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+Project Gutenberg's Races and Immigrants in America, by John R. Commons
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
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+
+Title: Races and Immigrants in America
+
+Author: John R. Commons
+
+Release Date: October 4, 2010 [EBook #34028]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RACES AND IMMIGRANTS IN AMERICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Brian Foley and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
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+
+RACES AND IMMIGRANTS IN AMERICA
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: ELLIS ISLAND, IMMIGRATION STATION]
+
+
+
+
+  RACES AND IMMIGRANTS IN AMERICA
+
+
+  BY JOHN R. COMMONS
+
+  PROFESSOR OF POLITICAL ECONOMY, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN
+
+
+  New York
+  THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+  LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD.
+  1907
+
+  _All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT, 1907,
+  BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
+
+  Set up and electrotyped. Published May, 1907.
+
+
+  Norwood Press
+  J. S. Cushing & Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.
+  Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                        PAGE
+
+  REFERENCES                             vii
+
+  CHAPTER
+
+     I. RACE AND DEMOCRACY                 1
+
+    II. COLONIAL RACE ELEMENTS            22
+
+   III. THE NEGRO                         39
+
+    IV. NINETEENTH CENTURY ADDITIONS      63
+
+     V. INDUSTRY                         107
+
+    VI. LABOR                            135
+
+   VII. CITY LIFE, CRIME, AND POVERTY    160
+
+  VIII. POLITICS                         179
+
+    IX. AMALGAMATION AND ASSIMILATION    198
+
+  INDEX                                  239
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+  ELLIS ISLAND, IMMIGRANT STATION                         _Frontispiece_
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+  "RETURN OF THE MAYFLOWER." Painting By Boughton, 1834    _opposite_ 24
+
+  ANGLO-SAXON MOUNTAINEERS, BEREA COLLEGE, KENTUCKY        _opposite_ 36
+
+  COUNTIES HAVING A LARGER PROPORTION OF NEGROES IN 1900
+  THAN IN 1880                                             _opposite_ 50
+
+  MOVEMENT OF IMMIGRANTS, IMPORTS OF MERCHANDISE PER
+  CAPITA AND IMMIGRANTS PER 10,000 POPULATION            _between_ 63-64
+
+  ALIENS AWAITING ADMISSION AT ELLIS ISLAND                _opposite_ 78
+
+  NORWEGIAN, ITALIAN, AND ARABIC TYPES                         "      90
+
+  SLAV, JEWISH, POLACK, AND LITHUANIAN TYPES                   "      96
+
+  INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS OF IMMIGRANTS--1906             _between_ 108-109
+
+  AMERICAN SCHOOL BOYS                                    _opposite_ 122
+
+  FILIPINO GOVERNORS                                           "     142
+
+  GOVERNOR JOHNSON OF MINNESOTA.--SWEDE                        "     154
+
+  DR. ORONHYATEKHA, MOHAWK INDIAN. LATE CHIEF OF
+  ORDER OF FORESTERS                                           "     168
+
+  CHINESE STUDENTS, HONOLULU                                   "     186
+
+  FACULTY OF TUSKEGEE INSTITUTE                                "     202
+
+  SLAVIC HOME MISSIONARIES                                     "     216
+
+  ALIENS AWAITING ADMISSION AT ELLIS ISLAND                    "     230
+
+
+
+
+REFERENCES CITED IN FOOTNOTES
+
+
+"AMERICA'S RACE PROBLEMS." A series of discussions on indigenous race
+elements and the negro. _American Academy of Political and Social
+Science_, Vol. XVIII, No. 1 (1901).
+
+ATLANTA UNIVERSITY PUBLICATIONS:--
+
+    No. 1. "Mortality among Negroes in Cities" (1896).
+    No. 2. "Social and Physical Condition of Negroes in Cities" (1897).
+    No. 3. "Some Efforts of Negroes for Social Betterment" (1898).
+    No. 6. "The Negro Common School" (1901).
+    No. 7. "The Negro Artisan" (1902).
+    No. 8. "The Negro Church" (1903).
+    No. 9. "Notes on Negro Crime" (1904).
+    No. 10. "A Select Bibliography of the Negro American" (1905).
+
+BALCH, EMILY GREENE, "Slav Emigration at its Source," _Charities_, 1906.
+"Introductory," Jan. 6; "Bohemians," Feb. 3; "Slovaks," March 3, April
+7; "Galicia, Austrian Poles, Ruthenians," May 5.
+
+BLUNTSCHLI, J. K., _The Theory of the State_. New York, 1885.
+
+BRANDENBURG, BROUGHTON, _Imported Americans_ (1904). Description of trip
+by author and wife through southern Italy and Sicily and return by
+steerage with immigrants.
+
+BRINTON, DANIEL G., _Religions of Primitive Peoples_. New York, 1897.
+
+BUREAU OF LABOR, Seventh Special Report, _The Slums of Baltimore,
+Chicago, New York, and Philadelphia_ (1894). Ninth Special Report, _The
+Italians in Chicago_ (1897).
+
+BURGESS, JOHN W., _Reconstruction and the Constitution_, 1866-1876. New
+York, 1903.
+
+BUSHEE, FREDERICK A., "Ethnic Factors in the Population of Boston,"
+_American Economic Association_, 3d Series, Vol. IV, pp. 305-470 (1903).
+
+CASSON, HERBERT N., _Munsey's Magazine_, "The Jews in America," 34:381;
+"The Sons of Old Scotland in America," 34:599; "The Germans in America,"
+34:694; "The Scandinavians in America," 35:613; "The Welsh in America,"
+35:749; "The Italians in America," 35:122; "The Dutch in America,"
+35:238; "The Spanish in America," 35:294.
+
+COMAN, KATHERINE, "The History of Contract Labor in the Hawaiian
+Islands," _American Economic Association_, 3d Series, Vol. IV, No. 3
+(1903). "The Negro as Peasant Farmer," _American Statistical
+Association_, June, 1904, pp. 39-54.
+
+COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, _Annual Reports_, Washington.
+
+COMMISSIONER-GENERAL OF IMMIGRATION, _Annual Reports_, Washington.
+
+COMMONS, J. R., _Proportional Representation_. New York, 1907.
+
+CUTLER, JAMES E., _Lynch Law. An Investigation into the History of
+Lynching in the United States_. New York, 1905.
+
+DE FOREST AND VEILLIER, _The Tenement House Problem_, 2 vols. New York,
+1903.
+
+DU BOIS, W. E. B., _The Philadelphia Negro_. Philadelphia, 1899; _The
+Soul of Black Folk._ New York, 1903; "Negroes," Twelfth Census,
+_Supplementary Analysis_, pp. 185-275; "The Negro Farmer," pp. 511-579.
+
+EATON, DORMAN B., _The Civil Service in Great Britain_. New York, 1880.
+
+
+EMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES, Special Consular Reports, Vol. XXX.
+Department of Commerce and Labor, 1904.
+
+_Facts about Immigration._ Reports of Conferences of the Immigration
+Department of the National Civic Federation, Sept. 14 and Dec. 12, 1906.
+New York, 1907.
+
+_Federation._ Quarterly Journal of Federation of Churches and Christian
+Organizations, New York. Especially June, July, December, 1902, March,
+June, October, 1903. Also annual reports and sociological canvasses of
+the Federation.
+
+FISKE, JOHN, _Old Virginia and her Neighbors_, 2 vols. New York, 1897.
+
+FLEMING, WALTER L., _Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama_. New York,
+1897.
+
+FRANKLIN, F. J., _The Legislative History of Naturalization in the
+United States_. Chicago, 1906.
+
+GROSE, HOWARD B., _Aliens or Americans?_ Forward Mission Study Courses.
+New York, 1906.
+
+HALL, PRESCOTT F., _Immigration and its Effect upon the United States_.
+New York, 1906.
+
+HAMPTON NEGRO CONFERENCE, Annual, 1897-1901.
+
+HANNA, CHARLES A., _The Scotch-Irish_, 2 vols. New York, 1902.
+
+HAWAII, REPORTS ON, United States Bureau of Labor, 1st Report, Sen. Doc.
+169, 57th Congress, 1st Sess., 13:4231; 2d Report, _Bulletin_ No. 47
+(1903); 3d Report, _Bulletin_ No. 66 (1906).
+
+HOFFMAN, FREDERICK L., "Race Traits and Tendencies of the American
+Negro," _Publications of the American Economic Association_, Vol. XI,
+Nos. 1, 2, 3 (1896).
+
+HUEBNER, GROVER G., "The Americanization of the Immigrant," _American
+Academy of Political and Social Science_, May, 1906, p. 191.
+
+_Hull House Maps and Papers, A Presentation of Nationalities and Wages
+in a Congested District of Chicago_, by residents of Hull House. New
+York, 1895.
+
+HUNTER, ROBERT, _Poverty_. New York, 1904. Chapter VI, "The Immigrant."
+
+_Immigration Laws and Regulations and Chinese Exclusion Laws_, Bureau of
+Immigration and Naturalization, Washington.
+
+IMMIGRATION RESTRICTION LEAGUE, Prescott F. Hall, Secretary, Boston,
+Mass. Leaflets.
+
+INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION, Vol. XV, _Immigration and Education_; Vol. XIX,
+_Miscellaneous_ (1901).
+
+JACKSON, HELEN HUNT, _A Century of Dishonor_. New York, 1881.
+
+JAPANESE AND KOREAN EXCLUSION LEAGUE, San Francisco. Leaflets.
+
+JENKS, J. W., _Certain Economic Questions in the English and Dutch
+Colonies in the Orient_. War Department, Bureau of Insular Affairs,
+1902, Doc. No. 168.
+
+JEWISH AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL AID SOCIETY, _Annual Reports_. New
+York.
+
+KELLOR, FRANCES A., _Out of Work_. New York, 1904.
+
+KELSEY, CARL, _The Negro Farmer_. Chicago, 1903. Also _Annals of the
+American Academy of Political and Social Science_, January, 1903.
+
+KING AND OKEY, _Italy To-day_. London, 1901.
+
+KUCZYNSKI, R., "The Fecundity of the Native and Foreign Born Population
+in Massachusetts," _Quarterly Journal of Economics_, November, 1901,
+February, 1902. "Die Einwanderungspolitik und die Bevoelkerungsfrage der
+Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika," _Volkswirthschaftliche Zeitfragen_.
+Berlin, 1903.
+
+LAZARE, BERNARD, _Antisemitism, Its History and Causes_. New York, 1903.
+
+LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, _Select List of References on the Negro Question
+(1903). List of Works relating to the Germans in the United States
+(1904). Select List of References on Chinese Immigration (1904).
+Fourteenth Amendment_. List of Discussions of Fourteenth and Fifteenth
+Amendments with Special Reference to Negro Suffrage (1906). _List of
+References on Naturalization (1907)._
+
+LODGE, HENRY CABOT, _Historical and Political Essays_. Boston, 1892.
+
+LORD, TRENOR, AND BARROWS, _The Italian in America_. New York, 1905.
+Especially Italians in American agriculture.
+
+MALLOCK, W. H., _Aristocracy and Evolution_. New York, 1898.
+
+MARSHALL, ALFRED, _Principles of Economics_. New York, 1891.
+
+MERRIAM, G. S., _The Negro and the Nation_. New York, 1906.
+
+MUIRHEAD, JAMES F., _The Land of Contrasts_. London and New York, 1900.
+
+MUeNSTERBERG, HUGO, _American Traits_. New York, 1902.
+
+NATURALIZATION, REPORT TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE COMMISSION ON. Submitted
+Nov. 8, 1905, 59th Cong., 1st Sess., H. R. Doc. 46.
+
+NEGRO. Series of Articles on the Reconstruction Period, _Atlantic
+Monthly_. "The Reconstruction of the Southern States," Woodrow Wilson,
+87:1; "The Conditions of the Reconstruction Problem," Hilary A. Herbert,
+87:145; "The Freedman's Bureau," W. E. B. Du Bois, 87:354;
+"Reconstruction in South Carolina," Daniel H. Chamberlain, 87:473; "The
+Ku-Klux Movement," William G. Brown, 87:634; "Washington during
+Reconstruction," S. W. McCall, 87:817; "Reconstruction and
+Disfranchisement," Editors, 88:31; "New Orleans and Reconstruction,"
+Albert Phelps, 88:121; "The Southern People during Reconstruction,"
+Thomas Nelson Page, 88:289; "The Undoing of Reconstruction," William A.
+Dunning, 88:437.
+
+United States Bureau of Labor, _Bulletin_ No. 22, "The Negro in the
+Black Belt"; No. 32, "The Negroes of Sandy Spring, Maryland"; No. 35,
+"The Negro Landholder of Georgia"; No. 37, "The Negroes of Litwalton,
+Virginia"; No. 38, "Negroes of Cinclare Central Factory and Calumet
+Plantation, Louisiana"; No. 48, "The Negroes of Xenia, Ohio."
+
+"NEGROES, SOCIAL INTERESTS OF, IN NORTHERN CITIES." _Charities_, special
+number, Oct. 7, 1905.
+
+RIPLEY, W. Z., _The Races of Europe_. New York, 1899.
+
+ROOSEVELT, THEODORE, _The Winning of the West_, 4 vols. New York,
+1889-1894.
+
+ROSENBERG, EDWARD, "Chinese Workers in China," "Filipinos as Workmen,"
+"Labor Conditions in Hawaii," _American Federationist_, August, October,
+December, 1905.
+
+ROSS, EDWARD A., "The Causes of Race Superiority," _Annals of the
+American Academy of Political and Social Science_, July, 1901, pp.
+67-89. The notable address in which the term "race suicide" was coined.
+
+ROWE, LEO S., _The United States and Porto Rico_. New York, 1904.
+
+SEMPLE, ELLEN CHURCHILL, _American History and its Geographic
+Conditions_. New York, 1903. "The Anglo-Saxons of the Kentucky
+Mountains: A Study in Anthropogeography," _Geographical Journal_, 17:588
+(1901).
+
+SLAV IN AMERICA, THE, _Charities_, December, 1904. Descriptive articles
+by representatives of the several Slav nationalities.
+
+SMITH, R. M., _Emigration and Immigration_. New York, 1890.
+"Assimilation of Nationalities in the United States," _Political Science
+Quarterly_, Vol. IX, pp. 426-444, 650-670 (1894).
+
+STEWART, ETHELBERT, "Influence of Trade Unions on Immigrants," Bureau of
+Labor, _Bulletin_ No. 56.
+
+STONE, A. H., "The Negro in the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta," _American
+Economic Association_, 3d Series, Vol. III, pp. 235-278 (1901). "The
+Mulatto Factor in the Race Problem," _Atlantic Monthly_, May, 1903. "A
+Plantation Experiment," _Quarterly Journal Economics_, 19:270 (1905).
+"The Italian Cotton Grower: The Negro's Problem," _South Atlantic
+Quarterly_, 4:45 (1905).
+
+SUFFRAGE, SUPPRESSION OF THE. Report of the Committee on Political
+Reform of the Union League Club. New York, 1903.
+
+THOMAS, W. H., _The American Negro_, 1901.
+
+TILLINGHAST, JOSEPH A., "The Negro in Africa and America," _American
+Economic Association_, 3d Series, Vol. III, No. 2 (1902).
+
+VAN VORST, MRS. JOHN AND MARIE, _The Woman who Toils_. New York, 1903.
+Contains introduction by President Roosevelt.
+
+WALKER, FRANCIS A., _Discussions in Economics and Statistics_, 2 vols.,
+1897.
+
+WARD, ROBERT DE C., "Sane Methods of Regulating Immigration," _Review of
+Reviews_, March, 1906.
+
+WARNE, FRANK JULIAN, _The Slav Invasion and the Mine Workers_, 1904.
+
+WASHINGTON, BOOKER T., _The Future of the American Negro_, 1900. _Up
+from Slavery_, 1901.
+
+WATSON, ELKANAH, _Men and Times of the Revolution_. Edited by his son,
+Winslow C. Watson, 2d edition. New York, 1861.
+
+WELFARE WORK, CONFERENCE ON, National Civic Federation. New York, 1904.
+
+WHELPLEY, JAMES D., _The Problem of the Immigrant_, 1905. Emigration
+laws of European countries and immigration laws of British Colonies and
+the United States.
+
+WOODS, R. A., _The City Wilderness_, 1898. _Americans in Process_, 1902.
+
+
+
+
+
+RACES AND IMMIGRANTS IN AMERICA
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+RACE AND DEMOCRACY
+
+
+"All men are created equal." So wrote Thomas Jefferson, and so agreed
+with him the delegates from the American colonies. But we must not press
+them too closely nor insist on the literal interpretation of their
+words. They were not publishing a scientific treatise on human nature
+nor describing the physical, intellectual, and moral qualities of
+different races and different individuals, but they were bent upon a
+practical object in politics. They desired to sustain before the world
+the cause of independence by such appeals as they thought would have
+effect; and certainly the appeal to the sense of equal rights before God
+and the law is the most powerful that can be addressed to the masses of
+any people. This is the very essence of American democracy, that one man
+should have just as large opportunity as any other to make the most of
+himself, to come forward and achieve high standing in any calling to
+which he is inclined. To do this the bars of privilege have one by one
+been thrown down, the suffrage has been extended to every man, and
+public office has been opened to any one who can persuade his
+fellow-voters or their representatives to select him.
+
+But there is another side to the successful operations of democracy. It
+is not enough that equal opportunity to participate in making and
+enforcing the laws should be vouchsafed to all--it is equally important
+that all should be capable of such participation. The individuals, or
+the classes, or the races, who through any mental or moral defect are
+unable to assert themselves beside other individuals, classes, or races,
+and to enforce their right to an equal voice in determining the laws and
+conditions which govern all, are just as much deprived of the privilege
+as though they were excluded by the constitution. In the case of
+individuals, when they sink below the level of joint participation, we
+recognize them as belonging to a defective or criminal or pauper class,
+and we provide for them, not on the basis of their rights, but on the
+basis of charity or punishment. Such classes are exceptions in point of
+numbers, and we do not feel that their non-participation is a flaw in
+the operations of democratic government. But when a social class or an
+entire race is unable to command that share in conducting government to
+which the laws entitle it, we recognize at once that democracy as a
+practical institution has in so far broken down, and that, under the
+forms of democracy, there has developed a class oligarchy or a race
+oligarchy.
+
+Two things, therefore, are necessary for a democratic government such as
+that which the American people have set before themselves: equal
+opportunities before the law, and equal ability of classes and races to
+use those opportunities. If the first is lacking, we have legal
+oligarchy; if the second is lacking, we have actual oligarchy disguised
+as democracy.
+
+Now it must be observed that, compared with the first two centuries of
+our nation's history, the present generation is somewhat shifting its
+ground regarding democracy. While it can never rightly be charged that
+our fathers overlooked the inequalities of races and individuals, yet
+more than the present generation did they regard with hopefulness the
+educational value of democracy. "True enough," they said, "the black man
+is not equal to the white man, but once free him from his legal bonds,
+open up the schools, the professions, the businesses, and the offices to
+those of his number who are most aspiring, and you will find that, as a
+race, he will advance favorably in comparison with his white
+fellow-citizens."
+
+It is now nearly forty years since these opportunities and educational
+advantages were given to the negro, not only on equal terms, but
+actually on terms of preference over the whites, and the fearful
+collapse of the experiment is recognized even by its partisans as
+something that was inevitable in the nature of the race at that stage
+of its development. We shall have reason in the following pages to enter
+more fully into this discussion, because the race question in America
+has found its most intense expression in the relations between the white
+and the negro races, and has there shown itself to be the most
+fundamental of all American social and political problems. For it was
+this race question that precipitated the Civil War, with the ominous
+problems that have followed upon that catastrophe; and it is this same
+race problem that now diverts attention from the treatment of those
+pressing economic problems of taxation, corporations, trusts, and labor
+organizations which themselves originated in the Civil War. The race
+problem in the South is only one extreme of the same problem in the
+great cities of the North, where popular government, as our forefathers
+conceived it, has been displaced by one-man power, and where a profound
+distrust of democracy is taking hold upon the educated and
+property-holding classes who fashion public opinion.
+
+This changing attitude toward the educational value of self-government
+has induced a more serious study of the nature of democratic
+institutions and of the classes and races which are called upon to share
+in them. As a people whose earlier hopes have been shocked by the hard
+blows of experience, we are beginning to pause and take invoice of the
+heterogeneous stocks of humanity that we have admitted to the management
+of our great political enterprise. We are trying to look beneath the
+surface and to inquire whether there are not factors of heredity and
+race more fundamental than those of education and environment. We find
+that our democratic theories and forms of government were fashioned by
+but one of the many races and peoples which have come within their
+practical operation, and that that race, the so-called Anglo-Saxon,
+developed them out of its own insular experience unhampered by inroads
+of alien stock. When once thus established in England and further
+developed in America we find that other races and peoples, accustomed to
+despotism and even savagery, and wholly unused to self-government, have
+been thrust into the delicate fabric. Like a practical people as we
+pride ourselves, we have begun actually to despotize our institutions in
+order to control these dissident elements, though still optimistically
+holding that we retain the original democracy. The earlier problem was
+mainly a political one--how to unite into one self-governing nation a
+scattered population with the wide diversity of natural resources,
+climates, and interests that mark a country soon to stretch from ocean
+to ocean and from the arctics to the subtropics. The problem now is a
+social one,--how to unite into one people a congeries of races even more
+diverse than the resources and climates from which they draw their
+subsistence. That motto, "_E pluribus unum_," which in the past has
+guided those who through constitutional debate and civil war worked out
+our form of government, must now again be the motto of those who would
+work out the more fundamental problem of divergent races. Here is
+something deeper than the form of government--it is the essence of
+government--for it is that union of the hearts and lives and abilities
+of the people which makes government what it really is.
+
+The conditions necessary for democratic government are not merely the
+constitutions and laws which guarantee equality, liberty, and the
+pursuit of happiness, for these after all are but paper documents. They
+are not merely freedom from foreign power, for the Australian colonies
+enjoy the most democratic of all governments, largely because they are
+owned by another country which has protected them from foreign and civil
+wars. Neither are wealth and prosperity necessary for democracy, for
+these may tend to luxury, inequality, and envy. World power, however
+glorious and enticing, is not helpful to democracy, for it inclines to
+militarism and centralization, as did Rome in the hands of an emperor,
+or Venice in the hands of an oligarchy. The true foundations of
+democracy are in the character of the people themselves, that is, of the
+individuals who constitute the democracy. These are: first,
+intelligence--the power to weigh evidence and draw sound conclusions,
+based on adequate information; second, manliness, that which the Romans
+called virility, and which at bottom is dignified self-respect,
+self-control, and that self-assertion and jealousy of encroachment
+which marks those who, knowing their rights, dare maintain them; third,
+and equally important, the capacity for cooperation, that willingness
+and ability to organize, to trust their leaders, to work together for a
+common interest and toward a common destiny, a capacity which we
+variously designate as patriotism, public spirit, or self-government.
+These are the basic qualities which underlie democracy,--intelligence,
+manliness, cooperation. If they are lacking, democracy is futile. Here
+is the problem of races, the fundamental division of mankind. Race
+differences are established in the very blood and physical constitution.
+They are most difficult to eradicate, and they yield only to the slow
+processes of the centuries. Races may change their religions, their
+forms of government, their modes of industry, and their languages, but
+underneath all these changes they may continue the physical, mental, and
+moral capacities and incapacities which determine the real character of
+their religion, government, industry, and literature. Race and heredity
+furnish the raw material, education and environment furnish the tools,
+with which and by which social institutions are fashioned; and in a
+democracy race and heredity are the more decisive, because the very
+education and environment which fashion the oncoming generations are
+themselves controlled through universal suffrage by the races whom it is
+hoped to educate and elevate.
+
+=Social Classes.=--Closely connected with race division in its effect upon
+democracy are the divisions between social classes. In America we are
+wont to congratulate ourselves on the absence of classes with their
+accompanying hatred and envy. Whether we shall continue thus to commend
+ourselves depends partly on what we mean by social classes. If we
+compare our situation with an extreme case, that of India,[1] where
+social classes have been hardened into rigid castes, we can see the
+connection between races and classes. For it is generally held that the
+castes of India originated in the conquests by an Aryan race of an
+indigenous dark or colored race. And while the clear-cut race
+distinctions have been blended through many centuries of amalgamation,
+yet it is most apparent that a gradation in the color of the skin
+follows the gradation in social position, from the light-colored,
+high-caste Brahman to the dark-colored, low-caste Sudra, or outcast
+pariah. Race divisions have been forgotten, but in their place religion
+has sanctified a division even more rigid than that of race, for it is
+sacrilege and defiance of the gods when a man of low caste ventures into
+the occupation and calling of the high caste. India's condition now is
+what might be conceived for our Southern states a thousand years from
+now, when the black man who had not advanced to the lighter shades of
+mulatto should be excluded from all professions and skilled trades and
+from all public offices, and should be restricted to the coarsest kind
+of service as a day laborer or as a field hand on the agricultural
+plantations. Confined to this limited occupation, with no incentive to
+economize because of no prospect to rise above his station, and with his
+numbers increasing, competition would reduce his wages to the lowest
+limit consistent with the continuance of his kind. Such a development is
+plainly going on at the present day, and we may feel reasonably certain
+that we can see in our own South the very historical steps by which in
+the forgotten centuries India proceeded to her rigid system of castes.
+
+There is lacking but one essential to the Indian system; namely, a
+religion which ascribes to God himself the inequalities contrived by
+man. For the Indian derives the sacred Brahman from the mouth of God, to
+be His spokesman on earth, while the poor Sudra comes from the feet of
+God, to be forever the servant of all the castes above him. But the
+Christian religion has set forth a different theory, which ascribes to
+God entire impartiality toward races and individuals. He has "made of
+one blood all nations." It is out of this doctrine that the so-called
+"self-evident" assertion in the Declaration of Independence originated,
+and it is this doctrine which throughout the history of European
+civilization has contributed to smoothen out the harsh lines of caste
+into the less definite lines of social classes. For it must be
+remembered that Europe, like India, is built upon conquest, and the
+earlier populations were reduced to the condition of slaves and serfs to
+the conquering races. True, there was not the extreme opposition of
+white and colored races which distinguished the conquests of India, and
+this is also one of the reasons why slavery and serfdom gradually gave
+way and races coalesced. Nevertheless, the peasantry of Europe to-day is
+in large part the product of serfdom and of that race-subjection which
+produced serfdom. Herein we may find the source of that arrogance on the
+one hand and subserviency on the other, which so closely relate class
+divisions to race divisions. The European peasant, says Professor
+Shaler,[2] "knows himself to be by birthright a member of an inferior
+class, from which there is practically no chance of escaping.... It is
+characteristic of peasants that they have accepted this inferior lot.
+For generations they have regarded themselves as separated from their
+fellow-citizens of higher estate. They have no large sense of citizenly
+motives; they feel no sense of responsibility for any part of the public
+life save that which lies within their own narrow round of action."
+
+How different from the qualities of the typical American citizen whose
+forefathers have erected our edifice of representative democracy! It was
+not the peasant class of Europe that sought these shores in order to
+found a free government. It was the middle class, the merchants and
+yeomen, those who in religion and politics were literally "protestants,"
+and who possessed the intelligence, manliness, and public spirit which
+urged them to assert for themselves those inalienable rights which the
+church or the state of their time had arrogated to itself. With such a
+social class democracy is the only acceptable form of government. They
+demand and secure equal opportunities because they are able to rise to
+those opportunities. By their own inherent nature they look forward to
+and aspire to the highest positions.
+
+But the peasants of Europe, especially of Southern and Eastern Europe,
+have been reduced to the qualities similar to those of an inferior race
+that favor despotism and oligarchy rather than democracy. Their only
+avenues of escape from their subordinate positions have been through the
+army and the church, and these two institutions have drawn from the
+peasants their ablest and brightest intellects into a life which
+deprived them of offspring. "Among the prosperous folk there have been
+ever many classes of occupations tempting the abler youths, while among
+the laborers the church has afforded the easiest way to rise, and that
+which is most tempting to the intelligent. The result has been, that
+while the priesthood and monastic orders have systematically debilitated
+all the populations of Catholic Europe, their influence has been most
+efficient in destroying talent in the peasant class."[3]
+
+Thus it is that the peasants of Catholic Europe, who constitute the bulk
+of our immigration of the past thirty years, have become almost a
+distinct race, drained of those superior qualities which are the
+foundation of democratic institutions. If in America our boasted freedom
+from the evils of social classes fails to be vindicated in the future,
+the reasons will be found in the immigration of races and classes
+incompetent to share in our democratic opportunities. Already in the
+case of the negro this division has hardened and seems destined to
+become more rigid. Therein we must admit at least one exception to our
+claim of immunity from social classes. Whether with our public schools,
+our stirring politics, our ubiquitous newspapers, our common language,
+and our network of transportation, the children of the European
+immigrant shall be able to rise to the opportunities unreached by his
+parents is the largest and deepest problem now pressing upon us. It
+behooves us as a people to enter into the practical study of this
+problem, for upon its outcome depends the fate of government of the
+people, for the people, and by the people.
+
+=Races in the United States.=--We use the term "race" in a rather loose
+and elastic sense; and indeed we are not culpable in so doing, for the
+ethnographers are not agreed upon it. Races have been classified on the
+basis of color, on the basis of language, on the basis of supposed
+origin, and in these latter days on the basis of the shape of the skull.
+For our purpose we need consider only those large and apparent divisions
+which have a direct bearing on the problem of assimilation, referring
+those who seek the more subtle problems to other books.[4]
+
+Mankind in general has been divided into three and again into five great
+racial stocks, and one of these stocks, the Aryan or Indo-Germanic, is
+represented among us by ten or more subdivisions which we also term
+races. It need not cause confusion if we use the term "race" not only to
+designate these grand divisions which are so far removed by nature one
+from another as to render successful amalgamation an open question, but
+also to designate those peoples or nationalities which we recognize as
+distinct yet related within one of the large divisions. Within the area
+controlled by the United States are now to be found representatives of
+each of the grand divisions, or primary racial groups, and it would be a
+fascinating study to turn from the more practical topics before us and
+follow the races of man in their dispersion over the globe and their
+final gathering together again under the republic of America. First is
+the Aryan, or Indo-Germanic race, which, wherever it originated, sent
+its Sanskrit conquerors to the South to plant themselves upon a black
+race related to the Africans and the Australians. Its Western branch,
+many thousand miles away, made the conquest and settlement of Europe.
+Here it sent out many smaller branches, among them the Greeks and
+Latins, whose situation on the Mediterranean helped in great measure to
+develop brilliant and conquering civilizations, and who, after twenty
+centuries of decay and subjection, have within the past twenty years
+begun again their westward movement, this time to North and South
+America. North of Greece the Aryans became the manifold Slavs, that most
+prolific of races. One branch of the Slavs has spread the power of
+Russia east and west, and is now crushing the alien Hebrew, Finn,
+Lithuanian, and German, and even its fellow-Slav, the Pole, who, to
+escape their oppressors, are moving to America. The Russian himself,
+with his vast expanse of fertile prairie and steppe, does not migrate
+across the water, but drives away those whom he can not or will not
+assimilate. From Austria-Hungary, with its medley of races, come other
+branches of the Slavs, the Bohemians, Moravians, Slovaks, Slovenians,
+Croatians, Roumanians, Poles, and Ruthenians, some of them mistakenly
+called Huns, but really oppressed by the true Hun, the Magyar, and by
+the German. To the west of the Slavs we find the Teutonic branches of
+the Aryans, the Germans, the Scandinavians, and, above all, the English
+and Scotch-Irish with their descent from the Angles, Saxons, and Franks,
+who have given to America our largest accessions in numbers, besides our
+language, our institutions, and forms of government. Then other branches
+of the Aryans known as Celtic, including the Irish, Scotch, and Welsh,
+formerly driven into the hills and islands by the Teutons, have in these
+latter days vied with the English and Germans in adding to our
+population. The French, a mixture of Teuton and Celt, a nationality
+noted above all others for its stationary population and dislike of
+migration, are nevertheless contributing to our numbers by the
+circuitous route of Canada, and are sending to us a class of people more
+different from the present-day Frenchman in his native home than the
+Italian or Portuguese is different from the Frenchman.
+
+In the fertile valleys of Mesopotamia and the Tigris the Semitic race
+had separated from its cousins, the Aryans, and one remarkable branch of
+this race, the Hebrews, settling on a diminutive tract of land on the
+eastern shore of the Mediterranean and finally driven forth as wanderers
+to live upon their wits, exploited by and exploiting in turn every race
+of Europe, have ultimately been driven forth to America by the thousands
+from Russia and Austria where nearly one-half of their present number is
+found.
+
+Another race, the Mongolian, multiplying on the plains of Asia, sent a
+conquering branch to the west, scattering the Slavs and Teutons and
+making for itself a permanent wedge in the middle of Europe, whence,
+under the name of Magyar, the true Hungarian, the Mongolians come to
+America. Going in another direction from this Asiatic home the Mongolian
+race has made the circuit of the globe, and the Chinese, Japanese, and
+Koreans meet in America their unrecognized cousins of many thousand
+years ago.
+
+Last of the immigrants to be mentioned, but among the earliest in point
+of time, is the black race from the slave coast of Africa. This was not
+a free and voluntary migration of a people seeking new fields to escape
+oppression, but a forced migration designed to relieve the white race of
+toil. All of the other races mentioned, the Aryan, the Semitic, the
+Mongolian, had in early times met one another and even perhaps had
+sprung from the same stock, so that when in America they come together
+there is presumably a renewal of former ties. But as far back as we can
+trace the history of races in the records of archaeology or philology, we
+find no traces of affiliation with the black race. The separation by
+continents, by climate, by color, and by institutions is the most
+diametrical that mankind exhibits anywhere. It is even greater than that
+between the Aryan and the native American, improperly called the Indian,
+whose presence on the soil which we have seized from him has furnished
+us with a peculiar variation in our multiform race problem. For the
+Indian tribes, although within our acquired territory, have been treated
+as foreign nations, and their reservations have been saved to them under
+the forms of treaties. Only recently has there sprung up a policy of
+admitting them to citizenship, and therefore the Indian, superior in
+some respects to the negro, has not interfered with our experiment in
+democracy.
+
+Last in point of time we have taken into our fold the Malay race, with
+some seven million representatives in the Hawaiian and Philippine
+Islands. Like the Indian and the negro, this race never in historic
+times prior to the discovery of the new world came into close contact
+with the white races. With its addition we have completed the round of
+all the grand divisions of the human family, and have brought together
+for a common experiment in self-government the white, yellow, black,
+red, and brown races of the earth.
+
+=Amalgamation and Assimilation.=--Scarcely another nation in ancient or
+modern history can show within compact borders so varied an aggregation.
+It is frequently maintained that a nation composed of a mixed stock is
+superior in mind and body to one of single and homogeneous stock. But it
+must be remembered that amalgamation requires centuries. The English
+race is probably as good an example of a mixed race as can be found in
+modern history, yet this race, though a mixture of the closely related
+primitive Celt, the conquering Teuton, and the Latinized Scandinavian,
+did not reach a common language and homogeneity until three hundred
+years after the last admixture. We know from modern researches that all
+of the races of Europe are mixed in their origin, but we also know that
+so much of that mixture as resulted in amalgamation occurred at a time
+so remote that it has been ascribed to the Stone Age.[5] The later
+inroads have either been but temporary and have left but slight
+impression, or they have resulted in a division of territory. Thus the
+conquest of Britain by the Teutons and the Normans has not produced
+amalgamation so much as it has caused a segregation of the Celts in
+Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, and of the Teutons, with their later but
+slight infusion of Normans, in England. On the continent of Europe this
+segregation has been even more strongly marked. The present
+stratification of races and nationalities has followed the upheavals and
+inroads of a thousand years introduced by the decline and fall of the
+Roman Empire. Two developments have taken place. A conquering race has
+reduced a native population in part to subjection and has imposed upon
+the natives its laws, customs, and language. In course of time the
+subject race becomes a lower social class and slowly assimilates with
+the upper classes, producing a homogeneous nationality with a new
+evolution of laws, customs, and language. This is the history of four
+great nations of Europe,--the French, the German, the English, the
+Italian. The other development has been the segregation of a portion of
+the conquered race, who having fled their conquerors avoid actual
+subjection by escaping to the mountains and islands. Here they preserve
+their original purity of stock and language. This is the history of
+Austria-Hungary, whose earlier population of Slavs has been scattered
+right and left by German and Hun and who now constitute separate
+branches and dialects of the unassimilated races. That Austria-Hungary
+with its dozen languages should be able to hold together as a "dual
+empire" for many years is one of the marvels of history, and is
+frequently ascribed to that which is the essence of autocracy, the
+personal hold of the emperor.
+
+The little bundle of republics known as Switzerland is a federation of
+French, Germans, and Italians, who retain their languages and have
+developed what out of such a conflict of races has elsewhere never been
+developed, a high grade of democratic government. Here in historic times
+there has been no amalgamation of races or assimilation of languages,
+but there has been the distinct advantage of a secluded freedom from
+surrounding feudal lords, which naturally led to a loose federation of
+independent cantons. It is Switzerland's mountains and not her mixed
+races that have promoted her democracy. At the other end of the world
+the highest development of democracy is in the colonies of Australasia,
+where a homogeneous race, protected from foreign foes, and prohibiting
+the immigration of alien races and inferior classes, has worked out
+self-government in politics and industry. In the Roman Empire we see the
+opposite extreme. At first a limited republic, the extension of
+conquests, and the incorporation of alien races led to that
+centralization of power in the hands of one man which transformed the
+republic into the empire. The British Empire, which to-day covers all
+races of the earth, is growingly democratic as regards Englishmen, but
+despotic as regards subject races. Taking the empire as a whole, neither
+amalgamation nor self-government is within the possibilities of its
+constitutional growth.
+
+In America, on the other hand, we have attempted to unite all races in
+one commonwealth and one elective government. We have, indeed, a most
+notable advantage compared with other countries where race divisions
+have undermined democracy. A single language became dominant from the
+time of the earliest permanent settlement, and all subsequent races and
+languages must adopt the established medium. This is essential, for it
+is not physical amalgamation that unites mankind; it is mental
+community. To be great a nation need not be of one blood, it must be of
+one mind. Racial inequality and inferiority are fundamental only to the
+extent that they prevent mental and moral assimilation. If we think
+together, we can act together, and the organ of common thought and
+action is common language. Through the prism of this noble instrument of
+the human mind all other instruments focus their powers of assimilation
+upon the new generations as they come forth from the disunited
+immigrants. The public schools, the newspapers, the books, the political
+parties, the trade unions, the religious propagandists with their
+manifold agencies of universal education, the railroads with their
+inducements to our unparalleled mobility of population, are all
+dependent upon our common language for their high efficiency. Herein are
+we fortunate in our plans for the Americanization of all races within
+our borders. We are not content to let the fate of our institutions wait
+upon the slow and doubtful processes of blood amalgamation, but are
+eager to direct our energies toward the more rapid movements of mental
+assimilation. Race and heredity may be beyond our organized control; but
+the instrument of a common language is at hand for conscious improvement
+through education and social environment.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+COLONIAL RACE ELEMENTS
+
+
+Doubtless the most fascinating topic in the study of races is that of
+the great men whom each race has produced. The personal interest
+surrounding those who have gained eminence carries us back over each
+step of their careers to their childhood, their parents, and their
+ancestry.[6] Pride of race adds its zest, and each race has its
+eulogists who claim every great man whose family tree reveals even a
+single ancestor, male or female, near or remote, of the eulogized race.
+Here is a "conflict of jurisdiction," and the student who is without
+race prejudice begins to look for causes other than race origin to which
+should be ascribed the emergence of greatness.
+
+Mr. Henry Cabot Lodge[7] attempted, some years ago, to assign to the
+different races in America the 14,243 men eminent enough to find a place
+in "Appleton's Encyclopedia of American Biography." He prepared a
+statistical summary as follows:--
+
+  EMINENT AMERICANS
+
+  English               10,376
+  Scotch-Irish           1,439
+  German                   659
+  Huguenot                 589
+  Scotch                   436
+  Dutch                    336
+  Welsh                    159
+  Irish                    109
+  French                    85
+  Scandinavian              31
+  Spanish                    7
+  Italian                    7
+  Swiss                      5
+  Greek                      3
+  Russian                    1
+  Polish                     1
+                        ------
+      Total             14,243
+
+When we inquire into the methods necessarily adopted in preparing a
+statistical table of this kind we discover serious limitations. Mr.
