of the 6th + appendages. Prae-genital somite suppressed. Respiratory organs + tracheal, opening by a pair of stigmata situated immediately behind + the basal segments of the 6th pair of appendages on what is probably + the sternum of the 2nd opisthosomatic somite and also in some cases + upon the 5th segment of the legs. + + Intromittent organ of male lying within the genital orifice. + + Sub-order a. Laniatores.--Orifice of foetid glands opening above the + coxa of the 4th appendage, not raised upon a tubercle. Orifice of + coxal gland situated just behind that of the foetid gland. Sternal + plate of prosoma long and narrow, with a distinct prosternal element + underlying the mouth. Coxae of 4th, 5th and 6th appendages immovable. + Appendages of 2nd pair, strong, usually prehensile and spiny. Genital + orifice covered by an operculum. + + Families--Gonoleptidae (_Gonoleptes, Goniasoma_). + Biantidae (_Biantes_). + Oncopodidae (_Oncopus, Pelitnus_). + Trioenonychidae (_Trioenonyx, Acumontia_). + + Sub-order b. Palpatores.--Orifice of foetid glands opening above the + coxa of the 3rd appendage, not raised upon a tubercle. Orifice of + coxal gland situated between the coxae of the 5th and 6th appendages. + Sternal plate of prosoma usually short and wide, rarely longer than + broad; with a larger or smaller prosternal element underlying the + mouth. Coxae of 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th appendages movable or + immovable. Appendages of 2nd pair weak, pediform not prehensile. + Genital orifice covered by an operculum. + + Families--Phalangiidae (_Phalangium, Gagrella_). + Ischyropsalidae (_Ischyropsalis, Taracus_). + Nemastomidae (_Nemastoma_). + Trogulidae (_Trogulus, Anelasmocephalus_). + + Sub-order c. _Cyphophthalmi_ (_Anepignathi_).--Orifice of foetid + glands opening on a tubercle situated near the lateral border of the + carapace above the base of the 5th appendage. Orifice of coxal gland + probably situated at base of coxa of 5th appendage; sternal plate of + prosema minute or absent; no prosternal element underlying the mouth. + Coxae of 5th and 6th, and usually also of 4th appendages immovable. + Appendages of 2nd pair weak, pediform, not prehensile. Genital orifice + not covered by an operculum. + + Families--Sironidae (_Siro, Pettalus_). + Stylocellidae (_Stylocellus_). + + _Remarks on the Opiliones._--These include the harvest-men, sometimes + called also daddy-long-legs, with round undivided bodies and very + long, easily-detached legs. The intromittent organs of the male are + remarkable for their complexity and elaboration. The confluence of the + regions of the body and the dislocation of apertures from their + typical position are results of degeneration. The Opiliones seem to + lead on from the Spiders to the Mites. Reference to literature (39). + + [Illustration: FIG. 77.--_Stylocellus sumatranus_, one of the + Opiliones; after Thorell. Enlarged. + + A, Dorsal view; I to VI, the six prosomatic appendages. + B, Ventral view of the prosoma and of the first somite of the + opisthosoma, with the appendages I to VI cut off at the base; a, + tracheal stigma; mx, maxillary processes of the coxae of the 3rd + pair of appendages; g, genital aperture. + C, Ventral surface of the prosoma and opisthosoma; a, tracheal + stigma; b, last somite. + D, Lateral view of the 1st and 2nd pair of appendages. + E, Lateral view of the whole body and two 1st appendages, showing + the fusion of the dorsal elements of the prosoma into a single + plate, and of those of the opisthosoma into an imperfectly + segmented plate continuous with that of the prosoma.] + + Apparently related to the Opiliones are two extinct groups, the + Anthracomarti and Phalangiotarbi, which are not known to have survived + the Carboniferous period. In the Anthracomarti the opisthosoma was + movably articulated to the prosoma, and consisted of from eight to ten + segments furnished with movable lateral plates, the anal segment being + overlapped dorsally by a laminate expansion of the preceding segment. + The carapace of the prosoma was unsegmented and often bore a pair of + eyes. The appendages of the 2nd pair were slender and pediform; those + of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs were similar in form and ambulatory + in function with their basal segments arranged round a sternal area as + in the order Araneae. The best-known genera were _Anthracomartus_ and + _Eophognus_. + + In the Phalangiotarbi the appendages resembled those of the + Anthracomarti, except that the basal segments of the last four pairs + were usually approximated in the middle line leaving a long and narrow + sternal area between; and the carapace of the prosoma was unsegmented. + The prosoma and opisthosoma were broadly confluent and probably + immovably welded together. The opisthosoma consisted of eight or nine + segments, whereof the anterior five or six were very short in the + dorsal region, and the posterior three exceptionally large with the + anal orifice terminal. + + Several genera have been established, the best-characterized being + _Geraphognus_ and _Architarbus_. + + Order 9. Rhynchostomi = Acari (see fig. 78).--Degenerate Arachnids + resembling the Opiliones in many structural points, but chiefly + distinguishable from them by the following features:--The basal + segments of the appendages of the 2nd pair are united in the middle + line behind the mouth, those of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs are + widely separated and not provided with sterno-coxal (maxillary) lobes, + and take no share in mastication; the respiratory stigmata, when + present, belong to the prosoma, and the primitive segmentation of the + opisthosoma has entirely or almost entirely disappeared. + + Sub-order a. _Notostigmata._--Opisthosoma consisting of ten segments + defined by integumental grooves, each of the anterior four of these + furnished with a single pair of dorsally-placed spiracles or tracheal + stigmata. + + Family--Opilioacaridae (_Opilioacarus_). + + Sub-order b. _Cryptostigmata._--Integument hard, strengthened by a + continuously chitinized dorsal and ventral sclerite. Tracheae + typically opening by stigmata situated in the articular sockets + (acetabula) of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs of appendages. + + Family--Oribatidae (_Oribata, Nothrus, Hoplophora_). + + Sub-order c. _Metastigmata._--Integument mostly like that of the + Cryptostigmata. Tracheae opening by a pair of stigmata situated above + and behind the base of the 4th or 5th or 6th pair of appendages. + + Families--Gamasidae (_Gamasus, Pteroptus_). + Argasidae (_Argas, Ornithodoros_). + Ixodidae (_Ixodes, Rhipicephalus_). + + Sub-order d. _Prostigmata._--Integument soft, strengthened by special + sclerites, those on the ventral surface of the prosoma apparently + representing the basal segments of the legs embedded in the skin. + Tracheae, except in the aquatic species in which they are atrophied, + opening by a pair of stigmata situated close to or above the base of + the appendages of the 1st pair (mandibles). + + Families--Trombidiidae (_Trombidium, Tetranychus_). + Hydrachnidae (_Hydrachna, Atax_). + Halacaridae (_Halacarus, Leptognathus_). + Bdellidae (_Bdella, Eupodes_). + + [Illustration: FIG. 78.--_Holothyrus nitidissimus_, one of the Acari; + after Thorell. + + A, Lateral view with appendages III to VI removed; 1, plate covering + the whole dorsal area, representing the fused tergal sclerites of + the prosoma and opisthosoma; 2, similarly-formed ventral plate; 3, + tracheal stigma. + B, Dorsal view of the same animal; II to VI, 2nd to 6th pairs of + appendages. The 1st pair of appendages both in this and in C are + retracted. + C, Ventral view of the same; II to VI as in B; a, genital orifice; + b, anus; c, united basal segments of the second pair of appendages; + d, basal segment of the 6th prosomatic appendage of the right side. + The rest of the appendage, as also of app. Ill, IV and V, has been + cut away.] + + Sub-order e. _Astigmata._--Degenerate, mostly parasitic forms + approaching the Prostigmata in the development of integumental + sclerites and the softness of the skin, but with the respiratory + system absent. + + Families--Tyroglyphidae (_Tyroglyphus, Rhizoglyphus_). + Sarcoptidae (_Sarcoptes, Analges_). + + Sub-order f. _Vermiformia._--Degenerate atracheate parasitic forms + with the body produced posteriorly into an annulated caudal + prolongation, and the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th pairs of appendages short + and only three-jointed. + + Family--Demodicidae (_Demodex_). + + Sub-order g. _Tetrapoda._--Degenerate atracheate gall-mites in which + the body is produced posteriorly and annulated, as in _Demodex_, but + in which the appendages of the 3rd and 4th pairs are long and normally + segmented and those of the 5th and 6th pairs entirely