+Lodge was confined to the paternal line alone, but if, as some
+biologists assert, the female is the conservative element which holds to
+the type, and the male is the variable element which departs from the
+type, then the specific contribution of the race factor would be found
+in the maternal line. However, let this dubious point pass. We find that
+in American life two hundred years of intermingling has in many if not
+in most cases of greatness broken into the continuity of race. True, the
+New England and Virginia stock has remained during most of this time of
+purely English origin, but the very fact that in Mr. Lodge's tables
+Massachusetts has produced 2686 notables, while Virginia, of the same
+blood, has produced only 1038, must lead to the suspicion that factors
+other than race extraction are the mainspring of greatness.
+
+It must be remembered that ability is not identical with eminence.
+Ability is the product of ancestry and training. Eminence is an accident
+of social conditions. The English race was the main contributor to
+population during the seventeenth century, and English conquest
+determined the form of government, the language, and the opportunities
+for individual advancement. During the succeeding century the
+Scotch-Irish and the Germans migrated in nearly equal numbers, and their
+combined migration was perhaps as great as that of the English in the
+seventeenth century. But they were compelled to move to the interior, to
+become frontiersmen, to earn their living directly from the soil, and to
+leave to their English-sprung predecessors the more prominent
+occupations of politics, literature, law, commerce, and the army. The
+Germans, who, according to Lodge, "produced fewer men of ability than
+any other race in the United States," were further handicapped by their
+language and isolation, which continue to this day in the counties of
+Pennsylvania where they originally settled. On the other hand, the
+Huguenots and the Dutch came in the first century of colonization. They
+rapidly merged with the English, lost their language, and hence
+contributed their full share of eminence. Finally, the Irish,
+Scandinavian and other races, inconspicuous in the galaxy of
+notables, did not migrate in numbers until the middle of the nineteenth
+century, and, in addition to the restraints of language and poverty,
+they found the roads to prominence preoccupied.
+
+
+[Illustration: "RETURN OF THE MAYFLOWER" Painting by Boughton, 1834]
+
+
+Besides the accident of precedence in time, a second factor distinct
+from race itself has contributed to the eminence of one race over
+another. The Huguenots and the French, according to Lodge's statistics,
+show a percentage of ability in proportion to their total immigration
+much higher than that of any other race. But the Huguenots were a select
+class of people, manufacturers and merchants, perhaps the most
+intelligent and enterprising of Frenchmen in the seventeenth century.
+Furthermore the direct migration from France to this country has never
+included many peasants and wage-earners, but has been limited to the
+adventurous and educated. Had the French-Canadians who represent the
+peasantry of France been included in these comparisons, the proportion
+of French eminence would have been materially reduced.
+
+The same is true of the English. Although sprung from one race, those
+who came to America represented at least two grades of society as widely
+apart as two races. The Pilgrims and Puritans of New England were the
+yeomen, the merchants, the manufacturers, skilled in industry, often
+independent in resources, and well trained in the intellectual
+controversies of religion and politics. The Southern planters also
+sprang from a class of similar standing, though not so strongly addicted
+to intellectual pursuits. Beneath both these classes were the indentured
+servants, a few of whom were men of ability forced to pay their passage
+by service. But the majority of them were brought to this country
+through the advertisements of shipowners and landholders or even
+forcibly captured on the streets of cities or transported for crimes and
+pauperism. Though all of these classes were of the same race, they were
+about as widely divergent as races themselves in point of native ability
+and preparatory training.
+
+The third and most important cause of eminence, apart from ancestry, is
+the industrial and legal environment. An agricultural community produces
+very few eminent men compared with the number produced where
+manufactures and commerce vie with agriculture to attract the youth. A
+state of widely diversified industrial interests is likely to create
+widely diversified intellectual and moral interests. Complicated
+problems of industry and politics stimulate the mind and reflect their
+influence in literature, art, education, science, and the learned
+professions. Most of all, equal opportunity for all classes and large
+prizes for the ambitious and industrious serve to stimulate individuals
+of native ability to their highest endeavor. It was the deadening
+effects of slavery, creating inequalities among the whites themselves,
+that smothered the genius of the Southerner whether Englishman,
+Huguenot, or Scotch-Irish, and it was the free institutions of the
+North that invited their genius to unfold and blossom.
+
+These considerations lead us to look with distrust on the claims of
+those who find in race ancestry or in race intermixture the reasons for
+such eminence as Americans have attained. While the race factor is
+decisive when it marks off inferior and primitive races, yet, in
+considering those Europeans races which have joined in our civilization,
+the important questions are: From what social classes is immigration
+drawn? and, Do our social institutions offer free opportunity and high
+incentive to the youth of ability? In so far as we get a choice
+selection of immigrants, and in so far as we afford them free scope for
+their native gifts, so far do they render to our country the services of
+genius, talent, and industry.
+
+=Incentives to Immigration.=--It is the distinctive fact regarding
+colonial migration that it was Teutonic in blood and Protestant in
+religion. The English, Dutch, Swedes, Germans, and even the
+Scotch-Irish, who constituted practically the entire migration, were
+less than two thousand years ago one Germanic race in the forests
+surrounding the North Sea. The Protestant Reformation, sixteen centuries
+later, began among those peoples and found in them its sturdiest
+supporters. The doctrines of the Reformation, adapted as they were to
+the strong individualism of the Germanic races, prepared the hearts of
+men for the doctrines of political liberty and constitutional government
+of the succeeding century. The Reformation banished the idea that men
+must seek salvation through the intercession of priests and popes, who,
+however sacred, are only fellow-men, and set up the idea that each soul
+has direct access to God. With the Bible as a guide and his own
+conscience as a judge, each man was accountable only to one divine
+sovereign.
+
+From the standpoint of the age this doctrine was too radical. It tended
+to break up existing society into sects and factions, and to precipitate
+those civil and religious wars which ended in a Catholic or aristocratic
+reaction. When this reaction came, the numerous Protestant sects of the
+extremer types found themselves the objects of persecution, and nothing
+remained but to seek a new land where the heavy hand of repression could
+not reach them. Thus America became the home of numberless religious
+sects and denominations of these several races. From England came
+Congregationalists (the "Pilgrims"), Puritans, Quakers, Baptists; from
+Scotland and Ireland came Presbyterians; from Germany came Quakers,
+Dunkards, Pietists, Ridge Hermits, Salzburgers, and Moravians.
+
+It is not to be inferred that religious persecution alone in the early
+colonial period caused emigration. In point of numbers commercial
+enterprise was probably equally influential. In Holland all religious
+sects were welcomed with a liberality far in advance of any other
+nation, and at the same time the Dutch people were the most advanced in
+the modern pursuits of trade and commerce. The Dutch settlement of New
+Amsterdam was therefore a business enterprise, and neither before nor
+after the conquest by the British was there any religious obstacle to
+the reception of other races and religions. In this respect New York
+differed widely from New England, where religious exclusiveness
+preserved the English race as a peculiar people until the middle of the
+nineteenth century. So diverse were the races in New York, and so
+liberal were the opportunities open to all, that Governor Horatio
+Seymour was able to say that nine men prominent in its early history
+represented the same number of nationalities. Schuyler was of Dutch
+descent, Herkimer of German, Jay of French, Livingston of Scotch,
+Clinton of Irish, Morris of Welsh, Hoffman of Swedish, while Hamilton
+was a West India Englishman and Baron Steuben a Prussian.[8]
+
+Another colony to which all races and religions were welcomed was
+Pennsylvania. William Penn established this colony both as a refuge for
+the persecuted Quakers of England and as a real estate venture. He was
+the first American to advertise his dominions widely throughout Europe,
+offering to sell one hundred acres of land at two English pounds and a
+low rental. His advertisements combined humanity and business, for they
+called attention to popular government and universal suffrage; equal
+rights to all regardless of race or religious belief; trial by jury;
+murder and treason the only capital crimes, and reformation, not
+retaliation, the object of punishment for other offences. Thus
+Pennsylvania, although settled a half century later than the Southern
+and Northern colonies, soon exceeded them in population. Penn sent his
+agents to Germany and persuaded large numbers of German Quakers and
+Pietists to cast their lot in his plantation, so that in twenty years
+the Germans numbered nearly one-half the population. Again, in the
+beginning of the eighteenth century, when Louis XIV overran the
+Palatinate and thousands of Germans fled to England, the English
+government encouraged their migration to America. In one year four
+thousand of them, the largest single emigration of the colonial period,
+embarked for New York, but their treatment was so illiberal that they
+moved to Pennsylvania, and thenceforth the German migration sought the
+latter colony. These people settled at Germantown, near Philadelphia,
+and occupied the counties of Bucks and Montgomery, where they continue
+to this day with their peculiar language, the "Pennsylvania Dutch." Not
+only William Penn himself, but other landowners in Pennsylvania and also
+the shipowners advertised the country in Germany, and thousands of the
+poorer sort of Germans were induced to indenture themselves to the
+settlers to whom they were auctioned off by the ship captains in payment
+for transportation. Probably one-half of all the immigrants of the
+colonial period came under this system of postpaid transportation, just
+as at the present time nearly two-thirds come on prepaid tickets. It was
+in Pennsylvania that the largest portion of the Scotch-Irish settled,
+and before the time of the Revolution that colony had become the most
+populous and most diversified of all the colonies. It was the only
+colony, except Maryland, that tolerated Roman Catholics, and with all
+phases of the Christian religion and all branches of the Teutonic and
+Celtic races, Pennsylvania set the original type to which all of America
+has conformed, that of race intermixture on the basis of religious and
+political equality.
+
+=The Scotch-Irish.=--It has long been recognized that among the most
+virile and aggressive people who came to America in colonial times, and
+who have contributed a peculiar share to the American character, are the
+Scotch-Irish. Their descendants boast of their ancestry and cite long
+lists of notables as their coderivatives. Yet until recent years it has
+been the misfortune of the Scotch-Irish to have escaped historical
+investigation; for American history has been written chiefly in New
+England, whose colonial Puritans forbade them in their midst. In fact,
+from the earliest settlement, the Scotch-Irish have been pioneers and
+men of action. They have contributed to America few writers and artists,
+but many generals, politicians, and captains of industry. In literature
+they claim two eminent names, Irving and Poe; but in the army, navy,
+politics, and business they claim John Paul Jones, Perry, Andrew
+Jackson, Winfield Scott, Zachary Taylor, Ulysses S. Grant, Stonewall
+Jackson, George B. McClellan, Alexander Hamilton, John C. Calhoun, James
+G. Blaine, Jefferson Davis, Thomas Benton, Hendricks, John G. Carlisle,
+Mark Hanna, William McKinley, Matthew S. Quay, Andrew Carnegie, John D.
+Rockefeller, Horace Greeley, Henry Watterson, and hundreds alike famous
+in the more strenuous movements of American life.
+
+A paradoxical fact regarding the Scotch-Irish is that they are very
+little Scotch and much less Irish. That is to say, they do not belong
+mainly to the so-called Celtic race, but they are the most composite of
+all the people of the British Isles. They are called Scots because they
+lived in Scotia, and they are called Irish because they moved to
+Ireland. Geography and not ethnology has given them their name. They are
+a mixed race through whose veins run the Celtic blood of the primitive
+Scot and Pict, the primitive Briton, the primitive Irish, but with a
+larger admixture of the later Norwegian, Dane, Saxon, and Angle. How
+this amalgamation came about we may learn from the geography of
+Scotland.
+
+The Highlands of Scotland begin at the Grampian Hills and the Lowlands
+extend south from this line to the British border, and include the
+cities of Glasgow and Edinburgh. The Scotch-Irish came from that
+southwestern part of the Lowlands which bulges out toward Ireland north
+of the Solway Firth. Over these Lowland counties, bounded by water and
+hills on three sides, successive waves of conquest and migration
+followed. First the primitive Caledonian or Pict was driven to the
+Highlands, which to this day is the Celtic portion of Scotland. The
+Briton from the south, pressed on by Roman and then by Teuton, occupied
+the country. Then Irish tribes crossed over and gained a permanent hold.
+Then the Norwegian sailors came around from the north, and to this day
+there are pure Scandinavian types on the adjacent islands. Then the
+Saxons and Angles, driven by the Danes and Normans, gained a foothold
+from the east, and lastly the Danes themselves added their contingent.
+Here in this Lowland pocket of territory, no larger than a good-sized
+American county, was compounded for five hundred years this remarkable
+amalgam of races.
+
+A thousand years later, after they had become a united people and had
+shown their metal in the trying times of the Reformation, they furnished
+the emigrants who displaced the Irish in the north of Ireland. James I,
+whom Scotland gave to England, determined to transform Catholic Ireland
+into Protestant England, and thereupon confiscated the lands of the
+native chiefs in Ulster and bestowed them upon Scottish and English
+lords on condition that they settle the territory with tenants from
+Scotland and England. This was the "great settlement" of 1610, and from
+that time to the present Ulster has been the Protestant stronghold of
+Ireland. In 1901 the population of Ulster was 44 per cent Catholic, 23
+per cent Episcopalian, and 27 per cent Presbyterian, an ecclesiastical
+division corresponding almost exactly to the racial division of Irish,
+English, and Scotch. During the whole of the seventeenth century--the
+first century of this occupation--the Catholics and Episcopalians were
+in a much smaller proportion than these figures show for the present
+time, and the relative increase in Irish and Episcopalians during the
+eighteenth century was closely connected with the migration of the
+Scotch to America.
+
+For one hundred years the Scotch multiplied in Ulster and had no
+dealings with the remnants of the Irish, whom they crowded into the
+barren hills and whom they treated like savages. They retained their
+purity of race, and although when they came to America they called
+themselves Irish and were known as Irish wherever they settled, yet they
+had no Irish blood except that which entered into their composition
+through the Irish migration to Scotia fifteen hundred years before.
+
+Yet, though they despised the Irish, they could not escape the unhappy
+fate of Ireland. The first blow came in 1698, nearly one hundred years
+after their settlement. English manufacturers complained of Irish
+competition, and the Irish Parliament, a tool of the British crown,
+passed an act totally forbidding the exportation of Irish woollens, and
+another act forbidding the exportation of Irish wool to any country
+save England. Their slowly growing linen industry was likewise
+discriminated against in later years. Presbyterian Ulster had been the
+industrial centre of Ireland, and these acts nearly destroyed her
+industry. Next Queen Anne's Parliament adopted penal laws directed
+against Roman Catholics and Presbyterians, and the Test Act, which
+compelled public officials to take the communion of the Established
+Church, deprived the entire Scotch population of self-government.
+Nevertheless they were compelled to pay tithes to support the
+Established Church to which they were opposed. Lastly, the hundred-year
+leases of the tenants began to run out, and the landlords offered
+renewals to the highest bidders on short leases. Here the
+poverty-stricken Irish gained an unhappy revenge on the Scotch who had
+displaced them of their ancestral lands, for their low standard of
+living enabled them to offer rack-rents far above what the Scotch could
+afford. No longer did religion, race pride, or gratitude have a part in
+holding Ulster to Protestant supremacy. The greed of absentee landlords
+began to have full sway, and in the resulting struggle for livelihood,
+hopeless poverty was fitter to survive than ambitious thrift.
+
+The Scotch tenants, their hearts bitter against England and aristocracy,
+now sought a country where they might have free land and
+self-government. In 1718 it is stated that 4200 of them left for
+America. After the famine of 1740 there were 12,000 who left annually.
+Altogether, in the half century just preceding the American Revolution,
+200,000[9] persons, or one-third of the Protestant population of Ulster,
+are said to have emigrated, and the majority came to America. This was
+by far the largest contribution of any race to the population of America
+during the eighteenth century, and the injustice they suffered at the
+hands of England made them among the most determined and effective
+recruits to the armies that won our independence.
+
+Before the Scotch-Irish moved to America the Atlantic coast line had
+been well occupied. Consequently, in order to obtain land for
+themselves, they were forced to go to the interior and to become
+frontiersmen. They found in Massachusetts a state church to which they
+must conform in order to be admitted to citizenship. But what they had
+left Ireland to escape they would not consent in a new country to do.
+The Puritans were willing that they should occupy the frontier as a
+buffer against the Indians, and so they took up lands in New Hampshire,
+Vermont, Western Massachusetts, and Maine. Only a few congregations,
+however, settled in New England--the bulk of the immigrants entered by
+way of Philadelphia and Baltimore and went to the interior of
+Pennsylvania surrounding and south of Harrisburg. They spread through
+the Shenandoah valley and in the foothill regions of Virginia and
+North and South Carolina. Gradually, they pushed farther west, across
+the mountains into Western Pennsylvania about Pittsburg, and into Ohio,
+Kentucky, and Tennessee. In all of these regions they fought the
+Indians, protected the older inhabitants from inroads, and developed
+those pioneer qualities which for one hundred years have characterized
+the "winning of the West."
+
+
+[Illustration: ANGLO-SAXON MOUNTAINEERS, BEREA COLLEGE, KENTUCKY]
+
+
+The Scotch-Irish occupied a peculiar place in the new world. More than
+any other race they served as the amalgam to produce, out of divergent
+races, a new race, the American. The Puritans of New England, the
+Quakers of Pennsylvania, the Cavaliers of Virginia, were as radically
+different as peoples of different races, and they were separated from
+each other in their own exclusive communities. The Germans were
+localized in Pennsylvania and Maryland, the Dutch in New York, but the
+Scotch-Irish "alone of the various races in America were present in
+sufficient numbers in all of the colonies to make their influence count;
+and they alone of all the races had one uniform religion; had
+experienced together the persecutions by state and church which had
+deprived them at home of their civil and religious liberties; and were
+the common heirs to those principles of freedom and democracy which had
+been developed in Scotland as nowhere else. At the time of the American
+Revolution there were ... in all above five hundred settlements
+scattered over practically all the American colonies."[10] Trained as
+they were in the representative democracy of the Scottish kirk, thrown
+on their own resources in the wilderness, mingling with the pioneers of
+many other races, they took the lead in developing that Western type
+which in politics and industry became ultimately the American type; yet
+they retained their original character, and the American to-day is more
+at home in Glasgow than in London.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE NEGRO
+
+
+Although the negro races of Africa extend across the continent and from
+the Sudan to Cape Colony, yet the races which yielded the largest supply
+of slaves for America were confined to a narrow stretch of the Atlantic
+coast near the equator. For nearly two thousand miles from Cape Verde
+the coast of Africa runs southeast and easterly, and then for another
+thousand miles it runs to the south, forming the Gulf of Guinea, and
+from a belt of land along this coast practically all the negro
+immigrants to America have come. Here several large rivers, the Senegal,
+the Gambia, the Niger, and the Congo--furnished harbors for slave ships
+and routes for slave traders from the interior. Two circumstances, the
+climate and the luxuriant vegetation, render this region hostile to
+continuous exertion. The torrid heat and the excessive humidity weaken
+the will and exterminate those who are too strenuous; but this same heat
+and humidity, with the fertile soil, produce unparalleled crops of
+bananas, yams, and grains. Thus nature conspires to produce a race
+indolent, improvident, and contented. Seventy-five per cent of the
+deaths are said to be executions for supposed witchcraft, which has
+killed more men and women than the slave trade. Formerly cannibalism
+prevailed, but it has now been largely stamped out by European
+governments. The native governments are tribal, and the chiefs sustain
+themselves by their physical prowess and the help of priests and
+medicine men. Property is mainly in women and slaves, and inheritance is
+through the female, except among the nobility of Dahomey, where
+primogeniture rules. Written laws and records are unknown. The people
+are unstable, indifferent to suffering, and "easily aroused to ferocity
+by the sight of blood or under great fear." They exhibit aversion to
+silence and solitude, love of rhythm, excitability, and lack of reserve.
+All travellers speak of their impulsiveness, strong sexual passion, and
+lack of will power.[11]
+
+Such, in brief, were the land and the people that furnished one-sixth of
+our total population and two-fifths of our Southern population. In
+shifting such a people from the torrid climate of equatorial Africa to
+the temperate regions of America, and from an environment of savagery to
+one of civilization, changes more momentous than those of any other
+migration have occurred. First, it was only the strongest physical
+specimens who survived the horrible tests of the slave catcher and the
+slave ship. Slavery, too, as a system, could use to best advantage those
+who were docile and hardy, and not those who were independent and
+feeble. Just as in the many thousand years of man's domestication of
+animals, the breechy cow and the balky horse have been almost eliminated
+by artificial selection, so slavery tended to transform the savage by
+eliminating those who were self-willed, ambitious, and possessed of
+individual initiative. Other races of immigrants, by contact with our
+institutions, have been civilized--the negro has been only domesticated.
+Democratic civilization offers an outlet for those who are morally and
+intellectually vigorous enough to break away from the stolid mass of
+their fellows; domestication dreads and suppresses them as dangerous
+rebels. The very qualities of intelligence and manliness which are
+essential for citizenship in a democracy were systematically expunged
+from the negro race through two hundred years of slavery. And then, by
+the cataclysm of a war in which it took no part, this race, after many
+thousand years of savagery and two centuries of slavery, was suddenly
+let loose into the liberty of citizenship and the electoral suffrage.
+The world never before had seen such a triumph of dogmatism and
+partizanship. It was dogmatism, because a theory of abstract equality
+and inalienable rights of man took the place of education and the slow
+evolution of moral character. It was partisanship, because a political
+party, taking advantage of its triumph in civil war, sought to
+perpetuate itself through the votes of its helpless beneficiaries. No
+wonder that this fateful alliance of doctrinaires and partizans brought
+fateful results, and that, after a generation of anarchy and race
+hatred, the more fundamental task of education has only just begun.
+
+True, there was a secondary object in view in granting the freedmen
+suffrage. The thirteenth amendment, adopted in 1865, legalized and
+extended the proclamation of emancipation, which had been a war measure.
+But this was followed by servile and penal laws in all the Southern
+states that looked like peonage in place of slavery.[12] Congress then
+submitted the fourteenth amendment, which was adopted in 1867, creating
+a new grade of citizenship--citizenship of the nation--and prohibiting
+any state from depriving "any person of life, liberty, or property
+without the due process of law" and from denying to any person "the
+equal protection of the laws." But this was not enough. The next step
+was the fifteenth amendment adopted in 1869, prohibiting any state from
+denying the suffrage to citizens of the United States "on account of
+race, color, or previous condition of servitude." Thus equality before
+the law was to be protected by equality in making the law. This object
+was a worthy one, and it added the appearance of logical necessity to
+the theories of doctrinaires and the schemes of partisans. But it failed
+because based on a wrong theory of the ballot. Suffrage means
+self-government. Self-government means intelligence, self-control, and
+capacity for cooperation. If these are lacking, the ballot only makes
+way for the "boss," the corruptionist, or the oligarchy. The suffrage
+must be earned, not merely conferred, if it is to be an instrument of
+self-protection.
+
+But it is the peculiar fate of race problems that they carry contestants
+to bitter extremes and afford no field for constructive compromise.
+Could the nation have adopted Lincoln's project of a hundred years, or
+even thirty years, of gradual emancipation, it might have avoided both
+the evils of war and the fallacies of self-government. But the spirit of
+race aggrandisement that precipitated the one rendered the other
+inevitable. With the negro suddenly made free by conquest, each fatal
+step in reconstruction was forced by the one that preceded. The North,
+the South, and the negro were placed in an impossible situation, and a
+nation which dreaded negro suffrage in 1868[13] adopted it in 1869.
+
+For eight years the government of the Southern states was in the hands
+of the negroes. The result of turning the states over to ignorant and
+untried voters was an enormous increase of debt without corresponding
+public improvements or public enterprises. Even the negro governments
+themselves began to repudiate these debts and they were almost wholly
+repudiated by the whites after returning to power.
+
+It is not necessary to dwell upon the methods by which the white voters
+regained and kept control of the states. Admittedly it was through
+intimidation, murder, ballot-box "stuffing," and false counting. The
+negro vote has almost disappeared, and in more recent years that which
+was accomplished through violence is perpetuated through law.
+Mississippi, Louisiana, South Carolina, North Carolina, Alabama, and
+Virginia have adopted so-called "educational" tests with such adroit
+exceptions that white illiterates may vote, but negroes, whether
+literate or illiterate, may be excluded from voting. As stated by a
+prominent white Virginian, "the negro can vote if he has $300, or if he
+is a veteran of the Federal or Confederate armies, or if he is a
+profound constitutional lawyer." The fifteenth amendment, by decisions
+of the United States Supreme Court, has been rendered inoperative, and
+the fourteenth amendment, without helping the negro, for whom it was
+designed,[14] has raised up government by private corporations which
+never had been thought of as needing an amendment. With these decisions
+it may be taken for granted that the negro will not again in the near
+future enjoy the privilege of a free ballot.
+
+This is a situation in which the North is as deeply interested as the
+South. The South, during the period of slavery, through the privilege of
+counting three-fifths of the slaves, enjoyed a predominance in Congress
+and in presidential elections beyond its proportion of white voters. The
+South now enjoys a greater privilege because it counts all the negroes.
+The fourteenth amendment expressly provides for a situation like this.
+It says:--
+
+"When the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for
+president and vice-president of the United States, representatives in
+Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a state, or the members
+of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of
+such state, being twenty-one years of age and citizens of the United
+States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or
+other crime, the basis of representation shall be reduced in the
+proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the
+whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such state."
+
+Whether it will be possible under our form of government to carry out
+this provision of the fourteenth amendment may be doubted, but that it
+is fast becoming a question of live interest is certain. The educational
+test is a rational test, but it is rational only when the state makes an
+honest and diligent effort to equip every man to pass the test. The
+former slave states spend $2.21 per child for educating the negroes, and
+$4.92 per child for educating the whites.[15] The great lesson already
+learned is that we must "begin over again" the preparation of the negro
+for citizenship. This time the work will begin at the bottom by
+educating the negro for the ballot, instead of beginning at the top by
+giving him the ballot before he knows what it should do for him. What
+shall be the nature of this education?
+
+=Education and Self-help.=--We have argued that democracy must be based
+upon intelligence, manliness, and cooperation. How can these qualities
+be produced in a race just emerged from slavery?
+
+Intelligence is more than books and letters--it is knowledge of the
+forces of nature and ingenuity enough to use them for human service. The
+negro is generally acknowledged to be lacking in "the mechanical idea."
+In Africa he hardly knows the simplest mechanical principles. In America
+the brightest of the negroes were trained during slavery by their
+masters in the handicrafts, such as carpentry, shoemaking, spinning,
+weaving, blacksmithing, tailoring, and so on. A plantation became a
+self-supporting unit under the oversight and discipline of the whites.
+But the work of the negro artisans was careless and inefficient. The
+negro blacksmith fastened shoes to the plantation mule, but the horses
+were taken to the white blacksmith in town. Since emancipation the young
+generation has not learned the mechanical trades to the same extent as
+the slave generations. Moreover, as machinery supplants tools and
+factories supplant handicrafts, the negro is left still farther behind.
+"White men," says a negro speaker,[16] "are bringing science and art
+into menial occupations and lifting them beyond our reach. In my boyhood
+the walls and ceilings were whitewashed each spring by colored men; now
+this is done by a white man managing a steam carpet-cleaning works.
+Then the laundry work was done by negroes; now they are with difficulty
+able to manage the new labor-saving machinery." Even in the
+non-mechanical occupations the negro is losing where he once had a
+monopoly. In Chicago "there is now scarcely a negro barber in the
+business district. Nearly all the janitor work in the large buildings
+has been taken away from them by the Swedes. White men and women as
+waiters have supplanted colored men in nearly all the first-class hotels
+and restaurants. Practically all of the shoe polishing is now done by
+Greeks."[17]
+
+Individual negroes have made great progress, but what we need to know is
+whether the masses of the negroes have advanced. The investigators of
+Atlanta University, in summarizing the reports of three hundred and
+forty-four employers of negroes, conclude: "There are a large number of
+negro mechanics all over the land, but especially in the South. Some of
+these are progressive, efficient workmen. More are careless, slovenly,
+and ill-trained. There are signs of lethargy among these artisans, and
+work is slipping from them in some places; in others they are awakening
+and seizing the opportunities of the new industrial South."[18]
+
+The prejudice of white workmen has undoubtedly played a part in
+excluding the negro from mechanical trades, but the testimony of large
+employers, who have no race prejudice where profits can be made, also
+shows that low-priced negro labor often costs more than high-priced
+white labor. The iron and steel mills of Alabama have no advantage in
+labor cost over mills of Pennsylvania and Ohio.
+
+The foundation of intelligence for the modern workingman is his
+understanding of mechanics. Not until he learns through manual and
+technical training to handle the forces of nature can the workingman
+rise to positions of responsibility and independence. This is as
+important in agricultural labor, to which the negro is largely
+restricted, as in manufactures. Intelligence in mechanics leads to
+intelligence in economics and politics, and the higher wages of
+mechanical intelligence furnish the resources by which the workman can
+demand and secure his political and economic rights.
+
+The second requisite of democracy is independence and manliness. These
+are moral qualities based on will power and steadfastness in pursuit of
+a worthy object. But these qualities are not produced merely by
+exhortation and religious revivals. They have a more prosaic and secular
+foundation. History shows that no class or nation has risen to
+independence without first accumulating property. However much we
+disparage the qualities of greed and selfishness which the rush for
+wealth has made obnoxious, we must acknowledge that the solid basis of
+the virtues is thrift. The improvidence of the negro is notorious. His
+neglect of his horse, his mule, his machinery, his eagerness to spend
+his earnings on finery, his reckless purchase of watermelons, chickens,
+and garden stuff, when he might easily grow them on his own patch of
+ground,--these and many other incidents of improvidence explain the
+constant dependence of the negro upon his employer and his creditor.
+There are, of course, notable exceptions where negroes have accumulated
+property through diligent attention and careful oversight.[19] These are
+all the more notable when it is remembered that the education of the
+negro has directed his energies to the honors of the learned professions
+rather than to the commonplace virtues of ownership, and that one great
+practical experiment in thrift--the Freedman's Bank--went down through
+dishonesty and incapacity. With the more recent development of the
+remarkable institutions of Hampton and Tuskegee and their emphasis on
+manual training and property accumulation, it is to be expected that
+these basic qualities of intelligence and independence will receive
+practical and direct encouragement.
+
+Cooperation is the third and capital equipment for attaining the rights
+of citizenship. There are two forms of cooperation--a lower and a
+higher. The lower is that of the chief or the boss who marshals his
+ignorant followers through fear or spoils. The higher is that of
+self-government where those who join together do so through their own
+intelligence and mutual confidence. In the lower form there are
+personal jealousies and factional contests which prevent united action
+under elected leaders. Negro bosses and foremen are more despotic than
+white bosses. The Colored Farmers' Alliance depended upon a white man
+for leadership. The white "carpet-baggers" organized the negro vote in
+the reconstruction period. The negro was in this low stage of
+cooperation because he was jealous or distrustful of his fellow-negro
+and could rally together only under the banner of a leader whom he could
+not depose. With the growth of intelligence and moral character there
+comes a deepening sense of the need of organization as well as leaders
+of their own race whom they can trust. The most hopeful indication of
+progress for the negroes is the large number of voluntary religious,
+beneficial, and insurance societies whose membership is limited to those
+of their own color.[20]
+
+Liberty has always come through organization. The free cities of Europe
+were simply the guilds of peasants and merchants who organized to
+protect themselves against the feudal lords and bishops. Latterly they
+gained a voice in parliaments as the "third estate" and established our
+modern representative democracy. The modern trade unions have become a
+power far in excess of their numbers through the capacity of the workman
+to organize. With the modest beginnings of self-organization among
+negroes the way is opening for their more effective participation in
+the higher opportunities of our civilization.
+
+
+[Illustration: COUNTIES HAVING A LARGER PROPORTION OF NEGROES IN 1900
+THAN IN 1880]
+
+
+The negro trade unionist has not as yet shown the organizing capacity of
+other races. Only among the mine workers, the longshoremen, and
+bricklayers are they to be found in considerable numbers, although the
+carpenters have negro organizers. But in most of these cases the negro
+is being organized by the white man not so much for his own protection
+as for the protection of the white workman. If the negro is brought to
+the position of refusing to work for lower wages than the white man he
+has taken the most difficult step in organization; for the labor union
+requires, more than any other economic or business association in modern
+life, reliance upon the steadfastness of one's fellows. Unfortunately,
+when the negro demands the same wages as white men, his industrial
+inferiority leads the employer to take white men in his place, and here
+again we see how fundamental is manual and technical intelligence as a
+basis for other progress.[21]
+
+It must not be inferred because we have emphasized these qualities of
+intelligence--manliness and cooperation as preparatory to political
+rights--that the negro race should be deprived of the suffrage until
+such time as its members acquire these qualities. Many individuals have
+already acquired them. To exclude such individuals from the suffrage is
+to shut the door of hope to all. An honest educational test honestly
+enforced on both whites and blacks is the simplest rough-and-ready
+method for measuring the progress of individuals in these qualities of
+citizenship. There is no problem before the American people more vital
+to democratic institutions than that of keeping the suffrage open to the
+negro and at the same time preparing the negro to profit by the
+suffrage.
+
+Neither should the negro be excluded from the higher education.
+Leadership is just as necessary in a democracy as in a tribe.
+Self-government is not suppression of leaders but cooperation with them.
+The true leader is one who knows his followers because he has suffered
+with them, but who can point the way out and inspire them with
+confidence. He feels what they feel, but can state what they cannot
+express. He is their spokesman, defender, and organizer. Not a social
+class nor a struggling race can reach equality with other classes and
+races until its leaders can meet theirs on equal terms. It cannot depend
+on others, but must raise up leaders from its own ranks. This is the
+problem of higher education--not that scholastic education that ends in
+itself, but that broad education that equips for higher usefulness. If
+those individuals who are competent to become lawyers, physicians,
+teachers, preachers, organizers, guides, innovators, experimenters, are
+prevented from getting the right education, then there is little hope
+for progress among the race as a whole, in the intelligence, manliness,
+and cooperation needed for self-government.
+
+=Growth of Negro Population.=--After the census of 1880 it was confidently
+asserted that the negro population was increasing more rapidly than the
+white population. But these assertions, since the census of 1890, have
+disappeared. It then became apparent that the supposed increase from
+1870 to 1880 was based on a defective count in 1870, the first census
+after emancipation. In reality the negro element, including mulattoes,
+during the one hundred and ten years of census taking, has steadily
+declined in proportion to the white element. Although negroes in
+absolute numbers have increased from 757,000 in 1790 to 4,442,000 in
+1860, and 8,834,000 in 1900, yet in 1790 they were one-fifth of the
+total population; in 1860 they were one-seventh and in 1900 only
+one-ninth.
+
+It is naturally suggested that this relative decrease in negro
+population has been owing to the large immigration of whites, but the
+inference is unwarranted. In the Southern states the foreign element has
+increased less rapidly than the native white element, yet it is in the
+Southern states that the negro is most clearly falling behind. In the
+twenty years from 1880 to 1900 the whites in eighteen Southern states
+without the aid of foreign immigration increased 57 per cent and the
+negroes only 33 per cent.[22] In only six Southern states, West
+Virginia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Oklahoma, and Arkansas, have
+the negroes, during the past ten years, increased more rapidly than the
+whites, and in only three of these states, Alabama, Mississippi, and
+Arkansas, was the relative increase significant. In but two states,
+South Carolina and Mississippi, does the negro element predominate, and
+in another state, Louisiana, a majority were negroes in 1890, but a
+majority were whites in 1900. "At the beginning of the nineteenth
+century the Southern negroes were increasing much faster than the
+Southern whites. At the end of it they were increasing only about
+three-fifths as fast."[23]
+
+This redistribution of negroes is an interesting and significant fact
+regarding the race and has a bearing on its future. Two movements are
+taking place, first to the fertile bottom lands of the Southern states,
+second to the cities, both North and South. Mr. Carl Kelsey has shown
+this movement to the lowlands in an interesting way.[24] He has prepared
+a geological map of Alabama, which with Mississippi has received the
+largest accession of negroes, and has shown the density of negro
+population according to the character of the soil. In this map it
+appears that the prairie and valley regions contain a proportion of 50
+per cent to 90 per cent negroes, while the sand hill and pine levels
+contain only 10 per cent to 50 per cent, and the piedmont or foothill
+region less than 10 per cent. A similar segregation is found in other
+Southern states, especially the alluvial districts of Mississippi and
+Arkansas. In these fertile sections toward which the negroes gravitate,
+the crops are enormous, and Mr. Kelsey points out a curious
+misconception in the census summary, wherein the inference is drawn that
+negroes are better farmers than whites because they raise larger crops.
+"No wonder the negroes' crops are larger," when the whites farm the hill
+country and the negroes till the delta, which "will raise twice as much
+cotton per acre as the hills." Furthermore the negro, whether tenant or
+owner, is under the close supervision of a white landlord or creditor,
+who in self-protection keeps control of him, whereas the white farmer is
+left to succeed or fail without expert guidance.
+
+The migration of negroes to the cities is extremely significant. In ten
+Southern states the proportion of the colored population was almost
+exactly the same in 1890 as it had been in 1860,--namely, 36 per
+cent,--yet in sixteen cities of those states, as shown by Mr.
+Hoffman,[25] the colored proportion increased from 19 per cent in 1860
+to 29 per cent in 1890. This relative increase, however, did not
+continue after 1890, for, according to the census of 1900, the
+proportion of negroes in those cities was still 29 per cent. During the
+past decade the negroes have increased relatively faster in Northern
+cities. The white population of Chicago increased threefold from 1880 to
+1900, and the colored population fivefold. The white population of
+Philadelphia during the same period increased 50 per cent and the
+colored population 100 per cent. In the thirty-eight largest cities of
+the country the negro population in ten years increased 38 per cent and
+the white population, including foreign immigration, increased 33 per
+cent. In thirty Northern and border cities during the past census decade
+the negroes gained 167,000, and in twenty Southern cities they gained
+80,000.[26]
+
+The Southern whites also are moving from the South, and in larger
+proportions than the negroes, though the movement of both is small. In
+1900, 7 per cent of the whites of Southern birth lived in the North and
+West and only 4.3 per cent of the negroes of Southern birth. But the
+negroes who go North go to the cities, and the whites to the country.
+Three-fifths (58 per cent) of these northbound negroes moved to the
+larger cities and only one-fourth (26 per cent) of the northbound
+whites.[27]
+
+The accompanying map, derived from the census of 1900,[28] shows clearly
+both of these movements of negro population. The shaded areas indicate
+the counties where negroes formed a larger proportion of the population
+in 1900 than they did twenty years earlier, in 1880. Here can be seen
+the movement to the low and fertile lands of the South and the cities of
+the North and South. There are but two areas in California and Colorado,
+not included on the map, where the population of negroes has increased,
+and one of these contains the city of Los Angeles.
+
+Were the negroes in the cities to scatter through all the sections, the
+predominating numbers of the white element might have an elevating
+influence, but, instead, the negroes congregate in the poorer wards,
+where both poverty and vice prevail. Hoffman has shown that two-thirds
+of the negroes in Chicago live in three wards, which contain all the
+houses of ill-fame in that part of the city. The same is true of
+Philadelphia, Boston, and Cincinnati.[29] In these sections negro
+prostitution has become an established institution, catering to the
+Italian and other lower grades of immigrants, and supporting in idleness
+many negro men as solicitors.
+
+We have seen that the negro population has not kept pace with the native
+white population. The reason is found in the smaller excess of births
+over deaths. Statistics of births are almost entirely lacking in the
+United States. Statistics of deaths are complete for only portions of
+Northern states and a few Southern cities, containing, in 1900, in all,
+27,500,000 whites and 1,180,000 negroes. Of this number, 20,500,000
+whites and 1,100,000 negroes lived in cities, so that the showing which
+the census is able to give is mainly for cities North and South and for
+rural sections only in the North.[30] It appears that for every 1000
+colored persons living in these cities the deaths in 1900 were 31.1,
+while for every 1000 white persons the deaths were only 17.9. That is to
+say, the colored death-rate was 73 per cent greater than the white
+death-rate.
+
+In the rural districts there was much less difference. The colored
+death-rate was 19.1 and the white death-rate 15.3, a colored excess of
+25 per cent.