absent. + + Family--Eriophyidae (_Eriophyes, Phyllocoptes_). + + _Remarks on the Rhynchostomi._--The Acari include a number of forms + which are of importance and special interest on account of their + parasitic habits. The ticks (_Ixodes_) are not only injurious as + blood-suckers, but are now credited with carrying the germs of Texas + cattle-fever, just as mosquitoes carry those of malaria. The + itch-insect (_Sarcoptes scabiei_) is a well-known human parasite, so + minute that it was not discovered until the end of the 18th century, + and "the itch" was treated medicinally as a rash. The female burrows + in the epidermis much as the female trap-door spider burrows in turf + in order to make a nest in which to rear her young. The male does not + burrow, but wanders freely on the surface of the skin. _Demodex + folliculorum_ is also a common parasite of the sebaceous glands of + the skin of the face in man, and is frequent in the skin of the dog. + Many Acari are parasitic on marine and freshwater molluscs, and others + are found on the feathers of birds and the hair of mammals. Others + have a special faculty of consuming dry, powdery vegetable and animal + refuse, and are liable to multiply in manufactured products of this + nature, such as mouldy cheese. A species of Acarus is recorded as + infesting a store of powdered strychnine and feeding on that drug, so + poisonous to larger organisms. Reference to literature (40). + + AUTHORITIES cited by numbers in the text.--1. Strauss-Durckheim (as + reported by MM. Riester and Sanson in an appendix to the sixth volume + of the French translation of Meckel's _Anatomy_, 1829); 2. Lankester, + "Limulus an Arachnid," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. xxi. N.S., + 1881; 3. _Idem_, "On the Skeletotrophic Tissues of Limulus, Scorpio + and Mygale," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. xxiv. N.S., 1884; 4. + _Idem. Trans. Zool. Soc._ vol. xi., 1883; 5. Lankester and A.G. + Bourne, "Eyes of Limulus and Scorpio," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. + xxiii. N.S., Jan. 1883; 6. Milne-Edwards, A., "Recherches sur + l'anatomie des Limules," _Ann. Sci. Nat._ 5th Series, _Zoologie_, vol. + xvii., 1873; 7. Owen, Richard, "Anatomy of the King-Crab," _Trans. + Linn. Soc. Lond._, vol. xxviii., 1872; 8. Kishinouye, "Development of + _Limulus longispina_," _Journal of the Science College of Japan_, vol. + v., 1892; 9. Brauer, "Development of Scorpion," _Zeitschrift fur wiss. + Zoologie_, vol. lix., 1895; 10. Hansen, H.J., "Organs and Characters + in Different Orders of Arachnida," _Entomol. Meddel._ vol. iv. pp. + 137-149; 11. Watase, "On the Morphology of the Compound Eyes of + Arthropods," _Studies from the Biolog. Lab. Johns Hopkins University_, + vol. iv. pp 287-334; 12. Newport, George, "Nervous and Circulatory + Systems in Myriapoda and Macrourous Arachnids," _Phil. Trans. Roy. + Soc._, 1843; 13. Lankester, "Coxal Glands of Limulus, Scorpio and + Mygale," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. xxiv. N.S., 1884; 13A. W. + Patten and A.P. Hazen, "Development of the Coxal Glands of Limulus," + _Journ. of Morphology_, vol. xvi., 1900; 13B. Bernard, "Coxal Glands + of Scorpio," _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ vol. xii., 1893, p. 55; 14. + Benham, "Testis of Limulus," _Trans. Linn. Soc._, 1882; 15. Lankester, + "Mobility of the Spermatozoa of Limulus," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ + vol. xviii. N.S., 1878; 16. Korschelt and Heider, + _Entwickelungsgeschichte_ (Jena, 1892), _ibique citata_; 17. Laurie, + M., "The Embryology of a Scorpion," _Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci._ vol. + xxxi. N.S., 1890, and "On Development of _Scorpio fulvipes_," _ibid._ + vol. xxxii., 1891; 18. Lankester (Homoplasy and Homogeny), "On the Use + of the term Homology in Modern Zoology," _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._, + 1870; 19. _Idem_, "Degeneration, a Chapter in Darwinism," 1878, + reprinted in the _Advancement of Science_ (Macmillan, 1890); 20. + _Idem_, "Limulus an Arachnid," _Q. J. Micr. Sci._ vol. xxi. N.S.; 21. + Claus, "Degeneration of the Acari and Classification of Arthropoda," + _Anzeiger d. k. k. Akad. Wissen. Wien_, 1885; see also _Ann. and Mag. + Nat. Hist._ (5) vol. xvii., 1886, p. 364, and vol. xix. p. 225; 22. + Lindstrom, G., "Researches on the Visual Organs of the Trilobites," + _K. Svenska Vet. Akad. Handl._ xxxiv. No. 8, pp. 1-86, Pls. i.-vi., + 1901; 22*. Zittel, American edition of his _Palaeontology_ (the + Macmillan Co., New York), where ample references to the literature of + Trilobitae and Eurypteridae will be found; also references to + literature of fossil Scorpions and Spiders; 23. Hoek, "Report on the + Pycnogonida," _Challenger Expedition Reports_, 1881; Meinert, + "Pycnogonida of the Danish Ingolf Expedition," vol. iii., 1899; + Morgan, "Embryology and Phylogeny of the Pycnogonids," _Biol. Lab. + Baltimore_, vol. v., 1891; 24. Bourne, A.G., "The Reputed Suicide of + the Scorpion," _Proc. Roy. Soc._ vol. xlii. pp. 17-22; 25. Lankester, + "Notes on some Habits of Scorpions," _Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool._ vol. + xvi. p. 455, 1882; 26. Huxley, "Pharynx of Scorpion," _Quart. Journ. + Micr. Sci._ vol. viii. (old series), 1860, p. 250; 27. Pocock, "How + and Why Scorpions hiss," _Natural Science_, vol. ix., 1896; cf. + _idem_, "Stridulating Organs of Spiders," _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ + (6), xvi. pp. 230-233; 28. Kraepelin, _Das Thierreich (Scorpiones et + Pedipalpi_) (Berlin, 1899); Peters, "Eine neue Eintheilung der + Skorpione," _Man. Akad. Wiss. Berlin_, 1861; Pocock, "Classification + of Scorpions," _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ (6) xii., 1893; Thorell and + Lindstrom, "On a Silurian Scorpion," _Kongl. Svens. Vet. Akad. Handl._ + xxi. No. 9, 1885; 29. Cambridge, O.P., "A New Family (Tartarides) and + Genus of Thelyphonidea," _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ (4) x., 1872, p. + 413; Cook, "Hubbardia, a New Genus of Pedipalpi," _Proc. Entom. Soc. + Washington_, vol. iv., 1899; Thorell, "Tartarides, &c." _Ann. Mus. + Genova_, vol. xxvii., 1889; 30. M Cook, _American Spiders and their + Spinning Work_ (3 vols.; Philadelphia, 1889-1893); 31. Peckham, "On + Sexual Selection in Spiders," _Occasional Papers Nat. Hist. Soc. + Wisconsin_, vol. i. pp. 1-113, 1889; 32. Moggridge, _Harvesting Ants + and Trap-Door Spiders_ (1873); 33. Bertkau, Ph., _Arch. f. + Naturgesch._ vol. xlviii. pp. 316-362; _Idem_, same journal, 1875, p. + 235, and 1878, p. 351; Cambridge, O.P., "Araneidea" in _Biologia + Centr. Americana_, vols. i. and ii. (London, 1899); Keyserling, + _Spinnen Amerikas_ (Nuremberg, 1880-1892); Pocock, "Liphistius and the + Classification of Spiders," _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._ (6) x., 1892; + Simon, _Hist. nat. des Araignees_, vols. i. and ii., 1892, 1897; + Wagner, "L'Industrie des Araneina," _Mem. Acad. St-Petersbourg_; + _Idem_, "La Mue des Araignees," _Ann. Sci. Nat._ vol. vi.; 34. Grassi, + G.B. "Intorno ad un nuovo Aracnide artrogastro (_Koenenia mirabilis_) + &c." _Boll. Soc. Ent. Ital._ vol. xviii., 1886; 35. H.J. Hansen and + Sorensen, "The Order Palpigradi, Thorell (_Koenenia_), and its + Relationships with other Arachnida," _Ent. Tidskr._ vol. xviii. pp. + 233-240, 1898; Kraepelin, _Das Thierreich_ (Berlin, 1901); 36. + Bernard. "Compar. Morphol. of the Galeodidae," _Trans. Linn. Soc. + Zool._ vol. vi., 1896, _ibique citata_; Dufour, "Galeodes," _Mem. + pres. Acad. Sci. Paris_, vol. xvii., 1862; Kraepelin, _Das Thierreich_ + (Berlin, 1901); Pocock, "Taxonomy of Solifugae," _Ann. and Mag. Nat. + Hist._ vol. xx.; 37. Balzan, "Voyage au Venezuela (Pseudoscorpiones)," + _Ann. Soc. Entom. France_, 1891, pp. 497-522; 38. Guerin-Meneville, + _Rev. Zool._, 1838, p. II; Karsch, "Ueber Cryptostemma Guer." + _Berliner entom. Zeitschrift_, xxxviii. pp. 25-32, 1892; Thorell, "On + an apparently new Arachnid belonging to the family _Cryptostemmidae_," + _Westv. Bihang Svenska Vet. Akad. Handligar_, vol. xvii. No. 9, 1892; + 39. Hansen and Sorensen, _On Two Orders of Arachnida_ (Cambridge, + 1904); Sorensen, "_Opiliones laniatores_," _Nat. Tidskr._ (3) vol. + xiv., 1884; Thorell, "Opilioni," _Ann. Mus. Genova_, vol. viii., 1876; + 40. Berlese, "Acari, &c., in Italia reperta" (Padova, 1892); + Canestrini, _Acarofauna Italiana_ (Padova, 1885); Canestrini and + Kramer, "Demodicidae and Sarcoptidae" in _Das Thierreich_ (Berlin, + 1899); Michael, "British Oribatidae," _Ray Soc._; _Idem_, "Oribatidae" + in _Das Thierreich_ (Berlin, 1898); _Idem_, "Progress and Present + State of Knowledge of Acari," _Journ. Roy. Micr. Soc._, 1894; Nalepa, + "Phytoptidae," _Das Thierreich_ (Berlin, 1898); Trouessart, + "Classification des Acariens," _Rev. Sci. Nat. de l'ouest._ p. 289, + 