+
+=Morals and Environment.=--In explaining the excessive colored mortality
+there are two classes of opinions. One explains it by social conditions,
+the other by race traits. The one points to environment, the other to
+moral character. The one is socialistic, the other individualistic.
+These different views exist among colored people themselves, and one of
+the encouraging signs is the scientific and candid interest in the
+subject taken by them under the leadership of Atlanta University. A
+colored physician who takes the first view states his case
+forcibly:[31]--
+
+"Is it any wonder that we die faster than our white brother when he gets
+the first and best attention, while we are neglected on all sides? They
+have the best wards and treatment at the hospital, while we must take it
+second hand or not at all; they have all the homes for the poor and
+friendless, we have none; they have a home for fallen women, we have
+none; they have the public libraries where they can get and read books
+on hygiene and other subjects pertaining to health, we have no such
+privileges; they have the gymnasiums where they can go and develop
+themselves physically, we have not; they have all the parks where they
+and their children can go in the hot summer days and breathe the pure,
+cool air, but for fear we might catch a breath of that air and live,
+they put up large signs, which read thus, 'For white people only'; they
+live in the best homes, while we live in humble ones; they live in the
+cleanest and healthiest parts of the city, while we live in the
+sickliest and filthiest parts of the city; the streets on which they
+live are cleaned once and twice a day, the streets on which we live are
+not cleaned once a month, and some not at all; besides, they have plenty
+of money with which they can get any physician they wish, any medicine
+they need, and travel for their health when necessary; all of these
+blessings we are deprived of. Now, my friends, in the face of all these
+disadvantages, do you not think we are doing well to stay here as long
+as we do?"
+
+Another colored writer, less eloquent, but not less accurate, in
+summarizing the statistics collected under the guidance of Atlanta
+University concludes:[32]--
+
+"Overcrowding in tenements and houses occupied by colored people does
+not exist to any great extent, and is less than was supposed.
+
+"In comparison with white women, an excess of colored women support
+their families, or contribute to the family support, by occupation which
+takes them much of their time from home, to the neglect of their
+children.
+
+"Environment and the sanitary condition of houses are not chiefly
+responsible for the excessive mortality among colored people.
+
+"Ignorance and disregard of the laws of health are responsible for a
+large proportion of this excessive mortality."
+
+It is pointed out by these colored students and by many others that the
+excessive mortality of colored people is owing to pulmonary consumption,
+scrofula, and syphilis, all of which are constitutional; and to infant
+mortality due also to constitutional and congenital disease. The census
+of 1900 reports for a portion of the Northern states that for every 1000
+white children under five years of age there were 49.7 deaths in one
+year, and for every 1000 colored children under five years there were
+118.5 deaths, an excess of negro infant mortality of 137 per cent.[33]
+The census also reports that negro deaths in cities owing to consumption
+are proportionately 2.8 times as many as white deaths,[34] deaths owing
+to pneumonia are 89 per cent greater,[35] while deaths owing to
+contagious causes, such as measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria,[36] are
+but slightly greater or actually less than the white deaths in
+proportion to population. In the city of Charleston, where mortality
+statistics of negroes were compiled before the war, it has been shown
+that from 1822 to 1848 the colored death-rate from consumption was a
+trifle less than the white, but since 1865 the white mortality from that
+cause has decreased 38 per cent, while the negro mortality has increased
+70 per cent.[37] The death-rates from consumption in Charleston in 1900
+were 189.8 for 100,000 whites and 647.7 for 100,000 negroes, an excess
+of 241 per cent. The lowest negro death-rate reported from consumption
+in cities is 378.5 for Memphis, but in that city the white death-rate
+from the same cause is 169.9, a negro excess of 123 per cent.[38]
+
+At a conference held at Atlanta University, Professor Harris, of Fisk
+University, concluded:[39]--
+
+"I have now covered the ground to which our excessive death-rate is
+mainly due; namely, pulmonary diseases, especially consumption and
+pneumonia, scrofula, venereal diseases, and infant mortality. If we
+eliminate these diseases, our excessive death-rate will be a thing of
+the past.... While I do not depreciate sanitary regulations and a
+knowledge of hygienic laws, I am convinced that a _sine qua non_ of a
+change for the better in the negro's physical condition is a higher
+social morality.... From the health reports of all our large Southern
+cities we learn that a considerable amount of our infant mortality is
+due to inanition, infantile debility, and infantile marasmus. Now what
+is the case in regard to these diseases? The fact is that they are not
+diseases at all, but merely the names of symptoms due to enfeebled
+constitutions and congenital diseases, inherited from parents suffering
+from the effects of sexual immorality and debauchery.... It is true that
+much of the moral laxity which exists among us to-day arose out of
+slavery.... But to explain it is not to excuse it. It is no longer our
+misfortune as it was before the war; it is our sin, the wages of which
+is our excessive number of deaths.... The presence of tubercular and
+scrofulous diseases, consumption, syphilis, and leprosy, has caused the
+weaker nations of the earth to succumb before the rising tide of
+Christian civilization.... The history of nations teaches us that
+neither war, nor famine, nor pestilence, exterminates them so completely
+as do sexual vices."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+NINETEENTH CENTURY ADDITIONS
+
+
+It is only since the year 1820 that the government of the United States
+has kept a record of alien passengers arriving in this country. For
+several years following 1820 the immigration was so slight as to be
+almost negligible. It was not until 1820 that there were more than
+20,000 arrivals. So accustomed have we become to large figures of
+immigration that nothing less than 100,000 seems worth noting, and this
+figure was not reached until 1842. Since then there have been only four
+years of less than 100,000, and two of these were years of the Civil
+War.
+
+A striking fact which first attracts the attention of one who examines
+the statistics since 1840 is the close sympathy between immigration and
+the industrial prosperity and depression of this country. Indeed, so
+close is the connection that many who comment on the matter have held
+that immigration during the past century has been strictly an industrial
+or economic phenomenon, depending on the opportunities in this country,
+and that the religious and political causes which stimulated earlier
+immigration no longer hold good.
+
+A curved line on the accompanying chart has been drawn so as to show
+the relative numbers of immigrants since 1800, and another line shows
+the movement of imports of merchandise per capita of the population. The
+latter, except for tariff changes, is a fair index of the cycles of
+prosperity and depression. By following these two lines on the chart we
+notice the coincidence is close, except for a few years prior to the
+Civil War. Both movements reached high points in 1873, and fell to very
+low points in 1879; then rose in 1882 and fell in 1885; then reached
+another high point in 1892 and a low point in 1897; and finally, the
+present period of prosperity and heavy imports brings the largest
+immigration in the history of the country.
+
+In following the history of immigration by races we shall see to what
+extent the alleged coincidence between prosperity and immigration may be
+counted as a social law. Probably in the middle of the century it was
+not so much the opportunities for employment in this country as it was
+conditions in Europe that drove people to our shores. When we come to
+inquire as to the nationalities which constituted immigration at that
+period, we shall find what these causes were. In 1846 occurred the
+unparalleled potato rot in Ireland, when the year's crop of what had
+become the sole food staple of the peasantry of that island was entirely
+lost. The peasants had been reduced to subsistence on the cheapest of
+all staples through the operations of a system of landlordism scarcely
+ever paralleled on a large scale as a means of exploiting tenants.
+It was found that land used for potatoes would support three times the
+number of people as the same land sown to wheat, and the small tenants
+or the cotter peasants paid the landlord a higher rent than could be
+obtained from larger cultivators. Reduced to a diet of potatoes by an
+economic system imposed by an alien race, the Irish people are one of
+the many examples which we find throughout our studies of a subject
+people driven to emigration by the economic injustices of a dominant
+race. We shall find the same at a later time in Austria-Hungary, whence
+the conquered Slav peoples are fleeing from the discrimination and
+impositions of the ruling Magyar. We shall find it in Russia, whence the
+Jew, the Finn, and the German are escaping from the oppression of the
+Slav; and we shall find it in Turkey, whence the Armenian and the Syrian
+flee from the exactions of the Turk. Just so was it in Ireland in the
+latter half of the decade, 1840 to 1850, and the contention of the
+apologist for England that the famine which drove the Irish across the
+seas was an act of God, is but a weak effort to charge to a higher power
+the sufferings of a heartless system devised to convert the utmost life
+and energy of a subject race into gold for their exploiters. Much more
+nearly true of the part played by the Divine hand in this catastrophe is
+the report of the Society of Friends in Ireland, saying that the
+mysterious dispensation with which their country had been visited was
+"a means permitted by an All-wise Providence to exhibit more strikingly
+the unsound state of its social condition."
+
+
+[Illustration: MOVEMENT OF IMMIGRANTS, IMPORTS OF MERCHANDISE PER
+CAPITA, AND IMMIGRANTS PER 10,000 POPULATION--1800 TO 1906.]
+
+
+Thus we have an explanation of the incentives under which, even in a
+period of industrial depression in this country, the unfortunate Irish
+flocked hither. It is true that the population of Ireland had increased
+during the century preceding the famine at a rate more rapid than that
+of any other country of Europe. It was 3,000,000 in 1790, and over
+8,000,000 in the year of the famine. At the present time it is only
+5,000,000. The potato, above all other crops, enables the cultivator to
+live from hand to mouth, and coupled with a landlord system which takes
+away all above mere subsistence, this "de-moralizing esculent" aided the
+apparent overpopulation. Certainly the dependence of an entire people on
+a single crop was a most precarious condition.
+
+During the five years, 1846 to 1850, more than a million and a quarter
+of Irish emigrants left the ports of the United Kingdom, and during the
+ten years, 1845 to 1855, more than a million and a quarter came to the
+United States. So great a number could not have found means of
+transportation had it not been for the enormous contributions of
+government and private societies for assistance. Here began that
+exportation of paupers on a large scale against which our country has
+protested and finally legislated. Even this enormous migration was not
+greatly in excess of the number that actually perished from starvation
+or from the diseases incident thereto. The Irish migration since that
+time has never reached so high a point, although it made a second great
+advance in 1882, succeeding another famine, and it has now fallen far
+below that of eastern races of Europe. Altogether the total Irish
+immigration of over four million since 1821 places that race second of
+the contributors to our foreign-born population, and, compared with its
+own numbers, it leads the world, for in sixty years it has sent to us
+half as many people as it contained at the time of its greatest
+population. Scarcely another country has sent more than one-fifth.
+
+Looking over a period of nearly three centuries, it is probably true
+that the Germans have crossed the ocean in larger numbers than any other
+race. We have already noted the large migration during the eighteenth
+century, and the official records show that since 1820 there have
+entered our ports more than 5,200,000 Germans, while Ireland was sending
+4,000,000 and Great Britain 3,300,000.
+
+The German migration of the nineteenth century was quite distinct in
+character from that of the preceding century. The colonial migration was
+largely induced on religious grounds, but that of the past century was
+political and economic, with at first a notable prominence of
+materialism respecting religion. From the time of the Napoleonic wars to
+the revolution of 1848, the governments of Germany were despotic in
+character, supporting an established church, while at the same time the
+marvellous growth of the universities produced a class of educated
+liberals. In the revolution of 1848 these took a leading part, and
+although constitutional governments were then established, yet those who
+had been prominent in the popular uprisings found their position
+intolerable under the reactionary governments that followed. The
+political exiles sought America, bringing their liberalism in politics
+and religion, and forming with their descendants in American cities an
+intellectual aristocracy. They sprang from the middle classes of
+Germany, and latterly, when the wars with Austria and France had
+provoked the spirit of militarism, thousands of peasants looked to
+emigration for escape from military service. The severe industrial
+depression of 1873-79 added a powerful contributing cause. Thus there
+were two periods when German migration culminated; first in 1854, on
+political grounds, second in 1882, on military and economic grounds.
+Since the latter date a significant decline has ensued, and the present
+migration of 32,000 from Germany is mainly the remnants of families
+seeking here their relatives. A larger number of German immigrants,
+55,000, comes from Austria-Hungary and Russia, those from the latter
+country being driven from the Baltic provinces and the Volga settlements
+by the "Russianizing" policy of the Slav.
+
+=The Changing Character of European Immigration.=--Besides the Germans
+and the Irish, the races which contributed the largest numbers of
+immigrants during the middle years of the nineteenth century were the
+English and Scandinavian. After the decline during the depression of
+1879 there was an increase of all those races in 1882, a year when
+nearly 800,000 immigrants arrived. At about that time began a remarkable
+change in the character of immigration destined to produce profound
+consequences.
+
+This change was the rapid shifting of the sources of immigration from
+Western to Eastern and Southern Europe. A line drawn across the
+continent of Europe from northeast to southwest, separating the
+Scandinavian Peninsula, the British Isles, Germany, and France from
+Russia, Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Turkey, separates countries not only
+of distinct races but also of distinct civilizations. It separates
+Protestant Europe from Catholic Europe; it separates countries of
+representative institutions and popular government from absolute
+monarchies; it separates lands where education is universal from lands
+where illiteracy predominates; it separates manufacturing countries,
+progressive agriculture, and skilled labor from primitive hand
+industries, backward agriculture, and unskilled labor; it separates an
+educated, thrifty peasantry from a peasantry scarcely a single
+generation removed from serfdom; it separates Teutonic races from Latin,
+Slav, Semitic, and Mongolian races. When the sources of American
+immigration are shifted from the Western countries so nearly allied to
+our own, to Eastern countries so remote in the main attributes of
+Western civilization, the change is one that should challenge the
+attention of every citizen. Such a change has occurred, and it needs
+only a comparison of the statistics of immigration for the year 1882
+with those of 1902 and 1906 to see its extent. While the total number of
+immigrants from Europe and Asiatic Turkey was approximately equal in
+1882 and 1902, as shown in the accompanying table, yet in 1882 Western
+Europe furnished 87 per cent of the immigrants and in 1902 only 22 per
+cent, while the share of Southeastern Europe and Asiatic Turkey
+increased from 13 per cent in 1882 to 78 per cent in 1902. During twenty
+years the immigration of the Western races most nearly related to those
+which have fashioned American institutions declined more than 75 per
+cent, while the immigrants of Eastern and Southern races, untrained in
+self-government, increased nearly sixfold. For the year 1906 the
+proportions remain the same, although in the four years the total
+immigration had increased two-thirds.
+
+IMMIGRATION FROM EUROPE AND ASIATIC TURKEY BY COUNTRIES, 1882, 1902, 1906
+
+                              1882             1902              1905
+                        -------------    -------------     -------------
+                        NUMBER    PER    NUMBER    PER     NUMBER    PER
+                                  CENT             CENT              CENT
+
+  Total Europe and
+  Asiatic Turkey        647,082   100    622,987   100   1,024,719   100
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Great Britain and
+    Ireland             179,423  27.7     46,036   7.4     102,241  10.0
+  Belgium                 1,431    .2      2,577    .4       5,099    .5
+  Denmark                11,618   1.8      5,660    .9       7,741    .8
+  France                  6,003    .9      5,117    .8       9,386    .9
+  Germany               250,630  38.7     26,304   4.2      37,564   3.7
+  Netherlands             9,517   1.1      2,284    .4       4,946    .5
+  Norway                 29,101   4.5     17,404   2.8      21,730   2.1
+  Sweden                 64,607  10.0     30,894   5.0      23,310   2.3
+  Switzerland            10,884   1.7      2,344    .4       3,846    .4
+
+  Total Western Europe  563,174  87.0    136,620  22.0     215,863  21.7
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Italy                 32,159    5.0    178,375  28.6     273,120  26.7
+  Portugal                  42   [41]      5,307    .9       8,517    .8
+  Spain                    378   [41]        975    .1       1,921    .1
+  Austria-Hungary       29,150    4.5    171,989  27.6     265,138  25.9
+  Russia                21,590    3.3    107,347  17.2     215,665  21.0
+  Greece                [40]73   [41]      8,104   1.3      19,489   1.9
+  Roumania              [40]77   [41]      7,196   1.2       4,476    .5
+  Servia, Bulgaria,
+  and Montenegro                 [41]        851  [41]       4,666    .5
+  Turkey in Europe      [40]86   [41]        187  [41]       9,510    .9
+  Turkey in Asia            82   [41]      6,223   1.0       6,354    .6
+
+  Total Southern and
+  Eastern Europe and
+  Asiatic Turkey        83,637   13.0    486,367  78.0     808,856  78.9
+  ----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+=Italians.=--It was at this period that Italian immigration first became
+noticeable. Prior to 1880 this stream had been but the merest trickle,
+which now has become the greatest of all the foreign tributaries to our
+population. In 1873 the Italians for the first time reached 8000 in
+number, but they fell to 3000 in 1876 and so continued in moderate
+proportions, but suddenly in 1880 jumped to 12,000, and in 1882 to
+32,000. Falling off again with the industrial depression to 13,000 in
+1885, they reached 76,000 in 1891, and then with another depression to
+35,000 in 1895 they have now gone forward by leaps to the high mark of
+287,000.[42] The Italians seem destined to rival the Germans and Irish
+as the leading contributors to our social amalgam. Of course only a
+small part are as yet women and children, but this is because the
+immigration is in its early and pioneer stages. The women and children
+follow rapidly when the men have saved enough money to send for them.
+One-fourth of the emigration is on tickets and money furnished by
+friends and relatives in the United States.[43]
+
+The immigrants from Italy differ from those from Austria, Russia,
+Hungary, and Ireland, in that they are not driven forth by the
+oppressions of a dominant race, but as a result of the economic and
+political conditions of a united people. This does not indeed exclude
+oppression as a cause of expatriation, but it transfers the oppression
+from that of one race to that of one class upon another. By far the
+larger portion of Italian immigration comes from the southern provinces
+and from Sicily, where the power of the landlords is greatest. In these
+provinces of large estates held by the nobility, the rents have been
+forced to the highest notch, an orange garden paying as high as $160 per
+year per acre, and the leases are short, so that the tenant has little
+to encourage improvement.[44] In many cases the land is rented by large
+capitalist farmers, who raise therefrom cattle, wheat, and olives, and
+are prosperous men. But their prosperity is extracted from the miserable
+wages of their laborers. The agricultural laborer gets from 8 cents to
+32 cents a day through the year and 10 cents to 38 cents through the
+summer. Unskilled laborers get 25 cents to 50 cents a day, and such
+skilled trades as masons and carpenters get only 27 cents to $1.40 a
+day. This wide range of wages corresponds generally with the South and
+North, the lowest rates being in the South and the highest toward the
+North. In France and England wages are two and one-half times higher
+than in Italy, while in Germany they are about 30 per cent to 50 per
+cent higher.
+
+Nor must it be supposed that the cost of living is low to correspond
+with the low wages. This is largely owing to the exaggerated system of
+indirect taxes. Although wheat is a staple crop, yet the peasants eat
+corn in preference, because, for a given expenditure, it gives a
+stronger sense of repletion. Of wheat and corn meal together the Italian
+peasant eats in a year only three-fourths as much as the inmate of an
+English poorhouse. Of meat the peasant in Apulia gets no more than ten
+pounds a year, while the English workhouse pauper gets fifty-seven
+pounds. The local taxes on flour, bread, and macaroni are as high as 10
+or 15 per cent of the value, and the state tax on imported wheat is
+nearly 50 per cent of its value. The consumption of sugar has decreased
+one-fourth since heavy duties were imposed to protect native beet sugar,
+and it averages barely over five pounds per head. The consumption in the
+United States is sixty-five pounds per head. The iniquitous salt tax
+raises the price of salt from eleven pounds for two cents to one pound
+for two cents, and the peasants sometimes cook their corn meal in sea
+water, although this is smuggling. What the peasants lack in grain and
+meat they strive to supply by vegetables, and the proportion of
+vegetables, peas, and beans consumed is greater than that for any other
+country of Europe. The peasants drink no beer, spirits, tea, nor coffee,
+but the average annual consumption of wine is twenty gallons a head.
+Food alone costs the peasants 85 per cent of their wages, whereas it
+costs the German peasant 62 per cent and the American workman 41 per
+cent. The poor and working classes pay over one-half the taxes,
+amounting, even without wine, to 10 or 20 per cent of their wages. There
+are in the south and Sardinia some 13,000 sales of land a year on
+distress for non-payment of taxes, and the expropriated owners become
+tenants. Several villages in Southern Italy have been almost wholly
+abandoned and one village has recently announced its intention of
+removing itself entire to one of the South American republics.[45] The
+rich escape taxation, which is laid largely on consumption. Besides the
+state tax on imports, each city and town has its _octroi_, or import
+tax, on everything brought into the city. These "protective duties rob
+the poor to fill the pockets of the rich landlord and manufacturer."
+Since 1870 wealth has increased 17 per cent and taxes 30 per cent. Taxes
+are nearly one-fifth of the nation's income, against one-twelfth in
+Germany, one-sixteenth in England, and one-fifteenth in the United
+States. Wages rose from 1860 to 1885, but since 1890 they have fallen.
+
+The army and navy are the greatest drain on the resources of the people.
+They cost one-fourth more of the national income than do the armies and
+navies of France and Germany. Eighty million dollars a year for military
+expenditures in Italy is over 5 per cent of the income of the people,
+whereas $194,000,000 for the same purpose in the United States is less
+than 2 per cent of our incomes. In the Triple Alliance of Germany,
+Austria, and Italy, the latter country crushes its peasants in order to
+make a showing by the side of its wealthier partners. The army takes
+every able-bodied peasant from industry into barracks and drills for two
+years of his best vigor. But the long line of exposed coast and the
+general military situation in Europe make it unlikely that Italy for
+many years can shake off this incubus.
+
+In addition to all these economic and political causes of pressure,
+there is another cause of a more profound nature, the rapid growth of
+population. Strange as it may seem, the very poverty of Italy increases
+the tendency to a high birth-rate, and the rate is highest in the very
+districts where illiteracy and poverty are greatest. Only the great
+number of deaths produced by poverty and lack of sanitation prevents the
+increase of population from exceeding that of the more rapidly growing
+countries of Germany, Great Britain, and Scandinavia. It is not among
+those classes and nations, like the middle classes and the thrifty
+people of France, that the largest number of children are born, but it
+is among those ignorant and low-standard peoples to whom the future
+offers no better prospect for their children than for themselves. Early
+marriages and large families are both a result and a cause of poverty.
+Parts of Lombardy and Venetia have a thicker population than any other
+European country except Belgium, which is really not a country, but a
+manufacturing centre of Europe. The density of population in Italy is in
+excess of that of Germany, France, India, and even China. It is exceeded
+only by the islands of Great Britain and Japan, and the states of Rhode
+Island and Massachusetts.[46] Emigration is the only immediate relief
+from this congestion. All other remedies which operate through raising
+the intelligence and the standards of living require years for
+appreciable results, but meanwhile the persistent birth-rate crowds new
+competitors into the new openings and multiplies the need of economic
+and political reforms before they can be put into effect. Emigration is
+a relief ready at hand, but it is not a lessening of population. For
+many years to come Italy will furnish a surplus population to overflow
+to America.[47] Emigration is also a means of revenue for the mother
+country. For it is estimated that the peasants in foreign countries send
+back to their families and relatives $30,000,000 to $80,000,000 each
+year, and many of them return with what to them is a fortune, and with
+new ideas of industry and progress, to purchase and improve a farm and
+cottage for their declining years. It is said that already there are
+several small country towns in Southern Italy which have risen from
+squalor to something of prosperity through the money and influence of
+those who have come home. This temporary emigration is probably over
+150,000 each year going abroad or to adjoining countries expecting to
+return.
+
+Besides this temporary emigration there is an equally large permanent
+emigration. This is of two kinds, almost as entirely distinct from each
+other as the emigration from two separate nations. The North Italian is
+an educated, skilled artisan, coming from a manufacturing section and
+largely from the cities. He is Teutonic in blood and appearance. The
+South Italian is an illiterate peasant from the great landed estates,
+with wages less than one-third his northern compatriot. He descends with
+less mixture from the ancient inhabitants of Italy. Unhappily for us,
+the North Italians do not come to the United States in considerable
+numbers, but they betake themselves to Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil in
+about the same numbers as the South Italians come to us. It is estimated
+that in those three countries there are 3,000,000 Italians in a total
+population of 23,000,000, and they are mainly derived from the north of
+Italy. Surrounded by the unenterprising Spanish and Portuguese, they
+have shown themselves to be the industrial leaders of the country. Some
+of the chief buildings, banks, flour mills, textile mills, and a
+majority of the wheat farms of Argentina belong to Italians. They are
+one-third of the population of Buenos Ayres and own one-half of the
+commercial capital of that city. They become lawyers, engineers, members
+of parliament, and an Italian by descent has been president of the
+Republic of Argentina, while other Italians have been ministers of war
+and education.[48] While these North Italians, with their enterprise,
+intelligence, and varied capacities, go to South America, we receive
+the South Italians, who are nearly the most illiterate of all immigrants
+at the present time, the most subservient to superiors, the lowest in
+their standards of living, and at the same time the most industrious and
+thrifty of all common laborers.
+
+
+[Illustration: ALIENS AWAITING ADMISSION AT ELLIS ISLAND]
+
+
+=Austria-Hungary.=--Next to that from Italy the immigration from the
+Austro-Hungarian Empire in recent decades has reached the largest
+dimensions. While Italy sent 273,000 people in 1906, Austria-Hungary
+sent 265,000 in that year and 276,000 the year before. Like the
+immigration from Italy, this increase has occurred since 1880. Prior to
+that date the largest number reported from Austria-Hungary was 9000 in
+1874.
+
+While these figures compare with those of the Italians, yet, unlike the
+Italians, they refer to a congeries of races and languages distinct one
+from another. The significance of Austro-Hungarian immigration is
+revealed only when we analyze it by races. The race map of this empire
+shows at once the most complicated social mosaic of all modern nations.
+Here we see, not that mixture of races and assimilation of language
+which in our own country has evolved a vigorous, united people, but a
+juxtaposition of hostile races and a fixity of language held together
+only by the outside pressure of Russia, Germany, Italy, and Turkey. This
+conflict of races has made the politics of the empire nearly
+incomprehensible to foreigners, and has aggravated the economic
+inequalities which drive the unprivileged masses to emigrate.
+
+Not only are there in Austria-Hungary five grand divisions of the human
+family,--the German, the Slav, the Magyar, the Latin, and the Jew,--but
+these are again subdivided. In the northern mountainous and hilly
+sections are 13,000,000 Slavic peoples, the Czechs, or Bohemians, with
+their closely related Moravians, and the Slavic Slovaks, Poles, and
+Ruthenians (known also as Russniaks); while in the southern hills and
+along the Adriatic are another 4,000,000 Slavs, the Croatians, Servians,
+Dalmatians, and Slovenians. Between these divisions on the fertile
+plains 8,000,000 Magyars and 10,000,000 Germans have thrust themselves
+as the dominant races. To the southwest are nearly a million Italians,
+and in the east 2,500,000 Latinized Slavs, the Roumanians. The Slavs are
+in general the conquered peoples, with a German and Magyar nobility
+owning their land, making their laws, and managing their administration.
+The northern Slavs are subject to Austria and Hungary, and the
+Ruthenians suffer a double subjection, for they were the serfs of their
+fellow-Slavs, the Poles, whom they continue to hate, and in whose
+longings for a reunited Poland they do not participate. The southern
+Slavs and Roumanians are subject to Hungary. The Roumanians are a
+widespread and disrupted nationality of Slavs, conquered by the Romans,
+from whom they imperfectly took their language, but now distributed
+partly in independent kingdoms and partly under the dominion of the
+Magyars. The Croatians from the southwest mountains are among the finest
+specimens of physical manhood coming to our shores. They are a vigorous
+people, hating Hungary which owns them and calling themselves
+"Austrians" to ward off the name "Hun," by which Americans mistakenly
+designate them. The Magyars are the Asiactic conquerors who overran
+Europe ten centuries ago, and being repulsed by the Teutons to the west
+established themselves on the Slavs in the valley and plains of the
+Danube. Boasting a republican constitution a thousand years old they
+have not until the past year been compelled to share it with the people
+whom they subdued. Astute politicians and dashing military leaders, they
+are as careless in business as the Slavs, and the supremacy which they
+maintained in politics has slipped into the hands of the Jews in
+economics. In no other modern country has the Jew been so liberally
+treated, and in no other country have public and private finance come
+more completely under his control. Profiting by the Magyars' suppression
+of the Slavs, the Jew has monopolized the business opportunities denied
+to the Slovak and the Croatian, and with this leverage has quietly
+elbowed out the Magyar himself. No longer is the Magyar the dominant
+race, and in the past year he has contributed to America more immigrants
+than any branch of his conquered Slavs. In the Austrian dominions of
+former Poland the Jew likewise has become the financier, and both the
+Ruthenian and the Pole, unable to rise under their burden of debt,
+contribute their more enterprising peasants to America.
+
+By a perverse system of representative government, based on
+representation of classes both in Austria and in Hungary, the great
+landowners and wealthy merchants have heretofore elected three-fourths
+of the parliaments, but recently in both countries the emperor has
+granted universal manhood suffrage. The peasant Slavs will henceforth be
+on equal footing with the German, the Magyar, and the Jew, and whether
+out of the belated equality of races there will come equality of
+economic opportunity remains to be seen. For the past few years the
+emigration from the unfortunate dual empire has amazingly increased.
+
+With all of this confusing medley of races, with this diversity of Greek
+and Roman Catholicism and Judaism, with this history of race oppression
+and hatred, it is not surprising that the immigrants should break out
+into factions and feuds wherever thrown together among us. It is the
+task of America to lift them to a patriotism which hitherto in their
+native land they could not know.
+
+The earliest migration from Austria-Hungary was that of the Bohemians,
+the most highly educated and ardently patriotic of the Slavic people.
+After the revolution of 1848, when the Germans suppressed their
+patriotic uprising, students, professional men, and well-to-do peasants
+came to America and settled in New York, St. Louis, Milwaukee, Chicago,
+and in the rural districts of Texas, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, and
+California. Again, after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, skilled
+laborers were added to the stream, and they captured a large part of the
+cigar-making industry of New York and the clothing trade of Chicago.
+Latterly recruits from the peasants and unskilled laborers sought the
+sections where the pioneers had located, learned the same trades, or
+joined the armies of common labor. In Chicago the Bohemian section is
+almost a self-governing city, with its own language, industries,
+schools, churches, and newspapers. After a slight decline there is again
+an increasing flow of immigrants, the number in 1906 being 13,000. Those
+who come bring their families, and few return. In these earlier days the
+Polish and Hungarian Jews also began their migration, following the
+steps of their German precursors.
+
+In the decade of the eighties the increase of immigration from
+Austria-Hungary was first that of the Poles, now numbering 44,000, then
+the Magyars, now 43,000, then the Slovaks, now 37,000. In the latter
+part of the nineties the Southern Slavs--Croatians and Slovenians--suddenly
+took up their burden, and 43,000 of them came in 1906. Following them
+came the Ruthenians from the North, numbering 16,000 in 1906. Last of
+all, the Latinized Slavs, the Roumanians, began their flight from the
+Magyar, to the number of less than 400 in the year 1900, but swelling
+to 11,000 in 1906. Only 300 additional came from their own proper
+kingdom--Roumania. During all this period there has been also a
+considerable migration of Germans, reaching 35,000 in 1906.
+
+In the face of this swollen migration the Hungarian government has at
+last taken alarm. They see even their own people, the Magyars, escaping.
+Recently the government has attempted to restrict the unrest by
+prohibiting advertisements or public speeches advocating emigration, by
+prohibiting the sale of tickets or solicitation by any one not holding a
+government license for the purpose, by contracting with a steamship line
+from their own Adriatic part of Fiume in order to reduce migration
+across the German and Italian frontiers. This may account for the
+decline of ten thousand immigrants from Austria-Hungary in 1906.
+
+Practically the entire migration of the Slavic elements at the present
+time is that of peasants. In Croatia the forests have been depleted, and
+thousands of immigrant wood-choppers have sought the forests of our
+South and the railway construction of the West. The natural resources of
+Croatia are by no means inadequate, but the discriminating taxes and
+railway freight rates imposed by Hungary have prevented the development
+of these resources. The needed railways are not obtainable for the
+development of the mines and minerals of Croatia, and the peasants,
+unable to find employment at home, are allured by the advertisements of
+American steamships and the agents of American contractors.
+
+So it is with the Slovak peasants and mine workers of the northern
+mountains and foothills. With agricultural wages only eighteen cents a
+day, they find employment in the American mines, rolling-mills,
+stock-yards, and railroad construction at $1.50 a day.
+
+In addition to race discrimination, the blight of Austria-Hungary is
+landlordism. Considerable reforms, indeed, have been made in certain
+sections. The free alienation of landed property was adopted in the
+Austrian dominions in 1869, and in the following twelve years 42,000 new
+holdings were carved out of the existing peasant proprietorships in
+Bohemia. Similar transfers have occurred elsewhere, but even where this
+peasant ownership has gained, the enormous prices are an obstacle to
+economic independence. They compel the land-owning peasant to content
+himself with five to twelve acres, the size of four-fifths of the farms
+in Galicia. His eagerness to own land is his dread of the mere
+wage-earner's lot, which he no longer dreads when he lands in America.
+"The fear of falling from the social position of a peasant to that,
+immeasurably inferior, of a day laborer, is the great spur which drives
+over the seas alike the Slovak, the Pole, and the Ruthenian."[49] These
+high rentals and fabulous values can exist only where wages and
+standards of living are at the bare subsistence level, leaving a heavy
+surplus for capitalization. They also exist as a result of most
+economical and minute cultivation, so that, with this training, the
+Bohemian or Polish farmer who takes up land in America soon becomes a
+well-to-do citizen.
+
+Taxation, too, is unequal. For many years the government suffered
+deficits, the military expenses increased, and worst of all, the
+nobility were exempt from taxation. The latter injustice, however, was
+remedied by the revolution of 1848, and yet at the present time the
+great landowners pay much less than their proportionate share of the
+land-tax, to say nothing of the heavy taxes on consumption and industry.
+
+As in other countries of low standards, the number of births is large in
+proportion to the inhabitants. For every one thousand persons in
+Hungary, there are forty-three births each year,[50] a number exceeded
+by but one great country of Europe, Russia. Yet, with this large number
+of births, because the economic conditions are so onerous and the
+consequent deaths so frequent, the net increase is less than that of any
+other country except France. In Austria the births and deaths are less
+and the net increase greater, and they run close to those of prolific
+Italy.
+
+In each of these countries the figures for births and deaths stand near
+those of the negroes in America, and like the negroes, two-fifths of the
+mortality is that of children under five years of age, whereas with
+other more favored countries and races this proportion is only one-fifth
+or one-fourth. It is not so much the overpopulation of Austria-Hungary
+that incites emigration as it is the poverty, ignorance, inequality, and
+helplessness that produce a seeming overpopulation. While these
+conditions continue, emigration will continue to increase, and the
+efforts of the Hungarian government to reduce it will not succeed.
+
+=Russia.=--The Russian Empire is at the present time the third in the rank
+of contributors to American immigration. Russian immigration, like that
+of Italy and Austria-Hungary, is practically limited to the past two
+decades. In 1881 it first reached 10,000. In 1893 it was 42,000, and in
+1906, 216,000.
+
+The significant fact of this immigration is that it is only 2 per cent
+Russian and 98 per cent non-Russian. The Russian peasant is probably the
+most oppressed of the peasants of Europe, and though his recent uprising
+has aroused his intellect and disabused the former opinion of his
+stupidity, yet he has been so tied to the soil by his system of
+communism, his burden of taxes and debt and his subjection to landlords,
+that he is as yet immune to the fever of migration. In so far as he has
+moved from his native soil he has done so through the efforts of a
+despotic government to Russianize Siberia and the newly conquered
+regions of his own vast domain. On the other hand, the races which have
+abandoned the Russian Empire have been driven forth because they refused
+to submit to the policy which would by force assimilate them to the
+language or religion of the dominant race. Even the promises of the
+aristocracy under the fright of recent revolution have not mitigated the
+persecutions, and the number taking refuge in flight has doubled in four
+years. Foremost are the Jews, 125,000 in 1906, an increase from 37,000
+four years ago; next the Poles, 46,000 in 1906; next 14,000 Lithuanians,
+13,000 Finns, and 10,000 Germans. The Poles and Lithuanians are Slavic
+peoples long since conquered and annexed by the Russians. The Finns are
+a Teutonic people with a Mongol language; the Germans are an isolated
+branch of that race settled far to the east on the Volga River by
+invitation of the Czar more than one hundred years ago, or on the Baltic
+provinces adjoining Germany; while the Jews are the unhappy descendants
+of a race whom the Russians found in territory conquered during the past
+two centuries.
+
+=The Jews.=--Russia, at present, sends us five-sixths of the Jewish
+immigration, but the other one-sixth comes from adjoining territory in
+Austria-Hungary and Roumania. About six thousand temporarily sojourn in
+England, and the Whitechapel district of East London is a reduced
+picture of the East Side, New York. During American history Jews have
+come hither from all countries of Europe. The first recorded immigration
+was that of Dutch Jews, driven from Brazil by the Portuguese and
+received by the Dutch government of New Amsterdam. The descendants of
+these earliest immigrants continue at the present time in their own
+peculiar congregation in lower New York City. Quite a large number of
+Portuguese and Spanish Jews, expelled from those countries in the time
+of Columbus, have contributed their descendants to America by way of
+Holland. The German Jews began their migration in small numbers during
+colonial times, but their greatest influx followed the Napoleonic wars
+and reached its height at the middle of the century. Prior to the last
+two decades so predominant were the German Jews that, to the ordinary
+American, all Jews were Germans. Strangely enough, the so-called Russian
+Jew is also a German, and in Russia among the masses of people the words
+"German" and "Jew" also mean the same thing. Hereby hangs a tale of
+interest in the history of this persecuted race. Jews are known to have
+settled at the site of the present city of Frankfort in Southern Germany
+as early as the third century, when that town was a trading post on the
+Roman frontier. At the present time the region about Frankfort,
+extending south through Alsace, contains the major part of the German
+and French Jews. To this centre they flocked during the Middle Ages, and
+their toleration in this region throws an interesting light on the
+reasons for their persecution in other countries.
+
+Under the Catholic polity following the crusades the Jew had no rights,
+and he could therefore gain protection only through the personal favor
+of emperor, king, or feudal lord. This protection was arbitrary and
+capricious, but it was always based on a pecuniary consideration.
+Unwittingly the Catholic Church, by its prohibition of usury to all
+believers, had thrown the business of money lending into the hands of
+the Jews, and since the Jew was neither inclined toward agriculture nor
+permitted to follow that vocation, his only sources of livelihood were
+trade and usury. The sovereigns of Europe who protected the Jews did so
+in view of the large sums which they could exact from their profits as
+usurers and traders. They utilized the Jews like sponges to draw from
+their subjects illicit taxes. When, therefore, the people gained power
+over their sovereigns, and the spirit of nationality arose, the Jew,
+without his former protector, was the object of persecution. England was
+the first country where this spirit of nationality emerged and the first
+to expel the Jews (1290); France followed a century later (1395); and
+Spain and Portugal two centuries later (1492 and 1495). But in Germany
+and other parts of the Holy Roman Empire political confusion and anarchy
+prevailed, and the emperor and petty sovereigns were able to continue
+their protection of the Jews.
+
+
+[Illustration: NORWEGIAN  ITALIAN  ARABIC (From _The Home Missionary_)]
+
+
+The Russian people, at that time, were confined to the interior
+surrounding Moscow, but even before the crusades they had expelled the
+Jews. As rapidly as they conquered territory to the south from Turkey,
+or to the west from Poland, they carried forward the same hostility.
+There was only one country, Poland, in the centre of Europe, where the
+kings, desiring to build up their cities, invited the Jews, and hither
+the persecuted race fled from the East before the Russians, and latterly
+from the West, driven out by the Germans. When finally, a hundred years
+ago, the remnant of the Polish Empire was divided between Russia,
+Prussia, and Austria, the Jewish population in this favored area had
+become the largest aggregation of that people since the destruction of
+Jerusalem. To-day in certain of these provinces belonging to Russia the
+Jews number as high as one-sixth of the entire population, and more than
+half of that of several cities. Fifteen provinces taken from Poland and
+Turkey, extending 1500 miles along the border of Germany and
+Austria-Hungary and 240 miles in width, constitute to-day the "Pale of
+Settlement," the region where Jews are permitted to live. Here are found
+one-third of the world's 11,000,000 Jews.[51] Here they formerly engaged
+in all lines of industry, including agriculture.