1892; Wagner, _Embryonal Entwick, von Ixodes_ (St Petersburg, 1803); + 41. Bertkau, Ph., "Coxaldrusen der Arachniden," _Sitzb. Niederl. + Gesellsch._, 1885; 42. Patten, W., "Brain and Sense Organs of + Limulus," _Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci._ vol. xxxv., 1894; see also his + "Origin of Vertebrates from Arachnids," _ibid._ vol. xxxi. + + Authorities not cited by numbers in the text:-- + + Lung-books:--Berteaux, "Le Poumon des Arachnides," _La Cellule_, vol. + v. 1891; Jawarowski, "Die Entwick. d. sogen. Lunge bei der + Arachniden," _Zeitsch. wiss. Zool._ vol. lviii., 1894; Macleod, + "Recherches sur la structure et la signification de l'appareil + respiratoire des Arachnides," _Arch. d. Biologie._ vol. v., 1884; + Schneider, A., "Melanges arachnologiques," in _Tablettes zoologiques_, + vol. ii. p. 135, 1892; Simmons, "Development of Lung in Spiders," + _Amer. Journ. Science_, vol. xlviii., 1894. Coxal Glands:--Bertkau, + "Ueber die Coxaldrusen der Arachniden," _Sitzb. d. Niederl. + Gesellsch._, 1885; Loman, "Altes und neues uber das Nephridium (die + Coxaldruse) der Arachniden," _Byd. tot de Dierkunde_, vol. xiv., 1887; + Macleod, "Glande coxale chez les Galeodes," _Bull. Acad. Belg._ (3) + vol. viii., 1884; Pelseneer, "On the Coxal Glands of Mygale," _Proc. + Zool. Soc._, 1885; Tower, "The External Opening of the brick-red + Glands of Limulus," _Zool. Anzeiger_, vol. xviii. p. 471, 1895. + Ento-sternite:--Schimkewitsch, "Bau und Entwick. des Endosternites der + Arachniden," _Zool. Jahrb._, Anal. Abtheil., vol. viii., 1894. + Embryology:--Balfour, "Development of the Araneina," _Q. J. Micr. + Sci._ vol. xx., 1880; Kingsley, "The Embryology of Limulus," _Journ. + Morphology_, vols. vii. and viii.; Kishinouye, "Development of + Araneina," _Journ. Coll. Sci. Univ. of Japan_, vol. iv., 1890; Locy, + "Development of Agelena," _Bull. Mus. Harvard_, vol. xii., 1885; + Metchnikoff, "Embryologie d. Scorpion," _Zeit. wiss. Zool._ vol. xxi., + 1871; _Idem_, "Embryol. Chelifer," _Zeit. wiss. Zool._ vol. xxi., + 1871; Schimkewitsch, "Developpement des Araignees," _Archives d. + Biologie_, vol. vi. 1887. Sense organs:--Bertkau, "Sinnesorgane der + Spinnen," _Arch. f. mikros. Anat._ vol. xxvii. p. 589, 1886; Graber, + "Unicorneale Tracheaten Auge," _Arch. f. mikr. Anat._ vol. xvii., + 1879; Grenacher, _Gehororgane der Arthropoden_ (Gottingen, 1879); + Kishinouye, "Lateral Eyes of Spiders," _Zool. Anz._ vol. xiv. p. 381, + 1891; Purcell, "Phalangiden Augen," _Zool. Anzeiger_, vol. xv. p. 461. + + General works on Arachnida:--Blanchard, "Les Arachnides" in + _L'Organisation du regne animal_; Gaubert, "Recherches sur les + Arachnides," _Ann. Sci. Nat._ (7) vol. xiii., 1892; Koch, C., _Die + Arachniden_ (16 vols., Nuremberg, 1831-1848); Koch, Keyserling and + Sorensen, _Die Arachniden Australiens_ (Nuremberg, 1871-1890); Pocock, + _Arachnida of British India_ (London, 1900); _Idem_, "On African + Arachnida," in _Proc. Zool. Soc._ and _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._, + 1897-1900; Simon, _Les Arachnides de la France_ (7 vols., Paris, + 1874-1881); Thorell, "Arachnida from the Oriental Region," _Ann. Mus. + Genova_, 1877-1899. (E. R. L.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See the article ARTHROPODA for the use of the term "prosthomere." + + [2] See fig. 12 in the article ARTHROPODA. + + [3] Though ten is the prevailing number of retinula cells and + rhabdomeres in the lateral eye of Limulus, Watase states that they + may be as few as nine and as many as eighteen. + + [4] A great deal of superfluous hypothesis has lately been put + forward in the name of "the principle of convergence of characters" + by a certain school of palaeontologists. The horse is supposed by + these writers to have originated by separate lines of descent in the + Old World and the New, from five-toed ancestors! And the important + consequences following from the demonstration of the identity in + structure of Limulus and Scorpio are evaded by arbitrary and even + phantastic invocations of a mysterious transcendental force which + brings about "convergence" irrespective of heredity and selection. + Morphology becomes a farce when such assumptions are made. (E. R. L.) + + [5] A pair of round tubercles on the labram (camerostome or + hypostoma) of several species of Trilobites has been described and + held to be a pair of eyes (22). Sense-organs in a similar position + were discovered in Limulus by Patten (42) in 1894. + + [6] The writer is indebted to R.I. Pocock, assistant in the Natural + History departments of the British Museum, for valuable assistance in + the preparation of this article and for the classification and + definition of the groups of Eu-arachnida here given. The general + scheme and some of the details have been brought by the writer into + agreement with the views maintained in this article. Pocock accepts + those views in all essential points and has, as a special student of + the Arachnida, given to them valuable expansion and confirmation. The + writer also desires to express his thanks to Messrs. Macmillan & Co. + for permission to use figs. 22, 43, 44 and 45, which are taken from + Parker and Haswell's _Text-book of Zoology_; and to Messrs. Swan + Sonnenschein & Co. for the loan of several figures from the + translations published by them of the admirable treatise on + _Embryology_ by Professors Korschelt and Heider; also to the + publishers of the treatise on _Palaeontology_ by Professor Zittel, + Herr Oldenbourg and The Macmillan Co., New York, for several cuts of + extinct forms. + + [7] Pocock suggests that the area marked vii. in the outline figure + of the dorsal view of _Limulus_ (fig. 7) may be the tergum of the + suppressed prae-genital somite. Embryological evidence must settle + whether this is so or not. + + + + +ARAD, or O-ARAD, a town of Hungary, capital of the county of the same +name, 159 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 53,903. It is +situated on the right bank of the river Maros, and consists of the inner +town and five suburbs. Arad is a modern-built town, and contains many +handsome private and public buildings, including a cathedral. It is the +seat of a Greek-Orthodox bishop, and possesses a Greek-Orthodox +theological seminary, two training schools for teachers--one Hungarian, +and the other Rumanian--and a conservatoire for music. The town played +an important part in the Hungarian revolution of 1848-49, and possesses +a museum containing relics of this war of independence. One of the +public squares contains a martyrs' monument, erected in memory of the +thirteen Hungarian generals shot here on the 6th of October 1849, by +order of the Austrian general Haynau. It consists of a colossal figure +of Hungary, with four allegorical groups, and medallions of the +executed generals. Arad is an important railway junction, and has become +the largest industrial and commercial centre of south-eastern Hungary. +Its principal industries are: distilling, milling, machinery-making, +leather-working and saw-milling. A large trade is carried on in grain, +flour, alcohol, cattle and wood. Arad was a fortified place, and was +captured by the Turks during the wars of the 17th century, and kept by +them till the end of that century. The new fortress, built in 1763, +although small, was formidable, and played a great role during the +Hungarian struggle for independence in 1849. Bravely defended by the +Austrian general Berger until the 1st of July 1849, it was then captured +by the Hungarian rebels, who made it their headquarters during the +latter part of the insurrection. It was from it that Kossuth issued his +famous proclamation (11th August 1849), and it was here that he handed +over the supreme military and civil power to Gorgei. The fortress was +recaptured shortly after the surrender of Gorgei to the Russians at +Vilagos. The fortress is now used as an ammunition depot. + +The town of Uj-Arad, i.e. New Arad (pop. 6124), situated on the opposite +bank of the Maros, is practically a suburb of Arad, with which it is +connected by a bridge. The town was founded during the Turkish wars of +the 17th century. The works erected by the Turks for the capture of the +fortress of Arad formed the nucleus of the new town. + +Vilagos, the town where the famous capitulation of Gorgei to the +Russians took place on the 13th of August 1849, lies 21 m. by rail +north-east of Arad. + + + + +ARAEOSTYLE (Gr. [Greek: araios], weak or widely spaced, and [Greek: +stylos], column), an architectural term for the intercolumniation (q.v.) +given to those temples where the columns had only timber architraves to +carry. + + + + +ARAEOSYSTYLE (Gr. [Greek: araios], widely spaced, and [Greek: systylos], +with columns set close together), an architectural term applied to a +colonnade, in which the intercolumniation (q.v.) is alternately wide and +narrow, as in the case of the western porch of St Paul's cathedral and +the east front of the Louvre by Perrault. + + + + +ARAGO, DOMINIQUE FRANCOIS JEAN (1786-1853), French physicist, was born +on the 26th of February 1786, at Estagel, a small village near +Perpignan, in the department of the eastern Pyrenees. He was the eldest +of four brothers. Jean (1788-1836) emigrated to America and became a +general in the Mexican army. Jacques Etienne Victor (1799-1855) took +part in L.C. de S. de Freycinet's exploring voyage in the "Uranie" from +1817 to 1821, and on his return to France devoted himself to journalism +and the drama. The fourth brother, Etienne Vincent (1802-1892), is said +to have collaborated with H. de Balzac in the _Heritiere de Birague_, +and from 1822 to 1847 wrote a great number of light dramatic pieces, +mostly in collaboration. A strong republican, he was obliged to leave +France in 1849, but returned after the amnesty of 1859. In 1879 he was +nominated director of the Luxembourg museum. + +Showing decided military tastes Francois Arago was sent to the municipal +college of Perpignan, where he began to study mathematics in preparation +for the entrance examination of the polytechnic school. Within two years +and a half he had mastered all the subjects prescribed for examination, +and a great deal more, and, on going up for examination at Toulouse, he +astounded his examiner by his knowledge of Lagrange. Towards the close +of 1803 he entered the polytechnic school, with the artillery service as +the aim of his ambition, and in 1804, through the advice and +recommendation of S.D. Poisson, he received the appointment of secretary +to the Observatory of Paris. He now became acquainted with Laplace, and +through his influence was commissioned, with J.B. Biot, to complete the +meridional measurements which had been begun by J.B.J. Delambre, and +interrupted since the death of P.F.A. Mechain (1744-1804). The two left +Paris in 1806 and began operations among the mountains of Spain, but +Biot returned to Paris after they had determined the latitude of +Formentera, the southernmost point to which they were to carry the +survey, leaving Arago to make the geodetical connexion of Majorca with +Ivica and with Formentera. + +The adventures and difficulties of the latter were now only beginning. +The political ferment caused by the entrance of the French into Spain +extended to these islands, and the ignorant populace began to suspect +that Arago's movements and his blazing fires on the top of Mount Galatzo +were telegraphic signals to the invading army. Ultimately they became so +infuriated that he was obliged to cause himself to be incarcerated in +the fortress of Belver in June 1808. On the 28th of July he managed to +escape from the island in a fishing-boat, and after an adventurous +voyage he reached Algiers on the 3rd of August. Thence he procured a +passage in a vessel bound for Marseilles, but on the 16th of August, +just as the vessel was nearing Marseilles, it fell into the hands of a +Spanish corsair. With the rest of the crew, Arago was taken to Rosas, +and imprisoned first in a windmill, and afterwards in the fortress of +that seaport, until the town fell into the hands of the French, when the +prisoners were transferred to Palamos. After fully three months' +imprisonment they were released on the demand of the dey of Algiers, and +again set sail for Marseilles on the 28th of November, but when within +sight of their port they were driven back by a northerly wind to Bougie +on the coast of Africa. Transport to Algiers by sea from this place +would have occasioned a weary stay of three months; Arago, therefore, +set out for it by land under conduct of a Mahommedan priest, and reached +it on Christmas day. After six months' stay in Algiers he once again, on +the 21st of June 1809, set sail for Marseilles, where he had to undergo +a monotonous and inhospitable quarantine in the lazaretto, before his +difficulties were over. The first letter he received, while in the +lazaretto, was from A. von Humboldt; and this was the origin of a +connexion which, in Arago's words, "lasted over forty years without a +single cloud ever having troubled it." + +Through all these vicissitudes Arago had succeeded in preserving the +records of his survey; and his first act on his return home was to +deposit them in the Bureau des Longitudes at Paris. As a reward for his +adventurous conduct in the cause of science, he was in September 1809 +elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, in room of J.B.L. Lalande, +at the remarkably early age of twenty-three, and before the close of the +same year he was chosen by the council of the polytechnic school to +succeed G. Monge in the chair of analytical geometry. About the same +time he was named by the emperor one of the astronomers of the Royal +Observatory, which was accordingly his residence till his death, and it +was in this capacity that he delivered his remarkably successful series +of popular lectures on astronomy, which were continued from 1812 to +1845. + +In 1816, along with Gay-Lussac, he started the _Annales de chimie et de +physique_, and in 1818 or 1819 he proceeded along with Biot to execute +geodetic operations on the coasts of France, England and Scotland. They +measured the length of the seconds-pendulum at Leith, and in Unst, one +of the Shetland isles, the results of the observations being published +in 1821, along with those made in Spain. Arago was elected a member of +the Board of Longitude immediately afterwards, and contributed to each +of its _Annuals_, for about twenty-two years, important scientific +notices on astronomy and meteorology and occasionally on civil +engineering, as well as interesting memoirs of members of the Academy. + +In 1830, Arago, who always professed liberal opinions of the extreme +republican type, was elected a member of the chamber of deputies for the +Lower Seine, and he employed his splendid gifts of eloquence and +scientific knowledge in all questions connected with public education, +the rewards of inventors, and the encouragement of the mechanical and +practical sciences. Many of the most creditable national enterprises, +dating from this period, are due to his advocacy--such as the reward to +L.J.M. Daguerre for the invention of photography, the grant for the +publication of the works of P. Fermat and Laplace, the acquisition of +the museum of Cluny, the development of railways and electric +telegraphs, the improvement of the navigation of the Seine, and the +boring of the artesian wells at Grenelle. + +In the year 1830 also he was appointed director of the Observatory, and +as a member of the chamber of deputies he was able to obtain grants of +money for rebuilding it in part, and for the addition of magnificent +instruments. In the same year, too, he was chosen perpetual secretary of +the Academy of Sciences, in room of J.B.J. Fourier. Arago threw his +whole soul into its service, and by his faculty of making friends he +gained at once for it and for himself a world-wide reputation. As +perpetual secretary it fell to him to pronounce historical _eloges_ on +deceased members; and for this duty his rapidity and facility of +thought, his happy piquancy of style, and his extensive knowledge +peculiarly adapted him. + +In 1834 he again visited England, to attend the meeting of the British +Association at Edinburgh. From this time till 1848 he led a life of +comparative quiet--not the quiet of inactivity, however, for his +incessant labours within the Academy and the Observatory produced a +multitude of contributions to all departments of physical science,--but +on the fall of Louis Philippe he left his laboratory to join in forming +the provisional government. He was entrusted with the discharge of two +important functions, that had never before been united in one person, +viz. the ministry of war and of marine; and in the latter capacity he +effected some salutary reforms, such as the improvement of rations in +the navy and the abolition of flogging. He also abolished political +oaths of all kinds, and, against an array of moneyed interests, +succeeded in procuring the abolition of negro slavery in the French +colonies. + +In the beginning of May 1852, when the government of Louis Napoleon +required an oath of allegiance from all its functionaries, Arago +peremptorily refused, and sent in his resignation of his post as +astronomer at the Bureau des Longitudes. This, however, the prince +president, to his credit, declined to accept, and made "an exception in +favour of a _savant_ whose works had thrown lustre on France, and whose +existence his government would regret to embitter." But the tenure of +office thus granted did not prove of long duration. Arago was now on his +death-bed, under a complication of diseases, induced, no doubt, by the +hardships and labours of his earlier