+
+Now we come to the last great national uprising, like that which began
+in England six hundred years ago. The Russian serfs had been freed in
+1861. But they were left without land or capital and were burdened by
+high rents and enormous taxes. The Jews became their merchants,
+middlemen, and usurers. Suddenly, in 1881, the peasants, oppressed and
+neglected by landlord and government, turned in their helplessness upon
+the intermediate cause of their misery, the Jew. The anti-Semitic riots
+of that year have perhaps never been exceeded in ferocity and
+indiscriminate destruction. Then began the migration to America. The
+next year the Russian government took up the persecution, and the
+notorious "May Orders" of 1882 were promulgated. These, at the
+instigation of the Greek Church, have been followed by orders more
+stringent, so that to-day, unless relieved by the terrorized promises of
+the Czar, the Jew is not permitted to foreclose a mortgage or to lease
+or purchase land; he cannot do business on Sundays or Christian
+holidays; he cannot hold office; he cannot worship or assemble without
+police permit; he must serve in the army, but cannot become an officer;
+he is excluded from schools and universities; he is fined for conducting
+manufactures and commerce; he is almost prohibited from the learned
+professions. While all other social questions are excluded from
+discussion, the anti-Semitic press is given free play, and the popular
+hatred of the Jew is stirred to frenzy by "yellow" journals. Only when
+this hatred breaks out in widespread riots does the news reach America,
+but the persecution is constant and relentless. The government and the
+army join with the peasants, for, true to the character of this
+versatile race, the Jews are leaders of the revolutionary and
+socialistic patriots who seek to overthrow the government and restore
+the land to the people.
+
+Nor is this uprising confined to Russia. Galician Jews in the Austrian
+possessions of former Poland, where the Slavs bitterly complain of them
+as saloon-keepers and money-lenders,[52] have suffered the persecutions
+of their race, and in the last ten years Roumania, a country of peasants
+adjoining Hungary and Russia, has adopted laws and regulations even more
+oppressive than those of her neighbor.
+
+Thus it is that this marvellous and paradoxical race, the parent of
+philosophers, artists, reformers, martyrs, and also of the shrewdest
+exploiters of the poor and ignorant, has, in two decades, come to
+America in far greater numbers than in the two centuries preceding.
+
+It should not be inferred that the Jews are a race of pure descent.
+Coming as they do from all sections and nations of Europe, they are
+truly cosmopolitan, and have taken on the language, customs, and modes
+of thought of the people among whom they live. More than this, in the
+course of centuries, their physical characteristics have departed from
+those of their Semitic cousins in the East, and they have become
+assimilated in blood with their European neighbors. In Russia,
+especially in the early centuries, native tribes were converted to
+Judaism and mingled with their proselyters. That which makes the Jew a
+peculiar people is not altogether the purity of his blood, but
+persecution, devotion to his religion, and careful training of his
+children. Among the Jews from Eastern Europe there are marked
+intellectual and moral differences. The Hungarian Jew, who emigrated
+earliest, is adventurous and speculative: the Southern Russian keeps few
+of the religious observances, is the most intellectual and socialistic,
+and most inclined to the life of a wage-earner; the Western Russian is
+orthodox and emotional, saves money, becomes a contractor and retail
+merchant; the Galician Jew is the poorest, whose conditions at home were
+the harshest, and he begins American life as a pedler. That which unites
+them all as a single people is their religious training and common
+language.
+
+The Hebrew language is read and written by all the men and half of the
+women, but is not spoken except by a few especially orthodox Jews on
+Saturday. Hebrew is the language of business and correspondence, Yiddish
+the language of conversation, just as Latin in the Middle Ages was the
+official and international language, while the various peoples spoke
+each its own vernacular. The Yiddish spoken by the Russian Jews in
+America is scarcely a language--it is a jargon without syntax,
+conjugation, or declension. Its basis is sixty per cent German of the
+sixteenth century, showing the main origin of the people, and forty per
+cent the language of the countries whence they come.
+
+That which most of all has made the Jew a cause of alarm to the peasants
+of Eastern Europe is the highest mark of his virtue, namely, his rapid
+increase in numbers. A high birth-rate, a low death-rate, a long life,
+place the Jew as far above the average as the negro is below the
+average. These two races are the two extremes of American race vitality.
+Says Ripley:[53]--
+
+"Suppose two groups of one hundred infants each, one Jewish, one of
+average American parentage (Massachusetts), to be born on the same day.
+In spite of the disparity of social conditions in favor of the latter,
+the chances, determined by statistical means, are that one-half of the
+Americans will die within forty-seven years; while the first half of the
+Jews will not succumb to disease or accident before the expiration of
+seventy-one years. The death-rate is really but little over half that of
+the average American population."
+
+While the negro exceeds all races in the constitutional diseases of
+consumption and pneumonia, the Jew excels all in immunity from these
+diseases. His vitality is ascribed to his sanitary meat inspection, his
+sobriety, temperance, and self-control. Of the Jew it might be said more
+truly than of any other European people that the growth of population
+has led to overcrowding and has induced emigration. Yet of no people is
+this less true, for, were it not for the discrimination and persecution
+directed against them, the Jews would be the most prosperous and least
+overcrowded of the races of Europe.
+
+=The Finns.=--Until the year 1901 Finland was the freest and best governed
+part of the Russian Empire. Wrested from Sweden in 1809, it became a
+grand duchy of the Czar, guaranteed self-government, and confirmed by
+coronation oath of each successor. It was the only section of the
+Russian Empire with a constitutional government in which the laws,
+taxes, and army were controlled by a legislature representing the
+people. Here alone in all his empire was the Czar compelled to ask the
+consent of parliament in order to enact laws. But these free
+institutions within the past seven years were by his decree abrogated.
+The Czar claimed the right to put into force such laws as he chose
+without discussion or acceptance by the Finnish diet. The Russian
+language took the place of Swedish and Finnish as the official medium, a
+severe censorship of the press was introduced, the Lutheran religion,
+devoutly adhered to, was subordinated to the "orthodox," the independent
+Finnish army was abolished and Finns were distributed throughout the
+armies of the empire, and a Russian governor with absolute powers was
+placed over all. Thus have 2,000,000 of the sturdiest specimens of
+humanity been suddenly reduced to the level of Asiatic despotism. They
+had managed by industry and thrift to extort a livelihood from a sterile
+soil, and had developed a school system with universal education,
+culminating in one of the noblest universities of Europe. Their peasants
+are healthy, intelligent, honest, and sober. In one year, 1900, their
+emigration increased from 6000 to 12,000, and it continues at 14,000,
+notwithstanding the repentance of the Czar and his restoration of
+their stolen rights. Compared with the population of the country, the
+present immigration from Finland is proportionately greater than that of
+any race except the Jews; and famine, adding its horrors to the loss of
+their liberties, has served to augment the army of exiles.
+
+
+[Illustration: SLAV JEWISH POLACK LITHUANIAN (From _The Home Missionary_)]
+
+
+Much dispute has arisen respecting the racial relations of the Finns.
+Their language is like that of the Magyars, an agglutinative tongue with
+tendencies towards inflections, but their physical structure allies them
+more nearly to the Teutons. Their Lutheran religion also separates them
+from other peoples of the Russian Empire. Their sober industriousness
+and high intelligence give them a place above that of their intolerant
+conquerors; and the futile attempts of the Slav to "Russify" them drove
+to America many of our most desirable immigrants.
+
+=The French Canadians.=--When Canada was conquered by England in 1759, it
+contained a French population of 65,000. Without further immigration the
+number had increased in 1901 to 2,400,000, including 1,600,000 in Canada
+and 800,000 emigrants and their children in the United States. Scarcely
+another race has multiplied as rapidly, doubling every twenty-five
+years. The contrast with the same race in France, where population is
+actually declining, is most suggestive. French Canada is, as it were, a
+bit of mediaeval France, picked out and preserved for the curious student
+of social evolution. No French revolution broke down its old
+institutions, and the English conquest changed little else than the
+oath of allegiance. Language, customs, laws, and property rights
+remained intact. The only state church in North America is the Roman
+Catholic Church of Quebec, with its great wealth, its control of
+education, and its right to levy tithes and other church dues. With a
+standard of living lower than that of the Irish or Italians, and a
+population increasing even more rapidly, the French from Canada for a
+time seemed destined to displace other races in the textile mills of New
+England. Yet they came only as sojourners, intending by the work of
+every member of the family to save enough money to return to Canada,
+purchase a farm, and live in relative affluence. Their migration began
+at the close of the Civil War, and during periods of prosperity they
+swarmed to the mill towns, while in periods of depression they returned
+to their Northern homes. Gradually an increasing proportion remained in
+"the States," and the number in 1900 was 395,000 born in Canada, and
+436,000 children born on this side of the line.
+
+=The Portuguese.=--A diminutive but interesting migration of recent years
+is that of the Portuguese, who come, not from Portugal, but from the
+Cape Verde and Azores Islands, near equatorial Africa. These islands are
+remarkably overpopulated, and the emigration, nearly 9000 souls in 1906,
+is a very large proportion of the total number of inhabitants. By two
+methods did they find their way to America. One was almost accidental,
+for it was the wreck of a Portuguese vessel on the New England coast
+that first directed their attention to that section. They have settled
+mainly at New Bedford, Massachusetts, where they follow the fisheries in
+the summer and enter the mills in the winter. The other method was
+solicitation, which took several thousand of them to Hawaii as contract
+laborers on the sugar plantations. Unlike the Oriental importations to
+these islands the Portuguese insisted that their families be imported,
+and then as soon as their contracts expired they left the planters to
+become small farmers, and are now the backbone of the coffee industry.
+They and their children are nearly half of the "Caucasian" element of
+30,000. In Massachusetts they are of two distinct types, the whites from
+the Azores and the blacks from the Cape Verde Islands, the latter
+plainly a blend of Portuguese and Africans. Their standards of living
+are similar to those of the Italians, though they are distinguished by
+their cleanliness and the neatness of their homes.
+
+=Syrians and Armenians.=--That the recruiting area of American immigration
+is extending eastward is no more clearly evident than in the recent
+migration of Syrians and Armenians. These peoples belong to the
+Christian races of Asiatic Turkey, whence they are escaping the
+oppressions of a government which deserves the name of organized robbery
+rather than government. Within the past thirty years many thousand
+Syrians of Mount Lebanon have emigrated to Egypt and other
+Mediterranean countries, to the dependencies of Great Britain and South
+America. Six thousand of them came to the United States in 1906. They
+belong mainly to the Greek Church or the Maronite branch of the Roman
+Catholic Church, and it is mainly American missionary effort that has
+diverted them to the United States. Unlike other immigrants, they come
+principally from the towns, and are traders and pedlers. Broadly
+speaking, says an agent of the Charity Organization Society of New York,
+"the well-intentioned efforts of the missionaries have been abused by
+their proteges.... It is these alleged proselytes who have contributed
+largely to bring into relief the intrinsically servile character of the
+Syrian, his ingratitude and mendacity, his prostitution of all ideals to
+the huckster level.... As a rule they affiliate themselves with some
+Protestant church or mission, abandoning such connections when no longer
+deemed necessary or profitable."[54]
+
+The Armenian migration began with the monstrous Kurdish atrocities of
+recent years, instigated and supported by the Turkish government.
+Armenians are a primitive branch of the Christian religion, and at an
+early date became separated from both the Greek and Roman churches. They
+are among the shrewdest of merchants, traders, and money-lenders of the
+Orient, and, like the Jews, are hated by the peasantry and persecuted by
+the government. Like the Jews also, religious persecution has united
+them to the number of five million in a racial type of remarkable purity
+and distinctness from the surrounding races.
+
+=Asiatic Immigration.=--Utterly distinct from all other immigrants in the
+nineteenth century are the Chinese. Coming from a civilization already
+ancient when Europe was barbarian, the Chinaman complacently refuses to
+assimilate with Americans, and the latter reciprocate by denying him the
+right of citizenship. His residence is temporary, he comes without his
+family, and he accumulates what to him is a fortune for his declining
+years in China. The gold discoveries of California first attracted him,
+and the largest migration was 40,000 in 1882, the year when Congress
+prohibited further incoming. In 1906, 3015 Chinamen tried to get in, and
+2732 were admitted, mainly as United States citizens, returning
+merchants and returning laborers. One-half of the 1448 admitted as
+"exempt" were believed by the immigration officials to have been coolies
+in disguise.[55] Within the past ten years the Japanese have taken his
+place, and 14,000 of his Mongolian cousins arrived in 1906.
+
+The immigration of the Japanese has taken a peculiar turn owing to the
+annexation of Hawaii. While these islands were yet a kingdom in 1868
+this immigration began, and in 1886 a treaty was concluded with Japan
+for the immigration of Japanese contract laborers for the benefit of
+the sugar planters. Many thousand were imported under this arrangement,
+and "the fear that the islands would be annexed to Japan was one of the
+prime factors in the demand for annexation to the United States."[56]
+With annexation in 1900 contract labor was abolished, and the Japanese,
+freed from servitude, indulged in "an epidemic of strikes." The Japanese
+government retained paternal oversight of its laborers migrating to
+foreign lands, which is done through some thirty-four emigrant companies
+chartered by the government. Since opening up Korea for settlement Japan
+has granted but a limited number of passports to its citizens destined
+for the mainland of America, so that almost the entire immigration comes
+first to Honolulu through arrangements made between the emigrant
+companies and the planters. But the planters are not able to keep them
+on the island on account of the higher wages on the Pacific coast. Since
+the alien contract-labor law does not apply to immigrants from Hawaii, a
+_padroni_ system has sprung up for importing Japanese from that island.
+As a result, the arrivals at Honolulu are equalled by the departures to
+the mainland, and Hawaii becomes the American side entrance for the
+Japanese.[57] This evasion has been stopped by the law of February 20,
+1906.
+
+Hawaii also is showing another Asiatic race the opening to America. The
+growing independence of the Japanese led the planters to seek Koreans,
+since the Chinese exclusion law came into force with annexation. In this
+effort to break down Japanese solidarity some eight thousand Koreans
+have been mixed with them during the past five years, and these also
+have begun the transit to California.
+
+Although the Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans are the familiar examples
+often cited of low standards of living, yet their wages in their native
+countries are higher than those of the South Italians and equal to those
+of the Slavs. They earn $4 or $5 a month and spend $2 or $3 for living.
+In Hawaii they get $18 to $20 a month, and on the Pacific coast $35 to
+$50.
+
+In the past two or three years a tiny dripping of immigration has found
+its way from another vast empire of Asiatic population--India. Some two
+hundred are admitted each year. The populations of that land are growing
+discontented as they see Indians returned from Natal, where they earned
+$20 to $35 a month, while at home they get only $3 to $7 under a penal
+contract system. The American consul at Calcutta reports ten sturdy
+Punjab Mohammedans inquiring the way to America and telling of their
+friends at work on American dairy farms. In his judgment they are
+stronger and more intelligent than the Chinese coolies and are
+preferable for work on the Panama Canal. The self-governing British
+colonies have educational restrictions designed to prevent Asiatic
+immigration, whether of British subjects or aliens;[58] other colonies
+have contract labor. The unrest of India therefore turns the native eyes
+towards America.
+
+While America has been welcoming the eastward and backward races she has
+begun to lose her colonial stock and her Americanized Teutonic stock.
+These pioneer elements have kept in front of the westward movement, and
+now that the American frontier is gone they seek a new frontier in
+Canada. The Canadian government for several years has sought to fill its
+vast Western plains with Teutonic races and to discourage others. It has
+expended many thousand dollars for advertising and soliciting in the
+British Isles, and has maintained twenty to thirty immigration agents in
+our Western states. The opportunities of British Columbia are now well
+known, and the American farmers, with agricultural land rising
+enormously in value, sell out to the newcomer or the acclimated
+immigrant and betake themselves to double or treble the area for
+cultivation under the flag of England. They push onward by rail and by
+wagon, and the ingress of millions of immigrants is reflected in the
+egress of thousands of Americans.[59]
+
+=Indigenous Races.=--It is not enough that we have opened our gates to the
+millions of divergent races in Europe, Asia, and Africa; we have in
+these latter days admitted to our fold new types by another
+process--annexation.
+
+The Hawaiians are the latest of these oversea races to be brought under
+our flag, although in the course of eighty years they have been brought
+under our people. Nowhere else in the world has been seen such finished
+effect on an aboriginal race of the paradoxes of Western
+civilization--Christianity, private property, and sexual disease. With a
+population of some 300,000 at the time of discovery they had dwindled by
+domestic wars and imported disease to 140,000 when the missionaries came
+in 1820, then to 70,000 in 1850 when private property began its hunt for
+cheap labor, and now they number but 30,000. A disease eliminating the
+unfit of a race protected by monogamy decimates this primitive people on
+a lower stage of morals. Missionaries from the most intellectual type of
+American Protestantism converted the diminishing nation to Christianity
+in fifty years. A soil and climate the most favorable in the world for
+sugar-cane inspired American planters and sons of missionaries to
+displace the unsteady Hawaiians with industrious coolies, and finally to
+overthrow the government they had undermined and then annex it to
+America. Although acquiring American citizenship and sharing equally the
+suffrage with Caucasians, the decreasing influence of the Hawaiians is
+further diminished by the territorial form of government.
+
+The Spanish War added islands on opposite sides of the globe, with
+races resulting from diametrically opposite effects of three centuries
+of Spanish rule. From Porto Rico the aboriginal Carib had long
+disappeared under the slavery of his conquerors, and his place had been
+filled by the negro slave in sugar cultivation and by the Spaniard and
+other Europeans in coffee cultivation. To-day the negro and mulatto are
+two-fifths of the million population and the whites three-fifths.[60] In
+the Philippine Islands the native races have survived under a theocratic
+protectorate and even their tribal and racial subdivisions have been
+preserved. Two-fifths of their population of 7,600,000 belong to the
+leading tribe, the Visayans, and one-fifth to another, the Tagalogs. Six
+other tribes complete the list of "civilized" or Christianized peoples,
+while 10 per cent remain pagan in the mountains and forests. Four-fifths
+of the population are illiterate, a proportion the same as in Porto
+Rico, compared with less than half of the negroes and only one-sixteenth
+of the whites in the United States.[61]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+INDUSTRY
+
+
+In preceding chapters we have seen the conditions in their foreign homes
+which spurred the emigrants to seek America. We have seen religious
+persecution, race oppression, political revolution, militarism,
+taxation, famine, and poverty conspiring to press upon the unprivileged
+masses and to drive the more adventurous across the water. But it would
+be a mistake should we stop at that point and look upon the migration of
+these dissatisfied elements as only a voluntary movement to better their
+condition. In fact, had it been left to the initiative of the emigrants
+the flow of immigration to America could scarcely ever have reached
+one-half its actual dimensions. While various motives and inducements
+have always worked together, and it would be rash to assert dogmatically
+the relative weight of each, yet to one who has carefully noted all the
+circumstances it is scarcely an exaggeration to say that even more
+important than the initiative of immigrants have been the efforts of
+Americans and ship-owners to bring and attract them. Throughout our
+history these efforts have been inspired by one grand, effective
+motive,--that of making a profit upon the immigrants. The desire to get
+cheap labor, to take in passenger fares, and to sell land have probably
+brought more immigrants than the hard conditions of Europe, Asia, and
+Africa have sent. Induced immigration has been as potent as voluntary
+immigration. And it is to this mercenary motive that we owe our manifold
+variety of races, and especially our influx of backward races. One
+entire race, the negro, came solely for the profit of ship-owners and
+landowners. Working people of the colonial period were hoodwinked and
+kidnapped by shippers and speculators who reimbursed themselves by
+indenturing them to planters and farmers. The beginners of other races
+have come through similar but less coercive inducements, initiated,
+however, by the demand of those who held American property for
+speculation or investment. William Penn and his lessees, John Law, the
+Dutch East India Company, and many of the grantees of lands in the
+colonies, sent their agents through Western Europe and the British Isles
+with glowing advertisements, advanced transportation, and contracts for
+indentured service by way of reimbursement. In the nineteenth century
+new forms of induced migration appeared. Victims of the Irish famine
+were assisted to emigrate by local and general governments and by
+philanthropic societies, and both the Irish and the Germans, whose
+migration began towards the middle of the century, were, in a measure,
+exceptions to the general rule of induced immigration for profit.
+Several Western states created immigration bureaus which advertised
+their own advantages for intending immigrants, and Wisconsin,
+especially, in this way settled her lands with a wide variety of races.
+After the Civil War, induced migration entered upon a vigorous revival.
+The system of indenturing had long since disappeared, because
+legislatures and courts declined to recognize and enforce contracts for
+service. Consequently a new form of importation appeared under the
+direction of middlemen of the same nativity as that of the immigrant.
+Chinese coolies came under contract with the Six Companies, who advanced
+their expenses and looked to their own secret agents and tribunals to
+enforce repayment with profit.[62] Japanese coolies, much later, came
+under contract with immigration companies chartered by the Japanese
+government.[63] Italians were recruited by the _padroni_, and the bulk
+of the new Slav immigration from Southeastern Europe is in charge of
+their own countrymen acting as drummers and middlemen.
+
+INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS OF IMMIGRANTS--1906[64]
+
+  ===============+========+=========+==================+==========================
+                 |        |  SEXES  |      AGES       |        OCCUPATIONS[65]
+                 |        +----+----+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+----+----+----
+                 | TOTAL, |    |    |     |     |     | TOTAL,|Professional
+  RACE OR PEOPLE |  100   |    |    |Under|14-45|Over |  100  |    |Commercial
+                 |PER CENT|  M |  F | 14  |years| 45  |  PER  |    |    |Skilled
+                 |        |    |    |years|     |years|  CENT |    |    |    |Unskilled
+  ---------------+--------+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+----+----+----
+  African (black)|   3,786|62.2|37.8|  9.1| 86.8|  4.1|  2,921| 3.0| 2.6|45.6|48.8
+  Armenian       |   1,895|75.1|24.9| 11.8| 84.3|  3.9|  1,390| 3.4| 5.1|38.5|53.0
+  Bohemian and   |        |    |    |     |     |     |       |    |    |    |
+    Moravian     |  12,958|57.3|42.8| 20.7| 73.9|  5.4|  7,985| 1.3| 1.2|43.6|53.9
+  Bulgarian,     |        |    |    |     |     |     |       |    |    |    |
+   Servian, and  |        |    |    |     |     |     |       |    |    |    |
+   Montenegrin   |  11,548|96.2| 3.8|  1.9| 96.2|  1.9| 11,025| 0.1| 0.3| 3.7|95.9
+  Chinese        |   1,485|94.1| 5.9|  4.5| 81.5| 14.0|  1,261| 6.9|66.0| 1.5|25.6
+  Croatian and   |        |    |    |     |     |     |       |    |    |    |
+    Slovenian    |  44,272|86.5|13.5|  3.8| 94.1|  2.1| 40,125| 0.1| 0.1| 3.7|96.1
+  Cuban          |   5,591|67.4|32.6| 17.2| 73.2|  9.6|  2,842|10.3|19.1|55.9|14.7
+  Dalmatian,     |        |    |    |     |     |     |       |    |    |    |
+    Bosnian, and |        |    |    |     |     |     |       |    |    |    |
+    Herzegovinian|   4,568|95.1| 4.9|  1.7| 96.3|  2.0|  4,373| 0.1| 0.3| 7.7|91.9
+  Dutch and      |        |    |    |     |     |     |       |    |    |    |
+    Flemish      |   9,735|67.0|33.0| 17.6| 76.4|  6.0|  5,849| 5.2| 7.9|30.1|56.8
+  East Indian    |     271|93.0| 7.0|  5.5| 90.5|  4.0|    222| 9.9|52.7| 5.4|32.0
+  English        |  45,079|62.1|37.9| 13.5| 75.3| 11.2| 28,249|10.8|13.5|51.3|24.4
+  Finnish        |  14,136|67.4|32.6|  7.1| 90.8|  2.1| 11,959| 0.4| 0.3| 7.2|92.1
+  French         |  10,379|57.1|42.9|  8.6| 81.7|  9.7|  6,823|16.5|12.9|31.3|39.3
+  German         |  86,813|59.2|40.8| 15.1| 78.6|  6.3| 55,095| 4.3| 6.7|29.7|59.3
+  Greek          |  23,127|96.3| 3.7|  3.1| 95.9|  1.0| 21,615| 0.5| 2.6| 9.4|87.5
+  Hebrew         | 153,748|52.1|47.9| 28.3| 66.3|  5.4| 76,605| 1.4| 5.6|66.7|26.3
+  Irish          |  40,959|50.9|49.1|  4.6| 90.9|  4.5| 35,387| 1.7| 2.9|15.1|80.3
+  Italian (North)|  46,286|78.9|21.1|  8.6| 87.9|  3.5| 36,980| 1.4| 2.3|19.4|76.9
+  Italian (South)| 240,528|79.4|20.6| 11.1| 84.3|  4.6|190,105| 0.4| 1.3|16.0|82.3
+  Japanese       |  14,243|89.6|10.4|  1.0| 97.1|  1.9| 11,797| 2.2|10.3| 2.8|84.7
+  Korean         |     127|81.1|18.9| 16.5| 81.1|  2.4|     80| 6.3|15.0| 2.5|76.2
+  Lithuanian     |  14,257|66.1|33.9|  8.9| 89.5|  1.6| 11,568| 0.2| 0.2| 9.2|90.4
+  Magyar         |  44,261|71.8|28.2|  9.0| 87.5|  3.5| 34,559| 0.6| 0.5| 9.3|89.6
+  Mexican        |     141|66.0|34.0| 14.9| 74.5| 10.6|     65|23.1|35.4|24.6|16.9
+  Pacific        |        |    |    |     |     |     |       |    |    |    |
+    Islander     |      13|76.9|23.1|  7.7| 76.9| 15.4|      9|33.3| 0.0|66.7| 0.0
+  Polish         |  95,835|69.3|30.7|  9.3| 88.5|  2.2| 77,437| 0.2| 0.2| 7.7|91.9
+  Portuguese     |   8,729|58.4|41.6| 20.9| 70.7|  8.4|  5,815| 0.5| 1.1| 4.8|93.6
+  Roumanian      |  11,425|92.5| 7.5|  2.0| 94.0|  4.0| 10,759| 0.2| 0.2| 2.5|97.1
+  Russian        |   5,814|81.7|18.3| 10.0| 86.8|  3.2|  4,591| 3.2| 2.4|10.8|83.6
+  Ruthenian      |  16,257|75.7|24.3|  3.6| 93.9|  2.5| 14,899| 0.1|[66]| 2.7|97.2
+  Scandinavian   |  58,141|62.1|37.9|  9.1| 86.4|  4.5| 47,352| 1.8| 1.6|23.5|73.1
+  Scotch         |  16,463|66.1|33.9| 12.9| 78.8|  8.3| 11,207| 5.7| 9.9|62.8|21.6
+  Slovak         |  38,221|69.6|30.4|  8.9| 88.4|  2.7| 29,817|[66]| 0.1| 4.9|95.0
+  Spanish        |   5,332|83.6|16.4|  7.1| 84.6|  8.3|  4,211| 5.7|19.2|44.4|30.7
+  Spanish        |        |    |    |     |     |     |       |    |    |    |
+    American     |   1,585|69.7|30.3| 17.0| 74.4|  8.6|    790|23.7|37.1|21.1|18.1
+  Syrian         |   5,824|70.4|29.6| 15.2| 80.9|  3.9|  4,023| 1.1|11.1|19.9|67.9
+  Turkish        |   2,033|95.7| 4.3|  1.9| 96.0|  2.1|  1,914| 1.5| 4.4| 8.3|85.8
+  Welsh          |   2,367| 7.1|29.9| 12.5| 78.2|  9.3|  1,639| 4.9| 6.7|62.4|26.0
+  West Indian    |        |    |    |     |     |     |       |    |    |    |
+    (except      |        |    |    |     |     |     |       |    |    |    |
+    Cuban)       |   1,476|58.9|41.1| 14.8| 76.1|  9.1|    900| 7.6|15.0|49.4|28.0
+  Other Peoples  |   1,027|94.5| 5.5|  2.6| 96.0|  1.4|    932| 1.2| 4.1|18.0|76.7
+                 ---------+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+----+----+----
+  Total          1,100,735|69.5|30.5| 12.4| 83.0|  4.6|815,275| 1.8| 3.1|21.7|73.4
+  ===============+========+====+====+=====+=====+=====+=======+====+====+====+====
+
+These labor speculators have perfected a system of inducements and
+through billing as effective as that by which horse and cattle buyers in
+Kentucky or Iowa collect and forward their living freight to the markets
+of Europe. A Croatian of the earlier immigration, for example, sets up a
+saloon in South Chicago and becomes an employment bureau for his
+"greener" countrymen, and also ticket agent on commission for the
+steamship companies. His confederates are stationed along the entire
+route at connecting points, from the villages of Croatia to the saloon
+in Chicago. In Croatia they go among the laborers and picture to them
+the high wages and abundant work in America. They induce them to sell
+their little belongings and they furnish them with through tickets. They
+collect them in companies, give them a countersign, and send them on to
+their fellow-agent at Fiume, thence to Genoa or other port whence the
+American steerage vessel sails. In New York they are met by other
+confederates, whom they identify by their countersign, and again they
+are safely transferred and shipped to their destination. Here they are
+met by their enterprising countryman, lodged and fed, and within a day
+or two handed over to the foreman in a great steel plant, or to the
+"boss" of a construction gang on a railway, or to a contractor on a
+large public improvement. After they have earned and saved a little
+money they send for their friends, to whom the "boss" has promised jobs.
+Again their lodging-house countryman sells them the steamship ticket and
+arranges for the safe delivery of those for whom they have sent. In this
+way immigration is stimulated, and new races are induced to begin their
+American colonization. Eventually the pioneers send for their families,
+and it is estimated that nearly two-thirds of the immigrants in recent
+years have come on prepaid tickets or on money sent to them from
+America.[67]
+
+The significance of this new and highly perfected form of inducement
+will appear when we look back for a moment upon the legislation
+governing immigration.
+
+=Immigration Legislation.=--At the close of the Civil War, with a vast
+territory newly opened to the West by the railroads, Congress enacted a
+law throwing wide open our doors to the immigrants of all lands. It gave
+new guaranties for the protection of naturalized citizens in renouncing
+allegiance to their native countries, declaring that "expatriation is a
+natural and inherent right of all people, indispensable to the enjoyment
+of the rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness."[68]
+
+In the same year, 1868, the famous Burlingame treaty was negotiated with
+China, by which Americans in China and Chinese in America should enjoy
+all the privileges, immunities, and exemptions enjoyed by citizens of
+the most favored nation. These steps favorable to immigration were in
+line with the long-continued policy of the country from the earliest
+colonial times.
+
+But a new force had come into American politics--the wage-earner. From
+this time forth the old policies were violently challenged. High wages
+were to be pitted against high profits. The cheap labor which was
+eagerly sought by the corporations and large property owners was just as
+eagerly fought by the unpropertied wage-earners. Of course neither party
+conceded that it was selfishly seeking its own interest. Those who
+expected profits contended that cheap foreign labor was necessary for
+the development of the country; that American natural resources were
+unbounded, but American workmen could not be found for the rough work
+needed to turn these resources into wealth; that America should be in
+the future, as it had been in the past, a haven for the oppressed of all
+lands; and that in no better way could the principles of American
+democracy be spread to all peoples of the earth than by welcoming them
+and teaching them in our midst.
+
+The wage-earners have not been so fortunate in their protestations of
+disinterestedness. They were compelled to admit that though they
+themselves had been immigrants or the children of immigrants, they were
+now denying to others what had been a blessing to them. Yet they were
+able to set forward one supreme argument which our race problems are
+every day more and more showing to be sound. The future of American
+democracy is the future of the American wage-earner. To have an
+enlightened and patriotic citizenship we must protect the wages and
+standard of living of those who constitute the bulk of the citizens.
+This argument had been offered by employers themselves when they were
+seeking a protective tariff against the importation of "pauper-made"
+goods. What wonder that the wage-earner should use the same argument to
+keep out the pauper himself, and especially that he should begin by
+applying the argument to those races which showed themselves unable
+rapidly to assimilate, and thereby make a stand for high wages and high
+standards of living. Certain it is that had the white wage-earners
+possessed the suffrage and political influence during colonial times,
+the negro would not have been admitted in large numbers, and we should
+have been spared that race problem which of all is the largest and most
+nearly insoluble.
+
+For it must be observed in general that race antagonism occurs on the
+same competitive level. What appear often to be religious, political,
+and social animosities are economic at bottom, and the substance of the
+economic struggle is the advantage which third parties get when
+competitors hold each other down. The Southern planter was not hostile
+to the negro slave--he was his friend and protector. His nurse was the
+negro "mammy," his playmates were her children, and the mulatto throws
+light on his views of equality. It was the poor white who hated the
+negro and fled from his presence to the hills and the frontier, or sank
+below his level, despised by white and black. In times of freedom and
+reconstruction it is not the great landowner or employer that leads in
+the exhibition of race hostility, but the small farmer or
+wage-earner.[69] The one derives a profit from the presence of the
+negro--the other loses his job or his farm. With the progress of white
+democracy in place of the old aristocracy, as seen in South Carolina,
+hostility to the negro may be expected to increase. With the elimination
+of the white laborer, as seen in the black counties, the relations of
+negro and planter are harmonious.[70]
+
+So it is in the North. The negro or immigrant strike breaker is
+befriended by the employer, but hated by the employee. The Chinaman or
+Japanese in Hawaii or California is praised and sought after by the
+employer and householder, but dreaded by the wage-earner and domestic.
+Investors and landowners see their properties rise in value by the
+competition of races, but the competitors see their wages and jobs
+diminish. The increase of wealth intensifies the difference and raises
+up professional classes to the standpoint of the capitalists. With both
+of them the privilege of leisure depends on the presence of servants,
+but the wage-earners do their own work. As the immigrant rises in the
+scale, the small farmer, contractor, or merchant feels his competition
+and begins to join in measures of race protection.
+
+This hostility is not primarily racial in character. It is the
+competitive struggle for standards of living. It appears to be racial
+because for the most part races have different standards. But where
+different races agree on their standards the racial struggle ceases, and
+the negro, Italian, Slav, and American join together in the class
+struggle of a trade-union. On the other hand, if the same race has
+different standards, the economic struggle breaks down even the
+strongest affinities of race. The Russian Jew in the sweat-shop turns
+against the immigrant Jew, fleeing from the very persecution that he
+himself has escaped, and taking his place in the employment of the
+capitalist German Jew.[71] It is an easy and patriotic matter for the
+lawyer, minister, professor, employer, or investor, placed above the
+arena of competition, to proclaim the equal right of all races to
+American opportunities; to avow his own willingness to give way should
+even a better Chinaman, Hindu, or Turk come in to take his place; and to
+rebuke the racial hatred of those who resist this displacement. His
+patriotism and world-wide brotherhood cost him and his family nothing,
+and indeed they add to his profits and leisure. Could he realize his
+industrial position, and picture in imagination that of his
+fellow-citizens, their attitude would not appear less disinterested than
+his own. The immigrant comes as a wage-earner, and the American
+wage-earner bears the initial cost of his Americanization. Before he
+acquired the suffrage his protest was unheard--after he gained political
+power he began to protect himself.
+
+The first outbreak of the new-found strength of the American wage-earner
+was directed against a race superior even to the negro immigrants in
+industry, frugality, intelligence, and civilization--the Chinese. And
+this outbreak was so powerful that, in spite of all appeals to the
+traditions and liberties of America, the national government felt driven
+to repudiate the treaty so recently signed with the highest
+manifestations of faith, good-will, and international comity.
+
+Very early in the settlement of California the Chinaman had encountered
+hostile legislation. The state election had been carried by the
+Knownothings as early as 1854. Discriminating taxes, ordinances, and
+laws were adopted, and even immigration was regulated by the state
+legislature. But the state and federal courts declared such legislation
+invalid as violating treaties or interfering with international
+relations. Then the wage-earning element of California joined as one man
+in demanding action by the federal government, and eventually, by the
+treaty of 1880 and the law of 1888, Chinese laborers were excluded.[72]
+Thus did the Caucasian wage-earner score his first and signal victory
+in reversing what his opponents proclaimed were "principles coeval with
+the foundation of our government."
+
+The next step was the Alien Contract Labor law of 1885 and 1888, placed
+on the statute books through the efforts of the Knights of Labor and the
+trades-unions. As early as 1875 Congress had prohibited the immigration
+of paupers, criminal, and immoral persons, but the law of 1885 went to
+the other extreme and was designed to exclude industrial classes. The
+law is directed against prepayment of transportation, assistance, or
+encouragement of foreigners to immigrate _under contract_ to perform
+labor in the United States, and provides for the prosecution of the
+importer and deportation of the contract immigrant. This law has been
+enforced against skilled labor, which comes mainly from northwestern
+Europe, but, owing to the new system of _padroni_ and middlemen above
+described, it cannot be enforced against the unskilled laborers of
+Southern and Eastern Europe, since it cannot be shown that they have
+come under contract to perform labor. By the amendment and revised law
+adopted in 1903, after considerable discussion, and an effort on the
+part of the labor unions to strengthen the law, it was extended so as to
+exclude not only those coming under contract but also those coming under
+_offers_ and _promises_ of employment.[73]
+
+From what precedes we see that there are two exactly opposite points of
+view from which the subject of immigration is approached. One is the
+production of wealth; the other is the distribution of wealth. He who
+takes the standpoint of production sees the enormous undeveloped
+resources of this country--the mines to be exploited, railroads and
+highways to be built and rebuilt, farms to be opened up or to be more
+intensively cultivated, manufactures to be multiplied, and the markets
+of the world to be conquered by our exports, while there are not enough
+workmen, or not enough willing to do the hard and disagreeable work at
+the bottom.
+
+He who takes the standpoint of distribution sees the huge fortunes, the
+low wages, the small share of the product going to labor, the
+sweat-shop, the slums, all on account of the excessive competition of
+wage-earner against wage-earner.
+
+Consider first the bearing of immigration on the production of wealth.
+
+
+[Illustration: AGE GROUPS, FOREIGN AND NATIVE-BORN]
+
+
+=Immigration and Wealth Production.=--Over four-fifths of the immigrants
+are in the prime of life--the ages between fourteen and forty-five. In
+the year 1906 only 12 out of every 100 were under fourteen years of age,
+and only 4.5 out of every 100 over forty-five years of age. The census
+of 1900 offers some interesting comparisons between the native-born and
+the foreign-born in this matter of age distribution. It shows quite
+plainly that a large proportion of the native-born population is below
+the age of industrial production, fully 39 per cent, or two-fifths,
+being under fifteen years of age, while only 5 per cent of the
+foreign-born are of corresponding ages. On the other hand, the ages
+fifteen to forty-four include 46 per cent of the native and 58 per cent
+of the foreign-born. This is shown in the diagram based on five-year age
+periods. The native born are seen to group themselves in a symmetrical
+pyramid, with the children under five as the wide foundation, gradually
+tapering to the ages of eighty and eighty-four, but for the foreign-born
+they show a double pyramid, tapering in both directions from the ages of
+thirty-five to thirty-nine, which include the largest five-year group.
+Thus, immigration brings to us a population of working ages unhampered
+by unproductive mouths to be fed, and, if we consider alone that which
+produces the wealth of this country and not that which consumes it, the
+immigrants add more to the country than does the same number of native
+of equal ability. Their home countries have borne the expense of rearing
+them up to the industrial period of their lives, and then America,
+without that heavy expense, reaps whatever profits there are on the
+investment.
+
+
+[Illustration: PROPORTION OF SEXES. NATIVE AND FOREIGN-BORN WHITES,
+1900, AND IMMIGRANTS 1906]
+
+
+In another respect does immigration add to our industrial population
+more than would be done by an equal increase in native population,
+namely, by the large excess of men over women. In 1906, over two-thirds
+of the immigrants were males and less than one-third were females. This
+is shown on the accompanying diagram, as well as the fact based on the
+census statistics that among the foreign-born the men predominate over
+the women in the ratio of 540 to 460, while among the native-born
+population the sexes are about equal, being in the proportion of 507
+males to 493 females.
+
+This small proportion of women and children shows, of course, that it is
+the workers, not the families, who seek America. Yet the proportions
+widely vary for different nationalities. Among the Jews 48 per cent are
+females and 28 per cent children. This persecuted race moves in a body,
+expecting to make America its home. At the other extreme the Greeks send
+only 4 per cent females and 3 per cent children, the Croatians 13 per
+cent females and 4 per cent children, the South Italians 21 per cent
+females and 11 per cent children. These are races whose immigration has
+only recently begun, and naturally enough the women and children, except
+in the case of the Jews, do not accompany the workmen. A race of longer
+migration, like the Germans, has 41 per cent females and 15 per cent
+children. The Irish have a peculiar position. Alone of all the races do
+the women equal the men, but only 5 per cent are children. Irish girls
+seeking domestic service explain this preponderance of women.
+Significant and interesting facts regarding other races may be seen by
+studying the table entitled "Industrial Relations of Immigrants."
+
+
+[Illustration: SWEDEN GREECE GERMANY RUSSIA CHINA SCOTLAND AUSTRIA
+AUSTRALIA CANADA ENGLAND ITALY ROUMANIA AMERICAN SCHOOL BOYS (From
+_World's Work_)]
+
+
+Such being the proportions of industrial energy furnished by
+immigration, what is the quality? Much the larger proportion of
+immigrants are classed as unskilled, including laborers and servants.
+Omitting those who have "no occupation," including mainly women and
+children, who are 30.5 per cent of the total, only 21.7 per cent of the
+remainder who are working immigrants are skilled, and 73.4 per cent are
+unskilled. The proportions vary greatly among the different races. The
+largest element of skilled labor is among the Jews, a city people,
+two-thirds of whom are skilled workmen. Nearly the same proportion of
+the Scotch and Welsh and over one-half of the English and Bohemians are
+skilled mechanics. Nearly one-third of the Germans and Dutch are
+skilled, and one-fourth of the Scandinavians. At the other extreme, only
+3 to 5 per cent of the Ruthenians, Croatians, Roumanians, and Slovaks
+are skilled, and 8 to 10 per cent of the Magyars, Lithuanians, and
+Poles. One-fifth of the North Italians and one-sixth of the South
+Italians are skilled. These and other proportions are shown in the
+statistical table.
+
+The skilled labor which comes to America, especially from Northern and
+Western Europe, occupies a peculiar position in our industries. In the
+first place, the most capable workmen have permanent places at home,
+and it is, in general, only those who cannot command situations who seek
+their fortunes abroad. The exceptions to this rule are in the beginnings
+of an industry like that of tin plate, when a large proportion of the
+industry moved bodily to America, and the highly skilled tin workers of
+Wales brought a kind of industrial ability that had not hitherto existed
+in this country. As for the bulk of skilled immigrants, they do not
+represent the highest skill of the countries whence they come.
+
+On the other hand, the European skilled workman is usually better
+trained than the American, and in many branches of industry, especially
+machinery and ship-building, the English and Scotch immigrants command
+those superior positions where an all-round training is required.
+
+This peculiar situation is caused by the highly specialized character of
+American industry. In no country has division of labor and machinery
+been carried as far as here. By division of labor the skilled trades
+have been split up into simple operations, each of which in itself
+requires little or no skill, and the boy who starts in as a beginner is
+kept at one operation so that he does not learn a trade. The old-time
+journeyman tailor was a skilled mechanic who measured his customer, cut
+the cloth and trimmings, basted, sewed, and pressed the suit. Now we
+have factories which make only coats, others which make only vests,
+others trousers, and there are children's knee-pants factories and even
+ladies' tailor establishments where the former seamstress sees her
+precious skill dissipated among a score of unskilled workers. Thus the
+journeyman tailor is displaced by the factory, where the coat passes
+through the hands of thirty to fifty different men and women, each of
+whom can learn his peculiar operation in a month or two. The same is
+true in greater or less degree in all industries. Even in the building
+trades in the larger cities there are as many kinds of bricklayers as
+there are kinds of walls to be built, and as many kinds of carpenters as
+there are varieties of woodwork.
+
+So it is with machinery. The American employer does not advertise for a
+"machinist"--he wants a "lathe hand" or a "drill-press hand," and the
+majority of his "hands" are perhaps only automatic machine tenders. The
+employer cannot afford to transfer these hands from one job to another
+to enable them to "learn the trade." He must keep them at one operation,
+for it is not so much skill that he wants as cheap labor and speed.
+Consequently, American industry is not producing all-round mechanics,
+and the employers look to Europe for their skilled artisans. In England
+the trade-unions have made it their special business to see that every
+apprentice learns every part of his trade, and they have prevented
+employers from splitting up the trades and specializing machinery and
+thereby transforming the mechanic into the "hand." Were it not for
+immigration, American industries would ere now have been compelled to
+give more attention to apprenticeship and the training of competent
+mechanics. The need of apprenticeship and trade schools is being more
+seriously felt every year, for, notwithstanding the progress of division
+of labor and machinery, the all-round mechanic continues to play an
+important part in the shop and factory. American trade-unions are
+gaining strength, and one of their most insistent demands is the
+protection of apprenticeship. The bricklayers' and carpenters' unions of
+Chicago even secure from their employers instruction for apprentices in
+school. Not much headway in this line, however, has yet been made, and
+American industry has become abnormal, we might almost say suicidal, or
+at any rate, non-self-supporting. By extreme division of labor and
+marvellous application of machinery it makes possible the wholesale
+employment in factories of the farm laborers of Europe and their
+children, and then depends on Europe for the better-trained types of the
+skilled mechanic, who, on account of the farm laborer, have not been
+able to learn their trade in America.
+
+Not only does immigration bring to America the strongest, healthiest,
+and most energetic and adventurous of the work-people of Europe and
+Asia, but those who come work much harder than they did at home.
+Migration tears a man away from the traditions, the routine, the social
+props on which he has learned to rely, and throws him among strangers
+upon his own resources. He must swim or drown. At the same time he
+earns higher wages and eats more nourishing food than he had ever
+thought within reach of one in his station. His ambition is fired, he is
+stirred by the new tonic of feeling himself actually rising in the
+world. He pictures to himself a home of his own, he economizes and saves
+money to send to his friends and family, or to return to his beloved
+land a person of importance. Watch a gang of Italians shovelling dirt
+under an Irish boss, or a sweat-shop of Jewish tailors under a small
+contractor, and you shall see such feverish production of wealth as an
+American-born citizen would scarcely endure. Partly fear, partly hope,
+make the fresh immigrant the hardest, if not the most intelligent,
+worker in our industries.
+
+=Industrial Capacities of Different Races.=--But, however hard one may
+work, he can only exercise the gifts with which nature has endowed him.
+Whether these gifts are contributed by race or by civilization, we shall
+inquire when we come to the problems of amalgamation and assimilation.
+At present we are concerned with the varying industrial gifts and
+capacities of the various races as they actually exist at the time when
+immigration, annexation, or conquest takes place.
+
+The mental and moral qualities suited to make productive workers depend
+upon the character of the industry. It is not conceivable that the
+immigrants of the present day from Southern Europe and from Asia could
+have succeeded as frontiersmen and pioneers in the settlement of the
+country. In all Europe, Asia, and Africa there was but one race in the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries that had the preliminary training
+necessary to plunge into the wilderness, and in the face of the Indian
+to establish homes and agriculture. This was the English and the
+Scotch-Irish. The Spaniards and the French were pioneers and
+adventurers, but they established only trading stations. Accustomed to a
+paternal government they had not, as a people, the self-reliance and
+capacity for sustained exertion required to push forward as individuals,
+and to cut themselves off from the support of a government across the
+ocean. They shrank from the herculean task of clearing the forests,
+planting crops among the stumps, and living miles away from their
+neighbors. True, the pioneers had among their number several of German,
+French, and Dutch descent, but these belonged to the second and third
+generations descended from the immigrants and thrown from the time of
+childhood among their English-Scotch neighbors. The French trappers and
+explorers are famous, and have left their names on our map. But it was
+the English race that established itself in America, not because it was
+first to come, not because of its armies and navies, but because of its
+agriculture. Every farm newly carved out of the wilderness became a
+permanent foothold, and soon again sent out a continuous colony of sons
+and daughters to occupy the fertile land. Based on this self-reliant,
+democratic, industrial conquest of the new world the military conquest
+naturally, inevitably followed.
+
+But at the present day the character of industry has entirely changed.
+The last quarter of the nineteenth century saw the vacant lands finally
+occupied and the tribe of frontiersmen coming to an end. Population now
+began to recoil upon the East and the cities. This afforded to
+manufactures and to the mining industries the surplus labor-market so
+necessary for the continuance of large establishments which to-day need
+thousands of workmen and to-morrow hundreds. Moreover, among the
+American-born workmen, as well as the English and Scotch, are not found
+that docility, obedience to orders, and patient toil which employers
+desire where hundreds and thousands are brought like an army under the
+direction of foremen, superintendents, and managers. Employers now turn
+for their labor supply to those eastern and southern sections of Europe
+which have not hitherto contributed to immigration. The first to draw
+upon these sources in large numbers were the anthracite coal operators
+of Pennsylvania. In these fields the English, Scotch, Welsh, and Irish
+miners, during and following the period of the Civil War, had effected
+an organization for the control of wages, and the outrages of a secret
+society known as the Molly Maguires gave occasion for the importation of
+new races unaccustomed to unionism, and incapable, on account of
+language, of cooperation with English-speaking miners. Once introduced
+in the mining industry, these races rapidly found their way into the
+unskilled parts of manufactures, into the service of railroads and large
+contractors. On the construction of the Erie Canal in 1898, of 16,000
+workmen, 15,000 were unnaturalized Italians.[74] The census of 1900
+showed that while the foreign-born males were one-fourteenth of the
+laborers in agriculture, they were three-fourths of the tailors, more
+than one-half of the cabinet makers, nearly one-half of the miners and
+quarrymen, tannery workers, marble and stonecutters, more than
+two-fifths of the boot and shoe-makers and textile workers, one-third of
+the coopers, iron and steel workers, wood-workers and miscellaneous
+laborers, one-fourth of the carpenters, painters, and plasterers, and
+one-fifth of the sawmill workers.[75] The foreign-born females numbered
+nearly two-fifths of the female cotton-mill operatives and tailors,
+one-third of the woollen-mill operatives, one-fourth of the tobacco and
+silk-mill operatives.
+
+On the Pacific slope the Chinese and Japanese immigrants have filled the
+place occupied by the southeast European in the East and the negro in
+the South. They were the workmen who built the Pacific railroads, and
+without them it is said that these railroads could not have been
+constructed until several years after their actual completion.
+
+The immigration of the Chinese reached its highest figures prior to the
+exclusion laws of 1882, and since that time has been but an
+insignificant contribution. In their place have come the Japanese, a
+race whose native land, in proportion to its cultivable area, is more
+densely populated than any other country in the world. The Chinese and
+Japanese are perhaps the most industrious of all races, while the
+Chinese are the most docile. The Japanese excel in imitativeness, but
+are not as reliable as the Chinese. Neither race, so far as their
+immigrant representatives are concerned, possesses the originality and
+ingenuity which characterize the competent American and British
+mechanic. In the Hawaiian Islands, where they have enjoyed greater
+opportunities than elsewhere, they are found to be capable workmen of
+the skilled trades, provided they are under the direction of white
+mechanics.[76] But their largest field of work in Hawaii is in the
+unskilled cultivation of the great sugar plantations. Here they have
+been likened to "a sort of agricultural automaton," and it becomes
+possible to place them in large numbers under skilled direction, and
+thus to secure the best results from their docility and industry.
+
+In the United States itself the plantation form of agriculture, as
+distinguished from the domestic form, has always been based on a supply
+of labor from backward or un-Americanized races. This fact has a bearing
+on the alleged tendency of agriculture toward large farms. Ten years
+ago it seemed that the great "bonanza" farms were destined to displace
+the small farms, just as the trust displaces the small manufacturer. But
+it is now recognized that the reverse movement is in progress, and that
+the small farmer can compete successfully with the great farmer. It has
+not, however, been pointed out that the question is not merely an
+economic one and that it depends upon the industrial character of the
+races engaged in agriculture. The thrifty, hard-working and intelligent
+American or Teutonic farmer is able to economize and purchase his own
+small farm and compete successfully with the large undertaking. He is
+even beginning to do this in Hawaii since the compulsory labor of his
+large competitors was abolished.[77] But the backward, thriftless, and
+unintelligent races succeed best when employed in gangs on large
+estates. The cotton and sugar fields of the South with their negro
+workers have their counterpart in the plantations of Hawaii with their
+Chinese and Japanese, and in the newly developed sugar-beet fields of
+Nebraska, Colorado, and California, with their Russians, Bohemians,
+Japanese, and Mexicans. In the domestic or small form of agriculture the
+bulk of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe are not greatly
+desired as wage-earners, and they do not succeed as proprietors and
+tenants because they lack oversight and business ability. Where they are
+located in colonies under favorable auspices the Italians have achieved
+notable success, and in the course of Americanization they will
+doubtless rival older nationalities. But in the immigrant stage they are
+helpless, and it is the immigrants from Northwestern Europe, the Germans
+and Scandinavians, whose thrift, self-reliance, and intensive
+agriculture have made them from the start the model farmers of America.
+
+The Jewish immigrant, particularly, is unfitted for the life of a
+pioneer. Remarkably individualistic in character, his field of
+enterprise is society, and not the land. Of the thirty thousand families
+sent out from New York by industrial and agricultural removal societies,
+nine-tenths are located in industry and trade, and the bulk of the
+remainder, who are placed on farms, succeed by keeping summer boarders.
+Depending on boarders, they neglect agriculture and buy their
+food-stuff. Their largest colony of hoped-for agriculturists, Woodbine,
+New Jersey, has become a clothing factory.[78] Yet the factory system,
+with its discipline and regular hours, is distasteful to the Jew's
+individualism. He prefers the sweat-shop, with its going and coming. If
+possible, he rises through peddling and merchandising.
+
+These are a few of the many illustrative facts which might be set forth
+to show that the changing character of immigration is made possible by
+the changing character of industry; and that races wholly incompetent
+as pioneers and independent proprietors are able to find a place when
+once manufactures, mines, and railroads have sprung into being, with
+their captains of industry to guide and supervise their semi-intelligent
+work.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+LABOR
+
+
+We have seen that the character of the immigrants for whom a place can
+be found depends upon the character of the industry. It also depends
+upon the laws governing property in labor. Here the industrial problem
+widens out into the social problem.
+
+There are four variations in the treatment of labor as property in the
+United States, each of which has had its peculiar effect on the
+character of immigration, or has grown out of the relations between
+races. They are slavery, peonage, contract labor, and free labor. Under
+slavery the laborer and his children are compelled by law throughout
+their lifetime to work for an owner on terms dictated and enforced by
+him. Under peonage the laborer is compelled by law to pay off a debt by
+means of his labor, and under contract labor he is compelled by law to
+carry out a contract to work. To enforce peonage and contract labor the
+offence of "running away" is made punishable by imprisonment at forced
+labor, or by extension of the period of service. Under freedom the law
+refuses to enforce a contract to work, making this an exception to the
+sacredness of contracts, and refuses to enforce the payment of a debt
+by specific service. This leaves to the contractor or creditor the
+usually empty relief of suing for damages. The significance of these
+varying degrees of servile, semi-servile, and free labor will be seen in
+the following discussion of the social relations of the superior and
+inferior races.
+
+In the entire circuit of the globe those races which have developed
+under a tropical sun are found to be indolent and fickle. From the
+standpoint of survival of the fittest, such vices are virtues, for
+severe and continuous exertion under tropical conditions bring
+prostration and predisposition to disease. Therefore, if such races are
+to adopt that industrious life which is a second nature to races of the
+temperate zones, it is only through some form of compulsion. The negro
+could not possibly have found a place in American industry had he come
+as a free man, and at the present time contract labor and peonage with
+the crime of "running away" are recognized in varying degrees by the
+laws of Southern states. These statutes have been held unconstitutional
+by the Supreme Court,[79] under an act of Congress passed in 1867, but
+the condition of peonage which they contemplate is considered by many
+planters as essential to the continuance of the cotton industry. One of
+them, in southwestern Georgia, a graduate of Columbia College, with five
+years of business training in the Northern states, is quoted in an
+interview as follows:[80]--
+
+"We have two ways of handling our plantations. We rent small sections of
+forty acres each, and with these go a plough and the mule. In addition,
+I have about 450 hands who work on wages. These men are paid nine
+dollars a month, in addition to a fixed rate of food, which amounts to
+four pounds of meat a week, a certain percentage of vegetables, tobacco,
+sugar, flour, and some other commodities.
+
+"These negroes live on the plantation, are given a roof over their
+heads, have garden patches, and several other more or less valuable
+privileges. They invariably come to me for small advances of money.
+
+"These advances of money and rations and clothing, although there is not
+much of the latter, are frequently sufficient to put the negro in debt
+to us. The minute he finds he is in debt he naturally conceives it to be
+easier to go to work somewhere else and begin all over again, instead of
+paying his debts.
+
+"Now, when a negro runs away and violates his contract, leaving us in
+the lurch, not only short of his labor, but short of the advances we
+have made to him in money and goods, what would happen if we depended
+simply and solely on our right to sue? In the first place, with 450
+hands we would have 450 suits before the season is out, and if we won
+them all we would not be able to collect forty-five cents.
+
+"The result is, that in Georgia and Alabama, and I believe in other
+states, the law recognizes the right of the planter to reclaim the
+laborer who has left in violation of his contract, whether he be
+actually in debt or not.
+
+"Whether Judge Jones has declared this law constitutional or not, the
+planters in the black belt will have to maintain their right to claim
+their contract labor, or else they will have to go out of the business.
+Under any other system you would find it impossible to get in your
+cotton, because the negroes at the critical time would simply sit down
+and refuse to work. When they are well, we compel laborers to go to the
+field by force. This is the truth, and there is no use lying about it."
+
+This reasoning is entirely logical from the business standpoint. If
+production of wealth is the standard, contracts must be fulfilled and
+debts must be paid. Otherwise capital will not embark in business. But
+the reasoning does not stop with the negro. Once established, the
+practice spreads to other races. Instances are cited of white men held
+in peonage, negroes holding other negroes, and Italians forced to work
+in a phosphate mine.[81] It is an easy matter to get working men in
+debt. Many thousand rural justices keeping no records of convictions,
+hundreds of constables with fees depending on convictions, scores of
+petty crimes with penalties not usually enforced, contractors and
+planters eager for labor at the convict's rating of 35 cents a
+day--neither the negro nor the poor white is safe. Immigrants avoid a
+country with such a record. Not only the dread of forced labor for
+themselves but the dread of competition with the low wages that the
+forced labor of others implies, keep the immigrants away from the South.
+The fame of peonage is spread among them before they leave their native
+land. The business that rests on coerced labor damages the whole
+community for its own temporary gain. The right to quit work is as
+sacred for the workman as the right to enforce contracts for the
+capitalist. It is just as necessary to get energetic labor as it is to
+get abundant capital to embark in business. By recognizing the right of
+workmen to violate contracts, the employer learns to content himself
+with contracts that will not hurt when violated. He learns to appeal to
+the workman's motive to industry by methods that are not coercive.
+Admitting that the bulk of what is said about the negro's fickleness is
+true, he nevertheless is indiscriminately maligned. The thousands that
+are unreliable furnish a cloak for suppressing the hundreds that are
+industrious. I have made comparisons of the pay-rolls of two gas works
+in Southern cities--the one employing negro stokers at 11 cents an hour,
+the other whites at 22 cents an hour, and both working 12 hours a day
+seven days a week. The negroes put in as many hours between pay-days as
+did the whites, and if they "laid off" after pay-day it is no more than
+any class of white workmen would do after two weeks of such exhausting
+work. The negro in Southern cities can scarcely hope to rise above 12
+cents an hour, and white mechanics have a way of working with negro
+helpers at 10 cents an hour in order to lift their own wages to 20 cents
+an hour. White wage-earners and white employers in the South speak of
+the negroes' efforts to get higher wages in the same words and tones as
+employers in the North speak of white wage-earners who have organized
+unions and demanded more pay. A foreman condemned his "niggers" for
+instability when they were leaving him at 10 cents an hour for a
+railroad job at 12-1/2 cents an hour. Praising the Italians in
+comparison with the negro, he could not think of paying 17-1/2 cents an
+hour for pick-and-shovel work, which Italians were said to be getting in
+another section of the state. The right to quit work is the right to get
+higher wages. If the higher wages are paid and proper treatment
+accorded, a process of natural selection ensues. The industrious and
+steady workmen of all races retain the jobs. The gas company referred to
+above, by a system of graded pay advancing with years of service, had
+sorted out a more steady and reliable force of negroes than they could
+have secured of whites at the rate of wages paid. The test is indeed a
+severe one where a race has always been looked upon as servile. With
+high wages regarded as "white man's wages," the process of individual
+selection does not work out, and the dominant race excuses its resort
+to whipping, beating, and peonage on the ground of the laziness which
+its methods of remuneration have not learned to counterbalance. Even the
+industrious Italians treated in this way would not be industrious--they
+would leave for other states.
+
+The Malay races, to which the Filipinos belong, are, like the negroes,
+careless, thriftless, and disinclined to continuous exertion. In order
+to induce the Javanese to work, the Dutch government of Java sets aside
+a certain tract of government land for coffee planting, and compels each
+head of a household to set out and keep in order a certain number of
+coffee trees. On private estates in Java and in other Malay and Indian
+colonies, such as Burma, Ceylon, British India, where the government
+does not compel the native to take a contract to work, it nevertheless
+enforces contracts voluntarily made. In certain provinces of the
+Philippines "the tenants are usually in debt, and the old law which
+permits the creditor to imprison the debtor for non-payment of debt is
+still in force.... Landowners of a district frequently come together
+shortly before the crops are sold and agree among themselves how much
+interest to charge the tenants on their debts. This is for the purpose
+of charging the highest possible rate and at the same time retain
+tenants, who then could not leave, finding the same conditions
+prevailing throughout the district."[82] In densely populated countries
+like Java and Southern India, where the native cannot set up for
+himself, he has no alternative except to work under these contracts, and
+this is also true in the more thickly populated districts of the
+Philippine Islands. But the case is different in sparsely settled
+countries like Burma, East Sumatra, and the greater part of the
+Philippines, where wages are so high that natives are not compelled by
+necessity to work continuously. "Speaking generally," says Professor
+Jenks, "the unskilled Filipino laborer, while intelligent enough, is
+careless and thriftless. He in most cases wishes to take two or three
+days a week, on the average, to celebrate as feast days. In individual
+cases, where his wages have been increased, he has been known to lessen
+correspondingly the number of days per month which he would work. His
+income being sufficient to satisfy his modest needs, he could see no
+reason why he should toil longer than was necessary to earn his
+income."[83]
+
+Hence in these sparsely settled countries the Dutch and English
+governments have adopted, and Professor Jenks, in his report to the War
+Department, has recommended a limited use of the system of contract
+labor, not, however, for the native, but for imported Chinese. This
+system has existed in another of our newly acquired possessions, Hawaii,
+since 1852, where it applied to Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, and
+German immigrants, and whence it was abolished by the act of
+annexation in 1898.[84]
+
+
+[Illustration: FILIPINO GOVERNORS (From Census of the Philippine Islands)]
+
+
+Contract labor of this kind is quite different from the peonage and
+contract labor of the non-industrial races. It is similar to the
+indentured service of colonial times, in that the term of each contract
+is limited to a few years, and the contract is made by way of
+compensation for advanced expenses of immigration. The object is not, as
+in the case of slavery and peonage, to compel a shiftless race to work,
+but it is to develop the country by the introduction of an industrious
+race. The Chinese, after the expiration of their contracts, often become
+skilled laborers and merchants, and in the latter position their
+frugality and wiliness make them dangerous neighbors for the native
+Malay and Filipino races.[85] For this reason Professor Jenks recommends
+that employers be placed under bonds to return each contract Chinese
+coolie to China at the expiration of the period of contract, not to
+exceed three years, unless the government gives special permission for
+renewal of the contract. Governor Taft, in his report for the year 1902,
+while advocating a limited employment of Chinese contract coolies, said,
+"the truth is that, from a political standpoint, the unlimited
+introduction of the Chinese into these islands would be a great mistake.
+I believe the objection on the part of the Filipinos to such a course to
+be entirely logical and justified. The development of the islands by
+Chinamen would be at the expense of the Filipino people, and they may
+very well resent such a suggestion."[86]
+
+Governor Taft's opinion is strongly supported by the special
+commissioner of the American Federation of Labor, who, after inquiries
+in the district surrounding Manila, reports as follows:--
+
+"Their reluctance to work, continually harped upon by many employers, is
+simply the natural reluctance of a progressive people to work for low
+wages under bad treatment. When wages rise above the level of the barest
+and poorest necessaries of life, and where treatment is fair, there
+Filipinos are at work in any numbers required."[87]
+
+The situation here is similar to that of the negroes. In order to get
+two hundred steady workers at high wages it is necessary to try out a
+thousand or more. But the reports of the Philippine Commission show that
+with the process of selection which their engineers can pursue by means
+of the high wages on government work the results are satisfactory.[88]
+
+"Of course," continues Mr. Rosenberg in his report, "the Filipino worker
+cannot successfully compete--cheap as he can live--with the Chinese
+standard of living, hence the unceasing vilification of the Filipino
+workers by those employers and their following, who, seeing near by the
+unlimited supply of cheap Chinese labor, wish these islands to be
+thrown open to such labor, not only for the purpose of reducing the
+small wages of the Filipinos, but also to reduce that of the Chinese
+laborers now here. As one employer stated to me, 'We want more Chinese,
+to keep them here for one or two years, then ship them back and get
+another lot, for the Chinese I have here now are becoming too
+independent and want more pay.'"
+
+=Free Labor.=--The free laborer is not compelled by law to work. Then why
+should he work? Why does he work? The answer is found within himself. He
+wants something that he cannot get without working. Though this may seem
+a trifling question and a self-evident answer, the question and answer
+are the foundation of all questions of free institutions. For the
+non-working races and classes or the spasmodic and unreliable workers
+are the savages, paupers, criminals, idiots, lunatics, drunkards, and
+the great tribe of exploiters, "grafters," despots, and "leisure
+classes," who live on the work of others. Nearly every question of
+social pathology may be resolved to this, Why does he not work? And
+nearly every social ill would be cured if the non-workers could be
+brought voluntarily to work.
+
+There are just two grand motives which induce the freeman to
+work--necessity and ambition. Necessity is the desire for quantity,
+quality, and variety of things to be used. The term is elastic. It is
+psychological, not material. It includes, of course, the wants of mere
+animal existence--food, clothing, shelter. But this is a small part. The
+cost of the mere quantity needed to support life is less than the added
+cost needed to secure the quality and variety that satisfy the taste and
+habits. A pig enjoys raw corn, but a man requires corn cake at five
+times the cost. Tastes and habits depend on one's childhood, one's
+training, one's associations, and kind of work. The necessities of a
+Chinese coolie, Italian immigrant, or negro plantation hand are less,
+and cost less, than those of a skilled mechanic or a college graduate,
+because his associations have been different, and his present work is
+different. But necessity goes farther. It includes the wants of the
+family considered as a unit, and not merely the wants of the single man
+or woman, else the race would not continue to increase. Furthermore,
+social obligations impose added necessity. Compulsory education of
+children compels parents to support their children instead of living on
+their wages. Laws regulating sanitation and tenements compel the tenant
+to pay more rent. The necessities of a farm-hand on the estates of Italy
+are less than those of the same hand in the cities of America.
+
+Ambition is the desire for an improved position for one's self and
+family--for better quality and greater variety of material things. It
+demands a style of clothing and living suitable to the improved position
+aspired to. It demands an education for one's children superior to the
+minimum set by compulsory schooling. It demands thrift and economy for
+the sake of independence or the ability to hold on until one's demands
+are conceded. Ambition looks to the future--necessity is based on the
+past. The negro or the Malay works three days and loafs three because
+three days' wages procure his necessities. The Chinaman, or Italian, or
+Jewish immigrant works six days and saves the wages of three because the
+future is vivid to his imagination. With similar necessities one is
+ambitious, the other is content.
+
+The scope and possibility of evoking ambition depend upon the
+institution of private property. Property in human beings suppresses it,
+unless occasionally a slave is permitted to purchase his freedom. The
+wage system evokes ambition if the way is open for promotion or for
+escape by becoming an owner. Tenancy is on a still higher level, but
+most of all, for the masses of men, the ownership of his own small
+property is the keenest spur to ambition, for it rewards the worker with
+all of his product. This motive is the surest test of an individual's or
+a race's future. Compare the negro and the Italian cotton grower as
+tenants in the new vocation opening up to the latter. "It is always
+difficult," says the observant planter, Mr. Stone,[89] "to get a negro
+to plant and properly cultivate the outer edges of his field--the
+extreme ends of his rows, his ditch banks, etc. The Italian is so
+jealous of the use of every foot for which he pays rent that he will
+cultivate with a hoe places too small to be worked with a plough, and
+derive a revenue from spots to which a negro would not give a moment's
+thought. I have seen them cultivate right down to the water's edge the
+banks of bayous that had never been touched by the plough. I have seen
+them walk through their fields and search out every skipped place in
+every row and carefully put in seed to secure a perfect stand. I have
+seen them make more cotton per acre than the negro on the adjoining cut,
+gather it from two to four weeks earlier, and then put in the extra time
+earning money by picking in the negro's field."
+
+But ambition has its penalty. It is equivalent to an increase in the
+supply of labor. As an ambitious proprietor the increase goes into his
+permanent property, but the ambitious wage-earner accepts a lower rate
+of pay. His fellows see the reduction and go still lower. The see-saw
+continues until wages reach the level of necessities, and there is
+nothing left for ambition. The Jewish sweat-shop is the tragic penalty
+paid by that ambitious race. In the Illinois coal mines the wages were
+reduced one-third during twelve years of Italian and Slav immigration.
+The ambitious races are the industrial races. But their ambition and
+their industry bring the momentous problem of destructive competition.
+It might seem that this evil would correct itself--that an increase in
+the products of one industry would be offset by an increase in other
+industries; that therefore the increased supply in one would not be
+forced upon the market at lower prices, but would be exchanged on the
+same terms as before for the increased supply in others. This is indeed
+the case in prosperous times. All industries advance together, and the
+increasing supply of one is merely an increasing demand for others. But
+for some reason, industries do not always harmoniously advance together.
+And when the disproportion appears, the workers who are blindly but
+ambitiously pushing ahead endeavor to overcome, by increasing the
+quantity of output, what they lose by reducing the price. There is but
+one immediate and practical remedy--the organization of labor to
+regulate competition. The method of organization is to do in concert
+through self-sacrifice what the non-industrial races do individually for
+self-indulgence; namely, refuse to work. Where the one loafs the other
+strikes. While the necessities of the workers set the minimum below
+which wages cannot fall, and their physical endurance sets the maximum
+hours beyond which they cannot work, the labor-union, by means of the
+strike or the threat to strike, sets a higher minimum of wages and a
+lower maximum of hours, which leaves room for ambition. Eventually the
+higher wage and the shorter hours become habitual and become a higher
+level of necessities. Gifted individuals may, indeed, rise above the
+wage-earning class by their own efforts, but labor organization alone
+can raise the class as a whole.
+
+The organization of workmen in labor unions has been more difficult in
+this than in other free countries, owing to the competition of races.
+Heretofore it has been the easiest possible matter for a manager,
+apprehensive of agitators in forming a union, to introduce a new race
+and a new language into his works. Indeed, almost the only device and
+symptom of originality displayed by American employers in disciplining
+their labor force has been that of playing one race against another.
+They have, as a rule, been weak in methods of conciliation and feelings
+of consideration for their employees, as well as in the means of
+safeguarding life and health, but they have been strong with the weapon
+"divide and conquer." The number of races they have drawn upon is often
+amazing. The anthracite mine workers comprise nineteen languages and
+dialects. The employees of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company belong to
+thirty-two nationalities and speak twenty-seven languages. Such a medley
+of races offers indeed a disheartening prospect to the union organizer.
+And therefore when these races finally organize, the change in their
+moral character must be looked upon as the most significant of the
+social and industrial revolutions of our time. The United Mine Workers
+of America, with 300,000 members, is very largely composed of recent
+immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe. So with the Longshoremen,
+the United Garment Workers, and the Butcher Workmen. These are or have
+been among the strongest and best disciplined of American labor-unions.
+The newest races of the past twenty years have been coming long enough
+to have members who speak the English language and act as interpreters
+and leaders, and this is essential where the speeches at a union meeting
+must be translated often into four or five languages before the subject
+can be voted upon. Furthermore, the recruiting area for new races has
+been nearly exhausted, and the races now coming find their
+fellow-countrymen already in the unions. In the anthracite coal field I
+saw a dozen Slovaks just arrived from Hungary, but persuaded by their
+unionized precursors not to take the places of strikers. In New York a
+shipload of Italians in time of strike has been taken directly into the
+union. Such a sight would have been unlikely a dozen years ago.
+
+The competition of races is the competition of standards of living. The
+reason the Chinaman or the Italian can save three days' wages is because
+wages have been previously fixed by the greater necessities of more
+advanced races. But competition has no respect for superior races. The
+race with lowest necessities displaces others. The cotton textile
+industry of New England was originally operated by the educated sons and
+daughters of American stock. The Irish displaced many of them, then the
+French Canadians completed the displacement; then, when the children of
+the French had begun to acquire a higher standard, contingents of
+Portuguese, Greeks, Syrians, Poles, and Italians entered to prevent a
+rise, and latterly the Scotch-Irish from the Appalachian Mountains came
+down to the valleys of the South, and with their low wages, long hours,
+and child labor, set another brake on the standard of living. Lastly,
+Italians are beginning to be imported to supplement the "poor whites."
+Branches of the clothing industry in New York began with English and
+Scotch tailors, were then captured by Irish and Germans, then by Russian
+Jews, and lastly by Italians, while in Boston the Portuguese took a
+share, and in Chicago the Poles, Bohemians, and Scandinavians. Almost
+every great manufacturing and mining industry has experienced a similar
+substitution of races. As rapidly as a race rises in the scale of
+living, and through organization begins to demand higher wages and
+resist the pressure of long hours and overexertion, the employers
+substitute another race and the process is repeated. Each race comes
+from a country lower in the scale than that of the preceding, until
+finally the ends of the earth have been ransacked in the search for low
+standards of living combined with patient industriousness. Europe has
+been exhausted, Asia has been drawn upon, and there remain but three
+regions of the temperate zones from which a still lower standard can be
+expected. These are China, Japan, and India. The Chinese have been
+excluded by law, the Japanese and Koreans are coming in increasing
+numbers, and the Indian coolies remain to be experimented upon. That
+employers will make strenuous efforts to bring in these last remaining
+races in the progressive decline of standards, to repeal the Chinese
+prohibitive laws and to prevent additions to these laws, naturally
+follows from the progress toward higher standards and labor
+organization already made by the Italian and the Slav.
+
+The trade-union is often represented as an imported and un-American
+institution. It is true that in some unions the main strength is in the
+English workmen. But the majority of unionists are immigrants and
+children of immigrants from countries that know little of unionism.
+Ireland and Italy have nothing to compare with the trade-union movement
+of England, but the Irish are the most effective organizers of the
+American unions, and the Italians are becoming the most ardent
+unionists. Most remarkable of all, the individualistic Jew from Russia,
+contrary to his race instinct, is joining the unions. The American
+unions, in fact, grow out of American conditions, and are an American
+product. Although wages are two or three times as high as in his
+European home, the immigrant is driven by competition and the pressure
+of employers into a physical exertion which compels him to raise his
+standard of living in order to have strength to keep at work. He finds
+also that the law forbids his children to work, and compels him to send
+them to school to maintain a higher standard and to support his children
+he must earn more wages. This he can do in no other way than by
+organizing a union. The movement is of course aided by English-speaking
+outsiders or "agitators," especially by the Irish, but it finds a prompt
+response in the necessities of the recruits. Labor organization is
+essentially the outcome of American freedom, both as a corrective to the
+evils of free competition and as an exercise of the privilege of free
+association.
+
+When once moved by the spirit of unionism, the immigrants from
+low-standard countries are the most dangerous and determined of
+unionists. They have no obligations, little property, and but meagre
+necessities that compel them to yield. The bituminous coal miners were
+on strike four months in 1897 and the anthracite mine workers five
+months in 1902. Unionism comes to them as a discovery and a revelation.
+Suddenly to find that men of other races whom they have hated are really
+brothers, and that their enmity has been encouraged for the profit of a
+common oppressor, is the most profound awakening of which they are
+capable. Their resentment toward employers who have kept them apart,
+their devotion to their new-found brothers, are terrible and pathetic.
+With their emotional temperament, unionism becomes not merely a fight
+for wages but a religious crusade. It is in the nature of retribution
+that, after bringing to this country all the industrial races of Europe
+and Asia in the effort to break down labor organizations, these races
+should so soon have wiped out race antagonism and, joining together in
+the most powerful of labor-unions, have wrenched from their employers
+the greatest advances in wages.
+
+There is but one thing that stands in the way of complete unionization
+in many of the industries; namely, a flood of immigration too great
+for assimilation. With nearly a million immigrants a year the pressure
+upon unions seems almost resistless. A few of the unions which control
+the trade, like the mine workers and longshoremen, with high initiation
+fees and severe terms of admission, are able to protect themselves by
+virtue of strength already gained. But in the coast states and on
+miscellaneous labor this strategic advantage does not exist, and the
+standards are set by the newest immigrants.
+
+
+[Illustration: GOVERNOR JOHNSON OF MINNESOTA.--SWEDE (From _The World
+To-Day_)]
+
+
+=Profits and Wages.=--We have now stated at some length in this and the
+preceding chapter the two standpoints from which the immigration of
+industrial races is viewed. One standpoint is that of the production of
+wealth, the other the distribution of wealth. One is the development of
+our natural resources, the other is the elevation of our working
+population. If we inquire somewhat more critically and take into account
+all of the circumstances, we shall find that the motives animating this
+difference of policy are not really the above distinction between
+production and distribution, but the distinction between two opposing
+interests in distribution; namely, profits and wages. Unfortunately it
+is too readily assumed that whatever increases profits does so by
+increasing production. As a matter of fact it is only secondarily the
+production of wealth and development of resources that is sought by one
+of the interests concerned--it is primarily increase of profits at the
+expense of wages. Cheap labor, it is asserted, is needed to develop the
+less productive resources of the country--what the economists call the
+margin of production. It is needed to develop the less productive
+industries, like sugar beet, and the less productive branches of other
+industries, like the construction of railways in undeveloped regions or
+the reconstruction of railways in older regions, or the extension of a
+coal mine into the narrow veins, and so on. Without cheap labor these
+marginal resources, it is asserted, could not profitably be exploited,
+and would therefore not be developed.
+
+This argument, within limits, is undoubtedly true, but it overlooks the
+part played by machinery and inventions where wages are high. The
+cigar-making machine cannot extensively be introduced on the Pacific
+coast because Chinese cheap labor makes the same cigars at less cost
+than the machines. High wages stimulate the invention and use of
+machinery and scientific processes, and it is machinery and science,
+more than mere hand labor, on which reliance must be placed to develop
+the natural resources of a country.
+
+But machinery and science cannot be as quickly introduced as cheap
+immigrant labor. Machinery requires accumulation of capital in advance
+of production, but labor requires only the payment of daily wages in the
+course of production. Consequently in the haste to get profits the
+immigrant is more desired than machinery. But excessive profits secured
+in this way bring reaction and a period of business depression which
+check the production of wealth even more than the period of prosperity
+has stimulated production. Consider the extreme vacillations of
+prosperity and depression which characterize American industry. In a
+period of prosperity the prices of commodities rise rapidly, but the
+wages of labor, especially unorganized labor, follow slowly, and do not
+rise proportionately as high as prices. This means an enormous increase
+in profits and production of commodities. But commodities are produced
+to be sold, and if the market falls off, then production comes to a
+standstill with what is known as "overproduction." Now, wage-earners are
+the mass of consumers. If their wages do not rise in proportion to
+prices and profits, they cannot purchase as large a proportion of the
+country's products as they did before the period of prosperity began.
+"Overproduction" is mainly the "underconsumption" of wage-earners.