years. In the summer of 1853 he was +advised by his physicians to try the effect of his native air, and he +accordingly set out for the eastern Pyrenees. But the change was +unavailing, and after a lingering illness, in which he suffered first +from diabetes, then from Bright's disease, complicated by dropsy, he +died in Paris on the 2nd of October 1853. + +Arago's fame as an experimenter and discoverer rests mainly on his +contributions to magnetism and still more to optics. He found that a +magnetic needle, made to oscillate over nonferruginous surfaces, such as +water, glass, copper, &c., falls more rapidly in the extent of its +oscillations according as it is more or less approached to the surface. +This discovery, which gained him the Copley medal of the Royal Society +in 1825, was followed by another, that a rotating plate of copper tends +to communicate its motion to a magnetic needle suspended over it +("magnetism of rotation"). Arago is also fairly entitled to be regarded +as having proved the long-suspected connexion between the aurora +borealis and the variations of the magnetic elements. + +In optics we owe to him not only important optical discoveries of his +own, but the credit of stimulating the genius of A.J. Fresnel, with +whose history, as well as with that of E.L. Malus and of Thomas Young, +this part of his life is closely interwoven. Shortly after the beginning +of the 19th century the labours of these three philosophers were shaping +the modern doctrine of the undulatory theory of light. Fresnel's +arguments in favour of that theory found little favour with Laplace, +Poisson and Biot, the champions of the emission theory; but they were +ardently espoused by Humboldt and by Arago, who had been appointed by +the Academy to report on the paper. This was the foundation of an +intimate friendship between Arago and Fresnel, and of a determination to +carry on together further researches in this subject, which led to the +enunciation of the fundamental laws of the polarization of light known +by their names (see POLARIZATION). As a result of this work Arago +constructed a _polariscope_, which he used for some interesting +observations on the polarization of the light of the sky. To him is also +due the discovery of the power of _rotatory polarization_ exhibited by +quartz, and last of all, among his many contributions to the support of +the undulatory hypothesis, comes the _experimentum crucis_ which he +proposed to carry out for comparing directly the velocity of light in +air and in water or glass. On the emission theory the velocity should be +accelerated by an increase of density in the medium; on the wave theory, +it should be retarded. In 1838 he communicated to the Academy the +details of his apparatus, which utilized the revolving mirrors employed +by Sir C. Wheatstone in 1835 for measuring the velocity of the electric +discharge; but owing to the great care required in the carrying out of +the project, and to the interruption to his labours caused by the +revolution of 1848, it was the spring of 1850 before he was ready to put +his idea to the test; and then his eyesight suddenly gave way. Before +his death, however, the retardation of light in denser media was +demonstrated by the experiments of H.L. Fizeau and J.B.L. Foucault, +which, with improvements in detail, were based on the plan proposed by +him. + + Arago's _OEuvres_ were published after his death under the direction + of J.A. Barral, in 17 vols., 8vo, 1854-1862; also separately his + _Astronomie populaire_, in 4 vols.; _Notices biographiques_, in 3 + vols.; _Notices scientifiques_, in 5 vols.; _Voyages scientifiques_, + in 1 vol.; _Memoires scientifiques_, in 2 vols.; _Melanges_, in 1 + vol.; and _Tables analytiques et documents importants_ (with + portrait), in 1 vol. English translations of the following portions of + his works have appeared:--_Treatise on Comets_, by C. Gold, C.B. + (London, 1833); also translated by Smyth and Grant (London, 1861); + _Hist. eloge of James Watt_, by James Muirhead (London, 1839); also + translated, with notes, by Lord Brougham; _Popular Lectures on + Astronomy_, by Walter Kelly and Rev. L. Tomlinson (London, 1854); also + translated by Dr W.H. Smyth and Prof. R. Grant, 2 vols. (London, + 1855); _Arago's Autobiography_, translated by the Rev. Baden Powell + (London, 1855, 1858); _Arago's Meteorological Essays_, with + introduction by Humboldt, translated under the superintendence of + Colonel Sabine (London, 1855), and _Arago's Biographies of Scientific + Men_, translated by Smyth, Powell and Grant, 8vo (London, 1857). + + + + +ARAGON, or ARRAGON (in Span. _Aragon_), a captaincy-general, and +formerly a kingdom of Spain; bounded on the N. by the Pyrenees, which +separate it from France, on the E. by Catalonia and Valencia, S. by +Valencia, and W. by the two Castiles and Navarre. Pop. (1900) 912,711; +area, 18,294 sq. m. Aragon was divided in 1833 into the provinces of +Huesca, Teruel and Saragossa; an account of its modern condition is +therefore given under these names, which have not, however, superseded +the older designation in popular usage. + +Aragon consists of a central plain, edged by mountain ranges. On the +south, east and west, these ranges, though wild and rugged, are of no +great elevation, but on the north the Pyrenees attain their greatest +altitude in the peaks of Aneto (11,168 ft.) and Monte Perdido (10,998 +ft.)--also known as Las Tres Sorores, and, in French, as Mont Perdu. The +central pass over the Pyrenees is the Port de Canfranc, on the line +between Saragossa and Pau. Aragon is divided by the river Ebro (q.v.), +which flows through it in a south-easterly direction, into two nearly +equal parts, known as Trans-ibero and Cis-ibero. The Ebro is the +principal river, and receives from the north, in its passage through the +province, the Arba, the Gallego and the united waters of the Cinca, +Esera, Noguera Ribagorzana, Noguera Pallaresa and Segre--the last three +belonging to Catalonia. From the south it receives the Jalon and Jiloca +(or _Xalon_ and _Xiloca_) and the Guadalope. The Imperial Canal of +Aragon, which was begun by the emperor Charles V. in 1529, but remained +unfinished for nearly two hundred years, extends from Tudela to El Burgo +de Ebro, a distance of 80 m.; it has a depth of 9 ft., and an average +breadth of 69, and is navigable for vessels of about 80 tons. The Royal +Canal of Tauste, which lies along the north side of the Ebro, was cut +for purposes of irrigation, and gives fertility to the district. Two +leagues north-north-east of Albarracin is the remarkable fountain called +Cella, 3700 ft. above the sea, which forms the source of the Jiloca; and +between this river and the Sierra Molina is an extensive lake called +Gallocanta, covering about 6000 acres. The climate is characterized by +extreme heat in the summer and cold in the winter; among the mountains +the snowfall is heavy, and thunderstorms are frequent, but there is +comparatively little rain. + +Within a recent geological period, central Aragon was undoubtedly +submerged by the sea, and the parched chalky soil remains saturated with +salt, while many of the smaller streams run brackish. As the mountains +of Valencia and Catalonia effectually bar out the fertilizing moisture +of the sea-winds, much of the province is a sheer wilderness, stony, +ash-coloured, scarred with dry watercourses, and destitute of any +vegetation except thin grass and heaths. In contrast with the splendid +fertility of Valencia or the south of France, the landscape of this +region, like the rest of central Spain, seems almost a continuation of +the north African desert area. There are, however, extensive oak, pine +and beech forests in the highlands, and many beautiful oases in the +deeply sunk valleys, and along the rivers, especially beside the Ebro, +which is, therefore, often called the "Nile of Aragon." In such oases +the flora is exceedingly rich. Wheat, maize, rice, oil, flax and hemp, +of fine quality, are grown in considerable quantities; as well as +saffron, madder, liquorice, sumach, and a variety of fruits. Merino wool +is one of the chief products. + +In purity of race the Aragonese are probably equal to the Castilians, to +whom, rather than to the Catalans or Valencians, they are also allied in +character. The dress of the women is less distinctive than that of the +men, who wear a picturesque black and white costume, with knee-breeches, +a brilliantly coloured sash, black hempen sandals, and a handkerchief +wound round the head. + +Three counties--Sobrarbe, situated near the headwaters of the Cinca, +Aragon, to the west, and Ribagorza or Ribagorca, to the east--are +indicated by tradition and the earliest chronicles as the cradle of the +Aragonese monarchy. These districts were never wholly subdued when the +Moors overran the country (711-713). Sobrarbe especially was for a time +the headquarters of the Christian defence in eastern Spain. About 1035, +Sancho III. the Great, ruler of the newly established kingdom of +Navarre, which included the three counties above mentioned, bequeathed +them to Gonzalez and Ramiro, his sons. Ramiro soon rid himself of his +rival, and welded Sobrarbe, Ribagorza and Aragon into a single kingdom, +which thenceforward grew rapidly in size and power and shared with +Castile the chief part in the struggle against the Moors. The history of +this period, which was terminated by the union of Castile and Aragon +under Ferdinand and Isabella in 1479, is given, along with a full +account of the very interesting constitution of Aragon, under SPAIN +(q.v.). At the height of its power under James I. (1213-1276), the +kingdom included Valencia, Catalonia, the Balearic Islands and the +considerable territory of Montpellier in France; while Peter III. +(1276-1285) added Sicily to his dominions. + + The literature relating to Aragon is very extensive. See, in addition + to the works cited in the article SPAIN (section _History_), "Les + Archives d'Aragon et de Navarre," by L. Cadier, in _Bibliotheque de + l'Ecole des Chartes_, 49 (Paris, 1888). Among the more important + original authorities, the following may be selected:--for general + history, _Anales de la corona de Aragon_, by G. Curita, 3rd ed. in 7 + folio volumes (Saragossa, 1668-1671; 1st ed. 1562-1580);--for + ecclesiastical history, _Teatro historico de las iglesias de Aragon_ + (Pamplona, 1770-1807); for economic history, _Historia de la economia + politica de Aragon_, by I.J. de Asso y del Rio (Saragossa, 1798). For + the constitution and laws of Aragon, see _Origines del Justicia de + Aragon_, &c., by J. Ribera Tarrago (Saragossa, 1897), and + _Instituciones y reyes de Aragon_, by V. Balaguer (Madrid, 1896). The + topography, inhabitants, art, products, &c., of the kingdom are + described in a volume of the series _Espana_ entitled _Aragon_, by + J.M. Quadrado (Barcelona, 1886). + + + + +ARAGONITE, one of the mineral forms of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), the +other form being the more common mineral calcite. It crystallizes in the +orthorhombic system, and the crystals are either prismatic or acicular +in habit. Simple crystals are, however, rare; twinning on the prism +planes (_M_ in the figures) being a characteristic feature of the +mineral (fig. 1). This twinning is usually often repeated on the same +plane (fig. 2), and gives rise to striations on the terminal faces (k) +of the crystals; often, also, three crystals are twinned together on two +of the prism planes of one of them, producing an apparently hexagonal +prism. The mineral is colourless, white or yellowish, transparent or +translucent, has a vitreous lustre, and, in fact, is not unlike calcite +in general appearance. It may, however, always be readily distinguished +from calcite by the absence of any marked cleavage, and by its greater +hardness (H. = 3-1/2-4) and specific gravity (2.93); further, it is +optically biaxial, whilst calcite is uniaxial. It is brittle and has a +subconchoidal fracture; on a fractured surface the lustre is decidedly +resinous in character. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +The mineral was first found, as reddish twinned crystals with the form +of six-sided prisms, at Molina in Aragon, Spain, where it occurs with +gypsum and small crystals of ferruginous quartz in a red clay. It is +from this locality that the mineral takes its name, which was originally +spelt arragonite. Fine groups of crystals of the same habit are found in +the sulphur deposits of Girgenti in Sicily; also at Herrengrund near +Neusohl in Hungary. At many other localities the mineral takes the form +of radiating groups of acicular crystals, such as those from the +haematite mines of west Cumberland: beautiful feathery forms have been +found in a limestone cave in the Transvaal. Fibrous forms are also +common. A peculiar coralloidal variety known as _flosferri_ ("flower of +iron") consists of radially arranged fibres: magnificent snow-white +specimens of this variety have long been known from the iron mines of +Eisenetz in Styria. The calcareous secretions of many groups of +invertebrate animals consist of aragonite (calcite is also common); +pearls may be specially cited as an example. + +Aragonite is a member of the isomorphous group of minerals comprising +witherite (BaCO3), strontianite (SrCO3), cerussite (PbCO3) and bromlite +((Ba, Ca)CO3); and crystals of aragonite sometimes contain small amounts +of strontium or lead. A variety known as tarnowitzite, from Tarnowitz in +Silesia, contains about 5% of lead carbonate. + +Aragonite is the more unstable of the two modifications of calcium +carbonate. A crystal of aragonite when heated becomes converted into a +granular aggregate of calcite individuals: altered crystals of this kind +(paramorphs) are not infrequently met with in nature, whilst in fossil +shells the original nacreous layer of aragonite has invariably been +altered to calcite. From a solution of calcium carbonate in water +containing carbon dioxide crystals of calcite are deposited at the +ordinary temperature, but from a warm solution aragonite crystallizes +out. The thermal springs of Carlsbad deposit spherical concretions of +aragonite, forming masses known as pisolite or _Sprudelstein_. + (L. J. S.) + + + + +ARAGUA, one of the smaller states of Venezuela under the redivision of +1904, lying principally within the parallel ranges of the Venezuelan +Cordillera, and comprising some of the most fertile and healthful +valleys of the republic. It is bounded E. by the Federal District and +Maturin, S. by Guarico and W. by Zamora and Carabobo. Pop. (1905, est.) +152,364. Aragua has a short coast-line on the Caribbean west of the +Federal District, but has no port of consequence. Cattle, swine and +goats are raised, and the state produces coffee, sugar, cacao, beans, +cereals and cheese. The climate of the higher valleys is subtropical, +the mean annual temperature ranging from 74 deg. to 80 deg. F. The +capital, La Victoria (pop. 7800), is situated in the fertile Aragua +valley, 1558 ft. above sea-level and 36 m. south-west of Caracas. Other +important towns are Barbacoas (pop. 13,109) on the left bank of the +Guarico in a highly fertile region, Ciudad de Cura and Maracay (pop. +7500), 56 m. west-south-west of Caracas near the north-east shore of +Lake Valencia. The last two towns are on the railway between Caracas and +Valencia. + + + + +ARAGUAYA, ARAGUAY or ARAGUIA, a river of Brazil and principal affluent +of the Tocantins, rising in the Serra do Cayapo, where it is known as +the Rio Grande, and flowing in a north by east direction to a junction +with the Tocantins at Sao Joao do Araguaya, or Sao Joao das Duas Barras. +Its upper course forms the boundary line between Goyaz and Matto Grosso. +The river divides into two branches at about 13 deg. 20' S. lat., and +unites again at 10 deg. 30', forming the large island of Santa Anna or +Bananal. The eastern branch, called the Furo, is the one used by boats, +as the main channel is obstructed by rapids. Its principal affluent is +the Rio das Mortes, which rises in the Serra de Sao Jeronymo, near +Cuyaba, Matto Grosso, and is utilized by boatmen going to Para. Of other +affluents, the Bonito, Garcas, Cristallino and Tapirape on the west, and +the Pitombas, Claro, Vermelho, Tucupa and Chavante on the east, nothing +definite is known as the country is still largely unexplored. The +Araguaya has a course of 1080 m., considerable stretches of which are +navigable for small river steamers, but as the river below Santa Anna +Island is interrupted by reefs and rapids in two places--one having a +fall of 85 ft. in 18 m., and the other a fall of 50 ft. in 12 m.