+Immigration intensifies this fatal cycle of "booms" and "depressions." A
+natural increase in population by excess of births over deaths,
+continues at practically the same rate year after year, in good times
+and bad times, but an artificial increase through immigration falls off
+in hard times and becomes excessive in good times. Thus, in 1879, at the
+lowest point of depression, the number of immigrants was 177,826, but
+three years later, in the "boom" culminating in 1882, it rose to
+788,992. In nine years following the depression of 1897 the number
+increased from 230,000 to 1,100,000.
+
+Even this does not tell the story complete, for the effects of free
+immigration are intensified by the opposite policy of a protective
+tariff on imports. While labor is admitted practically free, the
+products of labor are taxed to prevent free ingress. The following table
+shows the extreme points in the rise and fall of immigration and
+imports:--
+
+CULMINATING POINTS OF IMMIGRATION AND IMPORTS OF MERCHANDISE
+
+  =================+=========================+=======================
+                   |     IMMIGRATION     |         IMPORTS
+     YEAR ENDING   +----------+----------+--------------+------------
+       JUNE 30     |Prosperity|Depression|  Prosperity  |  Depression
+  -----------------+----------+----------+--------------+------------
+  1873             |  459,803 |          |  $642,000,000|
+  1879 and 1878[90]|          |  177,826 |              |$437,000,000
+  1882             |  788,992 |          |   725,000,000|
+  1886 and 1885[90]|          |  334,203 |              | 578,000,000
+  1893             |  439,307 |          |   866,000,000|
+  1897 and 1898[90]|          |  230,832 |              | 616,000,000
+  1906             |1,100,735 |          | 1,226,000,000|
+  -----------------+----------+----------+--------------+------------
+
+By comparing the two sets of columns it will be seen that, owing to the
+protective tariff, the imports of merchandise vary but slightly in
+periods of prosperity and depression compared with the variation in
+number of immigrants. Thus in the recent period of prosperity, the
+imports increased twofold above the lowest point of the preceding
+depression, while the number of immigrants increased nearly fivefold.
+
+The swell of immigration in the above-mentioned periods of prosperity
+increases the supply of labor, but the protective tariff prevents a
+similar increase in the supply of products. Thus immigration and the
+tariff together prevent wages from rising with the rise in prices of
+commodities and cost of living. This permits profits to increase more
+than wages, to be followed by overproduction and stoppage of business.
+
+Furthermore, when once the flow of immigrants is stimulated it continues
+for some time after the pinnacle of prosperity has been reached. In 1903
+the boom met a check at the beginning of the year, but the number of
+immigrants continued to increase during the summer and fall at the rate
+of 20,000 per month in excess of the number during the high period of
+prosperity in 1902. This makes it possible for great corporations to
+continue their investments by means of cheap labor beyond the probable
+demands of the country, with the result of overproduction, loss of
+profits, inability to pay fixed charges, and consequent panics. Thus it
+is that immigration, instead of increasing the production of wealth by a
+steady, healthful growth, joins with other causes to stimulate the
+feverish overproduction, with its inevitable collapse, that has
+characterized the industry of America more than that of any other
+country. It helps to create fortunes during a period of speculation, and
+intensifies the reaction during a period of stagnation.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+CITY LIFE, CRIME, AND POVERTY
+
+
+Statistics are considered by many people as dry and uninteresting, and
+the fact that a book is statistical is a warning that it should not be
+read, or that the statistical paragraphs should be passed over for the
+narrative and historical parts. This is a dilettante and lazy attitude
+to take, and especially so in the study of social subjects, for in these
+subjects it is only statistics that tell us the true proportions and
+relative importance of our facts. The study of statistics leads us to a
+study of social causes and forces, and when we see that in the year 1790
+three per cent of our population lived in cities, and in the year 1900
+thirty-three per cent lived in cities of 8000 population and over, we
+are aroused to the importance of making a serious inquiry into the
+reasons for this growth of cities and the effects of city life on the
+future of democracy and the welfare of the nation. More impressive to
+the student of race problems becomes the inquiry when we realize that
+while one-fifth of our entire population lives in the thirty-eight
+cities of over 100,000 population, two-fifths of our foreign-born
+population, one-third of our native offspring of foreign parents, and
+only one-tenth of our people of native parentage live in such cities.
+That is to say, the proportion of the foreign-born in great cities is
+four times as great, and the proportion of the children of foreign
+parents is three and one-third times as great as that of the colonial
+and older native stock. These proportions appear in the accompanying
+table and the upper diagram on page 162.
+
+POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES AND LARGE CITIES: 1900
+
+  =======================+===================+===========================
+                         |                   |  IN 38 CITIES OF 100,000
+                         | IN UNITED STATES  |    POPULATION AND OVER
+                         +-----------+-------+------------+--------------
+  TOTAL FOR UNITED STATES|           |       |            | Per cent of
+                         |           |  Per  |            |   total of
+                         |  Number   | cent  |   Number   | corresponding
+                         |           |       |            |     class
+  -----------------------+-----------+-------+------------+--------------
+  Population             |75,994,575 | 100.0 | 14,208,347 |     18.7
+  Native white, native   |           |       |            |
+    parents              |40,958,216 |  53.9 |  4,245,817 |     10.3
+  Native white, foreign  |           |       |            |
+    parents              |15,637,063 |  20.6 |  5,280,186 |     33.2
+  Foreign white          |10,213,817 |  13.4 |  3,972,324 |     39.7
+  Negroes                | 8,833,994 |  11.6 |    668,324 |      7.6
+  Indian and Mongolians  |   351,385 |    .5 |     32,696 |      9.3
+  -----------------------+-----------+-------+------------+--------------
+
+If we present the matter in another form in order to show the full
+extent of foreign influence in our great cities, we have another
+diagram, which shows that 59 per cent of the population outside, and
+only 30 per cent of the population within these cities is of native
+parentage, while 27 per cent of the population outside, and 65 per cent
+of the population within these cities is of foreign parentage. The
+census enumeration carries us back only to the parents, but if we had
+knowledge of the grandparents we should probably find that the
+immigrant element of the nineteenth century contributed a goodly portion
+of those set down as of native parentage.
+
+
+[Illustration: DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION: 1900]
+
+[Illustration: PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION IN CITIES: 1900]
+
+[Illustration: CONSTITUENTS OF THE POPULATION OF CITIES OF MORE THAN
+100,000 INHABITANTS: 1900]
+
+
+Still more significant becomes the comparison when we take each of these
+cities separately, as is done in the chart reproduced on page 163 from
+the Statistical Atlas of the Twelfth Census.
+
+Here it appears that the extreme is reached in the textile manufacturing
+city of Fall River, where but 14 per cent of the population is of native
+extraction, while in the two greatest cities, New York and Chicago, the
+proportion is 21 per cent, and the only large cities with a predominance
+of the native element are St. Joseph, Columbus, Indianapolis, and Kansas
+City, with Denver equally divided. As already stated, grandparents would
+still further diminish the proportion of native element.
+
+If we carry our comparison down to the 160 cities of 25,000 population,
+we shall find that in such cities is one-half of the foreign-born
+population,[91] and we shall also see marked differences among the
+races. At one extreme, three-fourths of those born in Russia, mainly
+Jews, live in these principal cities, and at the other extreme,
+one-fifth of the Norwegians.
+
+The other Scandinavian countries and the Welsh and Swiss have about
+one-third, while the English and Scotch are two-fifths, Germany,
+Austria, Bohemia, and Poland, one-half to three-fifths, Ireland and
+Italy nearly two-thirds.
+
+Individual cities suggest striking comparisons. In New York,
+computations based on the census show 785,035 persons of German
+descent, a number nearly equal to the population of Hamburg, and larger
+than the native element in New York (737,477). New York has twice as
+many Irish (710,510) as Dublin, two and one-half times as many Jews as
+Warsaw, half as many Italians as Naples, and 50,000 to 150,000 first and
+second generations from Scotland, Hungary, Poland, Austria, and
+England.[92] Chicago has nearly as many Germans as Dresden, one-third as
+many Bohemians as Prague, one-half as many Irish as Belfast, one-half as
+many Scandinavians as Stockholm.[93]
+
+The variety of races, too, is astonishing. New York excels Babel. A
+newspaper writer finds in that city sixty-six languages spoken,
+forty-nine newspapers published in foreign languages, and one school at
+Mulberry Bend with children of twenty-nine nationalities. Several of the
+smaller groups live in colonies, like the Syrians, Greeks, and Chinese.
+But the colonies of the larger groups are reservoirs perpetually filling
+and flowing.[94]
+
+The influx of population to our cities, the most characteristic and
+significant movement of the present generation, has additional
+significance when we classify it according to the motives of those who
+seek the cities, whether industrial or parasitic. The transformation
+from agriculture to manufactures and transportation has designated city
+occupations as the opportunities for quick and speculative accumulation
+of wealth, and in the cities the energetic, ambitious, and educated
+classes congregate. From the farms of the American stock the sons leave
+a humdrum existence for the uncertain but magnificent rewards of
+industrialism. These become the business men, the heads of great
+enterprises, and the millionaires whose example hypnotizes the
+imagination of the farm lads throughout the land. Many of them find
+their level in clerical and professional occupations, but they escape
+the manual toil which to them is the token of subordination. These
+manual portions are the peculiar province of the foreign immigrant, and
+foreign immigration is mainly a movement from the farms of Europe to the
+cities of America. The high wages of the industries and occupations
+which radiate from American cities are to them the magnet which
+fortune-seeking is to the American-born. The cities, too, furnish that
+choice of employers and that easy reliance on charitable and friendly
+assistance which is so necessary to the indigent laborer looking for
+work. Thus it is that those races of immigrants the least self-reliant
+or forehanded, like the Irish and the Italians, seek the cities in
+greater proportions than those sturdy races like the Scandinavians,
+English, Scotch, and Germans. The Jew, also, coming from the cities of
+Europe, seeks American cities by the very reason of his racial distaste
+for agriculture, and he finds there in his coreligionists the necessary
+assistance for a beginning in American livelihood.
+
+At this point we gradually pass over from the industrial motives of city
+influx to the parasitic motives. The United Hebrew Charities of New York
+have asserted that one-fourth of the Jews of that city are applicants
+for charity, and the other charitable societies make similar estimates
+for the population at large. These estimates must certainly be
+exaggerated, and a careful analysis of their methods of keeping
+statistics will surely moderate such startling statements, but we must
+accept them as the judgment of those who have the best means of knowing
+the conditions of poverty and pauperism in the metropolis. However
+exaggerated, they indicate an alarming extent of abject penury brought
+on by immigration, for it is mainly the immigrant and the children of
+the immigrant who swell the ranks of this indigent element in our great
+cities.
+
+Those who are poverty-stricken are not necessarily parasitic, but they
+occupy that intermediate stage between the industrial and the parasitic
+classes from which either of these classes may be recruited. If through
+continued poverty they become truly parasitic, then they pass over to
+the ranks of the criminal, the pauper, the vicious, the indolent, and
+the vagrant, who, like the industrial class, seek the cities.
+
+The dangerous effects of city life on immigrants and the children of
+immigrants cannot be too strongly emphasized. This country can absorb
+millions of all races from Europe and can raise them and their
+descendants to relatively high standards of American citizenship in so
+far as it can find places for them on the farms. "The land has been our
+great solvent."[95] But the cities of this country not only do not raise
+the immigrants to the same degree of independence, but are themselves
+dragged down by the parasitic and dependent conditions which they foster
+among the immigrant element.
+
+
+[Illustration: DR. ORONHYATEKHA MOHAWK INDIAN, LATE CHIEF OF ORDER OF
+FORESTERS]
+
+
+=Crime.=--This fact is substantiated by a study of criminal and pauper
+statistics. Great caution is needed in this line of inquiry, especially
+since the eleventh census in 1890 promulgated most erroneous inferences
+from the statistics compiled under its direction. It was contended by
+the census authorities that for each million of the foreign-born
+population there were 1768 prisoners, while for each million of the
+native-born there were only 898 prisoners, thus showing a tendency to
+criminality of the foreign-born twice as great as that of the white
+native-born. This inference was possible through oversight of the
+important fact that prisoners are recruited mainly from adults, and that
+the proportion of foreign-born adults to the foreign-born population is
+much greater than that of the native-born adults to the native
+population. If comparison be made of the number of male prisoners with
+the number of males of voting age, the proportions are materially
+different and more accurate, as follows:--
+
+NUMBER OF MALE PRISONERS PER MILLION OF VOTING POPULATION, 1890 (OMITTING
+"UNKNOWN")[96]
+
+  Native white, native parents      3,395
+  Native white, foreign parents     5,886
+  Native white, total               3,482[97]
+  Foreign white                     3,270
+  Negro                            13,219
+
+Here the foreign-born show actually a lower rate of criminality (3270)
+than the total native-born (3482). This inference harmonizes with our
+general observations of the immigrants, namely, that they belong to the
+industrial classes, and that our immigration laws are designed to
+exclude criminals.
+
+But this analysis brings out a fact far more significant than any yet
+adverted to; namely, that the native-born children of immigrants show a
+proportion of criminality (5886 per million) much greater than that of
+the foreign-born themselves (3270 per million), and 70 per cent greater
+than that of the children of native parents.
+
+This significant fact is further brought out, and with it the obverse of
+the census mistake above referred to, when we examine the census
+inferences respecting juvenile criminals. The census calculations show
+that there are 250 juvenile offenders for every million of the
+native-born population, and only 159 such offenders for every million of
+the foreign-born population; but if we remember that the proportion of
+foreign-born children is small, and then proceed to compare the number
+of boys who are offenders with the number of boys 10 to 19 years of age
+rather than with the number of persons of all ages, we shall have the
+following results, confining our attention to the North Atlantic states,
+where juvenile reformatories are more liberally provided than in other
+sections:--
+
+MALE JUVENILE OFFENDERS PER MILLION OF MALE POPULATION TEN TO NINETEEN
+YEARS OF AGE, NORTH ATLANTIC STATES, 1890 (OMITTING "UNKNOWN")[98]
+
+  Native white, native parents      1,744
+  Native white, foreign parents     3,923
+  Foreign white                     3,316
+  Colored                          17,915
+
+This table throws a different light on the situation, for it shows that
+the tendency towards crime among juveniles, instead of being less for
+the foreign-born than for the native-born, is nearly twice as great as
+that of the children of American parentage, and that the tendency among
+native children of foreign parentage (3923 per million) is more than
+twice as great as that among children of American parents (1744 per
+million).
+
+This amazing criminality of the children of immigrants is almost wholly
+a product of city life, and it follows directly upon the incapacity of
+immigrant parents to control their children under city conditions. The
+boys, especially, at an early age lose respect for their parents, who
+cannot talk the language of the community, and who are ignorant and
+helpless in the whirl of the struggle for existence, and are shut up
+during the daytime in shops and factories. On the streets and alleys, in
+their gangs and in the schools, the children evade parental discipline,
+and for them the home is practically non-existent. Says a well-informed
+student of race problems in New York,[99] "Example after example might
+be given of tenement-house families in which the parents--industrious
+peasant laborers--have found themselves disgraced by idle and vicious
+grown sons and daughters. Cases taken from the records of charitable
+societies almost at random show these facts again and again." Even the
+Russian Jew, more devoted and self-sacrificing in the training of his
+children than any other race of immigrants, sees them soon earning more
+money than their parents and breaking away from the discipline of
+centuries.
+
+Far different is it with those foreigners who settle in country
+districts where their children are under their constant oversight, and
+while the youngsters are learning the ways of America they are also held
+by their parents to industrious habits. Children of such immigrants
+become substantial citizens, while children of the same race brought up
+in the cities become a recruiting constituency for hoodlums, vagabonds,
+and criminals.
+
+The reader must have observed in the preceding statistical estimates
+the startling preeminence of the negro in the ranks of criminals. His
+proportion of prisoners for adult males (13,219 per million) seems to be
+four times as great as that of the native stock, and more than twice as
+great as that of foreign parentage, while for boys his portion in the
+North Atlantic states (17,915 per million) is ten times as great as that
+of the corresponding native stock, and four times as great as that of
+foreign parentage.
+
+The negro perhaps suffers by way of discrimination in the number of
+arrests and convictions compared with the whites, yet it is significant
+that in proportion to total numbers the negro prisoners in the Northern
+states are nearly twice as many as in the Southern states. Here, again,
+city life works its degenerating effects, for the Northern negroes are
+congregated mainly in towns and cities, while the Southern negroes
+remain in the country.
+
+Did space permit, it would prove an interesting quest to follow the
+several races through the various classes of crime, noticing the
+relative seriousness of their offences, and paying attention to the
+female offenders. Only one class of offences can here be noted in
+detail; namely, that of public intoxication. Although classed as a
+crime, this offence borders on pauperism and the mental diseases, and
+its extreme prevalence indicates that the race in question is not
+overcoming the degenerating effects of competition and city life.
+Statistics from Massachusetts seem to show that drunkenness prevails to
+the greatest extent in the order of preeminence among the Irish, Welsh,
+English, and Scotch, and least among the Portuguese, Italians, Germans,
+Poles, and Jews. The Italians owe their prominence in the lists of
+prisoners to their crimes of violence, and very slightly to
+intoxication, though the latter is increasing among them. In the
+Southern states the ravages of drink among the negroes have been so
+severe and accompanied with such outbreaks of violence that the policy
+of prohibition of the liquor traffic has been carried farther than in
+any other section of the country. Probably three-fourths of the Southern
+negroes live in prohibition counties, and were it not for the paternal
+restrictions imposed by such laws, the downward course of the negro race
+would doubtless have outrun considerably the speed it has actually
+attained.
+
+Besides the crimes which spring from racial tendencies, there is a
+peculiar class of crimes springing largely from race prejudice and
+hatred. These are lynchings and mob violence. The United States presents
+the paradox of a nation where respect for law and constitutional forms
+has won most signal triumphs, yet where concerted violations of law have
+been most widespread. By a queer inversion of thought, a crime committed
+jointly by many is not a crime, but a vindication of justice, just as a
+crime committed by authority of a nation is not a crime, but a virtue.
+Such crimes have not been continuous, but have arisen at times out of
+acute racial antagonisms. The Knownothing agitation of 1850 to 1855,
+which prevailed among religious and patriotic Americans, was directed
+against the newly arrived flood of immigrants from Europe and Asia, and
+was marked by a state of lawlessness and mob rule such as had never
+before existed, especially in the cities of Boston, New York, Pittsburg,
+Cincinnati, Louisville, and Baltimore.[100] These subsided or changed
+their object under the oncoming slavery crisis, and the Civil War itself
+was a grand resort to violence by the South on a question of race
+domination. Beginning again with the Kuklux and White-cap uprisings in
+the seventies, mob rule drove the negroes back to a condition of
+subordination, but the lawless spirit then engendered has continued to
+show itself in the annual lynching of fifty to one hundred and fifty
+negroes suspected or convicted of the more heinous crimes.[101] Nor has
+this crime of the mob been restricted to the South, but it has spread to
+the North, and has become almost the accepted code of procedure
+throughout the land wherever negroes are heinously accused. In the
+Northern instances this vengeance of the mob is sometimes wreaked on the
+entire race, for in the North the negro is more assertive, and defends
+his accused brother. But in the South the mob usually, though not
+always, stops with vengeance on the individual guilty, or supposedly
+guilty, since the race in general is already cowed.
+
+Other races suffer at the hands of mobs, such as the Chinese in Wyoming
+and California at the hands of American mine workers, Italians in
+Louisiana and California at the hands of citizens and laborers, Slovaks
+and Poles in Latimer, Pennsylvania, at the hands of a mob militia. With
+the rise of organized labor these race riots and militia shootings
+increased in number, often growing out of the efforts of older races of
+workmen to drive newer and backward races from their jobs, or the
+efforts of employers to destroy newly formed unions of these immigrant
+races. Many strikes are accompanied by an incipient race war where
+employers are endeavoring to make substitution, one race for another, of
+Irish, Germans, native whites, Italians, negroes, Poles, and so on. Even
+the long series of crimes against the Indians, to which the term "A
+Century of Dishonor" seems to have attached itself without protest, must
+be looked upon as the mob spirit of a superior race bent on despoiling a
+despised and inferior race. That the frenzied spirit of the mob, whether
+in strikes, panicky militia, Indian slaughter, or civil war, should so
+often have blackened the face of a nation sincerely dedicated to law and
+order is one of the penalties paid for experimenting on a problem of
+political and economic equality with material marked by extreme racial
+inequality.
+
+=Poverty and Pauperism.=--Prior to year 1875 the laws of the United States
+imposed no prohibition upon the immigration of paupers from foreign
+countries, and not until the federal government took from the states
+the administration of the law in 1891 did the prohibitions of the
+existing law become reasonably effective. Since that year there have
+been annually debarred, as likely to become public charges, 431 to 7898
+arrivals, the latter number being debarred in the year 1905. In addition
+to those debarred at landing, there have been annually returned within
+one to three years after landing, 177 to 845 immigrants, many of whom
+had meantime become public charges. From these statements it will be
+seen that, prior to 1891, it was possible and quite probable that many
+thousand paupers and prospective paupers were admitted by the
+immigration authorities, and consequently the proportion of paupers
+among the foreign-born should appear larger than it would in later
+years. In the earlier years systematic arrangements were in force in
+foreign countries, especially Great Britain, to assist in the
+deportation of paupers to the United States, and therefore it is not
+surprising that, apart from race characteristics, there should have come
+to this country larger numbers of Irish paupers than those from any
+other nationality. Since these exportations have been stopped, it is not
+so much the actual pauper as the prospective pauper who gets admission.
+96 per cent of the paupers in almshouses have been in this country ten
+years or more, showing that the exclusion laws are still defective, in
+that large numbers of poor physique are admitted. Taking the census
+reports for 1904, and confining our attention to the North Atlantic
+states, where children are generally provided for in separate
+establishments, we are able to compute the following as the relative
+extent of pauperism among males:--
+
+MALE PAUPERS IN ALMSHOUSES PER MILLION VOTING POPULATION, NORTH ATLANTIC
+STATES, 1904.
+
+  Native white, native parents      2,360
+  Native white, foreign parents     2,252
+  Foreign white                     5,119
+  Colored                           4,056
+
+Here we see the counterpart of the estimates on crime, for the natives
+of foreign parentage show a smaller proportion of paupers than the
+natives of native parentage, while the foreign-born themselves show more
+than double the relative amount of pauperism of the native element, and
+the colored paupers are nearly twice the native stock.
+
+The census bureau also furnishes computations showing the contributions
+of the different races and nationalities to the insane asylums and
+benevolent institutions.[102] In general it appears that the
+foreign-born and the negroes exceed the native classes in their burden
+on the public. A report of the Department of Labor of great value and
+significance, incidentally bearing on this subject, shows for the
+Italians in Chicago their industrial and social conditions. According to
+this report the average earnings of Italians in that city in 1896 while
+at work were $6.41 per week for men and $2.11 per week for women, and
+the average time unemployed by the wage-earning element was over seven
+months. In another report of the Department of Labor it appears that the
+slum population of the cities of Baltimore, Chicago, New York, and
+Philadelphia in 1893 was unemployed three months each year. With wages
+one dollar a day, and employment only five months during the year, it is
+marvellous that the Italians of Chicago, during the late period of
+depression, were not thrown in great numbers upon public relief. Yet,
+with the strict administration of the exclusion laws leading to the
+deportation of over 2000 Italians a year as liable to become public
+charges, it is likely that the immigrants of that race, although low in
+physique, poverty, and standards of living, are fairly well screened of
+actual paupers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+POLITICS
+
+
+American democracy was ushered in on a theory of equality. And no word
+has been more strangely used and abused. There is the monarchical idea
+of equality, and Mr. Mallock begs the question when he gives the title
+"Aristocracy and Evolution" to a book on the necessary part played by
+great men. Doubtless, in Greek, aristocracy means "government by the
+best," but in history it means government by the privilege of birth and
+landed property. Democracy may be in philology "government by the mob,"
+but in politics and industry it has been opportunity for great men
+without blood or property. Mr. Muensterberg, too, sees the breakdown of
+American democracy and the reaction towards aristocracy in the
+prominence of civil-service reform, the preeminence conceded to business
+ability, the deference to wealth, and the conquest of the
+Philippines.[103] But civil-service reform is only a device for opening
+the door to merit that has been shut by privilege. In England it was the
+means by which the mercantile classes broke into the offices preempted
+by the younger sons of aristocracy.[104] In America it is an awkward
+means of admitting ability wherever found to positions seized upon by
+political usurpers. It appealed to the American democracy only when its
+advocates learned to call it, not "civil-service reform," but "the merit
+system." As for the astonishing power of mere wealth in American affairs
+the testimony of another English observer is based on wider observation
+when he says, "Even the tyranny of trusts is not to be compared with the
+tyranny of landlordism; for the one is felt to be merely an unhappy and
+(it is hoped) temporary aberration of well-meant social machinery, while
+the other seems bred in the very bone of the national existence."[105]
+
+A feeling of disappointment holds true of the conquest and treatment of
+the Philippines. That a war waged out of sympathy for an oppressed
+island nearby should have shaken down an unnoticed archipelago across
+the ocean was taken in childlike glee as the unexpected reward of
+virtue. But serious thinking has followed on seeing that these islands
+have added another race problem to the many that have thwarted
+democracy. Only a plutocracy sprung from race divisions at home could
+profit by race-subjection abroad, and the only alternative to
+race-subjection is equal representation in Congress. But to admit
+another race to partnership without the hope of assimilation is to
+reject experience. Independence or cession to Japan is the
+self-preservation of American democracy.
+
+Another idea of equality is the socialist idea. Infatuated by an
+"economic interpretation of history," they overlook the racial
+interpretation. Permitting and encouraging plutocracy, they hope to see
+the dispossessed masses take possession when conditions become
+intolerable. But the "masses" would not be equal to the task. Privileged
+wealth knows too well how to buy up or promote their leaders, how to
+weaken them by internal dissensions, how to set race against race. Most
+of all, the inexperienced despotism of the masses is worse than the
+smooth despotism of wealth. The government of the South by the negro,
+the government of San Francisco by "labor," fell into the hands of the
+"carpet-bagger" and the "boss." Once in power, internal strife and
+jealousy, struggle for office, or racial antagonism disrupt the rulers,
+and a reaction throws them back more helpless than before. Men are not
+equal, neither are races or classes equal. True equality comes through
+equal opportunity. If individuals go forward, their race or class is
+elevated. They become spokesmen, defenders, examples. No race or class
+can rise without its own leaders. If they get admitted on equal terms
+with other leaders, whether it be in the councils of the church, the
+law-making bodies of the city, state, and nation, or the wage
+conferences of employers, they then can command the hearing which their
+abilities justify. They secure for their followers the equal
+opportunity to which they are entitled.
+
+This is exactly the political problem that grows out of the presence of
+races and immigrants. With these admitted to the suffrage on the basis
+of mere manhood inspired by a generosity unknown to the people of any
+other land, the machinery of representative government inherited from
+England does not, for some reason, permit the free choice of leaders.
+The difficulties may be seen in cities where the system first broke
+down. A variety of races and nationalities living in the same ward are
+asked to elect aldermen and other officers by majority vote. No one
+nationality has a majority, but each sets up its list of candidates. The
+nationality with a mere plurality elects all of its candidates, and the
+other nationalities--a majority of the voters--are unrepresented. This
+is an extreme case, and has not often been allowed to happen. But the
+only means of preventing it is the "ward boss." The boss emerges from
+the situation as inevitably as the survival of the fittest. And the
+fittest is the Irishman. The Irishman has above all races the mixture of
+ingenuity, firmness, human sympathy, comradeship, and daring that makes
+him the amalgamator of races. He conciliates them all by nominating a
+ticket on which the offices are shrewdly distributed; and out of the
+Babel his "slate" gets the majority.
+
+The boss's problem is not an easy one. His ward may contain business men
+on the hill and negroes along the canal. To nominate a business man
+would lose the negro vote--to nominate a negro would lose the business
+vote. He selects a nondescript somewhere between, and discards him for
+another at the next election. The representative becomes a tool in the
+hands of the boss. The boss sells his power to corporations, franchise
+speculators, and law-evaders. Representative democracy becomes
+bossocracy in the service of plutocracy. The ward system worked well
+when the suffrage was limited. Then the business men elected their
+business man unimpeded. But a system devised for restricted suffrage
+breaks down under universal suffrage. Could the ward lines be abolished,
+could the business men come together regardless of residence and elect
+their choice without the need of a majority vote, could the negroes and
+other races and classes do the same, then each would be truly
+represented by their natural leaders. So it is, not only in cities, but
+in county, state, and nation. Universal suffrage, clannish races, social
+classes, diversified interests, seem to explain and justify the presence
+of the party "machine" and its boss. Otherwise races, classes, and
+interests are in helpless conflict and anarchy. But the true explanation
+is an obsolete ward and district system of plurality representation
+adopted when but one race, class, or interest had the suffrage. Forms of
+government are the essence of government, notwithstanding the poet. An
+aristocratic form with a democratic suffrage is a plutocratic
+government. Belgium and Switzerland have shown that a democratic form
+is possible and practicable. Proportional representation instead of
+district representation is the corollary of universal suffrage which
+those countries have worked out as a model for others.[106] The model is
+peculiarly adapted to a country of manifold nationalities, interests,
+and classes. Races and immigrants in America have not disproved
+democracy--they have proved the need of more democracy.
+
+This is seen also in the distinction between men and measures. It often
+has been noted that in American elections the voters are more interested
+in voting for candidates than they are in voting on issues. The
+candidate arouses a personal and concrete interest--the issue is
+abstract and complicated. The candidate calls out a full vote--the issue
+is decided by a partial vote.
+
+This difference is partly the result of organization. The candidate has
+a political party, campaign funds, and personal workers to bring out the
+vote. The issue has only its merits and demerits. Equally important
+under American conditions is the race or nationality of the candidate.
+This feature is often concealed by the ingenuity of political managers
+in nominating a ticket on which the several nationalities are
+"recognized." But with the recent progress of the movement to abolish
+party conventions and to nominate candidates directly at the primaries
+the racial prejudices of the voters show themselves. The nationalities
+line up for their own nationality, and the political and economic issues
+are thrown in the background. It is different when they vote on the
+issues directly. The vital questions of politics, industry,
+corporations, and monopoly which menace the country, unless rightly
+answered, cut across the lines of nationality. The German farmer,
+manufacturer, wage-earner, merchant, capitalist, and monopolist may all
+unite to elect a popular German to office, but they do not unite to give
+a corporation a monopoly. The same is true of other nationalities.
+Wherever the referendum has been fairly tested, in Chicago, Detroit,
+Oregon, and elsewhere, the sound judgment of all races has prevailed
+over bias, prejudice, or racial jealousy. There none can claim
+preeminence, for all have shown their share of patriotism, intelligence,
+and regard for equal rights. By an automatic self-disfranchisement the
+ignorant, the corrupt, and the indifferent of all races eliminate
+themselves by failing to vote. Instead of being dismissed on the ground
+that voters care mainly for men and less for measures, the referendum
+should be adopted on the ground that it permits those interested in
+measures to decide the question. Those who are not interested enough to
+vote do thereby proclaim that they are satisfied whichever side wins.
+The initiative and referendum are, above all other forms of government,
+the specific remedy for the ills of universal suffrage and conflicting
+nationalities. Race antagonism springs from personalities, race
+coalescence from community of interest. A vote for candidates
+intensifies antagonism--a vote on measures promotes community.
+
+There are, indeed, some kinds of measures which stir up race antagonism.
+But the keenest of these have happily been eliminated. More intense than
+any other source of discord is religious belief. Religious differences
+in America are not so much theological as racial in character. The
+Judaism of the Jew, the Protestantism of the British and colonial
+American, the Lutheranism of the German, the Roman Catholicism of the
+Irish, Italian, and Slav, the Greek Catholicism of other Slavs, all
+testify to the history and psychology of races. Far-sighted indeed were
+our fathers who separated Church and State. Were the people taxed to
+support religion, every election would be a contest of races. All other
+questions would be subordinate, and democracy impossible. But with
+religion relegated to private judgment, each race is free to cultivate
+at will that one of its own peculiarities most fanatically adhered to,
+but most repellent to other races, while uniting with the others on what
+is most essential to democracy. Religious freedom is more than a private
+right--it is an American necessity.
+
+
+[Illustration: CHINESE STUDENTS, HONOLULU (From _The Independent_)]
+
+
+Another class of measures running partly along race lines are sumptuary
+laws, especially those regulating saloons and Sunday observance. In
+the Southern states saloon prohibition is largely a race
+discrimination and a race protection. In the North it often is American
+puritanism of the country against European liberalism of the cities.
+Here the referendum shows itself as the conciliator of nationalities.
+Upon no other issue has the popular vote been so generally resorted to.
+This issue comes close to the habits and passions of the masses. It
+takes precedence of all others except religion, but cannot be evaded
+like religion. If legislative bodies and executive officials decide the
+question, then the German or the Irishman adds to his zeal for the
+election of a conationalist his thirst for the election of a candidate
+with habits like his own. But when left to a popular vote, the saloon
+question is separated from the choice of candidates, and other issues
+come forward. A majority vote, too, pacifies the minority of all races,
+where the act of a legislative body leaves the suspicion of unfair
+advantage taken by unrepresentative politicians. By the exigencies of
+the situation the referendum has been invoked to take both the saloon
+problem and its share of the race problem "out of politics." The lesson
+is applicable wherever race or nationality conflicts with democracy.
+With questions of religious belief eliminated by the constitution, and
+questions of personal habits eliminated by the referendum, other
+questions of race antagonism will be eliminated by the initiative and
+the referendum.[107]
+
+=Suffrage.=--The climax of liberality in donating the suffrage to all
+races and conditions was reached with the fifteenth amendment in 1869.
+At that time not only had the negro been enfranchised; but nearly a
+score of Western and Southern states and territories had enfranchised
+the alien. So liberal were these states in welcoming the immigrant that
+they allowed him to vote as soon as he declared his intention to take
+out naturalization papers. This declaration, under the federal law, is
+made at least two years before the papers are granted, and it may be
+made as soon as the immigrant has landed. Thus in some of those states
+he could vote as soon as he acquired a legal residence, that is, four or
+four and one-half years before he acquired citizenship. Several of these
+states have recently changed these laws, but there remain nine that
+continue to accept the alien as a voter.
+
+In the Eastern states such generosity was not granted by law but was
+practised by fraud. Naturalization papers are issued by federal courts
+and by state courts of record. The law gives the judge much discretion,
+for he is required to refuse the certificate if he is not satisfied that
+the alien is of good moral character, attached to the Constitution, and
+well disposed. But so careless or crowded are the judges that seldom
+have they examined the applicants. Indeed the political managers have
+had the option of judges and could take their immigrants to the court
+that would shut its eyes. Many thousands of fraudulent papers have been
+secured in this way, beginning at the very time when the naturalization
+law was enacted in 1802, but increasing enormously during the past forty
+years.[108]
+
+Finally, in 1906, Congress enacted a law giving to the Bureau of
+Immigration control over naturalization. The object is to bring all of
+the courts under a uniform practice, to provide complete records and
+means of identification, to establish publicity, to enable the
+government to appear in court and resist fraudulent naturalization, and
+to impose severe penalties.[109] The law also adds something to the
+qualifications required of the alien. He must not be an anarchist or a
+polygamist, nor a believer of such doctrines; he must be able to speak
+the English language, and must intend to reside permanently in the
+United States.[110] The language restriction affects but few, since in
+1900 only 3.3 per cent of the naturalized foreign-born males of voting
+age could not speak English.[111] The intention of permanent residence,
+as well as the entire measure, is designed to remove the abuse of
+foreigners' acquiring citizenship in order to return to their native
+land and defy their rightful government. On the administrative side this
+law is of great significance. It marks a serious beginning on the part
+of the federal government of protecting the citizenship that a
+generation before it had so liberally bestowed.
+
+There are certain races which by law are prohibited from naturalization.
+For nearly seventy years the law on the subject enacted in 1802 admitted
+to citizenship only free white persons. This was amended in 1870 to
+admit "aliens of African nationality and persons of African descent."
+But other colored races were not admitted, so that the Chinese,
+Japanese, or Malay immigrant has never been eligible to citizenship. His
+children, however, born in this country are citizens, and cannot be
+excluded from voting on account of race or color. Indians living in
+tribes are foreigners, but if they recognize allegiance by paying taxes
+or dividing up their land in severalty they are citizens and voters.
+
+Of the immigrant races eligible to citizenship their importance as
+possible voters is greater than their importance in the population. This
+is because men and boys come in greater numbers than women and children.
+Ten million foreign-born population furnishes 5,000,000 males of voting
+age, but 66,000,000 native population furnishes only 16,000,000 males of
+voting age. In other words, one-half of the foreign-born, and only
+one-fourth of the native-born, are potential voters. But not all of the
+potential voters are actual voters. With a grand total in the year 1900
+of 21,000,000 of the proper sex and age, only 15,000,000 went to the
+polls. The ratio is five out of seven. Two million negroes were
+excluded, and 1,400,000 foreign-born had not yet naturalized. This
+leaves 2,600,000 natives and foreign-born who might have voted but did
+not. The foreigner who takes out his citizenship papers does it mainly
+to vote. Two-thirds of them had done so or declared their intention in
+1900.[112] Probably the proportion of native whites who did not vote was
+15 per cent of their total number, and the proportion of foreign-born
+who did not, or could not, was over 40 per cent.
+
+But this proportion differs greatly among the several races. It is not
+so much a difference in willingness as a difference in opportunity. Five
+years are required for naturalization, and while 40 per cent of those
+who have been here six to nine years have not declared their intention
+nor taken out their papers, only 7 per cent of those who have been here
+twenty years retain their allegiance to foreign governments.[113] This
+increases relatively the political weight of the Teutonic and Celtic
+races which are oldest in point of immigration, and reduces relatively
+the weight of the Italian, Slav, and Jewish races. The figures below
+make this quite plain. The table shows the proportion of foreign-born
+who remain aliens, in the sense that they have neither taken out
+citizenship papers nor declared their intention of doing so. Only 7 to
+13 per cent of the foreigners from Northwestern Europe are aliens,
+compared with 35 to 60 per cent of those from Eastern and Southern
+Europe. In course of time these differences will diminish, and the
+Italian and Slav will approach the Irishman and German in their share of
+American suffrage:--
+
+PER CENT OF ALIENS AMONG FOREIGN-BORN MALES OF VOTING AGE[114]
+
+  Wales                     7.1
+  Germany                   8.3
+  Norway                    9.7
+  Ireland                  10.1
+  Denmark                  10.3
+  Holland                  11.6
+  Sweden                   11.9
+  Scotland                 12.5
+  Bohemia                  12.6
+  England                  12.9
+  Canada, English          21.1
+  Russia (mainly Jews)     35.2
+  Canada, French           38.5
+  Finland                  38.6
+  Austria (largely Slavs)  44.6
+  Portugal                 51.6
+  Italy                    53.0
+  Hungary (mainly Slavs)   53.1
+  Greece                   57.8
+  Austria, Poland          61.6
+
+The right to vote is not "inalienable," neither is the right to life or
+liberty. Governments give them, refuse them, and take them away. In
+America this means the state governments. The federal government only
+declares that the states must follow the "due process of law," and not
+discriminate on account of race, religion, or servitude. In allowing the
+right to vote they may and do discriminate on other grounds, such as
+morals, illiteracy, intelligence, property, and sex. This may result in
+race or immigrant discrimination, and does so in the case of illiteracy
+and intelligence. After the Irish immigration of the forties,
+Connecticut in 1855 and Massachusetts in 1857 refused thenceforth to
+enfranchise those who could not read the Constitution. Since 1889 six
+other Northern and Western states--Wyoming, Maine, California,
+Washington, Delaware, and New Hampshire, in the order named--have
+erected barriers against those who cannot read or write the English
+language or the Constitution.[115] Six Southern states have done the
+same, but one of them, Mississippi, has added another permanent
+barrier,--intelligence. This is supposed to be measured by ability to
+"understand" the Constitution as read by a white man. Southern states
+have also added vagrancy, poll tax, and property clauses even more
+exclusive than reading and writing.[116] The federal courts have refused
+to interfere because these restrictions in their legal form bear alike
+on white and black. If in practice they bear unequally, that is a matter
+for the state courts.[117]
+
+To take away the suffrage from many of those who enjoy it is peacefully
+impossible under our system. But voters who hold fast to the privilege
+for themselves may be induced to deny it to the next generation. It was
+in this way usually that the foregoing restrictions were introduced.
+Massachusetts set the example by retaining all who could vote when the
+test was adopted, and making the exclusion apply only to those who came
+after. The Southern states did the same by "grandfather" and
+"understanding" clauses. By either method, in course of time, the
+favored voters disappear by death or removal, and the restrictions apply
+in full to the succeeding generation.[118]
+
+The effect of the educational test on the suffrage of the foreign-born
+is not as great as might be supposed. Naturalization itself is almost an
+educational test. Only 6.3 per cent of the naturalized foreigners are
+illiterate, but 28 per cent of those who remain aliens are unable to
+read. In Boston only 2 per cent are excluded from voting through
+inability to read English, although the corresponding aliens are 22 per
+cent. Probably the educational qualification in Massachusetts affects
+these proportions by lessening the inducement to naturalize, but in
+Chicago and New York, where that qualification is not required, scarcely
+more than 5 per cent of those who get naturalized would be unable to
+vote under such a law, compared with less than 1 per cent of the native
+voters.[119] In the country at large the disproportion is not so great.
+Five and eight-tenths per cent of the sons of native parents would be
+excluded by an educational test against 6.3 per cent of the naturalized
+foreigners, and only 2 per cent of the native sons of foreigners. In the
+several Southern states the test, if equally applied, will exclude 6 to
+20 per cent of the white voters and 35 to 60 per cent of the colored
+voters.[120] In a Southern city like Memphis it would exclude 1 per cent
+of the white and 38 per cent of the colored.
+
+Tested by the standards of democracy, the ability to read and write the
+English language is a proper qualification. It is perhaps the maximum
+that can be required, for to test the ability to understand what is read
+and written is to open the door to partisanship and race discrimination.
+Yet it is intelligence that makes the suffrage an instrument of
+protection, and it is not a denial of rights to refuse such an
+instrument to one who injures himself with it. The literacy
+qualification is one that can be acquired by effort. Other tests,
+especially the property qualification, are an assertion of inequality.
+Yet it is not strange that with the corrupt and inefficient governments
+that have accompanied universal suffrage there should have occurred a
+reaction. This has not always expressed itself in the policy of
+restricting the suffrage, for that can with difficulty be accomplished.
+It has shown itself rather in withdrawing government as far as possible
+from the control of the voters. The so-called "business theory" which
+has so generally been applied to the reform of city governments has
+converted the city as far as possible to the model of a private
+corporation, with its general manager, the mayor. The city has been
+denied its proper functions, and these have been turned over to private
+parties. But this reaction seems to have reached its limit. It is now
+understood to have been simply the legal recognition of an incipient
+plutocracy establishing itself under the forms of democracy. The return
+movement has begun, and the rescue of democracy is sought, as stated
+above, in forms and functions of government still more democratic.
+
+The way plutocracy looks when it has passed the incipient stage may be
+seen in Hawaii.[121] It is as though we had annexed those islands in
+order to watch in our own back yard the fruit of excessive immigration.
+A population of 154,000 furnishes 65,000 Hawaiians, Portuguese, and
+other Caucasians. The Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans have 87,000
+population and no votes. The American contingent is some 17,000 souls
+and 3000 votes. The latter represent four classes or interests: the
+capitalist planters owning two-thirds of the property; superintendents,
+engineers, and foremen managing the plantation labor; skilled mechanics;
+small employers, merchants, and farmers. In order to get plantation
+labor and to keep the supply too large and diversified for concerted
+wage demands the planters imported contract Chinese in place of
+Hawaiians, then Japanese, then Koreans. As each race rises in standards
+and independence it leaves the plantations to enter trades,
+manufactures, and merchandising. It drives out the wage-earners from the
+less skilled occupations, then from the more skilled, then the small
+manufacturers, contractors, and merchants. The American middle classes
+disappear, partly by emigration to California, partly by abandoning
+business and relying on the values of real estate which rise through the
+competition of low standards of wages and profits, and partly by
+attaching themselves to the best-paid positions offered by the planters.
+In proportion as they move up in the scale through the entrance of
+immigrants in the lower positions, they transfer their allegiance from
+democracy to plutocracy. The planters themselves are caught in a circle.
+The rising values of their land absorb the high tariff on sugar and
+prevent rising wages if the values are to be kept up. The Japanese, with
+contract labor abolished, have shown a disposition to strike for higher
+wages. This has led to advances at the expense of profits, and the
+resulting "scarcity of labor" compels the planters again to ask for
+contract Chinese coolies. Immigration is thus only a makeshift remedy
+for the exactions of unions and the undevelopment of resources. More
+immigration requires perpetually more and still more, till the resulting
+plutocracy seeks to save itself by servile labor. A moderate amount of
+immigrant labor, assimilated and absorbed into the body politic,
+stimulates industry and progress, but an excessive and indigestible
+amount leads to the search for coercive remedies and ends in the
+stagnation of industry. The protective tariff was supposed to build up
+free American labor, but in Hawaii, with unrestricted immigration, it
+has handed us American plutocracy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+AMALGAMATION AND ASSIMILATION
+
+
+A German statistician,[122] after studying population statistics of the
+United States and observing the "race suicide" of the native American
+stock, concludes: "The question of restriction on immigration is not a
+matter of higher or lower wages, nor a matter of more or less criminals
+and idiots, but the exclusion of a large part of the immigrants might
+cost the United States their place among the world powers."
+
+Exactly the opposite opinion was expressed in 1891 by Francis A.
+Walker,[123] the leading American statistician of his time, and
+superintendent of the censuses of 1870 and 1880. He said: "Foreign
+immigration into this country has, from the time it first assumed large
+proportions, amounted not to a reinforcement of our population, but a
+replacement of native by foreign stock.... The American shrank from the
+industrial competition thus thrust upon him. He was unwilling himself to
+engage in the lowest kind of day labor with these new elements of
+population; he was even more unwilling to bring sons and daughters into
+the world to enter into that competition.... The more rapidly
+foreigners came into the United States, the smaller was the rate of
+increase, not merely among the native population separately, but
+throughout the population of the country as a whole," including the
+descendants of the earlier foreign immigrants.
+
+Walker's statements of fact, whatever we may say of his explanations,
+are easily substantiated. From earliest colonial times until the census
+of 1840 the people of the United States multiplied more rapidly than the
+people of any other modern nation, not excepting the prolific French
+Canadians. The first six censuses, beginning in 1790, show that, without
+appreciable immigration, the population doubled every twenty years, and
+had this rate of increase continued until the present time, the
+descendants of the colonial white and negro stock in the year 1900 would
+have numbered 100,000,000 instead of the combined colonial, immigrant,
+and negro total of 76,000,000. Indeed, if we take the total immigration
+from 1820 to 1900, exceeding 19,000,000 people, and apply a slightly
+higher than the average rate of increase from births, we shall find that
+in the year 1900 one-half of the white population is derived from
+immigrant stock, leaving the other half, or but 33,000,000 whites,
+derived from the colonial stock.[124] This is scarcely more than
+one-third of the number that should have been expected had the colonial
+element continued to multiply from 1840 to 1900 as it had multiplied
+from 1790 to 1840.
+
+An interesting corroboration of these speculations is the prediction
+made in the year 1815, thirty years before the great migration of the
+nineteenth century, by the mathematician and publicist, Elkanah
+Watson.[125] On the basis of the increase shown in the first three
+censuses he made computations of the probable population for each census
+year to 1900, and I have drawn up the following table, showing the
+actual population compared with his estimates. Superintendent Walker, in
+the essay above quoted, uses Watson's figures, and points out the
+remarkable fact that those predictions were within less than one per
+cent of the actual population until the year 1860, although, meanwhile,
+there had come nearly 5,000,000 immigrants whom Watson could not have
+foreseen. Thus the population of 1860, notwithstanding access of the
+millions of immigrants, was only 310,000, or one per cent less than
+Watson had predicted. And the falling off since 1860 has been even
+greater, for, notwithstanding the immigration of 20,000,000 persons
+since 1820, the population in 1900 was 75,000,000, or 25 per cent less
+than Watson's computations.
+
+POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION
+
+  ------+------------+---------------+-------------+-----------
+        | POPULATION |   WATSON'S    |   WATSON'S  |  FOREIGN
+        |  (CENSUS)  |   ESTIMATE    |    ERROR    |IMMIGRATION
+        |            |               |             |FOR DECADE
+  ------+------------+---------------+-------------+-----------
+   1790 |  3,929,214 |               |             |
+   1800 |  5,308,483 |               |             |     50,000
+   1810 |  7,239,881 |               |             |     70,000
+   1820 |  9,633,822 |   9,625,734   |      -8,088 |    114,000
+   1830 | 12,866,020 |  12,833,645   |     -32,375 |    143,439
+   1840 | 17,069,453 |  17,116,526   |     +47,073 |    599,125
+   1850 | 23,191,876 |  23,185,368   |      -6,508 |  1,713,251
+   1860 | 31,443,321 |  31,753,825   |    +310,503 |  2,598,214
+   1870 | 38,558,371 |  42,328,432   |  +3,770,061 |  2,314,824
+   1880 | 50,155,783 |  56,450,241   |  +6,294,458 |  2,812,191
+   1890 | 62,622,250 |  77,266,989   | +14,644,739 |  5,246,613
+   1900 | 75,559,258 | 100,235,985   | +24,676,727 |  3,687,564
+  ------+------------+---------------+-------------+-----------
+  Total immigration 1820-1900                        19,229,224
+  -------------------------------------------------------------
+
+This question of the "race suicide" of the American or colonial stock
+should be regarded as the most fundamental of our social problems, or
+rather as the most fundamental consequence of our social and industrial
+institutions. It may be met by exhortation, as when President Roosevelt
+says, "If the men of the nation are not anxious to work in many
+different ways, with all their might and strength, and ready and able to
+fight at need, and anxious to be fathers of families, and if the women
+do not recognize that the greatest thing for any woman is to be a good
+wife and mother, why that nation has cause to be alarmed about its
+future."[126]
+
+The anxiety of President Roosevelt is well grounded; but if race suicide
+is not in itself an original cause, but is the result of other causes,
+then exhortation will accomplish but little, while the removal or
+amelioration of the other causes will of itself correct the resulting
+evil. Where, then, shall we look for the causes of race suicide, or,
+more accurately speaking, for the reduced proportion of children brought
+into the world? The immediate circumstances consist in postponing the
+age of marriage, in limiting the number of births after marriage, and in
+an increase in the proportion of unmarried people. The reasons are
+almost solely moral and not physical. Those who are ambitious and
+studious, who strive to reach a better position in the world for
+themselves and their children, and who have not inherited wealth, will
+generally postpone marriage until they have educated themselves, or
+accumulated property, or secured a permanent position. They will then
+not bring into the world a larger number of children than they can
+provide for on the basis of the standing which they themselves have
+attained; for observation shows that those who marry early have large
+families, and are generally kept on a lower station in life. The real
+problem, therefore, with this class of people, is the opportunities for
+earning a living. In the earlier days, when the young couple could take
+up vacant land, and farming was the goal of all, a large family and the
+cooperation of wife and children were a help rather than a hindrance.
+To-day the couple, unless the husband has a superior position, must go
+together to the factory or mill, and the children are a burden until
+they reach the wage-earning age. Furthermore, wage-earning is uncertain,
+factories shut down, and the man with a large family is thrown upon his
+friends or charity. To admonish people living under these conditions
+to go forth and multiply is to advise the cure of race suicide by race
+deterioration.
+
+
+[Illustration: FACULTY OF TUSKEGEE INSTITUTE (From _World's Work_)]
+
+
+Curiously enough, these observations apply with even greater force to
+the second generation of immigrants than to the native stock, for among
+the daughters of the foreign-born only 19 per cent of those aged 15 to
+24 years are married, while among daughters of native parents 30 per
+cent are married; and for the men of 20 to 29 only 26.8 per cent of the
+native sons of foreigners are married and 38.5 per cent of the sons of
+natives.[127] These figures sustain what can be observed in many large
+cities, that the races of immigrants who came to this country
+twenty-five or more years ago are shrinking from competition with the
+new races from Southern Europe.
+
+Boston, for example, with its large Irish immigration beginning two
+generations ago, shows a similar disproportion. Of the American
+daughters of foreign parents 15 to 24 years of age, only 12 per cent are
+married, but of the daughters of native parents 17 per cent are married;
+of the sons of foreign parents 20 to 29 years of age, only 20 per cent
+are married, but of the sons of native parents 26 per cent are married.
+The contrast with the immigrants themselves is striking. In Boston, 24
+per cent of the foreign-born women aged 15 to 24 are married, and 35 per
+cent of the foreign-born men aged 20 to 29.[128] In other words, the
+early marriages of immigrant men and women are nearly twice as many as
+those of the American-born sons and daughters of immigrants, and only
+one-third more than those of the sons and daughters of native stock.
+With such a showing as this it would seem that our "place among the
+world powers" depends indeed on immigration, for the immigrants'
+children are more constrained to race suicide than the older American
+stock.[129]
+
+The competition is not so severe in country districts where the native
+stock prevails; but in the cities and industrial centres the skilled and
+ambitious workman and workwoman discover that in order to keep
+themselves above the low standards of the immigrants they must postpone
+marriage. The effect is noticeable and disastrous in the case of the
+Irish-Americans. Displaced by Italians and Slavs, many of the young men
+have fallen into the hoodlum and criminal element. Here moral causes
+produce physical causes of race destruction, for the vicious elements of
+the population disappear through the diseases bequeathed to their
+progeny, and are recruited only from the classes forced down from above.
+On the other hand, many more Irish have risen to positions of
+foremanship, or have lived on their wits in politics, or have entered
+the priesthood. The Irish-American girls, showing independence and
+ambition, have refused to marry until they could be assured of a husband
+of steady habits, and they have entered clerical positions, factories,
+and mills. Thus this versatile race, with distinct native ability, is
+meeting in our cities the same displacement and is resorting to the same
+race suicide which itself inflicted a generation or two earlier on the
+native colonial stock. But the effect is more severe, for the native
+stock was able to leave the scenes of competition, to go West and take
+up farms or build cities, but the Irish-American has less opportunity to
+make such an escape.
+
+Great numbers of Irishmen, together with others of English, Scotch,
+German, and American descent, remaining in these industrial centres,
+have sought to protect themselves and maintain high standards through
+labor-unions and the so-called "closed shop," by limiting the number of
+apprentices, excluding immigrants, and giving their sons a preference of
+admission. But even with the unions they find it necessary also to limit
+the size of their families, and I am convinced from personal
+observation, that, were the statistics on this point compiled from the
+unions of skilled workmen, there would be found even stronger evidences
+of race suicide than among other classes in the nation.
+
+To the well-to-do classes freedom from the care of children is not a
+necessity, but an opportunity for luxury and indulgence. These include
+the very wealthy, whose round of social functions would be interrupted
+by home obligations. To them, of course, immigration brings no need of
+prudence--it rather helps to bring the enormous fortunes which distract
+their attention from the home. But their numbers are insignificant
+compared with the millions who determine the fate of the nation. More
+significant are the well-to-do farmers and their wives who have
+inherited the soil redeemed by their fathers, and whose desire to be
+free for enjoying the fruits of civilization lead them to the position
+so strongly condemned by President Roosevelt. This class of farmers, as
+shown in the census map of the size of private families,[130] may be
+traced across the Eastern and Northern states, running through New
+England, rural New York, Northern Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Michigan,
+parts of Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa. In the rich counties of
+southern Michigan, settled and occupied mainly by native stock from New
+York, the average size of families is less than four persons, as it is
+in a large area of Central New York, whereas for the country at large it
+is 4.7, and for counties in the mining sections of Michigan occupied by
+immigrants it rises as high as 5.8 persons.
+
+The census figures showing the size of families do not, however, reveal
+the number of children born to a family, since they show only those
+living together and not those who have moved away or died. This
+especially affects the large-sized families, and does not reveal, for
+example, a fact shown by Kuczynski from the state census of
+Massachusetts that the average number of children of the foreign-born
+women in that state is 4.5, while for native women it is only 2.7.[131]
+This also affects the showing for a state like West Virginia, composed
+almost entirely of native Americans of colonial stock, with only 2 per
+cent foreign-born and 5 per cent colored, where the average size of
+families is 5.1 persons, the highest in the United States, but where in
+the Blue Ridge Mountains I have come upon two couples of native white
+Americans who claimed respectively eighteen and twenty-two children.
+Throughout the South the reduction in size of families and the
+postponement of marriage have not occurred to any great extent either
+among the white or colored races, and these are states to which
+immigration has contributed less than 3 per cent of their population.
+Yet, if Superintendent Walker's view is sound in all respects, the
+Southern whites should shrink from competition with the negro in the
+same way that the Northern white shrinks from competition with the
+immigrant. He does not do so, and the reasons are probably found in the
+fact that the South has been remote from the struggle of modern
+competition, and that ignorance and proud contentment fail to spur the
+masses to that ambitious striving which rises by means of what Malthus
+called the prudential restraints on population. It is quite probable
+that in the South, with the spread of the factory system and universal
+education, the growth in numbers through excess of births over deaths
+will be retarded.
+
+On the whole it seems that immigration and the competition of inferior
+races tends to dry up the older and superior races wherever the latter
+have learned to aspire to an improved standard of living, and that among
+well-to-do classes not competing with immigrants, but made wealthier by
+their low wages, a similar effect is caused by the desire for luxury and
+easy living.[132]
+
+=Americanization.=--A line on the chart opposite page 63 shows the
+proportions between the number of immigrants and the existing
+population. From this it appears that the enormous immigration of 1906
+is relatively not as large as the smaller immigration of the years 1849
+to 1854, or the year 1882. Three hundred thousand immigrants in 1850 was
+as large an addition to a population of 23,000,000 as 1,000,000 in 1906
+to a population of 85,000,000. Judged by mere numbers, the present
+immigration is not greater than that witnessed by two former periods.
+Judged by saturation it may be greater, for the former immigrants were
+absorbed by colonial Americans, but the present immigrants enter a
+solution half colonial and half immigrant. The problem of
+Americanization increases more than the number to be Americanized. What
+is the nature of this problem, and what are the forces available for its
+solution?
+
+The term amalgamation may be used for that mixture of blood which unites
+races in a common stock, while assimilation is that union of their minds
+and wills which enables them to think and act together. Amalgamation is
+a process of centuries, but assimilation is a process of individual
+training. Amalgamation is a blending of races, assimilation a blending
+of civilizations. Amalgamation is beyond the organized efforts of
+government, but assimilation can be promoted by social institutions and
+laws. Amalgamation therefore cannot attract our practical interest,
+except as its presence or absence sets limits to our efforts toward
+assimilation.
+
+Our principal interest in amalgamation is its effect on the negro race.
+The census statisticians discontinued after 1890 the inquiry into the
+number of mulattoes, but the census of 1890 showed that mulattoes were
+15 per cent of the total negro population. This was a slightly larger
+proportion than that of preceding years. The mulatto element of the
+negro race is almost a race of itself. Its members on the average differ
+but little if at all from those of the white race in their capacity for
+advancement, and it is the tragedy of race antagonism that they with
+their longings should suffer the fate of the more contented and
+thoughtless blacks.[133] In their veins runs the blood of white
+aristocracy, and it is a curious psychology of the Anglo-Saxon that
+assigns to the inferior race those equally entitled to a place among the
+superior. But sociology offers compensation for the injustice to
+physiology. The mulatto is the natural leader, instructor, and spokesman
+of the black. Prevented from withdrawing himself above the fortunes of
+his fellows, he devotes himself to their elevation. This fact becomes
+clear in proportion as the need of practical education becomes clear.
+The effective work of the whites through missionary schools and colleges
+has not been the elevation of the black, but the elevation of mulattoes
+to teach the blacks. A new era for the blacks is beginning when the
+mulatto sees his own future in theirs.
+
+Apart from the negro we have very little knowledge of the amalgamation
+of races in America. We only know that for the most part they have
+blended into a united people with harmonious ideals, and the English,
+the German, the Scotch-Irish, the Dutch, and the Huguenot have become
+the American.
+
+We speak of superior and inferior races, and this is well enough, but
+care should be taken to distinguish between inferiority and
+backwardness--between that superiority which is the original endowment
+of race and that which results from the education and training which we
+call civilization. While there are superior and inferior races, there
+are primitive, mediaeval, and modern civilizations, and there are certain
+mental qualities required for and produced by these different grades of
+civilization. A superior race may have a primitive or mediaeval
+civilization, and therefore its individuals may never have exhibited the
+superior mental qualities with which they are actually endowed, and
+which a modern civilization would have called into action. The adults
+coming from such a civilization seem to be inferior in their mental
+qualities, but their children, placed in the new environments of the
+advanced civilization, exhibit at once the qualities of the latter. The
+Chinaman comes from a mediaeval civilization--he shows little of those
+qualities which are the product of Western civilization, and with his
+imitativeness, routine, and traditions, he has earned the reputation of
+being entirely non-assimilable. But the children of Chinamen, born and
+reared in this country, entirely disprove this charge, for they are as
+apt in absorbing the spirit and method of American institutions as any
+Caucasian.[134] The race is superior but backward.
+
+The Teutonic races until five hundred years after Christ were primitive
+in their civilization, yet they had the mental capacities which made
+them, like Arminius, able to comprehend and absorb the highest Roman
+civilization. They passed through the mediaeval period and then came out
+into the modern period of advanced civilization, yet during these two
+thousand years their mental capacities, the original endowment of race,
+have scarcely improved. It is civilization, not race evolution, that
+has transformed the primitive warrior into the philosopher, scientist,
+artisan, and business man. Could their babies have been taken from the
+woods two thousand years ago and transported to the homes and schools of
+modern America, they could have covered in one generation the progress
+of twenty centuries. Other races, like the Scotch and the Irish, made
+the transition from primitive institutions to modern industrial habits
+within a single century, and Professor Brinton, our most profound
+student of the American Indian, has said,[135] "I have been in close
+relations to several full-blood American Indians who had been removed
+from an aboriginal environment and instructed in this manner [in
+American schools and communities], and I could not perceive that they
+were either in intellect or sympathies inferior to the usual type of the
+American gentleman. One of them notably had a refined sense of humor as
+well as uncommon acuteness of observation."
+
+The line between superior and inferior, as distinguished from advanced
+and backward, races appears to be the line between the temperate and
+tropical zones. The two belts of earth between the tropics of Capricorn
+and Cancer and the arctic and antarctic circles have been the areas
+where man in his struggle for existence developed the qualities of mind
+and will--the ingenuity, self-reliance, self-control, strenuous
+exertion, and will power--which befit the modern industrial
+civilization. But in the tropics these qualities are less essential, for
+where nature lavishes food, and winks at the neglect of clothing and
+shelter, there ignorance, superstition, physical prowess, and sexual
+passion have an equal chance with intelligence, foresight, thrift, and
+self-control. The children of all the races of the temperate zones are
+eligible to the highest American civilization, and it only needs that
+they be "caught" young enough. There is perhaps no class of people more
+backward than the 3,000,000 poor whites of the Appalachian Mountains,
+but there is no class whose children are better equipped by heredity to
+attain distinction in any field of American endeavor. This much cannot
+be said for the children of the tropical zones. Amalgamation is their
+door to assimilation.
+
+Before we can intelligently inquire into the agencies of Americanization
+we must first agree on what we mean by the term. I can think of no
+comprehensive and concise description equal to that of Abraham Lincoln:
+"Government of the people, by the people, for the people." This
+description should be applied not only to the state but to other
+institutions. In the home it means equality of husband and wife; in the
+church it means the voice of the laity; in industry the participation of
+the workmen.
+
+Unhappily it cannot be said that Lincoln's description has ever been
+attained. It is the goal which he and others whom we recognize as true
+Americans have pointed out. Greater than any other obstacle in the road
+toward that goal have been our race divisions. Government for the people
+depends on government by the people, and this is difficult where the
+people cannot think and act together. Such is the problem of
+Americanization.
+
+In the earlier days the most powerful agency of assimilation was
+frontier life. The pioneers "were left almost entirely to their own
+resources in this great struggle. They developed a spirit of
+self-reliance, a capacity for self-government, which are the most
+prominent characteristics of the American people."[136] Frontier life
+includes pioneer mining camps as well as pioneer farming.
+
+Next to the frontier the farms of America are the richest field of
+assimilation. Here the process is sometimes thought to be slower than it
+is in the cities, but any one who has seen it under both conditions
+cannot doubt that if it is slower it is more real. In the cities the
+children are more regularly brought under the influence of the public
+schools, but more profound and lasting than the education of the schools
+is the education of the street and the community. The work of the
+schools in a great city like New York cannot be too highly praised, and
+without such work the future of the immigrant's child would be dark. In
+fact the children of the immigrant are better provided with school
+facilities than the children of the Americans. Less than 1 per cent of
+their children 10 to 14 years of age are illiterate, but the proportion
+of illiterates among children of native parents is over 4 per cent. This
+is not because the foreigner is more eager to educate his child than is
+the native, but because nearly three-fourths of the foreigners' children
+and only one-sixth of the natives' children live in the larger cities,
+where schools and compulsory attendance prevail. Were it not for
+compulsory education, the child of the peasant immigrant would be, like
+the child of the Slav in the anthracite coal fields, "the helpless
+victim of the ignorance, frugality, and industrial instincts of his
+parents."[137] As it is, they drop out of the schools at the earliest
+age allowed by law, and the hostility of foreigners to factory
+legislation and its corollary compulsory school legislation is more
+difficult to overcome than the hostility of American employers, both of
+whom might profit by the work of their children. The thoroughness with
+which the great cities of the North enforce the requirements of primary
+education leaves but little distinction between the children of natives
+and the children of foreigners, but what difference remains is to the
+advantage of the natives. In Boston in 1900 only 5 children of native
+parents were illiterate, and 22 native children of foreign parents, a
+ratio of one-twentieth of 1 per cent for the natives and one-tenth of 1
+per cent for the foreigners. In New York 68 of the 83,000 children of
+native parents were illiterate, and 311 of the 166,000 native children
+of foreign parents, a ratio insignificant in both cases, but more than
+twice as great for the foreigners as for the natives.[138] Taking all of
+the cities of at least 50,000 population, more than one-fourth of the
+foreign-born children 10 to 15 years of age are bread-winners, and only
+one-tenth of the children of native parents. The influence of residence
+in America is shown by the fact that of the children of foreigners born
+in this country the proportion of bread-winners is reduced to
+one-seventh.[139]
+
+But it is the community more than the school that gives the child his
+actual working ideals and his habits and methods of life. And in a great
+city, with its separation of classes, this community is the slums, with
+its mingling of all races and the worst of the Americans. He sees and
+knows surprisingly little of the America that his school-books describe.
+The American churches, his American employers, are in other parts of the
+city, and his Americanization is left to the school-teacher, the
+policeman, and the politician, who generally are but one generation
+before him from Europe. But on the farm he sees and knows all classes,
+the best and the worst, and even where his parents strive to isolate
+their community and to preserve the language and the methods of the old
+country, only a generation or two are required for the surrounding
+Americanism to permeate. Meanwhile healthful work, steady, industrious,
+and thrifty habits, have made him capable of rising to the best that
+his surroundings exemplify.
+
+
+[Illustration: SLAVIC HOME MISSIONARIES (From _The Home Missionary_)]
+
+
+Since the year 1900 the Immigration Bureau has not inquired as to the
+religious faith of the immigrants. In that year, when the number
+admitted was 361,000, one-fifth were Protestants, mainly from Great
+Britain, the Scandinavian countries, Germany, and Finland. One-tenth
+were Jews, 4 per cent were Greek Catholics, and 52 per cent were Roman
+Catholics. With the shifting of the sources toward the east and south of
+Europe the proportion of Catholic and Jewish faith has increased. During
+this transition the Protestant churches of America have begun to awaken
+to a serious problem confronting them. The three New England states
+which have given their religion and political character to Northern and
+Western states are themselves now predominantly Catholic. In all of the
+Northern manufacturing and industrial states and in their great cities
+the marvellous organization and discipline of the Roman Catholic Church
+has carefully provided every precinct, ward, or district with chapels,
+cathedrals, and priests even in advance of the inflow of population,
+while the scattered forces of Protestantism overlap in some places and
+overlook other places. Two consequences have followed. The Protestant
+churches in much the larger part of their activities have drawn
+themselves apart in an intellectual and social round of polite
+entertainment for the families of the mercantile, clerical,
+professional, and employing classes, while the Catholic churches
+minister to the laboring and wage-earning classes. In a minor and
+relatively insignificant part of their activities the Protestant
+churches have supported missionaries, colporters, and chapels among the
+immigrants, the wage-earners, and their children. Their home missionary
+societies, which in the earlier days followed up their own believers on
+the frontier and enabled them to establish churches in their new homes,
+have in the past decade or two become foreign missionary societies
+working at home. Nothing is more significant or important in the history
+of American Protestantism than the zeal and patriotism with which a few
+missionaries in this unaccustomed field have begun to lead the way. By
+means of addresses, periodicals, books, study classes, they are
+gradually awakening the churches to the needs of the foreigner at
+home.[140] Among certain nationalities, especially the Italians and
+Slavs, they find an open field, for thousands of those nationalities,
+though nominally Catholic, are indifferent to the church that they
+associate with oppression at home. Among these nationalities already
+several converts have become missionaries in turn to their own people,
+and with the barrier of language and suspicion thus bridged over, the
+influence of the Protestant religion is increasing. Perhaps more than
+anything else is needed a federation of the Protestant denominations
+similar to that recently arranged in Porto Rico. That island has been
+laid out in districts through mutual agreement of the home missionary
+societies, and each district is assigned exclusively to a single
+denomination.
+
+While the Protestant churches have been withdrawing from the districts
+invaded by the foreigners, the field has been entered by the "social
+settlement." This remarkable movement, eliminating religious propaganda,
+is essentially religious in its zeal for social betterment. Its
+principal service has been to raise up Americans who know and understand
+the life and needs of the immigrants and can interpret them to others.
+In the "institutional church" is also to be found a similar adaptation
+of the more strictly religious organization to the social and
+educational needs of the immigrants and their children.
+
+More than any other class in the community, it is the employers who
+determine the progress of the foreigner and his children towards
+Americanization. They control his waking hours, his conditions of
+living, and his chances of advancement. In recent years a few employers
+have begun to realize their responsibilities, and a great corporation
+like the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company establishes its "sociological"
+department with its schools, kindergartens, hospitals, recreation
+centres, and model housing, on an equal footing with its engineering and
+sales departments. Other employers are interesting themselves in various
+degrees and ways in "welfare work," or "industrial betterment," and
+those who profit most by this awakening interest are the foreign-born
+and their families. This interest has not yet shown itself in a
+willingness to shorten the hours of labor, and this phase of welfare
+work must probably be brought about by other agencies.
+
+The influence of schools, churches, settlements, and farming communities
+applies more to the children of immigrants than their parents. The
+immigrants themselves are too old for Americanization, especially when
+they speak a non-English language. To them the labor-union is at present
+the strongest Americanizing force. The effort of organized labor to
+organize the unskilled and the immigrant is the largest and most
+significant fact of the labor movement. Apart from the labor question
+itself, it means the enlistment of a powerful self-interest in the
+Americanization of the foreign-born. For it is not too much to say that
+the only effective Americanizing force for the Southeastern European is
+the labor-union. The church to which he gives allegiance is the Roman
+Catholic, and, however much the Catholic Church may do for the ignorant
+peasant in his European home, such instruction as the priest gives is
+likely to tend toward an acceptance of their subservient position on the
+part of the workingmen. It is a frequently observed fact that when
+immigrants join a labor-union they almost insolently warn the priest to
+keep his advice to himself.
+
+Universal suffrage admits the immigrant to American politics within one
+to five years after landing. But the suffrage is not looked upon to-day
+as the sufficient Americanizing force that a preceding generation
+imagined. The suffrage appeals very differently to the immigrant voter
+and to the voter who has come up through the American schools and
+American life. The American has learned not only that this is a free
+government, but that its freedom is based on constitutional principles
+of an abstract nature. Freedom of the press, trial by jury, separation
+of powers, independence of the judiciary, equality of opportunity, and
+several other governmental and legal principles have percolated through
+his subconscious self, and when he contemplates public questions these
+abstract principles have more or less influence as a guide to his
+ballot. But the immigrant has none of these. He comes here solely to
+earn a better living. The suffrage is nothing to him but a means of
+livelihood. Not that he readily sells his vote for money--rather does he
+simply "vote for his job." He votes as instructed by his employer or his
+political "boss," because it will help his employer's business or
+because his boss will get him a job, or will, in some way, favor him and
+others of his nationality. There is a noticeable difference between the
+immigrant and the children of the immigrant in this regard. The young
+men, when they begin to vote, can be appealed to on the ground of public
+spirit; their fathers can be reached only on the ground of private
+interest.
+
+Now it cannot be expected that the labor-union or any other influence
+will greatly change the immigrant in this respect. But the union does
+this much: it requires every member to be a citizen, or to have declared
+his intention of taking out naturalization papers. The reasons for doing
+this are not political; they are sentimental and patriotic. The union
+usually takes pride in showing that its members are Americans, and have
+foregone allegiance to other countries. In a union like the musicians'
+the reasons for requiring citizenship are also protective, since they
+serve to exclude transient musical immigrants from American audiences.
+Again, the union frees its members from the dictation of employers,
+bosses, and priests. Politicians, of course, strive to control the vote
+of organized labor, but so disappointing has been the experience of the
+unions that they have quite generally come to distrust the leader who
+combines labor and politics. The immigrant who votes as a unionist has
+taken the first step, in casting his ballot, towards considering the
+interests of others, and this is also the first step towards giving
+public spirit and abstract principles a place alongside private interest
+and his own job.
+
+But there is another way, even more impressive, in which the union
+asserts the preeminence of principles over immediate self-interest. When
+the foreigner from Southern Europe is inducted into the union, then for
+the first time does he get the idea that his job belongs to him by
+virtue of a right to work, and not as the personal favor or whim of a
+boss. These people are utterly obsequious before their foremen or
+bosses, and it is notorious that nearly always they pay for the
+privilege of getting and keeping a job. This bribery of bosses, as well
+as the padrone system, proceed from the deep-seated conviction that
+despotism is the natural social relation, and that therefore they must
+make terms with the influential superior who is so fortunate as to have
+favor with the powers that be.
+
+The anthracite coal operators represented such men, prior to joining the
+union, as disciplined and docile workmen, but in doing so they
+disregarded the fact that outside the field where they were obsequious
+they were most violent, treacherous, and factional. Before the
+organization of the union in the coal fields these foreigners were given
+over to the most bitter and often murderous feuds among the ten or
+fifteen nationalities and the two or three factions within each
+nationality. The Polish worshippers of a given saint would organize a
+night attack on the Polish worshippers of another saint; the Italians
+from one province would have a knife for the Italians of another
+province, and so on. When the union was organized the antagonisms of
+race, religion, and faction were eliminated. The immigrants came down to
+an economic basis and turned their forces against their bosses. "We
+fellows killed this country," said a Polish striker to Father Curran,
+"and now we are going to make it." The sense of a common cause, and,
+more than all else, the sense of individual rights as men, have come to
+these people through the organization of their labor unions, and it
+could come in no other way, for the union appeals to their necessities,
+while other forces appeal to their prejudices. They are even yet far
+from ideal Americans, but those who have hitherto imported them and
+profited by their immigration should be the last to cry out against the
+chief influence that has started them on the way to true
+Americanism.[141]
+
+=Agricultural Distribution of Immigrants.=--The congestion and colonizing
+of immigrants in the cities and their consequent poverty and the
+deterioration of the second generation have brought forth various
+proposals for inducing them to settle upon the farms. The commissioners
+of immigration[142] at various times have advocated an industrial museum
+at Ellis Island, wherein the resources and opportunities of the several
+states could be displayed before the eyes of the incoming thousands.
+They and others have gone further and advocated the creation of a bureau
+of immigrant distribution to help the immigrants out of the crowded
+cities into the country districts. Still others have urged the
+establishment of steamship lines to Southern ports and the Gulf of
+Mexico, so that immigrants may be carried directly to the regions that
+"need them." Very little can be expected from projects of this
+kind,[143] for the present contingent of immigrants from Southeastern
+Europe is too poor in worldly goods and too ignorant of American
+business to warrant an experiment in the isolation and self-dependence
+of farming. The farmers of the South and West welcome the settler who
+has means of purchase, but they distrust the newly arrived immigrant.
+Scandinavians and Germans in large numbers find their way to their
+countrymen on the farms, but the newer nationalities would require the
+fostering care of government or of wealthy private societies. The Jews
+have, indeed, taken up the matter, and the Jewish Agricultural and
+Industrial Aid Society of New York, by means of subventions from the
+Baron de Hirsch fund, has distributed many families throughout the
+country, partly in agriculture, but more generally in trade. The Society
+for the Protection of Italian Immigrants is doing similar work. Great
+railway systems and land companies in the South and West have their
+agricultural and industrial agents on the lookout for eligible settlers.
+All of the Southern states have established bureaus of immigration, and
+they are advertising the North and Europe for desirable immigrants. But
+these agencies seek mainly those immigrants who have resided in the
+country for a time, and have learned the language and American
+practices, and, in the case of the railroad and land companies, those
+who have accumulated some property.
+
+The immigration bureaus of the Southern states and railways, the most
+urgent applicants at the present time for immigrants, are strongly
+opposed to the plan of federal distribution. They want farmers who will
+do their own work. From the standpoint of the immigrant himself this
+position is correct. To find a place as an agriculturist he must find a
+place as a farmer and not a harvest hand.[144] Speaking for the Southern
+bureaus, Professor Fleming says,[145] "The South decidedly objects to
+being made the government dumping-ground for undesirable immigrants. It
+does not want the lower class foreigners who have swarmed into the
+Northern cities. It wants the same sort of people who settled so much of
+the West." The state board of South Carolina officially invites
+immigration of "white citizens of the United States, citizens of
+Ireland, Scotland, Switzerland, and France, and all other foreigners of
+Saxon origin."
+
+As for those without money who must depend on their daily labor for
+wages, they must go where employment is most regular and the best wages
+are paid. This is not on the farms, with a few months' work in summer
+and no homes in winter. It is unmistakably in the great cities and
+industrial centres. The commissioner of immigration at Ellis Island,
+speaking of the cordon established by his bureau along the Canadian
+frontier from Halifax to Winnipeg in order to catch those who tried to
+escape inspection at New York, said, "All those immigrants who had New
+York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Cleveland, or Cincinnati in mind as a
+destination when they left Europe and came to Quebec, went all the way
+around that wall to its western end at Winnipeg, and then took trains
+and came back to the very places they had in mind when they left Europe;
+and if you were to land all the ships that now come to New York at
+Galveston, New Orleans, or Charleston, every one of the immigrants would
+come to the place he had in mind when he decided to emigrate."[146]
+
+Professor Wilcox contends that the immigrants already distribute
+themselves according to their economic advantage as completely as do the
+natives. They seem to congest in the cities because the cities are
+necessarily their places of first arrival. "Our foreign-born arrive, in
+at least nine-tenths of the cases, at some city. Our native citizens
+arrive by birth, in at least three-fourths of the cases, in the country.
+The foreign-born arrive mainly at seaport cities, and disperse gradually
+from those cities to and through other interior cities, ultimately
+reaching in many cases the small towns or open country. It is in no
+sense surprising, or an evidence of imperfect distribution, that the
+foreign-born should be massed in the cities when nine-tenths of them
+arrive there, and the native population massed in the country districts
+when three-fourths of them arrive there."[147] Artificial distribution
+would not relieve the pressure as long as the character and amount of
+immigration continue--it can only be relieved by creating greater
+economic inducements in the country. Natives and foreigners both crowd
+to the cities because wages and profits are higher than they are in the
+country.