--it +affords no practicable outlet for the products of the state. It was +explored in part by Henri Coudreau in 1897. + + See Coudreau's _Voyage au Tocantins-Araguaya_ (Paris, 1897). + + + + +ARAKAN, a division of Lower Burma. It consists of a strip of country +running along the eastern seaboard of the Bay of Bengal, from the Naaf +estuary, on the borders of Chittagong, to Cape Negrais. Length from +northern extremity to Cape Negrais, about 400 m.; greatest breadth in +the northern part, 90 m., gradually diminishing towards the south, as it +is hemmed in by the Arakan Yoma mountains, until, in the extreme south, +it tapers away to a narrow strip not more than 15 m. across. The coast +is studded with islands, the most important of which are Cheduba, Ramree +and Shahpura. The division has its headquarters at Akyab and consists of +four districts--namely, Akyab, Northern Arakan Hill Tracts, Sandoway and +Kyaukpyu, formerly called Ramree. Its area is 18,540 sq. m. The +population at the time of the British occupation in 1826 did not exceed +100,000. In 1831 it amounted to 173,000; in 1839 to 248,000, and in 1901 +to 762,102. + +The principal rivers of Arakan are--(1) the Naaf estuary, in the north, +which forms the boundary between the division and Chittagong; (2) the +Myu river, an arm of the sea, running a course almost parallel with the +coast for about 50 m.; (3) the Koladaing river, rising near the Blue +mountain, in the extreme north-east, and falling into the Bay of Bengal +a few miles south of the Myu river, navigable by vessels of from 300 to +400 tons burden for a distance of 40 m. inland; and (4) the Lemyu river, +a considerable stream falling into the bay a few miles south of the +Koladaing. Farther to the south, owing to the nearness of the range +which bounds Arakan on the east, the rivers are of but little +importance. These are the Talak and the Aeng, navigable by boats; and +the Sandoway, the Taungup and the Gwa streams, the latter of which alone +has any importance, owing to its mouth forming a good port of call or +haven for vessels of from 9 to 10 ft. draught. There are several passes +over the Yoma mountains, the easiest being that called the Aeng route, +leading from the village of that name into Upper Burma. The staple crop +of the province is rice, along with cotton, tobacco, sugar, hemp and +indigo. The forests produce abundance of excellent oak and teak timber. + +The natives of Arakan trace their history as far back as 2666 B.C., and +give a lineal succession of 227 native princes down to modern times. +According to them, their empire had at one period far wider limits, and +extended over Ava, part of China, and a portion of Bengal. This +extension of their empire is not, however, corroborated by known facts +in history. At different times the Moguls and Pegus carried their arms +into the heart of the country. The Portuguese, during the era of their +greatness in Asia, gained a temporary establishment in Arakan; but in +1782 the province was finally conquered by the Burmese, from which +period until its cession to the British in 1826, under the treaty of +Yandaboo, its history forms part of that of Burma. The old city of +Arakan, formerly the capital of the province, is situated on an inferior +branch of the Koladaing river. Its remoteness from the ports and +harbours of the country, combined with the extreme unhealthiness of its +situation, have led to its gradual decay subsequently to the formation +of the comparatively recent settlement of Akyab, which place is now the +chief town of the province. The old city (now Myohaung) lies 50 m. +north-east of Akyab. The Maghs, who form nearly the whole population of +the province, follow the Buddhist doctrines, which are universally +professed throughout Burma. The priests are selected from all classes of +men, and one of their chief employments is the education of children. +Instruction is consequently widely diffused, and few persons, it is +said, can be found in the province who are unable to read. The +qualifications for entering into the priestly order are good conduct and +a fair measure of learning--such conduct at least as is good according +to Buddhist tenets, and such learning as is esteemed among their +votaries. + +The Arakanese are of Burmese origin, but separated from the parent stock +by the Arakan Yoma mountains, and they have a dialect and customs of +their own. Though conquered by the Burmese, they have remained distinct +from their conquerors. + +The Northern Arakan Hill Tracts district is under a superintendent, who +is usually a police officer, with headquarters at Paletwa. The area of +the Hill Tracts is 5233 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 20,682. (J. G. Sc.) + + + + +ARAKCHEEV, ALEKSYEI ANDREEVICH, COUNT (1769-1834), Russian soldier and +statesman, was descended from an ancient family of Great Novgorod. From +his mother, Elizabeth Vitlitsaya, he inherited most of his +characteristics, an insatiable love of work, an almost pedantic love of +order and the most rigorous sense of duty. In 1788 he entered the corps +of noble cadets in the artillery and engineering department, where his +ability, especially in mathematics, soon attracted attention. In July +1791 he was made an adjutant on the staff of Count N.I. Saltuikov, who +(September 1792) recommended him to the cesarevich Paul Petrovich as the +artillery officer most capable of reorganizing the army corps maintained +by the prince at Gatchina. Arakcheev speedily won the entire confidence +of Paul by his scrupulous zeal and undeniable technical ability. His +inexorable discipline (magnified into cruelty by later legends) soon +made the Gatchina corps a model for the rest of the Russian army. On the +accession of Paul to the throne Arakcheev was promptly summoned to St +Petersburg, appointed military commandant in the capital, and +major-general in the grenadier battalion of the Preobrazhenskoe Guard. +On the 12th of December 1796, he received the ribbon of St Anne and a +rich estate at Gruzina in the government of Novgorod, the only +substantial gift ever accepted by him during the whole of his career. At +the coronation (5th of April 1797) Paul created him a baron, and he was +subsequently made quartermaster-general and colonel of the whole +Preobrazhenskoe Guard. It was to Arakcheev that Paul entrusted the +reorganization of the army, which during the latter days of Catherine +had fallen into a state of disorder and demoralization. Arakcheev +remorselessly applied the iron Gatchina discipline to the whole of the +imperial forces, beginning with the Guards. He soon became generally +detested by the army, but pursued his course unflinchingly and +introduced many indispensable hygienic reforms. "Clean barracks are +healthy barracks," was his motto. Nevertheless, the opposition of the +officers proved too strong for him, and on the 18th of March 1798 he was +dismissed from all his appointments. Arakcheev's first disgrace only +lasted six months. On the 11th of August he was received back into +favour, speedily reinstated in all his former offices, and on the 5th of +May 1799 was created a count, the emperor himself selecting the motto: +"Devoted, not servile." Five months later he was again in disgrace, the +emperor dismissing him on the strength of a denunciation subsequently +proved to be false. It was a fatal step on Paul's part, for everything +goes to prove that he would never have been assassinated had Arakcheev +continued by his side. During the earlier years of Alexander, Arakcheev +was completely overlooked. Only on the 27th of April 1803, was the count +recalled to St Petersburg, and employed as inspector-general of the +artillery. His wise and thorough reorganization of the whole department +contributed essentially to the victories of the Russians during the +Napoleonic wars. All critics agree, indeed, that the Arakcheev +administration was the golden era of the Russian artillery. The activity +of the inexhaustible inspector knew no bounds, and he neglected nothing +which could possibly improve this arm. His principal reforms were the +subdivision of the artillery divisions into separate independent units, +the formation of artillery brigades, the establishment of a committee of +instruction (1808), and the publishing of an _Artillery Journal_. At +Austerlitz he had the satisfaction of witnessing the actual results of +his artillery reforms. The commissariat scandals which came to light +after the peace of Tilsit convinced the emperor that nothing short of +the stern and incorruptible energy of Arakcheev could reach the sources +of the evil, and in January 1808 he was appointed inspector-general and +war minister. When, on the outbreak of the Swedish war of 1809, the +emperor ordered the army to take advantage of an unusually severe frost +and cross the ice of the Gulf of Finland, it was only the presence of +Arakcheev that compelled an unwilling general and a semi-mutinous army +to begin a campaign which ended in the conquest of Finland. On the +institution of the "Imperial Council" (1st of January 1810), Arakcheev +was made a member of the council of ministers and a senator, while still +retaining the war office. Subsequently Alexander was alienated from him +owing to the intrigues of the count's enemies, who hated him for his +severity and regarded him as a dangerous reactionary. The alienation was +not, however, for long. It is true, Arakcheev took no active part in the +war of 1812, but all the correspondence and despatches relating to it +passed through his hands, and he was the emperor's inseparable companion +during the whole course of it. At Paris (31st of March 1814) Alexander, +with his own hand, wrote the _ukaz_ appointing him a field-marshal, but +he refused the dignity, accepting, instead, a miniature portrait of his +master. From this time Alexander's confidence in Arakcheev steadily +increased, and the emperor imparted to him, first of all, his many +projects of