+
+Even supposing the congestion in the cities could be relieved by making
+the inducements in the country greater, the relief could not continue,
+for it would only invite more immigration. Emigration has not relieved
+the pressure of population in Europe. In no period of their history,
+with the exception of Ireland, have the populations of Europe increased
+at a greater rate than during the last half century of migration to
+America. It is not emigration but improved standards of living that
+lessens the pressure of numbers, and France with the widest diffusion of
+property has little emigration and no increase in population. With the
+redundant millions of Europe, increasing thousands would migrate if they
+got word from their friends that the American government is finding jobs
+for them. Just as we have already seen that the tide of immigration
+rises with a period of prosperity in America, so would it rise with
+agricultural distribution of immigrants. Both are simply more openings
+for employment, and the knowledge of such opportunities is promptly
+carried to the waiting multitudes abroad.
+
+Consider also the political jeopardy of an administration at Washington
+conducting a bureau for the distribution of immigrants. If it refused
+to direct immigrants to one section of the country because it found that
+the wages were low, it would arouse the hostility of employers. If it
+directed them to another section, where the wages offered were high
+because the employers were preparing for a lockout, or the unions were
+on strike, it would lose the votes of workingmen. The administration
+would soon learn that safely to conduct such a bureau it must not
+conduct it at all.
+
+Far better is it that the federal government should leave the
+distribution of immigrants to private employment agencies. It might then
+license all such agencies that conduct an interstate business. With the
+power to take away the license on proof of fraud and misrepresentation,
+and with the prosecution of agencies and employers that deceive and
+enslave the immigrant, the government would accomplish all that it could
+directly do for better distribution. Unquestionably the employment
+agencies, with their _padroni_, their bankers, and their false promises,
+are the source of miserable abuse to thousands of immigrants.[148] They
+require interstate as well as state regulation. By weeding out the
+dishonest agencies the field would be occupied by the honest ones, and
+the immigrant could trust himself to their assistance. But such
+regulation would not be merely for the sake of the immigrant. It would,
+as it should, aid the American as well.
+
+This suggests to us the true nature of the problem of city congestion
+and the nature of its solution. It is not to be found in special efforts
+on behalf of the immigrant, but in efforts to better the condition of
+both Americans and immigrants. The congestion of cities is owing to
+discriminations in favor of cities. If the government gives aid to
+agriculture as it does to manufactures, if it provides better
+communication, equalizes taxes, reduces freight rates to the level
+enjoyed by cities, then agriculture and the small towns will be more
+attractive. Americans will not crowd to the cities, and the more
+provident of the immigrants will find their way to the country. The
+proposition of federal distribution of immigrants is merely a clever
+illusion kept up to lead Congress astray from the restriction of
+immigration.
+
+=Higher Standards of Immigration.=--As for the inferior, defective, and
+undesirable classes of immigrants, there is no protection except
+stringent selection. The Commissioner of Immigration at New York
+estimates that 200,000 of the million immigrants in 1903 were an injury
+instead of a benefit to the industries of the country,[149] and he
+advocates a physical examination and the exclusion of those who fall
+below a certain physical standard. During the past ten years the
+educational, or rather, illiteracy test, has come to the front, and the
+advantages of this test are its simplicity and its specific application
+to those races whose standards are lowest.
+
+
+[Illustration: ALIENS AWAITING ADMISSION AT ELLIS ISLAND]
+
+
+Much discussion has been carried on respecting this test, and there has
+been considerable misunderstanding and misrepresentation as to its
+probable effects. The principal mistake has been the assumption that it
+is designed to take the place of other tests of admission, and that
+therefore it would permit, for example, the most dangerous
+criminals--those who are intelligent--to enter this country. If we
+examine existing laws, and seek to understand the real nature of
+immigration restriction, we can see the character of this mistake. All
+of our legislation governing immigration should be described as
+_improvement_ of immigration rather than _restriction_ of immigration.
+The object has always been to raise the average character of those
+admitted by excluding those who fall below certain standards. And higher
+standards have been added from time to time as rapidly as the lawmakers
+perceived the need of bettering the quality of our future citizenship.
+Although in 1862 Congress had enacted a law prohibiting the shipment of
+Chinese coolies in American vessels,[150] it was not until 1875 that the
+lawmakers first awoke to the evil of unrestricted immigration. In that
+year a law was enacted to exclude convicts and prostitutes. This law
+made an exception in favor of those who had been convicted of political
+offences. Next, in 1882, Congress added lunatics, idiots, paupers, and
+Chinese. In 1885 laborers under contract were for the first time to be
+excluded, but an exception was made in order to admit actors, artists,
+lecturers, singers, domestics, and skilled workmen for new industries.
+In 1891 the list of ineligibles was again extended so as to shut out not
+only convicts but persons convicted of crime, also "assisted"
+immigrants, polygamists, and persons with loathsome or dangerous
+contagious diseases. In 1903 the law added epileptics, persons who have
+had two or more attacks of insanity, professional beggars, and
+anarchists. Notwithstanding these successive additions of excluded
+classes, the number of immigrants has continually increased until it is
+greater to-day than in any preceding period, and while the standards
+have been raised in one direction, the average quality has been lowered
+in other directions. The educational and physical tests, while not
+needed for the races from Northwestern Europe, are now advocated as
+additions to the existing tests on account of the flood of races from
+Southeastern Europe.
+
+The question of "poor physique" has come seriously to the front in
+recent reports of immigration officials. The decline in the average of
+physical make-up to which they call attention accompanies the increase
+in numbers of Southern and Eastern Europeans. While the commissioner at
+Ellis Island estimates that 200,000 immigrants are below the physical
+standards that should be required to entitle them to admission, the
+number certified by the surgeons is much less than this. Yet nine-tenths
+of even that smaller number are admitted, since the law excludes them
+only if other grounds of exclusion appear. That the physical test is
+practicable is shown by the following description of the qualities taken
+into account by the medical examiners at the immigrant stations;
+qualities which would be made even more definite if they were authorized
+to be acted upon:[151]--
+
+"A certificate of this nature implies that the alien concerned is
+afflicted with a body not only but illy adapted to the work necessary to
+earn his bread, but also but poorly able to withstand the onslaught of
+disease. It means that he is undersized, poorly developed, with feeble
+heart action, arteries below the standard size; that he is physically
+degenerate, and as such not only unlikely to become a desirable citizen,
+but also very likely to transmit his undesirable qualities to his
+offspring should he, unfortunately for the country in which he is
+domiciled, have any.
+
+"Of all causes for rejection, outside of those for dangerous,
+contagious, or loathsome diseases, or for mental disease, that of 'poor
+physique' should receive the most weight, for in admitting such aliens
+not only do we increase the number of public charges by their inability
+to gain their bread through their physical inaptitude and their low
+resistance to disease, but we admit likewise progenitors to this country
+whose offspring will reproduce, often in an exaggerated degree, the
+physical degeneracy of their parents."
+
+The history of the illiteracy test in Congress is a curious comment on
+lobbying. First introduced in 1895, it passed the House by a vote of 195
+to 26, and the Senate in another form by a vote of 52 to 10. Referred to
+a conference committee, an identical bill again passed both Houses by
+reduced majorities. But irrelevant amendments had been tacked on and the
+President vetoed it. The House passed it over his veto by 193 to 37, but
+it was too late in the session to reach a vote in the Senate. Introduced
+again in 1898, it passed the Senate by 45 to 28, but pressure of the
+Spanish War prevented a vote in the House. The bill came up in
+subsequent Congresses but did not reach a vote.[152] The lobby is
+directed by the steamship companies, supported by railway companies, the
+Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association, and other great employers of
+labor. By misrepresentation, these interested agencies have been able at
+times to arouse the fears of the older races of immigrants not affected
+by the measure. Their fears were groundless, for the illiteracy test is
+not a test of the English language, but a test of any language, and it
+applies only to those who are 15 years of age and over, but does not
+apply to wife, children, parents, or grandparents of those who are
+admitted. With these reasonable limitations it would exclude only 1 in
+200 of the Scandinavians, 1 in 100 of the English, Scotch, and Finns, 2
+or 3 in 100 of the Germans, Irish, Welsh, and French; but it would
+exclude one-half of the South Italians, one-seventh of the North
+Italians, one-third to two-fifths of the several Slav races, one-seventh
+of the Russian Jews, altogether one-fifth or one-fourth of the total
+immigration.[153] But these proportions would not long continue.
+Elementary education is making progress in Eastern and Southern Europe,
+and a test of this kind would stimulate it still more among the
+peasants. Restrictive at first, it is only selective; it would not
+permanently reduce the number of immigrants, but would raise their level
+of intelligence and their ability to take care of themselves.
+
+The foregoing principles do not apply to Chinese immigration. There the
+law is strictly one of exclusion and not selection. This distinction is
+often overlooked in the discussion of the subject. Respecting European,
+Japanese, and Korean immigration, the law _admits_ all except certain
+classes definitely described, such as paupers, criminals, and so on.
+Respecting Chinese immigration the law _excludes_ all except certain
+classes described, such as teachers, merchants, travellers, and
+students. In the case of European immigration the burden of proof is
+upon the immigration authorities to show that the immigrant should be
+excluded. In the case of the Chinese, the burden of proof is on the
+immigrant to show that he should be admitted. In the administration of
+the law the difference is fundamental. If the Chinese law is liberalized
+so as to admit doctors, lawyers, and other professional classes,
+against whom there is no objection, it can be done in one of two ways.
+It can name and specify the additional classes to be admitted. To this
+there is little objection, for it retains the existing spirit of the
+law. Or it can be reversed, and can admit all classes of Chinese except
+coolies, laborers, and the classes now excluded by other laws. If this
+were done, the enforcement of the law would break down, for the burden
+of proof would be lifted from the immigrant and placed on the examining
+board. The law is with great difficulty enforced as it is, but the
+evasions bear no comparison in number with those practised under the
+other law. European immigration is encouraged, provided it passes a
+minimum standard. Chinese immigration is prohibited unless it exceeds a
+maximum standard. One is selection, the other is exclusion. One should
+be amended by describing new classes _not_ to be admitted, the other by
+describing classes which _may_ be admitted.
+
+This difference between the two laws may be seen in the effects of the
+restrictions which have from time to time been added to the immigration
+laws. Each additional ground of restriction or selection has not
+decreased the total amount of immigration, nor has it increased the
+proportion of those debarred from admission. In 1898, 3200 aliens were
+sent back, and this was 1.4 per cent of those who arrived. In 1901, 3900
+were sent back, but this was only three-fourths of 1 per cent of those
+arriving. In 1906, 13,000 sent back were 1.2 per cent of the arrivals.
+Intending immigrants as well as steamship companies learn the standards
+of exclusion and the methods of evasion, so that the proportion who take
+their chances and fail in the attempt is very small. Nevertheless, this
+deportation of immigrants, though averaging less than 1 per cent, is a
+hardship that should be avoided. It has often been proposed that this
+should be done through examination abroad by American consuls or by
+agents of the Immigration Bureau. Attractive and humane as this proposal
+appears, the foreign examination could not be made final. It would
+remove the examiners from effective control, and would require a large
+additional force as well as the existing establishment to deport those
+who might evade the foreign inspection. It does not strike at the root
+of the evil, which is the business energy of the steamship companies in
+soliciting immigration, and their business caution in requiring doubtful
+immigrants to give bonds in advance to cover the cost of carrying them
+back.[154] It is not the exclusion law that causes hardship, but the
+steamship companies that connive at evasions of the law. The law of 1903
+for the first time adopted the correct principle to meet this evasion,
+but with a limited application. Since 1898, the Bureau had debarred
+increasing numbers on account of loathsome and contagious diseases. But
+these had already done the injury which their deportation was designed
+to prevent. In the crowded steerage the entire shipload was exposed to
+this contagion. Congress then enacted the law of 1903, not only
+requiring the steamship companies to carry them back, as before, but
+requiring the companies to pay a fine of $100 for every alien debarred
+on that account. In 1906, the companies paid fines of $24,300 on 243
+such deportations. The principle should be extended to all classes
+excluded by law, and the fine should be raised to $500. Then every agent
+of the steamship companies in the remotest hamlets of Europe would be an
+immigration inspector. Their surgeons and officials already know the law
+and its standards of administration as thoroughly as the immigration
+officials. It only needs an adequate motive to make them cooperators
+with the Bureau instead of evaders of the law. Already the law of 1903
+has partly had that effect. One steamship company has arranged with the
+Bureau to locate medical officers at its foreign ports of embarkation.
+However, the penalty is not yet heavy enough, and the Commissioner-General
+recommends its increase to $500. By extending the law to all grounds of
+deportation in addition to contagious diseases, the true source of
+hardship to debarred aliens will be dried up.[155]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  A
+
+  Advertising, 26, 29, 84, 85, 104, 108, 109.
+
+  Age Composition of Immigrants, 119.
+
+  Agriculture, 130, 131, 132, 133.
+
+  Alien Contract Labor Law, 118.
+
+  American Federation of Labor, 144.
+
+  Americanization, 208.
+
+  Armenians, 65, 99.
+
+  Asiatic Immigration, 101-104.
+
+  Assimilation, 17-21, 113, 198.
+
+  Atlanta University, 58, 59, 61.
+
+  Australia, 6, 19.
+
+  Austria-Hungary, 18, 65, 79-87.
+
+
+  B
+
+  Births, 57, 86, 94.
+
+  Bohemians, 80, 82, 132.
+
+  Boston, 203, 215.
+
+  Brinton, Daniel G., 212.
+
+  Burlingame Treaty, 111.
+
+  Butcher Workmen, 150.
+
+
+  C
+
+  California, 101, 103, 117.
+
+  Canada, 104. (See "French Canadians.")
+
+  Carib, 106.
+
+  Castes, 8.
+
+  Charity, 108.
+
+  Charity Organization Society of New York, 100.
+
+  Chicago, 47, 110, 165, 178.
+
+  Child Labor, 152.
+
+  Chinese, 101, 109, 111, 114, 117, 130, 131, 132, 143, 144, 146, 156,
+      231. (See "Coolies.")
+
+  Chinese Exclusion, 117, 152, 235.
+
+  Cities, 54, 55, 164, 165, 166, 215.
+
+  Civil War, 3, 63, 64, 98, 111, 129, 175.
+
+  Classes in America, 8, 12.
+
+  Closed Shop, 205.
+
+  Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, 150, 219.
+
+  Colored Farmers' Alliance, 50.
+
+  Competition, Race, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 148, 149, 151, 204, 208.
+
+  Contract Labor, 99, 102, 104, 108, 109, 110, 118, 135, 138, 141, 142,
+      143, 231. (See "Coolies," "Peonage.")
+
+  Coolies, 109, 152. (See "Chinese," "Japanese.")
+
+  Cooperation, 49, 50.
+
+  Cost of Living, 73. (See also "Standard of Living.")
+
+  Crime, 26, 168-175.
+
+  Croatians, 80, 81, 83, 84, 109, 122, 123.
+
+  Curran, Father, 223.
+
+
+  D
+
+  Death-rate, 58, 60, 61, 86, 95. (See "Infant Mortality.")
+
+  Distribution of Immigrants, 130, 224-230.
+
+  Drunkenness, 172.
+
+  Dutch, 24, 88, 89, 123.
+
+  Dutch East India Company, 108.
+
+
+  E
+
+  Education, 45, 46, 52, 146, 214. (See "Illiteracy.")
+
+  Educational Tests, 44, 45, 52, 194, 231, 232, 234. (See "Negro.")
+
+  Eminence of Races in America, 23-27, 31, 32.
+
+  Employment Agencies, 229.
+
+  English Race, 17, 23, 25, 128.
+
+  Erie Canal, 130.
+
+
+  F
+
+  Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, 42, 44, 188.
+
+  Filipinos, 140, 142, 143, 144.
+
+  Finns, 95-97.
+
+  Fleming, Professor W. L., 226.
+
+  Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, 42, 44, 45.
+
+  French, 25, 128.
+
+  French Canadians, 25, 97, 151, 199.
+
+
+  G
+
+  Galicia, 93. (See also "Austria-Hungary.")
+
+  Germans, 24, 30, 65, 67-68, 84, 122, 132, 152.
+
+  Greeks, 47, 122.
+
+
+  H
+
+  Hampton Institute, 49.
+
+  Hawaii, 99, 101, 102, 103, 105, 131, 132, 142, 196.
+
+  Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association, 234.
+
+  Heredity, 5.
+
+  Hoffman, Fred L., 55, 57.
+
+  Huguenots, 24-25.
+
+
+  I
+
+  Illiteracy, 76, 79, 194.
+
+  Immigration, 22-38, 63-106.
+
+  Immigration Bureaus, 225, 237.
+
+  Incentives to Immigration, 27-31, 63-68, 72, 76, 77, 80, 84-87, 88, 95,
+      96, 99, 100, 101, 107, 108.
+
+  India, 9, 10, 103, 141, 142.
+
+  Indigenous Races, 104.
+
+  Industrial Capacity of Races, 127-134.
+
+  Industrial Education, 46, 47, 48. (See "Negro.")
+
+  Industrial Prosperity and Depression, 63, 68, 72, 157.
+
+  Infant Mortality, 60, 62, 87. (See "Death-rate.")
+
+  Initiative and Referendum, 185-187.
+
+  Irish, 24, 34, 65, 66, 67, 122, 151, 153, 204, 205.
+
+  Italians, 70-79, 109, 122, 123, 127, 130, 132, 140, 141, 147, 151, 153.
+
+
+  J
+
+  Japanese, 101, 102, 109, 114, 130, 131, 132.
+
+  Jefferson, Thomas, 1.
+
+  Jenks, J. W., 142.
+
+  Jews, 65, 81, 83, 87-95, 115, 122, 123, 127, 132, 133, 152, 153, 164.
+
+
+  K
+
+  Kelsey, Carl, 54, 55.
+
+  Knights of Labor, 118.
+
+  Knownothings, 117, 173.
+
+  Koreans, 103.
+
+  Kuczynski, R. R., 198, 207.
+
+
+  L
+
+  Labor, 124, 125, 126, 131, 134-159. (See "Wage Earners," "Trade Unions.")
+
+  Labor, Department of, 177, 178.
+
+  Landlordism, 64, 66, 72, 85, 87, 180.
+
+  Languages, 20, 94, 97.
+
+  Law, John, 108.
+
+  Leadership, 52.
+
+  Legislation, 111, 117, 118, 136, 231, 234, 236.
+
+  Lincoln, Abraham, 43, 213.
+
+  Lodge, Henry Cabot, 22-25.
+
+  Longshoremen, 150.
+
+
+  M
+
+  Machinery, 125, 156.
+
+  Magyars, 81, 82, 83, 84, 123.
+
+  Malay Races, 140, 142.
+
+  Mallock, W. H., 179.
+
+  Marriage, 203.
+
+  Mexicans, 132.
+
+  Military Duties, 75.
+
+  Miners, 129, 130, 150, 154.
+
+  Mob Violence, 173, 174, 175.
+
+  Molly Maguires, 129.
+
+  Morality, 61, 62, 204. (See "Prostitution.")
+
+  Muensterberg, Hugo, 179.
+
+
+  N
+
+  Naturalization, 111, 188, 189, 190, 194.
+
+  Negro, 3, 12, 16, 39-62, 106, 108, 112, 113, 114, 136, 137, 139, 140,
+      147, 172, 209.
+
+  New York, 164, 214, 215.
+
+  Norwegians, 164. (See "Scandinavians.")
+
+
+  P
+
+  Padroni, 102, 103, 109, 118, 229.
+
+  "Pale of Settlement," 91.
+
+  Penn, William, 29, 108.
+
+  Pennsylvania, 29, 30, 31.
+
+  Peonage, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 141.
+
+  Philippine Commission, 144.
+
+  Philippine Islands, 106, 141, 179, 180.
+
+  Poles, 83, 123, 152.
+
+  Political Boss, The, 182.
+
+  Political Exiles, 68.
+
+  Population, 53-58, 76, 157, 160. (See "Births" and "Death-rates.")
+
+  Porto Rico, 106, 218.
+
+  Portuguese, 98, 152.
+
+  Poverty and Pauperism, 26, 66, 76, 167, 175-178.
+
+  Primaries, Direct, 185.
+
+  Profits, 108, 155.
+
+  Prohibition, 173.
+
+  Proportional Representation, 184.
+
+  Prostitution, 57.
+
+  Protective Tariff, 158.
+
+
+  Q
+
+  Quakers, 28, 29.
+
+
+  R
+
+  Race Problem, 4, 8, 40, 42, 43, 44, 113. (See "Negro.")
+
+  Races, 3, 5, 7, 8, 12-17, 87, 88, 104-106, 108, 211. (See individual
+      name of race.)
+
+  Race Suicide, 198, 200.
+
+  Railroads, 130, 156, 225.
+
+  Reconstruction, 43, 50.
+
+  Religion, 28, 186, 217-219. (See "Incentives to Immigration.")
+
+  Restriction of Immigration, 116 n., 117, 118, 175, 230, 231.
+
+  Ripley, W. Z., 95.
+
+  Roosevelt, Theodore, 201, 206.
+
+  Rosenberg, Edward, 144.
+
+  Roumanians, 83, 84, 123.
+
+  Russia, 87, 92, 93, 132.
+
+  Ruthenians, 80, 83, 123.
+
+
+  S
+
+  Scandinavians, 24, 132, 152. (See "Norwegians.")
+
+  Scotch Irish, 23-24, 31-38, 128, 151. (See "Irish.")
+
+  Self-government, 2-4, 42, 43, 49, 53.
+
+  Seymour, Governor Horatio, 29.
+
+  Shaler, Professor N. S., 10.
+
+  Slavs, 14, 65, 80, 82, 83, 152.
+
+  Slovaks, 81, 83, 151.
+
+  Social Settlements, 219.
+
+  Socialism, 181.
+
+  Spaniards, 128.
+
+  Standard of Living, 112, 115, 151, 153, 208.
+
+  Statistics, 119, 130, 158, 160-178, 198. (See "Population," "Births,"
+      "Death-rate.")
+
+  Steamship Lines, 84, 85, 107, 110, 237, 238.
+
+  Stone, A. H., 147.
+
+  Strikes, 102, 149.
+
+  Suffrage, 2, 42, 43, 44, 51, 52, 117, 182, 183, 188, 220. (See also
+      "Educational Tests.")
+
+  Sweatshops, 115, 133, 148.
+
+  Swedes, 47.
+
+  Syrians, 99, 151.
+
+
+  T
+
+  Taft, Governor, 143.
+
+  Taxation, 74, 75, 84, 86.
+
+  Temporary Immigration, 77, 98, 101.
+
+  Test Act, 35.
+
+  Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, 42.
+
+  Trade Unions, 50, 51, 115, 129, 149, 150, 152, 154, 205, 220, 221, 222,
+      223, 224. (See "Labor" and "Wage Earners.")
+
+  Triple Alliance, 75.
+
+  Tuskegee Institute, 49.
+
+
+  U
+
+  United Garment Workers of America, 115 n., 150.
+
+  United Hebrew Charities of New York, 167.
+
+  United Mine Workers of America, 150.
+
+
+  W
+
+  Wage Earners, 111-118, 157.(See "Labor.")
+
+  Wages, 112, 113, 129, 140, 148, 152, 153, 155, 157, 159. (See "Labor.")
+
+  Wage System, The, 147.
+
+  Walker, Francis A., 198, 200, 207.
+
+  Watson, Elkanah, 200.
+
+  Wealth Production and Immigration, 119, 159.
+
+  Welfare Work, 219.
+
+  Wilcox, Professor, 227.
+
+
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[1] Bluntschli, "Theory of the State," pp. 108-181.
+
+[2] _Atlantic Monthly_, May, 1903, p. 649.
+
+[3] Shaler, p. 651.
+
+[4] Ripley, "The Races of Europe."
+
+[5] Ripley, Chs. XVII and XVIII.
+
+[6] See the interesting series of articles by H. N. Casson, _Munsey's_,
+1906.
+
+[7] Lodge, p. 138.
+
+[8] "History and Topography of New York," Address at Cornell University,
+June 30, 1870.
+
+[9] These figures are probably exaggerated, but authorities agree upon
+the magnitude of the migration. Fiske, "Old Virginia," Vol. II, p. 594.
+
+[10] Hanna, "The Scotch-Irish," Vol. II, p. 2.
+
+[11] Tillinghast, "The Negro in Africa and America."
+
+[12] Burgess, pp. 45, 225; Fleming, pp. 380, 433.
+
+[13] Burgess, p. 207.
+
+[14] See Ch. VIII, "Politics."
+
+[15] Commission of Education _Report_, 1900-1901, Vol. I, p. ci.
+
+[16] Hugh M. Browne, A.M.E., _Zion Church Quarterly_, April, 1894,
+quoted by Tillinghast, p. 186.
+
+[17] Fannie B. Williams, _Charities_, October 7, 1905, p. 43.
+
+[18] _Atlanta University Publications_, No. 7, p. 188.
+
+[19] Bureau of Labor, _Bulletin_, No. 35.
+
+[20] _Atlanta University Publications_, Nos. 3 and 8.
+
+[21] _Atlanta University Publications_, No. 3, pp. 153-178.
+
+[22] Twelfth Census, _Supplementary Analysis_, p. 203.
+
+[23] Willcox, "Census Statistics of the Negro," _Yale Review_, 13:279
+(1904).
+
+[24] "The Negro Farmer," p. 90.
+
+[25] Pp. 9, 10.
+
+[26] Dabney, Commissioner of Education, _Report_, 1902, Vol. I, p. 797.
+
+[27] Twelfth Census, _Supplementary Analysis_, pp. 305, 307.
+
+[28] _Supplementary Analysis_, p. 204.
+
+[29] Pp. 16, 17; Wood, "American in Process," p. 218.
+
+[30] Twelfth Census, Vol. III, p. lxix.
+
+[31] _Atlanta University Publications_, No. 1, p. 24.
+
+[32] _Atlanta University Publications_, No. 2, p. 9.
+
+[33] Twelfth Census, Vol. III, p. lxxxii.
+
+[34] P. clxxvi.
+
+[35] P. ccxviii.
+
+[36] Pp. cxix, cxxiii, cxxvii.
+
+[37] Hoffman, p. 70.
+
+[38] Twelfth Census, _Supplementary Analysis_, pp. 496, 497.
+
+[39] _Atlanta University Publications_, No. 1, p. 26.
+
+[40] Figures for 1883.
+
+[41] Less than one-tenth of one per cent.
+
+[42] This is the number according to race; the table gives the number
+according to last place of residence.
+
+[43] _Review of Reviews_, 33:491 (1906).
+
+[44] Statistics mainly from King and Okey, "Italy To-day."
+
+[45] _Review of Reviews_, 33:491 (1906).
+
+[46] Twelfth Census, _Supplementary Analysis_, p. 27.
+
+[47] _Review of Reviews_, 33:491 (1906).
+
+[48] King and Okey, pp. 316-318.
+
+[49] Balch, _Charities_, May, 1906, p. 179.
+
+[50] Marshall, "Principles of Economics," p. 248.
+
+[51] "Jewish Encyclopedia," 2:532.
+
+[52] Balch, _Charities_, May, 1906, p. 180.
+
+[53] P. 380.
+
+[54] "Industrial Commission," 15:442.
+
+[55] Commissioner-General, 1906, p. 85.
+
+[56] Coman, "History of Contract Labor," etc., p. 47.
+
+[57] Reports on Hawaii; Commissioner-General of Immigration. See Index.
+
+[58] Report of the Royal Commission on Alien Immigration, 1903. Cd.
+1741.
+
+[59] Semple, "American History," etc., p. 332.
+
+[60] Rowe, Chapter V.
+
+[61] Census of the Philippine Islands.
+
+[62] Lalor's "Cyclopedia of Political Economy, Political Science, and
+United States History," article on "Chinese Immigration."
+
+[63] Industrial Commission, 19:679.
+
+[64] Computed from Table VIII, p. 28 _et seq._, Report of
+Commissioner-General of Immigration, 1906. "Commercial" includes agents,
+bankers, hotel-keepers, manufacturers, merchants, and dealers, and other
+miscellaneous. "Unskilled" includes draymen, hackmen, and teamsters,
+farm laborers, farmers, fishermen, laborers, and servants.
+
+[65] Two hundred and eighty-five thousand four hundred and sixty
+immigrants set down as "no occupation," including mainly women and
+children, are omitted from this computation.
+
+[66] Less than one-tenth of one per cent.
+
+[67] Industrial Commission, Vol. XV, see index, "Prepaid Tickets," p.
+818.
+
+[68] United States Revised Statutes, 1901, Section 1999, Act of July 28,
+1868.
+
+[69] Fleming, pp. 692, 693.
+
+[70] "If I were asked what one factor makes most for the amicable
+relations between the races in the Delta, I should say, without
+hesitation, the absence of a white laboring class, particularly of field
+laborers."--Stone, "The Negro in the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta," p. 241.
+"There is comparatively little crime in the Black Belt and in the White
+Belt. It is in the counties where the races meet on something like
+numerical equality and in economic competition that the maximum of crime
+is charged against negroes."--_Atlanta University Publications_, No. 9,
+p. 48.
+
+[71] In 1905, after losing a strike in New York, the General Executive
+Board of the United Garment Workers of America, consisting with one
+exception of Russian Jews, adopted the following resolutions:--
+
+Resolved, That the unprecedented movement of the very poor in America
+from Europe in the last three years has resulted in wholly changing the
+previous social, political, and economic aspects of the immigration
+question. The enormous accessions to the ranks of our competing
+wage-workers, being to a great extent unemployed, or only partly
+employed at uncertain wages, are lowering the standard of living among
+the masses of the working people of this country, without giving promise
+to uplift the great body of immigrants themselves. The overstocking of
+the labor market has become a menace to many trade-unions, especially
+those of the lesser skilled workers. Little or no benefit can possibly
+accrue to an increasing proportion of the great numbers yet coming; they
+are unfitted to battle intelligently for their rights in this republic,
+to whose present burdens they but add others still greater. The fate of
+the majority of the foreign wage-workers now here has served to
+demonstrate on the largest possible scale that immigration is no
+solution of the world-wide problem of poverty.
+
+Resolved, That we call on American trade unionists to oppose
+emphatically the proposed scheme of government distribution of
+immigrants, since it would be an obvious means of directly and cheaply
+furnishing strike breakers to the combined capitalists now seeking
+destruction of the trade-unions.
+
+Resolved, That we condemn all forms of assisted immigration, through
+charitable agencies or otherwise.
+
+Resolved, That we warn the poor of the earth against coming to America
+with false hopes; it is our duty to inform them that the economic
+situation in this country is changing with the same rapidity as the
+methods of industry and commerce.
+
+Resolved, That with respect to immigration we call on the government of
+the United States for a righteous relief of the wage-workers now in
+America. We desire that Congress should either (1) suspend immigration
+totally for a term of years; or (2) put into force such an illiteracy
+test as will exclude the ignorant, and also impose such a head tax as
+will compel immigrants to pay their full footing here and be sufficient
+to send back all those who within a stated period should become public
+dependants.
+
+[72] Smith, "Emigration and Immigration," pp. 238-263.
+
+[73] Act of March 3, 1903, Sec. 2.
+
+[74] New York Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1898, p. 1155.
+
+[75] Twelfth Census, "Occupations," p. clxxxvii.
+
+[76] Report on Hawaii, _Bulletin_ No. 47, pp. 780-783.
+
+[77] Report on Hawaii, _Bulletin_ No. 66, pp. 441-447.
+
+[78] Jewish Agricultural and Industrial Aid Society, _Annual Reports_.
+
+[79] Clyatt _v._ U.S., 97 U.S., 207 (1903); Peonage Cases, 123 Fed. 671.
+
+[80] New York _Herald_, June 24, 1903.
+
+[81] _The Nation_, 83:379 (1906); Durand, Herbert, "Peonage in America,"
+_Cosmopolitan_, 39:423 (1905).
+
+[82] Rosenberg, _American Federationist_, October, 1903, p. 1026.
+
+[83] Jenks, "Certain Economic Questions," etc., p. 157.
+
+[84] Coman, and "Reports on Hawaii."
+
+[85] Jenks, pp. 47, 54, 55, 158.
+
+[86] United States Philippine Commission, 1902, Part I, p. 22.
+
+[87] Rosenberg, p. 1021.
+
+[88] Philippine Commission, 1902, index, "The Labor Situation."
+
+[89] "The Italian Cotton Grower," p. 45.
+
+[90] Where two years are given, the first is for Immigration and the
+second for Imports.
+
+[91] Twelfth Census, Vol. I, p. clxxvi.
+
+[92] See _Federation_, June 1902, p. 40.
+
+[93] Twelfth Census, Vol. I, pp. 878-881.
+
+[94] New York _Sun_, Nov. 29, 1903.
+
+[95] Semple, 312.
+
+[96] Prisoners having one parent foreign are apportioned in the ratio of
+native and foreign parentage.
+
+[97] Includes native-born, parentage unknown.
+
+[98] Offenders having one parent foreign are apportioned in the ratio of
+native and foreign parentage.
+
+[99] Kate Holladay Claghorn, "The Tenement House Problem," Vol. II, p.
+79.
+
+[100] John B. McMaster, "The Riotous Career of the Knownothings,"
+_Forum_, July, 1894, p. 524.
+
+[101] Cutler, "Lynch Law"; Bishop, "Lynching," _International
+Quarterly_, September, 1903.
+
+[102] Bureau of the Census, Special Reports, "Paupers in Almshouses,
+1904," "Benevolent Institutions, 1904," "Insane and Feeble-minded in
+Hospitals and Institutions, 1904."
+
+[103] Muensterberg, "American Traits," p. 225 ff.
+
+[104] Eaton, "The Civil Service in Great Britain," p. 160 ff.
+
+[105] Muirhead, "The Land of Contrasts," p. 274.
+
+[106] See description of the Belgium system by the author, _Review of
+Reviews_, May, 1900; also, "Representation of Interests," _Independent_,
+June, 1900; "Proportional Representation."
+
+[107] Commons, "Proportional Representation," Appendix. Publications of
+the Federation for Majority Rule, Washington, D.C.
+
+[108] Hunt, Gaillard, "Federal Control of Naturalization," _World's
+Work_, 11:7095 (1906).
+
+[109] "Report to the President on Naturalization."
+
+[110] "Naturalization Laws and Regulations of October, 1906," published
+by the Bureau of Immigration and Naturalization.
+
+[111] Twelfth Census, Vol. I, p. 929.
+
+[112] Twelfth Census, "Abstract," p. 18.
+
+[113] Twelfth Census, "Abstract," p. 19.
+
+[114] Twelfth Census, Vol. I, p. ccxvii.
+
+[115] Phillips, J. B., "Educational Qualifications of Voters,"
+_University of Colorado Studies_, Vol. III, No. 2 (1906).
+
+[116] Caffey, Francis G., "Suffrage Limitations at the South,"
+_Political Science Quarterly_, 20:53 (1905). Report on Political Reform,
+Union League Club, New York, 1903.
+
+[117] Williams _v._ Mississippi, 170 U.S., 213; Giles _v._ Harris, 189
+U.S., 475; Giles _v._ Teasley, 193 U.S., 146.
+
+[118] This does not apply to the "understanding" clause in Mississippi,
+which is permanent.
+
+[119] Twelfth Census, Vol. I, pp. ccxiii, ccxv.
+
+[120] Twelfth Census, Vol. I, pp. cciv, ccv.
+
+[121] See "Reports on Hawaii."
+
+[122] Kuczynski, "Einwanderungspolitik," p. 35.
+
+[123] _Forum_, 11:634-743 (1891). Reprinted in "Discussions," etc., pp.
+417-426.
+
+[124] Professor Smith, for the year 1888, estimated the colonial element
+at 29,000,000 and the immigrant element at 26,000,000, applying to the
+immigrants the average rate of increase from births. "Emigration and
+Immigration," pp. 60-61.
+
+[125] Watson, p. 522.
+
+[126] Van Vorst, "The Woman Who Toils," p. viii.
+
+[127] Computed from the Twelfth Census, Vol. II, p. lxxxvii, ff.
+
+[128] Computed from the Twelfth Census, Vol. II, p. 312.
+
+[129] Kuczynski concludes from his study of Massachusetts statistics
+that "the native population cannot hold its own. It seems to be dying
+out." Could he have separated the two elements of the native population,
+he would have found that the immigrant element is dying out faster than
+the older native element. "The Fecundity of the Native and Foreign Born
+Population in Massachusetts," p. 186.
+
+[130] Twelfth Census, "Statistical Atlas," plate 98.
+
+[131] "Fecundity," etc., p. 157.
+
+[132] Ross, "Causes of Race Superiority."
+
+[133] See Du Bois, "The Souls of Black Folk."
+
+[134] Report on Hawaii, _Bulletin_ No. 47, p. 715.
+
+[135] "Religions of Primitive People," p. 15.
+
+[136] Smith, "Assimilation of Nationalities," p. 440.
+
+[137] Lovejoy, "The Slav Child," _Charities_, July, 1905, p. 884.
+
+[138] Twelfth Census, _Supplementary Analysis_, p. 374.
+
+[139] "Child Labor in the United States," p. 15, Bureau of the Census.
+
+[140] Grose, "Aliens or Americans?"
+
+[141] See also Stewart and Huebner.
+
+[142] Report, 1903, p. 60; 1904, p. 44; 1905, p. 58; 1906, p. 64.
+
+[143] Industrial Commission, 15:492-646; 19:971-977.
+
+[144] Tosti, Gustavo, "The Agricultural Possibilities of Italian
+Immigration," _Charities_, May 5, 1904, p. 472.
+
+[145] "Immigration to the Southern States," _Political Science
+Quarterly_, 20:276 (1905).
+
+[146] "Facts about Immigration," p. 11.
+
+[147] _Ibid._, p. 119.
+
+[148] Kellor, "Out of Work," pp. 17, 50-53, 70; _Charities_, Feb. 6,
+1904, p. 151.
+
+[149] Commissioner-General, 1903, p. 70.
+
+[150] Chapter 27, Laws of 1862.
+
+[151] Commissioner-General, 1906, p. 62.
+
+[152] For details of the several measures, see Hall, "Immigration."
+
+[153] "Industrial Commission," 19:1001-1003. Hall, "Immigration."
+
+[154] Commissioner-General, 1904, p. 41.
+
+[155] The National Immigration Conference, December 8, 1905, adopted the
+following resolution: "That the penalty of $100, now imposed on the
+steamship companies for bringing diseased persons to the United States,
+be also imposed for bringing in any person excluded by law." _National
+Civic Federation Review_, January, 1906, p. 19.
+
+
+
+
+POVERTY
+
+By ROBERT HUNTER
+
+  Paper     12mo     25 cents net
+  Cloth     12mo     $1.50 net
+
+"A book that should be read by every one who has the promotion of social
+betterment at heart."--_Milwaukee Sentinel._
+
+"A most interesting, a most startling, and a most instructive book."--_Los
+Angeles Times._
+
+"His book is largely a result of personal experience, and the aid of
+such works as his observation has led him to believe are approximately
+accurate and worthy of credence. 'Poverty' seeks to define its subject
+estimate its extent, describe some of its effects, and point out the
+necessary remedial action, as seen by a settlement worker. The result is
+a collection of data of considerable value."--_New York Daily People._
+
+"This is in many ways a noteworthy book. The author has long lived face
+to face with the almost incredible conditions which he here portrays. He
+has extended his work and observations from the crowded tenement
+districts of the great cities to the smaller industrial towns, and what
+he finds reveals conditions in this country--even in times of industrial
+prosperity--very similar to those found in England by Booth and other
+investigators; namely, that a percentage of poverty exists in the
+smaller industrial centres not far below that of the great industrial
+places, and that this percentage is extraordinarily high."--_Springfield
+Republican._
+
+"The book is written with earnestness, but without exaggeration. Every
+one familiar with the facts knows that conditions are even more cruel
+and brutal than as here described. And yet, no one of the great
+industrial nations is so backward as our own in devising and employing
+the legislative and other necessary remedies. Mr. Hunter's presentation
+of the situation is of the greatest value, and deserves the widest
+consideration."--_The Congregationalist._
+
+
+  THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+  64-66 Fifth Avenue, New York
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_.
+
+Passages in bold are indicated by =bold=.
+
+The following misprints have been corrected:
+  "conquerers" corrected to "conquerors" (page 97)
+  "Amercianized" corrected to "Americanized" (page 104)
+  "anequal" corrected to "an equal" (page 121)
+  "780 783" corrected to "780-783" (footnote 76)
+  "Soul" corrected to "Souls" (footnote 133)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Races and Immigrants in America, by
+John R. Commons
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