reform, especially his project of military colonies, the +carrying out of the details of which was committed to Arakcheev (1824). +The failure of the scheme was due not to any fault of the count, but to +the inefficiency and insubordination of the district officers. In +Alexander's last years Arakcheev was not merely his chief counsellor, +but his dearest friend, to whom he submitted all his projects for +consideration and revision. The most interesting of these projects was +the plan for the emancipation of the peasantry (1818). On the accession +of Nicholas I., Arakcheev, thoroughly broken in health, gradually +restricted his immense sphere of activity, and on the 26th of April +1826, resigned all his offices and retired to Carlsbad. The 50,000 +roubles presented to him by the emperor as a parting gift he at once +handed to the Pavlovsk Institute for the education of the daughters of +poor gentlemen. His last days he spent on his estate at Gruzina, +carefully collecting all his memorials of Alexander, whose memory he +most piously cherished. He also set aside 25,000 roubles for the author +of the best biography of his imperial friend. Arakcheev died on the 21st +of April 1834, with his eyes fixed to the last on the late emperor's +portrait. "I have now done everything," he said, "so I can go and make +my report to the emperor Alexander." In 1806 he had married Natalia +Khomutova, but they lived apart, and he had no children by her. + + See Vasily Ratch, _Memorials of Count Arakcheev_ (Rus.) (St + Petersburg, 1864); Mikhail Ivanovich Semevsky, _Count Arakcheev and + the Military Colonies_ (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1871); Theodor + Schiemann, _Gesch. Russland's unter Kaiser Nikolaus I._, vol. i., + _Alexander I._, &c. (Berlin, 1904). (R. N. B.) + + + + +ARAL, a lake or inland sea in the west of Asia, situated between lat. 43 +deg. 30' and 46 deg. 51' N., and long. 58 deg. 13' and 61 deg. 56' E. It +was known to the ancient Arab and Persian geographers as the Sea of +Khwarizm or Kharezm, from the neighbouring district of the Chorasmians, +and derives its present name from the Kirghiz designation of +Aral-denghiz, or Sea of Islands. In virtue of its area (26,233 sq. m.) +it is the fourth largest inland sea of the world. It has nearly the same +length as width, namely about 170 m., if its northern gulf +(Kichkineh-denghiz) is left out of account. Its depth is insignificant, +the maximum being 220 ft. in a depression in the north-west, and the +mean depth only 50 ft., so that notwithstanding its area it contains +only eleven times as much water as the Lake of Geneva. Its altitude is +242-1/2 ft. above the Caspian, i.e. about 155 ft. above the ocean. The +lake is surrounded on the north by steppes; on the west by the rocky +plateau of Ust-Urt, which separates it from the Caspian; on the south by +the alluvial district of Khiva; and on the east by the Kyzyl-kum, or Red +Sand Desert. On the north the shores are comparatively low, and the +coast-line is broken by a number of irregular bays, of which the most +important are those of Sary-chaganak and Paskevich. On the west an +almost unbroken wall of rock extends from Chernychev Bay southwards, +rising towards the middle to 500 ft. The southern coast is occupied by +the delta of the Oxus (Jihun, Amu-darya), one of the arms of which, the +Laudan, forms a swamp, 80 m. long and 20 broad, before it discharges +into the sea. The only other tributary of any size that the sea receives +is the Jaxartes (Sihun, Syr-darya) which enters towards the northern +extremity of the east coast, and is suspected to be shifting its +embouchure more and more to the north. This river, as well as the Amu, +conveys vast quantities of sediment into the lake; the delta of the +Syr-darya increased by 13-3/4 sq. m. between 1847 and 1900. The eastern +coast is fringed with multitudes of small islands, and other islands, +some of considerable size, are situated in the open towards the north +and west. Kug-Aral, the largest, lies opposite the mouth of the +Syr-darya, cutting off the Kichkineh-denghiz or Little Sea. The next +largest island is the Nikolai, nearly in the middle. Navigation is +dangerous owing to the frequency and violence of the storms, and the +almost total absence of shelter. The north-east wind is the most +prevalent, and sometimes blows for months together. The only other +craft, except the steamships of the Russians, that venture on the +waters, are the flat-bottomed boats of the Kirghiz. + +In regard to the period of the formation of the Aral there were formerly +two theories. According to Sir H.C. Rawlinson (_Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc._, +March 1867) the disturbances which produced the present lake took place +in the course of the middle ages; while Sir Roderick Murchison contended +(_Journ. of Roy. Geog. Soc._, 1867, p. cxliv. &c.) that the Caspian and +Aral existed as separate seas before and during all the historic period, +and that the main course of the rivers Jaxartes and Oxus was determined +in a prehistoric era. The former based his opinion largely on historical +evidence, and the latter trusted principally to geological data. There +is no doubt that in recent historical times Lake Aral had a much greater +extension than it has at the present time, and that its area is now +diminishing. This is, of course, due to the excess of evaporation over +the amount of water supplied by its two feeders, the Amu-darya and the +Syr-darya, both of which are seriously drawn upon for irrigation in all +the oases they flow through. Old shore lines and other indications point +to the level of the lake having once been 50 ft. above the existing +level. Nevertheless the general desiccation is subject to temporary +fluctuations, which appear to correspond to the periods recently +suggested by Eduard Bruckner (b. 1862); for, whereas the lake diminished +and shrank during 1850-1880, since the latter year it has been rising +again. Islands which were formerly connected with the shore are now some +distance away from it and entirely surrounded by water. Moreover, on a +graduated level, put down in 1874, there was a permanent rise of nearly +4 ft. by 1901. The temperature at the bottom was found (1900-1902) by +Emil Berg to be 33.8 deg. Fahr., while that of the surface varied from +44.5 deg. to 80.5 deg. between May and September; the mean surface +temperature for July was 75 deg. The salinity of the water is much less +than that of the ocean, containing only 1.05% of salt, and the lake +freezes every year for a great distance from its shores. The opinion +that Lake Aral periodically disappeared, which was for a long time +countenanced by Western geographers, loses more and more probability now +that it is evident that at a relatively recent period the Caspian Sea +extended much farther eastward than it does now, and that Lake Aral +communicated with it through the Sary-kamysh depression. The present +writer is even inclined to think that, besides this southern +communication with the Caspian, Lake Aral may have been, even in +historical times, connected with the Mortvyi Kultuk (Tsarevich) Gulf of +the Caspian, discharging part of its water into that sea through a +depression of the Ust-Urt plateau, which is marked by a chain of lakes +(Chumyshty, Asmantai). In this case it might have been easily confounded +with a gulf of the Caspian (as by Jenkinson). That the level of Lake +Aral was much higher in post-Pliocene times is proved by the discovery +of shells of its characteristic species of _Pecten_ and _Mytilus_ in the +Kara-kum Desert, 33 m. south of the lake and at an altitude of 70 ft. +above its present level, and perhaps even up to 200 ft. (by Syevertsov). + +The fish of Lake Aral belong to fresh-water species, and in some of its +rapid tributaries the interesting _Scaphirhynchus_, which represents a +survival from the Tertiary epoch, is found. The fishing is very +productive, the fish being exported to Turkestan, Merv and Russia. The +shores of the lake are uninhabited; the nearest settlements are Kazala, +55 m. east, on the Syr, and Chimbai and Kungrad in the delta of the Amu. + + AUTHORITIES.--Maksheev's "Description of Lake Aral," and Kaulbars' + "Delta of the Amu," in _Zapiski of Russ. Geogr. Soc._, 1st series, v., + and new series, ix.; _Grimm's Studies of the Aral-Caspian Expedition_; + Nikolsky's "Fishing in Lake Aral," in _Izvestia, Russ. Geogr. Soc._, + 1887; Prof. Mushketov, _Turkestan_, vol. i. (1886), which contains + bibliographical references; Rosler, _Die Aralseefrage_ (1873); Wood, + _The Shores of the Aral Lake_ (1876); and Berg in _Izvestia, Turkestan + Branch of Russian Geog. Soc._ (vol. iii., Tashkent, 1902). + (P. A. K.) + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 2, Slice 3, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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